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225603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn%20Nesbit | Evelyn Nesbit | Evelyn Nesbit (born Florence Evelyn Nesbit; December 25, 1884 or 1885 – January 17, 1967) was an American artists' model, chorus girl, and actress. She is best known for her years as a young woman in New York City, particularly her involvement in a deadly love triangle between railroad scion Harry Kendall Thaw and architect Stanford White, which resulted in White's murder by Thaw in 1906.
In her day, Nesbit was a famous fashion model, being frequently photographed for mass circulation newspapers, magazine advertisements, souvenir items, and calendars. When in her early teens, she had begun working as an artist's model in Philadelphia. Nesbit continued after her family moved to New York, posing for legitimate artists including James Carroll Beckwith, Frederick S. Church, and notably Charles Dana Gibson, who idealized her as a "Gibson Girl". She was an artists' and fashion model when both fashion photography (as an advertising medium) and the pin-up (as an art genre) were beginning to expand.
Nesbit entered theater, first as a chorus line dancer. She was offered a contract as a featured star, and attracted attention from a variety of wealthy men, including Stanford White, nearly three times her age. In 1905, Nesbit married Harry Thaw, a multi-millionaire with a history of mental instability and abusive behavior. The next year, on June 25, 1906, Thaw shot and killed White at the rooftop theatre of Madison Square Garden.
The press called the resulting court case the "Trial of the Century", and coverage of these well-known figures was sensational. Nesbit testified that White had befriended her and her mother, but had sexually assaulted her when she was unconscious. Thaw was said to have killed White in retaliation, based on his own obsession with Nesbit.
Nesbit visited Thaw while he was confined to mental asylums. She toured Europe with a dance troupe, and her son, Russell Thaw, was born there. Later she took the boy with her to Hollywood, where she appeared as an actress in numerous silent films. Russell also acted in some of these. Nesbit wrote two memoirs about her life, published in 1914 and 1934. Her son later became a pilot, working as a test pilot for the Douglas Aircraft Company after World War II.
Early life
Florence Evelyn Nesbit was born on December 25, 1884, or December 25, 1885, in Natrona, Pennsylvania, a small town near Pittsburgh. In her childhood, she was primarily known as Florence Evelyn. The year of her birth remains unconfirmed, as the local records were later destroyed in a fire and Evelyn said she was unsure of it; some sources have put the year as 1884, some as 1885, and it could have been something else. In later years, Nesbit confirmed that her mother at times added several years to her age as a girl to circumvent child labor laws.
Nesbit was the daughter of Winfield Scott Nesbit and his wife, Evelyn Florence (née McKenzie), and was of Scots-Irish ancestry. Her father was an attorney and her mother was a homemaker. Nesbit later said that she had an especially close relationship with her father, and tried to please him by her accomplishments. Mr. Nesbit encouraged her curiosity and self-confidence. As she loved reading, he chose books for her and set up a small library for her use, consisting of fairy tales, fantasies, and also books regarded typically as of interest to boys only – the "pluck and luck" stories that were popular in that era. When Nesbit showed an interest in music and dance, her father encouraged her to take lessons.
The Nesbit family moved to Pittsburgh around 1893. When Nesbit was about 10, her father died suddenly at age 40, leaving the family penniless. Her family lost their home, and all their possessions were auctioned off to pay outstanding debts. Nesbit's mother was unable to find work using her dressmaking skills, and the family had to depend on the charity of friends and relatives. The family lived as nomads, sharing a single room in a series of boarding houses. Her mother often sent Nesbit's younger brother Howard to live with relatives or family friends for periods of time. Nesbit's mother was eventually given money to rent a house to use as a boardinghouse, in order to have a source of income. She sometimes assigned young Evelyn (aged about 12) to the duty of collecting the rent from boarders. In her 1915 memoir, Nesbit later recalled that, "Mamma was always worried about the rent ... it was too hard a thing for her to actually ask for every week, and it never went smoothly." Nesbit's mother lacked the temperament or savvy to run a boardinghouse, and the venture failed.
Under continuous financial distress which showed no prospect of improvement, Mrs. Nesbit moved to Philadelphia in 1898. A friend had encouraged her, advising that relocation to Philadelphia could open opportunities for her employment as a seamstress. Evelyn and Howard were sent to an aunt and then transferred for care to a family in Allegany, whose acquaintance their mother had made some years earlier. Mrs. Nesbit indeed gained a job, not as a seamstress, but as a sales clerk at the fabric counter of Wanamaker's department store. She sent for her children, and both 14-year-old Evelyn and 12-year-old Howard also became Wanamaker employees, working twelve-hour days for six days a week.
It was here that Nesbit had a chance encounter with an artist who was struck by her beauty. She asked Nesbit to pose for a portrait, which her mother agreed to after verifying the artist was a woman. Nesbit sat for five hours and earned one dollar (equivalent to approximately $27.50 in 2016). She was introduced to other artists in the Philadelphia area, and became a favorite model for a group of reputable illustrators, portrait painters, and stained-glass artisans. In later life, Nesbit explained: "When I saw I could earn more money posing as an artist's model than I could at Wanamaker's, I gave my mother no peace until she permitted me to pose for a livelihood."
Modeling career
In June 1900, Mrs. Nesbit, leaving her children in the care of others, relocated to New York City to seek work as a seamstress or clothing designer. However, she did not succeed in this competitive world. In November 1900, she finally sent for her children, although she had no work. The family shared a single back room in a building on 22nd Street in Manhattan.
Mrs. Nesbit finally used letters of introduction given by Philadelphia artists, contacting painter James Carroll Beckwith. His primary patron was John Jacob Astor. Beckwith was both a respected painter and instructor of life classes at the Art Students League. He took a protective interest in the young Nesbit, and provided her with letters of introduction to other legitimate artists, such as Frederick S. Church, Herbert Morgan, and Carle J. Blenner.
Mrs. Nesbit was forced to take on managing her daughter's career, proving unable to provide either business acumen or guardianship for her daughter. In a later interview with reporters, Mrs. Nesbit maintained: "I never allowed Evelyn to pose in the altogether". Two artworks, one by Church and another by Beckwith in 1901, contradict her statement, as they display a skimpily clad or partially nude Evelyn.
Nesbit became one of the most in-demand artists' models in New York. Photographers Otto Sarony and Rudolf Eickemeyer were among those who worked with her. She was featured on the covers of numerous women's magazines of the period, including Vanity Fair, Harper's Bazaar, The Delineator, Ladies' Home Journal, and Cosmopolitan. She also appeared in fashion advertising for a wide variety of products; and she was also showcased on sheet music and souvenir items – beer trays, tobacco cards, pocket mirrors, postcards, and chromolithographs. Nesbit often posed in vignettes, dressed in various costumes. These photo postcards were known as mignon (sweet, lovely), as their pictorials were of a suggestive sensuality in contrast to the graphic, notorious "French postcards" of the day. She also posed for calendars for Prudential Life Insurance, Coca-Cola, and other corporations. Charles Dana Gibson, one of the country's most renowned artists of the era, used Nesbit as the model for one of his best-known "Gibson Girl" works. Titled Woman: The Eternal Question (1903), the portrait features her in profile, with her luxuriant hair forming the shape of a question mark.
The use of photographs of young women in advertising, referred to as the "live model" style, was just beginning to be widely used and began to supplant illustration. Nesbit modeled for Joel Feder, an early pioneer in fashion photography. She found such assignments less strenuous than working as an artist's model, as posing sessions were shorter. The work was lucrative. With Feder, Nesbit earned $5 for a half-day shoot and $10 for a full day – around $300 per day in 2019 dollars. Eventually, the fees she earned from her modeling career exceeded the combined income which her family had earned at Wanamaker's department store. But the high cost of living in New York strained their finances.
Chorus girl and actress
Nesbit became disaffected and bored with the long hours spent in confined environments, maintaining the immobile poses required of a studio model. Her popularity in modeling had attracted the interests of theatrical promoters, some legitimate and some disreputable, who offered her acting opportunities. Nesbit pressed her mother to let her enter the theatre world, and Mrs. Nesbit ultimately agreed to let her daughter try this new way to augment their finances. An interview was arranged for the aspiring performer with John C. Fisher, company manager of the wildly popular play Florodora, then enjoying a long run at the Casino Theatre on Broadway. Mrs. Nesbit's initial objections were softened by the knowledge that some of the girls in the show had managed to marry millionaires. In July 1901, costumed as a "Spanish maiden", Nesbit became a member of the show's chorus line, whose enthusiastic public dubbed them the "Florodora Girls". Billed as "Florence Evelyn", the new chorus girl was called "Flossie the Fuss" by the cast, a nickname which displeased her. She changed her theatrical name to Evelyn Nesbit.
After her stint with Florodora ended, Nesbit sought out other roles. She won a part in The Wild Rose, which had just come to Broadway. After an initial interview with Nesbit, the show's producer, George Lederer, sensed he had discovered a new sensation. He offered her a contract for a year and, more significantly, moved her out of the chorus line and into a position as a featured player – the role of the Gypsy girl "Vashti". The publicity machine began to roll, possibly fueled by the influence of architect Stanford White, and she was hyped in the gossip columns and theatrical periodicals of the day. On May 4, 1902, The New York Herald showcased Nesbit in a two-page article, enhanced by photographs, promoting her rise as a new theatrical light, and recounting her career from model to chorus line to key cast member. "Her Winsome Face to be Seen Only from 8 to 11pm", the newspaper title announced to the public. The press coverage invariably touted her physical charms and potent stage presence; acting skills were rarely mentioned.
Relationships
Stanford White
As a chorus girl on Broadway in 1901, at the age of 15 or 16, Nesbit was introduced to White by Edna Goodrich, who was also member of the company of Florodora. White, known as "Stanny" by close friends and relatives, was 46 years old. Despite being married with a son, White had an independent social life. He used intermediaries to disarm the girl. Nesbit was initially struck by White's imposing size, which she said "was appalling", and she also said that to her he seemed "terribly old".
White invited Nesbit and Goodrich to lunch at his multi-floor apartment on West 24th Street above the toy store FAO Schwarz, the entrance of which was next to the store's back delivery entrance. In her memoir Prodigal Days (1934), Nesbit described being overwhelmed by White's expensive furnishings and luxurious apartment. He had another male guest about his age, Reginald Ronalds. The luncheon was as extravagant as the setting. Afterward, the party went two flights up to a room decorated in green, where a large, red velvet swing was suspended from the ceiling. Nesbit agreed to sit in it, and White pushed her. The four played spontaneous games involving the swing.
White appeared to be a witty, kind, and generous man. The wealthy socialite was described in newspapers as "masterful", "intense", and "burly yet boyish". He impressed both Nesbit and her mother as an "interesting companion". White sponsored Nesbit, her mother and brother for better living quarters, moving them into a suite at the Wellington Hotel, which he also furnished. White soon won over Mrs. Nesbit; in addition to providing the apartment, he paid for her son, Howard, to attend the Chester Military Academy near Philadelphia. He also persuaded Mrs. Nesbit to take a trip to visit friends in Pittsburgh, assuring her he would watch over her daughter Evelyn.
While her mother was out of town, Nesbit and White had dinner and champagne at his apartment, capped by a tour ending at the "mirror room", which was furnished only with a green velvet sofa. After they drank more champagne, Nesbit changed into a yellow satin kimono at White's request. She later said this was her last memory. When Nesbit awoke, she found herself naked in bed next to an also-naked White and saw blood on the sheets, marking the loss of her virginity. Despite the apparent date rape, Nesbit allowed White to be her regular lover and close companion for some time. As their relationship faded, she discovered that he had had affairs with other young women whose names he recorded in a "little black book".
John Barrymore
John Barrymore became entranced with Nesbit's performance in The White Rose and attended the show at least a dozen times. The two met at a lavish party given by White, who had invited Barrymore, the brother of his friend, stage actress Ethel Barrymore. In 1902, a romance blossomed between Nesbit and Barrymore, a 21-year-old contemporary who was close to her own age. He was witty and fun-loving, and Nesbit became smitten with him. After an evening out, the couple often returned to Barrymore's apartment, staying until the early-morning hours. Barrymore was casually pursuing a career as illustrator and cartoonist. Although he showed some promise in his chosen field, his salary was small and he behaved irresponsibly with the family money. Nesbit's mother and White considered him an unsuitable match for Nesbit, and both were greatly displeased when they found out about the relationship.
White worked to separate the couple by arranging for Nesbit's enrollment at a boarding school in New Jersey, administered by Mathilda DeMille, mother of film director Cecil B. DeMille. In the presence of both Mrs. Nesbit and White, Barrymore had asked Nesbit to marry him, but she turned him down.
In 1939, Barrymore and Nesbit had a tearful reunion in Chicago. He was in town starring in “My Dear Children” and, one night after the show, found his way to Gene Harris’ Club Alabam, where she was appearing on stage. According to legend, Barrymore announced to the room that she was his first love.
Harry Kendall Thaw
Aside from her relationship with Barrymore, Nesbit was involved with other men who vied for her attention. Among those were the polo player James Montgomery "Monte" Waterbury and the young magazine publisher Robert J. Collier. Even as she had these relationships, White still remained a potent presence in Nesbit's life and served as her benefactor.
Nesbit eventually became involved with Harry Kendall Thaw, the son of a Pittsburgh coal and railroad baron. With a history of pronounced mental instability dating to his childhood, Thaw, heir to a $40 million fortune, led a reckless, self-indulgent life. Thaw had attended some 40 performances of The Wild Rose, over nearly a year. Even before he met Nesbit, Thaw had developed a resentment of White, believing that he had blocked Thaw's acceptance in social circles and was a womanizer who preyed on young women. Thaw may have chosen Nesbit because of her relationship with White.
Through an intermediary, Thaw arranged a meeting with Nesbit, introducing himself as "Mr. Munroe". Thaw maintained this subterfuge while giving her items and money. One day he confronted Evelyn and said: "I am not Munroe ... I am Harry Kendall Thaw, of Pittsburgh!" She did not react with such surprise as he had expected; she was already used to attracting the attention of wealthy men.
Trip to Europe
In early 1903, while at boarding school, Nesbit underwent emergency surgery. The official diagnosis was acute appendicitis; however, some sources have speculated that she had been pregnant (perhaps by Barrymore) and had an abortion. Evelyn's grandson, Russell Thaw, has said: "I think she went away to have an abortion." However, under oath at Thaw's murder trials, both Barrymore and she denied that she was pregnant or had an abortion.
Thaw became solicitous, ensuring that Nesbit received the best medical care available. He suggested that she should go on a European trip, convincing Nesbit and her mother that this would hasten the young woman's recovery. Evelyn's mother accompanied them for propriety. Thaw created a hectic itinerary and rate of travel. Tensions mounted between mother and daughter, and Mrs. Nesbit insisted on returning to the United States. Thaw took Nesbit alone to Paris, leaving Mrs. Nesbit in London. In Paris, Thaw pressed Evelyn to become his wife, but she refused. Aware of Thaw's obsession with female chastity, she could not accept his marriage proposal without revealing the truth of her relationship with White. Thaw continued to interrogate her, and ultimately Nesbit told him of White's assault. Thaw accused her mother of being an unfit parent.
Thaw and Evelyn continued their travel through Europe. Thaw led her to sites devoted to the cult of virgin martyrdom. In Domrémy, France, the birthplace of Joan of Arc, Thaw wrote in the visitor's book: "she would not have been a virgin if Stanford White had been around." In Austria-Hungary, Thaw took Evelyn to the gothic Katzenstein Castle, where he had the three servants in residence butler, cook, and maid kept at one end of the building; while he and Nesbit had isolated quarters at the opposite end. Thaw locked Evelyn in her room, then beat her with a whip and sexually assaulted her over a two-week period. Afterward, he was apologetic and upbeat.
After returning to New York, Nesbit talked to friends about her ordeal. Others shared stories about Thaw and a propensity toward myriad addictive behaviors. Several men told her that Thaw "took morphine" and "he was crazy".
Marriage
Although White was still part of her life, Nesbit realized they had no future together. She also knew her relationship with him had already compromised her reputation; if the full extent of their involvement became common knowledge, no respectable man would make her his wife. Nesbit also resented White for failing to tell her about Thaw's excesses and derangement. As a teenager, Nesbit had spent her formative years thrust into the adult society of artists and theatre people; her development had proceeded without the companionship of contemporaries of her own age. Her mother had remarried, and although she had been an inept guardian before, their estrangement was now complete. Nesbit was desperate to escape the poverty which she and her family had long suffered.
Thaw continued to pursue Nesbit for marriage, promising that following their union he would live the life of a "Benedictine monk". With a perverted sense of justice, and a show of magnanimous charity, Thaw assured Nesbit he had forgiven her for her relationship with White. Nesbit finally consented to marry Thaw. His mother agreed to the marriage, on the condition that Nesbit give up the theatre and modeling, and refrain from talking about her past life.
Nesbit married Thaw on April 4, 1905, in Pittsburgh. For her wedding dress, Thaw chose a black traveling suit decorated with brown trim. Newspapers announced that the new Mrs. Thaw was now the "Mistress of Millions". The two took up residence in the Thaw family home, Lyndhurst, in Pittsburgh. Isolated with Thaw's mother and her like-minded social group of strict Presbyterians, Nesbit became the proverbial bird in a gilded cage. In later years, she said that the Thaws had a shallow value system: "the plane of materialism which finds joy in the little things that do not matter – the of ... [things]".
Nesbit had imagined travel and entertaining, but found that her husband acted as a pious son. Thaw started a campaign to expose White, corresponding with reformer Anthony Comstock, a crusader for moral probity and the expulsion of vice. He became convinced that he was being stalked by members of the notorious Monk Eastman Gang of New York, believing White had hired them. Nesbit later said: "[Thaw] imagined his life was in danger because of the work he was doing in connection with the vigilance societies and the exposures he had made to those societies of the happenings in White's flat." In reality, White, not thought to have been aware of Thaw's animus, considered him a poseur of little consequence, categorizing him as a clown and calling him the "Pennsylvania pug", a reference to Thaw's baby-faced features.
Murder of Stanford White
Thaw and Nesbit visited New York in June 1906 before boarding a luxury liner bound for a European holiday. Late that day, Thaw said that he had tickets for them for the premiere of Mam'zelle Champagne, written by Edgar Allan Woolf, at the rooftop theatre of Madison Square Garden. They first stopped at the Cafe Martin for dinner, where they happened to see White, before going to the theatre. Despite the heat, Thaw wore a long black overcoat over his tuxedo and refused to remove it.
At 11:00 pm, as the stage show was coming to a close, White appeared and took his place at a table customarily reserved for him. Spotting his arrival, Thaw approached him several times, each time withdrawing. During the finale, "I Could Love A Million Girls", Thaw produced a pistol, and, from two feet away, fired three shots into White's head and back, killing him instantly. Thaw addressed the crowd, but witness reports varied as to his words. He said (roughly): "I did it because he ruined my wife! He had it coming to him! He took advantage of the girl and then abandoned her! ... You'll never go out with that woman again!" In his book The Murder of Stanford White (2011), Gerald Langford quoted Thaw as saying, "You ruined my life", or, "You ruined my wife."
The crowd initially thought the incident might be a practical joke, but became alarmed upon realizing White was dead. Thaw brandished the pistol and was taken into police custody. Nesbit managed to extricate herself from the ensuing chaos on the Madison Square rooftop. Not wanting to return to their hotel suite, she took refuge for several days in the apartment of a chorus girl friend. Years later, Nesbit said of this time: "A complete numbness of mind and body took possession of me ... I moved like a person in a trance for hours afterward."
Press response
As early as the morning following the murder, news coverage became both chaotic and single-minded, and ground forward with unrelenting momentum. A person, a place, or event, no matter how peripheral to the killing of White, was seized on by reporters and hyped as newsworthy copy. Facts were thin, but sensationalist reportage was plentiful in the heyday of yellow journalism. One week after the killing, the film Rooftop Murder was released for public viewing at the nickelodeon theaters, rushed into production by Thomas Edison.
The hard-boiled male reporters of the yellow press were bolstered by a contingent of female counterparts, christened "Sob Sisters" or "The Pity Patrol." Initially, female spectators were allowed in to witness the proceedings. When the case came to trial, the judge banned women from the courtroom – excepting Thaw family members and the female news reporters there on "legitimate business".
Female reporters wrote human interest pieces, emphasizing sentiment and melodrama. They were less sympathetic to Nesbit than Thaw. Nixola Greeley-Smith wrote of Nesbit: "I think that she was sold to one man [White] and later sold herself to another [Thaw]." In an article titled "The Vivisection of a Woman's Soul", Greeley-Smith described Nesbit's unmaidenly revelations as she testified on the stand: "Before her audience of many hundred men, young Mrs. Thaw was compelled to reveal in all its hideousness every detail of her association with Stanford White after his crime against her."
The rampant interest in the White killing and its key players were used by both the defense and prosecution to feed malleable reporters any "scoops" that would give their respective sides an advantage in the public forum. News coverage dissected all the key players in what was called the "Garden Murder". One florid account keynoted Nesbit's vulnerability: "Her baby beauty proved her undoing. She toddled as innocently into the arms of Satan as an infant into the outstretched arms of parental love ..." Neither was her mother spared the scrutiny of rogue reporting: "She [her mother] knew better. She also knew she was sacrificing her child's soul for money ...."
Church groups lobbied to restrict the media coverage, asking the government to step in as censor. President Theodore Roosevelt decried the newspapers' penchant for printing the "full disgusting particulars" of the trial proceedings. He conferred with the U.S. Postmaster General on the viability of prohibiting the dissemination of such printed matter through the United States mail, and censorship was threatened but never carried out.
White was hounded in death, excoriated as a man and questioned as an architect. The Evening Standard concluded he was "more of an artist than architect"; his work spoke of his "social dissolution". The Nation was also critical: "He adorned many an American mansion with irrelevant plunder." Richard Harding Davis, a war correspondent and reputedly the model for the "Gibson Man", was angered by the yellow press, saying they had distorted the facts about his friend. Vanity Fair published an editorial lambasting White, which prompted Davis to write a rebuttal published in Collier's, in which he attested that White "admired a beautiful woman as he admired every other beautiful thing God has given us; and his delight over one was as keen, as boyish, as grateful over any others."
"Trial of the Century"
Defense strategy
Thaw's mother was adamant that her son not be stigmatized by clinical insanity. She pressed for the defense to follow a compromise strategy: one of temporary insanity, or what in that era was referred to as a "brainstorm". Acutely conscious that her own family had a history of hereditary insanity, and after years of protecting her son's hidden life, she feared his past would be dragged out into the open, ripe for public scrutiny. Mrs. Thaw proceeded to hire a team of doctors, at a cost of some $500,000, to substantiate that her son's act of homicide constituted a single aberrant act. Nesbit in later years described the determination with which Thaw's family worked to favorably spin his mental deficiency: "the Thaws will put the biggest lunacy experts that money can buy on the stand .... Harry was a madman but they will prove it nicely".
Star witness
Again maneuvering her way through the gantlet of reporters, the curious public, the sketch artists, and photographers enlisted to capture the effect the "harrowing circumstances [had] on her beauty", Nesbit returned to her hotel and the assembled Thaw family. The Thaws may have promised Nesbit a comfortable financial future if she provided testimony at trial favorable to Thaw's case. It was a conditional agreement; if the outcome proved negative, she would receive nothing. The rumored amount of money the Thaws pledged for her cooperation ranged from $25,000 to $1,000,000.
Nesbit's mother remained conspicuously absent throughout her daughter's entire ordeal. Mrs. Nesbit had been cooperating with the prosecution as Thaw's lawyers considered her culpable of prostituting her daughter to White. Nesbit's brother Howard, who had come to regard White as a father figure, blamed her for his death.
Two trials
Thaw was tried twice for the killing of White. Nesbit testified at both trials; her appearance on the witness stand was an emotionally tortuous ordeal. In open court, she was forced to detail her relationship with White, including the night when he allegedly raped her. Until then, the sexual assault had been a secret she had guarded at White's request. Other than White, only she and Thaw knew what had happened.
Due to the unusual amount of publicity the case had garnered, the jurors were ordered to be sequestered – the first time in the history of American jurisprudence that such a restriction was ordered. The trial proceedings began on January 23, 1907, and the jury went into deliberation on April 11. After 47 hours, the jurors emerged deadlocked. Seven had voted guilty, and five voted not guilty. Thaw was outraged that the jurors had not recognized it as the act, as he saw it, of one chivalrous man defending innocent womanhood.
The second trial took place from January 1908 through February 1, 1908. At the second trial, Thaw again pleaded temporary insanity. Thaw was found not guilty, on the ground of insanity at the time of the commission of his act. He was sentenced to involuntary commitment for life in the Matteawan State Hospital for the Criminally Insane in Beacon, New York. His wealth allowed him to arrange accommodations for his comfort and be granted privileges not given to the general Matteawan population. Immediately after his confinement, Thaw marshaled the forces of a legal team charged with the mission of having him declared sane; the effort took seven years. The prolonged legal procedures compelled his escape from Matteawan and flight to Canada in 1913; he was extradited to the U.S., but in 1915 was released from custody after being judged sane.
Child
Nesbit gave birth to a son, Russell William Thaw, on October 25, 1910, in Berlin, Germany. She always maintained that her son was Thaw's biological child, conceived during a conjugal visit to Thaw while he was confined at Matteawan, although Thaw denied paternity throughout his life.
In 1911, Nesbit reconciled with her mother, who took on the role of caregiver for the child while Nesbit sought out opportunities to support herself and her son. Russell appeared with his mother in at least six films; Threads of Destiny (1914), Redemption (1917), Her Mistake (1918), The Woman Who Gave (1918), I Want to Forget (1918), and The Hidden Woman (1922). He became an accomplished pilot, placing third in the 1935 Bendix Trophy race from Los Angeles to Cleveland, ahead of Amelia Earhart in fifth place.
Later years
Throughout the prolonged court proceedings, Nesbit had received financial support from the Thaws. These payments, made to her through the family's attorneys, had been inconsistent and far from generous. After the close of the second trial, the Thaws virtually abandoned her, cutting off all funds. Her grandson, Russell Thaw Jr., recounted a piece of family lore in a 2005 interview with the Los Angeles Times: purportedly, she had received $25,000 from the Thaws after the culmination of the trials. To spite them, she then donated the money to anarchist Emma Goldman, who subsequently turned it over to investigative journalist and political activist John Reed. Nesbit was left to her own resources to provide for herself. She found modest success working in vaudeville and on the silent screen. In 1914, she appeared in Threads of Destiny, produced at the Betzwood studios of film producer Siegmund Lubin.
Nesbit divorced Thaw in 1915. As soon as the divorce was finalized, she married her dance partner, Jack Clifford in 1916. The announcement was front page news. Beginning in 1913, the couple had toured with an extremely successful stage act. Despite what one reviewer called an “indifferent vaudeville exhibition,” they packed the house at Chicago’s Auditorium, drawing an audience of 7,400, turning away hundreds. Their marriage did not fare as well. Clifford eventually found his wife's notoriety an insurmountable issue, with his own identity subsumed by that of "Mr. Evelyn Nesbit". He left her in 1918. After years of legal battles and accusations of infidelity, their divorce was finalized in 1933. Her long-term friend and employer, Dan Blanco, supported her in court. A well-known Chicago nightclub proprietor, Blanco helped engineer Nesbit’s cabaret comeback in the 1920s, first at Chicago’s Moulin Rouge and later at his own Club Alabam.
In 1921, Nesbit briefly became the proprietor of a tearoom – The Evelyn Nesbit Specialty Food Shop located in the West 50s in Manhattan – which may have doubled as a speakeasy. Through the 1920s and well into the 1930s, she struggled with chronic financial problems, alcoholism, and morphine addiction.
Following her years in vaudeville, Nesbit transitioned to playing clubs and cabarets throughout the East, South, and Midwest. She briefly leant her name to several, including the Evelyn Nesbit Club (Atlantic City) and Chez Evelyn (Manhattan). Fond of Chicago audiences, she frequently played Rush Street’s Club Alabam.
During the 1930s, she worked in Panama and added burlesque to her repertoire. In 1939, while sharing the bill with strippers, the then 53-year-old Nesbit told a New York Times reporter: "I wish I were a strip-teaser. I wouldn't have to bother with so many clothes."
On New Year’s Eve 1925, Nesbit concluded a six-week engagement at Chicago’s Moulin Rouge and was scheduled to begin a booking in Miami, Florida on January 2, 1926. Instead of heading to Florida, she went on a bender and attempted suicide by swallowing disinfectant. For days, headlines across the country once again turned Nesbit’s tragic life into front-page news. Later, doctors stated that Nesbit might have died if her stomach had not been full of gin.
Nesbit and Harry K. Thaw continued to fascinate the public and the press speculated about the status of their relationship. Following her suicide attempt, one newspaper headline on January 8, 1926 said: "Thaw to Visit Chicago: Reconciliation Rumor". In an interview, Thaw said that he had been paying Nesbit $10 a day through an attorney, as a "token of pleasant memories of the past when we were happy". In June 1926, they were photographed together. On good terms, in 1927, Thaw attended the opening of Nesbit’s Manhattan café, Chez Evelyn and, in 1929, rumors flew that the couple intended to remarry and that Thaw had purchased an Atlantic City bungalow for Nesbit. When Thaw died in 1947, he bequeathed $10,000 to Nesbit from an estate valued at over $1 million.
On June 5, 1945, Nesbit became national news yet again when she was questioned about the murder of Albert Langford, the husband of her friend, Marion Langford. The man was allegedly slain by one of two men who forcibly entered their Manhattan apartment. Nesbit had a strong alibi for the night of the murder and it was never suggested that she was in any way connected with the crime. Rather, her friendship with the Langfords became just another opportunity to use her name to sell newspapers. The case remains unsolved.
Following Harry K. Thaw’s death in 1947, Nesbit left her home in New York City to settle in California. Her son, Russell W. Thaw, lived in West Los Angeles. She chose to live downtown in a Bohemian neighborhood located just north of Bunker Hill. There she pursued a long-standing interest in sculpting, studying at the Grant Beach School of Arts and Crafts. Following graduation in 1952, she taught classes in sculpting and ceramics.
In the summer of 1955, Nesbit served as the technical adviser on the movie The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing (1955), for which she was paid $10,000. The movie recounts her early life and White's murder, blending fiction with fact. While working on the film, Nesbit collapsed from exhaustion.
In June of 1956, while living in Los Angeles, Nesbit suffered a stroke.
Nesbit published two memoirs, The Story of My Life (1914) and Prodigal Days (1934).
Death
Nesbit died in a nursing home in Santa Monica, California, on January 17, 1967, at the age of 82. She had been a resident there for more than a year. She was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.
Stage performances
Florodora (1901)
The Wild Rose (1902)
Tommy Rot (1902)
Filmography
Threads of Destiny (1914)
A Lucky Leap (1916)
Redemption (1917)
Her Mistake (1918)
The Woman Who Gave (1918)
I Want to Forget (1918)
Woman, Woman! (1919)
Thou Shalt Not (1919)
A Fallen Idol (1919)
My Little Sister (1919)
The Hidden Woman (1922)
Broadway Gossip No. 2 (1932 short; as herself)
Representation in other media
Author Lucy Maud Montgomery, unaware of Nesbit's notoriety, used a photograph of the young woman, from the Metropolitan Magazine, as the model for the heroine of her book Anne of Green Gables (1908).
Alexander Theroux's novel Laura Warholic; or, the Sexual Intellectual (2007) features an unreferenced 1901 photograph by Eickemeyer of Nesbit on its cover.
Fiction and film
The Unwritten Law: A Thrilling Drama Based on the Thaw-White Tragedy (1907 film)
Dalton Trumbo's novel Johnny Got His Gun (1938), has the character Bonni asks the protagonist if she looks like Evelyn Nesbit Thaw, because "all her husbands said she looked just like [her]". (Chapter 14)
The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing (1955 movie)
E. L. Doctorow's historical novel Ragtime (1975), features Nesbit as a main character. It was adapted as two works:
The film Ragtime (1981), in which Evelyn Nesbit was played by Elizabeth McGovern.
The musical Ragtime (1996). It refers to Stanford White's murder, and the resulting fame for Nesbit. Her character sings in the songs "Crime of the Century" and "Atlantic City".
Keith Maillard's long narrative poem, Dementia Americana (1994), refers to Nesbit.
Claude Chabrol's film, La Fille coupée en deux (A Girl Cut in Two) (2007), refers to her.
Don Nigro's dramatic comedy, My Sweetheart's the Man in the Moon (2010), refers to Nesbit.
In Boardwalk Empire (2010 HBO television series), the character Gillian is loosely based on Evelyn Nesbit.
References
Further reading
Baatz, Simon, The Girl on the Velvet Swing: Sex, Murder, and Madness at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century (New York: Little, Brown, 2018)
External links
. Scans of a dinner program with jurists' autographs.
Includes excerpts from Nesbit's autobiographies.
1880s births
1967 deaths
People from Harrison Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
American artists' models
American female models
American silent film actresses
Actresses from Pennsylvania
American child actresses
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
Art occupations
Thaw family
Vaudeville performers
20th-century American actresses
People from Northfield, New Jersey
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City | [
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|
225604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mam%27zelle%20Champagne | Mam'zelle Champagne | Mam'zelle Champagne was a musical revue with book by Edgar Allan Woolf, music by Cassius Freeborn, produced by Henry Pincus, which opened June 25, 1906. On opening night at the outdoor Madison Square Garden Roof Theatre, millionaire playboy Harry K. Thaw shot and killed architect Stanford White: the otherwise undistinguished musical's run continued for some 60 performances largely on the publicity from this incident.
The play
Directed by Lionel Lawrence, Mamzelle Champagne was Maude Fulton’s Broadway debut. Viola de Costa, Eddie Fowler, Harry Short and Arthur Stanford were also in the cast. When the show was revived for four performances at the Berkeley Lyceum Theatre in October 1906, the cast included May Yohe and Robert Emmett O'Connor.
Theater critic and historian Burns Mantle cited a letter he received from Woolf saying “Mamzelle Champagne was my Columbia [University] Varsity Show, and was transported by a manager, Henry Pincus, to the open Madison Square Roof with a professional cast.” However, The Varsity Show’s own website disputes this “legend”, saying Mam’zelle was Woolf's first professional show and not the one he had written as a student in the class of 1901.
The murder
Stanford White was known to have seduced Thaw's wife, showgirl Evelyn Nesbit. During the opening-night performance of Mam'zelle Champagne, audience members noticed Thaw repeatedly glaring at White. Thaw eventually got up, crossed over to White's seat and shot him point-blank while the show onstage was in the midst of a number titled "I Could Love a Million Girls". It has never been established whether the subject matter of this particular song was a factor in prompting Thaw to take action at that particular moment.
The murder is central to the plot of E.L. Doctorow's 1975 historical novel Ragtime, and in the 1981 movie veteran actor Donald O'Connor sings "I Could Love a Million Girls". The song "I Could Love a Million Girls" is also featured in The Simpsons episode 7G10: "Homer's Night Out".
Footnotes
Bibliography
Baatz, Simon, The Girl on the Velvet Swing: Sex, Murder, and Madness at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century (New York: Little, Brown, 2018)
“Mamzelle Champagne”, Internet Broadway Database (ibdb.com)
Mantle, Burns, and Garrison P. Sherwood, eds., The Best Plays of 1899-1909, (Philadelphia: The Blakiston Company), 1944.
“The Stage and Its Players: This Week's Offerings,” New York Times, Jun. 24, 1906, p. X6.
“Thaw Murders Stanford White. Shoots Him on the Madison Square Garden Roof. About Evelyn Nesbit. “He Ruined My Life”, Witness Says He Said. Audience in a Panic. Chairs and Tables are Overturned in a Wild Scramble for the Exits,” New York Times, Jun. 26, 1906, p. 1.
The Varsity Show Website
1906 musicals
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225605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florodora | Florodora | Florodora is an Edwardian musical comedy. After its long run in London, it became one of the first successful Broadway musicals of the 20th century. The book was written by Jimmy Davis under the pseudonym Owen Hall, the music was by Leslie Stuart with additional songs by Paul Rubens, and the lyrics were by Edward Boyd-Jones, George Arthurs and Rubens.
The original London production opened in 1899 where it ran for a very successful 455 performances. The New York production, which opened the following year, was even more popular, running for 552 performances. After this, the piece was produced throughout the English-speaking world and beyond. The show was famous for its double sextet and its chorus line of "Florodora Girls".
The piece was popular with amateur theatre groups, particularly in Britain, into the 1950s.
Background
Florodora was the first of a series of successful musicals by Stuart, including The Silver Slipper (1901), The School Girl (1903), The Belle of Mayfair (1906), and Havana (1908).
Productions
Upon opening in London on 11 November 1899 at the Lyric Theatre, the show starred Evie Greene, Willie Edouin and Ada Reeve. Its original run of 455 performances was unusually long for the time, and it closed in March 1901. The show would prove a training ground for numerous rising stars of the British theatre. After opening at the Casino Theatre on Broadway on 12 November 1900, it moved to the New York Theatre on 14 October 1901 and finally closed on 25 January 1902, a run of 552 performances – the first instance of a London production achieving such a Broadway run, and the third-longest run on Broadway of any theatre piece up to that time. The show was subsequently mounted in Australia in 1900 by J. C. Williamson, where it enjoyed another long run.
A good part of the success of the musical was attributed to its chorines, called "the English Girls" in the score, but soon popularly dubbed the "Florodora Girls". They consisted of a "sextette of tall, gorgeous damsels, clad in pink walking costumes, black picture hats and carrying frilly parasols [who] swished onto the stage and captivated New York for no other reason than they were utterly stunning." More than 70 women, each 5 ft. 4 in. (about 1.63 m) tall and weighing in at 130 lb (59 kg) played these roles in the first run of the play. The pretty girls were also the object of a great deal of popular adoration, and many male admirers persuaded chorines to leave show business and settle down. According to W. A. Swanberg: "Each member of its original sextette married a millionaire." Florodora's famous double sextet, "Tell me pretty maiden", became the most successful show tune of its time. Other songs ranged from traditional waltzes such as "The Silver Star of Love" and "The Fellow Who Might" to the more quirky type rhythmic and long-lined dance numbers for which Stuart was known. An original cast album featured all six original sextet members from the New York Cast: Marie Wilson, Agnes Wayburn, Marjorie Relyea, Vaughn Texsmith, Daisy Green and Margaret Walker. Recorded on a series of six 78 RPM gramophone records with a full libretto enclosed, the album was a first for musical theatre at that time. The Florodora Girls included Edna Goodrich, Evelyn Nesbit and Clarita Vidal.
In addition to the numerous local productions mounted throughout the English-speaking world and beyond, including productions translated into more than a dozen languages, the show toured extensively with numerous local touches. London's West End staged two successful revivals in 1915 and 1931, and several Broadway revivals were staged, the first being mounted only a year after the closing of the original production in 1901 followed by another three years later. Among later revivals, a young Milton Berle played one of the Florodora Boys in a production mounted for the 1920–21 Broadway season. More recently, the show was revived once again at the Finborough Theatre in January 2006 for the first professional London production that it had enjoyed in many years.
Synopsis
Act I
In Florodora, a small island in the Philippines, the popular fragrance "Florodora" is manufactured from the essence of the Florodora flower. The perfume factory, along with the island itself, is owned by Cyrus W. Gilfain, an American who finagled the business away from Dolores's family and is now the island's reigning sovereign and sole employer. Although Dolores is now forced to work for Gilfain, she remains optimistic. Frank Abercoed, who is really Lord Abercoed in disguise, has arrived on the island to act as Gilfain's manager. He is immediately smitten with Dolores, and she with him.
Aboard a ship docked at the Florodora harbor are Lady Holyrood, titled but penniless, who has come to Florodora at Gilfain's suggestion to find a husband – specifically, Frank. She is accompanied by Gilfain, his daughter Angela, who is betrothed to Captain Arthur Donegal, Lady Holyrood's brother, and several of Angela's friends (the "English Girls"), who intrigue Gilfain's clerks. Also aboard the ship is Anthony Tweedlepunch, a detective who is searching for the girl who rightfully owns the perfume business. He comes to the island disguised as a traveling showman, phrenologist, hypnotist, and palmist.
Gilfain discovers that Frank and Dolores have fallen in love. In an effort to thwart Dolores' rightful claim to the Florodora fortune, Gilfain plans to marry her himself. He hires Tweedlepunch, who he thinks is an actor, to break up the love affair between Dolores and Frank, thereby making Frank available to marry Angela. By presenting Tweedlepunch as a highly respected phrenologist, Gilfain plots to marry off his clerks to the heads of the Florodora farms (all young island girls), thereby attaining even more control of the island. Tweedlepunch plays along, duly examining everyone's cranial bumps of love to pronounce the proper marriage couples.
Frank refuses to marry Angela, and Gilfain discharges him. Gilfain, based on the fraudulent pronouncements of Tweedlepunch, has decreed that the clerks will wed the island girls or be discharged. Everyone is upset. Frank must now return to England, and he tells Dolores he must go but will return for her if she waits patiently. Everyone meets at the dock to see Frank off.
Act II
Six months later, Gilfain has managed to become the owner of Abercoed Castle, Frank's ancestral home in Wales, and everyone has travelled there. Gilfain's clerks, having been discharged rather than marry the island girls, finally meet up with their English girls (Angela's friends). Tweedlepunch has finally realized that Dolores is the rightful heir to the Florodora fortune. He tells her that her father was his only friend, and that he will help her retrieve her family business. They break into the Abercoed castle but are surprised by a chorus of lords and ladies who demand to know who they are. In desperation they try to convince everyone that they are the evening's entertainment.
Lady Holyrood, with no prospective husbands in sight, decides that Gilfain will become her next husband. Frank, who has been refused entrance to the castle by Gilfain, defies orders and maneuvers his way inside the courtyard. There he sees Dolores for the first time since he left the island. After some confusion, Frank tells Dolores that he is really Lord Abercoed and was unable to return to her in Florodora because he was trying to keep Gilfain from acquiring his ancestral home. Tweedlepunch finally confronts Gilfain and spins a wild ghost yarn that terrifies Gilfain into admitting that he has stolen the perfume business. Gilfain returns the properties he has taken from Dolores and Frank. Frank marries Dolores; Gilfain marries Lady Holyrood; and Angela marries Captain Donegal.
Roles and original cast
Cyrus W. Gilfain – Charles E. Stevens (Proprietor of the perfume factory and holder of the island of Florodora)
Frank Abercoed – Melville Stewart (Manager, for Cyrus, of the island of Florodora)
Leandro – Frank Holt (Overseer of Farms)
Capt. Arthur Donegal – Edgar Stevens (4th Royal Life Guards – Lady Holyrood's brother)
Anthony Tweedlepunch – Willie Edouin (Detective disguised as a phrenologist, hypnotist & palmist)
Gilfain's clerks: Tennyson Sims, Ernest Pym, Max Aepfelbaum and Reginald Langdale – Roy Horniman, Ernest Lambart, Alfred Barron and Frank Hascoll
Dolores – Evie Greene (Rightful heir to the island)
Valleda – Nancy Girling (Florodorean maid to Lady Holyrood and head of one of the farms)
Angela Gilfain – Kate Cutler (daughter of Gilfain)
Lady Holyrood – Ada Reeve
Farmers, flower-girls and others
Musical numbers
Act I
No. 1. Chorus – "Flowers a-blooming so gay"
No. 2. The Clerks' Song – Sims, Pym, Aepfelbaum, Langdale, Crogan and Scott – "The credit's due to me."
No. 3. Dolores – "Bright silver star of love"
No. 4. Dolores and Abercoed – "If you're in love with somebody"
No. 5. Chorus of Welcome – "Hurrah! The master comes!"
No. 6. English Girls and Clerks – "Come, take us round to see the sights"
No. 7. Lady Holyrood – "I'm a lady, don't forget, with a sense of etiquette"
No. 8. Angela and Donegal – "Love in his youth is a fiery steed"
No. 9. Lady Holyrood, Gilfain and Tweedlepunch – "I want to marry a man, I do"
No. 10. Angela and Chorus – "There was a maiden decidedly fair"
No. 11. Gilfain – "There is nothing we disparage"
No. 12. Lady Holyrood, Donegal and Angela – "When an interfering person such as you"
No. 13. Abercoed – "In the shade of the palm"
No. 14. Finale Act I – "Hey! hey! Alack-a-day! Our loving hearts asunder"
Act II
No. 15. Chorus – "Come, lads and lasses, trip your light and airy"
No. 16. Lady Holyrood – "There are people who have tried to be smart and dignified"
No. 17. Gilfain – "When you're a millionaire"
No. 18. English Girls and Clerks – "Tell me, pretty maiden, are there any more at home like you?"
No. 19. Lady Holyrood – "Now I've met, in my time, some curious men"
No. 20. Finale – "And the nation will declare"
Supplementary numbers
No. 21. Dolores – "In the Philippines lived a maiden fair"
No. 22. Valleda and Leandro – "A maid's career is skittles and beer"
No. 23. Donegal – "I want to be a military man."
No. 24. Dolores – "A woman's love is but a tender flow'r"
No. 25. Angela – "Willie was a gay boy."
No. 26. Dolores and Tweedlepunch – "We're both on the stage, we two"
No. 27. Dolores – "Far away on the ocean of sunshine and foam"
In popular culture
"I Was a Florodora Baby" was a 1920 song with music by Harry Carroll and lyrics by Ballard MacDonald introduced by Fanny Brice in the Ziegfeld Follies.
The musical film The Florodora Girl (1930) stars Marion Davies as a chorus girl playing one of the English girls in the original Broadway production of Florodora.
In the 1935 film The Girl from 10th Avenue, a landlady, Mrs. Martin (Alison Skipworth) recalls her days as a Florodora Girl throughout the movie.
A subplot in the Little Rascals film Our Gang Follies of 1936 revolves around the specialty act "The Flory-Dory Sixtet" , and their failure to appear at the revue that the Little Rascals present.
In the film On the Town, Chip (Frank Sinatra) is picking sights to see from an out-of-date guidebook and sings, in "Come Up to My Place", that he wants to see a "girly show" called the "Flora Dora Girl".
The Floradora cocktail is named after the musical.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Baatz, Simon, The Girl on the Velvet Swing: Sex, Murder, and Madness at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century (New York: Little, Brown, 2018)
Brazier, Nina: "Reviving Florodora" in The Gaiety, Spring 2006, pp. 9–14. Editor: Roderick Murray.
External links
Vocal score
Script
Florodora at The Guide to Musical Theatre
Florodora: NYPL Musical of the Month
Original program for 1900 New York production
Midi files and cast list
List of longest running plays in London and New York
Florodora used in advertising
Analysis and synopsis
Lengthy synopsis
Souvenir of the 100th performance in Melbourne of Florodora 1901 at State Library Victoria
Broadway musicals
1899 musicals
Original musicals
British musicals | [
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|
225606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomisidae | Thomisidae | The Thomisidae are a family of spiders, including about 170 genera and over 2,100 species. The common name crab spider is often linked to species in this family, but is also applied loosely to many other families of spiders. Many members of this family are also known as flower spiders or flower crab spiders.
Etymology
Spiders in this family are called "crab spiders" due to their resemblance to crabs, the way such spiders hold their two front pairs of legs, and their ability to scuttle sideways or backwards. The Thomisidae are the family most generally referred to as "crab spiders", though some members of the Sparassidae are called "giant crab spiders", the Selenopidae are called "wall crab spiders", and various members of the Sicariidae are sometimes called "six-eyed crab spiders". Some unrelated orb-weaver spider species such as Gasteracantha cancriformis also are commonly called "crab spiders".
Behavior
Thomisidae do not build webs to trap prey, though all of them produce silk for drop lines and sundry reproductive purposes; some are wandering hunters and the most widely known are ambush predators. Some species sit on or beside flowers or fruit, where they grab visiting insects. Individuals of some species, such as Misumena vatia and Thomisus spectabilis, are able to change color over a period of some days, to match the flower on which they are sitting. Some species frequent promising positions among leaves or bark, where they await prey, and some of them sit in the open, where they are startlingly good mimics of bird droppings. However, these members of the family Thomisidae are not to be confused with the spiders that generally are called bird-dropping spiders, not all of which are close relatives of crab spiders.
Other species of crab spiders with flattened bodies either hunt in the crevices of tree trunks or under loose bark, or shelter under such crevices by day, and come out at night to hunt. Members of the genus Xysticus hunt in the leaf litter on the ground. In each case, crab spiders use their powerful front legs to grab and hold on to prey while paralysing it with a venomous bite.
The spider family Aphantochilidae was incorporated into the Thomisidae in the late 1980s. Aphantochilus species mimic Cephalotes ants, on which they prey.
The spiders of Thomisidae are not known to be harmful to humans. However, spiders of an unrelated genus, Sicarius, which are sometimes referred to as "crab spiders", or "six-eyed crab spiders", are close cousins to the recluse spiders, and are highly venomous, though human bites are rare.
Sexual dimorphism
Several different types of sexual dimorphism have been recorded in crab spiders. Some species exhibit color dimorphisms; however, the most apparent dimorphism is the difference in size between males and females. In some species, this is relatively small; females of Misumena vatia are roughly twice the size of their male counterparts. In other cases, the difference is extreme; on average, female Thomisus onustus and Misumena vatia are more than 60 times as massive as the males.
Several hypothesized explanations are given for the evolution of sexual size dimorphisms in the Thomisidae and other sister taxa. The most widely acknowledged hypothesis for female growth is the fecundity hypothesis: selection favors larger females so they can produce more eggs and healthier offspring. Because males do not carry and lay eggs, a growth in size does not confer a fitness advantage.
However, sexual size dimorphism may be a result of male dwarfism. The gravity hypothesis states that the smaller size allows the male to travel with greater ease, providing him with an increased opportunity to find mates. Females are comparatively stationary and a smaller size provides them no additional benefit.
Other hypotheses propose that sexual size dimorphism evolved by chance, and no selective advantage exists to larger females or smaller males.
Taxonomy
, this large family contains around 171 genera:
See also
Philodromidae, also called crab spiders
References
External links
Pictures of crab spiders (free for noncommercial use)
Photos of crab spiders hosted by University of California, Berkeley
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|
225607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus%20mactans | Latrodectus mactans | Latrodectus mactans, known as southern black widow or simply black widow, and the shoe-button spider, is a venomous species of spider in the genus Latrodectus. The females are well known for their distinctive black and red coloring and for the fact that they will occasionally eat their mate after reproduction. The species is native to North America. The venom is rarely fatal to healthy humans.
Taxonomy
Latrodectus mactans was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, placing it in the genus Aranea. It was transferred to the genus Latrodectus in 1837 by Charles Walckenaer and is currently placed in the family Theridiidae of the order Araneae. The species is closely related to Latrodectus hesperus (western black widow) and Latrodectus variolus (northern black widow). Members of the three species are often confused with the genus Steatoda, the false widows. Prior to 1970, when the current taxonomic divisions for North American black widows were set forth by Kaston, all three varieties were classified as a single species, L. mactans. As a result, there exist numerous references which claim that "black widow" (without any geographic modifier) applies to L. mactans alone. Common usage of the term "black widow" makes no distinction between the three species.
Description
The body length (excluding legs) of the mature female is , for males. Legs are long in proportion to body. Females are shiny and black in color, with a red marking in the shape of an hourglass on the ventral (under) side of her very rounded abdomen. There is much variation in female size, particularly in egg-carrying (gravid) females. The abdomen of a gravid female can be more than in diameter. Many female widows also have an orange or red patch just above the spinnerets on the top of the abdomen. Juveniles have a distinctly different appearance from the adults; the abdomen is grayish to black with white stripes running across it and is spotted with yellow and orange. Males are either purple, or closer to the appearance of the juveniles in color.
The web of the black widow spider is a three-dimensional tangled cobweb of exceptionally strong silk.
Range
The southern widow is primarily found in (and is indigenous to) the southeastern United States, ranging as far north as Ohio and as far west as Texas. The northern black widow (L. variolus) is found primarily in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, though its range overlaps with that of L. mactans. (In Canada, northern black widows occur in the southern parts of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Quebec.) In the Dominican Republic L. mactans is found throughout the whole country.
Latrodectus mactans, along with Latrodectus hesperus and Latrodectus geometricus (the "brown widow spider"), is established in the Hawaiian Islands (USA). One pathway of entry into Hawaii for at least one of these black widow species is imported produce (which is also considered an important potential pathway for widow spiders elsewhere).
Reproduction
When a male is mature, he spins a sperm web, deposits semen on it, and charges his palpal bulbs with the sperm. Black widow spiders reproduce sexually when the male inserts his palpal bulbs into the female's spermathecal openings. The female deposits her eggs in a globular silken container in which they remain camouflaged and guarded. A female black widow spider can produce four to nine egg sacs in one summer, each containing about 100–400 eggs. Usually, eggs incubate for twenty to thirty days. It is rare for more than a hundred to survive this process. On average, thirty will survive through the first molting, because of cannibalism, lack of food, or lack of proper shelter. It takes two to four months for black widow spiders to mature enough to breed, however, full maturation typically takes six to nine months. The females can live for up to three years, while a male's lifespan is about three to four months. The female may eat the male after mating.
Prey
Black widow spiders typically prey on a variety of insects, with a preference for fire ants if extant, but they also feed on woodlice, diplopods, and chilopods when they are young, and occasionally other arachnids. The spider's web is even strong enough to catch animals as large as mice. When the prey is entangled by the web, Latrodectus mactans quickly comes out of its retreat, wraps the prey securely in its strong web, then bites and envenoms its prey. The venom takes about ten minutes to take effect; in the meantime, the prey is held tightly by the spider. When movements of the prey cease, digestive enzymes are released into the wound. The black widow spider then carries its prey back to its retreat before feeding.
Natural enemies
There are various parasites and predators of widow spiders in North America, though apparently none of these have ever been evaluated in terms of augmentation programs for improved biocontrol. Parasites of the egg sacs include the flightless scelionid wasp Baeus latrodecti, and members of the chloropid fly genus Pseudogaurax. Predators of the adult spiders include wasps, most notably the blue mud dauber Chalybion californicum, and the spider wasp Tastiotenia festiva. Other species including Mantis or Centipede also will occasionally and opportunistically take widows as prey, but the preceding all exhibit some significant specific preference for Latrodectus.
Furthermore, in 2012, researchers published a paper suggesting that the black widow's close relative, the brown widow, may be competing for territory with, and ultimately displacing black widows in Southern California.
Toxicology
Although the reputation of these spiders is notorious and their venom does affect humans, only mature females are capable of envenomation in humans; their chelicerae—the hollow, needle-like mouthparts that inject venom—are, at approximately 1 mm, or .04 in., long enough to inject venom into humans, unlike those of the much smaller males. The actual amount injected, even by a mature female, is variable. The venom injected by the female black widow is known as alpha-latrotoxin which binds to receptors at the neuromuscular motor end plate of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, resulting in increased synaptic concentration of catecholamines. The symptoms are caused by lymphatic absorption and vascular dissemination of the neurotoxin. The symptoms that result from a black widow spider bite are collectively known as latrodectism. Deaths in healthy adults from Latrodectus bites are exceedingly rare, with no deaths despite two thousand bites yearly, and studies within the past several decades have been unable to confirm any fatalities from this or any of the other U.S. species of Latrodectus (e.g. zero fatalities among 23,409 documented Latrodectus bites from 2000 through 2008). On the other hand, the geographical range of the widow spiders is vast. Epidemics of mostly European Widow spider bites had been recorded from 1850 to 1950, and during that time period, deaths were reported from 2/1000 to 50/1000 bites. Deaths from the Western Black Widow had been reported as 50/1000 in the 1920s. At that same time, antivenom was introduced. The LD-50 of L. mactans venom has been measured in mice as 1.39 mg/kg, and separately as 1.30 mg/kg (with a confidence interval of 1.20–2.70). In 1933, Allan Blair famously allowed himself to be bitten by the spider in order to investigate the toxicity of its venom in humans and as a means of convincing skeptics at the time who thought that the spider's venom might not be dangerous to humans.
There are a number of active components in the venom:
Latrotoxins
A number of smaller polypeptides—toxins interacting with cation channels, which can affect the functioning of calcium, sodium, or potassium channels.
Adenosine
Guanosine
Inosine
2,4,6-trihydroxypurine
The venom is neurotoxic.
References
External links
Fact Sheet on the Black Widow Spider includes information on habits, habitat and threats
Latrodectus Mactans on Pterodattilo
University of Washington Burke Museum spider myths
Black Widow Spider Venom and Bites Intoxication Treatment
Information on black widow spider bite in eMedicineHealth
Latrodectus mactans on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website.
mactans
Spiders of North America
Fauna of the Caribbean
Arthropods of the Dominican Republic
Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands
Fauna of the Southeastern United States
Fauna of the Western United States
Spiders described in 1775
Taxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius | [
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|
225611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floradora | Floradora | "Floradora", also called Keyword, was a doubly enciphered diplomatic code used by the Germans during the Second World War. The Allies used tabulating equipment, created by IBM, to break the code over period of more than a year in 1941 and 1942.
References
Budiansky, Stephen. Battle of wits: the complete story of codebreaking in World War II, p. 55. Simon and Schuster, 2000
How the Allies broke the German Diplomatic cipher Floradora. Michael J. Cowan
Cryptography
Communications in Germany | [
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225615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminator%203%3A%20Rise%20of%20the%20Machines | Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines | Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (also known as T3) is a 2003 science fiction action film, the third installment in the Terminator franchise and a sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day, directed by Jonathan Mostow and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, Nick Stahl, Claire Danes, and Kristanna Loken. In the film, Skynet sends a Terminator, the T-X (Loken), back in time to ensure the rise of machines by killing top members of the future human resistance as John Connor's (Stahl) location is unknown. The Resistance has also sent its own Terminator (Schwarzenegger) back in time to protect John and Kate.
While Terminator creator James Cameron was interested in directing a third film, he ultimately had no involvement with Terminator 3. Andrew G. Vajna and Mario Kassar, who had produced Terminator 2: Judgment Day through their company Carolco Pictures, obtained the rights for the franchise through both Carolco's liquidation auction and negotiations with producer Gale Ann Hurd. In 1999, Tedi Sarafian was hired to write the first draft of the script. Mostow joined the project as director in 2001, and he brought on John Brancato and Michael Ferris to rewrite Sarafian's script. With a final budget of $187.3 million, it was the most expensive film ever made up to that point. The budget included a $5 million salary for Mostow and a record $30 million salary for Schwarzenegger. Filming took place in California from April to September 2002. Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and Stan Winston created the special effects, as they did for the previous film.
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines premiered in Westwood, Los Angeles on June 30, 2003, and was released on July 2, 2003 by Warner Bros. Pictures in the United States and by Columbia TriStar Film Distributors International and Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label in the worldwide territories. It received generally positive reviews and earned $433.4million worldwide, finishing its theatrical run as the seventh-highest-grossing film of 2003. A sequel, Terminator Salvation, was released in 2009.
Plot
Several years after destroying Cyberdyne Systems, John Connor has been living as a nomad following the death of his mother Sarah to hide from Skynet, despite a war between humans and machines not happening in 1997, as foretold. Unable to locate John in the past, Skynet sends a new Terminator model, the T-X, back in time to John's present in Los Angeles, to instead kill his future allies in the Human Resistance. The Resistance sends a reprogrammed Terminator (a T-101 referred to as the "Terminator") to protect the T-X's targets, including John and his future wife, Kate Brewster.
After killing other targets, the T-X locates the pair at an animal hospital, where Kate works. John becomes the T-X's primary target, but the Terminator helps him and Kate escape, taking them to a mausoleum where John's mother is supposedly interred. Inside her vault, they find a weapons cache left at Sarah's request in case Judgment Day was not averted and the Terminators returned. They escape from an armed battle with the police and fend off the pursuing T-X. The Terminator reveals that John and Sarah's actions only delayed Judgment Day and that Skynet's attack will occur that day; the Terminator intends to drive John and Kate to Mexico to escape the fallout when Skynet begins its nuclear attack at 6:18 p.m. John orders the Terminator to take Kate and him to see Kate's father, U.S. Air Force Lieutenant General Robert Brewster. The Terminator refuses to do so, but agrees to Kate's identical request. It explains that it killed John in the future, but Kate reprogrammed it and sent it back in time, meaning that only she can give it orders.
Meanwhile, General Brewster is supervising the development of Skynet for Cyber Research Systems (CRS), which also develops autonomous weapons. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff pressures him to activate Skynet to stop an anomalous computer virus from invading servers worldwide; Brewster is unaware that the virus is actually Skynet establishing control over them. John and Kate arrive too late to stop Skynet from being activated. The T-X wounds General Brewster and activates the CRS weaponized machines, which kill the employees. Before dying, General Brewster gives Kate and John the location of what John believes is Skynet's system core. The pair head for the tarmac to take General Brewster's single-engine plane to Crystal Peak, a facility built inside the Sierra Nevada. After a battle, the T-X severely damages the Terminator and then reprograms it to kill John. The T-X pursues John and Kate through the CRS facility, but when a particle accelerator is activated, it magnetically binds the T-X to the equipment. The still-consciously-aware Terminator struggles to control its outer functions. As it prepares to kill John, he urges the Terminator to choose between its conflicting programming; it deliberately forces a shutdown of its corrupted system, enabling the pair's escape. Shortly after they leave, the Terminator's system reboots. Meanwhile, the T-X escapes the accelerator and resumes pursuit.
After John and Kate reach Crystal Peak, the T-X arrives by helicopter. Before it can attack, the Terminator arrives in a second helicopter and crashes into and crushes the T-X. The T-X pulls itself from the wreckage, losing its legs, and attempts to drag itself inside the bunker to follow the pair. The Terminator holds the bunker door open long enough for the pair to lock them inside then uses its last hydrogen fuel cell to destroy both itself and the T-X.
John and Kate discover that Crystal Peak is not Skynet's core, but rather a nuclear fallout shelter and command facility for government and military officials. Having no core, Skynet has become a part of cyberspace after becoming self-aware. Judgment Day begins as Skynet fires nuclear missiles worldwide, starting a nuclear holocaust that kills billions. The pair begin receiving radio transmissions on the emergency equipment; John tentatively assumes command by answering radio calls, and they reluctantly accept their fate.
Cast
Arnold Schwarzenegger as the Terminator: Reprising his role from the first two films, this was Schwarzenegger's final film role before becoming Governor of California.
Nick Stahl as John Connor. Stahl replaces Edward Furlong from the second film.
Kristanna Loken as the T-X, an advanced Terminator sent back to murder John's resistance lieutenants
Claire Danes as Katherine "Kate" Brewster, John's future wife
David Andrews as Lieutenant General Robert Brewster, Kate's father who is also the program director at CRS, which has acquired Cyberdyne Systems' remaining assets
Mark Famiglietti as Scott Mason: Kate Brewster's slain fiancé was originally named Scott Peterson, but the name was changed in order to avoid association with the Scott Peterson case involving the murder of Laci Peterson and her unborn son Conner. In the ending credits his name is still listed as "Scott Petersen".
Earl Boen as Dr. Peter Silberman: Reprising his role from the first two films, Boen appears in one scene, attempting to comfort Kate after she witnesses the acts of the Terminator. Boen and Schwarzenegger are the only actors to appear in all of the first three Terminator films. This is also Boen's final film role before his retirement from his film career to focus on his voice acting career.
Jay Acovone portrayed an LAPD Officer. Kim Robillard and Mark Hicks portrayed Detective Edwards and Detective Bell. In the film's dialogue Bell is identified correctly, however in the film's end credits his name is listed as "Detective Martinez". One of Schwarzenegger's stunt doubles, Billy D. Lucas, portrayed a civilian who has his car accidentally wrecked by John.
Production
Development
James Cameron had directed and co-written the previous Terminator films. The film rights to the franchise were held by Carolco Pictures and by Cameron's ex-wife Gale Anne Hurd, who both held 50 percent of the rights. Cameron had sold his stake to Hurd for $1 prior to directing The Terminator (1984). In July 1991, while Terminator 2: Judgment Day was in its theatrical run, Cameron said that if the film were successful then "there may be some economic pressure" to do a sequel. During the same month, executive producer Gale Anne Hurd said, "I've always felt the story lent itself wonderfully to being a continuing tale." She believed it was natural that a third film would happen, but was unsure at that time if Arnold Schwarzenegger would reprise his role as the Terminator. She said that for Schwarzenegger to commit to another film, he would have to read a finished script, approve a director, and see if the project fit into his schedule. In May 1992, Carolco Pictures co-founder Mario Kassar said he expected to make a Terminator 3 film within the next five to seven years. TriStar, which distributed Terminator 2, would be involved in the new film. That month, TriStar chief Mike Medavoy said the film would probably take a couple of years.
By the end of 1995, Carolco had filed for bankruptcy, and Cameron wanted to direct a third film with the involvement of 20th Century Fox. Cameron's 3D film ride, Terminator 2 3-D: Battle Across Time, would open later in 1996. The project reunited the main cast of Terminator 2: Judgment Day, and had prompted Cameron to begin writing a script for a Terminator 3 film. Cameron said Terminator 2 3D: Battle Across Time would serve as a "stepping stone" toward a third Terminator film. However, such a film would not be ready for a few years as Cameron was busy working on Titanic for 20th Century Fox.
When Carolco filed for bankruptcy on November 10, 1995, its assets were bound to a liquidation auction. That day, 20th Century Fox signed a $50 million deal to acquire all of Carolco's assets, including the rights to Terminator sequels, as well as the company's existing film library. Fox withdrew its bid in January 1996, when Canal Plus bid $58 million for Carolco's film library. Canal Plus' offer did not include purchasing the rights for Carolco sequel films, but Fox wanted all of Carolco's assets and was unwilling to match or exceed the bid offer made by Canal Plus. The sequel rights would ultimately be auctioned through U.S. bankruptcy court, where Fox intended to purchase them.
The new Terminator film would have Schwarzenegger reprising his role. Linda Hamilton had also talked with Cameron about reprising her role as Sarah Connor. During 1997, Fox spent nine months negotiating with Cameron, Schwarzenegger, and Hurd, the latter in regard to her share of the sequel rights. Bill Mechanic, chairman of Fox Filmed Entertainment, oversaw the project and negotiations at that time. Mechanic wanted the trio to be involved in the new film, so he sought to first secure deals with them before proceeding with a purchase of the Carolco rights. Mechanic also believed that a deal with the trio would give him necessary leverage with the U.S. bankruptcy court to acquire the rights from Carolco. At that time, Cameron committed to writing and producing the film, and reserved the right to direct it in the event that he wanted to do so.
Fox intended to make the new Terminator film on a budget similar to its predecessor, approximately $95 million. However, it was determined that the film could not be made on the intended budget when considering the additional cost of purchasing Carolco's rights, as well as Schwarzenegger's desired $25 million salary. At some point, Schwarzenegger had talked to Cameron about the two of them buying the rights themselves, but Cameron was not interested in this idea and wanted to let Fox handle the rights. Schwarzenegger said about Fox, "Only later did I learn they were making these ridiculous lowball offers, like $750,000. We could have owned this ourselves, but Jim didn't want to be in that business."
Dimension Films, a division of Miramax, had agreed to purchase the rights that were owned by Hurd and also intended to buy Carolco's rights through the auction. However, a judge ruled against an earlier motion which stated that only an established studio should be allowed to bid for the Carolco rights. This allowed Andrew G. Vajna to participate in the bidding. Vajna had co-founded Carolco with Kassar, but left the company in 1989.
In September 1997, Cameron invited his friends Vajna and Kassar to see an early edit of Titanic, during which Vajna and Kassar learned that the Terminator rights were still available. That month, Mechanic discovered that Vajna had been quietly negotiating with the bankruptcy court to acquire the rights for himself and Kassar; the duo planned to form a new production company with Terminator 3 as its debut. During September 1997, Vajna signed a tentative $7.5 million agreement to purchase the rights, which were to be sold later in an auction scheduled for the following month. Mechanic was upset to learn of Vajna's agreement, having spent months in negotiations with Schwarzenegger, Cameron, and Hurd. Cameron was upset as well, as Vajna and Kassar had not mentioned their intention to buy the rights during their meeting days earlier. This would lead to the deterioration of their friendship. Vajna later said he was unaware that Cameron was already planning Terminator 3. Miramax dropped out of the bidding when Vajna raised his bid to $8 million.
By October 1997, the budgetary concerns over Terminator 3 and Cameron's troubled post-production of Titanic for Fox led them both to abandon the Terminator project and not pursue the rights. Mechanic had asked Cameron if he wanted Fox to outbid Vajna, but Cameron decided he did not want to be involved in the project. Mechanic believed that Cameron was "only hanging in there at the end because of Arnold and quality control. It was something that Arnold always wanted to do again. Period. And Jim was more than happy to do it." Cameron gave his approval for Hurd and Schwarzenegger to make another Terminator film without him, although Schwarzenegger did not want to make the film without Cameron, and initially refused to star in the third film.
Over time, Schwarzenegger would continue trying to persuade Cameron to be involved in the new film. In 2003, Cameron said that he felt he had already told the whole story with his first two Terminator films, something that he came to realize during the post-production of Titanic. Cameron later stated, "I just felt as a filmmaker maybe I've gone beyond it. I really wasn't that interested. I felt like I'd told the story I wanted to tell. I suppose I could have pursued it more aggressively and gone to the mat for it but I felt like I was laboring in someone else's house to an extent because I had sold the rights very early on." Nevertheless, feeling that the Terminator character was as much Schwarzenegger's as it was his own, Cameron eventually advised Schwarzenegger to do the third film without him, saying, "If they can come up with a good script and they pay you a lot of money, don't think twice." The film was in high demand according to Schwarzenegger, who said he was frequently asked in interviews about the possibility of a third film.
In October 1997, the rights to future Terminator films were auctioned to Vajna for $8 million. Hurd had opposed Vajna's attempt to buy the rights, and had tried unsuccessfully to change Cameron's mind about purchasing the rights. On the night that the rights were auctioned, Vajna contacted Cameron and Schwarzenegger to resolve the situation. Vajna was surprised that Cameron would be upset about the rights being sold, later saying, "What difference does it make to Jim who's financing the movie, a studio or us? His deal would have been the same. Arnold tried to convince Jim over a long period of time to do the film. Arnold felt very loyal." Vajna said that Cameron "felt that we 'stole his baby', even though we're the ones who put it together last time round. So we felt that that was kind of strange and then we went on to do it ourselves."
Cameron said in January 1998 that it was unlikely he would direct Terminator 3. In March 1998, Vajna and Kassar acquired Hurd's half of the Terminator rights for $8 million, to become full owners of the franchise, with plans to proceed on Terminator 3. Hurd served as an executive producer on the film. Kassar and Vajna contacted Cameron with the hope that he would direct, but he declined. According to Kassar, Cameron was trying to obtain the auctioned Terminator rights for himself at the time that he was asked to direct. Cameron and his company, Lightstorm Entertainment, had considered trying to obtain the rights, but ultimately chose not to do so; it was estimated that acquiring the rights and paying Schwarzenegger to reprise his role could cost up to $100 million.
Pre-production
By 1999, Kassar and Vajna had been negotiating with various studios about partnering on the project, but decided to finalize the film's concept and script first. They founded C2 Pictures that year, and by October 1999, they had brought Toho-Towa and German company VCL onboard the project as co-financiers. The latter companies helped finance development of a script by Tedi Sarafian, who was hired for the film in 1999, along with David C. Wilson for a possible fourth installment. Fox held discussions with Vajna and Kassar about buying the rights from them for Cameron. Mechanic said these discussions were never serious. It was also reported that Fox and Cameron had been in discussions with Vajna and Kassar about partnering on the film. Vajna and Kassar accepted a proposal from Fox, but it fell apart once Toho-Towa and VCL were brought onto the project, as the latter companies purchased the distribution rights for Japan and Germany, the largest markets outside of the United States. Kassar and Vajna intended to proceed on the film with or without Schwarzenegger, although Kassar preferred that he be involved. Filming was expected to begin in 2000 for a release the following year.
In March 2000, it was announced that VCL would have a 25 percent stake in the film, as well as the rights in German-speaking territories. At the time, Sarafian was days away from completing his draft, and Kassar hoped to announce a director within 45 days. Filming was still expected to commence later that year, with a release scheduled for the fourth quarter of 2001. Kassar wanted to have Terminator 3 and Terminator 4 shot back to back, possibly with different directors. Plans to shoot the film and its sequel simultaneously were later dropped, in case Terminator 3 did not become a success. Later in 2000, the start of production on Terminator 3 was delayed by a year.
Sarafian's script, titled T-3: Rise of the Machines, featured John Connor working in a dot-com company. The script's villain was the T-1G, a female Terminator sent from the future, with the ability to turn invisible. By July 2000, Cameron had been given a copy of Sarafian's script, but he passed on directing the film due to his estranged relationship with Vajna and Kassar. Cameron later stated that he refused to direct or produce Terminator 3 because he disliked the idea of working from somebody else's script in a story he originated. According to Schwarzenegger, Cameron declined involvement on the project because he did not want to commit to a time frame, as he was busy and had other projects he wanted to explore. Other directors being considered in 2000 included Ang Lee, Christian Duguay, David Fincher, John McTiernan, Ridley Scott, and Roland Emmerich. Lee passed on the project to instead direct Hulk (2003). Intermedia was announced as a co-financier in October 2000.
Although production was scheduled to begin in 2001, it was delayed in anticipation of a writers strike, which ultimately did not occur. There was also the possibility of an actors strike, and filming was scheduled to begin after it ended. In March 2001, Jonathan Mostow and his producing partner Hal Lieberman were in negotiations to join the project as director and producer respectively. Mostow said he was "not shy" when he started working on the project; as he later recalled, "I said, 'Here's the movie I'm going to make, here's how I'm going to do it. If you don't want to do it my way, you should find a different director.'" Mostow had concerns about Sarafian's script and declined to start filming until it was perfected.
Mostow invited his college classmates John Brancato and Michael Ferris to rework the screenplay; they signed on to rewrite it in June 2001. Sarafian still got a story credit, although much of his draft was rewritten, and scenes were added to make it more of a road movie, fulfilling Mostow's vision for the film. Brancato said there was initial consideration given to ignoring the basic format of the earlier films by removing aspects of time travel and killer machines from the future: "We tried all sorts of wacky scenarios [...] But to be honest it just wasn't working." The idea of a female Terminator was retained from Sarafian's draft, although Mostow disliked Sarafian's idea that the character could turn invisible, saying, "It's not visceral." The film makes a subtle reference to Schwarzenegger's age by depicting his character as an obsolete Terminator compared to the T-X. Mostow said, "It's always great if you can have your protagonist or hero be completely outmatched."
In December 2001, several companies competed for the distribution rights to the film. The heads of each major studio were invited that month to a secret hotel room meeting to read the script and bid for the rights. Fox declined to participate in the meeting, out of loyalty to Cameron. Warner Bros. won the U.S. distribution rights that month, with filming scheduled to begin in April 2002. Columbia TriStar Film Distributors International subsequently acquired most of the international distribution rights, including those that would have been handled by VCL, which was suffering financially at the time.
The film's production budget was initially set at $169–170 million, making it the most expensive film ever to be greenlit at the time. The budget would include paying off the debts of Carolco, as well as a $5 million salary for Mostow and a record $30 million salary for Schwarzenegger. The distribution rights were sold for $145 million, while the remaining $25 million would be covered by Vajna, Kassar, and Intermedia. Budget statements for the film put the final cost at $187.3 million (or $167.3 million excluding the production overhead), maintaining the film's title as the most expensive film ever made up to that point. Product placement deals, with companies such as PepsiCo and Toyota, helped regenerate profit. For example, the film prominently features the then-new Toyota Tundra truck. Schwarzenegger received a record salary of $29.25 million, plus 20 percent of the profits, although he agreed to defer part of his salary in order to prevent the relocation of the set to Vancouver, British Columbia, from Los Angeles. Initially, the film was to have a 100-day shoot, with 62 days in Vancouver and 38 days in Los Angeles. The cast and crew generally agreed that they did not want to relocate from California, so $8 million was trimmed from the budget, allowing for filming to take place entirely in the state. Another benefit of shooting in Los Angeles is that the film is set there. It was announced in February 2002 that the shoot would take place entirely in California.
Casting
Schwarzenegger signed on to the project in June 2000, after reading Sarafian's draft. Edward Furlong signed on in August 2000, to reprise his role as John Connor from the previous film. However, in December 2001, casting began for a new actor to replace Furlong, who was dropped from the project because of a substance abuse problem. Furlong was removed by Warner Bros., which was concerned that his publicized drug problems could jeopardize the project. Furlong later stated "I don't know [what happened]. It just wasn't the time. I was going through my own thing at the point in my life – whatever, it just wasn't meant to be".
According to Mostow, Furlong had been considered, but the director wanted to start from scratch with a new actor, as John would be portrayed as "a very different character now." Mostow described the character as someone who has carried the burden of being a leader in the future, saying "it's very lonely because nobody else in the world knows about it or believes it. Even if he tried to explain to somebody, they'd think he was crazy and that's a really interesting character." Mostow wanted the character to have soulfulness and he believed that Nick Stahl was the right actor for the role. Although John Connor was written as being 10 years old in the script for Terminator 2, Furlong was actually several years older than that. For Terminator 3, Mostow wondered whether the character's current age should be faithful to what was written before. After some consideration, Mostow chose to make the character slightly older for Terminator 3, to be consistent with Furlong's real age. The film states that John was 13 years old during the events of the previous film. Mostow said he tried to avoid the age discrepancy as much as possible in the film. Some fans were disappointed by the decision to recast Furlong, and some were alienated by the age change.
In November 2000, Linda Hamilton said she had turned down an offer to reprise her role as Sarah Connor. Hamilton said in October 2001 that the script did not take her character in any new directions: "The film is really about turning the baton over to Sarah's son John, played by Eddie Furlong. It's Eddie's movie - and Arnold's. It was like a no-win situation for me." She also was dissuaded by the fact that Cameron would have no involvement in the film. Hamilton later explained her decision not to reprise her role: "They offered me a part. I read it and I knew my character arc was so complete in the first two, and in the third one it was a negligible character. She died halfway through and there was no time to mourn her. It was kind of disposable, so I said no thank you." When Mostow signed on as director, one of his conditions was that Hamilton reprise her role. However, he realized that the character would not have changed much since the previous film and that she would not contribute much to the story, saying later, "Linda Hamilton is too important to the franchise to stick her in as the third wheel." Mostow realized that John Connor would need to be the focus of the story, although the mausoleum scene was added as a way of integrating Hamilton's character into the story as well. Old footage of Hamilton was expected to be used for flashback scenes of Sarah Connor, although no such scenes exist in the final film. Mostow said the flashbacks made "a complicated story even more complicated."
When Schwarzenegger was called into Kassar and Vajna's office in April 2001, he did not expect them to bring up Terminator 3 given the film's long stint in development hell. Instead, he wanted to talk to the producers about his political interests, including a potential candidacy as Governor of California in the 2002 election. However, pre-production was rolling along, with the screenplay nearly finished and set deals for both merchandising and distribution. Schwarzenegger postponed his gubernatorial plans, which eventually came into fruition with the 2003 California gubernatorial recall election. Instead, the actor combined production of the film with the promotion of Proposition 49, which advocated increased extracurricular activity in California schools. At times Schwarzenegger even received politicians, journalists, and potential financial backers of the proposition on the film set. During pre-production, Schwarzenegger worked out daily to prepare for the role, to get into the same physical shape in which he was during shooting of the previous films. Schwarzenegger felt it was important to be in the same physical condition as he was for the previous film, saying, "Otherwise, people would say, 'He's lost it; he's all saggy and flabby,' and that would be all anyone would talk about it. I didn't want to be digitized, because someone would blab, and it would be in all the columns. So I just worked harder."
Approximately 10,000 women auditioned for the role of the T-X. Schwarzenegger originally wanted wrestling star Chyna to portray the T-X. Famke Janssen subsequently emerged as the most likely candidate for the role. Following the 2001 release of The Fast and the Furious, starring Vin Diesel, there was consideration given to rewriting the T-X character as a man with Diesel in the role. In early 2002, Kristanna Loken was cast as the T-X, while Stahl was cast as John Connor. Stahl auditioned approximately five times, and underwent three screen tests, before receiving the role. Other actors considered for the role of John Connor included Shane West, Jake Gyllenhaal, and Logan Marshall-Green. For the film, Stahl took some weapons training and learned how to ride a motorcycle. Stahl did not aim to impersonate Furlong's earlier performance. For her role, Loken underwent six weeks of training, involving weights, fighting, and weapons. She also undertook Krav Maga, and gained 14 pounds of muscle. In addition, Loken took a mime movement class to perfect her character's robotic movements.
Mostow originally wanted Claire Danes for the role of Kate Brewster, but the initial effort to get her involved did not work out. Sophia Bush was cast in the role instead, and Mostow was more excited about her casting than any other character. However, during filming, Mostow felt that Bush's appearance and performance seemed too youthful for the role. He said, "I tried everything I could to make her look older, but ultimately the camera doesn't lie. So I had to replace her and it was heart breaking because it was a huge break for her." After reading the script, Danes decided to join the cast to play Kate. Bush was replaced by Danes in May 2002, a month into filming. Danes began filming the day after she was hired.
Filming
Filming began on April 15, 2002. The first night of filming involved Schwarzenegger's Terminator crashing a vehicle into the T-X outside the animal hospital, which was constructed as a set in Los Angeles' Sunland-Tujunga neighborhood. Initially, Mostow was somewhat hesitant about following Cameron's footsteps as director, but he eventually put aside such concerns and later said, "Everyone will see this movie and make comparisons, but I can't control any of that." Schwarzenegger missed working with Cameron and initially did not have the same kind of confidence in Mostow as filming began. However, during the first week of filming, Schwarzenegger became convinced that Mostow was an adequate choice.
Production designer Jeff Mann and his crew of 350 people designed and constructed multiple sets for the film during a four-month period prior to filming. Los Angeles Center Studios was a major filming location, as the production used six sound stages there. At least three sound stages were occupied by the project at all times during filming, and at one point all of the stages were in use for the shoot. In June 2002, driving scenes were filmed at Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier, California. Filming also took place at Big Bend National Park in Texas. Some sequences use more than 1,000 simultaneous tracks of audio.
Stahl had few scenes during the initial weeks of filming, giving him time to work on his physique. Schwarzenegger worked out during lunch breaks to maintain his physical appearance. He had a 20-foot trailer with a gym inside, where he would work out in between filming. Schwarzenegger also performed many of his own stunts, something that he enjoyed doing. One of the most elaborate and choreographed stunts was devised by Mostow and stunt coordinator Simon Crane. The scene involves the T-X driving a 100-ton mobile crane down a street in pursuit of John Connor. During the scene, Schwarzenegger's Terminator hangs on to the crane arm as it is swung around, smashing him into a glass building and a passing fire truck. Fourteen cameras were used for the shot in which he crashes through a glass building, as the film crew would only have one chance to film it, which was the case with many of the film's stunts. Schwarzenegger enjoyed filming the scene and called it "unbelievable," while stating, "We used every safety precaution, but there were close calls, many times." The street chase was filmed on a quarter-mile set of road and buildings, constructed at a Boeing plant in Downey, California. The film's showdown between the two Terminators is set in a marble and steel bathroom. Mostow's vision for the scene was to have the bathroom completely destroyed by the Terminators by the end of their battle. The scene took four weeks to rehearse and two weeks to film. In early September 2002, scenes were filmed at San Bernardino International Airport.
As with the previous films, the Terminator characters arrive naked after travelling through time. One of the film's opening scenes is set at the Desert Star bar, where Schwarzenegger's Terminator goes in search of clothes. The scene was filmed at the Cowboy Palace bar in the San Fernando Valley. The Sierra Inn bar and restaurant, in Agua Dulce, California, was also used for exterior shots of the Desert Star. The final scene to be filmed was another opening scene in which the T-X arrives naked on Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills, California. Mostow said shooting the scene discreetly was a challenge due to the tourist popularity of Rodeo Drive. The filmmakers had to wait five months before finally receiving clearance to shoot the scene. The street had to be closed for filming to take place. The 5-month shoot proceeded as scheduled (From April 15, 2002), and concluded on September 8, 2002.
Effects
The film features more than 600 special effects shots. Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and Stan Winston created the special effects, as they had done for the previous film. Winston created the Terminator special effects and also designed the T-1, an early Terminator machine that appears in the CRS facility near the end of the film. Mostow said about the T-1, "I wanted to depict the first generation of Terminator robots, to show where it all began. […] We came up with this primitive but deadly robotic machine that is part tank, part robot." Winston created five full-sized, functioning T-1 robots, each one controlled by hydraulics. Winston's team also designed the T-X's endoskeleton frame, as well as her weapons. Certain sequences involving fire and explosions were deemed too dangerous for Schwarzenegger and Loken to perform, so Winston and his team constructed life-sized robot replicas of the actors for such scenes. When the start of production was delayed from its earlier 2001 date, it allowed Winston more time to develop the various special effects. ILM used miniature sculptures and computer-generated imagery (CGI) to create numerous visual effects for brief scenes set in the future, depicting the post-apocalyptic war between humans and machines. ILM's effects included Terminator endoskeletons seen during the future war. The endoskeletons were created entirely through CGI.
One challenging scene for the visual effects team takes place at a cemetery, where the T-X has taken on the appearance of Kate's fiancé, before morphing to her original appearance. The scene required several repeated shots of the same area with the use of controlled camera movements that were the same for each take. Another difficult scene depicts the T-X's liquid metal exterior peeling off to reveal her endoskeleton. The visual effects team took six months to develop a method that would adequately simulate the scene. Pablo Helman, visual effects supervisor for ILM, said, "We had no application for creating and controlling streams of liquid metal, so we had to begin by determining the density, weight, shape and mass of this material, and how it would move under these conditions. It was a really complicated process." Another scene features the crane vehicle flipping over at the end of the road chase sequence. The production crew determined that it would be too dangerous and impractical to use the actual vehicle during this portion of the sequence, so ILM digitally recreated the crane using photos of the actual vehicle.
One scene depicts the T-101 cutting open his chest cavity to remove a failing fuel cell battery, while simultaneously driving a truck. For the scene, Winston's team used cyber scans to create a body cast replica of Schwarzenegger that would sit in the driver's seat. Schwarzenegger was situated in the back of the truck, and his head and arms were visible in the front seat to give the impression that he was connected to the body cast. Several shots during the bathroom battle used CGI to simulate the Terminators. Helman said the scene required "a tremendous amount of visual effects to accomplish, and in some shots, large sections of the bathroom are completely computer generated." Mostow said the battle was "actually a much more complicated sequence from a visual effects standpoint than the audience will ever realize." A combination of Schwarzenegger's real body, prosthetics, and CGI were used to create the T-101 for its final scene in the film.
Music
Soundtrack
Marco Beltrami composed the musical score, which still employed the series' leitmotif by Brad Fiedel. The film's soundtrack was released by Varèse Sarabande on June 24, 2003:
Songs that are not included on the soundtrack album
"Dat Funky Man" (performed by William Randolph III; words by Jonathan Mostow)
"Sugar" (performed by Peter Beckett; words by Jonathan Mostow)
"Party" (performed by Peter Beckett)
"Can't Hide This" (performed by Mega Jeff)
"Macho Man" (performed by Village People)
"The Current" (performed by Blue Man Group featuring Gavin Rossdale)
Marketing and merchandise
In May 2003, several parties were held in Cannes to promote the film. Also held there was a publicity event that included 10-foot metal robots, as well as comments from Schwarzenegger about the film. Action figures of the Terminator characters were produced by McFarlane Toys.
Several video games were based on the film. An action game of the same name was released by Atari for Xbox, PlayStation 2, and Game Boy Advance. A first-person shooter titled Terminator 3: War of the Machines was released for Microsoft Windows. A third game, titled Terminator 3: The Redemption, was released in 2004 for Xbox, PlayStation 2, and GameCube.
On the weekend of the film's release, NASCAR drivers Jamie McMurray and Michael Waltrip each drove T3-branded cars during races at Daytona International Speedway. The cars featured the likenesses of Schwarzenegger and Loken's characters.
Release
Theatrical
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines had its premiere at Mann Village Theater in Westwood, Los Angeles on June 30, 2003. In the United States, the film was released by Warner Bros. in 3,504 theaters on July 2, 2003. Press screenings of the film were very limited prior to release.
Home media
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines was released on DVD and VHS on November 11, 2003, and on Blu-ray on February 26, 2008.
Reception
Box office
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines earned $150.4million in the United States and Canada and $283million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $433.4million. It was the seventh-highest-grossing film of 2003.
Critical response
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines has an approval rating of based on professional reviews on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of . Its critical consensus reads, "Although T3 never reaches the heights of the second movie, it is a welcome addition to the Terminator franchise." Metacritic (which uses a weighted average) assigned Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines a score of 66 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Shortly after the film's release, Cameron described the film as "in one word: great", but after the release of the fourth film, Terminator Salvation, Cameron recanted his statement and said he felt his first two films were better than either of the later films. A. O. Scott of The New York Times said the film "is essentially a B movie, content to be loud, dumb and obvious". Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half stars, remarking "Essentially one long chase and fight, punctuated by comic, campy or simplistic dialogue."
Accolades
Sequel
A sequel to Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines was released in 2009, titled Terminator Salvation. Its plot follows elements of the third film, and the setting moved to the post-apocalyptic future. Salvation was intended to have a new planned trilogy for the film.
See also
List of American films of 2003
Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography
Colossus: The Forbin Project
Footnotes
References
External links
Rise of the Machines
2000s action thriller films
2003 science fiction action films
2003 films
Alternate timeline films
American films
American chase films
American science fiction thriller films
American science fiction action films
American sequel films
Apocalyptic films
Columbia Pictures films
Drone films
English-language films
Films about cyberwarfare
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films about time travel
Films about the United States Air Force
Films directed by Jonathan Mostow
Films produced by Andrew G. Vajna
Films scored by Marco Beltrami
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in Los Angeles
Malware in fiction
Mass media about Internet culture
Films using motion capture
Nanotechnology in fiction
Techno-thriller films
C2 Pictures films
Warner Bros. films | [
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225617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third%20law%20of%20thermodynamics | Third law of thermodynamics | The third law of thermodynamics states, regarding the properties of closed systems in thermodynamic equilibrium: This constant value cannot depend on any other parameters characterizing the closed system, such as pressure or applied magnetic field. At absolute zero (zero kelvins) the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy. Entropy is related to the number of accessible microstates, and there is typically one unique state (called the ground state) with minimum energy. In such a case, the entropy at absolute zero will be exactly zero. If the system does not have a well-defined order (if its order is glassy, for example), then there may remain some finite entropy as the system is brought to very low temperatures, either because the system becomes locked into a configuration with non-minimal energy or because the minimum energy state is non-unique. The constant value is called the residual entropy of the system. The entropy is essentially a state-function meaning the inherent value of different atoms, molecules, and other configurations of particles including subatomic or atomic material is defined by entropy, which can be discovered near 0 K.
The Nernst–Simon statement of the third law of thermodynamics concerns thermodynamic processes at a fixed, low temperature: Here a condensed system refers to liquids and solids.
A classical formulation by Nernst (actually a consequence of the Third Law) is:
There also exists a formulation of the third law which approaches the subject by postulating a specific energy behavior:
History
The third law was developed by chemist Walther Nernst during the years 1906–12, and is therefore often referred to as Nernst's theorem or Nernst's postulate. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant. This is because a system at zero temperature exists in its ground state, so that its entropy is determined only by the degeneracy of the ground state.
In 1912 Nernst stated the law thus: "It is impossible for any procedure to lead to the isotherm in a finite number of steps."
An alternative version of the third law of thermodynamics as stated by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall in 1923:
If the entropy of each element in some (perfect) crystalline state be taken as zero at the absolute zero of temperature, every substance has a finite positive entropy; but at the absolute zero of temperature the entropy may become zero, and does so become in the case of perfect crystalline substances.
This version states not only ΔS will reach zero at 0 K, but S itself will also reach zero as long as the crystal has a ground state with only one configuration. Some crystals form defects which cause a residual entropy. This residual entropy disappears when the kinetic barriers to transitioning to one ground state are overcome.
With the development of statistical mechanics, the third law of thermodynamics (like the other laws) changed from a fundamental law (justified by experiments) to a derived law (derived from even more basic laws). The basic law from which it is primarily derived is the statistical-mechanics definition of entropy for a large system:
where is entropy, is the Boltzmann constant, and is the number of microstates consistent with the macroscopic configuration. The counting of states is from the reference state of absolute zero, which corresponds to the entropy of .
Explanation
In simple terms, the third law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal of a pure substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches zero. The alignment of a perfect crystal leaves no ambiguity as to the location and orientation of each part of the crystal. As the energy of the crystal is reduced, the vibrations of the individual atoms are reduced to nothing, and the crystal becomes the same everywhere.
The third law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy at any other temperature. The entropy of a closed system, determined relative to this zero point, is then the absolute entropy of that system. Mathematically, the absolute entropy of any system at zero temperature is the natural log of the number of ground states times Boltzmann's constant .
The entropy of a perfect crystal lattice as defined by Nernst's theorem is zero provided that its ground state is unique, because . If the system is composed of one-billion atoms, all alike, and lie within the matrix of a perfect crystal, the number of combinations of one-billion identical things taken one-billion at a time is . Hence:
The difference is zero, hence the initial entropy can be any selected value so long as all other such calculations include that as the initial entropy. As a result, the initial entropy value of zero is selected is used for convenience.
Example: Entropy change of a crystal lattice heated by an incoming photon
Suppose a system consisting of a crystal lattice with volume of identical atoms at , and an incoming photon of wavelength and energy .
Initially, there is only one accessible microstate:
Let's assume the crystal lattice absorbs the incoming photon. There is a unique atom in the lattice that interacts and absorbs this photon. So after absorption, there is possible microstates accessible by the system, each of the microstates corresponding to one excited atom, and the other atoms remaining at ground state.
The entropy, energy, and temperature of the closed system rises and can be calculated. The entropy change is:
From the second law of thermodynamics:
Hence:
Calculating entropy change:
We assume and . The energy change of the system as a result of absorbing the single photon whose energy is :
The temperature of the closed system rises by:
This can be interpreted as the average temperature of the system over the range from . A single atom was assumed to absorb the photon but the temperature and entropy change characterizes the entire system.
Systems with non-zero entropy at absolute zero
An example of a system which does not have a unique ground state is one whose net spin is a half-integer, for which time-reversal symmetry gives two degenerate ground states. For such systems, the entropy at zero temperature is at least (which is negligible on a macroscopic scale). Some crystalline systems exhibit geometrical frustration, where the structure of the crystal lattice prevents the emergence of a unique ground state. Ground-state helium (unless under pressure) remains liquid.
In addition, glasses and solid solutions retain large entropy at 0 K, because they are large collections of nearly degenerate states, in which they become trapped out of equilibrium. Another example of a solid with many nearly-degenerate ground states, trapped out of equilibrium, is ice Ih, which has "proton disorder".
For the entropy at absolute zero to be zero, the magnetic moments of a perfectly ordered crystal must themselves be perfectly ordered; from an entropic perspective, this can be considered to be part of the definition of a "perfect crystal". Only ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and diamagnetic materials can satisfy this condition. However, ferromagnetic materials do not, in fact, have zero entropy at zero temperature, because the spins of the unpaired electrons are all aligned and this gives a ground-state spin degeneracy. Materials that remain paramagnetic at 0 K, by contrast, may have many nearly-degenerate ground states (for example, in a spin glass), or may retain dynamic disorder (a quantum spin liquid).
Consequences
Absolute zero
The third law is equivalent to the statement that
It is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce the temperature of any closed system to zero temperature in a finite number of finite operations.
The reason that cannot be reached according to the third law is explained as follows: Suppose that the temperature of a substance can be reduced in an isentropic process by changing the parameter X from X2 to X1. One can think of a multistage nuclear demagnetization setup where a magnetic field is switched on and off in a controlled way. If there were an entropy difference at absolute zero, could be reached in a finite number of steps. However, at T = 0 there is no entropy difference so an infinite number of steps would be needed. The process is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Specific heat
A non-quantitative description of his third law that Nernst gave at the very beginning was simply that the specific heat can always be made zero by cooling the material down far enough. A modern, quantitative analysis follows.
Supposed that the heat capacity of a sample in the low temperature region has the form of a power law asymptotically as , and we wish to find which values of are compatible with the third law. We have
By the discussion of third law (above), this integral must be bounded as , which is only possible if . So the heat capacity must go to zero at absolute zero
if it has the form of a power law. The same argument shows that it cannot be bounded below by a positive constant, even if we drop the power-law assumption.
On the other hand, the molar specific heat at constant volume of a monatomic classical ideal gas, such as helium at room temperature, is given by with the molar ideal gas constant. But clearly a constant heat capacity does not satisfy Eq. (). That is, a gas with a constant heat capacity all the way to absolute zero violates the third law of thermodynamics. We can verify this more fundamentally by substituting in Eq. (), which yields
In the limit this expression diverges, again contradicting the third law of thermodynamics.
The conflict is resolved as follows: At a certain temperature the quantum nature of matter starts to dominate the behavior. Fermi particles follow Fermi–Dirac statistics and Bose particles follow Bose–Einstein statistics. In both cases the heat capacity at low temperatures is no longer temperature independent, even for ideal gases. For Fermi gases
with the Fermi temperature TF given by
Here is Avogadro's number, the molar volume, and the molar mass.
For Bose gases
with TB given by
The specific heats given by Eq. () and () both satisfy Eq. (). Indeed, they are power laws with α=1 and α=3/2 respectively.
Even within a purely classical setting, the density of a classical ideal gas at fixed particle number becomes arbitrarily high as goes to zero, so the interparticle spacing goes to zero. The assumption of non-interacting particles presumably breaks down when they are sufficiently close together, so the value of gets modified away from its ideal constant value.
Vapor pressure
The only liquids near absolute zero are 3He and 4He. Their heat of evaporation has a limiting value given by
with L0 and Cp constant. If we consider a container, partly filled with liquid and partly gas, the entropy of the liquid–gas mixture is
where Sl(T) is the entropy of the liquid and is the gas fraction. Clearly the entropy change during the liquid–gas transition ( from 0 to 1) diverges in the limit of T→0. This violates Eq.(). Nature solves this paradox as follows: at temperatures below about 50 mK the vapor pressure is so low that the gas density is lower than the best vacuum in the universe. In other words: below 50 mK there is simply no gas above the liquid.
Latent heat of melting
The melting curves of 3He and 4He both extend down to absolute zero at finite pressure. At the melting pressure, liquid and solid are in equilibrium. The third law demands that the entropies of the solid and liquid are equal at . As a result, the latent heat of melting is zero and the slope of the melting curve extrapolates to zero as a result of the Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
Thermal expansion coefficient
The thermal expansion coefficient is defined as
With the Maxwell relation
and Eq. () with it is shown that
So the thermal expansion coefficient of all materials must go to zero at zero kelvin.
See also
Adiabatic process
Ground state
Laws of thermodynamics
Quantum thermodynamics
Residual entropy
Thermodynamic entropy
Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes
Quantum heat engines and refrigerators
References
Further reading
Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993) The Refrigerator and the Universe. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. . Chpt. 14 is a nontechnical discussion of the Third Law, one including the requisite elementary quantum mechanics.
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225620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri%20Chinmoy | Sri Chinmoy | Chinmoy Kumar Ghose, better known as Sri Chinmoy
(27 August 1931 – 11 October 2007), was an Indian spiritual leader who taught meditation in the West after moving to New York City in 1964. Chinmoy established his first meditation center in Queens, New York, and eventually had 7,000 students in 60 countries. A prolific author, artist, poet, and musician, he also held public events such as concerts and meditations on the theme of inner peace. Chinmoy advocated a spiritual path to God through prayer and meditation. He advocated athleticism including distance running, swimming, and weightlifting. He organized marathons and other races, and was an active runner and, following a knee injury, weightlifter.
Biography
Early years in India
Chinmoy was the youngest of seven children, born in Shakpura, Boalkhali Upazila, in the Chittagong District of East Bengal, British India (now Bangladesh). He lost his father to illness in 1943, and his mother a few months later. Chinmoy began his serious practice of meditation at the age of 11. In 1944, the 12-year-old Chinmoy joined his brothers and sisters at the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry, where elder brothers Hriday and Chitta had already established a presence. It was Chitta that gave Chinmoy his name which means 'full of divine consciousness'.
In the ashram he spent the next 20 years in spiritual practice, including meditation, study in Bengali and English literature, athletics, and work in the ashram's cottage industries. Chinmoy claimed that for about eight years, he was the personal secretary to the General Secretary of the ashram, Nolini Kanta Gupta. Chinmoy translated his writings from Bengali into English.
Move to the United States
According to Chinmoy, in 1964 he was prompted to move to the United States in response to a "message from within" to be of service to people in the West searching for spiritual fulfillment. With the help of Sam Spanier and Eric Hughes, American sponsors connected with the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, he emigrated to New York City.
He successfully applied for a job as junior clerk at the Indian consulate, despite his lack of formal education. He received support and encouragement from his colleagues and bosses and was invited to give talks on Hinduism. He started to give talks at universities and later, at the United Nations.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Chinmoy continued giving lectures and talks at universities around the U.S. on spiritual topics. In 1974, he gave lectures in 50 states at 50 universities, and these lectures were published as a six-part book series entitled 50 Freedom-Boats to One Golden Shore (1974). In the 1970s and 1980s he traveled around Europe, Asia, and Australia lecturing at universities, resulting in the publication of The Oneness of the Eastern Heart and the Western Mind. Chinmoy has also published books, essays, spiritual poetry, plays, and commentaries on the Vedas.
In 1966 Chinmoy opened a Sri Chinmoy Center in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Up until the late 1970s the main Chinmoy study centers were in New York, Florida and the West Indies. Over the next few decades Sri Chinmoy Centers were opened and established in multiple cities in the US, Europe, Australasia, South Africa and South America eventually totaling 350 centers worldwide. In 1973, the New York Times wrote that Chinmoy was "revered in India as one of the few holy men to have reached Nirvikalpa Samadhi, the absolute highest level of consciousness".
During the 1970s Chinmoy began playing and composing on the flute and esraj. In 1984, he started giving free 'Peace Concerts' around the world. The largest ever concert was in Montreal, for 19,000 people.
While in America in the 1970s, Chinmoy attracted followers such as musicians Carlos Santana, John McLaughlin, Narada Michael Walden, Roberta Flack, Clarence Clemons, and Boris Grebenshchikov. Chinmoy offered the musicians a disciplined spiritual path that forbade the use of drugs and alcohol and encouraged music and poetry as expressions of thankfulness to the Divine.
Santana and McLaughlin stayed with Chinmoy for a number of years before leaving. In 1973 they released an album based on Chinmoy's teachings, titled Love Devotion Surrender. McLaughlin was a Chinmoy follower from 1970 to 1975. In 1971 he formed the Mahavishnu Orchestra, named for the spiritual name Chinmoy had given him. McLaughlin introduced Santana to the guru, and Santana and his wife Deborah were subsequently Chinmoy followers from 1972 to 1981. Santana said, "Without a guru I serve only my own vanity, but with him I can be of service to you and everybody. I am the strings, but he is the musician. Guru has graduated from the Harvards of consciousness and sits at the feet of God." Santana released three albums under the spiritual name Devadip – meaning "Lamp of God", "Eye of God", and "Light of God" – that Chinmoy gave him: Illuminations (1974), Oneness (1979), and The Swing of Delight (1980). In 2000, he told Rolling Stone that things soured between him and Chinmoy in the 1980s. Santana emphasized that he took much that was good from his years with the guru, even though when he left, Chinmoy "was pretty vindictive for a while. He told all my friends not to call me ever again, because I was to drown in the dark sea of ignorance for leaving him." In 2017 Santana told Rolling Stone, "I'm really grateful for those 10 years
I spent with that spiritual master."
Spiritual teacher Frederick Lenz became a follower around 1972, but in 1981 he broke with Chinmoy and became a guru on his own. Spiritual author Lex Hixon was a member of the Sri Chinmoy Centre in the 1970s.
Chinmoy advocated "self-transcendence" by expanding one's consciousness to conquer the mind's perceived limitations, and this was often applied to athletics. Olympic gold-medalist runner Carl Lewis was advised by Chinmoy. He learned to meditate from Chinmoy, and practices the techniques regularly. A devoted Christian, Lewis stated that his involvement with Chinmoy was a step forward to spiritual fulfillment which strengthened his Christian beliefs. In 2011 Lewis appeared in the short documentary Challenging Impossibility, which features the feats of strength demonstrated by Chinmoy.
According to the team's website, members of the Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team have swum the English Channel over 40 times. Other Chinmoy-sponsored athletic events include ultra-distance running, including the Self-Transcendence 3100 Mile Race; mountain climbing; and long-distance cycling. In 2010 Ashrita Furman, who holds over 150 Guinness World Records, stated that "the meditation he learned from Sri Chinmoy helps him to perform beyond his expectations."
In 1987 Sri Chinmoy inaugurated the Sri Chinmoy Oneness Home Peace Run, a symbolic relay style run for peace through many countries of the world where runners carry a flaming torch representing harmony. Sri Chinmoy described his concept as a "grassroots effort for peace". The 'Oneness Home' theme of the Peace Run, is that people are all peace-longing citizens on one single planet.
In 1991 Chinmoy initiated the 'Oneness Heart Tears and Smiles' humanitarian service which sends food and medicine to those in need. The organisation, which as of 2007 served 136 countries, began with members of the Sri Chinmoy Centre distributing humanitarian aid to needy children and adults worldwide. It works with NGOs or governments, and provides health, medical, and educational supplies to recipient nations. It is served by health professionals and private volunteers on five continents, in programs which provide disaster relief, regional development, and health and medical supplies. The 'Kids to kids' program sponsored by the Oneness Heart Tears and Smiles encourages school children to prepare packs of school supplies and toys for disadvantaged children in other communities.
Chinmoy travelled widely, and dedicated his many activities and the events he founded to peace. He met with world figures, and was often described as an ambassador of peace. Chinmoy met Mother Teresa on five separate occasions. On their second meeting in Rome, Italy during October 1994, Chinmoy presented her with an award. During the ceremony, Mother Teresa said to Sri Chinmoy: "I am so pleased with all the good work you are doing for world peace and for people in so many countries. May we continue to work together and to share together all for the glory of God and for the good of man." Chinmoy met with Diana, Princess of Wales, at Kensington Palace on May 21, 1997.
He did not charge fees for his spiritual guidance or music performances. He was respectful towards all religions and religious figures of the world. He attracted an estimated 7,000 students in his lifetime. His path was a contemporary spiritual system of yoga, practised under the guidance of a guru, or spiritual teacher. Chinmoy advocated brahmacharya – celibacy – for both married and unmarried devotees, and focusing on experiencing inner spiritual joy rather than pleasure. According to a 1987 article in Hinduism Today, Chinmoy as a yoga spiritual master was an unmarried celibate. Unlike in some other older traditions, Chinmoy taught that a complete withdrawal from the world was not necessary for spiritual progress, but rather "a gradual and total Illumination of life".
Until his death in late 2007, Chinmoy was the spiritual leader to thousands of devoted followers worldwide. From the mid-1960s he lived in his world headquarters in Queens, New York City, surrounded by hundreds of his followers who moved to the area. The Chinmoy group was considered to be a cult by some. The 1994 book The Joy of Sects stated that "some of his followers left, however, amid accusations that Chinmoy was making sexual advances towards the wives of his disciples", and in 2005 and 2014 San Diego CityBeat and Salon.com each posted a profile of a different female former disciple who alleged inappropriate sexual conduct. In February 2016 PIX 11 News in New York did two segments on Chinmoy, in which one former follower alleged sexual impropriety, while others praised Chinmoy and the Sri Chinmoy Center's spokesperson stated in a written response that "Our founder and teacher, Sri Chinmoy, led a life of the utmost purity and integrity". Chinmoy was never sued or charged with any crime, and his lawyer denied the 2004 allegations at the time. Some journalists and former followers have criticized what they view as Chinmoy's obsessive or aggressive self-promotion. In 2009, Jayanti Tamm published an account of life as a Chinmoy disciple, Cartwheels in a Sari: A Memoir of Growing Up Cult. Tamm, who was born into Chinmoy's organisation, claimed that Chinmoy predicted she would become his perfect disciple. She was banished from the group when she was 25. The book describes her life in the guru's inner circle and her efforts to break free from his influence. According to the book, Chinmoy banned sex, and most disciples were directed to remain single. The book also states that the guru disparaged secular education, and his prohibitions included the consumption of alcohol, caffeine, and meat; dancing; dating; socializing with outsiders; and owning pets, although he kept a collection of exotic pets in his Queens basement. Tamm notes however that the 7,000 other followers around the world, and others who encountered Chinmoy, are likely to have had different experiences and perceptions.
Chinmoy died from a heart attack while at his home in Jamaica, Queens, New York on 11 October 2007. Mikhail Gorbachev wrote that his death was "a loss for the whole world" and that "in our hearts, he will forever remain a man who dedicated his whole life to peace."
Teachings
Chinmoy taught that rapid spiritual progress could be made by following a path of love, devotion, and surrender. He described divine love as self-offering and self-expansion. This practice of love and devotion to God is known as Bhakti Yoga. His path was not one of earthly renunciation or asceticism, but a middle path where the seeker has the opportunity to renounce, or transform, the negative qualities which stand in the way of union with the Divine. Chinmoy taught that meditation on the heart brings the light of the soul forward to reach the highest reality as soon as possible.
Chinmoy stated: "We are all seekers, and our goal is the same: to achieve inner peace, light and joy, to become inseparably one with our Source, and to lead lives full of true satisfaction."
An integral element of Chinmoy's teachings is the understanding of 'self-transcendence'. Self-transcendence is the practice of having a new goal and going beyond our previous capacities and limits which inevitably gives us joy. Self-transcendence is the goal of making progress in life by becoming a better human being rather than competing with the rest of the world. Chinmoy believed that we are all truly unlimited in spirit.
Chinmoy's philosophy he explains is the acceptance of life. By sharing goodwill and inspiration to others and serving mankind the world can be transformed and peace can be achieved.
He asked his disciples to adopt a vegetarian diet, abstain from recreational drugs including alcohol, and lead a pure and celibate lifestyle. Although influenced by Hinduism, his path catered to an international community of seekers from diverse backgrounds.
Meditation
Chinmoy taught a range of techniques for meditation, especially those for calming and bringing silence to the mind, purifying the thoughts of the mind and meditating on the spiritual heart. Chinmoy explains that by keeping your mind calm and quiet for ten or fifteen minutes, a new experience can begin to dawn within you and this practise of stilling the mind is the root of all spiritual progress.
Chinmoy recommended meditation during the quiet atmosphere of the early morning, before starting daily activities. As the traditional Hour of God, between three and four a.m., known as the Brahma Muhurta, may not suit the western lifestyle of keeping late hours, Chinmoy recommended for those newer to meditation to ideally meditate before seven a.m. Chinmoy taught that both prayer and meditation are important, but there is a difference in the result. Prayer is a process of rising up to God and speaking to Him, and meditation is a practice of stilling the mind so that the God-presence can envelop us and commune with us. He also taught that reading spiritual writings or singing soulful songs was useful to prepare for meditation or to remain in a meditative mood after practising meditation. Chinmoy believed that running and physical fitness were a help to the inner spiritual life as well as to the outer life of activity, and encouraged his followers to run daily. Chinmoy regarded the benefits of running as keeping the body fit and clearing the mind; he felt it can also be a form of external meditation.
United Nations
In 1970, Chinmoy began giving twice-weekly non-denominational peace meditations at the United Nations for UN delegates, staff, and NGO representatives. In 1976, he stated, "The ideas of the United Nations are universal peace and universal brotherhood, and the ideals of the United Nations are a oneness-world-family and a oneness-heart."
After directing the peace meditations, which had been attended by many UN employees and diplomats, for 37 years, more than 700 UN officials, ambassadors, members of the U.S. Congress, and representatives of various religions, paid tributes to Chinmoy following his death during a posthumous celebration at the UN headquarters in New York. During the ceremony at the UN, Daw Aye Aye Thant, the daughter of former UN Secretary-General U Thant, said in her speech:
Interfaith
An integral part of Chinmoy's teaching is the respect for other paths and religions. Chinmoy wrote:
Chinmoy's efforts to promote inter-faith harmony resulted in him being invited to open the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago (1993) and Barcelona (2004) with a silent meditation. During the 2004 Opening Meditation, he said: "During my opening meditation I am praying for the oneness of all religions."
Chinmoy said that although he was brought up in the Hindu tradition, he felt that his only religion was the "Love of God".
The arts
Artwork
Chinmoy began painting in 1974 during a visit to Ottawa, Canada. He called his artwork "Jharna Kala", which in Bengali means "Fountain Art". Chinmoy's artwork is inspired by the themes of universal oneness and universal peace.
His abstract paintings are a mixture of acrylics and pen drawings. Chinmoy used a wide variety of sponges, brushes and colors to paint in a unique spontaneous mystical style with a lot of vigour, strong movement and rhythm. Chinmoy has said that when he paints he finds a spontaneous flow of creativity from the stillness of his meditation that allows him to follow an inner inspiration or 'streak of light' to follow.
In December 1991 Chinmoy started a new series of art-work entitled "Dream-Freedom-Peace-Birds" or 'Soul Birds'. The bird drawings are often simple zen like sketches that have either one bird or in some paintings hundreds of birds in one large drawing. The soul bird drawings, Chinmoy stated, symbolize humanity's heart cry for freedom.
His art has been displayed in the UNESCO offices in Paris, London's Victoria and Albert Museum, the Mall Gallery in London, the Museum of Modern Art in St. Petersburg, John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, and the United Nations Headquarters.
Music
According to his followers, Chinmoy composed thousands of short musical compositions, written with lyrics primarily in Bengali and English. Many of these have been published online under a Creative Commons license at Sri Chinmoy Songs (lyrics and sheet music) and Radio Sri Chinmoy (audio). He released two albums in Jamaica on the Studio One subsidiary label Port-O-Jam. In 1976, Chinmoy released a meditative album on Folkways Records entitled Music for Meditation.
Chinmoy also gave hundreds of peace concerts, many of them free. He gave concerts in notable venues around the world, including London's Royal Albert Hall, New York's Lincoln Center and Carnegie Hall, Tokyo's Nippon Budokan, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and the Sydney Opera House. Chinmoy played a number of different instruments at his concerts including the flute, esraj, piano, cello and other Eastern and Western instruments.
Poetry
According to the Sri Chinmoy Centre, Chinmoy published over 1,300 books including 120,000 poems. Many of these poems are aphorisms – a short but complete spiritual poem or verse, such as "We are all truly unlimited, if we only dare to try and have faith." Chinmoy also published some volumes of longer more classical style poetry. In 2001, Chinmoy recited his poetry at the United Nations, as part of a UN sponsored event of promoting "Dialogue Among Civilizations Through Poetry".
Chinmoy's inspirational writing has been praised by many, including Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who wrote: "These sweet gems of wisdom written by my dear friend Sri Chinmoy are timeless truths full of encouragement, love and goodness. ... These chapters fill us with indomitable hope and enthusiasm for life."
Athleticism
Running
In 1977 the Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team was founded; it holds running, swimming, and cycling events worldwide, from fun runs to ultramarathons. Its precursor was the 1976 Liberty Torch Run, a relay in which 33 runners marked America's bicentennial by covering 8,800 miles in 7 weeks through 50 states. This concept was expanded in 1987 to become the Sri Chinmoy Oneness-Home Peace Run. The Peace Run is generally held every two years, and the first was launched in April 1987 at the World Trade Center in New York City.
In 1985 Chinmoy, with the then Mayor of Oxford, inaugurated the first "Sri Chinmoy Peace Mile", which is a measured mile in Cutteslowe Park, Oxford giving joggers something against which to measure their progress. There are now numerous "Peace Miles" around the world.
Many of Chinmoy's followers run daily for health and physical fitness. Chinmoy himself continued to enter races until his 60s when a knee injury hampered his ability to run; afterwards he turned his attention to tennis and weightlifting.
Chinmoy also founded the Self-Transcendence 6- & 10-day Races, which run concurrently in Queens each April, and the Self-Transcendence 3100 Mile Race, described by The New York Times as the "Mount Everest of ultramarathons".
The Self-Transcendence Marathon is a marathon around the shores of Rockland Lake State Park, located in Congers, New York, north of New York City. Inaugurated in 2002, the event attracts around 900 international runners. The Marathon takes place in the last week of August.
Weightlifting
Chinmoy began weightlifting in 1985, at the age of 54. His weightlifting included a creative array of objects and machinery designed to challenge his strength and ability. His message to the public in his weightlifting endeavours was that anything is possible if one is able to put aside the limitations of the mind. Bill Pearl, former Mr. Universe, acted as Master of Ceremonies at many of Chinmoy's strength exhibitions. Introducing one of Chinmoy's weightlifting exhibitions in 1999, Bill Pearl wrote: "Today you are going to see some amazing feats of strength that I myself – and I have been in the industry for fifty-five years – would not even attempt to perform." Chinmoy said his motivation for lifting was to inspire others, especially those of an older generation. In 2006 he stated, "If I can inspire anybody in this world, then I feel that my life is meaningful. With my weightlifting, I am offering my physical strength to inspire people."
In a program created in 1998 known as 'Lifting up the world with a Oneness Heart', Chinmoy lifted people of inspiration while they stood on a platform overhead. Chinmoy described his motivation: 'I lift them up to show my appreciation for their achievements,' Among some of the 7000 people he lifted include: Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, Muhammad Ali, Sting, Eddie Murphy, Susan Sarandon, Roberta Flack, Yoko Ono, Jeff Goldblum, Richard Gere Helen Hunt. Twenty Nobel laureates and a team of sumo wrestlers were also lifted.
In April 2011, a documentary film about Chinmoy's weightlifting titled Challenging Impossibility was featured at the Tribeca Film Festival.
Terry Todd, a professor of kinesiology at the University of Texas, concluded that Chinmoy misrepresented the type and weight of some of the lifts he claimed to have completed.
Awards
A summary of award highlights includes:
Visva Sama Duta, meaning "Ambassador of Universal Peace", title conferred by the Asgiriya Order of Buddhist Monks in 1990. The first non-Buddhist in Sri Lankan history to receive such an honorary degree.
Mahatma Gandhi Universal Harmony Award received jointly with Coretta Scott King, widow of Martin Luther King Jr., from the American branch of the Indian cultural institute Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan in 1994.
Fred Lebow Award, in the name of the founder of the New York City Marathon, presented by NYC Marathon Director Allan Steinfeld and Umberto Silvestri, President of the Rome Marathon in 1996.
Hindu of the Year (1997) and Hindu Renaissance Award presented by the international magazine Hinduism Today in 1997, honouring him for teaching a yoga which combines aspects of ancient Hinduism in a modern setting.
Pilgrim of Peace prize from the 'International Center of Assisi for Peace among Peoples' in 1998.
Mother Teresa Award presented by President of the Republic of Macedonia Boris Trajkovski in 2001.
Medal of Honor For the Cause of Peace and Friendship Among Nations presented by Vietnamese Ambassador to the United Nations Le Luong Minh in 2004.
Honorary Doctorate of Humanities in Peace Studies presented by the Science Council committee of Cambodia's International University in a unanimous decision in 2005.
2012 Class of Honorees, International Marathon Swimming Hall of Fame, including honouring the Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team with swimming the English Channel 38 times.
Bibliography
(1972) Arise! Awake! Thoughts of a Yogi - Frederick Fell Inc
(1974) Yoga and the Spiritual Life – Aum Publications
(1974) The Inner Promise: Paths to Self Perfection – Wildwood House
(1974) Samadhi and Siddhi - The Summits of God Life - Aum Publications
(1974) The Dance of Life - Volume 1 -20 - Agni Press
(1975) Astrology, the Supernatural and the Beyond – Aum Publications
(1977) Everest Aspiration – Aum Publications
(1977) The Soul's Evolution - Agni Press ()
(1984) Inner and Outer Peace - Peace Publishing ()
(1985) The Master and the Disciple - Insights into the Guru-Disciple Relationship - Agni Press ()
(1986) A Child's Heart and a Child's Dreams – Aum Publications
(1988) Beyond Within - Agni Press
(1989) Meditation: Man-Perfection in God-Satisfaction – Aum Publications
(1990) On Wings of Silver Dreams – Aum Publications
(1992) Kundalini: The Mother-Power – Aum Publications
(1994) Garden of the Soul – Health Communications Inc.
(1994) My Life's Soul-Journey – Aum Publications
(1997) God Is... – Aum Publications
(1997) The Wings of Joy: Finding Your Path to Inner Peace – Simon and Schuster
(1998) Blessingful invitations from the university-world - Agni Press
(2000) Wisdom of Sri Chinmoy – Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
(2007) Power Within: Secrets of Spirituality and Ocultism – Guru Noka Publications
(2007) Heart-Garden – New Holland Publishing
(2009) A Selection of Songs composed by Sri Chinmoy, Vol. 1 - Sri Chinmoy Center
(2010) The Jewels of Happiness - Watkins Publishing
(2013) Sport and Meditation - The Golden Shore ()
Poetry
(1979–1983) Ten Thousand Flower-Flames – Agni Press (100 volumes)
(1983–1998) Twenty-Seven Thousand Aspiration-Plants – Agni Press (270 volumes)
(1998–2007) Seventy-Seven Thousand Service-Trees – Agni Press (50 volumes... unfinished)
(1973) The Dance of Life
(1974) The Wings of Light
(2000–2007) My Christmas-New Year-Vacation-Aspiration-Prayers (51 volumes)
Plays
(1973) Sri Ramachandra – My Rama is My All – A play on the life of Sri Ramachandra
(1973) The Singer of the Eternal Beyond – A play on the life of Sri Krishna
(1973) Siddhartha Becomes The Buddha – A Play on the life of Lord Buddha
(1973) The Son – A play on the life of Jesus Christ
(1973) Lord Gauranga: Love Incarnate – A Play on the life of Sri Chaitanya
(1973) Drink, Drink, My Mother's Nectar – A play on the life of Sri Ramakrishna
(1973) The Heart of a Holy Man – various plays on spiritual figures
(1973) Supreme Sacrifice – a book of spiritual plays
(1974) The Descent of the Blue – A play about the life of Sri Aurobindo
Notes
External links
SriChinmoy.org
1931 births
2007 deaths
21st-century Indian poets
Bengali Hindus
Bengali people
20th-century Bengali poets
20th-century Hindu religious leaders
Indian spiritual teachers
Modern yoga gurus
Indian spiritual writers
People from Chittagong
Spiritual practice
20th-century Indian poets
21st-century Bengali poets
Bengali male poets
Indian male poets | [
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|
225622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20individual%20apes | List of individual apes | This is a list of non-human apes of encyclopedic interest. It includes individual chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, bonobos, and gibbons that are in some way famous or notable.
Actors
Bam Bam, an orangutan, played Precious on the soap opera Passions.
Buddha, an orangutan, played Clyde in the Clint Eastwood action-comedy film Any Which Way You Can (1980). Buddha was allegedly beaten to death by his trainer for stealing doughnuts from craft services. The murder weapon was an axe handle wrapped in newspaper and had been nicknamed a "Buddha club" since it had been previously used to discipline him. This claim has been disputed by the author William Munns.
Çarli (born 1993), a chimpanzee, starred in the live-action movie The Jungle Book (1994) and in the Turkish television series Çarli before retiring to Monkey World in Dorset, UK.
C.J., an orangutan, played in the 1981 film Tarzan the Ape Man.
Clara, a chimpanzee, played Livingston in the movie comedy Delicatessen (1991).
Evie (short for Evolution), a chimpanzee, played robot dog Muffit II in the original 1978 Battlestar Galactica television series.
J. Fred Muggs (a chimpanzee born 1952) was a "co-host" with Dave Garroway on NBC's Today Show in the 1950s.
Jiggs, a chimpanzee, was the first Cheeta in the Tarzan films in the 1930s.
Jimmy, a chimpanzee, appeared in the film Dark Venture
Judy, a pet chimpanzee of the family, was depicted in the 1960s CBS series Daktari. She also played Penny Robinson's alien chimpanzee-like pet, Debbie, in the simultaneously running Lost in Space.
Kwanza (or Kwan), a gorilla, played Sidney in the romance movie Return to Me (2000) with Minnie Driver and David Duchovny. Kwan resides at Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago.
Louie, a juvenile chimpanzee actor, played on numerous music videos and TV commercials; he starred in the popular Carpet Monkey commercials in 2007 for Human Giant on MTV. Louie retired to Little Rock Zoo with his brother Mikey in 2008. Louie died at the zoo in August 2011 from an immunodeficiency disorder, one week short of his seventh birthday.
Manis, an orangutan, played Clyde in the Clint Eastwood action-comedy film Every Which Way But Loose (1978), but not in the 1980 sequel Any Which Way You Can, as the animal had outgrown his part. His successor died shortly after the film.
Mowgli, a chimpanzee, was a guest on CNBC's Dennis Miller Live and on Monk.
Napoleon and Sally were two chimpanzees which starred in more than 40 shorts around 1916.
Oscar, a young chimpanzee, was the subject of a 2012 Disney documentary, Chimpanzee.
Pankun, a chimpanzee, was featured in Japanese TV shows Tensai! Shimura Dobutsu-en (Genius! Shimura Zoo) and the TBS program Dobutsu Kiso Tengai! (Unbelievable Animals!) with bulldog James.
Peggy, a chimpanzee, played Bonzo in the 1951 movie comedy Bedtime for Bonzo, costarring Ronald Reagan.
Anonymous, sometimes known as his pseudonym Bonzo, acted in the film Bonzo Goes to College.
Project X, a 1987 science fiction suspense-drama film about military animal experimentation, directed by Jonathan Kaplan, starred Matthew Broderick, Helen Hunt, and a multitude of chimpanzee actors:
Arthur—Winston
Brimdom—Dandy
Clafu—Spike
Andy—Lulea
Harry—Ginger
Karanja—Goliath
Lucy—Razzberry
Luke—Bluebeard
Lulu—Ethel
Mousie—New Recruit
Okko—Goofy
Willie—Virgil (film's animal star)
Sam (1989-2010), an orangutan, played Dunston in the 1995 movie comedy Dunston Checks In; he was trained by Larry Madrid.
Zippy, a chimpanzee, rollerskated on United States television in the 1950s.
Tango, an orangutan, played Suzanne in Kevin Smith's Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back (2001).
Jonah and his twin, Jacob, both appeared as the chimpanzee Pericles in 2001's Planet of the Apes, Trunk Monkey, and with Tango in Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back.
Mikey, a chimpanzee, appeared in the film Manchurian Candidate (2005), and on Saturday Night Live (2005) and the World Series of Poker (2006).
Travis, a chimpanzee, gained fame through parts he had in commercials (Old Navy and Coca-Cola) in the 2000s, but was shot by police following a brutal attack on a 55-year-old woman in Stamford, Connecticut.
Tanga, a chimpanzee, played Inga in Dario Argento's 1985 horror film Phenomena.
Artists
Congo (1954–1964)—chimpanzee, abstract impressionist of the late 1950s
Koko (1971–2018)—gorilla, widely believed to be able to communicate with humans through sign language
Michael (1973–2000)—silverback gorilla, impressionist painter, was taught American sign language with Koko
Peter, aka Pierre Brassau, a chimpanzee, was the subject of a famous hoax through which the chimpanzee's paintings were presented as the avant-garde works of unknown French (human) artist "Pierre Brassau".
Science and exploration
Abang (born 1966)—orangutan, taught to use and make a stone tool (cutting flake)
Ai (born 1976)—chimpanzee, studied by scientists at Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University
Ayumu (born 2000)—chimpanzee, studied by scientists at Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University
Bonnie—orangutan, began whistling (mimicking an animal caretaker), which is changing ideas about primate sound repertoires
Chantek (1977–2017)—orangutan, involved with language research and ApeNet language-using great ape ambassador
Clint—chimpanzee, source of DNA for Chimpanzee Genome Project, Yerkes Primate Center
Cooper—chimpanzee, studied by Renato Bender and Nicole Bender for swimming and diving behavior in apes
Digit — mountain gorilla (died 1977) - Gorilla researcher Dian Fossey's favorite mountain gorilla, for whom a charity fund is named to help protect mountain gorillas
Enos (died 1962)—chimpanzee, 1961 NASA Project Mercury orbiter, second chimpanzee in space and the third primate (and only non-human primate) to orbit the Earth
Flo (died 1972)—chimpanzee, key member of the Kasakela Chimpanzee Community studied by Jane Goodall; received an obituary in the Sunday Times
Frodo (1976–2013)—chimpanzee, baby-eating "bully", attacked Jane Goodall and Gary Larson
Gua—chimpanzee; raised as a child by the Drs. Kellogg alongside their son Donald
Ham (1956–1983)—chimpanzee; spacefaring, in a 1961 NASA Project Mercury suborbital flight before Enos' orbital mission Ham became the first great ape or hominid in space
Jenny—orangutan, encountered and described by Charles Darwin in March 1838 at London Zoo.
Kanzi (born 1980)—bonobo, involved with language research and tool invention, ApeNet language-using great ape ambassador
Koko (1971–2018)—gorilla, involved with sign language research and ApeNet language-using great ape ambassador
Lana—chimpanzee, reared at Yerkes National Primate Research Center as part of its language analogue project
Loulis—chimpanzee, involved in ape hand-signing research
Lucy—chimpanzee, cross-fostered and raised by University of Oklahoma psychotherapist
Moja—chimpanzee, involved in ape hand-signing research
Nim Chimpsky (1973–2000)—chimpanzee, named after linguist Noam Chomsky
Nyota (born 1998)—bonobo, Panbanisha's son
Oliver (1957-2012)—chimpanzee, the so-called "Missing Link", apparent "humanzee"
Panbanisha—bonobo at the same research center as Kanzi
Panpanzee (1985-2014)—chimpanzee at the same research center as Kanzi
Sarah (1959-2019)—research chimpanzee whose cognitive skills are documented in The Mind of an Ape
Sultan—chimpanzee, used in classic Kohler tool-use studies
Suryia—orangutan, studied by Renato Bender and Nicole Bender for swimming and diving behavior in apes
Titus (1974–2009)—gorilla, an extensively observed silverback mountain gorilla
Viki—chimpanzee, one of the first apes used in ape language experiments
Washoe (1965–2007)—chimpanzee, pioneer ape of hand-signing research
Zoo notables
Alfred the Gorilla (1928-1948) lived in Bristol Zoo.
Ah Meng (1960–2008) was a female Sumatran orangutan and a tourism icon of Singapore.
Azalea, a chimpanzee living at the Korea Central Zoo known for her ability to smoke cigarettes
Bill (1946–2007), a long-lived chimpanzee, resided at Sequoia Park Zoo in Eureka, California for 50 years.
Binti Jua, a gorilla living in Brookfield Zoo, saved a boy in 1996.
Bobo (1951–1968), a western lowland gorilla, lived in the Lowman family home in Anacortes, Washington from his infancy until 1953, and then Woodland Park Zoo in Seattle until his death.
Bokito (born 1996), a silverback gorilla, escaped from the Blijdorp Zoo on 18 May 2007 and injured a woman.
Bushman, a famous gorilla from Chicago's Lincoln Park Zoo, died in 1951. While alive, he brought over 100 million visitors to the zoo; his taxidermic remains can now be seen at Chicago's Field Museum of Natural History.
Charles (born 1972), a wild-born silverback western lowland gorilla, resides at the Toronto Zoo and since 1974 has been renowned for his artwork.
Charlie (1958–2010), a chimpanzee in a South African Zoo, was taught to smoke and was able to walk upright.
Colo (1956–2017) was both the first gorilla born in captivity and, living to be 60, the oldest gorilla in captivity. She was born in the Columbus Zoo and lived there her entire life.
Fifi, the matriarch of the chimpanzees at Sydney's Taronga Zoo, died on July 19, 2007 at age 60.
Gust (1952–1988) was a Congolese gorilla that became an icon of the Antwerp Zoo
Guy the Gorilla (1946–1978) was a famous gorilla in London Zoo.
Harambe (1999–2016) was a gorilla shot dead by the Cincinnati Zoo after a child fell into his enclosure. This would eventually lead to the deceased ape becoming a popular Internet meme.
Ivan (1962—2012) was a western lowland gorilla who lived in a shopping mall in Tacoma, Washington who was also the inspiration for the 2012 book The One and Only Ivan, which was then drafted into a 2020 film of the same name.
Jabari, a 300-lb. gorilla at the Dallas Zoo, received national attention when, on Mar. 18, 2004, he escaped and attacked four people, including a toddler during a 40-minute rampage inside the jungle exhibit before being shot to death by police. He was the son of Charles the Gorilla.
Jambo (1961–1992), a gorilla, cared for a boy who fell into his enclosure.
Jenny (1953–2008), a western lowland gorilla, lived at the Dallas Zoo from 1957 until her death, and was the oldest gorilla in captivity at the time of her death.
Jo Mendi II (1939-1980), a chimpanzee at the Detroit Zoo who became known as "the greatest performing chimp of all time."
Julius (born 1979), a chimpanzee at Kristiansand Zoo and Amusement Park known for living his childhood with a human family.
Jumoke (1989–2008)—western lowland gorilla and the granddaughter of Colo
Karen (born 1992), a Sumatran orangutan, who was the first zoo animal to have open heart surgery at San Diego Zoo in 1994.
Ken Allen (1971–2000)—Bornean orangutan at the San Diego Zoo known for his escape artistry
Little Mama (1938-2017) — chimpanzee, and believed to be the oldest chimpanzee on record
Louis, a male western lowland gorilla known for walking upright in order to avoid muddying his hands. Currently resides at Zoo de Granby in Granby, Quebec.
Louie (chimpanzee) (2004–2011) — Louie was retired to the LRZ by his owners after a career in the entertainment industry. He was retired to LRZ with his older brother, Mikey.
Massa (1930–1984) — silverback, one of the longest-lived gorilla ever recorded, and second-longest-lived male in captivity, died at age 54
Max (1971–2004) — gorilla in the Johannesburg Zoo, famously apprehended a criminal in 1997, getting shot twice in the process
Ndume, a male western lowland gorilla known for learning a limited amount of a modified version of American Sign Language (ASL) and for being at the center of a lawsuit. Currently resides at Cincinnati in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Pattycake (1972–2013), first baby gorilla born in New York, mother of 10, later died in captivity at Bronx Zoo
Phil, was a lowland gorilla in the St. Louis Zoo. He arrived as a toddler on September 10, 1941, and died as a 525 lb. silverback on December 1, 1958.
Ozzie (1961–2022) — western lowland gorilla the Zoo Atlanta.
Sami (1979-1992) — chimpanzee at the Belgrade Zoo, known for escaping his enclosure twice in February of 1988
Samson (1949–1981)—for many years the face of the Milwaukee County Zoo, one of the largest silverback gorillas on record, weighing 652 lbs. in 1973
Santino, a male chimpanzee at Furuvik zoo in Sweden, was notable for having the cognitive skills for forward planning (calmly collecting stones, and later throwing them at visitors).
Sebastian—former resident of the animal orphanage near Nairobi National Park, Kenya, famous for smoking and not requiring a cage.
Shabani, a male western lowland gorilla known for his "photogenic" and "metrosexual" appearance, as well as his talent for tightrope walking. Currently resides at the Higashiyama Zoo in Nagoya, Japan.
Snowflake (1964–2003), the only known albino lowland gorilla.
Susie (1931 -1947) Cincinnati Zoo. One of the most popular animals at the zoo until her death on October 29, 1947.
Temara (born 1993), the first zoo-reared female Sumatran orangutan, was released into Bukit Tigapuluh National Park by Perth Zoo in 2006.
Timmy (gorilla) (1959-2011), died at 52 as the oldest male gorilla in North America
Willie B. (1959–2000), a silverback gorilla kept in isolation for 27 years, became head of a troop and father of five.
Yeroen, a chimpanzee at the Arnhem Zoo, was the star of de Waal's Chimpanzee Politics.
Circus use
Gargantua (1929–1949)—acid-scarred gorilla captured in the wild, performed in the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus
Toto (1931–1968)—Gargantua's would-be mate
As politicians
Macaco Tião, a chimpanzee, had the habit of throwing excrement at visitors (including several politicians) to the Rio de Janeiro Zoo. A satirical newspaper ran his candidature for Rio de Janeiro mayor in 1988, and he got 9.5% of the votes, just behind Marcello Alencar and César Maia.
Colossus the Gorilla was a main attraction at Benson's Wild Animal Farm in Hudson, New Hampshire, who attempted to have Colossus put on the ballot in the 1980 New Hampshire Republican Presidential primary. The zoo tried to argue that the U.S. Constitution does not specify that a native-born candidate has to be human.
Pets
Bubbles (b. 1983)—chimpanzee pet of singer Michael Jackson
Scatter—chimpanzee pet of singer Elvis Presley
See also
List of individual monkeys
List of fictional primates
Monkeys in space
Oldest hominoids
References
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]
|
225623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20primates | List of fictional primates | This list of fictional primates is a subsidiary to the list of fictional animals. The list is restricted to notable primate characters (excluding humans, generic “cavemen”, and fictional humanoid species) from the world of fiction including chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, bonobos, gibbons, monkeys, lemurs, and other primates.
Literature
Comics
Primates in film
Animation
Television
Video games
Other
Fatz Geronimo, a keyboard-playing gorilla for The Rock-afire Explosion at Showbiz Pizza Place.
References
Primates | [
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|
225632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomis | Tomis | Tomis may refer to:
The historical name of Constanța, a city in Romania
Tomis (spider), a genus of jumping spiders
C.S. Volei 2004 Tomis Constanța, female volleyball club from Constanța, Romania
C.V.M. Tomis Constanța, male volleyball club from Constanța, Romania
Tomis (castra), a fort in the Roman province of Moesia | [
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|
225644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1710%20in%20literature | 1710 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1710.
Events
February – A year after the death of the poet, Edmund Smith prints a "Poem to the Memory of Mr. John Philips". Other memorials this year include "A Poem to the Memory of the Incomparable Mr. Philips" by Leonard Welsted. A monument to him is erected by Lord Harcourt in Westminster Abbey, between those to Geoffrey Chaucer and Michael Drayton, with the motto "Honos erit huic quoque pomo" (Honor this fruit) from the title page of Philips' work Cyder.
February 8 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte is elected to the Académie française, taking the seat vacated by Thomas Corneille.
April 10 – The Statute of Anne, the first modern copyright act, comes into force in the Kingdom of Great Britain.
April 28 – After Thomas Betterton's death this day, the great Shakespearean roles he dominated for a generation are divided among fellow actors Barton Booth, Robert Wilks and John Mills (who gets Macbeth).
September 2 – Jonathan Swift, in London, begins his series of letters to Esther Johnson, which will be collected after his death as A Journal to Stella.
November 6 – Colley Cibber becomes joint manager of the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – The Whig Examiner (periodical)
John Bellers – Some Reasons for an European State proposed to the Powers of Europe
George Berkeley – A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
Laurent Bordelon – A history of the ridiculous extravagancies of Monsieur Oufle
Lady Mary Chudleigh – Essays Upon Several Occasions
Colley Cibber – The Secret History of Arlus and Odolphus (roman à clef)
Anthony Collins – A Vindication of the Divine Attributes
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury – Soliloquy
François Pétis de la Croix – Les Mille et un jours (translation and adaptation of Hazár ú Yek Rúz (The Thousand and One Days))
Daniel Defoe – An Essay Upon Public Credit (on the balance of trade)
George Hickes – A Second Collection of Controversial Letters relating to the Church of England and the Church of Rome, as they passed between an honourable lady and Dr. George Hickes
Gottfried Leibniz – Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal ("Essays of theodicy on the goodness of God, the freedom of man and the origin of evil")
John Leland (d.1552) – The Itinerary of John Leland the Antiquary
Delarivier Manley (as Eginardus) – Memoirs of Europe, towards the close of the eighth century (satire)
Cotton Mather – Bonifacius: Essays To Do Good
Samuel Richter (as Sincerus Renatus) – Die wahrhaffte und volkommene Bereitung des philosophischen Steins der Brüderschaft aus dem Orden des Gülden und Rosen Kreutzes (The True and Complete Preparation of the Philosophical Stone of the Brotherhood, from the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross, i. e. Rosicrucians)
Jonathan Swift – A Meditation Upon a Broom-Stick
Ned Ward (as the Author of the London-Spy) – Nuptial Dialogues and Debates; or, a useful prospect of the felicities and discomforts of a marry'd life, incident to all degrees, from the throne to the cottage
Christian Wolff – Anfangsgründe aller mathematischen Wissenschaften
Various
The Examiner: Remarks upon Papers and Occurrences (periodical edited by Jonathan Swift)
The Medley (a miscellany by Arthur Manwaring and other Whigs)
Drama
William Congreve – Semele, an "unacted opera"
Aaron Hill – Elfrid
Charles Johnson – The Force of Friendship
Charles Shadwell – The Fair Quaker Of Deal
Poetry
George Farquhar – Barcellona: a poem; or, the Spanish expedition under the command of Charles Earl of Peterborough (epic)
Ambrose Philips – Pastorals (igniting argument with Alexander Pope)
Births
April 13 – Jonathan Carver, American writer and explorer (died 1780)
April 26 – Thomas Reid, Scottish philosophical writer (died 1796)
October 24 – Alban Butler, English hagiographer (died 1773)
November 8 – Sarah Fielding, English novelist (died 1768)
November 13 – Charles Simon Favart, French dramatist (died 1792)
November 27 – Robert Lowth, English poet, grammarian and bishop (died 1787)
unknown dates
George Alexander Stevens, English dramatist, poet and actor (died 1780)
Floyer Sydenham, English classicist (died 1787)
Deaths
February 16 – Esprit Fléchier, French preacher and memoirist (born 1632)
February 17 – George Bull, English theologian and bishop (born 1634)
April 28 – Thomas Betterton, English actor-manager (born c. 1635)
July 8 – Jean Donneau de Visé, French historian, publicist and playwright (born 1638)
November 1 – Michael Kongehl, German poet (died 1646)
December 14 – Henry Aldrich, English theologian and philosopher (born 1647)
December 15 (burial) – Lady Mary Chudleigh, English poet (born 1656)
Probable year – Marcus Meibomius, Danish Biblical scholar and classicist (born c. 1630)
References
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|
225645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1711%20in%20literature | 1711 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1711.
Events
March 1 – The periodical The Spectator is founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in London.
May 23 – Robert Harley, author, statesman and friend to the "Tory wits," who has been involved in Anne, Queen of Great Britain's ministry for some time, is created Earl of Oxford.
July – After defeat at the Battle of Stănileşti during the Pruth River Campaign, Dimitrie Cantemir flees to Russia and begins writing his most important works.
December – Charles Gildon becomes editor of The British Mercury.
unknown date – The English fairy tale Jack the Giant-Killer appears in print for the first time.
New books
Prose
Francis Atterbury – Representation of the State of Religion
Richard Blackmore – The Nature of Man
Pierre Boileau – The Works of Monsieur Boileau, vol. 1 (published by John Ozell)
Laurent Bordelon – Gomgam, ou l'Homme prodigieux transporté dans l'air, sur la terre et sous les eaux (Gomgam, the remarkable man transported through the air, on the ground and under the water)
Abel Boyer – The Political State of Great Britain
Cornelis de Bruijn – Reizen over Moskovie, door Persie en Indie (Voyage to the Levant and Travels into Moscovy, Persia, and the East Indies)
Jean Chardin – Voyages de monsieur le chevalier Chardin en Perse et autres lieux de l'orient (The Travels of Sir John Chardin in Persia and the Orient)
Giuseppe Colombani – Unnamed treatise on the use of the spadone
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury – Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (also known as "Shaftesbury's Characteristics")
Daniel Defoe
The British Visions
An Essay on the History of Parties
An Essay on the South-Sea Trade
The Present State of the Parties in Great Britain (attributed)
The Secret History of the October Club
John Dennis – Reflections Critical and Satyrical, Upon a Late Rhapsody call'd, An Essay upon Criticism (Dennis's counterattack on Alexander Pope)
John Gay – The Present State of Wit (satirical answer to Defoe)
William King – The History of the Heathen Gods
George Mackenzie – Several Proposals Conducing to a Further Union of Britain
Samuel Richter (Sincerus Renatus) – Theo-Philosophica Theoretica et Practica
Richard Steele, Joseph Addison, Eustace Budgell, et al. – The Spectator
John Strype – The Life and Acts of Matthew Parker
Jonathan Swift
Miscellanies in Prose and Verse
The Conduct of the Allies (contra Marlborough and the War of the Spanish Succession)
Thormodus Torfæus – Historia Rerum Norvegicarum
Ned Ward – The Life and Notable Adventures of that Renown'd Knight Don Quixote de la Mancha (in verse)
William Whiston – Primitive Christianity Revived, vol. 1
Drama
Chikamatsu Monzaemon (近松 門左衛門) – The Courier for Hell (冥途の飛脚, Meido no hikyaku)
Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – Rhadamiste et Zénobie
Charles Johnson –
The Generous Husband
The Wife's Relief
Elkanah Settle – The City Ramble
Richard Steele – The Man of Mode
Poetry
Alexander Pope – An Essay on Criticism
Births
April 26 – Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont, French novelist (died 1780)
May 7 – David Hume, Scottish philosopher (died 1776)
May 18 – Roger Joseph Boscovich, Ragusan (Croatian) poet and polymath (died 1787)
May 31 – Johann Heinrich Samuel Formey, German philosopher writing in French (died 1797)
October 12 – William Tytler, Scottish historian (died 1792)
October 17 – Jupiter Hammon, American poet (died c. 1806)
November 19 – Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian writer and polymath (died 1765)
December 6 – Kitty Clive, English actress and writer of farce (died 1785)
unknown date – William Smith, English classicist and Anglican dean (died 1787)
Deaths
January 5 – Mary Rowlandson, American autobiographer (born 1635)
February 10 – Richard Duke, English poet and cleric (born 1658)
March 13 – Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, French poet and critic (born 1636)
March 19 – Bishop Thomas Ken, English theologian and hymnist (born 1637)
April 11 – François Lamy, French Benedictine apologist (born 1636)
May 2 – Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, English writer and statesman (born 1641)
June 7 – Henry Dodwell, Irish theologian (born 1641)
June 10 – Johannes Munnicks, Dutch medical writer (born 1652)
September 4 – John Caryll, English poet, dramatist and diplomat (born 1625)
October 3 – Richard Bulstrode, English memoirist (born 1610)
November 3 – John Ernest Grabe, German-born English theologian (born 1666)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1712%20in%20literature | 1712 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1712.
Events
July 7 – Henry St. John is raised to the peerage of Great Britain as Viscount Bolingbroke for services in Robert Harley's Tory ministry.
August 14 – Alexander Pope outlines his project for a satirical periodical, The Works of the Unlearned, from which develops the Scriblerus Club, whose members include Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, Thomas Parnell, Robert Harley, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, and Dr John Arbuthnot at whose house they meet.
August 23 – Lady Mary Pierrepont marries Edward Wortley Montagu, after an elopement.
October 31 – King Philip V of Spain establishes the Biblioteca Nacional de España as the Palace Public Library (Biblioteca Pública de Palacio) in Madrid.
November 4 – Jonathan Swift foils an murder attempt on Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, in what became known as the Bandbox Plot.
November 7 – Charles Johnson's dramatisation of episodes from the life of Henry Every, The Successful Pyrate, receives its première at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Although it is primarily satirical, John Dennis subsequently complains to Charles Killigrew, Master of the Revels, that the play glamorizes pirates. The controversy contributes to its theatrical success.
unknown date – Shota Rustaveli's 12th-century poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin is first printed, in Tbilisi.
New books
Prose
John Arbuthnot – Law Is a Bottomless Pit (introducing the character of John Bull; first in a series of five tracts collected as The History of John Bull in the same year)
George Berkeley – Passive Obedience
Jean-Paul Bignon – Les Avantures d'Abdalla, fils d'Hanif (The adventures of Abdalla, son of Hanif)
Richard Blackmore – Creation
James Brome – Travels through Portugal, Spain, and Italy
Sir Thomas Browne – Posthumous Works of the Learned Sir Thomas Browne
Samuel Clarke – The Scripture-Doctrine of the Trinity
Daniel Defoe (attrib) – A Further Search into the Conduct of the Allies
John Dennis – An Essay upon the Genius and Writings of Shakespear
William Diaper
Dryaides
Nereides
Thomas Ellwood – Davideis: the Life of David, King of Israel
John Gay – The Mohocks
Bernard de Mandeville – Typhon
John Oldmixon
The Dutch Barrier Ours
Reflections on Dr Swift's Letter to the Earl of Oxford, about the English Tongue
The Secret History of Europe
Thomas Otway – The Works of Mr. Thomas Otway
Woodes Rogers – A Cruising Voyage round the World: first to the South-Sea, thence to the East-Indies, and homewards by the Cape of Good Hope
Nicholas Rowe – Callipaedia (translation)
George Sewell – The Patriot
Richard Steele (as Scoto-Brittanus) – The Englishman's Thanks to the Duke of Marlborough
Jonathan Swift
A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (signed)
Some Advice Humbly Offer'd to the Members of the October Club
Leonard Welsted – The Works of Dionysius Longinus, on the Sublime (among earliest translations of περί ύπσος in English)
Drama
Susanna Centlivre – The Perplex'd Lovers
Pierre de Marivaux – Le Père prudent et equitable
Charles Johnson – The Successful Pyrate
John Philips – The Distrest Mother
Poetry
George Granville, Lord Lansdowne – Poems Upon Several Occasions
Peter Anthony Motteux – A Poem Upon Tea
John Philips – Poems
Alexander Pope
The Rape of the Lock
Miscellaneous Poems and Translations
Matthew Prior – Erle Robert's Mice (imitation of Chaucer)
Thomas Tickell – A Poem, to his Excellency the Lord Privy-Seal
John Wright – The Best Mirth (hymns)
See also 1712 in poetry
Births
March 22 – Edward Moore, English dramatist (died 1757)
June 28 – Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Swiss philosopher (died 1778)
September 15 – Pierre Simon Fournier, French typographer (died 1768)
November 1 – Antonio Genovesi, Italian philosopher (died 1769)
December 11 – Count Francesco Algarotti, Italian philosopher and art critic. (died 1764)
unknown date – Richard Glover, English poet (died 1785)
Deaths
February 5 (burial) – John Norris, English philosopher and poet (born 1657)
April 5 – Jan Luyken, Dutch poet and artist (born 1649)
April 11 – Richard Simon, French Biblical critic and priest (born 1638)
April 30 – Philipp van Limborch, Dutch theologian (born 1633)
June 12 – Carlo Alessandro Guidi, Italian poet (born 1650)
August 3 – Joshua Barnes, English scholar and Utopian fiction writer (born 1654)
September 23 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish theologian (born 1674)
December 25 – William King, English poet (born 1663)
probable – Edward Howard, English playwright and poet (born 1624)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1713%20in%20literature | 1713 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1713.
Events
March 12 – Richard Steele and Joseph Addison found the short-lived The Guardian; in the same year, Steele founds another periodical, ostensibly as a sequel to it, the likewise short-lived The Englishman.
April 14 – The first performance is given in London of Addison's libertarian play Cato, a Tragedy, which will be influential on both sides of the Atlantic.
October – Alexander Pope announces that he is to begin a definitive translation of the works of Homer.
unknown date – Vitsentzos Kornaros's early 17th-century Cretan romantic epic poem Erotokritos (Ἐρωτόκριτος), is printed, for the first time, in Venice.
New books
Prose
John Arbuthnot – Proposals for printing a very curious discourse... a treatise of the art of political lying, with an abstract of the first volume ("The Art of Political Lying")
Jane Barker – The Amours of Bosvil and Galesia
Richard Bentley (as Phileleutherus Lipsiensis) – Remarks upon a Late Discourse of Free-thinking (see Collins below)
George Berkeley – Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous
Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux – Dialogue sur les héros de roman
Robert Challe – Les Illustres Françaises (The Illustrious French Lovers)
Anthony Collins – A Discourse of Free-thinking
Daniel Defoe
And What if the Pretender Should Come?
A General History of Trade
Reasons Against the Succession of the House of Hanover
John Dennis – Remarks upon Cato
Abel Evans – Vertumnus
John Gay
Rural Sports
The Fan
Edmund Gibson – Codex Juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani
Antoine Hamilton – Mémoires du comte de Gramont (published anonymously)
John Hughes – Letters of Abelard and Heloise (widely published translation)
Henri Joutel – Journal historique du dernier voyage que feu M. de La Sale fit dans le golfe de Mexique (Joutel's journal of La Salle's last voyage, 1684–1687)
Thomas Parnell – An Essay on the Different Stiles of Poetry
Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre – Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe
Jonathan Swift
Mr. C--n's Discourse of Free-thinking, Put into Plain English (see above, Collins)
Part of the Seventh Epistle of the First Book of Horace Imitated
John Toland – Reasons for Naturalizing the Jews in Great Britain and Ireland
Ned Ward – The History of the Grand Rebellion
Drama
Anonymous – The Apparition
Joseph Addison – Cato, a Tragedy
José de Cañizares – Don Juan de Espina en Milán
John Gay – The Wife of Bath
Charles Shadwell – The Merry Wives of Broad Street
William Taverner – The Female Advocates
Poetry
Henry Carey – Poems on Several Occasions (includes "Sally in Our Alley" and "Namby Pamby")
Anne Finch – Miscellany Poems on Several Occasions
Alexander Pope
Windsor Forest
Ode for Musick
Edward Young
An Epistle to Lord Lansdowne
A Poem on the Last Day
See also 1713 in poetry
Births
January 13 – Charlotte Charke (Charlotte Cibber), English novelist, dramatist and actress (died 1760)
February 20 – Anna Maria Elvia, Swedish poet (died 1784)
April 12 – Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French writer (died 1796)
June 11 – Edward Capell, English Shakespeare scholar (died 1781)
July 9 – John Newbery, English publisher and writer for children (died 1767)
October 5 – Denis Diderot, French encyclopedist (died 1784)
October 25 – Marie Jeanne Riccoboni (née de Mézières), French novelist and actress (died 1792)
November 24 – Laurence Sterne, Irish-born novelist and cleric (died 1768)
December 19 – Jonathan Toup, English classicist and critic (died 1785)
Deaths
January 5 – Jean Chardin, French travel writer (born 1643)
January 11 – Pierre Jurieu, French Protestant leader and religious writer (born 1637)
May 20 – Thomas Sprat, English writer, poet and bishop (born 1635)
September 11 – Johannes Voet, Dutch jurist and legal writer (born 1647)
September 18 – Samuel Cobb, English poet and critic (born 1675)
October 20 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician and writer (born 1652)
October 30 – John Barret, English religious writer and Presbyterian minister (born 1631)
December 14 – Thomas Rymer, English Historiographer Royal (born 1641)
Notes
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1714%20in%20literature | 1714 in literature | Events from the year 1714 in literature.
Events
March – The Scriblerus Club, an informal group of literary friends, includes Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, John Gay, John Arbuthnot (at whose London house they meet), Thomas Parnell, Henry St. John and Robert Harley.
July 4 – The scholar Antonio Magliabechi bequeaths his personal library to his patron Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, to serve as a public library for the city of Florence. In doing so he founds the National Central Library.
July 27 – Robert Harley is dismissed as Britain's Lord High Treasurer.
August 1 – George, Elector of Hanover, becomes King George I of Great Britain after the death of Queen Anne. This leads many writers to oppose the new Whig ministry, initiating the rise of Robert Walpole and indictment of Henry St. John. Samuel Garth publishes a poem in praise of Queen Anne; he subsequently becomes royal surgeon and is the first man to be knighted by George I.
August 12 – Jonathan Swift writes to Esther Vanhomrigh to tell her he is returning to Ireland. Soon afterwards, she follows.
unknown date – Moses ben Avraham Avinu is imprisoned in Halle for printing Hebrew texts with supposedly anti-Christian content, but escapes to Amsterdam.
New books
Prose
Anonymous
A Compleat Key to The Dispensary (response to Samuel Garth's 1699 poem)
The Court of Atalantis (attributed to Delarivier Manley or possibly John Oldmixon or others)
The Ladies Tale (stories)
The Ladies Library (ed. Richard Steele)
John Arbuthnot
A Continuation of the History of the Crown-Inn
A Postscript to John Bull
Anne Dacier – Des Causes de la corruption du goût (On the Causes of the Corruption of Taste, in defence of Homer)
Daniel Defoe – A Secret History of the White-Staff (reporting allegations against Harley)
William Diaper – An Imitation of the Seventeenth Epistle of the First Book of Horace
Thomas Ellwood – The History of the Life of Thomas Ellwood
Laurence Eusden – A Letter to Mr Addison, on the King's Accession to the Throne
Sir John Fortescue – The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy (written c. 1473)
Charles Gildon – A New Rehearsal (an attack on Pope, et al.)
Anthony Hamilton – Memoirs of the Life of the Count de Grammont (translation of Abel Boyer)
William King et al. – The Persian and the Turkish Tales, Compleat
Gottfried Leibniz – La Monadologie
John Locke – The Works of John Locke (posthumous)
Bernard de Mandeville – The Fable of the Bees
Delarivier Manley – The Adventures of Rivella; or, The History of the Author of the Atalantis (quasi-autobiography)
"Captain" Alexander Smith – The History of the Lives of the Most Noted Highway-men, Foot-pads, House-breakers, Shop-lifts, and Cheats...
Richard Steele
The Crisis
The Englishman (collection and end of the periodical)
The Lover (periodical)
Mr Steele's Apology for Himself and his Writings
The Public Spirit of the Tories (attrib.: response to Swift)
The Reader (periodical)
Jonathan Swift – The Public Spirit of the Whigs
Simon Tyssot de Patot – Voyages et Aventures de Jacques Massé
Ned Ward – The Field-Spy
Edward Young – The Force of Religion
Drama
William Shakespeare – The Works of Mr William Shakespear (ed. Nicholas Rowe, 3rd edition)
Susanna Centlivre – The Wonder! A Woman Keeps a Secret
Jean-Baptiste Vivien de Châteaubrun – Mahomet second, tragédie
Madeleine-Angélique de Gomez – Habis, tragédie
Robert Hunter – Androboros
Charles Johnson – The Victim
Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei – Merope (published in 1714, but initially staged in 1713)
Nicholas Rowe – Jane Shore
Poetry
Abel Evans – Prae-existence: A poem, in imitation of Milton
John Gay – The Shepherd's Week
Alexander Pope – The Rape of the Lock
Nicholas Rowe – Poems on Several Occasions
Richard Steele – Poetical Miscellanies (with contributions from Pope, Thomas Parnell, John Gay, Thomas Warton, Edward Young, etc.)
Jonathan Swift – The First Ode of the Second Book of Horace Paraphras'd
Births
January 1 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Prussian Lithuanian poet (died 1780)
February 26 – James Hervey, English writer (died 1758)
April 14 – Adam Gib, Scottish theologian (died 1788)
May 6 – James Townley, English dramatist (died 1778)
October 25 – Marie Jeanne Riccoboni, French actress and dramatist (died 1792)
November 3 or December 3 – Anica Bošković, Ragusan writer (died 1804)
November 13 – William Shenstone, English poet (died 1763)
December 16 (December 27 New Style) – George Whitefield, English preacher in American colonies (died 1770)
December – Jane Collier, English novelist (died 1755)
unknown date – James Parker, American printer and publisher (died 1770)
Deaths
January 17 – Gabriel Álvarez de Toledo, Spanish royal librarian and poet (born 1662)
March 3 – Hans Carl von Carlowitz, German administrator and writer on forestry (born 1645)
June 22 – Matthew Henry, Welsh Biblical commentator (born 1662)
June 28 – Daniel Papebroch, Flemish Jesuit hagiographer (born 1628)
July 4 – Antonio Magliabechi, Italian scholar and librarian (born 1633)
October 18 – Takemoto Gidayū (竹本 義太夫), Japanese jōruri chanter and playwright (born 1651)
November 7 – Charles Davenant, English economist (born 1656)
December 15 – Silvester Jenks, English Catholic theologian and philosopher (born 1656)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1715%20in%20literature | 1715 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1715.
Events
c. August – Nicholas Rowe becomes the Poet Laureate of Great Britain.
The first record of the actress and writer Eliza Haywood tells of her performing in Thomas Shadwell's Shakespeare adaptation, Timon of Athens; or, The Man-Hater at the Smock Alley Theatre, Dublin.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – The Free-Holder (periodical)
Jane Barker – Exilius; or, The Banished Roman
Richard Bentley – A Sermon upon Popery
Samuel Croxall – The Vision
Daniel Defoe
An Appeal to Honour and Justice
The Family Instructor
A Hymn to the Mob
Elizabeth Elstob – The Rudiments of Grammar for the English-Saxon Tongue, first given in English; with an apology for the study of northern antiquities, the first grammar of Old English
Thomas-Simon Gueullette – Les Mille et un quarts-d’heure, contes tartares (The Thousand and One Quarters of an Hour, Tartarian Tales)
Alain-René Lesage (anonymous) – L'Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane (Books 1–6)
Charles Montagu – The Works and Life of the Late Earl of Halifax
Jonathan Richardson – An Essay on the Theory of Painting
"Captain" Alexander Smith – The Secret History of the Lives of the Most Celebrated Beauties, Ladies of Quality, and Jilts
Richard Steele
The Englishman: Second Series (periodical)
Town-Talk (periodical)
Children
Isaac Watts – Divine Songs Attempted in Easy Language for the Use of Children
Drama
Christopher Bullock – A Woman's Revenge
Henry Carey – The Contrivances
Susanna Centlivre – The Gotham Election (not performed because of political content)
Chikamatsu Monzaemon – The Battles of Coxinga (国姓爺合戦, Kokusen'ya Kassen)
Charles Rivière Dufresny – La Coquette de village
John Gay – The What D'Ye Call It
Benjamin Griffin
Injured Virtue; or, The Virgin Martyr
Love in a Sack
Newburgh Hamilton – The Doating Lovers
Charles Johnson – The Country Lasses
Charles Knipe – A City Ramble
Charles Molloy – The Perplexed Couple
Nicholas Rowe -The Tragedy of Lady Jane Grey
Lewis Theobald – The Perfidious Brother (allegedly plagiarized, staged the following year)
John Vanbrugh – The Country House
Poetry
Charles Cotton – The Genuine Works of Charles Cotton
Alexander Pope
The Temple of Fame (based on Chaucer)
The Iliad of Homer vol. i.
Thomas Tickell – The First Book of Homer's Iliad
Isaac Watts
Divine Songs
A Guide to Prayer
Births
January 14 (baptised) – Frances Vane, Viscountess Vane (Lady Fanny), English memoirist (died 1788)
January 26 or February 26 – Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosophical writer (died 1771)
June 4 (c. 1715–1724) – Cao Xueqin, Chinese writer (died 1763)
September 30 – Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French philosophical writer (died 1780)
October 1 – Richard Jago, English poet (died 1781)
Probable year of birth
John Hawkesworth, English writer and editor (died 1773)
Alexander Russell, Scottish physician and naturalist (died 1768)
Deaths
January 7 – François Fénelon, French archbishop, theologian, poet and writer (born 1651)
February 25 – Pu Songling (蒲松齡), Qing Dynasty Chinese writer (born 1640)
March 8 – William Dampier, English explorer and writer (born 1651)
March 17 – Gilbert Burnet, Scottish theologian and historian (born 1643)
July 30 – Nahum Tate, Irish poet and hymnist (born 1652)
October 13 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and rationalist philosopher (born 1638)
Unknown date – Mary Monck, Irish poet (date of birth unknown)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footlights | Footlights | Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, commonly referred to simply as the Footlights, is an amateur theatrical club in Cambridge, England, founded in 1883 and run by the students of Cambridge University.
History
Footlights' inaugural performance took place in June 1883. For some months before the name "Footlights" was chosen, the group had performed to local audiences in the Cambridge area (once, with a cricket match included, at the "pauper lunatic asylum"). They wished to go wider than the University Amateur Dramatic Club (ADC), founded in 1855, with its membership drawn largely from Trinity College, and its theatre seating only 100. They were to perform every May Week at the Theatre Royal, Barnwell, Cambridge, the shows soon open to the public. A local paper commended the Club's appeal to the "general public, the many different classes of which life in Cambridge is made up".
The club grew in prominence in the 1960s as a hotbed of comedy and satire, and established a permanent home in the basement of the Cambridge Union. Having established a tradition of performing at the annual Edinburgh Fringe Festival, the club entered the mainstream when its members formed half of Beyond the Fringe, the hugely popular stage revue which toured Britain and America in 1960. The 1963 revue then followed in the footsteps of Beyond the Fringe, appearing in Edinburgh and London's West End, before travelling to New Zealand and the United States, where it made appearances on Broadway and The Ed Sullivan Show and received a full-page review in Time.
The first woman to be given full membership was Germaine Greer. She joined in October 1964 on the same day as Clive James and Russell Davies. There had been women before that time who had been allowed to join in, including Eleanor Bron in the late 1950s, but Greer was the first to be billed as a full member. Apparently Tim Brooke-Taylor was instrumental in having women admitted. She was part of the Footlights' 1965 revue My Girl Herbert.
Over the next decade, Footlights members came to dominate British comedy, creating and starring in shows such as Not Only... But Also, I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again, At Last the 1948 Show, That Was the Week That Was and The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy, forming comedy groups such as Monty Python, and The Goodies, and generally fuelling the satire boom. During the 1980s, Footlights reinforced its position at the heart of British comedy. The 1981 revue, featuring Emma Thompson, Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Tony Slattery, Penny Dwyer and Paul Shearer, won the inaugural Perrier Award at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival and spawned Fry and Laurie, the first in a long line of popular and successful double acts formed at the club including Armstrong and Miller and Mitchell and Webb. Their revue, The Cellar Tapes, at St Mary Street Hall was billed as "the annual revue: one of the strongest casts for several years, has already toured in southern England with great success."
Former members have gone on to win Oscars, BAFTAs and other awards and enjoy success in the entertainment industry.
Activities
During term, Footlights produce the regular "Smokers"—an informal mixture of sketches and stand-up—at the ADC Theatre. The club also produces the annual Pantomime (in collaboration with CUADC) and the Spring Revue, as well as staging the winning entry of the Footlights Harry Porter Prize; a competition in which any student at the university may enter a one-hour comic play. The Footlights International Tour Show takes place from June until October, and travels to Cambridge, London, Edinburgh and venues across the USA. For information about individual Footlights revues, see Cambridge Footlights Revue.
Former members
This is a list of former members of Footlights who achieved notability after graduating from Cambridge University.
Presidents
The elected leader of Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club is known as the president, who is assisted by a vice-president, treasurer, archivist and several other posts to form the committee.
Notable past presidents have included the following:
Peter Cook (of Beyond the Fringe, Pete and Dud and Not Only... But Also)
Tim Brooke-Taylor (of The Goodies, I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again and I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue)
Graeme Garden (of The Goodies, I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again and I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue)
Eric Idle (of Monty Python)
Clive James (Author of Cultural Amnesia and Unreliable Memoirs)
Clive Anderson (of Whose Line Is It Anyway?)
Jan Ravens (of Dead Ringers), the first woman president
Hugh Laurie (of Fry and Laurie, Jeeves and Wooster and House)
Douglas Adams of The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy
Tony Slattery (of Whose Line Is It Anyway?)
Neil Mullarkey (of Austin Powers)
Sue Perkins (of The Great British Bake Off and Mel and Sue)
David Mitchell (of That Mitchell and Webb Look and Peep Show)
Robert Thorogood (creator of BBC1's Death in Paradise)
Richard Ayoade (of Garth Marenghi's Darkplace and The IT Crowd)
Simon Bird (of The Inbetweeners and Friday Night Dinner)
See also
Cambridge University Light Entertainment Society
The Oxford Revue
References
External links
Official website
Official International Tour website
Past members and shows
Footlights Alumni Association
The Cambridge Footlights Review, 1982
1883 establishments in England
Amateur theatre companies in England
Clubs and societies of the University of Cambridge
Culture of the University of Cambridge
Lists of people associated with the University of Cambridge
Organizations established in 1883
Student theatre in the United Kingdom
Student comedy troupes
Theatre in Cambridge | [
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|
225651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1716%20in%20literature | 1716 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1716.
Events
April 5 – Anne Lefèvre, Madame Dacier, meets Antoine Houdar de la Motte in person.
May – Voltaire is exiled to Tulle as a result of his lampoon on the regent of France, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans
June 21 – Work begins on construction of the Codrington Library at All Souls College, Oxford, to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor; it will be completed in 1751.
unknown dates
Poet John Byrom returns to Britain to teach his own system of shorthand.
Edmund Curll renews his controversy with Matthew Prior by publishing more of the poet's works without permission.
The first printed version of the Epic of King Gesar, a Mongolian text, is published in Beijing.
New books
Prose
Richard Blackmore – Essays upon Several Subjects vol. i
Thomas Browne – Christian Morals
Francis Chute (as Mr. Gay) – The Petticoat (part of Edmund Curll's "phantom Gay" hoax)
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury – Several Letters... to a Young Man at the University
John Dennis – A True Character of Mr. Pope, and his Writings (in response to The Essay on Criticism)
Theophilus Evans – Drych y Prif Oesoedd (Mirror of the Early Centuries)
Amédée-François Frézier – Relation du voyage de la Mer du Sud, aux côtes du Chili, du Pérou et de Brésil
John Oldmixon – Memoirs of Ireland from the Restoration to the Present Times
Alexander Pope – The Iliad of Homer vol. ii
Humphrey Prideaux – The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations
Jean de la Roque – Voyage dans l’Arabie heureuse
Andreas Rüdiger – Göttliche Physik (Divine Physics)
George Sewell – A Vindication of the English Stage
Johann Georg Walch – Historia critica Latinae linguae
Zhang Yushu, Chen Tingjing et al. (ed.) – Kangxi Dictionary (康熙字典)
Drama
Joseph Addison – The Drummer
Barton Booth – The Death of Dido
Christopher Bullock
The Cobbler of Preston
Woman Is a Riddle
José de Cañizares
El dómine Lucas
Marta la Romarantina
El picarillo de España, señor de la Gran Canaria
Susanna Centlivre – The Cruel Gift
Mary Davys – The Northern Heiress
Benjamin Griffin – The Humours of Purgatory
Aaron Hill – The Fatal Vision
John Hughes – Apollo and Daphne
Charles Johnson – The Cobbler of Preston, a rival version to that by Bullock (political satire based on The Taming of the Shrew)
William Taverner – Everybody Mistaken
Lewis Theobald – The Perfidious Brother
Poetry
Jane Brereton – The Fifth Ode of the Fourth Book of Horace Imitated
John Gay – Trivia, or The Art of Walking the Streets of London
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu – Court Poems
Lewis Theobald – The Odyssey of Homer
See also 1716 in poetry
Births
January 20 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French writer and numismatist (died 1795)
March 6 – Pehr Kalm, Swedish/Finnish botanist, naturalist and travel writer (died 1779)
December 25 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German scholar and physician (died 1774)
December 26
Thomas Gray, English poet (died 1771)
Jean François de Saint-Lambert, French poet, philosopher and military officer (died 1803)
unknown date – Yosa Buson (与謝 蕪村), Japanese Edo period haiku poet and painter (died 1784)
Deaths
January 5
Jean Chardin, French travel writer (born 1643)
Hippolyte Hélyot, French historian (born 1660)
January 11
Pierre Jurieu, French Protestant writer (born 1637)
René Massuet, French editor (born 1666)
February 19 – Dorothe Engelbretsdotter, Norwegian poet (born 1634)
July 24 – Agnes Campbell, Scottish printer (born 1637)
September 15 – Andrew Fletcher, Scottish politician and writer (born 1653)
October 21 – Jakob Gronovius, Dutch scholar (born 1645)
November 14 – Gottfried Leibniz, German mathematician and philosopher (born 1646)
December 31 – William Wycherley, English dramatist (born 1641)
probable year - Patrick Abercromby, Scottish antiquary and translator (born 1656)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1717%20in%20literature | 1717 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1717.
Events
January – Three Hours After Marriage, a stage play by Alexander Pope, John Gay and John Arbuthnot, mocks the poet and critic John Dennis as "Sir Tremendous Longinus the Critic", Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea as "Clinkett the Poetess" and Colley Cibber as "Plotwell". The play encounters massive criticism and has a short run, which mortifies Pope. In February, Dennis publishes his critical Remarks upon Mr. Pope's Translation of Homer to which in May Thomas Parnell retorts with Homer's Battle of the Frogs and Mice. With the Remarks of Zolius. To which is prefixed, the Life of the said Zolius, after which Dennis and Pope are reconciled for a decade.
March 2 – Ballet master John Weaver revives the pantomime genre at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, in London with The Loves of Mars and Venus – a new Entertainment in Dancing after the manner of the Antient Pantomimes and Perseus and Andromeda.
March 27 – Actress Adrienne Lecouvreur is invited to join the Comédie-Française in Paris, performing first in the title rôle of Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's Electre.
April 22 – At Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre in London, the actor-manager John Rich introduces the character of Harlequin into pantomimes.
May 16 – Voltaire is sentenced to eleven months in the Bastille and banished from Paris for criticizing the Duc D'Orléans. While in prison he writes his first play, Oedipe ("Oedipus").
unknown dates
The last two volumes of Antoine Galland's Les mille et une nuits are published posthumously in Lyon of the first translation of One Thousand and One Nights into a European language, including the first translation of the story of Ali Baba.
The Irish poet Hugh MacCurtin (Aodh Buidhe Mac Cuirtin)'s A brief discourse in vindication of the antiquity of Ireland, out of many authentick Irish histories and chronicles (based on Geoffrey Keating's History of Ireland) is published in Dublin. The author is imprisoned in the city about this time.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison, John Dryden, Laurence Eusden, Sir Samuel Garth, John Gay, Alexander Pope, Nicholas Rowe and others – Ovid's Metamorphoses
Laurent d'Arvieux – Voyage dans la Palestine
Elias Ashmole – Memoirs
John Durant Breval – The Art of Dress
Susanna Centlivre – An Epistle to the King of Sweden
Anthony Collins – A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty
John Dennis – Remarks upon Mr. Pope's Translation of Homer
Benjamin Hoadly – The Nature of the Kingdom, or Church of Christ (part of the Bangorian Controversy)
Jane Holt – A Fairy Tale
William Law – The Bishop Bangor's Late Sermon (answer to Hoadly)
Matthew Prior – The Dove
John Quincy – Lexicon Physico-medicum
Richard Savage – The Convocation; or, A Battle of Pamphlets (satire on the Bangorian Controversy)
Thomas Tickell – An Epistle from a Lady in England
John Toland – The State-Anatomy of Great Britain
Joseph Trapp – The Real Nature of the Church or Kingdom of Christ (part of the Bangorian Controversy)
Drama
John Durant Breval (as Mr. Gay) – The Confederates (attack on John Gay, Alexander Pope, and the other members of the Scriblerus Club)
Susanna Centlivre – The Cruel Gift
Colley Cibber – The Non-Juror
Charles Johnson – The Sultaness
Delarivière Manley – Lucius, the First Christian King of Britain
Alexander Pope, John Gay and John Arbuthnot – Three Hours After Marriage
William Taverner
The Artful Husband
The Artful Wife
Pedro Calderón de la Barca – Autos sacramentales, alegóricos e historiales del insigne poeta español
Poetry
Wentworth Dillon, 4th Earl of Roscommon – Poems by the Earl of Roscomon [sic]
Elijah Fenton – Poems on Several Occasions
Thomas Parnell – Homer's Battle of the Frogs and Mice
Alexander Pope
The Iliad of Homer vol. iii
The Works of Mr. Alexander Pope (with new material)
Thomas Traherne – Hexameron (on creationism)
Leonard Welsted – Palaemon to Caelia, at Bath
Ned Ward
British Wonders
A Collection of Historical and State Poems
Eugenio Gerardo Lobo – Selva de las musas
Births
c. February 11 – William Williams Pantycelyn, Welsh religious writer and hymnist (died 1791)
February 14 – Richard Owen Cambridge, English poet (died 1802)
February 19 – David Garrick, English actor and playwright (died 1779)
September 24 – Horace Walpole, English man of letters (died 1797)
November 16 – Jean le Rond d'Alembert, French mathematician and encyclopedist (died 1783)
November 25 (November 14 OS) – Alexander Sumarokov, Russian dramatist (died 1777)
December 9 – Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German art historian (died 1768)
December 16 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet, writer and translator (died 1806)
Deaths
January 6 – Lambert Bos, Dutch scholar and critic (born 1670)
March 3 – Pierre Allix, French religious writer (born 1641)
June 9 – Jeanne Guyon, French writer and mystic (born 1648)
September – Casimir Oudin, French monk and bibliographer (born 1638)
Unknown dates
William Diaper, English poet (born 1685)
Ahmed ibn Nasir, Moroccan Sufi writer and teacher (born 1647)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1718%20in%20literature | 1718 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1718.
Events
November 1 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu writes the last of her Turkish Letters, addressed to Alexander Pope.
November 18 – Voltaire's first play, Oedipus, premières at the Comédie-Française in Paris. This is his first use of the pseudonym. He has been released from the Bastille this year, while Marguerite De Launay, Baronne Staal, begins a two-year sentence.
The Freethinker (newspaper) is founded by Ambrose Philips and Hugh Boulter.
Laurence Eusden becomes Poet Laureate of England.
Ludvig Holberg becomes a professor at the University of Copenhagen.
New books
Prose
Nicholas Amhurst – Protestant Popery; or, The Convocation (part of the Bangorian Controversy)
Daniel Defoe (attr.) – A Vindication of the Press
Charles Gildon – The Complete Art of Poetry
Mary Hearne – The Lover's Week
Simon Ockley – The History of the Saracens, volume 2
Ambrose Philips – The Free-Thinker (periodical)
Allan Ramsay -Christ's Kirk on the Green (revised version)
John Ray – Philosophical Letters
John Strype – The Life and Acts of John Witgift
John Toland – Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile and Mahometan Christianity
John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester – Remains of the Earl of Rochester
Drama
Charles Beckingham – Scipio Africanus
John Durant Breval – The Play is the Plot
Christopher Bullock – The Traitor
Susanna Centlivre – A Bold Stroke for a Wife
Charles Molloy – The Coquet
Richard Savage – Love in a Veil
Elkanah Settle and Lewis Theobald – The Lady's Triumph
Voltaire – Œdipe
Poetry
Joseph Addison
Poems on Several Occasions
The Resurrection
Richardson Pack – Miscellanies in Verse and Prose
Alexander Pope – The Iliad of Homer iv
Births
February 18
Søren Abildgaard, Danish naturalist, author and artist (died 1791)
Robert Henry, Scottish historian (died 1790)
April 7 – Hugh Blair, Scottish rhetorician (died 1800)
May 16 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian philosopher (died 1799)
July 18 – Saverio Bettinelli, Italian Jesuit writer (died 1808)
Deaths
April 27 – Jacques Bernard, French theologian (born 1658)
May 16 – Jonas Danilssønn Ramus, Norwegian historian (born 1649)
May 22 – Gaspard Abeille, French lyric and tragic poet (born 1648)
July 28 – Étienne Baluze, French scholar (born 1630)
October 9 – Richard Cumberland, English philosopher and bishop (born 1631)
December 6 – Nicholas Rowe, English dramatist (born 1674)
December 9 – Vincenzo Coronelli Italian encyclopedist (born 1674)
See also
Bangorian Controversy
1718 in poetry
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1719%20in%20literature | 1719 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1719.
Events
March 14 – Richard Steele launches The Plebeian, in opposition to government policy on peerages.
April 23–25 – Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe is published in London (by W. Taylor) as his first work of fiction, written aged about 60. The initial title is The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who lived Eight and Twenty Years, all alone in an un-inhabited Island on the Coast of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque; Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself. With An Account how he was at last as strangely deliver'd by Pyrates. Written by Himself. Defoe's anonymity is broken in September by Charles Gildon in The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Mr D— De D—, of London, Hosier. By the end of the year the book has run through four editions. Defoe's sequel, The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, competes with several imitators.
October 30 – Defoe launches a periodical, The Manufacturer.
unknown dates
The widow of the dramatist Nicholas Rowe receives a pension from King George I of Great Britain for her husband's translation of Lucan's Pharsalia, published complete, posthumously, in this year.
New books
Prose
Anonymous – Zulima
Joseph Addison
Maxims, Observations, and Reflections
Notes upon the Twelve Books of Paradise Lost
The Old Whig I
The Old Whig II
John Durant Breval – Ovid in Masquerade ("by Mr. Joseph Gay" – part of Curll's continuing battle with John Gay)
Daniel Defoe
Robinson Crusoe
The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe
The King of Pirates
Jean-Baptiste Dubos – Réflexions critiques sur la poésie et sur la peinture
Charles Gildon – The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Mr. D—DeF--, of London, Hosier (satire on Defoe)
Eliza Haywood (anonymous) – Love in Excess; Or, The Fatal Enquiry vol. 1
Benjamin Hoadly – The Common Rights of Subjects, Defended
Giles Jacob – The Poetical Register (biographies of playwrights, by themselves)
Peter Kolbe – Caput Bonae Spei Hodiernum
Nicholas Rowe – Lucan's Pharsalia
Isaac Watts – The Psalms of David (transl.)
Georg von Welling – Opus magotheosophicum et cabbalisticum
Edward Young – A Letter to Mr. Tickell (on Addison's death)
Drama
Anonymous – Heroick Friendship (attributed to Thomas Otway)
Anonymous – The Younger Brother
Charles Beckingham – Henry IV of France
Thomas Betterton – The Bond-Man
Colley Cibber – Ximena (published)
John Dennis – The Invader of His Country
Charles Johnson – The Masquerade
Thomas Killigrew – Chit Chat
John Leigh – Kensington Gardens
Charles Shadwell – Rotherick O'Connor, King of Connaught
George Sewell – Sir Walter Raleigh
Thomas Southerne – The Spartan Dame
William Taverner – 'Tis Well if it Takes
Francis Tolson – The Earl of Warwick: Or, British Exile. A Tragedy.
Edward Young – Busiris, King of Egypt
Poetry
Matthew Prior – Poems on Several Occasions
Allan Ramsay – Content
See also 1719 in poetry
Births
January 17 – Johann Elias Schlegel, German critic and dramatic poet (died 1749)
March 29 – John Hawkins, English writer and biographer (died 1789)
May 30 – Roger Newdigate, English politician, founder of the Newdigate Prize for poetry (died 1806)
July 4 – Michel-Jean Sedaine, French dramatist (died 1797)
July 23 – Frances Boscawen, English diarist and bluestocking (died 1805)
October 17 – Jacques Cazotte, French fantasy writer (died 1792)
November 23 – Spranger Barry, Irish-born actor (died 1777)
Deaths
January 18 – Samuel Garth, English poet and physician (born 1661)
April 15 – Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, consort and belle of the French court (born 1635)
June 17 – Joseph Addison, English journalist and satirist (born 1672)
July 17 – Elinor James, English pamphleteer (born 1644)
September 7 – John Harris, English writer (born c. 1666)
November 19 – Charles-Claude Genest, French poet and dramatist (born 1639)
November 26 – John Hudson, English classicist and librarian (born 1662)
December 2 – Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian (born 1634)
December 31 – John Flamsteed, English Astronomer Royal (born 1646)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1720%20in%20literature | 1720 in literature | This article is a summary of the major literary events and publications of 1720.
Events
September–October – The "South Sea Bubble", i. e. the collapse of the South Sea Company in England, affects the fortunes of many writers, including John Gay. It features in several works of literature. There are suspicions of complicity by Robert Walpole's government.
December 29 – The Haymarket Theatre in London opens with a performance of La Fille à la Morte, ou le Badeaut de Paris.
unknown date – Jonathan Swift begins major composition work on Gulliver's Travels in Ireland.
New books
Prose
Thomas Boston – Human Nature in its Fourfold State
Jane Brereton – An expostulatory Epistle to Sir Richard Steele upon the Death of Mr. Addison
Thomas Brown – The Remains of Mr. Thomas Brown
Josiah Burchett – A Complete History of the Most Remarkable Transactions at Sea
William Rufus Chetwood – The Voyages, Dangerous Adventures, and Miraculous Escapes of Capt. Richard Falconer
Samuel Croxall – The Fair Circassian
Daniel Defoe
Captain Singleton
Memoirs of a Cavalier
Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: With his Vision of the Angelick World
Charles Gildon – All for the Better (fiction)
Thomas Hearne – A Collection of Curious Discourses
Aaron Hill – The Creation
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon – The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in Ireland
Hildebrand Jacob – The Curious Maid
Madame de La Fayette – Histoire d'Henriette d'Angleterre
Delarivière Manley – The Power of Love (novels)
Alexander Pennecuik – Streams From Hellicon
Alexander Pope – The Iliad of Homer v, vi
Richard Rawlinson – The English Topographer
Martha Sansom – The Epistles of Clio and Strephon
George Sewell – A New Collection of Original Poems
Richard Steele
The Crisis of Property
A Nation a Family
Jonathan Swift – A Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manufacture
William Temple – The Works of Sir William Temple
Simon Tyssot de Patot – La Vie, les Aventures et le Voyage de Groenland du Révérend Père Cordelier Pierre de Mésange
Ned Ward – The Delights of the Bottle
Drama
Matthew Concanen – Wexford Wells
Benjamin Griffin – Whig and Tory
John Gay – Dione
John Hughes – The Siege of Damascus
John Leigh – Hob's Wedding
Pierre de Marivaux
L'Amour et la vérité
Arlequin poli par l'amour
Charles Molloy – The Half-Pay Officers
John Mottley – The Imperial Captives
Charles Shadwell – Irish Hospitality
Poetry
John Gay – Poems on Several Occasions
A New Miscellany of Original Poems (anthology)
Matthew Prior – The Conversation
Allan Ramsay
A Poem on the South-Sea
Poems
Births
January 8 – James Merrick, English poet and scholar (died 1769)
January 13 – Richard Hurd, English writer and bishop (died 1808)
January 27 (baptized) – Samuel Foote, English actor and playwright (died 1777)
July 18 – Gilbert White, English naturalist (died 1793)
October 2 – Elizabeth Montagu, English scholar and bluestocking (died 1800)
October 17 – Jacques Cazotte, French romance writer (died 1792)
October 19 – John Woolman, American Quaker diarist and preacher (died 1772)
November 28 – Madeleine de Puisieux, French philosopher and feminist writer (died 1798)
December 13 – Carlo Gozzi, Italian playwright (died 1806)
Deaths
February 17 – John Hughes, English poet, editor and translator (born C. 1678)
April 21 – Antoine Hamilton Irish writer in French (born 1646)
June 27 – Guillaume Amfrye de Chaulieu, French poet and wit (born 1639)
August 5 – Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea, English poet (born 1661)
August 9 – Simon Ockley, English orientalist (born 1678)
August 17 – Anne Dacier (Madame Dacier), French scholar and translator (born c. 1654)
September 1 – Eusèbe Renaudot, French theologian and orientalist (born 1646)
September 9 – Philippe de Dangeau, French author and army officer (born 1638)
unknown date – Shalom Shabazi, Jewish Yemeni rabbi and poet (born 1619)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1721%20in%20literature | 1721 in literature | This article is a summary of the major literary events and publications of 1721.
Events
February – Joseph A. Hall's book, A Sober Reply to Mr. Higgs' Merry Arguments from the Light of Nature for the Tritheistic Doctrine of the Trinity..., published in the previous year, is burned by order of the British House of Lords for ridiculing Christian doctrine.
unknown dates
John Cleland becomes a pupil at Westminster School; at first an exemplary student, he would eventually be expelled for an unknown offence.
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduces to London the Ottoman Turkish method of inoculation against smallpox – variolation. The Princess of Wales is persuaded to test the treatment and it becomes fashionable.
Thomas Parnell's A Night-Piece on Death is published, inaugurating the "Graveyard poets" movement. Robert Blair's "The Grave", published in the same year, is sometimes given credit for being the first work in that genre.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – The Works of Joseph Addison
Penelope Aubin
The Strange Adventures of the Count de Vinevil and His Family
The Life of Madam de Beaumont
Nathan Bailey – An Universal Etymological English Dictionary
George Berkeley – An Essay Towards Preventing the Ruine of Great Britain
Richard Blackmore – A New Version of the Psalms of David
Shaftesbury – Letters from the Late Earl of Shaftesbury, to Robert Molesworth
Charles Gildon – The Laws of Poetry
Eliza Haywood – Letters from a Lady of Quality to a Chevalier (translation)
Montesquieu – Lettres persanes (Persian Letters)
Alexander Pennecuik – An Ancient Prophecy Concerning Stock-Jobbing, and the Conduct of the Directors of the South-Sea-Company
Matthew Prior – Colin's Mistakes
John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham (died 1721) – The Works of the most noble John Sheffield, late Duke of Buckingham, published by His Grace in his life time
John Strype – Ecclesiastical Memorials
Emanuel Swedenborg – Prodromus principiorum rerum naturalium
Jonathan Swift
The Bubble
A Letter to a Young Gentleman, Lately Enter'd into Holy Orders
Thomas Tickell – Kensington Garden
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Pronósticos
Robert Wodrow – The History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland
Drama
Colley Cibber – The Refusal
Eliza Haywood – The Fair Captive
Aaron Hill – Fatal Extravagance
John Mottley – Antiochus
Thomas Odell – The Chimera
Edward Young – The Revenge
Poetry
Births
March 19 – Tobias Smollett, Scottish physician and novelist (died 1771)
August 21 – Lucretia Wilhelmina van Merken, Dutch poet and playwright (died 1789)
November 9 – Mark Akenside, English poet (died 1770)
November 16 – Johann Silberschlag, German theologian (died 1791)
December 25 – William Collins, English poet (died 1759)
December 27 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch moral philosopher (died 1790)
unknown date – Robert Potter, English translator, poet and cleric (died 1804)
Deaths
January 3 – Juan Núñez de la Peña, Spanish historian (born 1641)
January 26 – Pierre Daniel Huet, French scholar and bishop (born 1630)
June 18 – Charlwood Lawton, English Jacobite author (born 1660)
August 13 – Jacques Lelong, French bibliographer (born 1665)
September 18 – Matthew Prior, English poet and diplomat (born 1664)
October 14 – Jean Palaprat, French dramatist (born 1650)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1722%20in%20literature | 1722 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1722.
Events
January 27 – Daniel Defoe's novel Moll Flanders is published anonymously in London under its full title: The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders, &c. Who was Born in Newgate, and during a Life of continu'd Variety for Threescore Years, besides her Childhood, was Twelve Year a Whore, five times a Wife (whereof once to her own Brother), Twelve Year a Thief, Eight Year a Transported Felon in Virginia, at last grew Rich, liv'd Honest, and died a Penitent. Written from her own Memorandums.
March – Defoe's A Journal of the Plague Year is published under the initials H. F., purporting to be an eyewitness account of the Great Plague of London in 1665.
August 24 – Francis Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, is arrested in his deanery and confined in the Tower of London, accused of leading the Jacobite "Atterbury Plot" in support of the pretender to the British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart of the House of Stuart.
September–October – Voltaire and Jean-Baptiste Rousseau meet and quarrel at Brussels.
September 23 – Lille Grønnegade Theatre opens in Copenhagen, the first Danish-language theater open to the public. The company consists of immigrant French actors who previously worked in the Danish royal theatre, with Ludvig Holberg as house dramatist. The comedies he writes for them this year include Jean de France.
October 11 – Ten-year-old Jean-Jacques Rousseau is abandoned by his father, Isaac, who flees Geneva to avoid prosecution.
November 7 – Sir Richard Steele's "sentimental comedy" The Conscious Lovers (loosely based on Terence) opens at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London with an initial run of eighteen consecutive nights.
December – Defoe's picaresque novel Colonel Jack, sharing many plot elements with Moll Flanders, is published.
Construction of a new building for the Hof-Bibliothek ("Imperial Library") in Vienna, the modern-day Austrian National Library, begins.
Edmund Bolton's Hypercritica is published, a century after it was written.
Sharafuddin Ali Yazdi's Zafar Nama ("History of Timur", 1425) is published in a French translation by François Pétis de la Croix (d. 1713).
William Wood (ironmaster) commences the minting (in London) of copper halfpence and farthings under patent for circulation in Ireland which will be the subject of the first of Jonathan Swift's Drapier's Letters.
New books
Prose
Penelope Aubin (fiction)
The Life and Amorous Adventures of Lucinda
The Noble Slaves
Phanuel Bacon – The Kite
Daniel Bellamy – The Cambro-Britannic Engineer
Thomas Cooke – Marlborough (written after his death)
Samuel Croxall – Fables of Aesop and Others, newly done into English with an Application to each Fable
Daniel Defoe
Moll Flanders
A Journal of the Plague Year
Colonel Jack
Due Preparations for the Plague
Religious Courtship
John Dennis – A Defence of Sir Fopling Flutter
Johann Georg Gichtel – Theosophia Practica
William Hamilton – The Life and Heroick Actions of the Renoun'd Sir William Wallace
Eliza Haywood – The British Recluse (fiction)
Hildebrand Jacob – Bedlam
Allan Ramsay – Fables and Tales
Jean de la Roque – Voyage en Syrie et au mont Liban
Sir Charles Sedley – Works
William Sewel – The History of the Rise, Increase, and Progress of the Christian People Called Quakers
Jonathan Swift – A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General (satire on Marlborough, written before his death)
Matthew Tindal – A Defence of Our Present Happy Establishment
Isaac Watts – Death and Heaven
William Wollaston – The Religion of Nature Delineated
Antonio de Zamora – Comedias nuevas
Children
Samuel Croxall – Fables of Aesop and Others
Drama
Henry Carey – Hanging and Marriage
Susanna Centlivre – The Artifice
Ludvig Holberg
Jean de France eller Hans Frandsen
Jeppe paa Bjerget eller den forvandlede Bonde (Jeppe of the Hill, or The Transformed Peasant)
Mester Gert Westphaler
Den Politiske Kandestøber (The Political Tinker)
Den Vægelsindede (The Weathervane)
Pierre de Marivaux – La Surprise de l'amour
Ambrose Philips – The Briton
William Phillips – Hibernia Freed
Archibald Pitcairne – The Assembly, or Scotch Reformation
Richard Steele – The Conscious Lovers
James Sterling – The Rival Generals
John Sturmy –
The Compromise
Love and Duty
John Williams – Richmond Wells
Poetry
Thomas Parnell – Poems on Several Occasions
Elizabeth Thomas – Miscellany Poems on Several Subjects
Births
February 24 – John Burgoyne, English dramatist, army officer and politician (died 1792)
February 26 – Mary Leapor, English working-class poet (died 1746)
April – Joseph Warton, English poet and critic (died 1800)
April 11 – Christopher Smart, English poet (died 1771)
September 22 – John Home, Scottish dramatist (died 1808)
October 4 – Dominic Schram or Schramm, German theologian (died 1797)
Unknown dates
John Brown of Haddington, Scottish theologian (died 1787)
Waris Shah, Punjabi Muslim poet (died 1798)
Deaths
January 23 – Henri de Boulainvilliers, French historian (born 1658)
March 11 – John Toland, Irish philosopher (born 1670)
August – Robert Sibbald, Scottish antiquary (born 1641)
September 11 – Johann Michael Heineccius, German theologian (born 1674)
September 18 – André Dacier, French scholar (born 1651)
December 26 – Jan František Beckovský, Czech historian and translator (born 1658)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1723%20in%20literature | 1723 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1723.
Events
March – Voltaire makes an agreement with Abraham Viret to allow his work to be printed in Rouen.
July – A new edition of Bernard Mandeville's The Fable of the Bees is presented as a public nuisance by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, England, to the Court of King's Bench. Mandeville escapes prosecution.
November – After attending a party at the home of the marquis des Maisons, Voltaire contracts smallpox.
unknown date – The book collection of Samuel Pepys (died 1703), including his Diary, is transferred to the Pepys Library at his alma mater, Magdalene College, Cambridge, in accordance with his will.
New books
Fiction
Penelope Aubin – The Life of Charlotta Du Pont, an English lady; taken from her own memoirs
Jane Barker – A Patch-Work Screen for the Ladies
Thomas-Simon Gueullette – Les Aventures merveilleuses du mandarin Fum-Hoam, contes chinois (The Transmigrations of the Mandarin Fum-Hoam (Chinese Tales))
Eliza Haywood – Idalia: Or, the Unfortunate Mistress. A Novel. Written by Mrs. Eliza Haywood
Anton Josef Kirchweger – Aurea Catena Homeri
Margrethe Lasson – Den beklædte Sandhed (first novel in Danish)
John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham (died 1721) – The Works of John Sheffield, Earl of Mulgrave, Marquis of Normanby, and Duke of Buckingham
Drama
Elijah Fenton – Mariamne
Francis Hawling – The Impertinent Lovers
Eliza Haywood – A Wife to be Let
Ludvig Holberg – Erasmus Montanus
Hildebrand Jacob – The Fatal Constancy
Charles Johnson – Love in a Forest (adapted from As You Like It)
Pierre de Marivaux – La Double Inconstance
Ambrose Philips – Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester
Jane Robe – The Fatal Legacy
Richard Savage – Sir Thomas Overbury
Poetry
Sir Richard Blackmore – Alfred: an epick poem
Heyat Mahmud – Jangnama; Bengali
David Mallet – William and Margaret
William Meston – Knight of the Kirk
Ambrose Philips – Ode on the Death of William, Earl of Cowper
Matthew Prior
Down-Hall
The Turtle and the Sparrow
Allan Ramsay – The Tea-Table Miscellany, Vol. 1
Voltaire – La Henriade
Ned Ward – Nuptial Dialogues and Debates, 3rd ed.
Non-fiction
James Anderson – The Constitutions of the Free-Masons
Henry Baker – An Invocation of Health: a poem
Offspring Blackall, Bishop of Exeter (posthumously) – Collected Works
Pietro Giannone – Storia civile del regno di Napoli (History of the Kingdom of Naples)
Bernard de Mandeville – A Search into the Nature of Society
Thomas Dempster (posthumous) – De Etruria regali libri VII (printed in sans-serif)
Thomas Gordon and John Trenchard – Cato's Letters (essays)
John Nott – The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary or, the Accomplish'd Housewives Companion
Births
January 21 (or June 21) – Baron d'Holbach, German-born French philosopher and encyclopedist (died 1789)
February 23 – Richard Price, Welsh-born philosopher (died 1791)
February 24 – John Burgoyne, English soldier and dramatist (died 1792)
June 5 (baptized) – Adam Smith, Scottish economist (died 1790)
June 20 – Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher and historian (died 1816)
July 11 – Jean-François Marmontel, French novelist and dramatist (died 1799)
September 30 – William Hutton, English local historian and poet (died 1815)
November 8 – John Byron, English vice-admiral and memoirist (died 1786)
November 30 – William Livingston, American political writer and politician (died 1790)
December 26 – Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, German-born French philosopher and encyclopedist (died 1807)
Deaths
February 26 – Thomas d'Urfey, English dramatist (born 1653)
March 13 – René Auguste Constantin de Renneville, French Protestant poet and historian (born 1650)
March 15 – Johann Christian Günther, German poet (born 1695)
May 11 – Jean Galbert de Campistron, French dramatist (born 1656)
June 8 – Isaac Chayyim Cantarini, Italian poet, physician and preacher (born 1644)
July 28 – Mariana Alcoforado, Portuguese nun (born 1640)
August 21 – Dimitrie Cantemir, Romanian author (born 1673)
September 23 – Jacques Basnage, French Protestant poet, linguist and preacher (born 1653)
December 1 – Susanna Centlivre (Susanna Carroll), English dramatist (born c. 1667–70)
December 17 – John Trenchard, English politician and writer (born 1662)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1724%20in%20literature | 1724 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1724.
Events
January – Andrew Michael Ramsay goes to Rome to tutor the two sons of James Francis Edward Stuart, Jacobite pretender to the British throne.
August – Thomas Longman establishes the Longman publishing house in London.
November 16 – An "autobiographical" Narrative of the life of notorious criminal Jack Sheppard, said to be by Daniel Defoe, goes on sale at Sheppard's execution at Tyburn.
New books
Prose
Anonymous (attributed to Daniel Defoe) – A Narrative of All the Robberies, Escapes, &c. of John Sheppard
Gilbert Burnet (died 1715) – Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time, Vol. I
Samuel Clarke – Sermons of Samuel Clarke
Anthony Collins – Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion with An Apology for Free Debate and Liberty of Writing
Mary Davys – The Reform'd Coquet (fiction)
Daniel Defoe
Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress
A New Voyage Round the World
A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain
John Dennis – Vice and Luxury Publick Mischiefs (on Mandeville)
Richard Fiddes
A General Treatise of Morality (on Mandeville)
The Life of Cardinal Wolsey
Eliza Haywood
La Belle Assemblé
The Fatal Secret (fiction)
Lasselia
The Masqueraders
Thomas Hearne, ed. – Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (died 1674) – An Appendix to the History of the Grand Rebellion
Captain Charles Johnson (attributed to Daniel Defoe or Nathaniel Mist) – A General History of the Pyrates
William Law – Remarks Upon a Late Book (against Mandeville)
John Oldmixon – The Critical History of England, Ecclesiastical and Civil
Paul de Rapin – L'Histoire d'Angleterre
Jonathan Swift
A Letter to the Shop-keepers... of Ireland (as M. B. Drapier)
A Letter to Mr. Harding the Printer (as Drapier)
Some Observations Upon a Paper Relating to Wood's Half-pence (as Drapier)
A Letter to the Whole People of Ireland (Drapier)
A Letter to the Right Honourable the Lord Viscount Molesworth (last of the Drapier letters)
Seasonable Advice
Isaac Watts – Logic, or The Right Use of Reason in the Enquiry After Truth With a Variety of Rules to Guard Against Error in the Affairs of Religion and Human Life, as well as in the Sciences
Drama
Colley Cibber – Caesar in Egypt
John Gay – The Captives
Ludvig Holberg – Henrich og Pernille (Henrik and Pernille)
Robert Hurst – The Roman Maid
George Jeffreys – Edwin
Pierre de Marivaux – La Fausse Suivante
William Phillips – Belisarius
John Rich – The Necromancer; or, History of Dr. Faustus
Poetry
Matthew Concanen – Miscellaneous Poems
Eliza Haywood – Poems on Several Occasions
Allan Ramsay
The Ever Green: Being a collection of Scots Poems
Health
Elizabeth Tollet – Poems on Several Occasions
Voltaire – La Henriade
Leonard Welsted – Epistles, Odes, &c.
See also 1724 in poetry
Births
January 12 – Frances Brooke, English novelist and dramatist (died 1789)
March 20 – Duncan Ban MacIntyre, Scottish Gaelic poet (died 1812)
April 22 – Immanuel Kant German philosopher (died 1804)
June 4 – William Gilpin, English writer, painter and originator of "picturesque" (died 1804)
July 2 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, German poet (died 1803)
July 26 – Ji Yun (纪昀), Chinese poet and scholar (died 1805)
October 31 – Christopher Anstey, English writer and poet (died 1805)
December 13 – Franz Aepinus, German natural philosopher (died 1802)
Unknown dates
Samuel Derrick, Irish writer (died 1769)
Frances Sheridan (Frances Chamberlaine), Irish novelist and dramatist (died 1766)
Deaths
January 1 – Charles Gildon, English critic and dramatist (born c. 1665)
February 5 – Mary Cowper, English diarist (born 1685)
February 12 – Elkanah Settle, English poet and dramatist (born 1648)
July 11 – Delarivier Manley, writer, playwright and pamphleteer (born c. 1663)
October 6 – Charles Rivière Dufresny, French dramatist (born 1648)
October 29 – William Wollaston, English philosophical writer (born 1659)
November 29 – Laurence Braddon, English writer and politician (year of birth not known)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1725%20in%20literature | 1725 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1725.
Events
June 12 – Émilie de Breteuil marries Marquis Florent-Claude du Chastellet.
December – The library of Charles Killigrew, who was the Master of the Revels for 48 years, is sold a few months after his death.
In China, 66 copies of a 5,020-volume encyclopedia, the Gujin Tushu Jicheng (Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times) are printed, which requires the crafting of 250,000 movable-type characters cast in bronze.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – Miscellanies
The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage (first printed edition)
Mary Davys – The Works of Mrs. Davys
Daniel Defoe – The Complete English Tradesman
George Bubb Dodington – An Epistle to Sir Robert Walpole
John Dyer – A New Miscellany
Laurence Echard – The History of the Revelation
Benjamin Franklin – A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain
Johann Joseph Fux – Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Mount Parnassus, in Latin)
Zachary Grey – A Defence of Our Antient and Modern Historians (against John Oldmixon)
Eliza Haywood
Bath-Intrigues
Fantomina
Memoirs of a Certain Island Adjacent to the Kingdom of Utopia
Secret Histories, Novels and Poems
Francis Hutcheson – An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (on aesthetics)
John Oldmixon – A Review of Dr. Zachary Grey's Defence
Richardson Pack – A New Collection of Miscellanies
Christopher Pitt – Vida's Art of Poetry (translation of Marco Girolamo Vida)
Richard Savage – The Authors of the Town
William Shakespeare – The Works of Shakespear (edited by Pope)
Jonathan Swift – Fraud Detected; or, The Hibernian Patriot
Giambattista Vico – New Science
Isaac Watts – Logick
George Whitehead – The Christian Progress of George Whitehead
Edward Young – The Universal Passion: Satire
Benito Jerónimo Feijoo – Aprobación apologetica del scepticismo médico del doctor Martín Martínez
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Correo del otro mundo al gran Piscator de Salamanca
Drama
Colley Cibber – Caesar in Aegypt
Augustin Nadal – Mariamne
Gabriel Odingsells –
The Bath Unmasked
The Capricious Lovers
Thomas Sheridan – The Philoctetes of Sophocles
Poetry
Henry Baker – Original Poems
Henry Carey – Namby Pamby (satire on Ambrose Philips)
Thomas Cooke – The Battle of the Poets (satire on Alexander Pope)
John Glanvill – Poems
Alexander Pope – The Odyssey of Homer vols. i–iii
Allan Ramsay – The Gentle Shepherd
Births
February 5 – Anna Maria Rückerschöld, Swedish author (died 1805)
February 12 – William Mason, English poet and gardener (died 1797)
March 22 – Ignacy Nagurczewski, Polish writer and translator (died 1811)
April 2 – Giacomo Casanova, Italian autobiographer and adventurer (died 1798)
July 24 – John Newton, English hymnist, naval officer and cleric (died 1807)
December 5 – Susanna Duncombe, English poet and artist (died 1812)
Deaths
January 6 – Chikamatsu Monzaemon (近松 門左衛門), Japanese dramatist (born 1653)
January 26 – Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, Georgian prince and writer (born 1658)
February 8 – John Bellers, English writer and Quaker (born 1654)
March 2 – Johan Peringskiöld, Swedish antiquary and translator (born 1689)
April 25 – Paul de Rapin, French historian (born 1661)
June 29 – Arai Hakuseki, Japanese scholar-bureaucrat and writer (born 1657)
September 5 – Christian Wernicke, German epigrammist (born 1661)
December 7 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French dramatist and actor (born 1661)
Unknown date – Richard Fiddes, English historian and cleric (born 1671)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1726%20in%20literature | 1726 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1726.
Events
February – Lavinia Fenton makes her stage debut as Monimia in Thomas Otway's The Orphan at the Haymarket Theatre in London.
April 5 – Publication takes place in London of Lewis Theobald's Shakespeare Restored, or A Specimen of the Many Errors As Well Committed as Unamended by Mr Pope in his Late Edition of this Poet; Designed Not only to correct the said Edition, but to restore the True Reading of Shakespeare in all the Editions ever yet published.
May 10 – Voltaire leaves France for a three-year stay in Britain.
May 25 – Britain's first circulating library is opened in Edinburgh by the poet and bookseller Allan Ramsay.
July – Françoise-Louise de Warens converts to Catholicism to receive a church pension, and annuls her marriage.
October 28 – Jonathan Swift's satirical novel Gulliver's Travels is published in London, anonymously in two volumes, as Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships. It sells out in a week.
unknown dates
The Teatro Valle opens in Rome.
The Gujin Tushu Jicheng (古今圖書集成), an immense Chinese encyclopedia, is printed using copper-based movable type printing.
New books
Fiction
Penelope Aubin – The Life and Adventures of the Lady Lucy (novel)
Jane Barker – The Lining of the Patch-Work Screen (sequel to 1723's A Patch-Work Screen)
William Rufus Chetwood – The Voyages and Adventures of Captain Robert Boyle (fiction, sometimes attributed to Daniel Defoe)
Eliza Haywood
The City Jilt
The Mercenary Lover
Jonathan Swift
Gulliver's Travels
Cadenus and Vanessa
Lewis Theobald – Shakespeare Restored
José Francisco de Isla – Papeles critico-apologéticos
Diego de Torres Villarroel – El ermitaño y Torres
Martín Sarmiento – Reflexiones sobre el Diccionario de la lengua castellana que compuso la Real Academia en el año de 1726
Drama
Venkata Ajapura – Mairavana Kalaga
Aaron Hill – The Fatal Extravagance (printed, staged in 1721)
Charles Johnson – The Female Fortune Teller
Thomas Southerne – Money the Mistress
Leonard Welsted – The Dissembled Wanton
Richard West – Hecuba
Poetry
Alexander Pope – The Odyssey of Homer
Richard Savage – Miscellaneous Poems
William Somervile – Occasional Poems
Jonathan Swift (anonymously) – Cadenus and Vanessa (written 1713)
James Thomson – Winter (part of The Four Seasons)
Non-fiction
John Balguy – A letter to a Deist concerning the Beauty and Excellency of Moral Virtue, and the Support and Improvement which it receives from the Christian Religion
Joseph Butler – Fifteen Sermons
Anthony Collins – The Scheme of Literal Prophecy
Corporate authorship – The Craftsman (periodical associated with Henry St. John)
Daniel Defoe
The Political History of the Devil
A System of Magick
John Dennis – The Stage Defended (reply to Law, below)
William Law
The Absolute Unlawfulness of the Stage
A Practical Treatise upon Christian Perfection
Samuel Penhallow – History of the Wars of New-England with the Eastern Indians
William Penn
Fruits of a Father's Love
A Collection of the Works of William Penn
(with William Pulteney) – The Discovery
George Shelvocke – A Voyage Round the World by Way of the Great South Sea
Joseph Spence – An Essay on Pope's Odyssey
Births
March 11 – Louise d'Épinay, French writer (died 1783)
April 7 – Charles Burney, English historian of music and composer (died 1814)
June 14 – Thomas Pennant, Welsh naturalist and writer (died 1798)
September 2 – John Howard, English philanthropist and writer (died 1790)
September 25 – Angelo Maria Bandini, Italian author and librarian (died 1800)
September 26 – John H. D. Anderson, Scottish natural philosopher (died 1796)
Deaths
March 24 – Daniel Whitby, English theologian (born 1638)
March 26 – Sir John Vanbrugh, English dramatist and architect (born 1664)
April 5 – Ludwig Babenstuber, German theologian and philosopher (born 1660)
April 26 – Jeremy Collier, English theologian and critic (born 1650)
May 20 – Nicholas Brady, Irish poet (born 1659)
July 5 – Domenico Viva, Italian theologian (born 1648)
July 6 – Humfrey Wanley, English librarian and palaeographer (born 1672)
August 12 – Charles Shadwell, English dramatist (year of birth unknown)
December 2 – Samuel Penhallow, English historian (born 1665)
December 11 – Jacques Bouillart, French Benedictine historian (born 1669)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1727%20in%20literature | 1727 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1727.
Events
November 22 – Richard Savage is arrested for the murder of James Sinclair in a drunken quarrel the previous night. He escapes the death penalty through the intercession of Frances, Countess of Hertford (wife of the man later known as Algernon Seymour, 7th Duke of Somerset), and others.
December 13 – Lewis Theobald's Double Falshood; or, The Distrest Lovers, claimed as an adaptation of the otherwise lost Cardenio by Shakespeare and Fletcher, is acted at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London. It will be printed the following year.
unknown date – Publisher Edmund Curll is convicted under English law for publishing an English translation of Venus in the Cloister (in 1724) under the common law offence of disturbing the peace, setting a legal precedent for prosecutions for obscenity.
New books
Prose
Anonymous (attributed to Eliza Haywood) – Memoirs of the Court of Liliput
Henry Baker – The Universe, a Poem intended to restrain the Pride of Man
Elizabeth Boyd (as Louisa) – Variety
Cadwallader Colden – The History of the Five Indian Nations
Mary Davys – The Accomplished Rake
Daniel Defoe
Conjugal Lewdness
An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions
A New Family Instructor
John Gay – Fables
Madeleine-Angélique de Gomez – Anecdotes persanes, dédiées au roy (Persian Anecdotes, Dedicated to the King)
Eliza Haywood
Philidore and Placentia
Cleomelia
The Perplex'd Dutchess
The Secret History of the Present Intrigues of the Court of Caramania (roman à clef)
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon – A Collection of Several Tracts
Madame de Lambert – Réflexions nouvelles sur les femmes, ou Métaphysique d'amour (New Reflections on Women, or Metaphysics of Love)
John Oldmixon – Clarendon and Whitlock Compar'd
Arabella Plantin – The Ingrateful (Or, The Just Revenge)
James Ralph – The Tempest
Henry St. John – The Occasional Writer (periodical)
Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, John Arbuthnot, et al. – Miscellanies in Prose and Verse
Évrard Titon du Tillet – Le Parnasse François
William Warburton (anonymously) – The Legal Judicature in Chancery Stated
José Francisco de Isla
Juventud triunfante
El tapabocas
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Visiones y visitas de Torres con Francisco de Quevedo por la corte
Drama
John Durant Breval – The Strollers
Philippe Néricault Destouches – Le Philosophe Marié (The Married Philosopher)
Philip Frowde – The Fall of Saguntum
David Lewis – Philip of Macedon
James Moore Smythe – The Rival Modes
Lewis Theobald – The Rape of Proserpine
Poetry
Christopher Pitt – Poems and Translations
Alexander Pope (attributed) – Several Copies of Verses on Occasion of Mr. Gulliver's Travels (possibly by the whole Scriblerus Club)
James Thomson
A Poem Sacred to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton
Summer (part of The Seasons)
John Wright – Spiritual Songs for Children
Births
March 7 – André Morellet, French economist and writer (died 1819)
October 27 – Hester Chapone, English writer of conduct books (died 1801)
December 27 – Arthur Murphy, Irish biographer (died 1805)
December – John Hoole, English translator (died 1803)
Deaths
January 17 – Johann Christoph Wichmannshausen, German philologist (born 1663)
February 13 – William Wotton, English scholar, target of Jonathan Swift (born 1666)
September 17 – Glückel of Hameln, German diarist (born 1647)
September 25 – Sarah Kemble Knight, diarist in colonial Massachusetts (born 1666)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1728%20in%20literature | 1728 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1728.
Events
January 28 – On the night of Esther Johnson's death, Jonathan Swift begins writing The Death of Mrs. Johnson.
January 29 – John Rich, manager of the theatre at Lincoln's Inn Fields in London, mounts the first production of The Beggar's Opera, a ballad opera by John Gay. Its great success (it initially runs for 62 performances) makes "Rich gay and Gay rich". By the summer, it has been imitated in Thomas Walker's The Quaker's Opera; and William Hogarth begins painting scenes from it.
May – Jonathan Swift and Thomas Sheridan launch The Intelligencer (periodical).
October 12 – The Universal Spectator and Weekly Journal is founded by Daniel Defoe and Henry Baker.
unknown dates
The utenzi (epic poem) Utendi wa Tambuka is written by Mwengo, son of Athumani, one of the earliest known examples of Swahili literature.
Construction of the Biblioteca Joanina at the University of Coimbra (Portugal), begun in 1717, is completed.
New books
Prose
Penelope Aubin – The Life and Adventures of the Young Count Albertus (sequel)
Peter Browne – The Procedure, Extent, and Limits of Human Understanding
"Captain George Carleton" – Memoirs of an English Officer
Ephraim Chambers – Cyclopaedia, or, A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
John Dennis – Remarks on Mr. Pope's Rape of the Lock
James Gibbs – A Book of Architecture
Eliza Haywood – The Agreeable Caledonian
Francis Hutcheson – An Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections
John Oldmixon
The Arts of Logick and Rhetorick
An Essay on Criticism
Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie (died 1580) – The Historie and Chronicles of Scotland, 1436–1565 (written about 1575, in the Scots language)
Christopher Pitt – An Essay on Virgil's Aeneid
Antoine François Prévost – Mémoires et aventures d’un homme de qualité qui s’est retiré du monde (begins publication)
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – Friendship in Death
Richard Savage – Nature in Perfection
George Sewell (died 1726) – Posthumous Works of Dr. George Sewell
Jonathan Swift – A Short View of the State of Ireland
William Wycherley (died 1716) – The Posthumous Works of William Wycherley, edited by Lewis Theobald (part of Theobald's and Curll's battle with Pope and other "Tory" wits)
Edward Young – A Vindication of Providence
Drama
Richard Barford – The Virgin Queen
Henry Fielding – Love in Several Masques
John Gay – The Beggar's Opera
Pierre de Marivaux – Le Trionphe de Plutus
John Mottley –
The Craftsman
Penelope (opera)
Alexis Piron – Les Fils ingrats
Lewis Theobald – Double Falsehood, or the Distress'd Lovers (reportedly adapted from Cardenio, by Fletcher and Shakespeare)
Colley Cibber and John Vanbrugh – The Provoked Husband
John Sturmy – Sesostris
Edward Young – The Brothers
Poetry
Joseph Addison (posthumously) – The Christian Poet: A miscellany of divine poems
Thomas Cooke – The Works of Hesiod (first translation of Hesiod into English)
Henry Fielding (as "by Lemuel Gulliver, Poet Laureat to the King of Lilliput") – The Masquerade
David Mallet – The Excursion
Alexander Pope (anonymously) – The Dunciad
James Ralph
Night
Sawney: An heroic poem. Occasion'd by the Dunciad
Zeuma; or, The Love of Liberty (dated 1729)
Allan Ramsay – Poems
Richard Savage – The Bastard
Thomas Sheridan – The Satyrs of Persius
James Thomson – Spring (part of The Seasons)
Ned Ward (anonymously) – Durgen; or, A Plain Satyr upon a Pompous Satyrist (dated 1729)
Edward Young
Love of Fame, the Universal Passion
Ocean: An Ode
Births
Early – Lady Dorothea Du Bois (Dorothea Annesley), Irish writer (died 1774)
January 9 – Thomas Warton, English literary historian and poet laureate (died 1790)
March 11 – Robert Bage, English novelist (died 1801)
September 14 – Mercy Otis Warren, political writer (died 1814)
November 10 (probable date) – Oliver Goldsmith, Irish writer and poet (died 1774)
Deaths
April 25 – John Woodward, English naturalist and antiquary (born 1665)
February 12 – Cotton Mather, American pamphleteer and minister (born 1663)
June 23 – Gabriel Daniel, French historian (born 1649
September 12 – Richard Leigh, English metaphysical poet (born 1649/50)
September 23 – Christian Thomasius, German publisher and author (born 1655)
November 13 – William Wall, English theologian (born 1647)
December 19 – White Kennett, English antiquary, religious writer and bishop (born 1660)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1729%20in%20literature | 1729 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1729.
Events
November 28 – The English theologian Thomas Woolston is convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to prison for the remaining four years of his life on account of his published Discourses on Biblical literalism.
unknown date – Charles Perrault's Histoires ou contes du temps passé (1697) is translated into English for the first time, by Robert Samber as Histories or Tales of Past Times, told by Mother Goose. It includes such favourite fairy tales as Cinderella, Little Red Riding Hood and Puss in Boots.
New books
Prose
James Bramston – The Art of Politics
Henry Carey – Poems on Several Occasions
Edward Cooke – Battel of the Poets
Thomas Cooke – Tales, Epistles, Odes, FablesDaniel Defoe as Andrew Moreton, Esq. – Second Thoughts are Best: or, a Further Improvement of a Late Scheme to Prevent Street RobberiesRobert Drury – Madagascar, or Robert Drury's JournalWilliam Hatchett – The Adventures of Abdalla (translated from the French of Jean-Paul Bignon first published in Paris, 1712, as Les Avantures d'Abdalla)
Eliza Haywood – The Fair Hebrew; or, A True, but Secret History of Two Jewish LadiesThomas Innes – Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of the Northern Parts of BritainSoame Jenyns – The Art of DancingWilliam Law – A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life (extremely popular devotional manual)
Daniel Mace – The New Testament in Greek and English (a diaglot)
Isaac Newton – The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (English translation of Newton's Latin work)
John Oldmixon – The History of England, during the Reigns of the Royal House of StuartWilliam Pulteney – The Honest JuryJames Ralph – ClarindaElizabeth Singer Rowe – Letters on Various OccasionsRichard Savage – The WandererChristmas Samuel - Golwg ar y Testament NewyddThomas Sherlock – The Tryal of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of JesusJonathan SwiftAn Epistle Upon an Epistle From a Certain Doctor to a Certain Great LordA Modest ProposalJacob Campo Weyerman - De levens-beschryvingen der Nederlandsche konst-schilders en konst-schilderessen (The Lives of Dutch painters and paintresses)William Wycherley – The Posthumous Works of William Wycherley ii. (see 1728)
Benito Jerónimo Feijoo – Ilustración apologéticaChildren
Robert Samber – Histories or Tales of Past Times, told by Mother GooseDrama
Colley Cibber – Love in a RiddleCharles Coffey – The Beggar's WeddingJohn Gay – Polly (sequel to The Beggar's Opera, banned from performance by Walpole)
Eliza Haywood – Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-LunenburghCharles Johnson – The Village Opera (opera)
Samuel Johnson – Hurlothrumbo, or The SupernaturalSamuel Madden – ThemistoclesThomas Odell The PatronThe SmuglersJames Thomson – BritanniaPoetry
Moses Browne – Piscatory EcloguesAlexander Pope – The Dunciad, VariorumBirths
January 12 – Edmund Burke, Irish political writer and politician (died 1797)
January 22 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German writer, dramatist and critic (died 1781)
January 23 – Clara Reeve, English novelist (died 1807)
April 13 – Thomas Percy, English poet, translator and bishop (died 1811)
August 11 – Ponce Denis Écouchard Lebrun, French poet (died 1807)
September 6 – Moses Mendelssohn, German philosopher of the Haskalah or Jewish enlightenment (died 1786)
September 25 – Christian Gottlob Heyne German classicist and archaeologist (died 1812)
September 29 – John Duncombe, English poet, antiquary and cleric (died 1786)Unknown date – Thomas Hawkins, English literary editor and cleric (died 1772)
Deaths
January 19 – William Congreve, English dramatist and poet (born 1670)
May 17 – Samuel Clarke, English philosopher and cleric (born 1675)
September 1 – Richard Steele, Irish journalist, satirist and dramatist (born 1672)
October 9 – Sir Richard Blackmore, English poet and religious writer (born 1654)
November 16 – Abel Boyer, French-born lexicographer, journalist and miscellanist (born c. 1667)
December 13 – Anthony Collins, English philosopher (born 1676)
December 26 – Honoré Tournély, French theologian (b. 1658)Unknown date'' – Gershom Carmichael, Scottish philosopher (born c. 1672)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1730%20in%20literature | 1730 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1730.
Events
January 7 – The death of the Icelandic scholar Árni Magnússon activates the bequest to the University of Copenhagen in Denmark of the Arnamagnæan Manuscript Collection, which he has assembled.
January 8 – The Grub Street Journal is launched in London, with Richard Russel and John Martyn as editors. It lasts for 418 issues.
April 17 – Pietro Metastasio arrives in Vienna, where he settles permanently.
September/October – Colley Cibber becomes Poet Laureate of the Kingdom of Great Britain, in succession to Laurence Eusden.
December 11 – Voltaire's Brutus is finally staged.
unknown date – Romeo and Juliet becomes the first of Shakespeare's plays to be performed in America, when it is staged in New York City.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – The Evidences of the Christian Religion (posthumous)
John Bancks – The Weaver's Miscellany
Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix – Histoire de l'Isle Espagnole ou de S. Domingue
Thomas Cooke as "Scriblerus Tertius" – The Candidates for the Bays
Yaakov Culi – Me'am Lo'ez
Philip Doddridge – Free Thoughts on the Most Probable Means of Reviving the Dissenting Interest
Johann Christoph Gottsched – Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst für die Deutschen
John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey – Observations on the Writings of the Craftsman
George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton – An Epistle to Mr. Pope
Pierre des Maizeaux – Vie de Bayle
Isaac Rand – Index plantarum officinalium, quas ad materiae medicae scientiam promovendam, in horto Chelseiano (catalogue of plants in Chelsea Physic Garden)
Philip Johan von Strahlenberg – Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia)
Jonathan Swift – A Libel on D—— D——, and a Certain Great Lord
Matthew Tindal – Christianity as Old as Creation
William Whiston – Life of Samuel Clarke
William Wotton (posthumous) – A Discourse Concerning the Confusion of Languages at Babel
Edward Young – Two Epistles to Mr. Pope
Drama
Theophilus Cibber – Patie and Peggy (opera)
Henry Fielding
The Author's Farce
Rape upon Rape
The Temple Beau
Tom Thumb
Charles Johnson – The Tragedy of Medea
George Lillo – Sylvia
Pierre de Marivaux – The Game of Love and Chance
Benjamin Martyn – Timoleon
James Miller – The Humours of OxfordJohn Mottley – The Widow BewitchedGabriel Odingsells – Bayes's OperaJames Ralph – The Fashionable LadyJames Thomson – Sophonisba Edward Ward – The Prisoner's OperaPoetry
Stephen Duck – Poems on Several Subjects (including "The Thresher's Labour")
Matthew Pilkington – Poems on Several OccasionsElizabeth Thomas – The Metamorphosis of the TownJames Thomson – The SeasonsSee also 1730 in poetryBirths
March 27 – Thomas Tyrwhitt, English critic (died 1786)
April 1 – Salomon Gessner, Swiss painter and poet (died 1788)
August 20 – Paul Henri Mallet, Swiss historian (died 1807)
November 10 – Oliver Goldsmith, Anglo-Irish poet and dramatist (died 1774)
December 6 – Sophie von La Roche (Maria Sophie Gutermann von Gutershofen), German novelist (died 1807)unknown datesThomas Marryat, English medical writer and physician (died 1792)
Joakim Stulić, Croatian lexicographer (died 1817)
Tarikonda Venkamamba, Telugu poet (died 1817)probable year'' – Charlotte Lennox, Gibraltar-born Scottish novelist and poet (died 1804)
Deaths
January 7 – Árni Magnússon, Icelandic scholar (born 1663)
February 9 – Johann Georg von Eckhart, German historian (born 1664)
March 20 – Adrienne Lecouvreur, French actress (born 1692)
July 16 – Elijah Fenton, English poet (born 1683)
August 16 – Laurence Echard, English historian (born c. 1670)
September 14 – Sophia Elisabet Brenner, Swedish poet and writer (born 1659)
September 27 – Laurence Eusden, English Poet Laureate (born 1688)
October 23 – Anne Oldfield, English actress (born 1683)
November – Nedîm, Ottoman poet (born c. 1680; killed in the Patrona Halil uprising
December 31 – Carlo Gimach, Maltese architect, engineer and poet (born 1651)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1731%20in%20literature | 1731 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1731.
Events
January 1 – The Gentleman's Magazine: or, Trader's monthly intelligencer is launched by Edward Cave in London.
July – Alexander Pope completes the original writing of his poem An Essay on Man with the first two "Epistles: Of the Nature and State of Man, with Respect to" (1) "The Universe" and (2) "Himself as an Individual". The third and fourth will ensue in 1733 and 1734.
July 1 – Benjamin Franklin and fellow subscribers start the Library Company of Philadelphia.
August 20 – The Hollandsche Spectator is launched by Justus van Effen in Amsterdam.
October 23 – A fire at Ashburnham House in London damages the nationally owned Cotton Library, housed there at the time. The librarian, Dr Bentley, leaps from a window with the priceless Codex Alexandrinus under one arm. The original manuscripts of Asser's Life of King Alfred (9th century) and The Battle of Maldon (Old English) are destroyed; so largely is the 5th-century Cotton Genesis; and the Chronicon Æthelweardi is badly damaged; but the unique manuscript of Beowulf is damaged but saved.
December 11 – Bishop Thomas Tanner's valuable collection of books, on its way from Norwich to his new home at Oxford by barge, is damaged when the barge sinks at Wallingford.
unknown dates
The life and revelations of the Austrian Beguine Agnes Blannbekin (died 1315) are published from her religious confessions for the first time, as Venerabilis Agnetis Blannbekin, but all copies are confiscated by the Jesuits.
The Jesuit father Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare translates a 13th-century Chinese work, The Orphan of Zhao, into French as L'Orphelin de la Maison de Tchao. This makes it the first Chinese play to be translated into any European language.
New books
Prose
Thomas Bayes – Divine Benevolence
Samuel Boyse – Translations and Poems Written on Several Subjects
Ralph Cudworth (died 1688) – A Treatise Concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality
Robert Dodsley
An Epistle from a Footman in London to the Celebrated Stephen Duck
A Sketch of the Miseries of Poverty
Aaron Hill – Advice to the Poets
Marie Huber – Le Monde fou préféré au monde sage, en vingt-quatre promenades de trois amis, Criton philosophe, Philon avocat, Eraste négociant (The world unmask'd: or, The philosopher the greatest cheat; in twenty-four dialogues between Crito a philosopher, Philo a lawyer, and Erastus, a merchant)
Madame de La Fayette – Memoires de la Cour de France
William Law – The Case of Reason
Pierre de Marivaux – La Vie de Marianne (The Life of Marianne), part one
William Oldys – A Dissertation Upon Pamphlets
Arabella Plantin – Love Led Astray (Or, the Mutual Inconstancy)
Alexander Pope – An Epistle to the Right Honourable Richard Earl of Burlington (also Epistle to Burlington, and to contemporaries as Of False Taste)
Abbé Prévost
Manon Lescaut
Le Philosophe anglais, ou Histoire de Monsieur Cleveland, fils naturel de Cromwell (The Life and Entertaining Adventures of Mr. Cleveland, Natural Son of Oliver Cromwell)
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – Letters Moral and Entertaining
Jean Terrasson – Life of Sethos
Jethro Tull – The New Horse-Houghing Husbandry, or, An essay on the principles of tillage and vegetation wherein is shewn, a method of introducing a sort of vineyard-culture into the corn-fields, to increase their product, and diminish the common expence, by the use of instruments lately invented by Jethro Tull
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Barca de Aqueronte
Drama
Matthew Concanen, Edward Roome, & Sir William Yonge – The Jovial Crew (opera, adapted from Richard Brome's A Jovial Crew)
Theophilus Cibber – The Lover
Charles Coffey & John Mottley – The Devil to Pay (musical adaptation of the play by Thomas Jevon)
Thomas Cooke – The Triumphs of Love and Honour
Henry Fielding
The Tragedy of Tragedies; or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb
The Letter-Writers
Philip Frowde – Philotas
Aaron Hill – Athelwold
George Jeffreys – Merope
George Lillo – The London Merchant
David Mallet – Eurydice
James Ralph – The Fall of the Earl of Essex
Lewis Theobald – Orestes
John Tracy – Periander
Poetry
Nicholas Amhurst (as Caleb D'Anvers) – A Collection of Poems
Jeremy Jingle (pseudonym) – Spiritual Fornication. A burlesque poem. Wherein the case of Miss Cadiere and Father Girard are merrily display'd
Joseph Trapp – The Works of Virgil
Births
February 4 – Mary Deverell, English religious writer, essayist and poet (died 1805)
March 28 – Ramón de la Cruz, Spanish dramatist (died 1794)
November 25 – Gustaf Fredrik Gyllenborg, Swedish writer (died 1808)
November 26 – William Cowper, English poet and cleric (died 1800)
December 12 – Erasmus Darwin, English naturalist, natural philosopher and poet (died 1802)
Deaths
February 20 – Frances Norton, Lady Norton, English poet and religious writer (born c. 1644)
c. April 24 – Daniel Defoe, English novelist and travel writer (born c. 1660)
May 11 – Mary Astell, English protofeminist writer (born 1666)
June 20 – Ned Ward (Edward Ward), English satirist and publican (born 1667)
December 26 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French dramatist (born 1672)
unknown date – Mohammed ibn Zakri al-Fasi, Moroccan poet, mystic and theologian (year of birth unknown)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1732%20in%20literature | 1732 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1732.
Events
April – The London Magazine is founded in opposition to the pro-Tory Gentlemen's Magazine.
December 7 – The original Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London (today's Royal Opera House) is opened by John Rich with a production of William Congreve's The Way of the World.
December 13 – The first issue of Then Swänska Argus, by Olof von Dalin, is published in Sweden, introducing the "younger new Swedish" (yngre nysvenska) literary language.
December 28 – The first edition of Poor Richard's Almanac, by Benjamin Franklin, is published in America.
unknown date – Trinity College Library in Dublin, designed by Thomas Burgh, is completed.
New books
Prose
George Berkeley – Alciphron
Johann Jakob Bodmer – translation of John Milton's Paradise Lost into German prose
Elizabeth Boyd – The Happy-Unfortunate
Mary Davys – The False Friend (fiction)
Philip Doddridge – Sermons on the Religious Education of Children
Robert Dodsley – A Muse in Livery
George Granville, Lord Lansdowne – The Genuine Works
Thomas-Simon Gueullette – Les Sultanes de Guzarate, contes mogols (Mogul Tales; or, the Dreams of Men Awake)
John Horsley – Britannia Romana, or The Roman Antiquities of Britain
William King – The Toast
Alain-René Lesage – Les avantures de monsieur Robert Chevalier, dit de Beauchêne, capitaine de flibustiers dans la Nouvelle-France (The Adventures of Robert Chevalier, Call'd de Beauchene, Captain of a Privateer in New-France)
George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton – The Progress of Love
Daniel Neal – The History of the Puritans or Protestant Non-Conformists
Richard Savage – An Epistle to the Right Honourable Sir Robert Walpole
Philip Skippon – An Account of a Journey Made Thro ̓ Part of the Low-Countries, Germany, Italy, and France
Jonathan Swift
The Lady's Dressing Room
The Grand Question Debated
(with Pope and others) Miscellanies: The Third Volume
Isaac Watts – A Short View of the Whole Scripture History
Leonard Welsted – Of Dulness and Scandal (answer to The Dunciad)
Gilbert West – Stowe
Martín Sarmiento – Demostración apologética
Drama
Henry Carey
Amelia (opera)
The Disappointment
Terminta
Henry Fielding
The Lottery
The Modern Husband
The Covent-Garden Tragedy
The Old Debauchees
The Mock Doctor (performed)
John Gay (with Alexander Pope) – Acis and Galatea (opera by Handel)
Charles Johnson – Caelia
John Kelly – The Married Philosopher
Pierre de Marivaux – The Triumph of Love (Le Triomphe de l'amour)
James Miller – The Modish Couple
Voltaire – Zaïre
Poetry
Heyat Mahmud – Sarbabhedbāṇī; Bengali
John Milton – Milton's Paradise Lost, edited by Richard Bentley
Births
January 6 – Matija Antun Relković, Croatian grammarian and poet (died 1798)
January 24 – Pierre de Beaumarchais, French writer (died 1799)
February – Charles Churchill, English satirist and poet (died 1764)
February 19 – Richard Cumberland, English dramatist (died 1811)
April – George Colman the Elder, English dramatist and essayist (died 1794)
August 24 – Peter Ernst Wilde, German physician, journalist and printer (died 1785)
September 29 – Samuel Musgrave, English classical scholar and pamphleteer (died 1780)
Deaths
February 13 – Charles-René d'Hozier, French historian (born 1640)
February 22 – Bishop Francis Atterbury, English politician and writer (born 1663)
March 20 – Johann Ernst Hanxleden, German poet and lexicographer (born 1681)
March 29 (buried) – Jane Barker, English dramatist and poet (born 1652)
May 9 – Samuel Palmer, English printer (year of birth unknown)
July 3 (buried) – Mary Davys, Irish poet and dramatist (born 1674)
December 2 – Constantia Grierson, Irish poet and classical scholar (born c. 1705)
December 4 – John Gay, English poet and dramatist (born 1685)
December 22 – Joseph Thurston, English poet (born 1704)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1733%20in%20literature | 1733 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1733.
Events
February 20 – The first epistle of Alexander Pope's poem An Essay on Man is published anonymously.
March 29 – The second epistle of Pope's An Essay on Man is published.
May – Voltaire begins his long-term relationship with Emilie de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet.
May 8 – The third epistle of Pope's An Essay on Man is published.
Autumn – Laurence Sterne enters Jesus College, Cambridge.
October – Charles Macklin makes his debut at Drury Lane Theatre in The Recruiting Officer.
New books
Prose
George Berkeley – The Theory of Vision
James Bramston – The Man of Taste (answer to Pope from 1732)
John Durant Breval (as Joseph Gay) – Morality in Vice (part of Curll's continuing war with John Gay)
Peter Browne – Things Supernatural and Divine Conceived by Analogy with things Natural and Human
George Cheyne – The English Malady
Thomas-Simon Gueullette – Les Mille et une Heures, contes péruviens (Peruvian Tales: Related in One Thousand and One Hours, by One of the Select Virgins of Cusco)
John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey – An Epistle from a Nobleman to a Doctor of Divinity
George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton – Advice to a Lady
Samuel Madden – Memoirs of the Twentieth Century (roman à clef about George II)
David Mallet – Of Verbal Criticism (to Pope)
Thomas Newcomb – The Woman of Taste (reaction to Pope's Epistle of 1732)
Alexander Pope
"Of the Nature and State of Man, with Respect to" (3) "Society" (continuation of Essay on Man; the first two "epistles" published in 1732, the fourth in 1744)
Of the Use of Riches: An Epistle to Lord Bathurst (also as Epistle to Bathurst)
The Impertinent
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – Letters Moral and Entertaining
Jonathan Swift
On Poetry, a Rhapsody (contains explicit attacks on George II and many of the "dunces", resulting in arrests and prosecution.)
The Life and Genuine Character of Doctor Swift
Voltaire – Letters Concerning the English Nation
Isaac Watts – Philosophical Essays
Drama
William Bond – The Tuscan Treaty
John Durant Breval – The Rape of Helen (printed 1737)
Charles Coffey – The Boarding School (performed and published)
Henry Fielding – The Miser (from Molière)
John Gay (died 1732) – Achilles (opera)
Eliza Haywood – The Opera of Operas (adaptation of Fielding's Tom Thumb, with a pro-Walpole "reconciliation" scene) (opera)
William Havard – Scanderbeg
John Kelly – Timon in Love
Edward Phillips
The Livery Rake
The Mock Lawyer
The Stage Mutineers
António José da Silva – Vida do Grande Dom Quixote de la Mancha e do Gordo Sancho Pança
Lewis Theobald (ed.) – The Works of Shakespeare
Lewis Theobald – The Fatal Secret
Poetry
Anonymous – Verses Address'd to the Imitator of the First Satire of the Second Book of Horace (attrib. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, to Pope)
John Banks – Poems on Several Occasions
Samuel Bowden – Poetical Essays
Mary Chandler – A Description of Bath
Thomas Fitzgerald – Poems
Matthew Green (as Peter Drake) – The Grotto
James Hammond – An Elegy to a Young Lady
Alexander Pope –The First Satire of the Second Book of Horace
See also 1733 in poetry
Births
January 12 – Antoine-Marin Lemierre, French poet and dramatist (died 1793)
March 13 – Joseph Priestley, English natural philosopher and theologian (died 1804)
March 18 – Christoph Friedrich Nicolai, German critic and bookseller (died 1811)
August 22 – Jean-François Ducis, French dramatist (died 1816)
September 5 – Christoph Martin Wieland, German poet (died 1813)
Unknown date – Robert Lloyd, English poet and satirist (died 1764)
Deaths
January 21 – Bernard de Mandeville, Dutch-born satirist and philosopher writing in English (born 1670)
March 12 – Michel Le Quien, French theologian and historian (born 1661)
March 13 – Mademoiselle Aïssé, Circassian-born French letter-writer (born c. 1694)
May 10 – Jacob August Franckenstein, German lexicographer (born 1689)
June 23 – Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss scholar (born 1672)
August 16 – Matthew Tindal, English deist writer (born 1657)
Unknown date – John Dunton, English writer and bookseller (born 1659)
References
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|
225676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1734%20in%20literature | 1734 in literature | This article is a summary of the major literary events and publications of 1734.
Events
January – Le Cabinet du Philosophe, a new periodical by Pierre de Marivaux, is unsuccessfully launched; it is discontinued in April.
June 10 – Copies of Voltaire's Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais (Letters on the English) are burned, and a warrant is issued for the author's arrest.
November – George Faulkner begins publication of an edition of Jonathan Swift's Works in Dublin with a corrected text.
Manoel da Assumpcam begins writing his grammar of the Bengali language.
Göttingen State and University Library is established.
New books
Fiction
Pierre de Marivaux – Le Paysan parvenu (The Fortunate Peasant) part one
Drama
Henry Carey, as "Benjamin Bounce" – Chrononhotonthologos (satire on bombastic tragedy)
William Duncombe – Junius Brutus
Henry Fielding
Don Quixote in England
The Intriguing Chambermaid
Carlo Goldoni – Belisario
John Hewitt – Fatal Falsehood
James Miller – The Mother-in-Law (adapted from Molière'''s Le Malade imaginaire and Monsieur de Pourceaugnac)
William Popple – The Lady's RevengeJames Ralph – The Cornish SquireAntónio José da Silva – EsopaidaJames Thomson – The Tragedy of SophonisbaPoetry
Jean Adam – Miscellany PoemsMary Barber – PoemsStephen Duck – Truth and FalsehoodWilliam DunkinThe Lover's WebThe Poet's PrayerAlexander PopeEssay on ManAn Epistle to Lord Cobham ("Moral Epistle I")The First Satire of the Second Book of HoraceSober Advice from HoraceJonathan Swift – A Beautiful Young Nymph Going to BedNon-fiction
Anonymous – A Rap at the Rhapsody (on Swift's 1733 On Poetry)
Joseph Addison (died 1719) – A Discourse on Antient and Modern LearningJohn Arbuthnot – Gnothi Seauton: Know YourselfFrancis Atterbury – SermonsGeorge Berkeley – The AnalystHenry Brooke – Design and Beauty: an EpistleIsaac Hawkins Browne – On Design and BeautyDimitrie Cantemir – History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire (first publication)
Robert Dodsley – An Epistle to Mr. PopeJohn Jortin – Remarks on Spenser's PoemsLady Mary Wortley Montagu – The Dean's Provocation for Writing the Lady's Dressing-Room (on Swift's "The Lady's Dressing Room")
Karl Ludwig von Pöllnitz – MémoiresJonathan Richardson – Explanatory Notes on Milton's Paradise LostGeorge Sale – The KoranEmanuel SwedenborgFirst Principles of Natural ThingsOpera philosophica et mineraliaThe Infinite and the Final Cause of CreationJoseph Trapp – Thoughts Upon the Four Last Things ("Death, Judgment, Heaven, Hell")
Voltaire – Lettres anglaisesBirths
January 10 – Fleury Mesplet, French-born Canadian writer and newspaper publisher (died 1794
July 25 – Ueda Akinari, Japanese poet and novelist (died 1809)
October 23 – Nicolas-Edme Rétif, French novelist (died 1806)
December 31 – Claude Joseph Dorat (Le Chevalier Dorat), French writer (died 1780)Unknown dates''
Catharina Ahlgren, Swedish writer (died 1800)
Robert Aitken, Scottish-born American printer and publisher (died 1802)
Deaths
January 6 – John Dennis, English dramatist and critic (born 1658)
February 24 – Marie-Jeanne L'Héritier, French writer of fairy tales and salonnière (born 1664)
March 1 – Roger North, English biographer and lawyer (born 1653)
April 25 – Johann Konrad Dippel, German theologian (born 1673)
May – Richard Cantillon, Irish-born French economist (born 1680)
September 17 – Thomas Fuller, English man of letters and proverb collector (born 1654)
October – Thomas Lloyd, Welsh lexicographer (born c. 1673)
October 18 – James Moore Smythe, English dramatist and fop (born 1702)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1735%20in%20literature | 1735 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1735.
Events
May 10 – Charles Macklin unintentionally kills another actor, Thomas Hallam, during a fight at Drury Lane Theatre, in front of witnesses; Macklin is later convicted of manslaughter.
August 4 – A jury finds John Peter Zenger not guilty of seditious libel in The New York Weekly Journal.
September 3 – Samuel Johnson marries Elizabeth "Tetty" Porter, twenty years his senior, at St Werburgh's Church, Derby.
Jesuit scholar Jean-Baptiste Du Halde publishes Description Géographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique et Physique de l'Empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinois in Paris, including Father Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare's translation of The Orphan of Zhao ("L'Orphelin de la Maison de Tchao"; 13th century), the first Chinese play to have been published in any European language.
The Sublime Society of Beef Steaks is established by John Rich at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, as a dining club mainly for literary men.
New books
Prose
Anonymous (attributed to Eliza Haywood – The Dramatic Historiographer
John Atkins – A Voyage to Guinea, Brazil, and the West Indies
George Berkeley – The Querist
Jane Brereton – Merlin
Henry Brooke – Universal Beauty
Robert Dodsley – Beauty
Jean-Baptiste Du Halde – Geographical, Historical, Chronological, Political, and Physical Description of the Empire of China and Chinese Tartary
Benjamin Hoadly – A Plain Account of the Nature and End of the Sacrament of the Lord's-Supper
Hildebrand Jacob – Works
Samuel Johnson – A Voyage to Abyssinia
Carl Linnaeus – Systema Naturae
George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton – Letters from a Persian in England
Benoît de Maillet – Description de l'Egypte
William Melmoth – Of Active and Retired Life
John Oldmixon – The History of England, during the Reigns of William and Mary, Anne, George I
Alexander Pope
An Epistle from Mr. Pope to Dr. Arbuthnot (just after Arbuthnot's death)
Of the Characters of Women (Moral Epistle II)
The Works of Mr. Alexander Pope
Letters of Mr. Pope, and Several Eminent Persons (a piracy by Edmund Curll, with forgeries included)
Mr. Pope's Literary Correspondence for Thirty Years, 1704 to 1734 (authorized)
Antoine François Prévost – Le Doyen de Killerine
Samuel Richardson – A Seasonable Examination of the Pleas and Pretensions of the Proprietors of, and Subscribers to, Play-Houses
Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke – A Dissertation upon Parties
William Somervile – The Chace
Jonathan Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, et al.
Miscellanies in Prose and Verse: Volume the Fifth
Works
Claudine Guérin de Tencin – Mémoires du comte de Comminge (Memoirs of the Count of Comminge)
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Conquista del reino de Nápoles por su rey don Carlos de Borbón
Drama
Anonymous – Squire Bassinghall
Henry Carey – The Honest Yorkshireman
Charlotte Charke – The Art of Management
Charles Coffey – The Merry Cobbler
Robert Dodsley – The Toyshop
Robert Fabian – Trick for Trick
Henry Fielding
An Old Man Taught Wisdom
The Universal Gallant
Aaron Hill (adapted from Voltaire) – Zara
George Lillo – The Christian Hero
James Miller – The Man of Taste
William Popple – The Double Deceit
James Worsdale – A Cure for a Scold (a farcical ballad opera adaptation of John Lacy's Sauny the Scot, itself an adaptation of The Taming of the Shrew)
Poetry
John Hughes – Poems on several occasions : With some select essays in prose
Hildebrand Jacob – Brutus the Trojan
Richard Savage – The Progress of a Divine
James Thomson
Ancient and Modern Italy Compared
Greece
Rome
Births
January 31 – Jean de Crèvecoeur, French-American writer (died 1813)
May 23 – Charles Joseph, Prince de Ligne, Netherland soldier and writer (died 1814)
July 5 – August Ludwig von Schlözer, German historian (died 1809)
October 25 – James Beattie, Scottish poet and moralist (died 1803)
Unknown date – Anna Hammar-Rosén, Swedish newspaper editor (died 1805)
Deaths
February 27 – John Arbuthnot, Scottish satirist and polymath (born 1667)
April 5 – Samuel Wesley, English clergyman and poet (born 1662)
April 23 – Edward Hawarden, English controversialist and theologian (born 1662)
June 10 – Thomas Hearne, English antiquary and diarist (born 1678)
July 16 – Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of Chandos, English historian and travel writer (born 1670)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1736%20in%20literature | 1736 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1736.
Events
Charles Rivington founds a company of London booksellers known as the New Conger.
New books
Prose
Anonymous – The Life of Marianne (fiction, translation of Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux)
Joseph Addison – The Works of Petronius Arbiter (translation)
John Armstrong – The Oeconomy of Love
Thomas Bayes – An Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions, and a Defence of the Mathematicians Against the Objections of the Author of the Analyst
Isaac Hawkins Browne – A Pipe of Tobacco
Joseph Butler – Analogy of Religion
Thomas Carte – Life of James Duke of Ormonde
William Rufus Chetwood – The Voyages. . . of William Owen Gwin Vaughan
Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – Les Égarements du cœur et de l'esprit (Strayings of the Heart and Mind), part one
John Gyles – Memoirs of Odd Adventures, Strange Deliverances, &c. in the Captivity of John Gyles, Esq
Eliza Haywood – Adventures of Eovaai (later as The Unfortunate Princess)
Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab – Kitab at-tawhidt
Isaac Newton – Method of Fluxions
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – The History of Joseph
William Stukeley – Palaeographia Sacra
James Thomson – Britain
William Warburton – The Alliance Between Church and State (an answer to Benjamin Hoadly from the year before)
Leonard Welsted – The Scheme and Conduct of Providence
Diego de Torres Villarroel
Los desahuciados del mundo y de la gloria (The Deathly Illness of the World and of Glory)
Historia de historias
Drama
Henry Carey – The Honest Yorkshireman
Colley Cibber – Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John
Mr. Connolly – The Connoisseur
Elizabeth Cooper – The Nobleman
Henry Fielding – Pasquin
Aaron Hill –
Alzira
Zara
Samuel Johnson – All Alive and Merry
James Sterling – The Parricide
Poems
Stephen Duck – Poems on Several Occasions
William Melmoth – Two Epistles of Horace Imitated
Alexander Pope – The Works of Alexander Pope vols iii–iv
Voltaire – Le Mondain
Births
May 10 – George Steevens, English Shakespearean editor and hoaxer (died 1800)
June 25 – John Horne Tooke, English controversialist and cleric (died 1812)
October 27 – James Macpherson, Scottish writer, poet and politician (died 1796)
Unknown dates
Robert Jephson, Irish dramatist and politician (died 1803)
James Ridley (Sir Charles Morell), English novelist and story writer (died 1765)
Deaths
January 8 – Jean Le Clerc, Swiss theologian (born 1657)
February 9 – Barnaby Bernard Lintot, English bookseller and publisher (born 1675)
March 18 – Jacob Tonson, English bookseller and publisher (born c. 1655)
April 30 – Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and bibliographer (born 1668)
July 16 – Thomas Yalden, English poet and translator (born 1670)
References
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|
225680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1737%20in%20literature | 1737 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1737.
Events
March 2 – Samuel Johnson and his former pupil David Garrick leave Lichfield to seek their fortunes in London.
June 21 – The Theatrical Licensing Act is passed, introducing censorship to the London stage. Plays now require approval before production. Edward Capell is appointed deputy-inspector of plays. "Legitimate drama" is limited to the theaters at Drury Lane, Covent Garden, and the Haymarket. The anonymous satire The Golden Rump (which may never have existed in full) is used as ammunition by the Act's proponents.
September 1 – The News Letter is first published in Belfast by Francis Joy, making it the world's oldest existing English newspaper.
October – The first professional stage production in the Swedish language by native-born actors is given in Sweden, of the comedy Den Svenska Sprätthöken at the Bollhuset in Stockholm.
November 20 – Caroline of Ansbach, Queen Consort of Great Britain and a significant patron of the arts, dies.
unknown date – The poet Richard Jago becomes curate of Snitterfield.
New books
Prose
Guillaume-Hyacinthe Bougeant – Amusement philosophique sur le language des bêtes (Philosophical Amusements on the Language of the Animals)
Alexander Cruden – A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament
Philip Doddridge – Submission to Divine Providence in the Death of Children
Stephen Duck – The Vision
Jonathan Edwards – A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Works of God
Étienne Fourmont – Meditationes Sinicae
William Law – A Demonstration of the Gross and Fundamental Errors of a Late Book (an answer to Benjamin Hoadly from 1735)
Marguerite de Lubert – Tecserion
William Oldys – The British Librarian
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – Devout Exercises of the Heart
Sarah Stone – A Complete Practice of Midwifery
Jan Swammerdam – Biblia Naturae
Jonathan Swift – A Proposal for Giving Badges to the Beggars in all the Parishes of Dublin
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Médico para el bolsillo
Drama
Henry Carey – The Dragon of Wantley (burlesque opera adaptation)
Robert Dodsley – The King and the Miller of Mansfield
Henry Fielding
The Historical Register for the Year 1736
Eurydice Hiss'd, or a Word to the Wise
Robert Gould (died 1709) – Innocence Distress'd (published; written c. 1689 but never performed)
William Havard – King Charles I
John Hewitt – A Tutor for the Beaus
Samuel Johnson – All Alive and Merry
George Lillo – Fatal Curiosity
Francis Lynch – The Independent Patriot
Pierre de Marivaux – Les Fausses Confidences
James Miller – The Universal Passion (adapted from Much Ado About Nothing)
Poetry
Richard Glover – Leonidas
Matthew Green – The Spleen
Ignacio de Luzán – Poética
Alexander Pope
Horace His Ode to Venus
The Second Epistle of the Second Book of Horace, Imitated
The First Epistle of the Second Book of Horace, Imitated
The Works of Alexander Pope vols. v-vi
William Shenstone – Poems
Prince Thammathibet – The Legend of Phra Malai (พระมาลัยคำหลวง, Phra Malai)
Voltaire – Défense du Mondain ou l'apologie du luxe ("Defense of the Worldling or an Apology for Luxury"), a poetic response to criticism of his Le Mondain
John Wesley – A Collection of Psalms and Hymns
Births
January 19 – Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, French novelist and travel writer (died 1814)
January 29 – Thomas Paine, English free thinker and revolutionary (died 1809)
February 22 – Anne Ford, English writer, singer and musician (died 1824)
April 18 – William Hazlitt Sr., Irish religious writer, radical and Unitarian minister (died 1820)
April 27 – Edward Gibbon, English historian (died 1794)
May 11 (baptised) – Richard Chandler, English antiquary (died 1810)
unknown dates
Frances Abington, née Barton, English actress (died 1815)
Nicolas Fernández de Moratín, Spanish literary reformer (died 1780)
Deaths
February 21 – Elizabeth Rowe, English dramatist and poet (born 1674)
May – Jean Alphonse Turretin, Swiss theologian (born 1671)
May 4 – Eustace Budgell, English satirist (suicide, born 1686)
May 17 – Claude Buffier, philosopher and historian (born 1661)
June 21 – Matthieu Marais, French memoirist (born 1664)
August 28 – John Hutchinson, theologian (born 1674)
September 18 – Jane Fearon, English Quaker pamphleteer (born 1654 or 1656)
October 18 – Abel Evans, English poet (born 1679)
unknown dates – Matthew Green, English poet (born 1696)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225681 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1738%20in%20literature | 1738 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1738.
Events
April 11 – Robert Blair marries Isabella Law.
July 10 – Richard Dawes is appointed Master of the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle.
August – Laurence Sterne is ordained a priest, and in the autumn becomes vicar of Sutton-on-the-Forest, Yorkshire.
August 8 – Jonathan Swift writes to Alexander Pope describing the deterioration in his mental condition; Swift will eventually be given into the care of a legal guardian.
September 18 – Samuel Johnson composes his first solemn prayer (published 1785).
New books
Prose
James Anderson – The Constitutions of the Free-Masons, 2nd ed.
Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens – Jewish Letters (published anonymously)
John Banks – Miscellaneous Works in Verse and Prose
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten – De ordine in audiendis philosophicis per triennium academicum quaedam praefatus acroases proximae aestati destinatas indicit Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten
Louis de Beaufort – Dissertation sur l'incertitude des cinq prèmiers siècles de l'histoire romaine
Robert Dodsley – The Art of Preaching
Marie Huber – Lettres sur la religion essentielle à l'homme (Letters Concerning the Religion Essential to Man)
David Hume (anonymously) – A Treatise of Human Nature (dated 1739)
Pierre Louis Maupertuis – Sur la figure de la terre
Margareta Momma – Samtal emellan Argi Skugga och en obekant Fruentimbers Skugga (Conversation between the Shadow of Argus and the Unfamiliar Shadow of a Female)
Francis Moore – Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa
Abbé Prévost – Memoirs of a Man of Quality (anonymous English translation)
Thomas Shaw – Travels in Barbary and the Levant
Jonathan Swift
The Beasts Confession to the Priest
A Complete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious Conversation
William Warburton
The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated
A Vindication of the author of the Divine Legation of Moses
George Whitefield – A Journal of a Voyage from London to Savannah in Georgia
Diego de Torres Villarroel
Anatomía de todo lo visible e invisible
Vida ejemplar de la venerable madre Gregoria Francisca de Santa Teresa
Drama
Robert Dodsley – Sir John Cockle at Court
Carlo Goldoni
Momolo Cortesan
L'uomo di mondo
Sir Hildebrand Jacob
The Happy Constancy
The Prodigal Reformed
The Trial of Conjugal Love
George Lillo – Marina (adapted from Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre)
Charles Marsh – Amasis, King of Egypt
James Miller –
Art and Nature
The Coffee House
Alexis Piron – La Metromanie
António José da Silva – Precipicio de Faetonte
James Thomson – Agamemnon
Poetry
Mark Akenside (anonymously) – A British Philippic
Elizabeth Carter (anonymously) – Poems Upon Particular Occasions
John Gay – Fables: Volume the Second
Eugenio Gerardo Lobo – Obras poéticas líricas
Samuel Johnson – London, A Poem, on the Third Satire of Juvenal
Alexander Pope
The Sixth Epistle of the First Book of Horace Imitated
The First Epistle of the First Book of Horace Imitated
(with Jonathan Swift) An Imitation of the Sixth Satire of the Second Book of Horace
One Thousand Seven Hundred and Thirty Eight
The Universal Prayer
One Thousand Seven Hundred and Thirty Eight: Dialogue II
James Thomson – The Works of Mr Thomson
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Juguetes de Talia, entretenimiento del numen
John Wesley – A Collection of Psalms and Hymns (first English edition)
Births
February 9 (baptized) – Mary Whateley, English poet and playwright (died 1825)
May 9 – John Wolcot, English satirist and poet (died 1819)
May 12 – Jonathan Boucher, English philologist (died 1804)
May 27 – Moritz August von Thümmel, German humorist and satirical author (died 1817)
June 21 – Gottlieb Christoph Harless, German bibliographer (died 1815)
July 24 – Betje Wolff, Dutch novelist (died 1804)
November 15 – Joseph Johnson, English publisher (died 1809)
December 4 – Karl Friedrich Kretschmann, German poet, playwright and storyteller (died 1809)
unknown date – Manuel Lassala, Spanish dramatist and philosopher (died 1806)
Deaths
January 6 – Jean-Baptiste Labat, French polymath (born 1663)
March – Margrethe Lasson, Danish novelist (born 1659)
April 25 – Giacomo Laderchi, Italian ecclesiastical historian (born c. 1678)
June 5 – Isaac de Beausobre, French Protestant theologian (born 1659)
July 8 – Jean-Pierre Nicéron, French lexicographer (born 1685)
September 3 or 4 – George Lillo, English playwright (born 1691)
September 23 – Herman Boerhaave, Dutch humanist writer (born 1668)
November 10 – John Asgill, English pamphleteer (born 1659)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1739%20in%20literature | 1739 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1739.
Events
January 16 – George Frideric Handel's oratorio Saul is first performed at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, London.
February 9 – The Scots Magazine first appears.
February 17 – George Whitefield first preaches in the open air, to miners at Kingswood, South Gloucestershire, England.
March 16 – Henry Brooke's drama Gustavus Vasa becomes the first play banned under the Licensing Act 1737.
April – John Wesley first preaches in the open air, at Whitefield's invitation.
November – The Champion (periodical) is launched, with Henry Fielding (under the name Captain Hercules Vinegar) as editor.
unknown date – The first Bible in the Estonian language, Piibli Ramat, translated by Anton thor Helle, is published.
New books
Prose
Penelope Aubin – A Collection of Entertaining Histories and Novels
John Campbell – The Travels and Adventures of Edward Bevan, Esq., formerly a merchant in London
Elizabeth Carter
Examination of Mr. Pope's Essay on Man (translation of De Crousaz's Examen de l'essai de Monsieur Pope sur l'homme)
Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy Explain'd for the Use of Ladies (translation of Algarotti's Newtonianismo per le donne)
Philip Doddridge – The Family Expositor
Richard Glover – London
David Hume (anonymously) – A Treatise of Human Nature (issued late 1738 but dated this year)
William Law – The Grounds and Reasons of Christian Regeneration
John Mottley (as Elijah Jenkins) – Joe Miller's Jests; or, the Wits Vade-Mecum
Robert Nugent (attributed) – An Epistle to Sir Robert Walpole
John Oldmixon – The History of England during the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth
Laetitia Pilkington – The Statues
Samuel Richardson – Aesop's Fables
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – Miscellaneous Works
Thomas Sheridan – The Satires of Juvenal Translated
Joseph Trapp – The Nature, Folly, Sin, and Danger, of Being Righteous Over-much (against George Whitefield)
Voltaire
De la Gloire, ou entretien avec un Chinois
Conseils a M. Helvetius
Isaac Watts – The World to Come
George Whitefield – A Continuation of the Reverend Mr. Whitefield's Journal
Paul Whitehead – Manners
Drama
Daniel Bellamy – Miscellanies in Prose and Verse
Henry Brooke – Gustavus Vasa
Anthony Brown – The Fatal Retirement
Henry Carey – Nancy (opera)
Thomas Cooke – The Mournful Nuptials (not acted)
David Mallet – Mustapha
James Miller – An Hospital for Fools
Edward Phillips – Britons, Strike Home
William Shirley – The Parricide
James Thomson – Edward and Eleonora
Poetry
Moses Browne – Poems
Mary Collier – The Woman's Labour: an epistle to Mr Stephen Duck
Mikhail Lomonosov – Ode on the Taking of Khotin from the Turks
Robert Nugent
An Ode on Mr. Pulteney
An Ode, to His Royal Highness on His Birthday
Odes and Epistles
Jonathan Swift – Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift
John Wesley – Hymns and Sacred Poems
Births
January – Twm o'r Nant, Welsh playwright and poet (died 1810)
August 31 – Johann Augustus Eberhard, German theologian and philosopher (died 1809)
November 20 – Jean-François de la Harpe, French critic (died 1803)
unknown date – Hugh Kelly, Irish-born dramatist and poet (died 1777)
Deaths
June 20 – Edmond Martène, French historian (born 1654)
July 25 – Johann Christoph Wolf, German Hebrew scholar and bibliographer (born 1683)
September 4 – George Lillo, English dramatist and actor (born 1691)
October 18 – António José da Silva, Brazilian dramatist (born 1705)
probable – Liu Zhi (劉智), Chinese Muslim scholar (born c. 1660)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1740%20in%20literature | 1740 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1740.
Events
November 6 – Samuel Richardson's epistolary novel Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded is published in London in two volumes, rapidly becoming a popular work that inspires many imitations, translations and adaptations.
Autumn – John Cleland leaves government service in Bombay to return to Britain.
unknown dates
Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve publishes La Belle et la Bête, the oldest known variant of the fairy tale Beauty and the Beast, in La Jeune Américaine, et les contes marins.
Thomas Witherby establishes a stationery business in London, specialising in printing and publishing for the marine insurance industry. By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, it will claim as the Witherby Publishing Group to be the oldest independent publisher in the English-speaking world.
New books
Prose
Johann Jakob Bodmer – Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie
Colley Cibber – An Apology for the Life of Mr Colley Cibber, Comedian
Daniel Defoe (attributed) – The Life and Adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, Commonly Call'd Mother Ross
John Dyer – The Ruins of Rome
Richard Glover – Admiral Hosier's Ghost
David Hume – An Abstract of . . . A Treatise of Human Nature
William Law
An Earnest and Serious Answer to Dr. Trapp's Discourse
An Appeal to all that Doubt, or Disbelieve the Truths of the Gospel
William Oldys – The Life of Sir Walter Raleigh
Thomas Pellow – The History of the Long Captivity and Adventures of Thomas Pellow in South-Barbary
Antoine François Prévost – Histoire d'une Grecque moderne (The Greek Girl's Story)
William Pulteney – An Epistle from L--- to Lord C-------d (supposedly from Thomas Coke to Lord Chesterfield)
Samuel Richardson – Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded
Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke – The Idea of a Patriot King (published after the intervention of Alexander Pope)
Pu Songling (蒲松齡, died 1715) – Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (possible date of first publication; includes "The Bookworm", "Dragon Dormant", "A Sequel to the Yellow Millet Dream", "Stealing Peaches" and "Zhang Hongjian")
William Stukeley – Stonehenge: A temple restor'd to the British Druids
Emanuel Swedenborg – Economy of the Animal Kingdom (Dynamics of the Soul's Domain) (1740–41)
Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve – La Jeune Américaine, et les contes marins (introduces the tale Beauty and the Beast)
William Warburton – A Vindication of Mr. Pope's Essay on Man
George Whitefield – A Short Account of God's Dealings with the Reverend George Whitefield
Drama
George Lillo
Britannia and Batavia
Elmerick
James Thomson and David Mallet – Alfred: A Masque
Tomás Añorbe y Corregel – Paulino
Poetry
Sarah Dixon – Poems on Several Occasions
Christopher Pitt – The Aeneid of Virgil
See also 1740 in poetry
Births
February 15 – Juan Andrés, Spanish historian (died 1817)
June 2 – Marquis de Sade, French aristocrat, revolutionary politician, philosopher, and writer (died 1814)
June 6 – Louis-Sébastien Mercier, French dramatist and writer (died j1814)
June 27 – James Woodforde, English diarist and cleric (died 1803)
August 18 – Giovanni Cristofano Amaduzzi, Italian philologist (died 1782)
September 2 – Johann Georg Jacobi, German poet (died 1814)
September 12 – Johann Heinrich Jung (Heinrich Stilling), German novelist and autobiographer (died 1817)
September 17 – John Cartwright, English political reformer and naval officer (died 1824)
October 29 – James Boswell, Scottish diarist, writer and autobiographer (died 1795)
November 4 – Augustus Montague Toplady, English poet, theologian and hymnist (died 1778)
November 21 – Charlotte Baden, Danish feminist and letter-writer (died 1824)
Unknown dates
Margaret Bingham, English poet and painter (died 1814)
Jean-Louis de Lolme, Swiss writer in French and English (died 1806)
Probable – Charlotte Brooke, Irish writer (died 1793)
Deaths
January – John Adams, American poet (born 1704)
April 12 – Samson Morpurgo, Italian rabbi, physician, and liturgist (born 1681)
April 23 – Thomas Tickell, English poet and man of letters (born 1685)
May 15 – Ephraim Chambers, English writer and encyclopedist (born c. 1680)
June 1 – Samuel Werenfels, Swiss theologian (born 1657)
June 5 – Johann Georg Abicht, German theologian (born 1672)
July 20 – Joseph Sparke, English antiquary and editor (born 1683)
October 5 – Johann Philipp Baratier, German scholar (born 1721)
December 23 – Daniel Waterland, English theologian (born 1683)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1741%20in%20literature | 1741 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1741.
Events
January 29 – A memorial to William Shakespeare (d. 1616), designed by William Kent and sculpted by Peter Scheemakers, is erected in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.
February 13 – Andrew Bradford launches the American colonies' first periodical in Philadelphia, the American Magazine.
February 14 – Irish-born actor Charles Macklin makes his London stage debut as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, pioneering a psychologically realistic style with Shakespeare's text revived, replacing George Granville's melodramatic adaptation The Jew of Venice.
March 14 – K. K. Theater an der Burg (Imperial Court Theatre) in Vienna opens.
October 19 – David Garrick makes his London stage debut in the title role of Shakespeare's Richard III. His performance quickly packs theaters. His professional debut was earlier in the year at Ipswich, in Thomas Southerne's adaptation of Oroonoko.
unknown date
The first translation of a Shakespeare play into German, Julius Caesar, is made by C. W. von Bork, using alexandrines.
Printer Robert Foulis sets up as a publisher in Edinburgh.
New books
Fiction
Anonymous
The Life of Pamela (parody of Richardson's Pamela)
Pamela Censured
Charles Balguy (anonymous translator) – The Decameron
Comte de Caylus – Les Féeries nouvelles
Stephen Duck – Every Man in his Own Way
Henry Fielding (as Mr. Conny Keyber) – An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews
Eliza Haywood – The Anti-Pamela; or Feign’d Innocence Detected
Ludvig Holberg – Niels Klim's Underground Travels
John Kelly – Pamela's Conduct in High Life (continuation of Pamela)
Alexander Pope with John Gay and John Arbuthnot – Memoirs of the Extraordinary Life, Works, and Discoveries of Martinus Scriblerus
Charles Povey – The Virgin in Eden (prose fiction)
Samuel Richardson
Letters Written to and for Particular Friends (also known as Familiar Letters)
Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded vols. iii – iv
Hristofor Zhefarovich – Stemmatographia
Drama
Anonymous – Pamela; or, Virtue Triumphant
Robert Dodsley – The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (adapted from anonymous Elizabethan play)
David Garrick – The Lying Valet
William Hatchett – The Chinese Orphan: An Historical Tragedy (adapted from the 13th-century Chinese play The Orphan of Zhao; unperformed)
John Kelly – The Levee
Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée – Mélanide
Voltaire – Mahomet (first performed)
Poetry
Geoffrey Chaucer – The Canterbury Tales of Chaucer (new edition revives interest)
William Shenstone – The Judgment of Hercules
Edward Young – Poetical Works of the Reverend Edward Young
Alonso Verdugo, third Earl of Torrepalma – Adonis
John and Charles Wesley – A Collection of Psalms and Hymns
Non-fiction
Thomas Betterton – The History of the English Stage, from the Restoration to the Present
Thomas Francklin – Of the Nature of the Gods
David Hume – Essays Moral and Political
Real Academia Española – Ortografía
Luigi Riccoboni – An Historical and Critical Account of the Theatres of Europe
Martín Sarmiento – Memorias para la historia de la poesía y poetas españoles
Emanuel Swedenborg – A Hieroglyphic Key to Natural and Spiritual Arcana by Way of Representation and Correspondences (written, published in 1784).
Jonathan Swift
Dean Swift's Literary Correspondence (pirate edition by Edmund Curll, for which sued by Pope)
Some Free Thoughts on the Present State of Affairs
Isaac Watts – The Improvement of the Mind
Leonard Welsted – The Summum Bonum
George Whitefield – A Letter to the Reverend John Wesley
Births
January 6 – Sarah Trimmer, English writer for children (died 1810)
January 16 – Hester Thrale (Mrs Piozzi), English diarist and arts patron (died 1821)
August 25 – Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and adventurer (died 1792)
October 4 – Edmond Malone, Irish Shakespearean editor (died 1812)
October 18 – Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, French novelist (died 1803)
October 28 – Johann August von Starck, German theologian and political writer (died 1816)
Deaths
January 9 – William Gwavas, English lawyer and writer in the Cornish language (born 1676)
February 21 – Jethro Tull, English agricultural innovator and writer (born 1674)
March 17 – Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French dramatist and poet (born 1671)
April 10 – Celia Fiennes, English travel writer (born 1662)
July 30 – Thomas Emlyn, English Unitarian writer (born 1663)
December 14 – Charles Rollin, French historian (born 1661)
December 21 – Bernard de Montfaucon, French scholar and palaeographer (born 1655)
unknown date – Anne Dick, Scottish comic poet and lampoonist (year of birth unknown)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1742%20in%20literature | 1742 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1742.
Events
February – Henry Fielding's picaresque novel Joseph Andrews appears in London as The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his Friend Mr. Abraham Adams, written in imitation of the manner of Cervantes, author of Don Quixote. Described by Fielding as a "comic epic poem in prose", it is his first full-length novel and among the earliest in the English language. A second edition appears on June 10.
December 2 – The Pennsylvania Journal first appears in the United States.
December – The novelist and dramatist Pierre de Marivaux is elected to the Académie française.
unknown dates
The Irish portraitist Charles Jervas' English translation of Don Quixote is published three years after his death. Through a printer's error, the translator's name is printed as "Charles Jarvis", leading to the book being known forever as the "Jarvis" translation. It is acclaimed as the most faithful English rendering of the novel up to this time.
The Stockholm Gazette, founded by Peter Momma, begins publication.
The publisher Robert Foulis acquires his own printing press in Glasgow.
The French typefounder Pierre Simon Fournier's Modèles des Caractères presents his system of point sizes for typography.
New books
Fiction
Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – The Sofa: A Moral Tale (Le Sopha, conte moral)
Henry Fielding – Joseph Andrews
Eliza Haywood – The Virtuous Villager
Charles Jervas (translator) – Don Quixote
Drama
Charlotte Charke – Tit for Tat
Charles Jennens – libretto for Handel's oratorio the Messiah
José de Cañizares – El anillo de Giges
Ignacio de Luzán – La virtud coronada
Poetry
William Collins – Persian Eclogues
Thomas Cooke – Original Poems
James Hammond – Love Elegies
James Merrick – The Destruction of Troy
William Shenstone – The School-Mistress
William Somervile – Field Sports
Charles Hanbury Williams – The Country Girl: An ode
Edward Young – Night Thoughts
Non-fiction
Colley Cibber – A Letter from Mr. Cibber to Mr. Pope (in re Pope's satirizing of Cibber)
Ignacio de Luzán – Carta en defensa de España
Philip Doddridge – Evidences of Christianity
Pierre Simon Fournier – Modèles des Caractères
Nathaniel Hooke – An Account of the Conduct of the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough from her first coming to Court to the year 1710
Edmond Hoyle – A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist
David Hume – Essays Moral and Political vol. ii
Benito Jerónimo Feijoo – Cartas eruditas y curiosas
Colin Maclaurin – Treatise on Fluxions
John Oldmixon – Memoirs of the Press, Historical and Political
Horace Walpole and Sir Charles Hanbury Williams – The Lessons for the Day (satire on William Pulteney, Bolingbroke and the "Patriot Whigs").
William Warburton – A Critical and Philosophical Commentary on Mr. Pope's Essay on Man
John Wesley
The Character of a Methodist
The Principles of a Methodist
George Whitefield – Nine Sermons
Births
January 1 – Isaac Reed, English Shakespearean editor (died 1807)
March 25 – William Combe, English writer, poet and adventurer (died 1823)
June 25 – Johann Schweighäuser, German classical scholar (died 1830)
September 14 – James Wilson, American pamphleteer and publisher (died 1798)
October 6 – Johan Herman Wessel, Norwegian author (died 1785)
unknown dates
Ralph Broome, English pamphleteer (died 1805)
Mihály Bakos (Miháo Bakoš), Slovene hymnist and Lutheran minister in Hungary (died 1803)
Deaths
March 23 – Jean-Baptiste Dubos, French author (born 1670)
April 27 – Nicholas Amhurst, English poet and political writer (born 1697)
July 9 – John Oldmixon, English historian (born 1673)
July 14 – Richard Bentley, English scholar and critic (born 1662)
July 19 – William Somervile, English poet (born 1675)
November 24 – Andrew Bradford, American publisher (born 1686)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1743%20in%20literature | 1743 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1743.
Events
March – Robert Dodsley advertises in the London Evening Post his plans to publish rare 16th and 17th-century plays so as to avoid them being lost.
July 5 – A benefit performance for the elderly acting couple Henry and Elizabeth Wetherilt is held at Smock Alley Theatre in Dublin.
August – Shortly after the death of Richard Savage, Samuel Johnson announces his intention to publish a biography of Savage.
unknown dates
Johann Elias Schlegel becomes secretary to an ambassador at the Danish court.
A legal deposit law requires a copy of every book printed in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to be deposited in the Magliabechiana library in Florence.
New books
Fiction
Comte de Caylus – les Contes orientaux
William Rufus Chetwood – The Twins (prose fiction)
Henry Fielding – The Life of Jonathan Wild the Great in Miscellanies, with A Journey from This World to the Next
Eliza Haywood – Memoirs of an Unfortunate Young Nobleman
Aaron Hill – The Fanciad
Marguerite de Lubert – La Princesse Camion (Princess Camion)
Benjamin Martin – A Course of Lectures in Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Geography, and Astronomy
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Vida
Drama
Thomas Cooke – Love the Cause and Cure of Grief
Charles Simon Favart – Le Coq du village
Henry Fielding – The Wedding-Day
John Gay – The Distress'd Wife
Voltaire – Mérope
William Shakespeare (ed. Thomas Hanmer) – The Works of Shakespear
Poetry
Robert Blair – The Grave
Samuel Boyse – Albion's Triumph
James Bramston (attributed) – The Crooked Six-pence
William Collins – Verses Humbly Address'd to Sir Thomas Hanmer (related to Hanmer's edition of The Works of Shakespear)
Philip Francis – The Odes, Epodes, and Carmen Seculare of Horace
David Mallet – Poems on Several Occasions
Alexander Pope – The New Dunciad (revised version)
Non-fiction
Henry Baker – The Microscope Made Easy
Henry St. John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke – Remarks on the History of England (from The Craftsman)
John Brown – Honour
Colley Cibber
The Egotist; or, Colley Upon Cibber (many deprecations on Alexander Pope)
A Second Letter from Mr. Cibber to Mr. Pope
Thomas Cooke – An Epistle to the Countess of Shaftesbury
Manuel da Assumpção – Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez (Vocabulary of the Bengali Language and Portuguese)
Philip Doddridge – The Principles of the Christian Religion
Enrique Flórez – Clave historial con que se abre la puerta a la historia eclesiástica y política (Clavis Historiae)
Eliza Haywood – A Present for a Servant-Maid (conduct book for female servants, in the light of Richardson's Pamela)
Richard Pococke – A Description of the East & Some Other Countries
William Stukeley – Abury: A temple of the British Druids
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Vida, ascendencia, nacimiento, crianza y aventuras del Doctor Don Diego de Torres Villarroel
William Whitehead – An Essay on Ridicule
Births
January 25 – Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, German philosopher (died 1819)
February 14 – Jane Bowdler, English poet and essayist (died 1784)
March 4 – Johann David Wyss, Swiss novelist writing in German (died 1818)
March 14 – Hannah Cowley, English dramatist and poet (died 1809)
April 13 – Thomas Jefferson, American revolutionary and president (died 1826
June 20 – Anna Laetitia Barbauld, English poet (died 1825)
July 14 – Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin, Russian lyric poet (died 1816)
July 30 – Philip Yorke, Welsh antiquary and genealogist (died 1804)
August 17 – Julien Louis Geoffroy, French critic (died 1814)
Deaths
April 4
Robert Ainsworth, English lexicographer (born 1660)
Daniel Neal, English historian (born 1678)
April 29 – Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre, French writer and thinker (born 1658)
May 6 – Andrew Michael Ramsay, Scottish biographer (born 1686)
August 1 – Richard Savage, English poet (born c. 1697)
October 5 – Henry Carey, English poet, songwriter and dramatist, suicide (born 1687)
October 15 – John Ozell, English translator (year of birth not known)
December 22 – James Bramston, English satirical poet (born c. 1694)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1744%20in%20literature | 1744 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1744.
Events
February 6 – Samuel Foote makes his debut as an actor as Othello at the Haymarket Theatre, London, England.
February 15 – Spranger Barry makes his debut as an actor at the Theatre Royal, Dublin.
April – The Female Spectator (a monthly) is founded by Eliza Haywood in England, the first periodical written for women by a woman.
April 14 – The Physico-Historical Society is formed in Dublin for the preservation of 'manuscripts, rare printed books, and natural curiosities relating to Ireland'.
May 29 – Alexander Pope is received into the Catholic Church, a day before his death.
New books
Fiction
Mary Collyer – Felicia to Charlotte
Sarah Fielding – The Adventures of David Simple
Eliza Haywood – The Fortunate Foundlings
Edward Moore – Fables for the Female Sex
William Oldys – The Harleian Miscellany (introduction by Samuel Johnson)
Joseph Warton – The Enthusiast
Children
John Newbery – A Little Pretty Pocket-Book
Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book (earliest extant English nursery-rhyme collection)
Drama
Robert Dodsley – A Select Collection of Old Plays
William Havard – Regulus
James Miller
Joseph and his Brethren (music by Handel)
Mahomet the Imposter (adapted from Voltaire's Mahomet; completed by John Hoadly)
James Ralph – The Astrologer (adapted from Thomas Tomkis's Albumazar, itself adapted from Giambattista della Porta's L'astrologo)
Antonio de Zamora – No hay deuda que no se pague y convidado de piedra
Poetry
Mark Akenside
The Pleasures of the Imagination
An Epistle to Curio
Jane Brereton – Poems
Gabriel Álvarez de Toledo (ed. Diego de Torres Villarroel) – Obras póstumas poéticas, con la Burromaquia
Non-fiction
John Armstrong – The Art of Preserving Health
George Berkeley – Siris
Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix – Histoire et Description Generale de la Nouvelle France (History and General Description of New France)
Émilie de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet -Dissertation sur la nature et la propagation du feu
Colley Cibber – Another Occasional Letter from Mr. Cibber to Mr. Pope
David Garrick – An Essay on Acting (attrib.)
Samuel Johnson
Life of Mr Richard Savage
An Account of the Life of John Philip Barretier
Francis Moore – A Voyage to Georgia
Alexander Pope – Essay on Man, volume 4: "Epistle: Of the Nature and State of Man, with Respect to" (4) "Happiness" (the first 2 epistles were written in 1732 and the third in 1733).
John Ranby – The Method of Treating Gunshot Wounds
Emanuel Swedenborg – The Animal Kingdom (Soul's Domain) (1744–45)
Jonathan Swift – Three Sermons
Births
January 29 – Catharina Charlotta Swedenmarck, Swedish writer (died 1813)
February 10 – William Mitford, English historian (died 1827)
April 11 (baptised) – Elizabeth Bonhôte, English novelist, essayist and poet (died 1818)
August 25 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German poet (died 1803)
December – Elsa Fougt, Swedish editor and publisher (died 1826)
Deaths
January 28 – Thomas Innes, Scottish historian (born 1662)
January 23 – Thomas Griffith, Irish actor and theatre manager (born 1680)
March 31 – Antiochus Kantemir, Russian diplomat and writer (born 1708)
April 27 – James Miller, English playwright, poet and satirist (born 1704)
May 30 – Alexander Pope, English poet and satirist (born 1688)
September 18 – Lewis Theobald, English literary historian (born 1688)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1745%20in%20literature | 1745 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1745.
Events
February – London theatres stage competing productions of Shakespeare's King John in response to the Jacobite rising begun this summer by Bonnie Prince Charlie. David Garrick's production of the original text at Drury Lane contrasts with Colley Cibber's adaptation Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John at Covent Garden. The rivalry anticipates "the Romeo and Juliet war" of five years later.
September 21 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock delivers a speech on epic poetry – Abschiedsrede über die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erläutert – to mark his leaving school.
October 19 – Jonathan Swift, Irish satirist and Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, dies aged 78. His body is laid out in public for the people of Dublin to pay their last respects, and he is buried, in accordance with his wishes, in his cathedral by Esther Johnson's side, with his own epitaph: Ubi sæva Indignatio/Ulterius/Cor lacerare nequit ("Where savage indignation can no longer lacerate the heart").
November 17 – In Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg of the Moravian Church asks innkeeper Samuel Powell to begin importing and distributing books, the origins of a bookstore still in existence in 2007.
New books
Prose
Mark Akenside – Odes
Elizabeth Boyd – The Snail: Or the Lady's Lucubrations (periodical – one vol. only published)
John Brown – An Essay on Satire, occasion'd by the death of Mr. Pope
Comte de Caylus – Cinq contes de fées (Five Fairy Tales)
John Gilbert Cooper – The Power of Harmony
Philip Doddridge – The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul
Henry Fielding
A Serious Address to the People of Great Britain (on the Jacobite rebellion)
The True Patriot (periodical)
Enrique Flórez – Mapa de todos los sitios de batallas que tuvieron los romanos en España
Samuel Johnson
Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth
Proposals for Printing a New Edition of the Plays of William Shakespear
Jean-Bernard, abbé Le Blanc – Lettres d'un François (Letters on the English and French Nations)
Samuel Madden – Boulter's Monument
Pierre de Marivaux – La Vie de Marianne (The Life of Marianne; last published section of unfinished novel)
Moses Mendes – Henry and Blanche (trans. of Alain-René Lesage)
Glocester Ridley – Jovi Eleutherio
Thomas Scott – England's Danger and Duty
Jonathan Swift (died October 19) – Directions to Servants (unfinished)
William Thompson – Sickness
Drama
Colley Cibber – Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John (adapted from Shakespeare)
Robert Dodsley – Rex et Pontifex
Luise Gottsched – Das Testament
Charles Jennens – Belshazzar (oratorio by Handel)
James Miller – The Picture (adapted from Molière's Sganarelle)
James Thomson – Tancred and Sigismunda
Poetry
Births
January 4 – Johann Jakob Griesbach, German Biblical commentator (died 1812)
February 2
Hannah More, English Romantic poet, religious writer and philanthropist (died 1833)
John Nichols, English printer and antiquary (died 1826)
February 20 – Henry James Pye, English poet (died 1813)
July 26 – Henry Mackenzie, Scottish novelist, writer and poet (died 1831)
September 3 – Charles Victor de Bonstetten, Swiss liberal writer (died 1832)
September 12 (bapt.) – Karl von Marinelli, Austrian actor and dramatist (died 1803)
October 13 (bapt.) – William Crowe, English poet (died 1829)
December 10 – Thomas Holcroft, English dramatist and miscellanist (died 1809)
Probable year of birth – Olaudah Equiano, African writer (died 1797)
Deaths
Spring – William Meston, Scottish poet (born c. 1688)
May 13 – Charles Coffey, Irish dramatist and composer
July 11 – Pierre Desmaiseaux, exiled French biographer (born c. 1673)
September 6 – David Wilkins, Prussian-born English orientalist (born 1685)
October 19 – Jonathan Swift, Irish satirist (born 1667)
November 16 – William Broome, English poet and translator (born 1689)
December 16 – Pierre Desfontaines, French journalist and historian (born 1685)
In literature
Walter Scott's novel Waverley (1814) and Robert Louis Stevenson's The Master of Ballantrae (1889) are set during the Jacobite rising of 1745.
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1746%20in%20literature | 1746 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1746.
Events
May 9 – Voltaire, on being admitted into the Académie française, gives a discours de réception in which he criticizes Boileau's poetry.
June 18 – Samuel Johnson signs a contract to compile A Dictionary of the English Language for a group of London booksellers at a literary breakfast.
August 28 – A Native American massacre on this day of two white families in Deerfield, Massachusetts, gives rise to the first known poem by an African American, Lucy Terry, at the time a slave of around 16: "Bars Fight, August 28, 1746".
October 4 – Irish actor Spranger Barry makes his London stage debut in the title role of Othello at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane (with Charles Macklin as Iago).
unknown dates
The probable first performance of Carlo Goldoni's comedy Servant of Two Masters () takes place at the Teatro San Samuele in Venice.
The oldest manuscript of Jean de Joinville's Life of Saint Louis is rediscovered in Brussels.
Élie Catherine Fréron founds his controversial journal Lettres de la comtesse de...
New books
Prose
John Arbuthnot (died 1735) – Miscellanies
John Collier as "Tim Bobbin" – A View of the Lancashire Dialect by way of dialogue between Tummus... and Meary...
Zachary Grey – A Word or Two of Advice to William Warburton
James Hervey – Meditations Among the Tombs
Soame Jenyns – The Modern Fine Gentleman
Jacques Rochette de La Morlière – Angola
Pierre Louis Maupertuis – Astronomie nautique, volume 2
Tobias Smollett – Advice
Lauritz de Thurah – Den Danske Vitruvius, volume I
John Upton – Critical Observations on Shakespeare
Horace Walpole – The Beauties
John Wesley
The Principles of a Methodist Father Explain'd
Sermons on Several Occasions
Drama
Charles Macklin – Henry VII
Pierre de Marivaux – Le Préjugé vaincu
Takeda Izumo I, Takeda Izumo II, Namiki Sōsuke and Miyoshi Shōraku – Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami
Poetry
Thomas Blacklock – Poems
William Collins – Odes
Thomas Cooke – A Hymn to Liberty
Christian Fürchtegott Gellert – Fabeln und Erzählungen (Fables and Stories) (in verse)
Joseph Warton – Odes on Various Subjects
See also 1746 in poetry
Births
January 12 – Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss educational reformer (died 1827)
January 25 – Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis, French writer, harpist, educator (died 1830)
March 27 – Michael Bruce, Scottish poet (died 1767)
April 3 – Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville, French fantasy novelist (died 1805)
December 21 – José de la Cruz (Huseng Sisiw), Filipino writer (died 1829)
unknown date – Victor d'Hupay, French philosopher (died 1818)
Deaths
February 4 – Robert Blair, Scottish member of the "Graveyard poets" (born 1699)
February 8 – Anton Josef Kirchweger, Latin Pietist author (year of birth unknown)
May 16 – Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Italian Jewish rabbi, kabbalist, and philosopher (born 1707)
May 22 – Thomas Southerne, Irish dramatist (born 1660)
November 12 – Mary Leapor, English kitchenmaid poet (born 1722; died of measles)
December 6 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish poet (born 1665)
unknown date – Frederic Count de Thoms, German biographer of King Louis XIV of France and art collector (born 1669)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1747%20in%20literature | 1747 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1747.
Events
March 31 – Laurence Sterne preaches the Good Friday sermon at St Helen Stonegate; The Case of Elijah and the Widow of Zerephath is later printed and published.
April 9 – David Garrick becomes joint patentee and manager of the Drury Lane Theatre in London.
June 21 – Licensing Act transfers responsibility for pre-production censorship of plays in Britain from the Master of the Revels to the Lord Chamberlain and restricts serious drama to the patent theatres.
December 1 – Samuel Richardson's two-volume epistolary novel Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady ("by the Editor of Pamela") begins publication in London from his own print shop.
unknown date – The Załuski Library in Warsaw is opened to the public.
New books
Prose
William Blackstone (attributed) – The Pantheon
Thomas Carte – A General History of England
Juan de Iriarte – Discurso sobre la imperfección de los diccionarios
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Desengaños razonables para sacudir el polvo del espanto
Denis Diderot – La Promenade du sceptique (completed; not published until 1830)
William Dunkin – Boetia
Thomas Edward – A Supplement to Mr. Warburton's Edition of Shakespear
Henry Fielding, as "John Trott Plaid" – The Jacobite's Journal (periodical)
Sarah Fielding – Familiar Letters Between the Principal Characters in David Simple (a defense against unauthorized continuations)
Samuel Foote – The Roman and English Comedy Consider'd
Hannah Glasse – The Art of Cookery
Madame de Graffigny – Letters from a Peruvian Woman
Henry Home, Lord Kames – Essays Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities
Samuel Johnson – The Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language
Charlotte Lennox – Poems
David Mallet – Amyntor and Theodora
William Mason – Musaeus: A monody to the memory of Pope (an imitation of Milton's Lycidas)
William Memoth, the younger – The Letters of Pliny the Consul
Josiah Ralph – A Miscellany
Samuel Richardson – Clarissa vol. i–ii
William Shakespeare – The Works of Shakespear (edited by William Warburton)
Tobias Smollett – Reproof
Joseph Spence – Polymetis
Voltaire – Zadig (in original form as Memnon)
Horace Walpole – A Letter to the Whigs
Joseph Warton – Ranelagh House
Thomas Warton – The Pleasures of Melancholy
Drama
John Cunningham – Love in a Mist
Samuel Foote – The Diversions of the Morning or, A Dish of Chocolate
David Garrick – Miss in Her Teens
Christian Fürchtegott Gellert – Die zärtlichen Schwestern (The Affectionate Sisters)
Carlo Goldoni – The Venetian Twins (I due gemelli veneziani)
Benjamin Hoadly – The Suspicious Husband
Edward Moore – The Foundling
Takeda Izumo II, Miyoshi Shōraku and Namiki Senryū I – Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (義経千本桜, Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees, original version for bunraku puppet theatre)
Poetry
Philip Francis – A Poetical Translation of the Works of Horace
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu – Six Town Eclogues
Births
January 11 – François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, French economics writer (died 1827)
January 12 – Susanna Blamire, English dialect poet and songwriter (died 1794)
January 15 – John Aikin, English biographer, activist and physician (died 1822)
January 26 – Samuel Parr, English schoolmaster and writer, "the Whig Johnson" (died 1825)
January – William Seward, English man of letters (died 1799)
February 19 – John "Walking" Stewart, English traveller and philosopher (died 1822)
March 10 – Iolo Morganwg, Welsh antiquarian, bookseller, poet and literary forger (died 1826)
September 30 – John Mastin, English memoirist, local historian and cleric (died 1829)
December 12 – Anna Seward, English poet (died 1809)
Unknown date
John Edwards (1747–1792), Welsh poet (died 1792)
Thomas Scott, English cleric and religious writer (died 1821)
Deaths
January 16 – Barthold Heinrich Brockes German poet (born 1680)
May 28 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, essayist (born 1715)
August
Charles Fleetwood, manager of Drury Lane Theatre (year of birth unknown)
Leonard Welsted, English poet (born 1688)
September 7 – Michel Maittaire, French classical scholar, bibliographer and grammarian (born 1668)
November 17 – Alain-René Le Sage, French novelist and playwright (born 1668)
November 21 – Robert Mylne, Scottish antiquarian and writer (born 1643)
November 22 – Joseph Trapp, poet, controversialist and translator (born 1679)
December 23 – Étienne-François Avisse, French dramatist (born 1694)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1748%20in%20literature | 1748 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1748.
Events
January – The play Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (義経千本桜, Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees, by Takeda Izumo II, Miyoshi Shōraku and Namiki Senryū I) receives its Kabuki première in Ise. In May it receives its first Edo performance at the Nakamura-za and in August first performances in Osaka at the Naka no Shibai.
October 19 – David Garrick revives Philip Massinger's play A New Way to Pay Old Debts (written c. 1625) in London.
November 21 – The first installment of Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure, also known as Fanny Hill, is published by John Cleland to raise money to free himself from the London debtors' prison. It is considered by some to be the first modern erotic novel.
December 18 – The Royal Danish Theatre is founded, with the opening of the King's Theater in Copenhagen.
unknown dates
Leonhard Euler publishes, in Berlin, one of the two works for which he will be most renowned: the Introductio in analysin infinitorum. Euler's fifth paper on nautical topics, E137, is also written in this year but not published until 1750.
The Gospel of Matthew in the Manx language, as Yn Sushtcml scruit liorish yn Noo Mian, is the first translation of a New Testament text into that language, under the auspices of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
New books
Prose
George Anson – A Voyage Round the World by Richard Walton
Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens (attributed) – Thérèse philosophe
John Cleland – Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (also known as Fanny Hill)
Denis Diderot
Les Bijoux indiscrets (The Indiscreet Jewels, novel)
Memoires sur differents sujets de mathematique
Eliza Haywood – Life's Progress through the Passions (novel)
James Hervey – Meditations and Contemplations
David Hume
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
Three Essays, Moral and Political
Edmond Hoyle – Mr. Hoyle's Treatises of Whist, Quadrille, Piquet, Chess and Back-Gammon (collected edition)
William Kenrick – The Town
Montesquieu – De l'Esprit des lois (The Spirit of the Laws)
Julien Offray de La Mettrie – L'Homme Machine
Laetitia Pilkington – Memoirs
Samuel Richardson – Clarissa, vols. ii – vii
Thomas Sheridan – The Simile
Tobias Smollett
The Adventures of Roderick Random
English translation of The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillane by Alain-René Le Sage
François-Vincent Toussaint – Les Mœurs
Voltaire – Zadig (in final form)
Horace Walpole – A Second and Third Letter to the Whigs
John Wesley – A Letter to a Person Lately Join'd with the People call'd Quakers
Peter Whalley – An Enquiry into the Learning of Shakespeare
Diego de Torres Villarroel – De los temblores y otros movimientos de la tierra llamados vulgarmente terremotos
Drama
Jean-François Marmontel – Denys le Tyran
Edward Moore – The Foundling
Takeda Izumo II, Miyoshi Shōraku and Namiki Senryū – Kanadehon Chūshingura (仮名手本忠臣蔵, original version for bunraku puppet theatre)
Alexander Sumarokov – Gamlet: Tragediya (adapted from Shakespeare's Hamlet)
Poetry
Mark Akenside – An Ode to the Earl of Huntingdon
Robert Dodsley – A Collection of Poems (a publisher's anthology)
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (anonymously) – Der Messias (first three cantos)
Mary Leapor – Poems
Ambrose Philips – Pastorals, Epistles, Odes and Other Original Poems
James Thomson – The Castle of Indolence
Thomas Warton – Poems
See also 1748 in poetry
Births
January 1 – Gottfried August Bürger, German poet (died 1794)
February 15 – Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher (died 1832)
April 27 – Pierre-Louis Ginguené, French author (died 1815)
May 7 – Olympe de Gouges, French dramatist (died 1793)
November 1 – Francesco Galeani Napione, Italian historian (died 1830)
November 8 – Anne Seymour Damer, English sculptor and novelist (died 1828)
December 14 – Louis-François de Bausset, French cardinal, writer and academician (died 1824)
unknown date – Józef Maksymilian Ossoliński, Polish politician, writer and researcher (died 1829)
Deaths
March 11 – Charles Johnson, English dramatist and publican (born 1679)
April 3 – Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, Swiss political theorist and man of letters (born 1694)
April 13 – Christopher Pitt, English poet and translator (born 1699)
August 27 – James Thomson, Scottish-born poet (born 1700)
September 21 – John Balguy, English philosopher (born 1686)
November 25 – Isaac Watts, English hymnist, theologian and logician (born 1674)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1749%20in%20literature | 1749 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1749.
Events
February – The second part of John Cleland's erotic novel Fanny Hill (Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure) appears in London. He is released from debtor's prison in March. The Church of England asks the Secretary of State to "stop the progress of this vile Book, which is an open insult upon Religion and good manners." In November, Cleland is arrested again, charged with "corrupting the King's subjects."
February 28 – Henry Fielding's picaresque comic novel The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling is published in London by Andrew Millar, who pays the author £700. It reaches four editions by the end of the year. During this year, Fielding becomes magistrate at Bow Street and enlists help from the Bow Street Runners, an early police force.
April 12 – Oxford's circular Radcliffe Library, designed by James Gibbs, opens.
April 17 – Charles Macklin plays Lovegold in Henry Fielding's The Miser at Drury Lane, having previously played minor roles.
unknown dates
Sarah Fielding's novel The Governess, or The Little Female Academy, generally seen as the first school story, is published in London.
Élie Catherine Fréron's journal Lettres de la comtesse de... is suppressed, but immediately replaced by his Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps.
Oliver Goldsmith graduates from Trinity College, Dublin.
New books
Prose
Joseph Ames – Typographical Antiquities
George Berkeley – A Word to the Wise
John Brown – On Liberty
Thomas Cannon – Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplify'd
William Rufus Chetwood – A General History of the Stage
John Cleland
The Case of the Unfortunate Bosavern Penlez
Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure, or, Fanny Hill (unexpurgated, suppressed edition)
John Gilbert Cooper – The Life of Socrates
Denis Diderot – Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient (Letter on the Blind for the Use of Those Who Can See)
Henry Fielding
The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling
The True State of the Case of Bosavern Penlez (in reply to Cleland)
Sarah Fielding – Remarks on 'Clarissa'''
David Hartley – Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations (psychology)
Eliza Haywood – Dalinda (novel)
Aaron Hill – GideonWilliam Law – The Spirit of PrayerWilliam Mason – IsisLauritz de Thurah – Den Danske Vitruvius, volume II
Henry St. John – Letters on the Spirit of PatriotismJohn Wesley – A Plain Account of the People Called MethodistsGilbert West – Odes of PindarDiego de Torres Villarroel – Vida ejemplar y virtudes heroicas del venerable padre D. Jerónimo Abarrátegui y FigueroaChildren
Sarah Fielding – The Governess, or The Little Female AcademyDrama
Anonymous – Tittle Tattle (adaptation of Swift's Genteel and Ingenious Conversations)
William Hawkins – Henry and RosamundAaron Hill – MeropéSamuel Johnson – IreneMoses Mendes – The Chaplet (musical, with music by William Boyce)
Tobias Smollett – The RegicideAlexander Sumarokov – KhorevJames Thomson – CoriolanusVoltaire – NaninePoetry
William Collins – Ode Occasion'd by the death of Mr. ThomsonThomas Cooke – An Ode on BeautySamuel Johnson – The Vanity of Human Wishes: The tenth satire of Juvenal, imitatedHenry Jones – PoemsBirths
January 13 – Maler Müller (Friedrich Müller), German lyricist, dramatist and painter (died 1825)
January 16 – Vittorio Alfieri, Italian dramatist and poet (died 1803)
April 19 – Ōta Nanpo (Ōta Tan), Japanese comic poet and painter (died 1823)
May 4 – Charlotte Turner Smith, English poet and novelist (died 1806)
August 28 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German poet, scholar and novelist (died 1832)
December 19 – Alethea Lewis (Eugenia de Acton), English novelist (died 1827)
December 25 – Samuel Jackson Pratt, English poet, playwright and novelist (died 1814)unknown date'' – Wang Yun, Chinese poet and playwright (died 1819)
Deaths
January 22 – Matthew Concanen, Irish poet, playwright and lawyer (born 1701)
May – Samuel Boyse, Irish poet (born 1702/3)
June 18 – Ambrose Philips, English poet and politician (born 1675)
August 13 – Johann Elias Schlegel, German critic and dramatic poet (born 1719)
September 10 – Émilie du Châtelet, French scientific writer and translator (born 1706)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home%20Office | Home Office | The Home Office (HO), also known (especially in official papers and when referred to in Parliament) as the Home Department, is a ministerial department of the Government of the United Kingdom, responsible for immigration, security, and law and order. As such, it is responsible for policing in England and Wales, fire and rescue services in England, visas and immigration, and the Security Service (MI5). It is also in charge of government policy on security-related issues such as drugs, counter-terrorism, and ID cards. It was formerly responsible for Her Majesty's Prison Service and the National Probation Service, but these have been transferred to the Ministry of Justice. The Cabinet minister responsible for the department is the home secretary, a post considered one of the Great Offices of State; it has been held since July 2019 by Priti Patel.
The expenditure, administration and policy of the Home Office are scrutinised by the Home Affairs Select Committee.
Organisation
The Home Office is headed by the home secretary, a Cabinet minister supported by the department's senior civil servant, the permanent secretary.
As of October 2014, the Home Office comprises the following organisations:
Non-ministerial government departments
National Crime Agency (NCA)
Security Service (MI5)
Inspectorates / accountability
HM Inspectorate of Constabulary
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration
Independent Office for Police Conduct and other oversight bodies
HM Chief Inspector of Fire Services
Divisions
Border Force
HM Passport Office
Immigration Enforcement
Corporate Services
UK Visas and Immigration
Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism
Non-departmental public bodies
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
Animals in Science Committee
Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS)
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority
Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC)
Investigatory Powers Tribunal
Migration Advisory Committee
National DNA Database Ethics Group
Office of Surveillance Commissioners
Office of the Immigration Services Commissioner
Police Advisory Board for England and Wales
Police Discipline Appeals Tribunal
Police Remuneration Review Body
Security Industry Authority (SIA)
Surveillance Camera Commissioner
Technical Advisory Board
Operations
A number of functions of the National Policing Improvement Agency were transferred to the Home Office in October 2012, ahead of the future abolition of the agency.
These included:
Use of the Airwave communications system by police forces
The Police National Database
The National DNA Database
Legislative powers regarding police employment
Forensics policy
The National Procurement Hub for information technology
Budget
Contractors
The Home Office outsources a number of contractors to handle specific duties relating to its mission.
Home Office ministers
The Home Office ministers are as follows:
Priorities
The Department outlined its aims for this Parliament in its Business Plan, which was published in May 2011, and superseded its Structural Reform Plan. The plan said the department will:
1. Empower the public to hold the police to account for their role in cutting crime
Introduce directly elected Police and Crime Commissioners and make police actions to tackle crime and anti-social behaviour more transparent.
2. Free up the police to fight crime more effectively and efficiently
Cut police bureaucracy, end unnecessary central interference and overhaul police powers in order to cut crime, reduce costs and improve police value for money. Simplify national institutional structures and establish a National Crime Agency to strengthen the fight against organised crime (and replace the Serious Organised Crime Agency).
3. Create a more integrated criminal justice system
Help the police and other public services work together across the criminal justice system.
4. Secure our borders and reduce immigration
Deliver an improved migration system that commands public confidence and serves our economic interests. Limit non-EU economic migrants, and introduce new measures to reduce inflow and minimise abuse of all migration routes, for example the student route. Process asylum applications more quickly, and end the detention of children for immigration purposes.
5. Protect people's freedoms and civil liberties
Reverse state interference to ensure there is not disproportionate intrusion into people's lives.
6. Protect our citizens from terrorism
Keep people safe through the Government's approach to counter-terrorism.
7. Build a fairer and more equal society (through the Government Equalities Office)
Help create a fair and flexible labour market. Change culture and attitudes. Empower individuals and communities. Improve equality structures, frontline services and support; and help Government Departments and others to consider equality as a matter of course.
The Home Office publishes progress against the plan on the 10 Downing Street website.
History
On , the Home Office was formed by renaming the existing Southern Department, with all existing staff transferring. On the same day, the Northern Department was renamed the Foreign Office.
To match the new names, there was a transferring of responsibilities between the two Departments of State. All domestic responsibilities (including colonies) were moved to the Home Office, and all foreign matters became the concern of the Foreign Office.
Most subsequently created domestic departments (excluding, for instance, those dealing with education) have been formed by splitting responsibilities away from the Home Office.
The initial responsibilities were:
Answering petitions and addresses sent to the King
Advising the King on
Royal grants
Warrants and commissions
The exercise of Royal Prerogative
Issuing instructions on behalf of the King to officers of the Crown, lords-lieutenant and magistrates, mainly concerning law and order
Operation of the secret service within the UK
Protecting the public
Safeguarding the rights and liberties of individuals
Colonial matters
Responsibilities were subsequently changed over the years that followed:
1793 added: regulation of aliens
1794 removed: control of military forces (to Secretary of State for War)
1801 removed: colonial business (to Secretary of State for War and the Colonies)
1804 removed: Barbary State consuls (to Secretary of State for War and the Colonies)
1823 added: prisons
1829 added: Metropolitan Police and other police services
1836 added: registration of births, deaths and marriages in England and Wales
1844 added: naturalisation
1845 added: registration of Friendly Societies
1855 removed: yeomanries and militias (to War Office)
1858 added: local boards of health
1871 removed: local boards of health (to Local Government Board)
1871 removed: registration of births, deaths and marriages (to Local Government Board)
1872 removed: highways and turnpikes (to Local Government Board)
1875 added: control of explosives
1875 removed: registration of Friendly Societies (to Treasury)
1885 removed: Scotland (to Secretary for Scotland and the Scottish Office)
1886 removed: fishing (to Board of Trade)
1889 removed: Land Commissioners (to Board of Agriculture)
1900 removed: matters relating to burial grounds (to Local Government Board)
1905 removed: public housing (to Local Government Board)
1914 added: dangerous drugs
1919 removed: aircraft and air traffic (to Air Ministry)
1919 removed: use of human bodies in medical training (to Ministry of Health)
1919 removed: infant and child care (to Ministry of Health)
1919 removed: lunacy and mental health (to Ministry of Health)
1919 removed: health and safety (to Ministry of Health)
1920 added: firearms
1920 removed: Representation of Britain abroad in labour matters (to Ministry of Labour)
1920 removed: mining (to Mines Department)
1920 added: Northern Ireland
1921 added: elections (from the Ministry of Health)
1922 removed: relations with Irish Free State (to Colonial Office)
1923 removed: Order of the British Empire (to Treasury)
1925 removed: registration of trade unions (to Ministry of Labour)
1931 removed: county councils (to Ministry of Health)
1933 added: poisons
1934 removed: metropolitan boroughs (to Ministry of Health)
1935 added: Civil Defence Service
1937 removed: road accident returns (to Ministry of Transport)
1938 added: fire services
1938 removed: Imperial Service Order and medal (to Treasury)
1940 removed: factory inspections (to Ministry of Labour)
1945 removed: workmen's compensation scheme (to Ministry of National Insurance)
1947 added: infant and child care (from Ministry of Health)
1947 removed: regulation of advertisements (to Ministry of Town and Country Planning)
1947 removed: burial fees (to Ministry of Health)
1947 removed: registration of building societies (to Treasury)
1948 removed: Broadmoor hospital (to Lunacy Board of Control)
1949 added: Civil Defence Corps
1950 removed: structural precautions for civil defence (to Ministry of Works)
1950 removed: minor judicial appointments (to Lord Chancellor)
1953 removed: slaughterhouses (to Ministry of Housing and Local Government)
1954 removed: markets (to Ministry of Housing and Local Government)
1956 removed: railway accidents (to Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation)
1969 removed: reservoirs (to Ministry of Housing and Local Government)
1971 removed: child care in England (to Department of Health and Social Security)
1971 removed: child care in Wales (to Welsh Office)
1972 removed: Northern Ireland Department of the Home Office (to Northern Ireland Office)
1973 removed: adoption (to Department of Health and Social Security)
1992 removed: broadcasting and sport (to the new Department of National Heritage – later the Department for Culture, Media and Sport)
2000 removed: Metropolitan Police (to Metropolitan Police Authority - later Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime)
2001 removed: Crown Dependencies (to Lord Chancellor's Department – now Ministry of Justice)
2007 removed: criminal justice, prisons & probation and legal affairs (to new Ministry of Justice)
2007 added: counter-terrorism strategy (from the Cabinet Office)
2016 added: fire and rescue services in England (from the Department for Communities and Local Government)
The Home Office retains a variety of functions that have not found a home elsewhere, and sit oddly with the main law-and-order focus of the department, such as regulation of British Summer Time.
Recent incidents
Union action
On 18 July 2012, the Public and Commercial Services Union announced that thousands of Home Office employees would go on strike over jobs, pay and other issues. The union called off the strike; it claimed the department had, consequent to the threat of actions, announced 1,100 new border jobs.
Windrush scandal
The first allegations about the unfair targeting of pre-1973 Caribbean migrants started in 2013. In 2018, the allegations were put to the Home Secretary in the House of Commons, and resulted in the resignation of the then Home Secretary. The Windrush scandal resulted in some British citizens being wrongly deported, and being refused life critical medical treatment, along with a further compensation scheme for those affected, and a wider debate on the Home Office hostile environment policy.
Aderonke Apata
Aderonke Apata, a Nigerian LGBT activist, made two asylum claims that were both rejected by the Home Office in 2014 and on 1 April 2015 respectively, due to her previously having been in a relationship with a man and having children with that man. In 2014, Apata said that she would send an explicit video of herself to the Home Office to prove her sexuality. This resulted in her asylum bid gaining widespread support, with multiple petitions created in response, which gained hundreds of thousands of signatures combined.
On 8 August 2017, after a thirteen-year legal battle and after a new appeal from Apata was scheduled for late July, she was granted refugee status in the United Kingdom by the Home Office.
Location
Until 1978, the Home Office had its offices in what is now the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Main Building on King Charles Street, off Whitehall. From 1978 to 2004, the Home Office was then located at 50 Queen Anne's Gate, a Brutalist office block in Westminster designed by Sir Basil Spence, close to St James's Park tube station. Many functions, however, were devolved to offices in other parts of London, and the country, notably the headquarters of the Immigration and Nationality Directorate in Croydon.
In 2005, the Home Office moved to a new main office designed by Sir Terry Farrell at 2 Marsham Street, Westminster, on the site of the demolished Marsham Towers building of the Department of the Environment.
For external shots of its fictional Home Office, the TV series Spooks uses an aerial shot of the Government Offices Great George Street instead, serving as stand-in to match the distinctly less modern appearance of the fictitious accommodation interiors the series uses.
Research
To meet the UK's five-year science and technology strategy, the Home Office sponsors research in police sciences, including:
Biometrics – including face and voice recognition
Cell type analysis – to determine the origin of cells (e.g. hair, skin)
Chemistry – new techniques to recover latent fingerprints
DNA – identifying offender characteristics from DNA
Improved profiling – of illicit drugs to help identify their source
Raman Spectroscopy – to provide more sensitive drugs and explosives detectors (e.g. roadside drug detection)
Terahertz imaging methods and technologies – e.g. image analysis and new cameras, to detect crime, enhance images and support anti-terrorism
Devolution
Most front-line law and order policy areas, such as policing and criminal justice, are devolved in Scotland and Northern Ireland (and only very partially in Wales), but the following reserved and excepted matters are handled by Westminster.
Scotland
Reserved matters:
The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
Extradition legislation, but the Scottish Ministers (through the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service) have executive responsibility for all aspects of mutual legal assistance
Most aspects of firearms legislation, but Scottish Ministers have some executive responsibilities for the licensing of firearms; further powers are transferred under the Scotland Act 2012
Immigration and nationality
Scientific procedures on live animals.
The Scottish Government Justice and Communities Directorates are responsible for devolved justice and home affairs policy.
Northern Ireland
Excepted matters:
Extradition (as an international relations matter)
Immigration and nationality
The following matters were not transferred at the devolution of policing and justice on 12 April 2010, and remain reserved:
Drug classification
Parades
Security of explosives
National Crime Agency
The Home Office's main counterparts in Northern Ireland are:
Department of Justice (policing, public order and community safety)
Northern Ireland Office (national security in Northern Ireland)
The Department of Justice is accountable to the Northern Ireland Executive, whereas the Northern Ireland Office is a UK Government department.
Wales
Reserved matters:
Policing
Drug Abuse
Data Protection and access to information
Elections
Firearms
Film Classification
Immigration and Nationality
Scientific Procedures on live animals
National Security and Counter-Terrorism
Betting, Gaming and Lotteries
Emergency Powers
Extradition
Lieutenancies
Charities
Criticism
In March 2019, it was reported that in two unrelated cases, the Home Office denied asylum to converted Christians by misrepresenting certain Bible quotes. In one case, it quoted selected excerpts from the Bible to imply that Christianity is not more peaceful than Islam, the religion the asylum-seeker converted from. In another incident, an Iranian Christian application for asylum was rejected because her faith was judged as "half-hearted", for she did not believe that Jesus could protect her from the Iranian regime. As outrage grew on social media, the Home Office distanced itself from the decision, though it confirmed the letter was authentic. The Home Secretary said that it was "totally unacceptable" for his department to quote the Bible to question an Iranian Christian convert's asylum application, and ordered an urgent investigation into what had happened.
The treatment of Christian asylum seekers chimes with other incidents in the past, such as the refusal to grant visas to the Archbishop of Mosul to attend the consecration of the UK's first Syriac Orthodox Cathedral. In a 2017 study, the Christian Barnabas Fund found that only 0.2% of all Syrian refugees accepted by the UK were Christians, although Christians accounted for approximately 10% of Syria's pre-war population.
In 2019, the Home Office admitted to multiple breaches of data protection regulations in the handling of its Windrush compensation scheme. The department sent emails to Windrush migrants which revealed the email address of other Windrush migrants to whom the email was sent. The data breach concerned five different emails, each of which was sent to 100 recipients. In April 2019, the Home Office admitted to revealing 240 personal email addresses of EU citizens applying for settled status in the UK. The email addresses of applicants were incorrectly sent to other applicants to the scheme. In response to these incidents, the Home Office pledged to launch an independent review of its data protection compliance.
In 2019, the Court of Appeal issued a judgement which criticised the Home Office's handling of immigration cases. The judges stated that the "general approach [by the home secretary, Sajid Javid] in all earnings discrepancy cases [has been] legally flawed". The judgement relates to the Home Office's interpretation of Section 322(5) of the Immigration Rules.
In November 2020, the Equality and Human Rights Commission, a statutory body that investigates breaches of the Equality Act 2010 published a report concluding that the Home Office had a "lack of organisation-wide commitment, including by senior leadership, to the importance of equality and the Home Office's obligations under the equality duty placed on government departments". The report noted that the Home Office's pursuit of the "hostile environment" policy from 2012 onwards "accelerated the impact of decades of complex policy and practice based on a history of white and black immigrants being treated differently". Caroline Waters, the interim chair of the EHRC, described the treatment of Windrush immigrants by the Home Office as a "shameful stain on British history".
The Home Office has also been criticised for rejecting many asylum claims from LGBT people.
See also
Home Office Large Major Enquiry System
John Gieve
Law enforcement in the United Kingdom
List of Home Secretaries
List of permanent under secretaries of state of the Home Office
Ministry of Home Security
UK Immigration Service
Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department
References
External links
Records created or inherited by the Home Office, Ministry of Home Security, and related bodies — gives a history of responsibilities of the Home Office, including which functions were merged into or transferred away from the Home Office
Ministerial departments of the Government of the United Kingdom
English law
United Kingdom
Law enforcement in England and Wales
United Kingdom
Ministries established in 1782
1782 establishments in Great Britain | [
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225697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Arne%20Riise | John Arne Riise | John Arne Semundseth Riise (born 24 September 1980) is a Norwegian professional football manager and former player who played as a left back and a left midfielder. He is currently the manager of Toppserien club Avaldsnes.
With 110 caps, he is the most capped player for the Norway national team. He was named in the Norway squad for UEFA Euro 2000 but did not play in the tournament. Riise scored 16 goals before his retirement from international duty in 2013. He spent seven years playing for Premier League side Liverpool, in which he won many honours, including the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League, before moving to Roma in 2008.
Club career
Early career
Riise began his career in his homeland with Aalesund. After a single season as a senior player for the club, he moved abroad in 1998, playing the formative years of his professional career with French club Monaco. When Aalesund opened their new stadium in April 2005, businessman Olav Nils Sunde donated a statue to the club, which was erected in front of the stadium. While Sunde denied it, the statue bore a very strong resemblance to Riise. In 2007, when Riise played in the Champions League Final, a Norwegian commentator demanded the statue officially carry his name. Riise himself has said, "[The name change] is not for me to decide. Everyone sees who it is, and I know that it was made for me."
Riise was a regular member of the 1999–2000 Ligue 1 championship-winning side, however, he fell out of favour with coach Claude Puel after admitting his desire to leave. Riise was a subject of interest from Premier League clubs, especially Fulham and Leeds United that both offered £4 million bids in 2000, though both came to nothing as Monaco wanted £6 million for him.
He was then sold to Liverpool for £4 million the following summer.
Liverpool
He made his debut for Liverpool on 24 August 2001 2001 UEFA Super Cup game against Bayern Munich played at the Stade Louis II. He scored as Liverpool went on to win the game 3–2. He also scored important goals throughout the Premier League season against teams such as Arsenal, Everton, Newcastle United and Manchester United. Riise initially wore the number 18 shirt but changed to the number 6 shirt in 2004–05 season, which had been vacated by defender Markus Babbel. He scored 10 goals in his first season with Liverpool.
Riise endured what were considered below-average seasons by most in the 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons, but he rediscovered his form in 2004–05 following the appointment of Rafael Benítez as manager. He won a UEFA Champions League winner's medal, providing the assist for Liverpool's first goal of the final, although his attempt in the penalty shoot-out against Milan was saved. In the 2005 Football League Cup Final, he scored 45 seconds into the game, the fastest goal in the fixture history, according to the official Liverpool homepage; however, Chelsea eventually prevailed 3–2 after extra time.
In January 2006, Riise signed a new contract at Anfield to keep him at the club until 2009. In February 2008, Riise announced his desire to stay at Liverpool for the rest of his career.
Riise helped the club to win the 2005–06 FA Cup, scoring in the semi-final against Chelsea and successfully converting his attempt in the penalty shoot-out against West Ham in the final.
After a poor run of form in Liverpool's away games in the autumn of 2006, Riise reacted to comments made by teammates Pepe Reina and Jamie Carragher that Liverpool could effectively write off their chances of winning the league, saying, "We never give up. Cowards give up."
Riise made it into the list of the top 50 Liverpool appearance-makers of all time when he played in the 5–0 victory over Luton Town on 15 January 2008.
On 22 April 2008, in Liverpool's Champions League semi-final first leg against Chelsea at Anfield, Riise scored an own goal in the 95th minute to equalise. Liverpool went on to lose 3–2 after extra time in the away match and were eliminated from the tournament 4–3 on aggregate.
Roma
Throughout the 2007–08 season, Riise's natural place in the side was often taken by Fábio Aurélio, the Brazilian establishing himself as the club's first choice left-back. On 18 June 2008, after being linked with moves to other English clubs, Riise signed a four-year contract with Italian Serie A club Roma. The club paid €5 million total (which could go up to €5.5 million), including €2.8 million per year. Riise soon became a fan favourite with his hard working spirit which drove Roma to several important victories. In fact, Riise's first goal for the club was against league leaders Internazionale in a pivotal top of the table game. Two months later, he scored again in the same stadium against Milan with a free kick into the top right corner, also providing an assist for Roma's second goal of the game. Riise was named the Man of the Match for the game, which ended 3–2 in favour of Roma. On 24 January 2010, Riise scored a late header three minutes into injury time in Roma's 2–1 away win over Juventus. He was also responsible for the dismissal of influential goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon in the same game after making a terrific run leaving Buffon no choice but to foul the full-back. Given the nature of the game, it is seen as one of Riise's most memorable moments in a Roma jersey.
Fulham
On 13 July 2011, Fulham announced that Riise had signed a three-year-deal with the club for an undisclosed fee. Riise joined his brother, Bjørn Helge Riise, at Fulham who signed for the club in 2009. Riise made his Fulham debut on 21 July 2011, playing in the UEFA Europa League against Crusaders at Craven Cottage.
On 23 May 2014, he was released from the club at the end of his contract.
APOEL
On 1 September 2014, John Arne Riise signed a one-year contract, with the option of a further season with Cypriot side APOEL. He made his official debut on 20 September 2014, playing the full 90 minutes and providing two assists in APOEL's 3–1 away victory against Ayia Napa for the Cypriot First Division. He made his only 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage appearance with APOEL on 21 October 2014, coming on as a 41st-minute substitute in his team's 0–1 home defeat to Paris Saint-Germain. He scored his first official goal for APOEL on 11 January 2015, opening the scoreline in his team's 1–2 defeat at AEL Limassol for the Cypriot First Division. On 20 May 2015, Riise played a key role in APOEL's 4–2 win over AEL in the final of the Cypriot Cup, scoring his side's decisive fourth goal with a trademark blistering 30-metre free-kick and lifted his first trophy with APOEL in Cyprus. On 24 May 2015, APOEL secured their third consecutive Cypriot league title after beating Ermis Aradippou 4–2, and Riise celebrated the second championship trophy of his career, 15 years after winning the French league with Monaco. On 25 May 2015, one day after winning the double with APOEL, the team announced that Riise's contract was terminated by mutual consent.
Delhi Dynamos
On 24 August 2015, Indian Super League side Delhi Dynamos confirmed the signing of Riise for the upcoming 2015 tournament.
Aalesund
On 11 March 2016, Riise announced on his Twitter page that he had signed for Aalesunds FK, marking his return to the club at which he began his career. Not too long after signing the contract, Riise decided to take a break from professional football, stating a loss of motivation fuelled the decision. He stated that he would return to football before officially retiring.
Chennaiyin
On 18 August 2016, Riise returned from retirement to play for Indian Super League club Chennaiyin. on a two-month contract, as a marquee signing for the Indian club. Co-owner Vita Dani said that he was "delighted" at the signing, and praised Riise's "exceptional" experience as a player. He played ten matches for the club and also scored a goal in the season.
International career
Riise made his debut for the Norway national team against Iceland on 31 January 2000. His first international goals came against Turkey in a Friendly match on 23 February 2000, a game Norway won 2–0. Later that year, he made the only international tournament appearance of his career at UEFA Euro 2000, but was an unused substitute in all three of the team's Group C matches. Through the next decade, Riise was Norway's first-choice left-back, and on 12 November 2011, he played his 100th international match when Norway lost 4–1 against Wales. On 15 August 2012, Riise played his 104th match for Norway and equalled Thorbjørn Svenssen's record as the most capped Norwegian player, eventually surpassing it before retiring from international football in 2013.
Playing style
According to his profile on Fulham FC's website, Riise was "renowned for his unrivalled stamina and powerful shooting ... impressing both as an accomplished defender and as a marauding full-back." He also was a threat from set pieces. While primarily a left back, he often also played as a left midfielder whilst at Liverpool.
Post-playing career
On 4 January 2019, Riise joined Maltese club Birkirkara as a sports director but resigned after less than three months due to personal reasons.
On 5 November 2019, Riise was announced as the new manager of Norwegian Third Division club Flint Tønsberg. He left the club at the end of the 2021 season which ended with relegation to the Norwegian Fourth Division. On 8 December 2021, he was presented as the new manager of Toppserien club Avaldsnes on a two-year contract.
Personal life
Riise has a younger brother named Bjørn Helge Riise who was also a Norwegian international. The two both played for Fulham in the 2011–12 season.
Riise was married to his childhood sweetheart, the Norwegian model Guri Havnevik, from 2003 until they divorced in 2004. He has one daughter with Guri named Ariana, born in January 2001. He has Ariana's name tattooed on his right arm.
Riise got engaged to Maria Elvegard in 2007. The couple were due to be married in the summer of 2008 but had to postpone the day after moving to Rome. They married on 21 June 2010 in a private ceremony in New York City, inviting only their family and close friends. Maria decided to have a double-barrelled surname, Elvegard-Riise. With Maria, he has one daughter named Emma born on 4 August 2009 and one son named Patrick born in November 2011. He has Emma's name and date of birth tattooed on his left arm. He also has Patrick's name tattooed on his left arm. In February 2012, they announced that they would divorce.
In May 2014, he married Louise Angelica.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Norway's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Riise goal.
Honours
Monaco
Division 1: 1999–2000
Trophée des Champions: 2000
Liverpool
FA Cup: 2005–06
Football League Cup: 2002–03
FA Community Shield: 2001, 2006
UEFA Champions League: 2004–05
UEFA Super Cup: 2001, 2005
APOEL
Cypriot First Division: 2014–15
Cypriot Cup: 2014–15
Individual
Kniksen of the Year: 2006
See also
List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps
References
External links
Thisisanfield.com player profile
LFChistory.net player profile
1980 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Ålesund
Sportspeople from Tønsberg
Norwegian footballers
Association football fullbacks
Association football wingers
Aalesunds FK players
AS Monaco FC players
Liverpool F.C. players
A.S. Roma players
Fulham F.C. players
APOEL FC players
Odisha FC players
Chennaiyin FC players
SK Rollon players
Norwegian First Division players
Ligue 1 players
Premier League players
Serie A players
Cypriot First Division players
Indian Super League players
Eliteserien players
UEFA Champions League winning players
Kniksen Award winners
Norway youth international footballers
Norway under-21 international footballers
Norway international footballers
UEFA Euro 2000 players
FIFA Century Club
Norwegian expatriate footballers
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in England
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in India
Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Malta
Expatriate footballers in Monaco
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Italy
Expatriate footballers in Cyprus
Expatriate footballers in India
FA Cup Final players
Norwegian football managers
Avaldsnes IL managers | [
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|
225698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik%20Wergeland | Henrik Wergeland | Henrik Arnold Thaulow Wergeland (17 June 1808 – 12 July 1845) was a Norwegian writer, most celebrated for his poetry but also a prolific playwright, polemicist, historian, and linguist. He is often described as a leading pioneer in the development of a distinctly Norwegian literary heritage and of modern Norwegian culture.
Though Wergeland only lived to be 37, his range of pursuits covered literature, theology, history, contemporary politics, social issues, and science. His views were controversial in his time, and his literary style was variously denounced as subversive.
Early life
He was the oldest son of Nicolai Wergeland (1780–1848), who had been a member of the constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in 1814. The father was himself pastor of Eidsvold and the poet was thus brought up in the very holy of holies of Norwegian patriotism. Wergeland's younger sister was Camilla Collett and younger brother major general Joseph Frantz Oscar Wergeland.
Henrik Wergeland entered The Royal Frederick University in 1825 to study for the church and graduated in 1829. That year, he became a symbol of the fight for celebration of the constitution at 17 May, which was later to become the Norwegian National Day. He became a public hero after the infamous "battle of the Square" in Christiania, which came to pass because any celebration of the national day was forbidden by royal decree. Wergeland was, of course, present and became renowned for standing up against the local governors. Later, he became the first to give a public address on behalf of the day and thus he was given credit as the one who "initiated the day". His grave and statues are decorated by students and school children every year. Notably, the Jewish community of Oslo pays their respects at his grave on 17 May, in appreciation of his successful efforts to allow Jews into Norway.
Early poetry
In 1829 he published a volume of lyrical and patriotic poems, Digte, første Ring (poems, first circle), which attracted the liveliest attention to his name. In this book we find his ideal love, the heavenly Stella, which can be described as a Wergeland equivalent to Beatrice in Dante's poem Divina Commedia. Stella is in fact based on four girls, whom Wergeland fell in love with (two of whom he wooed), and never got really close to. The character of Stella also inspired him to endeavour on the great epic Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias (Creation, Man and the Messiah). It was remodeled in 1845 as Mennesket (Man). In these works, Wergeland shows the history of Man and God's plan for humanity. The works are clearly platonic-romantic, and is also based on ideals from the enlightenment and the French revolution. Thus, he criticizes abuse of power, and notably evil priests and their manipulation of people's minds. In the end, his credo goes like this:
Heaven shall no more be split
after the quadrants of altars,
the earth no more be sundered and plundered
by tyrant's sceptres.
Bloodstained crowns, executioner's steel
torches of thralldom and pyres of sacrifice
no more shall gleam over earth.
Through the gloom of priests, through the thunder of kings,
the dawn of freedom,
bright day of truth
shines over the sky, now the roof of a temple,
and descends on earth,
who now turns into an altar
for brotherly love.
The spirits of the earth now glow
in freshened hearts.
Freedom is the heart of the spirit, Truth the spirit's desire.
earthly spirits all
to the soil will fall
to the eternal call:
Each in own brow wears his heavenly throne.
Each in own heart wears his altar and sacrificial vessel.
Lords are all on earth, priests are all for God.
At the age of twenty-one he became a power in literature, and his enthusiastic preaching of the doctrines of the French July revolution of 1830 made him a force in politics also. Meanwhile, he was tireless in his efforts to advance the national cause. He established popular libraries, and tried to alleviate the widespread poverty of the Norwegian peasantry. He preached the simple life, denounced foreign luxuries, and set an example by wearing Norwegian homespun clothes. He strove for enlightenment and greater understanding of the constitutional rights his people had been given. Thus, he became increasingly popular among common people.
In his historic essay Hvi skrider Menneskeheden saa langsomt frem? (Why does humanity progress so slowly), Wergeland expresses his conviction that God will guide humanity to progress and brighter days.
Personal and political struggle
Critics, especially Johan Sebastian Welhaven, claimed his earliest efforts in literature were wild and formless. He was full of imagination, but without taste or knowledge. Therefore, from 1830 to 1835 Wergeland was subjected to severe attacks from Welhaven and others. Welhaven, being a classicist, could not tolerate Wergeland's explosive way of writing, and published an essay about Wergeland's style. As an answer to these attacks, Wergeland published several poetical farces under the pseudonym of "Siful Sifadda". Welhaven showed no understanding of Wergeland's poetical style, or even of his personality. On one hand, the quarrel was personal, on the other, cultural and political. What had started as a mock-quarrel in the Norwegian Students' Community soon blew out of proportion and became a long lasting newspaper dispute for nearly two years. Welhaven's criticism, and the slander produced by his friends, created a lasting prejudice against Wergeland and his early productions.
Recently, his early poetry has been reassessed and more favorably recognized. Wergeland's poetry can in fact be regarded as strangely modernistic. From early on, he wrote poems in free style, without rhymes or metre. His use of metaphors are vivid, and complex, and many of his poems quite long. He challenges the reader to contemplate his poems over and over, but so do his contemporaries Byron and Shelley, or even Shakespeare. The free form and multiple interpretations especially offended Welhaven, who held an aesthetical view of poetry as appropriately concentrated on one topic at a time.
Wergeland, who until this point had written in Danish, supported the thought of a separate and independent language for Norway. Thus, he preceded Ivar Aasen by 15 years. Later, the Norwegian historian Halvdan Koht would say that "there is not one political cause in Norway which has not been seen and anticipated by Henrik Wergeland".
Personality
Wergeland had a hot temper and fought willingly for social justice. At the time, poverty was normal in the rural areas, and serfdom was common. He was generally suspicious of lawyers because of their attitude towards farmers, especially poor ones, and often fought in the courts greedy lawyers, who could legally take hold of small homesteads. Wergeland made great enemies for this, and in one case, the judicial problem lasted for years and nearly left him bankrupt. The quarrel had started at Gardermoen, at the time a drill field for a section of the Norwegian army. In his plays, his nemesis, the procurator Jens Obel Praëm, would be cast as the devil himself.
Wergeland was tall, reckoned by the average Norwegian height at the time. He stood a head taller than most of his contemporaries (about 1m and 80 cm). Often, he could be seen gazing upwards, especially when he rode his horse through town. The horse, Veslebrunen (little brown), is reckoned to be a small Norwegian breed (but not a pony). Thus, when Wergeland rode his horse, his feet dragged after him.
Entry in a playwrights' competition
In the autumn of 1837, Wergeland took part in a playwright's competition for the theater in Christiania. He came second, just behind Andreas Munch. Wergeland had written a musical play, Campbellerne (The Campbells). This play was based on tunes and poems by Robert Burns, and the plot commented on both Company rule in India and serfdom in Scotland. At the same time, he expressed several critical sentiments towards prevailing social conditions in Norway, including poverty and avaricious lawyers. The play was an immediate crowd-pleaser, and was later considered by many to be his greatest theatrical success.
But the riots began on the second day of performance, 28 January 1838. To this performance, 26 distinguished high-ranking gentlemen from the university, court and administration mustered to take Wergeland once and for all. They bought themselves the best seats in the audience, and armed with small toy-trumpets and pipes, they began to interrupt the performance from the very beginning. The tumult rose, and the chief of the Christiania police could do nothing more than shout for order while jumping in his seat. Later, it has been said that the high-ranking gentlemen acted like schoolboys, and one of them, an attorney in the high court, broke into the lounge of Nicolai Wergeland, bellowing straight in his ear. The poet's father was astonished by this behaviour. The assailant is said to have been the later Norwegian prime minister Frederik Stang. One of the actors finally calmed the audience, and the play commenced. Later, after the play, the ladies in the first and second row acted on behalf of Wergeland, throwing rotten tomatoes at the offenders, and then fights erupted, inside and outside the theater building, and in the streets nearby. Allegedly, some of them tried to escape, and were dragged back for another round of beating. The offenders were shamed for weeks, and dared not show themselves for a while. The story of this battle, called "the battle of the Campbells" (Cambellerslaget), was witnessed and recorded by a member of the Norwegian Parliament.
One might conclude that the followers of Wergeland won the day, but the men in position might have taken some revenge by slandering Wergeland's reputation after his death.
In February, a performance was held "for the benefit of Mr Wergeland", and this gave him enough money to purchase a small abode outside town, in Grønlia under the hill of Ekeberg.
Marriage
From Grønlia, Wergeland had to row across the fjord to a small inn at the Christiania quay. Here, he met Amalie Sofie Bekkevold, then 19 years of age, daughter of the proprietor. Wergeland quickly fell in love, and proposed the same autumn. They got married on 27 April 1839 in the church of Eidsvoll, with Wergeland's father as priest.
Although Amalie was working class, she was also charming, witty and intelligent, and soon won the hearts of her husband's family. Camilla Collett became her trusted friend throughout their lives. The marriage produced no children, but the couple adopted Olaf, an illegitimate son Wergeland had fathered in 1835, and Wergeland secured an education for the boy. Olaf Knutsen, as he was called, would later become the founder of the Norwegian School-gardening, and a prominent teacher.
Amalie became the inspiration for a new book of love poems; this book was filled with images of flowers, whereas his earlier love poems had been filled with images of stars. After Wergeland's death, she married the priest, Nils Andreas Biørn, who officiated at his funeral and was an old college friend of Wergeland. She had eight children by him. But at her death many years later, her eulogy was as follows: The widow of Wergeland has died at last, and she has inspired poems like no-one else in Norwegian literature.
Employment
Wergeland had tried to get employment as a chaplain or priest for many years up to this point. He was always turned down, mostly because the employers found his way of living "irresponsible" and "unpredictable". His legal strife with Praëm was also a hindrance. The department stated that he could not get a parish while this case was still unresolved. His last attempt vanished "on a rose-red cloud" during the winter of 1839, due to an incident in a tavern.
Meanwhile, Wergeland worked as a librarian at the University Library for a small wage, from January 1836. In the period 1835–1837 he edited a radical magazine entitled Statsborgeren. In late autumn 1838, King Carl Johan offered him a small "royal pension" that nearly doubled his salary. Wergeland accepted this as a payment for his work as a "public teacher". This pension gave Wergeland enough income to marry and settle down. His marriage the same spring made him calmer, and he applied again, this time for the new job as head of the national archive. The application is dated January 1840. Eventually, he obtained it, and was employed from 4 January 1841 until he had to retire in the autumn of 1844.
On 17 April 1841, he and Amalie moved to his new home, Grotten, situated near the new Norwegian royal palace, and here he lived the next few years.
Personal struggles
After his employment, Wergeland became suspected by his earlier comrades in the republican movement, of betraying his cause. He, as left-wing, should not have taken anything from the King. Wergeland had an ambiguous view of Carl Johan. In one perspective, he was a symbol of the French Revolution, a reminder of values Wergeland admired. On the other hand, he was the Swedish king who had hindered the national independence. The radicals called Wergeland a renegade, and he defended himself in many ways. But it was apparent that he himself felt lonely and betrayed. On one occasion, he was present at a students' party, and tried to propose a toast for the old professors, and was rudely interrupted. After a couple of attempts, he despaired and broke a bottle against his forehead. Only one single person, a physician, later recalled that Wergeland wept that night. Later that evening, the students prepared a procession in honour of the university, and they all left Wergeland behind. Only one student offered him his arm, and this was enough to get Wergeland back in the mood. The student was Johan Sverdrup, later the father of Norwegian parliamentarism. Thus, the two symbols of Norwegian left-wing movement, a generation apart, walked together.
But Wergeland was barred from writing in some of the bigger newspapers, and was therefore not allowed to defend himself. The paper Morgenbladet would not print his answers, not even his poetical responses. One of his best known poems was written at this time, a response to the paper's statement that Wergeland was "irritable and in a bad mood". Wergeland responded in free metre:
I in a bad mood, Morgenblad? I, who need nothing more than a glimpse of sun to burst out in loud laughter, from a joy I cannot explain?
The poem was printed in another newspaper, and Morgenbladet printed the poem with an apology to Wergeland in the spring of 2008.
In January 1844 the court decided on a compromise in the Praëm case. Wergeland had to bail himself out, and he felt humiliated. The sum was set at 800 speciedaler, more than he could afford. He had to sell his house, and Grotten was purchased the following winter by a good friend of his, who understood his plight.
The psychological pressure may have contributed to his illness.
Period of illness prior to death
In the spring of 1844, he caught pneumonia and had to stay at home for a fortnight. While recovering, he insisted on taking part in the national celebrations that year, and his sister Camilla met him, "pale as death, but in the spirit of 17 May" on his way to the revels. Soon after, his illness returned, and now he had symptoms of tuberculosis as well. He had to stay inside, and the illness turned out to be terminal. There have been many theories about the nature of his sickness. There are some who claim he developed lung cancer after a lifetime of smoking. At the time, the dangers of smoking were unknown to most people.
This last year, he wrote rapidly from his sickbed, letters, poems, political statements and plays.
Due to his economic situation, Wergeland moved to a smaller house, Hjerterum, in April 1845. Grotten was then sold. But his new home was not yet finished, and he had to spend ten days at the national hospital Rikshospitalet. Here, he wrote some of his best known sickbed poems. He wrote almost to the end. The last written poem is dated 9 July, three days before his death.
Death
Henrik Wergeland died in his home early morning 12 July 1845. His funeral was held 17 July, and was attended by thousands, many of whom had traveled from the districts around Christiania. The priest had expected some hundreds, but had to correct himself. The congregation was ten times that number. His coffin was carried by the Norwegian students, while the appointed wagon went in front of them empty. Allegedly, the students insisted on carrying the coffin themselves. Wergeland's grave was left open during the afternoon, and all day, people revered him by spreading flowers on his coffin, until evening came. His father wrote his thanks for this in Morgenbladet three days later (20 July), stating that his son had gotten his honour at last:
Now I see how you all loved him, how you revered him... God reward and bless you all! The brother you held in such esteem had a risky beginning, was misunderstood a long time and suffered long, but had a beautiful ending. His life was not strewn with roses, but his death and grave the more - (Nicolai Wergeland).
Change of site at cemetery
Wergeland was in fact laid in a humble section of the churchyard, and soon his friends began to write in the newspapers, claiming a better site for him. He was eventually moved to his present grave in 1848. At this time, debate arose about a proper monument for his grave. The monument on his grave was provided by Swedish Jews, and officially "opened" 17 June 1849, after six months of delay.
Legacy
His statue stands between the Royal Palace and Storting by Oslo's main street, his back turned to Nationalteateret. On Norwegian Constitution Day, it receives an annual wreath of flowers from students at the University of Oslo. This monument was raised on 17 May 1881, and the oration at this occasion was given by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson.
During the Second World War, the Nazi occupiers forbade any celebration of Wergeland.
Works
The collected writings of Henrik Wergeland (Samlede Skrifter : trykt og utrykt) were published in 23 volumes in 1918–1940, edited by Herman Jæger and Didrik Arup Seip. An earlier compilation also titled Samlede Skrifter ("Collected Works", 9 vols., Christiania, 1852–1857) was edited by H. Lassen, the author of Henrik Wergeland og hans Samtid (1866), and the editor of his Breve ("Letters", 1867).
Wergeland's Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke (Flower-piece by Jan van Huysum, 1840), Svalen (The Swallow, also translated to English, 1841), Jøden (The Jew 1842), Jødinden (The Jewess 1844) and Den Engelske Lods (The English Pilot 1844), form a series of narrative poems in short lyrical metres which remain the most interesting and important of their kind in Norwegian literature. He was less successful in other branches of letters; in the drama neither his Campbellerne (The Campbells 1839), Venetianerne (The Venetians 1843), nor Søkadetterne (The Sea Cadets 1837), achieved any lasting success; while his elaborate contribution to political history, Norges Constitutions Historie (The History of the Norwegian Constitution 1841–1843, is still regarded as an important source. The poems of his later years include many lyrics of great beauty, which are among the permanent treasures of Norwegian poetry.
Wergeland became a symbol for the Norwegian Left-wing movement, and was embraced by many later Norwegian poets, right up until today. Thus, a great number of later poets owe him allegiance in one way or another. As the Norwegian poet Ingeborg Refling Hagen said, "When in our footprints something sprouts,/ it's a new growth of Wergeland's thoughts." She, among others, initiated an annual celebration on his birthday. She started the traditional "flower-parade", and celebrated his memory with recitation and song, and often performing his plays.
Wergeland's most prominent poetical symbols are the flower and the star, symbolizing heavenly and earthly love, nature and beauty.
His lyrics have been translated into English by Illit Gröndal, G. M. Gathorne-Hardy, Jethro Bithell, Axel Gerhard Dehly and Anne Born.
Family
His father was the son of a bellringer from Sogn, and Wergeland's paternal ancestry is mostly farmers from Hordaland, Sogn and Sunnmøre. On his mother's side, he descended from both Danes and Scots. His great-grandfather, Andrew Chrystie (1697–1760), was born in Dunbar, and belonged to the Scottish Clan Christie. This Andrew migrated in 1717 to Brevik in Norway, moved on to Moss and was married a second time to a Scottish woman, Marjorie Lawrie (1712–1784). Their daughter Jacobine Chrystie (1746–1818) was married to the town clerk of Kristiansand Henrik Arnold Thaulow (1722–1799), father of Wergeland's mother Alette Thaulow (1780–1843). Wergeland got his first name from the elder Henrik Arnold.
His ancestors with the Wergeland name, lived at Verkland, a farm in Ytre Sogn "at the top of the valley leading from Yndesdalvatnet, North of the county line towards Hordaland". ("Wergeland" is a Danish transliteration of "Verkland".)
Further reading
Benterud, Aagot. 1943. Henrik Wergelands religiøse utvikling: en litteraturhistorisk studie. Dreyers forlag.
References
External links
Henrik Wergeland statue in Fargo, ND
Wergeland statue by Gustav Vigeland
Norwegian
Henrik Wergeland at Norske Dikt
Henrik Wergeland at the Internet Archive
Henrik Wergeland at Norwegian Wikisource
Henrik Wergeland at the Lied and Art Song Archive
Digitized books by Wergeland in the National Library of Norway
Electronic text:
Electronic text and scanned images:
English
Henrik Wergeland in the Encyclopædia Britannica.
Henrik Wergeland, the Norwegian poet 1919
Translations
Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke
Med en bouquet
Pigen paa anatomikammeret
Streaming audio
Siste reis
Til min gyldenlak
[https://www.loc.gov/jukebox/recordings/detail/id/5438 ''Ifjor gatt'eg geitinn]
Wergeland songs and poemsPoem'''
Juleaften: Norwegian lyrics
Juleaften: English translation
Torstein Blixfjord film
1808 births
1845 deaths
19th-century Norwegian people
Burials at the Cemetery of Our Saviour
Directors-General of the National Archives of Norway
Norwegian archivists
Norwegian newspaper editors
Norwegian male poets
People from Kristiansand
Romantic poets
University of Oslo alumni
19th-century journalists
Male journalists
19th-century Norwegian poets
19th-century Norwegian male writers
Language reformers
Wergeland family
Opposition to antisemitism in Europe | [
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225700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser%20Island | Fraser Island | Fraser Island (also known as K'gari and Gari) is a World-Heritage-listed island along the south-eastern coast in the Wide Bay–Burnett region, Queensland, Australia. The name K'gari is the Indigenous name in the Butchulla language, while the name Gari is the Indigenous name in the Badtjala language. The island is approximately north of the state capital, Brisbane, and is within the Fraser Coast Region local government area. The world heritage listing includes the island, its surrounding waters and parts of the nearby mainland.
Fraser Island, and some satellite islands off the southern west coast and thus in the Great Sandy Strait, form the County of Fraser, which is subdivided into six parishes. Among the islands are Slain Island, Tooth Island, Roundbush Island, Moonboom Island, Gardner Island, Dream Island, Stewart Island, and the Reef Islands, all part of the southernmost parish of Talboor.
The island is about long and wide. It was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1992. The island is considered to be the largest sand island in the world at . It is also Queensland's largest island, Australia's sixth largest island and the largest island on the east coast of Australia.
Fraser Island has rainforests, eucalyptus woodland, mangrove forests, wallum and peat swamps, sand dunes and coastal heaths. It is made up of sand that has been accumulating for approximately 750,000 years on volcanic bedrock that provides a natural catchment for the sediment carried on a strong offshore current northwards along the coast. Unlike on many sand dunes, plant life is abundant due to the naturally occurring mycorrhizal fungi present in the sand, which release nutrients in a form that can be absorbed by the plants. The island is home to a small number of mammal species, as well as a diverse range of birds, reptiles and amphibians, including the occasional saltwater crocodile. The island is protected as part of the Great Sandy National Park, and is a popular tourism destination.
Fraser Island has been inhabited by humans for as long as 5,000 years. Explorer James Cook sailed by the island in May 1770. Matthew Flinders landed near the most northern point of the island in 1802. For a short period the island was known as Great Sandy Island. The island became known as Fraser Island due to the stories of a shipwreck survivor named Eliza Fraser.
In 1992 it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, under the name "Fraser Island"; this name was altered to the traditional Aboriginal name of K'gari in 2021. In 2009, as part of the Q150 celebrations, Fraser Island was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "Natural attraction".
Name
The earliest known name of the island is "K'gari" in the Butchulla (Badjala) language (pronounced "gurri"). It means paradise, but also has a creation story relating to it. According to the Butchulla Dreaming story, the creator being Beiral sent his messenger Yendingie to create land and sea for the people. His helper, a "beautiful white spirit called Princess K’gari", worked hard to create the shores and the land, but afterwards persuaded Yedingie to let stay on their beautiful creation. In order to stay, she had to be changed into an island, so Yedingie created lakes, vegetation, animals and people to keep her company. She remains today, happy "in, and as a 'paradise'".
After European colonisation it was called Great Sandy Island, then Fraser Island due to the stories disseminated by Eliza Fraser about her 1836 shipwreck on the island.
The island has also been referred to as Thoorgine, or Thoorgine Island.
In 2011 the Indigenous names of K'gari and Gari were entered as an alternative names for the island in the Queensland Place Names register.
In 2017 the island portion of Great Sandy National Park was renamed to K'gari (Fraser Island) National Park, in recognition of Butchulla people who had been campaigning for the island to regain the name officially.
In September 2021 the World Heritage Area within Great Sandy National Park, along with the surrounding waters and parts of the nearby mainland, had been renamed K’gari, the original Butchulla people’s name for the island. The move was celebrated at a ceremony with Elders and representatives of the Butchulla people on Fraser Island. The name change had been formally adopted at the 44th session of the World Heritage Committee, and is a major milestone in a long running campaign by the region's traditional owners.
History
Pre-settlement
The island was part of the traditional lands of the Badjala people before European settlement.
Eliza Fraser
Captain James Fraser and his wife, Eliza Fraser, were shipwrecked on the island in 1836. Their ship, the brig Stirling Castle, set sail from Sydney to Singapore with 18 crew and passengers. The ship was holed on coral while travelling through the Great Barrier Reef north of the island. Transferring to two lifeboats, the crew set a course south, attempting to reach the settlement at Moreton (now Brisbane). During this trip in the lifeboats, Captain Fraser's pregnant wife gave birth in the leaking lifeboat. The infant died soon after birth. The Captain's lifeboat was becoming more and more unseaworthy and was soon left behind by the other lifeboat which continued on. The sinking boat and its crew was beached on what was then known as the Great Sandy Island. Whether the survivors died due to disease, hunger, exhaustion or battles with the native population will never be known for sure; most likely a little of all of the above. Captain Fraser died leaving Eliza living among the local peoples. She was rescued 6 weeks later by a convict, John Graham, who had lived in the bush as an escapee and who spoke the Aboriginal language. He was sent from the settlement at Moreton by the authorities there who had heard about Eliza's plight, and negotiated her return. Within 6 months, Eliza had married another sea captain. She moved to England and became a sideshow attraction in Hyde Park telling ever more lurid tales about her experiences with the enslavement of the crew, cannibalism, torture, and murder. As she is known to have told several versions of the story, it is unknown which (if any) version was most accurate. She was killed in a carriage accident in Melbourne in 1858 during a visit. Fraser's stories were later discredited and first hand accounts of other survivors of the ship differed markedly.
Butchulla
Butchulla (also known as Batjala, Badtjala, Badjela and Badjala) is the language of the Fraser Coast region, including Fraser Island. Butchulla language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Fraser Coast Regional Council, particularly the towns of Maryborough and Hervey Bay extending south towards Noosa.
Archaeological research and evidence shows that Aboriginal Australians occupied Fraser Island at least 5,000 years ago. There was a permanent population of 400–600 that grew to 2,000–3,000 in the winter months due to abundant seafood resources. The arrival of Europeans in the area was an overwhelming disaster for the Butchulla people. European colonisation in the 1840s destroyed the foundations of Aboriginal life. By 1890, it was reported the permanent Butchulla island population had been reduced to only 300 people. Most of these people were taken off the island in 1904 and relocated to missions in Yarrabah and Durundur, Queensland. It is estimated that up to 500 Indigenous archaeological sites are located on the island.
In October 2014, Native title rights were granted to the Butchulla people by the Federal Court. This essentially enables Butchulla people to hunt, fish and take water for domestic purposes; and opens the island up to economic opportunities for current and future generations of Butchulla people through ecotourism and related business development.
British exploration
Initial European contact was limited to explorers and shipwrecks. The first recorded Brit to sight Fraser Island was James Cook who passed along the coast of the island between 18 and 20 May 1770. He named Indian Head after viewing a number of Aboriginal people gathered on the headland. After Cook's passage an Aboriginal song was composed to commemorate the event. This was later recognised as the first preserved oral testimony of Indigenous observation of Europeans. Matthew Flinders sailed past the island in 1799, and again in 1802, this time landing at Sandy Cape, while charting Hervey Bay. His 1814 chart is a combination of both voyages, but did not confirm Fraser Island as being separate from the mainland. However, Flinders did suggest the presence of shallow swampy areas at the lower part of the bay. Flinders was told of an opening at Hook Point, between Fraser Island and the mainland, by two American whalers who were hunting whales in Hervey Bay. In 1842, Andrew Petrie recorded good pastoral lands and forests, attracting graziers to the region. Lieutenant Robert Dayman was the first European to sail between Fraser Island and the mainland in 1847.
Frontier Conflict c1851-c1860
Non-Indigenous settlement of the traditional Butchulla mainland area began in 1847, sparking frontier conflict that was brutal, fatal, and vastly in favour of the non-Indigenous people. Pre-existing Butchulla ownership of the land, established customs, or occupation patterns vital to their survival were not considered or accommodated by non-Indigenous occupants in 'settlements', and the Butchulla people strongly resisted non-Indigenous occupation. Retribution for crimes, perceived or actual, was enacted indiscriminately rather than upon any individual suspect. With the growing non-Indigenous occupation of Butchulla-owned mainland area, Fraser Island became a refuge for Butchulla people and became seen as a threat to non-Indigenous occupants.
Non-Indigenous propaganda against Butchulla people involving Fraser Island was used to legitimise and further frontier conflict and raise support for it. This included widespread, lurid newspaper articles describing unverified acts on Fraser Island by Butchulla people against non-Indigenous people, such as THE COAST BLACKS. These articles drove vigilante and government-organised retribution. In October 1850, there were reports that 'blacks' (sic) had killed a shepherd and taken 2000 stolen sheep to Fraser Island. In 1851, a small government and vigilante force including Commandant Frederick Walker and a contingent of the Native Police force were called in to 'apprehend' Butchulla people who were charged with committing a number of offences and were using Fraser Island as a 'sanctuary'. Walker had received advice from the Attorney-General of New South Wales, John Hubert Plunkett, "It must, unhappily, be expected that the proposed attempt at arrest may lead to a warlike conflict and perhaps to loss of life, but the aim of the law must not be paralysed by the expectation of such results". The specific suspects were not identified. The government had effectively provided its support for the force to murder any Butchulla people encountered and there was no real attempt at justice for the supposed crimes and none was achieved. Reports of the conflict, provided by non-Indigenous participants only, are one-sided but report no non-Indigenous casualties and many Butchulla deaths.
The force included Walker, Lieutenant Richard Marshall, Sergeant Doolan, three divisions of troopers, and armed locals including James Leith Hay, aboard a schooner. Butchulla people were encountered on the Mary River on the journey to Fraser Island, said to be in stolen boats, were shot along the way and one boat was seized. The force landed on the west coast of the island where the divisions split up. During the night, conflict began and a number of Butchulla people were shot and others captured. The weather was bad and Commandant Walker allowed his division to track down other groups of Butchulla people without him. This group tracked a group of Butchulla people across the island to the east coast where they pursued them into the open ocean to an unknown fate. After months of conflict, the force returned to Maryborough in early January 1852 and Captain Currie received a reward of £10 for his contribution.
Despite this, British commissioners stationed in Maryborough reported non-Indigenous occupants felt threatened by Butchulla people. In 1857, a Native Police barracks under the command of Lieutenant John O'Connell Bligh was established at Coopers Plains, now Owanyilla, not far from Maryborough. The close proximity of this force eliminated most Butchulla resistance by 1860 with Bligh conducting further bloody forays into Fraser Island, Cooloola and in the town of Maryborough itself.
The 'White Girls' of Fraser Island
In 1859 rumours of two shipwrecked 'white' girls living with Butchulla people on Fraser Island gained some credence when Captain Arnold of the Coquette arrived in Sydney with information seeming to confirm the story. Public interest was stirred and Arnold was requested by the New South Wales Government to return to the island with a rescue party, obtaining the right to a £200 bonus if the girls were brought back. The expedition was carried out with the aid of an Aboriginal man named Tommy, who identified the Aboriginal camp near Indian Head where two girls aged about 12 and 18 were located and captured. The girls' 'excited' family/families were bribed with gifts and lies the girls would be returned soon. On taking them to Sydney, it became evident through their appearance and through their complete lack of knowledge of the English language that the girls were likely Aboriginal 'half-castes'. Arthur Macalister stated that he "thought it very probable that these girls were half castes, and that the whole thing was a trick". Further discredit was placed on the process when it was found that the Aboriginal people who were paid by the search party to find the girls were rewarded in worthless commemorative coins instead of real money. The girls, 'Kitty' Mundi and 'Maria' Quoheen/Coyeen, were not returned to their home but were initially kept at the Immigration Depot, where they yearned for their family. Kitty, the eldest of the two, suffered severe mental distress and died shortly afterwards. Maria survived for about 20 years, dying from pulmonary tuberculosis.
Aboriginal internment camp
In 1897, as part of the implementation of the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897, the Government of Queensland moved 51 Indigenous people who had been deemed to have "reached a deplorable stage of degradation, being completely demoralised by drink, opium, disease, and intermittent periods of semi-starvation" from the Maryborough district to a camp on the west coast of Fraser Island. The main bureaucrat in charge of the relocations of Indigenous people in Queensland at the time, Archibald Meston, transported the 51 men, women and children to a defunct quarantine station at White Cliffs (Beerillbee) about 2 km south of the present day Kingfisher Bay Resort. However, white residents of Maryborough made incursions into the camp area and caused tension and flare ups which resulted in the relocation of the camp 10 km north to Bogimbah creek. The Queensland Government ran the Bogimbah site under the direction of Archibald Meston's son and wife until February 1900, when control was handed over to the Australian Board of Missions. By this time, Bogimbah had become an incarceration facility for Indigenous people from around Queensland. At the end of 1899 there were 137 Indigenous people from 25 different locations, including some who had served prison sentences in places like St Helena Island and Townsville Gaol and had been refused permission to return to their homes. A former Native Police trooper named Barney, who had assisted in the operations to capture Ned Kelly, was sent to Bogimbah but drowned there not long after in a boating accident.
Conditions at Bogimbah were dire, with inadequate shelter and rations. Inmates frequently tried to escape to the mainland in order to get access to better food and obtain employment. Some died through malnutrition, pulmonary tuberculosis and geophagia. In 1904, in order to save money on funding to the Missions Board, the Queensland Government decided to shut the Bogimbah facility. Of the 145 Indigenous people counted at the time of closure, 94 were transferred to the Yarrabah facility near Cairns, 33 to the Durundur facility near Woodford, 9 were kept local and another 9 escaped or were sent elsewhere. Those who were removed to Yarrabah were transported by the Rio Loge and there appears to have been deceptive techniques involved in getting the people to separate from loved ones. Once in Yarrabah, similarly poor living standards greeted these people and those who become troublesome were transferred to Fitzroy Island.
Logging
Logging on the island began in 1863, initiated by American Jack Piggott (known as 'Yankee Jack'). Piggott's contribution, however, was limited as he was killed the following year by Indigenous people on the northern part of the island after what was rumoured to be a "black-shooting expedition" went awry. Blackbutt trees (Eucalyptus pilularis), Queensland kauri (Agathis robusta) and satinay or Fraser Island turpentine (Syncarpia hillii) were extensively exploited as they provided excellent timber. Satinay logs were sent to Egypt to be used in the construction of the Suez Canal. For the first 70 years of logging, bullock drays were used to haul the timber to loading points on the beach. Railway tracks were laid through the forest to facilitate logging, but were later removed. The logging industry continued until 1991, ceasing following concerns raised by the Commission of Inquiry into the Conservation, Management and Use of Fraser Island and the Great Sandy Region, appointed by the Goss Labor government and chaired by Justice Tony Fitzgerald.
Sand mining
The geology of the island includes extensive deposits of rutile, ilmenite, zircon and monazite. Sand mining leases were first granted in 1950, and mining continued until 1977. Without public knowledge the Queensland Government granted mining leases to the American mining company Dillingham-Murphyores in the 1960s. In 1971, the Fraser Island Defenders Organisation (FIDO) opposed the granting of more leases to the company. Despite more than 1,300 submissions that were made to the local mining warden objecting to new leases, the submission was granted. FIDO took the case to the High Court of Australia which overruled the decision noting that the public interest was not being upheld. Dillingham-Murphyores continued mining. The Whitlam Government established Australia's first environmental impact inquiry, which recommended that mining cease. Eventually the Fraser Government cancelled the company's mineral export license, which halted mining on the island. That represented a significant win for the conservation movement in Australia. Fraser Island then became the first place to be included in the Australian Heritage Commission's Register of the National Estate.
Wreck of the Maheno
A major landmark on Fraser Island is the shipwreck of the S.S. Maheno. The Maheno was built in Scotland in 1905 as a luxury passenger ship for the trans-Tasman crossing. During World War I it served as a hospital ship in the English Channel, and was then returned to its owners to resume usual commercial operation. By 1935 the ship had been taken out of service and was sold to a ship-breaker in Japan. On 25 June 1935, while being towed to Osaka to be broken up, the ship was caught in a strong cyclone about off the coast of Queensland. The towline parted, and on 9 July 1935 the Maheno became beached on the east coast of Fraser Island.
During World War II the wreck served as target bombing practice for the RAAF and was used as an explosives demolition target by special forces from the Fraser Commando School. The remains of the ship are now severely rusted, with almost three and a half storeys buried under the sand. Because of the danger it poses, climbing on the wreck is not permitted.
Fraser Commando School
During World War II, the area near McKenzie's Jetty was used by the Services Reconnaissance Department (popularly known as "Z Special Unit") as a special forces training camp – the Fraser Commando School. Thousands of soldiers were trained here because the conditions were similar to those found on Pacific Islands where the Japanese were fought. Lake McKenzie was used for parachute training and the wreck of the Maheno was used for explosive demolitions practice.
Visitors to the site of the Fraser Commando School today can still see various relics of its military past including armour plates used to test armour piercing explosive charges and weapons and a concrete relief map of Singapore Harbour used as an aid in operations planning.
Nauru resettlement proposition
As part of ongoing meetings in the United Nations Trusteeship Council on the Conditions in the Trust Territories, the Republic of Nauru expressed concern that its phosphate mining exportation would be depleted by the end of the century, endangering the future of the island. In 1961, Fraser Island was proposed by Australia as a location for the resettlement of the entire population of the Republic of Nauru. The timber industry on Fraser Island managed to ensure that resettlement on Fraser Island did not proceed. In 1964 in the 31st session of United Nations Trusteeship Council meetings it was concluded that Curtis Island could provide a more satisfactory resettlement for the population of Nauru. Nauru rejected the offer of moving the entire population to Curtis Island due to political independence considerations that Australia would not agree to. When visiting the island in 1964, the head of the Nauru delegation, Hammer de Roburt, insisted on this point of sovereignty in order to protect his people from the overt racism that he himself experienced on this tour. Although a resettlement never did occur, the Republic of Nauru went on to achieve independence on 31 January 1968.
Population
At the , Fraser Island had a population of 194 people.
2020 bushfire
On 14 October 2020, a large bushfire was started on the island by an illegal campfire. It impacted multiple communities and caused residents to flee their homes as it burned out of control.
In early December interstate assistance, including from the New South Wales Rural Fire Service (NSWRFS) who provided a Boeing 737-300 Large Air Tanker waterbombing aircraft, was used to fight the fire as Happy Valley township was threatened. High temperatures, , and strong winds hindered fire fighting and Queensland Fire and Emergency Services (QFES) Director Brian Cox said "A lot of this fire is burning in inaccessible country …".
Heavy rainfall in mid-December helped contain the fire and the QFES was able to hand control back to the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service (QPWS). This was the longest burning fire of the 2020–21 bushfire season up to 14 December 2020 as it had been burning since October, over two months, and as of that date, more than half the island had been "blackened" by fire.
The island reopened to tourists on 15 December. The fire was still burning, but the island was declared safe for visitors, though some walking trails and burner areas were still restricted for safety. It is expected that the burned areas will successfully regenerate.
Geography and ecology
Fraser Island is separated from the mainland by Great Sandy Strait. The southern tip, near Tin Can Bay, is situated to the north of Inskip Peninsula. The most northern point of the island is Sandy Cape where the Sandy Cape Light operated from 1870 to 1994. The establishment of the lighthouse was the first permanent European settlement on the island. The nearest large town to the island is Hervey Bay, while Maryborough and Bundaberg are also close by. The bay on the north east coast is called Marloo Bay and on the north west coast is Platypus Bay. The most westerly place on the island is Moon Point.
The island is divided into two localities: the eponymous Fraser Island locality consisting of most of the land on the island and the locality of Eurong on the east coast of the island.
Eli Creek is the largest freshwater creek on the east coast of Fraser Island with a flow of 80 million litres per day. Eli Creek has its own unique and varied wild life. Coongul Creek, on the west coast, has a flow rate of four to five million litres per hour. Some of the swamps on the island are fens, particularly near Moon Point. That was only discovered in 1996, when a group of experts who had attended a Ramsar conference in Brisbane flew over the island and conducted an aerial survey. From above, they noticed the distinct patterns of potholed peat devoid of trees. That was the first instance of fens being found in Australia and in a sub-tropical region, although more were subsequently discovered on the adjacent Cooloola coast.
Sandmass and The Pinnacles
The total volume of sand above sea level on Fraser Island is directly proportional to the mass of . All of the sand, which originated in the Hawkesbury, Hunter and Clarence River catchments in New South Wales, has been transported northward by longshore drift driven by onshore winds from the southeast and repeated wave actions. Along the eastern coast of the island the process is removing more sand than it is depositing, resulting in the slow erosion of beaches which may accelerate with sea level rises attributed to climate change. The sand consists of 98% quartz.
All hills on Fraser Island have been formed by sandblowing. Sandblows are parabolic dunes which move across the island via the wind and are devoid of vegetation. In 2004, there was an estimated total of 36 sandblows on the island. With year-round winds from the southeast, the sand dunes on the island move at the rate of 1 to 2 metres a year and grow to a height of 244 metres. The dune movement creates overlapping dunes and sometimes intersects waterways and covers forests. Dune-building has occurred in episodes as the sea levels have changed, and once extended much further to the east. The oldest dune system has been dated at 700,000 years, which is the world's oldest recorded sequence.
The coloured sands found at Rainbow Gorge, The Cathedrals, The Pinnacles and Red Canyon are examples of the sand being stained over thousands of years due to it conglomerating with clay. Hematite, the mineral pigment responsible for the staining, acts like cement. That allows the steeper cliffs of coloured sand to form. Coffee rock, so-called because when it is dissolved in water it turns the colour of coffee, is found in outcrops along the beaches on both sides of the island.
The "75-Mile Beach" (120 km) runs along most of the east coast of Fraser Island. It is officially designated as a main road and is used as a landing strip for planes. Highway rules state that vehicles must give way to aircraft if they are oncoming. Along the beach are the Champagne Pools, Indian Head, the Maheno Wreck, and the outflow of Eli Creek. Exposed volcanic rocks are found at Indian Head, Waddy Point and Middle Rocks, as well as near Boon Boon Creek.
Lakes
Fraser Island has more than 100 freshwater lakes, the second highest concentration of lakes in Australia after Tasmania. The freshwater lakes on the island are some of the cleanest in the world. A popular tourist area, Lake McKenzie, is located inland from the small town of Eurong. It is a perched lake, sitting on top of compact sand and vegetable matter above sea level. Lake McKenzie has an area of 150 hectares and is just over deep. The beach sand of Lake McKenzie is nearly pure silica. The lakes have very few nutrients and their pH varies, but sunscreen and soaps cause a pollution problem. Fresh water on the island may become stained by organic acids found in decaying vegetation. Because of the organic acids, a pH level as low as 3.7 has been measured in some of the island's perched lakes. The acidity prevents many species from inhabiting the lakes.
Another perched lake on Fraser Island is Lake Boomanjin which, at 200 hectares in size, is the largest perched lake on any sea island in the world. In total there are 40 perched lakes on the island, half of all known lakes of this kind on the planet. Lake Boomanjin is fed by two creeks that pass through a wallum swamp where it collects tannins which tint the water red. Lake Wabby is the deepest lake on the island, at in depth, and is also the least acidic, which means it has the most aquatic life of all the lakes.
Some of the lakes on Fraser Island are window lakes, which form when the water table has risen to a point higher than the surrounding land. Most of the valleys on the island have creeks which are fed by springs. Motor boats and jet skis are banned from the lakes on the island.
Climate
Fraser Island has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen: Aw); it is generally warm and not subject to extremes in temperature due to the moderating influence of the ocean. Temperatures rarely rise above or drop below and humidity is consistently high. Rainfall is heaviest during the summer and early autumn, and the annual average is . Cyclones can be a threat; Cyclone Hamish brushed the island as a category 5 in March 2009, while Cyclone Oswald in January 2013 was significantly weaker at a Category 1. Both storms however caused severe beach erosion, particularly on the island's northern tip. The average annual temperature of the sea ranges from between July and September to between January and March.
Fauna
Mammals
Estimates of the number of mammal species present on Fraser Island range from 25 to 50. Mammals include swamp wallabies, echidnas, ringtail and brushtail possums, sugar gliders, squirrel gliders, phascogales, bandicoots, potoroos, flying foxes and dingoes. The swamp wallaby finds protection from dingos in the swampy areas which have dense undergrowth. There are 19 species of bats which live on or visit the island.
Until 2003, when they were removed by the Environmental Protection Agency, there were a few brumbies (horses) on the island, descendants of Arab stock turned loose for breeding purposes, and joined in 1879 by horses brought over for the logging industry.
Dingoes
Dingoes were once common on Fraser Island, but are now decreasing. The island dingoes are reputedly some of the last remaining 'pure' dingoes in Eastern Australia and to prevent cross-breeding, dogs are not allowed on the island. According to DNA-examinations from the year 2004, the island dingoes are "pure". However, skull measurements from the 1990s detected crossbreeds between dingoes and domestic dogs among the population.
Up until 1995, there were no official records of dingoes attacking humans on Fraser Island. In April 2001, a boy named Clinton Gage wandered away from his family and was attacked and killed by several dingoes. More than 120 dingoes were killed by rangers as a result of the incident, though locals believe the number was much greater. After the 2001 attack, four dedicated rangers were allocated dingo management roles and ranger patrols were increased. There are fines for feeding dingoes or leaving food and rubbish out which may attract them.
As of January 2008, the number of dingoes on Fraser Island was estimated to be 120 to 150, and sightings have become less common. A University of Queensland researcher, Nick Baker, claims the island dingoes have adopted unusual behaviour. Rather than hunt in small packs, island dingoes had developed a tolerance for each other and work together in one big hunting pack. Dingo-proof fences, consisting of metals bars across a concrete pit and a 1.8 m high mesh fence were built around nine island settlements in 2008, to keep the dingoes out of the townships.
In March 2010, three separate reports of dingos biting tourists were made. Tourists have been criticised for ignoring advice from park rangers as they try to provoke reactions from dingoes while taking photographs.
, the number of dingoes on Fraser Island was estimated to be around 180 to 220.
Reptiles and amphibians
There has been a total of 74 different species of reptiles recorded on Fraser Island. 18 species of snakes have been identified with one third of them considered dangerous, including the extremely venomous eastern brown snake. Goannas, snakes, geckos, skinks and frogs are all present on the island. Some frog species have evolved to cope with the acidic waters of lakes and swamps on the island, and are appropriately called acid frogs. The island is home to the recently discovered Fraser Island sand skink. Freshwater turtles such as Kreffts river turtle are found in the island's lakes and creeks.
Saltwater crocodiles are exclusively tropical reptiles and usually found in Far North Queensland (several hundred kilometres north-west of Fraser Island), however, occasionally during the warmer season (December through March, when water temperatures reach consistent tropical temperatures) crocodiles may appear in areas in and around the island. During the 2008–2009 summer several crocodiles (one over 4 metres in length) were present in the surrounding ocean. It is thought that these reptiles are seasonal visitors, as they always disappear during the cold months (presumably returning to tropical northern Queensland.) This sort of activity was apparently reported but unverified decades ago (a handful of crocodiles have also historically been observed on very rare occurrences around Brisbane, the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast during the warmer season) but within recent years has been proven and observed more often. Crocodiles do not breed nor do they appear to have any permanent populations living on the island.
Birds
Fraser Island forms part of the Cooloola and Fraser Coast Important Bird Area (IBA). There are over 350 different species of birds on the island. Birds of prey include sea eagles, peregrine falcon, osprey and kites. Other common birds include pelicans, terns, honeyeaters, gulls, kingfishers, kookaburra, owls, doves, thornbills, ducks, brolgas, and cockatoos. The island is visited by 20 species of migratory wader birds from as far afield as Siberia. The island provides habitat for 22 different species of gull and tern, four species of falcon and six species of kingfisher. A rare bird on the island is the eastern ground parrot, already extinct in some parts of Australia.
Other
Cetaceans, such as humpback whales and some species of dolphins are frequent visitors to the area. Dugongs and sea turtles can also be found in surrounding waters. Great white, bull and tiger sharks can be found, with the latter species sometimes approaching fishermen wading in the surf. Mud crabs are found on the western side of the island near mangrove-lined estuaries. 24 freshwater fish species are found in the island's lakes.
There has been 300 species of ants recorded on Fraser Island. Long finned eels and giant earthworms are also found on the island.
Flora
The flora of Fraser Island is diverse. More than 865 species of plants grow on the island. It is the only place on earth where tall rainforest grows in sand. The island contains the largest extent of wallum heath remnants in Queensland. In Pile Valley, 1,000-year-old rough-barked satinays are found. Despite being logged the kauri pines dominate in some areas. Scribbly gums, red gums, piccabeen palms, blue quandong, brush box and pandanus all grow on the island. Along the coast, the foredunes are dominated by salt-tolerant species which includes pigface, goats foot vine and beach spinifex. Spinifex sericeus is an important foundation species. Decayed matter from this dune grass breaks down in the sand, providing vital nutrients for other plant species, such as the beach oak. The rare Angiopteris evecta, a species of fern that has the largest fronds in the world, grows on the island. The southwest coast is dominated by mangroves. Persoonia prostrata was a shrub native to the island which is now extinct.
As one travels from east to west across Fraser Island, the dune age increases. This leads to the progressive maturing of vegetation in the same direction, except for some areas along the western coast where soil leaching has decreased the nutrient soil layer to a depth beyond the reach of plant roots. Each lake on the island is surrounded by concentric vegetation zones. Typically these zones range from rushes in the shallows, then a mix of pioneer species on the beaches, through to sedges, heath, paperbarks, shrubs and finally eucalypt or banksia woodlands.
Administration
Fraser Island is part of the local government area Fraser Coast Region, which was created in March 2008 as a result of the report of the Local Government Reform Commission released in July 2007. Before the local government reorganisation, the island was split up evenly between the City of Hervey Bay (northern part) and the City of Maryborough (southern part).
In 1971, the northern half of Fraser Island was declared a national park. Now almost all of the island is included in the Great Sandy National Park, which is administered by Queensland's Environmental Protection Agency. This was extended in 1992 when heritage listing was granted. Except for a few small urban areas the island is protected by a Wild Rivers declaration.
Domestic dogs are not permitted on Fraser Island and fines can be given for non-compliance. The ban, first applied in 1981, is imposed so that the island's dingo population is not exposed to diseases.
In 2010, the management of the park, particularly the treatment of dingoes by the Department of Environment and Resource Management was called into question by Glen Elmes in the Queensland Parliament. Camp grounds are sometimes closed so as to reduce human contact with dingo populations.
Heritage listings
Fraser Island has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
North end of island: Sandy Cape Light
Protected Area: SS Marloo
The island was placed on the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007.
Tourism
Fraser Island is one of Queensland's most popular islands for tourists, who can reach the island by ferry from Hervey Bay or Rainbow Beach, which takes approximately 50-minutes. Estimates of the number of visitors to the island each year range from 350,000 to 500,000. The chance of seeing a dingo in its natural setting is one of the main reasons people visit the island. The use of boardwalks and marked tracks by visitors is encouraged to reduce erosion.
Urinating tourists have created environmental problems in Fraser Island lakes and on coastal dunes. The foredunes are used as a toilet by bush campers, who are estimated to number 90,000 each year. Many of the perched lakes have no outflow or inflow which exacerbates the problem. Water quality in some lakes is being affected by storm water run-off from dune roads, and by swimmers' use of sunscreen.
In April 2009, a vehicle overturned on the beach after being hit by a wave. Two backpackers were killed in the accident. Following the incident speed limits on the beach were reduced from 100 km/h to 80 km/h, and from 40 km/h to 30 km/h inland. Everyone who hires a vehicle on the island from an organisation accredited by the Fraser Coast 4WD Operators Association must attend a one-hour-long briefing on vehicle safety.
"Central Station", which was formerly the hub of the forestry industry when there was logging on Fraser Island, is now a popular tourist destination. Some of the rarest ferns grow in the rainforest near the location.
Access
The island can be reached by a ferry from River Heads (South of Hervey Bay) to Kingfisher Bay and Wanggoolba Creek or Inskip Point to north of Rainbow Beach to Hook Point, or by chartered flight from Sunshine Coast Airport.
A four-wheel drive is required for all landings (except Kingfisher Bay), and travel on the island (except within the Kingfisher Bay Resort). A permit is required for vehicles and is obtainable on-line from DERM and several outlets at Rainbow Beach. Several firms provide four-wheel drive vehicles for hire. Tour buses travel the island as well as several kinds of self-drive tours departing regularly from Hervey Bay, Rainbow Beach and Noosa.
Angling
Tailor is one of the more common species sought by anglers on Fraser Island and along the Queensland coast. Other fish caught on the eastern coast include jewfish, golden trevally and surf bream, while whiting, flathead and surf bream prefer the calmer western waters. Pilchards, bloodworms, yabbies, pipi and sandworms can all be used for bait. Fishing is banned in the island's freshwater creeks and lakes. There is an annual seasonal fishing closure between the beginning of 1 August to the end of 29 September, for eastern foreshore waters as well as waters within 400 m out to sea from the eastern shore and between 400 m north of Waddy Point and 400 m south of Indian Head. The fishing closure prohibits the taking of fin fish only and anglers are still allowed to hand collect worms and pipis during the closure.
Camping
There are many campgrounds on Fraser Island with varying amenities and access. The main camping areas are: Dundubara Campground, Cathedrals on Fraser, Waddy Point campground, Central Station Tent Sites, Waddy Beach (tent only campsites), Cornwells Break (large group site), One Tree Rocks camp zone (Eurong-One Tree Rocks), however there are others. Permits are required for camping and also for vehicle access.
Hiking
There are various possibilities for overnight hiking on the island. Most notable is the 90 km long Fraser Island Great Walk. A shorter hike would be for example to start in Kingfisher Bay (ferry drop off) and head to Lake McKenzie, stay there for one night, and then hike back.
See also
Geography of Queensland
Great Sandy Biosphere Reserve
John Sinclair (environmentalist)
Clifford Harry Thompson, geomorphologist, influential Fraser Island researcher
List of islands of Australia
Tourism in Australia
References
External links
Fraser Island From the Air
Official Website of the Department of Environment and Resource Management for more information and camping permits
World heritage listing for K'gari
Great Sandy Biosphere
University of Queensland: Queensland Places: Fraser Island
Satellite image of S.S. Maheno from Google Maps
Fraser Island Blazes NASA Earth Observatory
Islands of Queensland
Islands of the Coral Sea
World Heritage Sites in Queensland
Australian National Heritage List
Tourist attractions in Queensland
Important Bird Areas of Queensland
Wide Bay–Burnett
Protected areas of Queensland
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|
225701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss%20Museum%20of%20Transport | Swiss Museum of Transport | The Swiss Museum of Transport or Verkehrshaus der Schweiz (literally "Transportation House of Switzerland") in Lucerne opened in July 1959 and exhibits all forms of transport including trains, automobiles, ships and aircraft as well as communication technology. It is Switzerland's most popular museum. The museum also maintains a large collection of work by Hans Erni, a local painter and sculptor.
There are several other attractions in the museum besides the collection, including a planetarium, a large-format cinema and a 1:20,000 scale aerial photograph of Switzerland.
History
The museum traces its history to 1897, when the first attempts at creating a museum of railway equipment were made. Following a national exhibition in 1914, the Swiss Railway Museum was founded by Swiss Federal Railways in 1918 in Zurich. The concept eventually grew to encompass all transportation and, in 1942, the Swiss Museum of Transport association was established. Swiss Federal Railways was joined by the Swiss Postal Telegraph and Telephone as well as other private transport, trade, industry, and tourism organizations. However, when no suitable site could be found in Zurich for the planned museum, the city of Lucerne offered the association a site adjacent to Lake Lucerne. Construction began in 1957 and the museum was opened two years later on 1 July 1959. A planetarium was added in 1969 and an aerospace hall in 1972.
In the course of a storm, flooding occurred in the museum on the night of 21-22 August 2005, which inundated some of the displays and damaged contents in the basement rooms of the navigation and aviation departments.
Exhibits
The museum is divided into a variety of thematic areas:
Rail
Amongst the rail transport collection are rolling stock from Switzerland's first ever railway, the Swiss Northern Railway and a SBB Ae 8/14 electric engine. An H0 gauge model railway layout of the Gotthard portrays the northern ramp of the Gotthard railway between Erstfeld station and the Göschenen tunnel, including the three loop/curved tunnels near Wassen. The hall also features a train simulator, which visitors can use to travel through the NRLA base tunnel.
Automotive
The road transport collection on display contains horse-drawn vehicles, bicycles, motorcycles and cars, as well as an exhibition on road safety realized in cooperation with the Swiss Council for Accident Prevention. One major attraction is the Car Theatre, in which a vehicle, selected from a collection of vehicles from all periods of automobile history, is hoisted out of a high-bay warehouse and presented on a stage. The external facades of the hall are covered by 344 Swiss road signs. The hall is also home to a special exhibition on the world of logistics. It comprises an AutoStore automated small parts warehouse, an animated miniature distribution centre, a tyre robot, interactive picking stations, and the virtual harvest-to-retail journey of a pineapple.
Aviation
The current aviation exhibition features civil aviation, mountain and rescue interventions, Swiss engineering achievements, and flying as a career. The 30 or so original aircraft on display range from a 1909 Dufaux 4 biplane, the oldest surviving Swiss aircraft; a Blériot XI flown by aviation pioneer Oskar Bider, the only surviving Lockheed Orion, three Swissair aircraft, including a Convair 990; a Northrop F-5E fighter in the colors of the Patrouille Suisse aerobatic team, and a Bombardier Challenger 604 used by the Rega air rescue service. A row of display cases containing scale models of aircraft show the development of aviation from its beginnings to the present day.
Space
The space exhibit houses the 4.5 tonne EURECA, one of only a few satellites returned safely to earth. Other displays include a Spacelab pallet, a piece of the original foil of the solar wind experiment conducted as part of the first Apollo 11 moon landing, a moon rock, a Martian landscape with full-size models of three Mars rovers, and duplicates of measuring instruments that explored the Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet as part of the Rosetta mission. The interactive portion of the exhibition is a "Space Transformer", a large walk-in cube that rotates slowly around its diagonal axis, giving the impression of disorientation in a space station.
Navigation
The exhibits in the hall, which opened in 1984, provide an overview of how shipping developed in Switzerland. On display outside is the submersible Mésoscaphe, designed by Auguste Piccard for the Swiss national exposition of 1964 and the Rigi, the world's oldest surviving flush-deck side-wheeler steamer.
The "Nautirama" multimedia show depicts the marine history of Central Switzerland. A cutaway model of the Pilatus saloon paddle steamer, engines by Saurer and Escher & Wyss, outboard engines and Voith-Schneider propellers trace the development of ship propulsion. Also in the exhibition are flying ships, the smallest two-man submersible, a model of the waterways locks in Birsfelden, sailing boats, a lifeboat from the ocean-going that sank in 1964, and a steamship parade featuring models of some of the vessels that ply Switzerland's lakes.
Aerial cableways
The exhibition illustrates developments in aerial cableway engineering from early hand-operated cableways and ski lifts to modern-day large-capacity cable cars. It includes a working model of Engelberg's Stand-Kleintitlis reversible cableway and a cabin from the Wetterhorn Elevator with original running gear. The exhibition also incorporates a section of the old Grindelwald-Männlichen gondola cableway complete with cabin. The tourism section of the exhibition features the crowd-pulling Tourism Flipper marble run. The adjacent "Livemap Switzerland" is a 1:20000 scale aerial view of Switzerland that can be walked on.
Hans Erni Museum
Built in 1979, the museum has on display a large collection of works by the Lucerne artist Hans Erni. It also holds temporary exhibitions featuring works by other artists. The second floor includes the Panta Rhei, a mural depicting great Western thinkers on two 18 meter long panels.
Other exhibits
Also located at the museum are a planetarium and a theater. An exhibit about media was sponsored by Red Bull.
Collection
Documentation Centre
The museum maintains a library and archive of documents related to transportation.
National Transport Collection
The museum maintains the Swiss National Transport Collection of items of "important technical, social, economic and cultural development" related to transportation that were "produced, modified and/or used in Switzerland".
Access
The museum is located on the shore of Lake Lucerne in the northern section of the city of Lucerne, some 30 minutes walking time from the town centre. It is served by trains of the Lucerne S-Bahn at the adjacent Lucerne Verkehrshaus railway station, by boat services of the Schifffahrtsgesellschaft des Vierwaldstättersees at the Verkehrshaus-Lido landing stage on the lake, and by the Lucerne trolleybus system. All three provide convenient connections with central Lucerne.
See also
List of aerospace museums
List of transport museums
References
External links
Official museum website
Official website of painter Hans Erni
Transport in Switzerland
Railway museums in Switzerland
Transport museums in Switzerland
Buildings and structures in Lucerne
Museums in Lucerne | [
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|
225702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAC%20TSR-2 | BAC TSR-2 | The British Aircraft Corporation TSR-2 is a cancelled Cold War strike and reconnaissance aircraft developed by the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC), for the Royal Air Force (RAF) in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The TSR-2 was designed around both conventional and nuclear weapons delivery: it was to penetrate a well-defended frontline areas at low altitudes and very high speeds, and then attack high-value targets in rear areas. Another intended combat role was to provide high-altitude, high-speed stand-off, side-looking radar and photographic imagery and signals intelligence, aerial reconnaissance. Only one airframe flew and test flights and weight-rise during design indicated that the aircraft would be unable to meet its original stringent design specifications. The design specifications were reduced as the result of flight testing.
The TSR-2 was the victim of ever-rising costs and inter-service squabbling over Britain's future defence needs, which together led to the controversial decision in 1965 to scrap the programme. It was decided to order an adapted version of the General Dynamics F-111 instead, but that decision was later rescinded as costs and development times increased. The replacements included the Blackburn Buccaneer and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, both of which had previously been considered and rejected early in the TSR-2 procurement process. Eventually, the smaller swing-wing Panavia Tornado was developed and adopted by a European consortium to fulfil broadly similar requirements to the TSR-2.
Development
Operational environment
The introduction of the first jet engines in the late-World War II period led to calls for new jet-powered versions of practically every aircraft then flying. Among these was the design of a replacement for the de Havilland Mosquito, at that time among the world's leading medium bombers. The Mosquito had been designed with the express intent of reducing the weight of the aircraft in order to improve its speed as much as possible. This process led to the removal of all defensive armament, improving performance to the point where it was unnecessary anyway. This high-speed approach was extremely successful, and a jet-powered version would be even more difficult to intercept.
This led to Air Ministry specification E.3/45. The winning design, the English Electric Canberra, also dispensed with defensive armament, producing a design with the speed and altitude that allowed it to fly past most defences. The design's large wings gave it the lift needed to operate at very high altitudes, placing it above the range where even jet powered fighters were able to intercept it. The Canberra could simply fly over its enemy with relative impunity, a quality that made it naturally suited to aerial reconnaissance missions. The design was so successful that it was licensed for production in the United States, one of very few such cases. The Martin RB-57D and RB-57F American-built reconnaissance subtypes further extended the wings up to a span for extremely high altitude capabilities.
This high-speed, high-altitude approach was effective until the late 1950s, when the Soviet Union began to introduce its first surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). SAMs had speed and altitude performance much greater than any contemporary aircraft. The Canberra, and other high-altitude aircraft like the British V bombers or United States' Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, were extremely vulnerable to these weapons. The first aircraft to fall victim to the Soviet S-75 Dvina (NATO name "SA-2 Guideline") SAM was a Taiwanese RB-57, a US reconnaissance version of the Canberra, shot down in 1959.
The solution was to fly lower: since radar operates in line-of-sight, the curvature of the Earth renders low-flying aircraft invisible beyond a certain range, the radar horizon. In practice, trees, hills, valleys and any other obstructions reduce this range even more, making a ground-based interception extremely difficult. The Canberra was designed for medium- to high-altitude flight and was not suitable for continuous terrain-hugging flight; this would require a completely different aircraft. Low-level strike aircraft, or "interdictors", grew into a new class of their own during the late 1950s. They generally featured high wing loading to reduce the effects of turbulence and cross-wind, some form of high-performance navigational radar to allow very low flight at high speeds, and large fuel loads to offset the higher fuel use at low altitudes.
GOR.339
Aware of the changing operational environment, the Ministry of Supply started work with English Electric in 1955, attempting to define a new light bomber to replace the Canberra. These early studies eventually settled on an aircraft with a ferry range, Mach 1.5 speed "at altitude" and low-level range. A crew of two was required, one being the operator of the advanced navigational and attack equipment. The bombload was to be four bombs.
The requirements were eventually made official in November 1956 with General Operational Requirement 339 (GOR.339), which was issued to various aircraft manufacturers in March 1957. This requirement was exceptionally ambitious for the technology of the day, requiring a supersonic all-weather aircraft that could deliver nuclear weapons over a long range, operate at high level at Mach 2+ or low level at Mach 1.2, with STOL or possible VTOL performance. The latter requirement was a side-effect of common battle plans from the 1950s, which suggested that nuclear strikes in the opening stages of war would damage most runways and airfields, meaning that aircraft would need to take off from "rough fields" such as disused Second World War airfields, or even sufficiently flat and open areas of land.
Specifically, the requirement included:
Delivery of tactical nuclear weapons at low level in all weathers, by day and night
Photo-reconnaissance at medium level (day) and low level (day and night)
Electronic reconnaissance in all weathers
Delivery of tactical nuclear weapons day and night at medium altitudes using blind bombing if necessary
Delivery of conventional bombs and rockets
Low level was stated to be under with an expected attack speed at sea level of Mach 0.95. The operational range was to be operating off runways of no more than . The TSR-2 was able to operate at above the ground at speeds of Mach 1.1; its range allowed it to operate strategically in addition to tactical scenarios.
Political changes
As this specification was being studied by various manufacturers, the first of the political storms that were to dog the project reared its head, when Defence Minister Duncan Sandys stated in the 1957 Defence White Paper that the era of manned combat was at an end and ballistic missiles were the weapons of the future. This viewpoint was vigorously debated by the aviation industry and within the Ministry of Defence for years. Senior RAF officers argued against the White Paper's premise, stating the importance of mobility, and that the TSR-2 could not only replace the Canberra, but potentially the entire V bomber force.
In addition to the argument over the need for manned aircraft, additional political machinations had the effect of complicating the project. In September 1957 the Ministry of Supply informed the heads of the aviation companies that the only acceptable proposals would be those issued from teams consisting of more than one company. There was a large number of competing aircraft manufacturing companies in the UK, while orders were decreasing; thus the government intended to foster cooperation between certain companies and encourage mergers.
Another political matter, that did not help, was the mutual distrust between the various services. At the time that GOR.339 was being defined, the Royal Navy was in the midst of its NA.39 project, which would eventually become the Blackburn Buccaneer. This was a low-altitude subsonic attack aircraft, designed for over-water as opposed to overland use. The savings involved in both forces using a common aircraft would be considerable, and Blackburn offered the RAF a version of the NA.39 to fit some of the GOR.339 requirements. The Chief of the Defence Staff, and former First Sea Lord, Lord Mountbatten was a loyal proponent of the Buccaneer, later claiming that five of the type could be purchased for the same price as one TSR-2. However, the RAF rebuffed the proposal, stating that it was unsuitable due to poor takeoff performance and the avionics not being capable of the desired role. As one RAF official put it, "If we show the slightest interest in NA.39 we might not get the GOR.339 aircraft."
Another political opponent of the TSR-2 project was Sir Solly Zuckerman, at the time the Chief Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence. Zuckerman had a low opinion of British technological achievements and was in favour of procuring military hardware from the United States.
Submissions
Work on GOR.339 continued, with a deadline for submissions on 31 January 1958. Many proposals were entered; English Electric teamed up with Short Brothers and submitted its P.17A along with the Shorts' P.17D, a vertical-lift platform that would give the P.17 a VTOL capability; designs were also received from Avro, Blackburn (the NA.39), de Havilland, Fairey, Hawker and Vickers-Armstrongs. The Air Ministry eventually selected the EE P.17A and the Vickers-Armstrongs Type 571 for further consideration. The Ministry was particularly impressed with the Vickers submission, which included not only the aircraft design, but a "total systems concept" outlining all the avionics, support facilities and logistics needed to maintain the aircraft in the field. Official opinions of English Electric's management found it decidedly lacking in comparison to Vickers, but the combination of the two was felt by officialdom to be a useful marriage and accordingly the development contract was awarded to Vickers, with English Electric as sub-contractor.
The existence of GOR.339 was revealed to the public in December 1958 in a statement to the House of Commons. Under pressure by the recommendations of the Committee on Estimates, the Air Ministry examined ways that the various project proposals could be combined, and in January 1959 the Minister of Supply announced that the TSR-2 would be built by Vickers-Armstrongs working with English Electric; the initials coming from "Tactical Strike and Reconnaissance, Mach 2", the 'Strike' part of the designation specifically referring in RAF terminology to a nuclear weapons role.
On 1 January 1959, the project was given an official go-ahead; in February, it came under the new designation Operational Requirement 343. OR.343 was more specific and built upon work from the various submissions to GOR.339 specifically stating that the low-level operations would be at or less, and that Mach 2 should be attained at altitude.
Mission
The envisioned "standard mission" for the TSR-2 was to carry a weapon internally for a combat radius of . Of that mission was to be flown at higher altitudes at Mach 1.7 and the into and out of the target area was to be flown as low as 200 ft at a speed of Mach 0.95. The remainder of the mission was to be flown at Mach 0.92. If the entire mission were to be flown at the low 200 ft altitude, the mission radius was reduced to . Heavier weapons loads could be carried with further reductions in range. Plans for increasing the TSR-2's range included fitting external tanks: one tank under each wing or one tank carried centrally below the fuselage. If no internal weapons were carried, a further could be carried in a tank in the weapons bay. Later variants would have been fitted with variable-geometry wings.
The TSR-2 was also to be equipped with a reconnaissance pack in the weapons bay which included an optical linescan unit built by EMI, three cameras and a sideways-looking radar (SLR) in order to carry out the majority of its reconnaissance tasks. Unlike modern linescan units that use infrared imaging, the TSR-2's linescan would use daylight imaging or an artificial light source to illuminate the ground for night reconnaissance.
Tactical nuclear weapons
Carriage of the existing Red Beard tactical nuclear bomb had been specified at the beginning of the TSR-2 project, but it was quickly realised that Red Beard was unsuited to external carriage at supersonic speeds, had safety and handling limitations, and its 15 kt yield was considered inadequate for the targets assigned. Instead, in 1959, a successor to Red Beard, an "Improved Kiloton Bomb" to a specification known as Operational Requirement 1177 (OR.1177), was specified for the TSR-2. In the tactical strike role, the TSR-2 was expected to attack targets beyond the forward edge of the battlefield assigned to the RAF by NATO, during day or night and in all weathers. These targets comprised missile sites, both hardened and soft, aircraft on airfields, runways, airfield buildings, airfield fuel installations and bomb stores, tank concentrations, ammunition and supply dumps, railways and railway tunnels, and bridges. OR.1177 specified 50, 100, 200 and 300 kt yields, assuming a circular error probable of and a damage probability of 0.8, and laydown delivery capability, with burst heights for targets from 0 to above sea level. Other requirements were a weight of up to , a length of up to , and a diameter up to (the same as Red Beard).
However, a ministerial ruling on 9 July 1962 decreed that all future tactical nuclear weapons should be limited to a yield of 10 kt. The RAF issued a new version of the OR.1177 specification, accepting the lower yield, while making provision in the design for it to be capable of adaptation later for a higher yield, in the event of the political restriction being lifted. Meanwhile, the RAF explored ways of compensating for the lower yield by including, in the specifications for both the bomb and TSR-2, provision for releasing the smaller weapons in salvos, dropping sticks of four of the revised OR.1177, later named WE.177A, at intervals to prevent the detonation of the first weapon destroying the succeeding ones before they could, in turn, detonate. This led to the requirement that the TSR-2 must be able to carry four WE.177As, two internally and two on external underwing stores pylons—the width of the TSR-2 bomb bay (originally designed to accommodate a single Red Beard weapon) necessitating the reduction in diameter of the WE.177A to , the bomb's width and fin span being constrained by the need to fit two WE.177 bombs side-by-side in the aircraft's bomb bay. The requirement for stick bombing using nuclear weapons was soon dropped as larger yield bombs came back into favour.
A drawback of carrying WE.177 on external pylons was a limitation due to aerodynamic heating of the bomb's casing. WE.177A was limited to a maximum carriage time of five minutes at Mach 1.15 at low level on TSR-2, otherwise the bomb's temperature would rise above its permitted maximum. This would impose a severe operational restriction on TSR-2, as the aircraft was designed for Mach 1+ cruise at this height.
Nuclear stand-off missiles were also proposed for the TSR-2 early in development but not proceeded with. These included an air-launched development of the Blue Water missile, carried underwing, or semi-recessed in the bomb bay, and an air-launched ballistic missile, referred to as Grand Slam, with a warhead derived from that intended for the Skybolt missile, and a range of . Conventional missiles were catered for instead, with the design originally centring on use of the AGM-12 Bullpup, then moving on to favour the French AS-30 before settling on the new OR.1168 missile (which would become the TV-guided AJ-168 Martel).
After the cancellation of the TSR-2, the RAF eventually filled the tactical strike requirement using McDonnell F-4 Phantom IIs with US dual-key nuclear weapons, but continued their attempts to get the 10 kt limit lifted. Development of WE.177A was delayed by several years due to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) at Aldermaston being inundated with work on other warhead developments. AWRE workload eased after completion of the Polaris missile warheads and work was able to resume on the WE.177A, deliveries to the RAF beginning in late 1971 for deployment on Buccaneers of RAF Germany, a year after WE.177A deliveries to the Royal Navy. Approval for high-yield tactical weapons was eventually gained in 1970 and, by 1975, the RAF had WE.177C, which at almost 200 kt was a weapon very similar to what they had planned for the TSR-2 in 1959.
Design
Throughout 1959, English Electric (EE) and Vickers worked on combining the best of both designs in order to put forward a joint design with a view to having an aircraft flying by 1963, while also working on merging the companies under the umbrella of the British Aircraft Corporation. EE had put forward a delta winged design and Vickers, a swept wing on a long fuselage. The EE wing, born of their greater supersonic experience, was judged superior to Vickers, while the Vickers fuselage was preferred. In effect, the aircraft would be built 50/50: Vickers the front half, EE the rear.
The TSR-2 was to be powered by two Bristol-Siddeley Olympus reheated turbojets, advanced variants of those used in the Avro Vulcan. The Olympus would be further developed and would power the supersonic Concorde. The design featured a small shoulder-mounted delta wing with down-turned tips, an all-moving swept tailplane and a large all-moving fin. Blown flaps were fitted across the entire trailing edge of the wing to achieve the short takeoff and landing requirement, something that later designs would achieve with the technically more complex swing-wing approach. No ailerons were fitted, control in roll instead being implemented by differential movement of the slab tailplanes. The wing loading was high for its time, enabling the aircraft to fly at very high speed and low level with great stability without being constantly upset by thermals and other ground-related weather phenomena. The EE Chief Test Pilot, Wing Commander Roland Beamont, favourably compared the TSR-2's supersonic flying characteristics to the Canberra's own subsonic flight characteristics, stating that the Canberra was more troublesome.
According to the Flight Envelope diagram, TSR2 was capable of sustained cruise at Mach 2.05 at altitudes between and and had a dash speed of Mach 2.35 (with a limiting leading edge temperature of 140 °C). Its theoretical maximum speed was Mach 3 in level flight at .
The aircraft featured some extremely sophisticated avionics for navigation and mission delivery, which would also prove to be one of the reasons for the spiralling costs of the project. Some features, such as forward looking radar (FLR) and side-looking radar for navigational fixing, only became commonplace on military aircraft years later. These features allowed for an innovative autopilot system which, in turn, enabled long distance terrain-following sorties as crew workload and pilot input had been greatly reduced.
There were considerable problems with realising the design. Some contributing manufacturers were employed directly by the Ministry rather than through BAC, leading to communication difficulties and further cost overruns. Equipment, an area in which BAC had autonomy, would be supplied by the Ministry from "associate contractors", although the equipment would be designed and provided by BAC, subject to ministry approval. The overall outlay of funds made it the largest aircraft project in Britain to date.
Unlike most previous projects, there were to be no prototypes. Under the "development batch" procedure pioneered by the Americans (and also used by English Electric for the Lightning), there would instead be a development batch of nine airframes, to be built using production jigs. The choice of proceeding to production tooling turned out to be another source of delay, with the first aircraft having to adhere to strict production standards or deal with the bureaucracy of attaining concessions to allow them to exhibit differences from later airframes. Four years into the project, the first few airframes had effectively become prototypes in all but name, exhibiting a succession of omissions from the specification and differences from the intended pre-production and production batches.
Operational history
Testing
Despite the increasing costs the first two of the development batch aircraft were completed. Engine development and undercarriage problems led to delays for the first flight which meant that the TSR-2 missed the opportunity to be displayed to the public at 1964's Farnborough Airshow. In the days leading up to the testing, Denis Healey, the Opposition shadow secretary for defence, had criticised the aircraft saying that by the time it was introduced it would face "new anti-aircraft" missiles that would shoot it down making it prohibitively expensive at £16 million per aircraft (on the basis of only 30 ordered).
Test pilot Roland Beamont finally made the first flight from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down, Wiltshire, on 27 September 1964. Initial flight tests were all performed with the undercarriage down and engine power strictly controlled—with limits of and on the first (15-minute) flight. Shortly after takeoff on XR219's second flight, vibration from a fuel pump at the resonant frequency of the human eyeball caused the pilot to throttle back one engine to avoid momentary loss of vision.
Only on the 10th test flight was the landing gear successfully retracted—problems preventing this on previous occasions, but serious vibration problems on landing persisted throughout the flight testing programme. The first supersonic test flight (Flight 14) was achieved on the transfer from A&AEE, Boscombe Down, to BAC Warton. During the flight, the aircraft achieved Mach 1 on dry power only (supercruise). Following this, Beamont lit a single reheat unit as the other engine's reheat fuel pump was unserviceable, with the result that the aircraft accelerated away from the chase English Electric Lightning (a high speed interceptor) flown by Wing Commander James "Jimmy" Dell, who had to catch up using reheat on both engines. On flying the TSR-2 himself, Dell described the prototype as handling "like a big Lightning".
Over a period of six months, a total of 24 test flights were conducted. Most of the complex electronics were not fitted to the first aircraft, so these flights were all concerned with the basic flying qualities of the aircraft which, according to the test pilots involved, were outstanding. Speeds of Mach 1.12 and sustained low-level flights down to 200 ft were achieved above the Pennines. Undercarriage vibration problems continued, however, and only in the final few flights, when XR219 was fitted with additional tie-struts on the already complex landing gear, was there a significant reduction in them. The last test flight took place on 31 March 1965.
Although the test flying programme was not completed and the TSR-2 was undergoing typical design and systems modifications reflective of its sophisticated configuration, "[T]here was no doubt that the airframe would be capable of accomplishing the tasks set for it and that it represented a major advance on any other type."
Costs continued to rise, which led to concerns at both company and government upper management levels, and the aircraft was also falling short of many of the requirements laid out in OR.343, such as takeoff distance and combat radius. As a cost-saving measure, a reduced specification was agreed upon, notably reductions in combat radius to , the top speed to Mach 1.75 and takeoff run up increased from .
Project cancellation
By the 1960s, the United States military was developing the swing-wing F-111 project as a follow-on to the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, a fast low-level fighter-bomber designed in the 1950s with an internal bay for a nuclear weapon. There had been some interest in the TSR-2 from Australia for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), but in 1963, the RAAF chose to buy the F-111 instead, having been offered a better price and delivery schedule by the American manufacturer. Nonetheless, the RAAF had to wait 10 years before the F-111 was ready to enter service, by which time the anticipated programme cost had tripled. The RAF was also asked to consider the F-111 as an alternative cost-saving measure. In response to suggestions of cancellation, BAC employees held a protest march, and the new Labour government, which had come to power in 1964, issued strong denials. However, at two Cabinet meetings held on 1 April 1965, it was decided to cancel the TSR-2 on the grounds of projected cost, and instead to obtain an option agreement to acquire up to 110 F-111 aircraft with no immediate commitment to buy. This decision was announced in the budget speech of 6 April 1965. The maiden flight of the second development batch aircraft, XR220, was due on the day of the announcement, but following an accident in conveying the airframe to Boscombe Down, coupled with the announcement of the project cancellation, it never happened. Ultimately, only the first prototype, XR219, ever took to the air. A week later, the Chancellor defended the decision in a debate in the House of Commons, saying that the F-111 would prove cheaper.
All airframes were then ordered to be destroyed and burned.
Aeronautical engineer and designer of the Hawker Hurricane Sir Sydney Camm said of the TSR-2: "All modern aircraft have four dimensions: span, length, height and politics. TSR-2 simply got the first three right."
TSR-2 replacements
To replace the TSR-2, the Air Ministry initially placed an option for the F-111K (a modified F-111A with F-111C enhancements) but also considered two other choices: a Rolls-Royce Spey (RB.168 Spey 25R) conversion of a Dassault Mirage IV (the Dassault/BAC Spey-Mirage IV) and an enhanced Blackburn Buccaneer S.2 with a new nav-attack system and reconnaissance capability, referred to as the "Buccaneer 2-Double-Star". Neither proposal was pursued as a TSR-2 replacement although a final decision was reserved until the 1966 Defence Review. Defence Minister Healey's memo about the F-111 and the Cabinet minutes regarding the final cancellation of the TSR-2 indicate that the F-111 was preferred.
Following the 1966 Defence White Paper, the Air Ministry decided on two aircraft: the F-111K, with a longer-term replacement being a joint Anglo-French project for a variable geometry strike aircraft – the Anglo French Variable Geometry Aircraft (AFVG). A censure debate followed on 1 May 1967, in which Healey claimed the cost of the TSR-2 would have been £1,700 million over 15 years including running costs, compared with £1,000 million for the F-111K/AFVG combination. Although 10 F-111Ks were ordered in April 1966 with an additional order for 40 in April 1967, the F-111 programme suffered enormous cost escalation coupled with the devaluation of the pound, far exceeding that of the TSR-2 projection. Many technical problems were still unresolved before successful operational deployment and, faced with poorer-than-projected performance estimates, the order for 50 F-111Ks for the RAF was eventually cancelled in January 1968.
To provide a suitable alternative to the TSR-2, the RAF settled on a combination of the F-4 Phantom II and the Blackburn Buccaneer, some of which were transferred from the Royal Navy. These were the same aircraft that the RAF had derided in order to get the TSR-2 go-ahead, but the Buccaneer proved capable and remained in service until 1994. The RN and RAF versions of the Phantom II were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively, and entered service as the Phantom FG.1 (fighter/ground attack) and Phantom FGR.2 (fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance), remaining in service (in the air-to-air role) until 1992.
The RAF's Phantoms were replaced in the strike/reconnaissance role by the SEPECAT Jaguar in the mid-1970s. In the 1980s, both the Jaguar and Buccaneer were eventually replaced in this role by the variable-geometry Panavia Tornado, a much smaller design than either the F-111 or the TSR-2. Experience in the design and development of the avionics, particularly the terrain-following capabilities, were used on the later Tornado programme. In the late 1970s, as the Tornado was nearing full production, an aviation businessman, Christopher de Vere, initiated a highly speculative feasibility study into resurrecting and updating the TSR-2 project. However, despite persistent lobbying of the UK government of the time, his proposal was not taken seriously and came to nothing.
Survivors
The TSR-2 tooling, jigs and many of the part completed aircraft were all scrapped at Brooklands within six months of the cancellation. Two airframes eventually survived: the complete XR220 at the RAF Museum, Cosford, and the much less complete XR222 at the Imperial War Museum Duxford. The only airframe ever to fly, XR219, along with the completed XR221 and part completed XR223 were taken to Shoeburyness and used as targets to test the vulnerability of a modern airframe and systems to gunfire and shrapnel. Four additional completed airframes, XR224, XR225, XR226 and one incomplete airframe XR227 (X-06,07,08 and 09) were scrapped by R. J. Coley and Son, Hounslow Middlesex. Four further airframe serials XR228 to XR231 were allocated but these aircraft were allegedly not built. Construction of a further 10 aircraft (X-10 to 19) allocated serials XS660 to 669 was started but all partly built airframes were again scrapped by R. J. Coley. The last serial of that batch, XS670 is listed as "cancelled", as are those of another batch of 50 projected aircraft, XS944 to 995.
By coincidence, the projected batch of 46 General Dynamics F-111Ks (of which the first four were the trainer variant TF-111K) were allocated RAF serials XV884-887 and 902–947, but these again were cancelled when the first two were still incomplete.
The haste with which the project was scrapped has been the source of much argument and bitterness since and is comparable to the cancellation and destruction of the American Northrop Flying Wing bombers, and the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow interceptor that was scrapped in Canada in 1959.
Surviving airframes
XR220 (X-02) on display at RAF Museum Cosford
XR222 (X-04) on display at Imperial War Museum Duxford
Cockpit section on display at Brooklands Museum
Bristol Siddeley Olympus 22R-320 – 2 engines on display at Gatwick Aviation Museum
Specifications
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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Burke, Damien. TSR2: Britain's Lost Bomber. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2010. .
Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects: Jet Bombers Since 1949. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 2003. .
Buttler, Tony. "Strike Rivals: The ones that 'lost' when the T.S.R.2 'won'." Air Enthusiast, No. 59, September/October 1995.
Buttler, Tony. X-Planes of Europe II: Military Prototype Aircraft from the Golden Age 1946–1974. Manchester, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2015.
Campagna, Palmiro. Storms of Controversy: The Secret Avro Arrow Files Revealed. Toronto: Stoddart, Third paperback edition, 1998. .
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Donald, David. "RAF Phantoms". Wings of Fame. London: Aerospace. Volume 15, 1999. pp. 4–21. .
Franklin, Roger. The Defender: The Story of General Dynamics. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. .
Hunter, Air Vice-Marshal A.F.C., CBE AFC DL, ed. "TSR2 with Hindsight." London: RAF Historical Journal, Issue 17B, 1998. .
Jefford, C. G. RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2001. .
Jenkins, Dennis R. B-1 Lancer: The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. .
Forbat, John. TSR2: Precision Attack to Tornado. Stroud, UK: Tempus Publishing Ltd., 2006. .
Gardner, Charles. British Aircraft Corporation: A History by Charles Gardner. London: B.T. Batsford Limited, 1981. .
Gardner, Richard E. The F-4 Phantom II. Edware, Middlesex, UK: Almarks Publishing Co., 1970. No ISBN.
Gardner, Robert. From Bouncing Bombs to Concorde: The Authorised Biography of Aviation Pioneer Sir George Edwards OM. Stroud, Gloustershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2006. .
Garver, John W. Face Off: China, the United States and Taiwan's Democratization. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, 1997. .
Gunston, Bill. F-111 (Modern Combat Aircraft). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1978. .
Hamilton-Paterson, James. Empire of the Clouds: When Britain's Aircraft Ruled the World. London: Faber & Faber, 2010. .
Hastings, Stephen. The Murder of TSR-2. London: Macdonald & Co., 1966.
Harver, John W. The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1997. .
Kaldor, Mary, Dan Smith and Steve Vines. Democratic Socialism and The Cost of Defence: The Report and Papers of The Labour Party Defence Study Group. London: Routledge, 1979. .
Law, John. Aircraft Stories: Decentering The Object in Technoscience. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2002. .
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Logan, Don. General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military History, 1998. .
Lucas, Paul. BAC TSR.2: Lost Tomorrows of an Eagle, The TSR.2 which Might Have Been 1960–1980. Bedford, UK: SAM Publications, 2009. .
McLelland, Tim. TSR.2: Britain's Lost Cold War Strike Aircraft. Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Classic Publications, 2010. .
Segell, Glen. Royal Air Force Procurement: The TSR.2 to the Tornado. Staffordshire, UK: Glen Segell Publishers, 1998. .
Segell, Glen. Wither or Dither: British Aerospace Collaborative Procurement with Europe. Staffordshire, UK: Glen Segell Publishers, 1997. .
Smith, Dan. The Defence of The Realm in The 1980s. London: Taylor & Francis, 1980. .
Sweetman, Bill. Phantom (Jane's Aircraft Spectacular Series). London: Jane's Information Group, 1984. .
Taylor, John W.R. "The BAC TSR-2." Air Pictorial, Volume 25, No. 12, December 1963.
Thornborough, Anthony. TSR2 (Aeroguide Special). Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2005. .
Winchester, Jim. "BAC (English Electric) TSR.2". X-Planes and Prototypes: From Nazi Secret Weapons to the Warplanes of the Future. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. .
Winchester, Jim. "BAC TSR.2." and "Northrop XB-35/YB-49". Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft. Kent, UK: Grange Books plc., 2005. .
Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled: The Disaster of Britain's Abandoned Aircraft Projects. London: Jane's, 2nd edition, 1986, First edition 1975. .
Wynn, Humphrey. The RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946–1969: A Documentary History. London: HMO, 1997.
External links
TSR-2 page on Thunder and Lightnings site
TSR-2 history with images of XR220 on Aviation Elettra site
Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United Kingdom
TSR-2
1960s British bomber aircraft
Twinjets
History of science and technology in the United Kingdom
Aircraft first flown in 1964 | [
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|
225708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third%20guinea%20%28British%20coin%29 | Third guinea (British coin) | A seven shilling piece was introduced in Great Britain by a proclamation of 29 November 1797. It has been called a third guinea, a guinea being worth 21 shillings. The gold coin was minted only in the reign of George III.
Background
When it was introduced in 1797, during the French Revolutionary wars, the financial situation at the Bank of England was precarious: gold was in short supply and banknotes were given legal tender status in any amount. In order to pay the Bank's dividends it was decided to produce what at the time was known as seven-shilling pieces, with odd amounts of the dividend being paid in silver coins.
Details
A total of £315,000 worth of coins was authorised in October 1797. The denomination was struck each year until 1813, with the exception of 1805, 1807, and 1812. Between 1800 and 1812 third and half guineas were the only gold coins issued.
The coin weighed 2.8 grams and was 17 millimetres in diameter with a milled edge. The design of the reverse changed in 1801 following the union of the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland, when simultaneously the king relinquished his claim to the French throne (some four hundred years after it had ceased to mean anything). There were two obverses used, with different portraits of the king (the new one being introduced in 1804), with the legend GEORGIVS III DEI GRATIA. The design of the reverse was a crown, with the legend MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX date (to 1800) or FIDEI DEFENSOR BRITANNIARUM REX date (from 1801).
Notes
External links
British Coins forum
British gold coins
Coins of Great Britain
Coins of the United Kingdom | [
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|
225709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhein-Hunsr%C3%BCck-Kreis | Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis | Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis is a district () in the middle of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The neighbouring districts are (from north clockwise) Mayen-Koblenz, Rhein-Lahn, Mainz-Bingen, Bad Kreuznach, Birkenfeld, Bernkastel-Wittlich, Cochem-Zell.
History
The district was created in 1969, when the districts of St. Goar and Simmern were merged. In 2014 it was expanded with the municipalities Lahr, Mörsdorf and Zilshausen, previously part of Cochem-Zell.
Geography
The name of the district already mentions the two main geographic features of the district - the river Rhine which forms the boundary to the north-east and the hills of the Hunsrück cover most of the area of the district.
The Frankfurt-Hahn Airport is located in the district.
Partnerships
In 1962, Simmern began a friendship pact with the French region Bourgogne, which was continued after the merging with the St. Goar. In 1985 a partnership was started with the district Nyaruguru (at that time called the municipality Rwamiko) in Rwanda, as part of the partnership of the Rhineland-Palatinate region with Rwanda. In 1999, a partnership with the Hungarian Zala County began.
Coat of arms
The chequered bar in the top is taken from the coat of arms of the district Simmern, and stands for the Counts of Sponheim, who owned several estates in the district. The imperial eagle to the left was taken from the coat of arms of the St. Goar district, and represents the imperial cities Boppard and Oberwesel. To the right is the lion of the Electorate of the Palatinate.
Towns and municipalities
Verband-free town: Boppard
References
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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225718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Patton | Mike Patton | Michael Allan Patton (born January 27, 1968) is an American singer, producer, film composer and voice actor, best known as the lead vocalist of the alternative metal band Faith No More. Noted for his vocal proficiency, diverse singing techniques, wide range of projects, style-transcending influences, eccentric public image and contempt for the music industry, Patton has earned critical praise and influenced many contemporary singers. Patton is also co-founder and lead vocalist of Mr. Bungle, and has played with Tomahawk, Fantômas, Moonchild Trio, Kaada/Patton, Dead Cross, Lovage, Mondo Cane, and Peeping Tom. Consistent collaborators through his varied career include avant-garde jazz saxophonist John Zorn, hip hop producer Dan the Automator and classical violinist Eyvind Kang.
He has worked as a producer or co-producer with artists such as Merzbow, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Sepultura, Melvins, Melt-Banana, and Kool Keith. He co-founded Ipecac Recordings with Greg Werckman in 1999, and has run the label since.
Patton is stated as having a vocal range of six octaves. He saw his largest success with the group Faith No More; although they scored one US hit, they scored three UK top 20 singles. Patton is an outspoken, even mocking, critic of the mainstream music industry and has been a champion for non-mainstream music that he says has "fallen through the cracks."
Patton has been cited as an influence by members of Coheed and Cambria, Deftones, Five Finger Death Punch, Hoobastank, Incubus, Killswitch Engage, Korn, Limp Bizkit, Queens of the Stone Age, and System of a Down.
Early years
Mike Patton was born in Eureka, California to a social worker mother and a PE teacher father. Patton's home was strictly secular. During his first years, his family had an apartment in San Jose in which they spent much time before they permanently relocated to Eureka. Patton says he has written recreationally for as long as he can remember. Due to his father's profession, Patton grew up as a sports enthusiast and practiced them regularly until his touring career began in 1989. One of his earliest musical memories was listening to his father's records by Earth, Wind & Fire and a Frank Zappa one, yet at the time they did not leave a significant impression on Patton. In elementary school he was a good student and athlete, but had very few friends due to his focus on getting good grades. As an "escape valve", he regularly asked his parents to drop him off at the movies, where he secretly watched slasher films, and also Star Wars, whose soundtrack impacted him deeply. He and his bandmates have consistently credited their early years in Eureka, a relatively isolated city in the far north of California, to the intense curiosity that would drive their future career paths (Eureka being one of the few big towns between San Francisco and Portland, and surrounded by dense redwood forests). Although his family did not have an artistic background, Patton was thankful for the freedom they granted him which led him to music.
Patton studied at Eureka High School where he met bassist Trevor Dunn and later guitarist Trey Spruance, both members of its music theory class and jazz ensembles. Patton got to know Dunn through trading records and they bonded over their studiousness, sarcastic humor and disaffection. Both were part of the cover band Gemini that performed songs by popular heavy metal groups. They quickly gained interest in heavier styles and joined the thrash metal cover band Fiend, but were kicked out and subsequently recorded a death metal tape under the name Turd, with Dunn on vocals and Patton on the instruments. Although Patton was "pretty well-adjusted and well-liked by [his middle school] peers", he had a "hyper geek" personality and felt increasingly alienated from sportspeople; ultimately, he found a supportive environment in the death metal music scene where he shifted his focus from sports to art. He and Dunn also had punk friends and started to branch out to that subculture; neither musician wanted to be associated with the drug epidemic in Eureka nor the school's party scene, thus soon self-identified as straight edge. On the other hand, Trey Spruance, who is a year younger, and drummer Jed Watts were members of Torchure, a Mercyful Fate-inspired band that had played with Patton's Fiend, and they formed another two-piece extreme metal band called FCA. Eventually, the four musicians joined up and established Mr. Bungle in 1984. In November, they performed its first show in the adjacent town of Bayside. Dunn, Spruance and Patton "pretty much hated everyone" at school and hung out alone next to the tennis courts outside campus. To pass the time, they often engaged in late night freighthopping, getting off at nearby towns or remote, wooded areas, and relying on hitchhiking to find their way home. While they disliked the cultural vapidness and degradation of the area, they appreciated their school teachers who nurtured their artistic interests; an English one turned Patton onto Marquis de Sade and The Painted Bird by Jerzy Kosiński, while Dan Horton, their music teacher, let them use the music room after school and even joined them as a temporary horn player at a show.
Patton enrolled in Humboldt State University, located in the nearby town of Arcata, to study English literature with plans to become a writer. He performed very well in college and wrote numerous short stories of varied genres, while at the time music was an enjoyable yet not-too-serious hobby for Patton. At Humboldt, Patton first met his future band Faith No More during a 1986 show at a pizza parlor, where Mr. Bungle played numerous times. After the performance, Spruance, who had invited Patton to the show, gave drummer Mike Bordin Mr. Bungle's first demo The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny. From school to college, Patton also worked part-time at the only record store in Eureka until he joined Faith No More in 1988.
During the late 1980s Mr. Bungle released a number of demos on cassette only: 1986's The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny, 1987's Bowel of Chiley, 1988's Goddammit I Love America and 1989's OU818. The last three feature tracks that would later be included on their 1991 debut studio release.
Music career
Faith No More: 1988–1998; 2009–present
After the members of Faith No More heard Mr. Bungle's second demo tape in 1987, they approached Patton to audition as their lead singer in 1988. The band tried out more than fifteen singers to fill the role, including Chris Cornell from Soundgarden, but they settled on Patton in view of his versatility. In the next months they performed a few live shows together and Patton would be officially announced as their new singer in January 1989, replacing Chuck Mosley, which forced Patton to quit his studies at Humboldt State University. Mosley subsequently formed the bands Cement and VUA, and had several special "one-off" performances at shows with Faith No More and Patton before his death in 2017.
Faith No More's The Real Thing was released in 1989. The album reached the top 20 on the US charts, thanks largely to MTV's heavy rotation of the "Epic" music video, (which features Patton in a Mr. Bungle T-shirt). Faith No More released three more studio albums—Angel Dust, King for a Day... Fool for a Lifetime, and Album of the Year—before disbanding in 1998. In one interview, Patton cited what he perceived as the declining quality of the band's work as a contributing factor to the split.
On February 24, 2009, after months of speculation and rumors, Faith No More announced they would be reforming with a line-up identical to the Album of the Year era, embarking on a reunion tour called The Second Coming Tour. To coincide with the band's reunion tour, Rhino released the sixth Faith No More compilation, The Very Best Definitive Ultimate Greatest Hits Collection in the UK on June 8. The same line-up eventually released a new album called Sol Invictus in 2015.
Solo work and band projects: 1984–present
During his time in Faith No More, Patton continued to work with Mr. Bungle. His success in mainstream rock and metal ultimately helped secure Mr. Bungle a record deal with Warner Bros. The band released a self-titled album (produced by John Zorn) in 1991, and the experimental Disco Volante in 1995. Their final album, California, was released in 1999. The band ceased being active following the 1999–2000 tour in support of the California record, although their disbandment was only officially confirmed in November 2004. Mr. Bungle reunited in 2019 with three original members (Patton, Dunn and Spruance) plus drummer Dave Lombardo and guitarist Scott Ian to re-record its first demo from 1986 The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny, released on October 30, 2020.
Patton's other projects included two solo albums on the Composer Series of John Zorn's Tzadik label, (Adult Themes for Voice in 1996 and Pranzo Oltranzista in 1997). He is a member of Hemophiliac, in which he performs vocal effects along with John Zorn on saxophone and Ikue Mori on laptop electronics. This group is billed as "improvisational music from the outer reaches of madness". He has also guested on Painkiller and Naked City recordings. He has appeared on other Tzadik releases with Zorn and others, notably as part of the "Moonchild Trio" alongside Joey Baron and Trevor Dunn, named after Zorn's 2006 album on which the trio first appeared, Moonchild: Songs Without Words.
In 1998, Patton formed the metal supergroup Fantômas with guitarist Buzz Osborne (of The Melvins), bassist Trevor Dunn (of Mr. Bungle), and drummer Dave Lombardo (of Slayer). They have released four studio albums. In 1999, Patton collaborated with Japanese experimental musician Merzbow on the album She, released under the name Maldoror.
In 1999, Patton met former The Jesus Lizard guitarist Duane Denison at a Mr. Bungle concert in Nashville, and the two subsequently formed the band Tomahawk. Tomahawk's straightforward rock sound has often been compared to Album of the Year/King for a Day era Faith No More.
In 2001, he contributed vocals to Chino Moreno's group Team Sleep and released the album Music to Make Love to Your Old Lady By with the group Lovage, a collaborative project consisting of Patton, Dan the Automator, Jennifer Charles, and Kid Koala.
Patton performed vocals for Dillinger Escape Plan's 2002 EP, Irony Is a Dead Scene. That year, he joined violinist Eyvind Kang and his ensemble Playground to play the piece Virginal Co Ordinates at the Festival Internazionale di Musica in Bologna. The performance would be release as an album in 2003.
In 2004, Patton worked with Björk and the beat boxer Rahzel on the album Medúlla. That same year, Patton released the album Romances with Kaada and contributed vocals to the album White People by Handsome Boy Modeling School (Dan the Automator and Prince Paul). In 2005, Patton collaborated with hip-hop DJ trio and turntablists The X-Ecutioners to release the album General Patton vs. The X-Ecutioners.
In February 2006, Mike Patton performed an operatic piece composed by Eyvind Kang, based on the 1582 work Cantus Circaeus by Giordano Bruno, at Teatro Comunale di Modena in Modena, Italy. Patton sang alongside vocalist Jessika Kenney, and was accompanied by the Modern Brass Ensemble, Bologna Chamber Choir, and Alberto Capelli and Walter Zanetti on electric and acoustic guitars. The singer remarked that it was extremely challenging to project the voice without a microphone. This performance was later released as the record Athlantis in July 2007, through Ipecac Recordings.
Patton's Peeping Tom album was released on May 30, 2006 on his own Ipecac label. The set was pieced together by swapping song files through the mail with collaborators like Dan the Automator, Rahzel, Norah Jones, Kool Keith, Massive Attack, Odd Nosdam, Amon Tobin, Jel, Doseone, Bebel Gilberto, Kid Koala, and Dub Trio.
In May 2007, he performed with an orchestra a few concerts in Italy under the name of Mondo Cane, singing Italian oldies from the 50s and the 60s.
In 2008, he performed vocals on the track "Lost Weekend" by The Qemists. In December 2008, along with Melvins, Patton co-curated an edition of the All Tomorrow's Parties Nightmare Before Christmas festival. Patton chose half of the lineup and performed the album The Director's Cut in its entirety with Fantômas. Patton also appeared as Rikki Kixx in the Adult Swim show Metalocalypse in a special 2 part episode on August 24.
In June 2009 Mike Patton and Fred Frith performed in Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, England as part of that year's Meltdown Festival.
On May 4, 2010 Mondo Cane, where Patton worked live with a 30-piece orchestra, was released by Ipecac Recordings. The album was co-produced and arranged by Daniele Luppi. Recorded at a series of European performances including an outdoor concert in a Northern Italian piazza, the CD features traditional Italian pop songs as well as a rendition of Ennio Morricone's "Deep Down".
On June 18, 2010, Patton performed the 1965 work Laborintus II by classical composer Luciano Berio in Amsterdam, along with the orchestra Ictus Ensemble and vocal group Nederlands Kamerkoor. This show would be released as an album on July 10, 2012. On October 8, 2016, Patton and Ictus Ensemble played this piece in Krakow, Poland, preceded by a performance of the album Virginal Co Ordinates the previous day, alongside its creator Eyvind Kang.
Patton is a member of the supergroup Nevermen, alongside Tunde Adebimpe of TV on the Radio and rapper Doseone (with whom Patton had previously collaborated on the Peeping Tom side-project). In 2016, the group released an eponymous debut album on Patton's Ipecac label.
In August 2017, Patton released a new album with the band Dead Cross, a supergroup that includes Slayer and Fantômas drummer Dave Lombardo and the members of Retox Michael Crain and Justin Pearson.
On December 27, 2017, Patton performed his collaborative EP, Irony Is a Dead Scene, as well as a cover of Faith No More's "Malpractice," with the Dillinger Escape Plan live at the band's first of three final shows at Terminal 5 in New York City.
In May 2018, Patton performed two concerts entitled Forgotten Songs in Modena, Italy, with the American pianist Uri Caine. The setlists of the concerts varied and included songs from Olivier Messiaen, Elton John, Slayer, Violeta Parra, George Gurdjieff, among many others. They also performed a new song called "Chansons D'amour" from an album Patton would later release with French musician Jean-Claude Vannier, Corpse Flower of September 2019. The shows were recorded, but it is not certain if the material will get a release.
On January 25, 2020, Patton joined Laurie Anderson and Rubin Kodheli at the SFJAZZ Center for a performance based on the 16th century military manual Quanjing Jieyao Pian by Qi Jiguang.
In September 2021, Faith No More was scheduled to play shows but were cancelled due to Patton citing mental health reasons.
Other ventures
Film work
In 2005, Patton signed on to compose the soundtrack for the independent movie Pinion, marking his debut scoring an American feature-length film. However, this had been held up in production and may be on the shelf permanently. His other film work includes portraying two major characters in the Steve Balderson film Firecracker.
Patton provided the voices of the monsters in the 2007 film I Am Legend starring Will Smith.
He also worked on the Derrick Scocchera short film "A Perfect Place" for the score/soundtrack, which is longer than the film itself.
In 2009, Patton created the soundtrack to the movie Crank: High Voltage.
In the 2010 film Bunraku Patton voiced The Narrator.
Patton composed the soundtrack to the 2012 film The Place Beyond the Pines.
In 2016, Patton provided the voice to lead character Eddy Table in a short animated film, The Absence of Eddy Table.
In 2017, he scored the Stephen King movie 1922 for Netflix.
Video game work
Patton is an avid video game player, especially with PlayStation consoles. In 2007, he provided the voice of the eponymous force in the video game The Darkness, working alongside Kirk Acevedo, Lauren Ambrose and Dwight Schultz. Patton reprised the role in The Darkness II in 2012.
He also had a role in Valve's 2007 release Portal as the voice of the Anger Sphere in the final confrontation with the insane supercomputer, GLaDOS. He has another role in the Valve title Left 4 Dead, voicing the majority of the infected zombies. He also voiced Nathan "Rad" Spencer, the main character in Capcom's 2009 video game Bionic Commando, a sequel to their classic NES title.
On March 11, 2021, Patton lent his voice to a remake of the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles theme song that was released as the trailer for the upcoming videogame, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Shredder's Revenge.
Artistry
Voice, techniques and style
Throughout his career, Patton has utilized various different genres including, avant-garde, alternative metal, experimental, experimental rock, art pop, contemporary classical, funk metal, and thrash metal. Mike Patton's vocals touch on crooning, falsetto, screaming, opera, death growls, rapping, beatboxing, and scatting, among other techniques. While already a proficient singer, Patton is fond of manipulating his voice with effect pedals and diverse tools. This has been a prominent feature in his project Fantômas. In a rundown on several songs sung by Patton, vocal coach Beth Roars distinguished his mastery of several styles from popular singers who usually focus on one approach, approximating Patton more to musical theater singers and contemporary classical performers. Critic Greg Prato writes, "Patton could very well be one of the most versatile and talented singers in rock music"; colleague Blake Butler called Patton "a complete and utter musical visionary and a mind-blowing and standard-warping genius." He has knowledge on multiple instruments as well.
Mike Patton achieved the first place in a May 2014 VVN Music's (Vintage Vinyl News) analysis ranking various rock and pop singers in order of their respective octave ranges. The article served as a retraction to a previous article, which originally awarded the number one position to Axl Rose. The article praised Patton's impressive 6 octaves, 1/2 note range (Eb1 to E7), versus Axl's admirable 5 octaves, 2-1/2 notes. When asked about his range in a 2019 interview, he referred to the article: "I think that range thing is all bullshit. I don't think that I have the biggest range. And even if I do, who cares! ... This is not like the Olympics of vocals. [laughs] I could make a record without singing a note, and I'll be happy with it."
Patton is enthusiastic about collaborating with other musicians, stating that "It is really what makes life interesting", but he only participates in projects he feels close to.
Phil Freeman of The Wire groups Patton with Tom Waits, Frank Zappa and Brian Wilson in what he calls 'California Pop Art' - artists from that area who adapted unconventional sources into their music and created pieces to then hire musicians capable of realizing them. Several writers have likened Patton to Zappa (as well as their bands Mr. Bungle and Mothers of Invention) because of the quantity of their work, wide-ranging influences and recurrent use of humor. Patton is averse to that comparison, but he admitted that one of the few records he enjoyed from his parents' collection was from Zappa. Freeman believes that besides superficial elements, their music does not hold many similarities.
Film scores by Patton have been described as blurring the lines between genres, as well as "radical", in a manner similar to popular musicians such as Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross who turned to the audiovisual medium without any strict adherence to its orchestral tradition. On his method of composition for other musicians' pieces and filmmakers, Patton said that the most important quality is to remain flexible and open to any style, as well as to always follow the vision of the author.
Vocal writing and lyrics
Patton bases his vocals on what "the music dictates", whether that is using his voice in a traditional way or as "another [instrument]." Both with orchestras and smaller bands, the singer follows a serial, painstaking approach on his writing. Although he has performed with many improvisation and game ensembles through his career, Patton rarely composes vocals through jam sessions. His compositions are preceded by the study of the instrumentals, where he analyzes every instrument and their specific parts, and afterward focuses on "blending [his voice] into the band" rather than being at the forefront of the pieces. Patton feels that the best recordings have the vocals "a little buried in the mix" as they interact with the other instruments. Usually, his first composition step is to find the lead melody of a piece, either vocal or otherwise, imagining notes and sounds on top of it. After that his writing naturally progresses, e.g. by employing a "third or fourth [harmony]" or "whatever [else] needs to be done". In 2019, Patton noted: "Making great music is sometimes like being in a torture chamber. You have to accept the pain. Ultimately, it's not about you. It's about how the music can be best served." Patton is inclined to produce dense overdubs that include numerous vocals or instrumentations in single passages. When asked about the unorthodox use of his voice - drawing on diverse techniques and effects, or eschewing lyrics, Patton remarked: "The voice is an instrument. No rules, just part of the music."
Former bandmate William Winant singled out Patton's immediacy to concretize musical ideas he has in his head. Faith No More bassist Billy Gould observed his reaction to the backbone of the songs from The Real Thing and concluded: "[Patton] was trying to figure us out at first, ... But he has this key to understanding music on a real gut level, and his ideas honestly made these songs even better."
Patton creates lyrics after hearing the instrumentals and, in the same way as the vocals, he approaches them depending on "what the music needs". His songwriting takes a phonetic perspective instead of a literal one, making sounds paramount – "the music tells the story", he says. As soon as he creates the melodies, he generally seeks words that sound the most similar to what he heard in his head. On the other hand, when working thematically, Patton says that each song is usually a character sketch acted out by him, "trying to appropriate their [respective] psycholog[ies]", and does not make them autobiographical. Before writing, Patton tends to read books about the specific topic he wants to address and then fits it into "stolen ideas from other musicians." Journalists highlight the marked deromanticization by Patton on his own songwriting (he once compared it to "brushing [his] teeth"), yet, in the 1990s, he either said or hinted that at least a few songs came from his personal experiences. Regardless of the extent to which Patton's statements on his lyrics are accurate, to Cammila Albertson at AllMusic his self-deprecating attitude is "self-aware" and, at least partly, a reaction to the self-importance of people in the music industry, manifested more clearly in his parody of rock and rap clichés in the lyrics of "Mojo" by Peeping Tom. In a 1993 Faith No More interview, Patton elaborated: In some projects such as much of Moonchild Trio and Fantômas, he has avoided lyrics completely in favor of preverbal sounds, because, in these cases, he deems language "distracting information". Although many of these verses do not have concrete meanings, Patton emphasizes that they are not emotionally void, in the same way as neither a painting without explanation notes is. For him, records are akin to an "adventure" or scenes from a movie, and he enjoys that people interprets them in their own way, corresponding to how he himself listens to other music. Patton's free-form approach, both vocally and lyrically, mirrors those of singers Demetrio Stratos and The Boredoms' Yamantaka Eye.
His early songs in Mr. Bungle dealt with "real nasty, offensive stuff". By the time of 1989's The Real Thing, Patton was studying English literature in college whereas Faith No More was an already established band, circumstances that led him to write its lyrics as if they were a "school project".
Music development
As a young child Patton had an aptitude for the recognition of different sounds and, according to him, his parents became aware that he imitated bird vocalizations. This prompted them to give him a flexi disc of vocal exercises, "like guys that could make odd sounds", which became one of his favorite records but without understanding its purpose at the time. He realized the potential of his voice at the age of eight or nine by doing "things to get attention" at school.
Mike Patton is mostly a self-taught musician and cannot read or write notation. He has perfect pitch. His production methods also grew from him figuring out how to accomplish the sounds he tried to convey every time he was in his studio. In the beginning, Patton mimicked and drew from all the singers whose music he admired. Only once Patton started to continually record himself and listened to these recordings, he was able to establish a foundation to shape his skills. Thereby, he points up that "hearing more", both to his and other music, has been his most important education. Since he began to improvise with saxophonist John Zorn in 1991, along with his discoveries of Demetrio Stratos and Diamanda Galás, Patton started broad explorations into extended vocal techniques and the limits of his voice, with him trying to match Zorn's "immense, bullheaded" range. Many of his vocal deeds and exercises arisen from improvisations were documented on the 1996 album Adult Themes For Voice. Around the period that Patton moved to Italy, he became acquainted with the singing method of opera teacher Nicola Vaccai, which he studied autodidactically for years, furthering his repertoire more. At the time he also delved into Bel canto, a florid Italian singing tradition, as can be seen in his operatic performances and also in Mondo Cane.
Patton's views on creating music are somewhat similar to those of Brian Eno, a self-professed "non-musician", with the difference that Patton excelled at his main instrument and mastered at least the rudiments of several others. Although Patton disregards the preponderance of theory in favor of doing, he still attributes part of his development to working with learned musicians: when Mr. Bungle formed in 1984, he was "fascinated" with his friends Trey Spruance and Trevor Dunn, both theory and jazz students at school, because they knew more about music than him, and decided to "follow their lead." Afterward, at Humboldt State University, his bandmates Dunn, Spruance, Danny Heifetz and Clinton McKinnon were all majoring in music while Patton studied English literature. Spruance highlights the great music resources in Humboldt's library, where he spent a lot of time studying, and the band rehearsed at the same place as the college big band, in which the four of them played. Additionally, Patton—along with Heifetz—was tutored on percussion by professor Eugene Novotney.
Composer and saxophonist John Zorn, who met Patton in 1990, is credited with teaching him "many things", such as vocal improvisation when performing with an ensemble. In 2006, Patton spoke about their relationship: "I've been incredibly fortunate to have a friend like that — who is also a peer and a mentor". Some of his recording sessions with Zorn as conductor were so arduous that the singer passed out.
Influences
As regards his influences, Patton stated: "You should be able to draw inspiration from any and everything. There should be no limits, it's fundamental. A lot of people listen to music that I make and [do not understand why my songs are so eclectic. But] that's the way I listen to music! ... That's the way I see the world and that's how it comes out of me. ... The deeper that well [of inspiration] is and the more places you can find it, the better." Detailing his composition process, Patton once paraphrased the T. S. Eliot quote, "Good artists copy; great artists steal."
Early influences
Patton's first bands in high school played heavy metal and by the start of Mr. Bungle the frontman was immersed in death metal and hardcore punk. In this period his favorites groups included Venom, Possessed and Sodom. In terms of punk, he was a big fan of The Exploited and straight edge band 7 Seconds. The band's second and third demos shifted its sound to ska and funk, and the last one of 1989 incorporated a wide variety of genres. Patton considers his work at a record store as crucial for his and Mr. Bungle's evolution: upon his arrival, he "devour[ed]" extreme metal and punk rock music, all the while his coworkers introduced him to diverse artists who ranged from rap to reggae to folk rock and other genres.
Before the release of their 1986 debut The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny, Dunn and Patton had got hold of ska- and funk-infused bands such as Oingo Boingo, Fishbone, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Camper Van Beethoven, E.U. and others. Spruance said that the catalyst to their progression was their attendance to an October 1986 show by funk rock band Fishbone, as they were one of the few renowned hard rock-fusion groups that played in their hometown of Eureka. These musical findings spurred Mr. Bungle's interest in tearing down the walls between opposite styles, and challenging the seriousness of the extreme metal community. The theatrics and overexpression of certain notes of Oingo Boingo's Danny Elfman paralleled those of Patton, while his late 1980s nasal rapping drew comparisons to Red Hot Chili Peppers' Anthony Kiedis. This period of Mr. Bungle also echoes the lighthearted youthfulness and wacky videos by British ska pop band Madness, whose song "House of Fun" reminisces "Carousel" by Mr. Bungle musically. Perhaps Patton's biggest influence by then had become Prince, evident in the soulful inflections and crafty squeals throughout his first studio albums with both Faith No More and Mr. Bungle. Throughout those years the band still had broad musical interests that included new developments in heavy music, and they constantly traveled to San Francisco in order to attend shows and buy more obscure metal records. Patton also began his connections with easy listening through singer Sammy Davis Jr. Furthermore, he came under the influence of R&B singer Sade on his arrival to Faith No More, reflected in later songs such as "Evidence".
He pinpoints his discoveries of "extraordinary" Motown singers and some records by Frank Zappa as landmarks at his record store job. After a few years working there, Patton was allowed to commission albums to have them on sale, subsequently ordering "the craziest shit" he was aware of from diverse styles, with the secret intention of taking those records into his house to make copies of them that he and his Mr. Bungle bandmates would listen to. This rapidly led their music tastes to grow.
Vocal influences
Asked about his influences and favorite singers in 1992, Patton said "A lot of people, I don't even know [where to start]", but among them mentioned Diamanda Galás, Frank Sinatra, Blixa Bargeld from Einstürzende Neubauten, H.R. from the Bad Brains, Chet Baker, Elton John and Obituary's John Tardy. Several reviewers have noted similarities between his most adventurous works and the music of Galás, and the solo performances and screams of Bargeld. The frontman expresses much admiration for Sinatra's musicality, owning rare live records and outtakes from him, and considers unfortunate that the crooner's private life overshadowed his artistry. Some authors observed that Bad Brains' H.R. presaged the dynamic delivery of Patton.
One of Patton's biggest influences was Greek-Italian singer and researcher Demetrio Stratos, leader of Area, who studied the limits of the human range and recorded several vocals-only albums that Patton examined. Stratos died unexpectedly amid his research, aged 34, and years later writer Anthony Heilbut referred to Patton as his "most famous heir". The surreal vocals of Yamantaka Eye from The Boredoms and Hanatarash inspired the lyric-less compositions by the singer as well, and the former had also played with Naked City before Patton.
Another influence is Tom Waits; Angel Dust included the Waits-inspired song "RV", and at that time Patton began to use a megaphone both on stage and in the studio. The 1970s catalog of Stevie Wonder include some of the records that impacted Patton the most vocally, such as The Secret Life of Plants. In different incarnations, he has covered the Stevie Wonder songs "Sir Duke" and "They Won't Go When I Go".
In 2019, he cited the spoken word-esque lyrical style of Leonard Cohen as inspirational, as well as the voice and note placement of Serge Gainsbourg, in addition to the writing of Bob Dylan. Patton disregarded this type of musician when he was younger, until he eventually "hear[d] new things" in them.
Other influences
In 1992, he cited Nomeansno and The Residents as influences. The Quietus pointed out "Patton's love of the Cardiacs, and musical digression" in general as well. Patton held in high regard the Super Roots EP series by Boredoms, along with the albums A Fierce Pancake by Stump, Ozma by Melvins and Drop Dead by Siege. He was also a big admirer of industrial metal band Godflesh and invited its guitarist Justin Broadrick to join Faith No More after the departure of Jim Martin in 1993. The Young Gods would go on to inform him and Faith No More's later use of samples.
As of 1992, his favorite genre had become easy listening and years later Patton named composer and arranger Les Baxter as the main influence on one of his film scores. In 2005 the frontman proclaimed: "The orchestration in that music is so dense and so complex and so amazing, if you can get beyond the kitsch. And I can do that in 30 seconds flat. ... I hear new stuff in there every time I listen." Besides Baxter, orchestral pop composer Burt Bacharach is a major influence on the writing by Patton and he constantly expressed his desire to work with him. Additionally, the singer was "besotted" with the music of Jean-Claude Vannier after discovering his arrangements for Serge Gainsbourg, and the two went on to collaborate in 2019.
In 1988, Patton mentioned actor and comedian Steve Martin as an influence on Mr. Bungle, and the singer would later state that he felt identified with him. He also credited disco band Village People for his use of irony and stage costumes, believing that "a lot of people [did not] understand [the band's deliberate sarcasm]". Mr. Bungle covered "Macho Man" as early as 1985 (its second active year). Another ideological influence was shock rock singer GG Allin, who Patton considered "the musician who never sold out" and admired that "he lived and died for what he believed in."
Films and books have informed Patton more than any other medium. The eclecticism of both Ennio Morricone's scores for Dario Argento, and Jerry Goldsmith, were major sparks for his interest in soundtracks. Patton shows a deep appreciation for movies that deal with inner, psychological uncertainty and distress, rather than outward shock value or glitz. Important film pieces to him include Rosemary's Baby by Krzysztof Komeda, In Like Flint by Jerry Goldsmith, The Godfather by Nino Rota, Kwaidan by Tōru Takemitsu, Under the Skin by Mica Levi, The Birds by Oskar Sala, and The Exorcist. Patton has constantly expressed his admiration for director David Lynch and many publications describe the surrealism in some of his music, especially in Disco Volante and California by Mr. Bungle, as "the musical equivalent of a David Lynch movie." He is also a devotee of Morricone's catalog, lamenting that his bombastic Westerns eclipsed his more experimental or strictly classical oeuvre, and in 2005 he commissioned a compilation of the lesser-known soundtracks by "E Maestro" that was released on Patton's label. Morricone's death in July 2020 "weighed heavily on" the singer.
Other musical influences are experimental hardcore band Melt-Banana, which toured with Mr. Bungle in 1995, post-rock band Sigur Rós, country singer-songwriter Willie Nelson, the recording of vocals by João Gilberto, composer Olivier Messiaen, especially his transcriptions of birdsongs, and cartoon music composer Carl Stalling, who was a shared point of reference with John Zorn, whose PhD thesis was on him. The singer expressed fondness for Mauricio Kagel's "negation of opera and the whole tradition of music theater" and Mark Mothersbaugh's music in the Crash Bandicoot game series.
Patton is fascinated with the underground scene in Japan, as suggested in the influence of the Boredoms and Melt-Banana on his music, his collaborations with Merzbow and Otomo Yoshihide, and the Ipecac signings of zeuhl band Ruins and ambient duo Yoshimi & Yuka. In 2006, Patton remarked:
Live performances
Reviewing Patton's live performances, The Believer noted that "his gestures are as anarchic as his vocal sounds", while Revolver highlighted his "maniacal and dapper stage presence". As a rock frontman, Patton regularly communicates with his audiences, often through dry humor and sarcasm.
When he joined Faith No More, Patton was "wound up tight" about matching his performances with the band's attitude. The singer began, among many other things, to front flip onto the stage and land on the floor, to somersault into the crowds, as well as into Bordin's drum kit, or to eat objects such as microphone windscreens. Patton would develop shin splints because of his repeated jumps.
During his third concert with Faith No More, Patton's right hand was permanently numbed after he fell down on a broken bottle that severed his tendons and nerves. The next day, he spent five and half hours in reconstructive microsurgery. He learned to use his hand again, but has no feeling in it (despite his doctor telling him the opposite situation would happen).
In London, on March 10, 2002, during the first live performance of Tomahawk Patton started the show by urinating onto a security guard and photographers, much to the dismay of the press. However, a few days later the band's website said that it was actually a prank-dildo that sprayed water.
During Faith No More's concert at the 2009 Sziget Festival in Budapest, Hungary, Patton swallowed a shoelace from a shoe thrown at the stage, before loudly regurgitating it and throwing it back to the public.
Public image
Labelled as an "icon of the alt-metal world", and a "reluctant pin-up boy", Patton reacted strangely to his fame. According to a 2002 article from East Bay Express: "[Mike Patton]'s undeniably striking, with piercing Italian good looks and that inexplicable aura shared by first crushes, high-profile criminals, and celebrities ... And he's definitely, well, a little weird." The newspaper singled out his "straight-up devilish grin" and opined that Patton "seems to always be wrestling with some sort of suppressed Guido" through his different fashion styles through the years. In 2003, The Age noted he has a "jittery, high-pitched lilt" when interviewed, deemed him "opinionated" as well as prone to swearing and laughing heartily. Writer D.B. Fishman compared his career and image with those of actor and author Crispin Glover.
Mr. Bungle, Patton's band before his sudden rise to fame, already acted bizarrely in the late 1980s; they self-identified as "Star Wars action figure porno freaks" and would throw out bras and underwear for their audience, among other antics. In interviews with Faith No More from the early to mid-1990s, he went on to claim to be obsessed with masturbation; to have defecated in an orange juice carton of Axl Rose and in a hotel hair dryer; to have munched on a tampon left on stage by a member of L7; and to have lived with an aggressive lizard which inspired his lyrics, among many other things. While Faith No More toured at that time, Patton began to carry a voodoo doll named Toodles, sadomasochistic gear, picture books of embalmed corpses and a pickled fetus in a jar. During conversations with reporters, he only showed interest in discussing his "various obsessions" and barely referred to his music. At the San Francisco New Year's Day show with Mr. Bungle in 1991, Patton gave himself an enema and expelled it over the crowd. In July of that year Patton was recorded eating garbage thrown from the crowd in Lisbon, Portugal. On a January 1993 tour in France where a journalist accompanied Faith No More, Patton urinated into his shoe on stage before drinking it, and a few days later he percolated cups of coffee live for the audience. In a 1995 Faith No More show in Santiago de Chile, he kneeled before the audience, mouth open, to receive spits from the crowd while they performed "Midlife Crisis". In 2001, the official website of progressive rock band Tool stated that, when Fantômas supported them in promotion of their Lateralus record, Patton was stopped in Florida by airport security for carrying an extremely large amount of money. In the aftermath, the singer claimed that he carried it to buy an "antique book" there, but could not disclose its name.
The North Coast Journal retrospectively pointed out the "profound lack of fact checking" by some journalists on Patton's statements, and Culture Creature stated that it was hard to determine when he was teasing interviewers. In a 2002 interview, answering the question of which aspects of his claims and public behavior were authentic, the frontman replied: "The more misconceptions, the better". Around ten years after the release of "Epic", the singer was approached to participate in an episode of the documentary series Where Are They Now? on VH1, to which Patton would only agree to do if they had depicted him as a real homeless person living in a cardboard box. East Bay Express commented:
In the latter part of the 2000s, Patton stopped continually acting irreverently offstage and claiming strange things to interviewers; by the last years of the next decade he had entirely ceased to do so. In 2019, he explained: "I'm already giving a thousand percent to the music ... and I realize what's important and what's not. ... There's an art to [talking to the press] ... And [on the other hand] fucking with [it] and being a dick it's not really worth it. ... and I learned that from an early age, ... there was a while when I was a total asshole and I didn't say anything and all I would do was give you a sarcastic answer, and spread out crazy lies and rumors just because it was funny [laughs] ... [but] I grew up ... And I think, I hope I've gotten a little better at that". The frontman concluded: "It's much easier to just be, what did I say to you before: the easiest thing in the world is just to be yourself."
Criticisms and views on music
Classic Rock magazine notes the "antihero demeanor" of Patton: the singer regularly makes acerbic criticisms and mockeries of music, but they always seem rooted in his own obsession with it. Patton dislikes the banality and close-mindedness of rock music, in particular the "condescending" attitude of its performers who tend to follow similar formulas, repeat setlists, play crowdpleasers, and not improvise. "[They treat] the audience like children. I think that's ridiculous", he said. "The crux of what you're doing is to open someone's eyes and poke them with something - make them think. ... art should provoke you in some way". In order to achieve this, Patton has sometimes performed deliberately transgressive or shocking acts, both on stage and off. Amid the creation of Angel Dust in 1992, he told MTV that most grunge and alternative rock music was "rehashed" and later stopped listening to those genres altogether because he considered them "pathetic". By contrast, Patton had a strong affinity to experimental artists that explored the possibilities of new technologies, such as Grotus, as well as orchestral-based ones like Frank Sinatra and Mystic Moods Orchestra, whom he called "timeless". Asked to curate the 2008 All Tomorrow's Parties Festival, Patton only chose world music artists, modernist composers and experimental musicians. The cosmopolitan inclinations of Patton are evident in his hobbies on tour, which include visiting local record stores and immersing himself in the culture of the areas (on occasion, fans have spotted him wandering through populous places in countries like Japan and Chile). Accordingly, Patton has spoken out against Americanization and the high esteem held by other countries for the United States. In the late 2000s, he also showed enthusiasm for the increasing innovations in music software and digital instruments, with the hope that they would allow younger generations to break new musical ground. A self-taught producer, Patton mostly scoffs at the hiring of producers, ascribing their need to the inabilities of the own musicians - "If you need to be told what to do, then you don't know what you want."
A major feature throughout Patton's career has been to collaborate with and promote many relatively unknown musicians, either via direct projects or releases through his own label. In 1999, he and manager Greg Werckman of the Dead Kennedys co-founded Ipecac Recordings, a label that serves as hotbed for "misfit" artists and only makes one-record licensings (i.e., unlike traditional contracts, the artists can leave at any time they want). In its first year, Ipecac released music by noise music artist Merzbow, special education children band The Kids of Widney High, and Patton's avant-garde grindcore band Fantômas. The label grew from Patton's discontent with his previous label experiences and the underhanded nature of the music industry. "I'm a musician first and a businessman second," he stated. "I got tired of working with labels who didn't understand anything other than giant rock albums. There's so much interesting music that deserves to be heard; all those artists deserve to be treated with respect." In relation to multi-record contracts, the singer added, "How can labels own a musician? I don't pay attention to the rest of the industry. We just focus on what we like. ... We wanted to find a place where we could find interesting music controlled by the own musician." Ipecac gives entire creative and release control to the artists, keeps minimal overhead costs and instead focuses on efficient recordings. They put major emphasis on giving royalty checks to artists, which, as a result of their approach, are higher than the average, and exceedingly so when their records sell well. Since the establishment of Ipecac, Patton has self-produced and self-released most of his catalog, including his new albums with Faith No More and Mr. Bungle.
A big part of Patton's negative views on the entertainment industry born out of witnessing the behind the scenes of Faith No More's 1992 world tour as a support band for Guns N' Roses and Metallica, the two most successful heavy metal acts at the time. Although the music and views of Faith No More were in stark contrast with them, the band accepted most tour deals at the time in order to expand their audience. Patton remarked: "Whether you like it or not, it's the top. Of course we found that thought exciting. But once you're at it, you realize it's total and utter bullshit." He and his bandmates constantly disparaged those shows amidst the tour; after a Melody Maker interview where Patton spread out rumors about Axl Rose going bald and using a toupée, the band was put on hold for five hours while Rose confronted them to either step down from the remaining dates or stop their behavior.
Patton expressed cynicism about the infamous lifestyles of rock stars. He told the San Francisco Chronicle in 1995, "It's hard to see as much as you'd like with our schedule on the road, but it's harder to do coke and fuck whores every night. Now that's a full time job." In the 2000 essay How We Eat Our Young, he mocked the romanticization of popular musicians by comparing their work, including his, to peeping toms and thieves. Patton was also fond of "play[ing] with" people whose "egos [got] tied in with" them, for example he constantly made fun of Anthony Kiedis in interviews after the latter accused him of stealing his style, and afterward did the same with new wave band INXS who became upset when Patton laughed off an offer to join them. Another occurrence was his ridicule of the macho persona displayed by metal band Pantera: in 1999, he proclaimed that vocalist Phil Anselmo finally "came out of the closet" and on another show claimed that an attendant stopped for illicitly stage diving deserved it because he wore a Pantera shirt. In the early 2000s, Patton was asked to be part of a new supergroup—later named Velvet Revolver—that would feature original members of Guns N' Roses. Patton, again, laughed at the request, telling a reporter, "I think everyone else knows [why I was not interested], except them. Which is the funny part." Instead, the singer joined mathcore band the Dillinger Escape Plan for a 2002 EP. Consequence of Sound deemed Patton "the epitome of the anti-rock star."
Around the turn of the millennium, there was a tribute album to Faith No More in progress that featured Disturbed, Deftones and several nu metal bands, but Patton lampooned it in interviews as soon as he heard about it, statements that prompted its cancellation. In 2005, DJ magazine Big Shot contacted Patton to interview dance music artist Moby, who was a fan of Fantômas, to promote his new album Hotel. Patton accepted but decided not to hear the record in advance, and the conversation was awkward, with the singer describing Moby's material as "electronic wallpaper shit". In 2006, a video of him mocking hard rock band Wolfmother during their Lollapalooza set went viral. The incident happened amid an unscripted interview done to Patton in the surroundings of the venue, when he suddenly stopped to remark, "Are you hearing this shit?! What year are we in? [In reference to the band's 1970s rock sound.] Forgive me, but Wolfmother you suck. ... Sorry, I was about to [puke.]" The next year, a TV advert for his group Peeping Tom featured Patton ironically lauding Wolfmother. In 2007, the singer was asked about his opinion on Foo Fighters, among other mainstream rock artists, to which he called it "meaningless to me ... is that even music?", criticizing bandleader Dave Grohl's squander of his massive reach, resources and drumming skills to "dance around with a guitar." By the same token, when progressive bands like the Mars Volta, Radiohead and Mastodon were having enormous commercial success that year, Patton remarked: "The state of rock is wonderful right now. I've never been happier."
Clothing and fashion
In his first years with Faith No More, Patton had a long hairstyle without facial hair, wore baggy clothes and displayed a "unkempt style". Amidst that time, he shaved the sides of his head a bit, coming close to a mullet, while he usually donned baseball caps during his first two albums with them. GQ noted that these looks—also sported by Anthony Kiedis—were common in 1980s Los Angeles, and they differed from the grunge aesthetic which was popular at the time. The magazine considers both vocalists as its best-known exemplars.
Around 1992's Angel Dust, Patton started to explore his "masculinity" through diverse anti-fashion styles. That year he cut his hair short, grew a goatee and began dressing "a bit like an auto mechanic [who] no one would trust". In 1992 he and keyboardist Roddy Bottum pierced their right and left eyebrows, respectively. Kerrang! wrote that some aspects of this fashion influenced that of nu metal. For the 1995 album King For a Day... Fool For a Lifetime, all the members of Faith No More, excluding Mike Bordin, shaved their heads, which in the following months, for Patton, became "unkempt and overgrown, complementing a thick, lazy moustache". During this period, the San Francisco Chronicle observed that the way he dressed lent him to probably "be mistaken for a blue-collar worker".
Since around 2000, the singer has mostly used suits, along with boutonnières, slicked-back hair, and both a short moustache and beard. He has sometimes varied them with "slightly hippier" attires or basketball jerseys. GQ praised the first style for its "simplicity and darkness with a touch of European elegance", that stands in contrast with the established looks of mainstream musicians.
Fanbase
Although Faith No More had a major influence on several mainstream American acts, they found more commercial success in other territories after The Real Thing, such as Australia, Europe and South America. Patton's charisma and artistry led the band to garner a "cult-like devotion" by numerous fans, as well as to treat him like, what some authors have described, a "deity". Throughout the world, multiple online communities dedicated to Faith No More and Patton's projects have emerged since 1995, and there were hundreds of websites exclusively about the singer by the mid-2000s. Many of those created in the 1990s remain active today. Raziq Rauf at Classic Rock believes that his egotistical, resolute dismissal of mainstream trends and conventions is what led his audience to stuck up for him: "He never asked for their loyalty, but he won it anyway."
In 2002, Patton was reported as having a "mixed relationship" with his fanbase and the press, and, even though a non-reclusive person, some aspects of his fame had "freak[ed] him out" – "[Patton is] a private person who'd much rather shuffle through Burt Bacharach and Joe Meek CDs than talk about himself". At one point, he refused to give any interviews to promote Mr. Bungle.
Notoriously, in 1993 an Australian female fan handcuffed Patton to herself when he was backstage, remaining so for two hours until personnel from Faith No More could free him. Several fans had also tried to live outside of his house . In July 2000, after Fantômas played at the Nottingham Rock City in England, a drunken male fan ran toward Patton and bit his neck, leading the singer to slap him across the face. Despite these incidents, he kept conceding to talk or give interviews to his followers on several occasions while touring. In later interviews, Patton thought to have "gotten better" at dealing with admirers and reporters.
Personal life
Patton married Cristina Zuccatosta, an Italian artist, in 1994. The couple divided their time between San Francisco and Bologna, Italy. The couple separated in 2001, but later reconciled. Patton has referred to her as his "best friend" and says that "she probably understands [him] more than [he]" himself does. Until 2001, Patton owned a home in Bologna and became a fluent speaker of Italian. These events tied him closely to Italian culture and its popular music of the mid-20th century. He was also conversational in Spanish until the 1990s and still understands it. In addition, he spoke Portuguese slang.
He has no children. Patton enjoys his privacy and maintains few deep relationships in his life. One of his friends is actor Danny DeVito, who continually goes to concerts by Patton. They met after DeVito and his son attended a Fantômas show at the 2005 Coachella Festival.
The singer's numerous projects and constant touring have led him to be widely identified as a "workaholic". Patton, who is addicted to coffee, has kept around three projects going on simultaneously throughout the years. By 2006 he did not go on vacation, but says that his workflow is natural for him and does not "feel comfortable unless [he has] got a few unfinished things". In 2002, Patton admitted that his hectic schedule had hindered some of his personal relationships, but nonetheless he emphasized that music is his priority.
Interests
The frontman owns a massive record collection and, as of 2005, he regularly traveled to Japan with John Zorn to buy albums. Patton is not "so sensitive to musical climates" and believes that some of the best art tends to "fall through the cracks", thus he invests a considerable amount of time in search of non-mainstream artists. This was one of his reasons for the establishment of Ipecac Recordings. In 1999, Patton told: "I like going into some place like [record store] Amoeba and saying 'O.K. what's gonna change my life today?'" Patton's favorite moment during a promotional cycle in 1995 was to spend $20,000 on a jazz record binge with his bandmate Bordin in Paris, France. In 2010, he wrote a testimonial for Record Store Day as support for those independent businesses, calling them his "candy shops!"
Patton is a foodie. He owns several restaurant books and while on tour he likes to try different cuisines, "whether it's some high-end snobby shit or some low-down barbecue in someone's back yard." His record Pranzo Oltranzista revolves around futurist cooking and he has given thematic interviews about food. Meeting up with friends over a meal is his main social activity besides music.
Since childhood, Patton has been an avid fan of basketball team Los Angeles Lakers. He is also a baseball fan, which in the past he considered "a guilty pleasure." Patton supports the Italian national football team.
In between tours, Patton practiced swimming and weight training.
Legacy
A list published by Consequence of Sound based on vocal range acknowledged Mike Patton as "the greatest singer of all time" in popular music. Before the disbandment of Faith No More in 1998, Patton was already highly respected by colleagues and listeners, and this continued with his multiple experimental releases that ensued it. In terms of influence, PopMatters regards him as one of the two most important rock frontmen of the 1990s alongside Kurt Cobain. Nonetheless, Patton downplays his prominence with light-hearted self-deprecation, and was very critical of his earlier work.
The versatility and skill of Patton's vocals on the first Faith No More and Mr. Bungle albums were "groundbreaking", features that, along with the experimental rock instrumentations of his bandmates, inspired a generation of musicians that came after him. While Patton finished his second record with Faith No More—Angel Dust of 1992 —Warner Bros warned them that it would be a "commercial suicide" due to the significant stylistic departure that they began venturing on, yet, eventually, in 2003 Kerrang! magazine described it as the most influential album of the past two decades. Although Patton could easily have capitalized on any of those records after their release, critics extol that he kept reinventing himself and constantly looking for new approaches throughout the years. Several authors have called him a "Renaissance man". Writing about the multifaceted endeavors of Patton, Robert Barry stated:
Patton has often been credited as an influence to nu metal, a form of alternative metal spearheaded by bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit in the late-90s. He has been less than enthusiastic about being linked to such bands, stating in a 2002 interview that "Nu-metal makes my stomach turn". A reviewer at The Quietus opined that, notwithstanding Faith No More's far-reaching legacy, the most valuable contribution of Patton has been using his platform "to become one of the most potent driving forces in avant-garde and alternative music", through his diverse projects and collaborations, and the experimental artists he has signed to Ipecac Recordings.
In addition to his towering legacies with Faith No More, Mr. Bungle and Fantômas, numerous artists cite Mike Patton directly as an inspiration. Prominent singers such as Chino Moreno (Deftones), Brandon Boyd (Incubus), Ville Valo (HIM), Jacoby Shaddix (Papa Roach), Greg Puciato (The Dillinger Escape Plan), Jesse Leach (Killswitch Engage), Ivan Moody (Five Finger Death Punch), Justin Pierre (Motion City Soundtrack), Daryl Palumbo (Glassjaw), Howard Jones (Killswitch Engage), Claudio Sanchez (Coheed and Cambria), Tommy Rogers (Between the Buried and Me), Daniel Gildenlöw (Pain of Salvation), Doug Robb (Hoobastank), Tommy Vext (Divine Heresy), Hernan Hermida (Suicide Silence), Dimitri Minakakis (The Dillinger Escape Plan), Mike Vennart (Oceansize), Spencer Sotelo (Periphery), CJ McMahon (Thy Art Is Murder) and Kin Etik (Twelve Foot Ninja) have all cited Patton as their primary influence.
Devin Townsend proclaimed in 2011: "Angel Dust into Mr. Bungle changed every singer in heavy music. Patton is a living treasure." Artistically, he has been named the biggest influence for Slipknot, Mushroomhead and Igorrr, and a major one on Josh Homme (Queens of the Stone Age), Serj Tankian (System of a Down) and The Avett Brothers.
Discography
Studio albums
Adult Themes for Voice (1996)
Pranzo Oltranzista (1997)
Mondo Cane (2010)
Selected filmography
1990 – Live at the Brixton Academy, London: You Fat Bastards by Faith No More (VHS)
1993 – Video Macumba – Short film compiled by Mike Patton containing abstract and extreme footage
1993 – Video Croissant by Faith No More (VHS) Released in 1993 it features some of the band's music videos up to that date.
1998 – Who Cares a Lot: Greatest Videos by Faith No More (VHS)
2002 – A Bookshelf on Top of the Sky: 12 Stories About John Zorn
2005 – Firecracker – Frank/David
2007 – Kaada/Patton Live – Live performance DVD
2007 – I Am Legend – Creature Vocals (voice) (credited as Michael A. Patton)
2008 – A Perfect Place – Short film soundtrack by Patton (Released with film as CD/DVD special edition)
2008 – Live from London 2006 – Live DVD release of a performance by the Fantômas/Melvins Big Band in London on May 1, 2006
2008 – Metalocalypse – Patton voices the character of reformed rocker Rikki Kixx on episodes "Snakes n Barrels II" part one and part two. This special 2 part, half-hour presentation aired on Adult Swim August 24, 2008.
2009 – Crank: High Voltage – Film Score
2010 – The Solitude of Prime Numbers – Film Score
2010 – Bunraku – Narrator
2012 – The Place Beyond the Pines – Film Score
2016 – The Absence of Eddy Table – Voice of Eddy Table
2017 – 1922 – Film Score
Video game voice work
2007 – The Darkness – Voice of The Darkness (Starbreeze Studios)
2007 – Portal – Voice of the Anger Core (Valve)
2008 – Left 4 Dead – Infected voices, Smoker, Hunter (Valve)
2009 – Bionic Commando – Voice of Nathan Spencer – the Bionic Commando (Capcom)
2009 – Left 4 Dead 2 – Infected voices, Smoker, Hunter (Valve)
2012 – The Darkness II – Voice of The Darkness (Digital Extremes)
2016 – Edge of Twilight – Return to Glory – Vocals for Lithern and Creatures (FUZZYEYES)
Notes
References
Sources cited
(Alternative link)
External links
Ipecac Recordings
Faith No More official website
Mr. Bungle official website
1968 births
Singers with a six-octave or greater vocal range
Living people
American avant-garde musicians
American beatboxers
American contemporary classical composers
American experimental musicians
American keyboardists
American male classical composers
American male singers
American male voice actors
American people of Native American descent
American rock singers
Avant-garde singers
Experimental composers
Faith No More members
Mr. Bungle members
Scat singers
Singers from California
People from Eureka, California
Tzadik Records artists
Italian-language singers
Alternative metal singers
Ipecac Recordings artists
Dead Cross members
Fantômas (band) members
Tomahawk (band) members
Lovage (band) members
20th-century American composers
21st-century multi-instrumentalists | [
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225721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell | Honeywell | Honeywell International Inc. is an American publicly traded, multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. It primarily operates in four areas of business: aerospace, building technologies, performance materials and technologies (PMT), and safety and productivity solutions (SPS).
Honeywell is a Fortune 100 company, ranked 94th in 2021. The corporation in 2020 had a global workforce of approximately 103,000 employees, down from 113,000 in 2019. The current chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) is Darius Adamczyk.
The corporation's current name, Honeywell International Inc., is a product of the merger of Honeywell Inc. and AlliedSignal in 1999. The corporation headquarters were consolidated with AlliedSignal's headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey; however, the combined company chose the name "Honeywell" because of the considerable brand recognition. Honeywell was a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average index from 1999 to 2008. Prior to 1999, its corporate predecessors were included dating back to 1925, including early entrants in the computing and thermostat industries.
In 2020, Honeywell rejoined the Dow Jones Industrial Average index and the following year moved its stock listing from the New York Stock Exchange to the Nasdaq.
History
The Butz Thermo-Electric Regulator Company was founded in 1885 when the Swiss-born Albert Butz invented the damper-flapper, a thermostat used to control coal furnaces, bringing automated heating system regulation into homes. The following year he founded the Butz Thermo-Electric Regulator Company. In 1888, after a falling out with his investors, Butz left the company and transferred the patents to the legal firm Paul, Sanford, and Merwin, who renamed the company the Consolidated Temperature Controlling Company. As the years passed, CTCC struggled with debt, and the company underwent several name changes. After it was renamed the Electric Heat Regulator Company in 1893, W.R. Sweatt, a stockholder in the company, was sold "an extensive list of patents" and named secretary-treasurer. On February 23, 1898, he bought out the remaining shares of the company from the other stockholders.
1906 Honeywell Heating Specialty Company founded
In 1906, Mark Honeywell founded the Honeywell Heating Specialty Company in Wabash, Indiana, to manufacture and market his invention, the mercury seal generator.
1922–1934 mergers and acquisitions
As Honeywell's company grew (thanks in part to the acquisition of Jewell Manufacturing Company in 1922 to better automate his heating system) it began to clash with the now renamed Minneapolis Heat Regulator Company. This led to the merging of both companies into the publicly held Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company in 1927. Honeywell was named the company's first president, alongside W.R. Sweatt as its first chairman.
The combined assets were valued at over $3.5 million, with less than $1 million in liabilities just months before Black Monday. In 1931, Minneapolis-Honeywell began a period of expansion and acquisition when they purchased Time-O-Stat Controls Company, giving the company access to a greater number of patents to be used in their controls systems.
W.R. Sweatt and his son Harold provided 75 years of uninterrupted leadership for the company. W.R. Sweatt survived rough spots and turned an innovative idea – thermostatic heating control – into a thriving business.
1934–1941 international growth
Harold, who took over in 1934, led Honeywell through a period of growth and global expansion that set the stage for Honeywell to become a global technology leader. The merger into the Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company proved to be a saving grace for the corporation.
1934 marked Minneapolis-Honeywell's first foray into the international market, when they acquired the Brown Instrument Company, and inherited their relationship with the Yamatake Company of Tokyo, a Japan-based distributor. Later that same year, Minneapolis-Honeywell would also start distributorships across Canada, as well as one in the Netherlands, their first European office. This expansion into international markets continued in 1936, with their first distributorship in London, as well as their first foreign assembly facility being established in Canada. By 1937, ten years after the merger, Minneapolis-Honeywell had over 3,000 employees, with $16 million in annual revenue.
World War II
With the outbreak of World War II, Minneapolis-Honeywell was approached by the US military for engineering and manufacturing projects. In 1941, Minneapolis-Honeywell developed a superior tank periscope, camera stabilizers, and the C-1 autopilot.
The C-1 revolutionized precision bombing and was ultimately used on the two B-29 bombers that dropped atomic bombs on Japan in 1945. The success of these projects led Minneapolis-Honeywell to open an Aero division in Chicago on October 5, 1942. This division was responsible for the development of the formation stick to control autopilots, more accurate fuel quantity indicators for aircraft, and the turbo supercharger. In 1950, Minneapolis-Honeywell's Aero division was contracted for the controls on the first US nuclear submarine, USS Nautilus. The following year, the company acquired Intervox Company for their sonar, ultrasonic, and telemetry technologies. Honeywell also helped develop and manufacture the RUR-5 ASROC for the US Navy.
1950–1970s
In 1953, in cooperation with the USAF Wright-Air Development Center, Honeywell developed an automated control unit that could control an aircraft through various stages of a flight, from taxiing, to takeoff, to the point where the aircraft neared its destination and the pilot took over for landing. Called the Automatic Master Sequence Selector, the onboard control operated similarly to a player piano to relay instructions to the aircraft's autopilot at certain way points during the flight, significantly reducing the pilot's workload. Technologically, this effort had parallels to contemporary efforts in missile guidance and numerical control. Honeywell also developed the Wagtail missile with the USAF.
From the 1950s until the mid-1970s, Honeywell was the United States' importer of Japanese company Asahi Optical's Pentax cameras and photographic equipment. These products were labeled "Heiland Pentax" and "Honeywell Pentax" in the U.S. In 1953, Honeywell introduced their most famous product, the T-86 Round thermostat.
In 1961, James H. Binger became Honeywell's president and in 1965 its chairman. On becoming chairman of Honeywell, Binger revamped the company sales approach, placing emphasis on profits rather than on volume. He also stepped up the company's international expansion – it had six plants producing 12% of the company's revenue. He also officially changed the company's corporate name from "Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co." to "Honeywell", to better represent their colloquial name. Throughout the 1960s, Honeywell continued to acquire other businesses, including Security Burglar Alarm Company in 1969.
The beginning of the 1970s saw Honeywell focus on process controls, with the company merging their computer operations with GE's information systems in 1970, and later acquiring GE's process control business. With the acquisition, Honeywell took over responsibility for GE's ongoing Multics operating system project. The design and features of Multics greatly influenced the Unix operating system. Multics also influenced many of the features of Honeywell/GE's GECOS and GCOS8 General Comprehensive Operating System operating systems. Honeywell, Groupe Bull, and Control Data Corporation formed a joint venture in Magnetic Peripherals Inc. which became a major player in the hard disk drive market. It was the worldwide leader in 14-inch disk drive technology in the OEM marketplace in the 1970s and early 1980s especially with its SMD (Storage Module Drive) and CMD (Cartridge Module Drive). In the second half of the 1970s, Honeywell started to look to international markets again, acquiring the French Compagnie Internationale pour l’Informatique in 1976. Eight years later, Honeywell formed Honeywell High Tech Trading to lease their foreign marketing and distribution to other companies abroad, in order to establish a better position in those markets. Under Binger's stewardship from 1961 to 1978 he expanded the company into such fields as defense, aerospace, and computing.
During and after the Vietnam Era, Honeywell's defense division produced a number of products, including cluster bombs, missile guidance systems, napalm, and land mines. Minnesota-Honeywell Corporation completed flight tests on an inertia guidance sub-system for the X-20 project at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, utilizing an NF-101B Voodoo by August 1963. The X-20 project was canceled in December 1963. The Honeywell project, founded in 1968, organized protests against the company to persuade it to abandon weapons production
In 1980, Honeywell bought Incoterm Corporation to compete in both the airline reservations system networks and bank teller markets.
Honeywell Information Systems
On April 12, 1955, Minneapolis-Honeywell started a joint venture with Raytheon called Datamatic to enter the computer market and compete with IBM. Two years later in 1957, their first computer, the DATAmatic 1000 was sold and installed. In 1960, just five years after embarking on this venture with Raytheon, Minneapolis-Honeywell bought Raytheon's interest in Datamatic and turned it into the Electronic Data Processing division, later Honeywell Information Systems (HIS) of Minneapolis-Honeywell. Honeywell also purchased minicomputer pioneer Computer Control Corporation (3C's) in 1966, renaming it as Honeywell's Computer Control Division. Through most of the 1960s, Honeywell was one of the "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" of computing. IBM was "Snow White", while the dwarfs were the seven significantly smaller computer companies: Burroughs, Control Data Corporation, General Electric, Honeywell, NCR, RCA, and UNIVAC. Later, when their number had been reduced to five, they were known as "The BUNCH", after their initials: Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, Control Data Corporation, and Honeywell.
In 1970, Honeywell acquired GE's computer business forming Honeywell Information Systems. In 1973 they shipped a high speed non-impact printer called the Honeywell Page Printing System. In 1975 it purchased Xerox Data Systems, whose Sigma computers had a small but loyal customer base. Some of Honeywell's systems were minicomputers, such as their Series 60 Model 6 and Model 62 and their Honeywell 200; the latter was an attempt to penetrate the IBM 1401 market.
In 1987 HIS merged with Groupe Bull, a global joint venture with Compagnie des Machines Bull of France and NEC Corporation of Japan to become Honeywell Bull. In 1988 Honeywell Bull was consolidated into Groupe Bull and in 1989 renamed to Bull, a Worldwide Information Systems Company. By 1991 Honeywell was no longer involved in the computer business.
1985–1999 integrations
Aerospace and defense
1986 marked a new direction for Honeywell, beginning with the acquisition of the Sperry Aerospace Group from the Unisys Corporation. In 1990, Honeywell spun off their Defense and Marine Systems business into Alliant Techsystems, as well as their Test Instruments division and Signal Analysis Center to streamline the company's focus. Honeywell continues to supply aerospace products including electronic guidance systems, cockpit instrumentation, lighting, and primary propulsion and secondary power turbine engines. In 1996, Honeywell acquired Duracraft and began marketing its products in the home comfort sector.
Honeywell is in the consortium that runs the Pantex Plant that assembles all of the nuclear bombs in the United States arsenal. Honeywell Federal Manufacturing & Technologies, successor to the defense products of AlliedSignal, operates the Kansas City Plant which produces and assembles 85 percent of the non-nuclear components of the bombs.
Home and building controls
Honeywell also began the SmartHouse project to combine heating, cooling, security, lighting, and appliances into one easily controlled system. They continued the trend in 1987 by releasing new security systems, and fire and radon detectors. Five years later, in another streamlining effort, Honeywell combined their Residential Controls, Commercial Systems, and Protections Services divisions into Home and Building Control, which then acquired the Enviracare air cleaner business. By 1995, Honeywell had condensed into three divisions: Space and Aviation Control, Home and Building Control, and Industrial Control.
Industrial control
Honeywell dissolved its partnership with Yamatake Company and consolidated its Process Control Products Division, Process Management System Division, and Micro Switch Division into one Industrial Control Group. It has further acquired Measurex System and Leeds & Northrup to strengthen its portfolio.
1999–2002 merger, takeovers
AlliedSignal and Pittway
On June 7, 1999, Honeywell was acquired by AlliedSignal, who elected to retain the Honeywell name for its brand recognition. The former Honeywell moved their headquarters of 114 years to AlliedSignal's in Morristown, New Jersey. While "technically, the deal looks more like an acquisition than a merger...from a strategic standpoint, it is a merger of equals." AlliedSignal's 1998 revenue was reported at $15.1 billion to Honeywell's $8.4 billion, but together the companies share huge business interests in aerospace, chemical products, automotive parts, and building controls.
The corporate headquarters were consolidated to AlliedSignal's headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey, rather than Honeywell's former headquarters in Minneapolis, Minnesota. When Honeywell closed its corporate headquarters in Minneapolis, over one thousand employees lost their jobs. A few moved to Morristown or other company locations, but the majority were forced to find new jobs or retire. Soon after the merger, the company's stock fell significantly, and did not return to its pre-merger level until 2007.
In 2000, the new Honeywell acquired Pittway for $2.2 billion to gain a greater share of the fire-protection and security systems market, and merged it into their Home and Building Control division, taking on Pittway's $167 million in debt. Analyst David Jarrett commented that "while Honeywell offered a hefty premium, it's still getting Pittway for a bargain" at $45.50 per share, despite closing at $29 the week before. Pittway's Ademco products complemented Honeywell's existing unified controls systems.
General Electric Company
In October 2000, Honeywell (then valued at over $21 billion) accepted a takeover bid from then-CEO Jack Welch of General Electric. The American Department of Justice cleared the merger, while "GE teams swooped down on Honeywell" and "GE executives took over budget planning and employee reviews." However, on July 3, 2001, the European Commission's competition commissioner, Mario Monti blocked the move. This decision was taken on the grounds that with GE's dominance of the large jet engine market (led by the General Electric CF34 turbofan engine), its leasing services (GECAS), and Honeywell's portfolio of regional jet engines and avionics, the new company would be able to "bundle" products and stifle competition through the creation of a horizontal monopoly. US regulators disagreed, finding that the merger would improve competition and reduce prices; United States Assistant Attorney General Charles James called the EU's decision "antithetical to the goals of antitrust law enforcement." This led to a drop in morale and general tumult throughout Honeywell, and in turn, the then-CEO Michael Bonsignore was fired as Honeywell looked to turn their business around.
2002–2014 acquisitions and further expansion
In January 2002, Knorr-Bremse – who had been operating in a joint venture with Honeywell International Inc. – assumed full ownership of its ventures in Europe, Brazil, and the USA. Bendix Commercial Vehicle Systems became a subsidiary of Knorr-Bremse AG. Although declining in influence, Honeywell maintains a presence in emerging industries, such as Northern Alberta's oil sands. Honeywell's Plant integrator is currently deployed in some of the most important plant-sites in the Oil Sands (Syncrude, Suncor, and others). In February that year, Honeywell's board appointed their next CEO and chairman, David M. Cote. Cote was instrumental in uniting the company cultures of Honeywell, AlliedSignal, and Pittway. Since 2002, Honeywell has made more than 80 acquisitions and 60 divestures, while adding $12 billion in new sales and increasing its labor force to 131,000 as a result of these acquisitions. Under his tenure, Honeywell's stock has nearly tripled from $35.23 in April 2002 to $99.39 as of January 2015.
Honeywell made a £1.2bn ($2.3bn) bid for Novar plc in December 2004. The acquisition was finalized on March 31, 2005. In October 2005, Honeywell bought out Dow's 50% stake in UOP for $825 million, giving them complete control over the joint venture in petrochemical and refining technology. In May 2010, Honeywell outbid UK-based Cinven and acquired the French company Sperian Protection for $1.4 billion, which was then incorporated into its automation and controls safety unit.
2015–present
In 2015, the headquarters were moved to Morris Plains, New Jersey. The 475,000-square-foot building on 40 acres in Morris Plains features state-of-the-art technology and greater energy efficiency than Honeywell's Morristown campus, which was underutilized, outdated and costly, according to Cote.
On December 29, 2015, Honeywell completed the acquisition of Elster for US$5.1B (announced on July 28, 2015) entering the space of gas, electricity, and water meters with a specific focus on smart meters and hoped to be a growth driver for Honeywell in 2016 and beyond. The deal also complements the HON Combustion business with the addition of Elster with strong brands such as Kromschroeder and Eclipse. Honeywell International Inc. then acquired the 30% stake in UOP Russell LLC it didn't own already for roughly $240 million in January 2016. In February, Honeywell entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Xtralis, a leading global provider of aspirating smoke detection along with advanced perimeter security technologies and video analytics software, for $480 million from funds advised by Pacific Equity Partners and Blum Capital Partners. The deal was completed on April 1, 2016. In May 2016, Honeywell International Inc. settled its patent dispute regarding Google subsidiary Nest Labs, whose thermostats Honeywell claimed infringed on several of its patents. Google parent Alphabet Inc. and Honeywell said they reached a "patent cross-license" agreement that "fully resolves" the long-standing dispute. Honeywell sued Nest Labs in 2012. In 2017, Honeywell opened a new software center in Atlanta, Georgia.
David Cote stepped down as CEO on April 1, 2017, and was succeeded by Darius Adamczyk, who had been promoted to president and chief operating officer (COO) the previous year. Cote served as executive chairman through April 2018. On October 10, 2017, Honeywell announced plans to spinoff its Homes, ADI Global Distribution, and Transportation Systems businesses into two separate, publicly traded companies by the end of 2018.
In 2018, Honeywell spun off both Honeywell Turbo Technologies (now Garrett Advancing Motion) and its consumer products business (Resideo); both companies are publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange. For the fiscal year 2019, Honeywell reported net income of US$6.230 billion, with an annual revenue of US$36.709 billion, an decrease of 19.11% over the previous fiscal cycle. Honeywell's shares traded at over $158 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$113.25 billion in September 2020.
Honeywell relocated its corporate headquarters in October 2019 to Charlotte, North Carolina. On July 1, 2019, Honeywell moved employees into a temporary headquarters building in Charlotte before their new building was complete.
Honeywell Forge launched as an analytics platform software for industrial and commercial applications such as aircraft, building, industrial, worker and cyber-security. In collaboration with Carnegie Mellon University National Robotics Engineering Center, the Honeywell Robotics was created in Pittsburgh to focus on supply chain transformation. The Honeywell robotic unloader grabs packages in tractor-trailers then places them on conveyor belts for handlers to sort. GoDirect Trade launched as an online marketplace for surplus aircraft parts such as engines, electronics, and APU parts. Honeywell announced, in March 2020, its quantum computer is based on trapped ions, its expected quantum volume is at least 64; which Honeywell's CEO called the world's most powerful quantum computer. Honeywell announced the spinoff of its quantum division into a separate company named "Quantinuum" in November 2021.
COVID-19 pandemic
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Honeywell converted some of its manufacturing facilities in Rhode Island, Arizona, Michigan and Germany to produce supplies of personal protective equipment for healthcare workers. In April 2020, Honeywell began production of N95 masks at the company's factories in Smithfield and Phoenix, aiming to produce 20 million masks a month. Honeywell's facilities in Muskegon and Germany were converted to produce hand sanitiser for government agencies.
Several state governments contracted Honeywell to produce N95 particulate-filtering face masks during the pandemic. The North Carolina Task Force for Emergency Repurposing of Manufacturing (TFERM) awarded Honeywell a contract for the monthly delivery of 100,000 N95 masks. In April 2020, Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti announced a deal with Honeywell to produce 24 million N95 masks to distribute to healthcare workers and first responders.
United States President Donald Trump visited the Honeywell Aerospace facility in Phoenix on May 5 where he acknowledged the "incredibly patriotic and hard-working men and women of Honeywell" for making N95 masks and referred to the company's production as a "miraculous achievement".
In April 2021, Will.i.am and Honeywell collaborated on Xupermask, a smart mask made of silicon and athletic mesh fabric that has LED lights, 3-speed fans and noise-canceling headphones in the mask.
Business groups
The company operates four business groups – Honeywell Aerospace, Honeywell Building Technologies, Safety and Productivity Solutions (SPS), and Performance Materials and Technologies (PMT). Business units within the company are as follows:
Honeywell Aerospace provides avionics, aircraft engines, flight management systems, and service solutions to manufacturers, airlines, airport operations, militaries, and space programs. It comprises Commercial Aviation, Defense & Space, and Business & General Aviation. In January 2014, Honeywell Aerospace launched its SmartPath Precision Landing System at Malaga-Costa del Sol Airport in Spain, which augments GPS signals to make them suitable for precision approach and landing, before broadcasting the data to approaching aircraft. In July 2014, Honeywell's Transportation Systems merged with the Aerospace division due to similarities between the businesses. In April 2018, Honeywell announced to develop laser communication products for satellite communication in collaboration with Ball Aerospace and plans future volume production. In June 2018 Honeywell spun off and rebranded its Transportation Systems as Garrett.
Honeywell Building Technologies and Honeywell Safety and Productivity Solutions were created when Automation and Control Solutions was split into two in July 2016. Honeywell Building Technologies comprises Honeywell Building Solutions, Environmental and Energy Solutions, and Honeywell Security and Fire. On December 7, 2017, Honeywell announced that it has acquired SCAME, an Italy-based company, to add new fire and gas safety capabilities to its portfolio. Honeywell Safety and Productivity Solutions comprises Scanning & Mobility, Sensing and Internet of Things, and Industrial safety.
Honeywell Performance Materials and Technologies comprises six business units: Honeywell UOP, Honeywell Process Solutions, Fluorine Products, Electronic Materials, Resins & Chemicals, and Specialty Materials. Products include process technology for oil and gas processing, fuels, films and additives, special chemicals, electronic materials, and renewable transport fuels.
Corporate governance
Honeywell's current chief executive officer is Darius Adamczyk.
Current as of December 2020
Acquisitions since 2002
Honeywell's acquisitions have consisted largely of businesses aligned with the company's existing technologies. The acquired companies are integrated into one of Honeywell's four business groups (Aerospace, Building Technologies (HBT), Safety and Productivity Solutions (SPS), or Performance Materials and Technologies (PMT)) but retain their original brand name.
Environmental record
The United States Environmental Protection Agency states that no corporation has been linked to a greater number of Superfund toxic waste sites than has Honeywell. Honeywell ranks 44th in a list of US corporations most responsible for air pollution, releasing more than 4.25 million kg (9.4 million pounds) of toxins per year into the air. In 2001, Honeywell agreed to pay $150,000 in civil penalties and to perform $772,000 worth of reparations for environmental violations involving:
failure to prevent or repair leaks of hazardous organic pollutants into the air
failure to repair or report refrigeration equipment containing chlorofluorocarbons
inadequate reporting of benzene, ammonia, nitrogen oxide, dichlorodifluoromethane, sulfuric acid, sulfur dioxide, and caprolactam emissions
In 2003, a federal judge in Newark, New Jersey, ordered the company to perform an estimated $400 million environmental remediation of chromium waste, citing "a substantial risk of imminent damage to public health and safety and imminent and severe damage to the environment." In the same year, Honeywell paid $3.6 million to avoid a federal trial regarding its responsibility for trichloroethylene contamination in Lisle, Illinois. In 2004, the State of New York announced that it would require Honeywell to complete an estimated $448 million cleanup of more than 74,000 kg (165,000 lbs) of mercury and other toxic waste dumped into Onondaga Lake in Syracuse, New York, from a former Allied Chemical property. Honeywell established three water treatment plants by November 2014, and the chemicals cleanup site removed 7 tons of mercury. In November 2015, Audubon New York gave the Thomas W. Keesee, Jr. Conservation Award to Honeywell for its cleanup efforts in “one of the most ambitious environmental reclamation projects in the United States.” By December 2017, Honeywell completed dredging the lake and, later that month, the Department of Justice filed a settlement requiring Honeywell to pay a separate $9.5 million in damages, as well build 20 restoration projects on the shore to help repair the greater area surrounding the lake.
In 2005, the state of New Jersey sued Honeywell, Occidental Petroleum, and PPG to compel cleanup of more than 100 sites contaminated with chromium, a metal linked to lung cancer, ulcers, and dermatitis. In 2008, the state of Arizona made a settlement with Honeywell to pay a $5 million fine and contribute $1 million to a local air-quality cleanup project, after allegations of breaking water-quality and hazardous-waste laws on hundreds of occasions between the years of 1974 and 2004.
In 2006, Honeywell announced that its decision to stop manufacturing mercury switches had resulted in reductions of more than 11,300 kg (24,900 lb), 2800 kg (6200 lb), and 1500 kg (3300 lb) respectively of mercury, lead, and chromic acid usage. The largest reduction represents 5% of mercury use in the United States. The EPA acknowledged Honeywell's leadership in reducing mercury use through a 2006 National Partnership for Environmental Priorities (NPEP) Achievement Award for discontinuing the manufacturing of mercury switches.
Carbon footprint
Honeywell reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 2,248 Kt (-89 /-3.8% y-o-y) and aims to reach net zero emissions by 2035.
Criticism
On March 10, 2013, the Wall Street Journal reported that Honeywell was one of sixty companies that shielded annual profits from U.S. taxes.
In December 2011, the non-partisan liberal organization Public Campaign criticized Honeywell International for spending $18.3 million on lobbying and not paying any taxes during 2008–2010, instead getting $34 million in tax rebates, despite making a profit of $4.9 billion, laying off 968 workers since 2008, and increasing executive pay by 15% to $54.2 million in 2010 for its top 5 executives.
Honeywell has also been criticized in the past for its manufacture of deadly and maiming weapons, such as cluster bombs.
See also
Top 100 US Federal Contractors
List of Honeywell products and services
Notes
[a] – Honeywell acquired a 25% stake in FLUX and a 75% stake in a new joint venture focused outside of China.
References
External links
Conglomerate companies of the United States
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Conglomerate companies established in 1906 | [
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|
225724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarter%20guinea | Quarter guinea | The Quarter guinea was a British coin minted only in the years 1718 and 1762. As the name implies, it was valued at one-fourth of a guinea, which at that time was worth twenty-one shillings. The quarter guinea therefore was valued at five shillings and threepence.
At the beginning of the reign of King George I (1714–1727) the price of silver had risen considerably, resulting in much British silver coinage being melted down and few silver coins' being struck. Isaac Newton, the Master of the Mint, wrote a minute dated 21 September 1717 in which he blamed the rising price of silver on the overvaluation of the guinea at twenty-one shillings and sixpence. Newton's memo resulted in a Proclamation of 20 December reducing the value of the guinea to twenty-one shillings. In 1718 it was decided to strike a new gold coin equal to a quarter guinea to provide a useful coin worth approximately the same as the five-shilling silver crown.
The new coin had to be proportionate in size to the other gold denominations, and this resulted in a coin which weighed 2.1 grams and was 16 millimetres in diameter. It had not been realised at the time that a coin of this size was impracticably small to use, and would prove unpopular. 37,380 coins were minted, but many of them were put aside as keepsakes and many of the rest were lost. The coin was discontinued after 1718, and for the next few years there was an increased output of guineas and half guineas.
Despite its minuscule size, the coin took the form of a scaled-down version of the guinea and half guinea, including all the intricate cruciform shields on the reverse and all the king's Hanoverian titles. The coin is a fine example of the mint's work, although a magnifying glass is needed to properly appreciate it. The obverse shows a right-facing portrait of the king with the legend , abbreviation for Georgius, Dei Gratia Magna Britannia, Francia, et Hibernia Rex, Fidei Defensor, which is Latin for "George, by the Grace of God King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith". The reverse shows four crowned cruciform shields separated by sceptres, with a central Star of the Order of the Garter, and the legend – Brunswick et Luneburg Dux, Sacrum Romanum Imperatoria Arch-Tresorum et Princeps-Elector, Latin for "Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Prince Elector of the Holy Roman Empire". The dies for all quarter-guineas of King George I were engraved by John Croker, who was originally from Dresden.
When George III came to the throne in 1760, the price of silver had again risen dramatically. Despite the unpopularity of the 1718 quarter guinea it was considered necessary to produce this coin again, to the same size and weight as before, to fill the gap between the low-denomination silver coins and the larger gold coins. Unfortunately it met the same fate as its predecessor and was only produced in 1762. The obverse shows a right-facing portrait of the king with the legend , while the reverse shows a large crowned shield bearing the arms of England and Scotland, France, Ireland, and Hanover, and the legend – abbreviation for Magna Britannia, Francia, et Hibernia Rex, Fidei Defensor, Brunswick et Luneburg Dux, Sacrum Romanum Imperatoria Arch-Tresorum et Elector - Latin for "King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland; Defender of the Faith, Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg, [and] Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire".
References
External links
British Coins - Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum.
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|
225725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1750%20in%20literature | 1750 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1750.
Events
March – The Rambler is founded by Edward Cave; it lasts for 208 issues, and is mostly written by Samuel Johnson.
March 5 – Shakespeare's Richard II (in Colley Cibber's version) is presented at their theatre on Nassau Street (Manhattan) by Walter Murray and Thomas Kean, the earliest known significant professional performance of Shakespeare in North America.
unknown dates
Weekly meetings for contributors to the Encyclopédie begin, at the salon of Baron d'Holbach.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau wins the prize of the Academy of Dijon for his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences.
London theatres wage "the Romeo and Juliet war" – competing productions appear with David Garrick and Anne Bellamy at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and with Spranger Barry and Susannah Cibber at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden.
Old Orchard Street Theatre opens in Bath (England) under the management of John Palmer, with a performance of Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 2.
Carlo Goldoni commits himself to writing a comedy for each week of the 1750–1751 seasons at Gerolamo Medebach's Teatro San Angelo in Venice – 16 plays.
After taking an M.D. at Aberdeen, Tobias Smollett travels in France, collecting material for The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle.
New books
Fiction
Anonymous
Henry Brooke – A New Collection of Fairy Tales
John Cleland – Fanny Hill (official and expurgated)
Sarah Fielding (attributed) – The History of Charlotte Summers
Edward Kimber – The Life and Adventures of Joe Thompson
Charlotte Lennox – The Life of Harriot Stuart
Robert Paltock – The Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins
Sarah Scott – The History of Cornelia
Drama
Kitty Clive – The Rehearsal, or, Bays in Petticoats
Carlo Goldoni
La Bottega di Caffe (The Coffee Shop)
Il bugiardo (The Liar)
I pettegolezzi delle donne (Women's Gossip)
Il teatro comico (The comic theatre)
Il vero amico (The True Friend)
William Shirley – Edward the Black Prince
Voltaire – Oreste
William Whitehead – The Roman Father
Poetry
William Collins – The Passions
Thomas Cooke – An Ode on Martial Virtue
Robert Dodsley – The Oeconomy of Human Life
Mary Jones – Miscellanies
Thomas Warton – The Triumph of Isis
Edward Young – The Complaint (aka Night Thoughts)
Non-fiction
John Barrow – Navigatio Britannica
William Blackstone – An Essay on Collateral Consanguinity
Samuel Bownas – A Description of the Qualifications Necessary to a Gospel Minister
John Campbell – The Present State of Europe
Zachary Grey – A Free and Familiar Letter to William Warburton
Eliza Haywood – A Present for Women Addicted to Drinking (on the Gin crisis)
Francis Hutcheson – Reflections Upon Laughter (philosophy of humor)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Discourse on the Arts and Sciences
George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax (died 1695), edited by Alexander Pope – A Character of King Charles the Second: and political, moral and miscellaneous thoughts and reflections
Laurence Sterne – The Abuses of Conscience
Madeleine de Puisieux – La Femme n’est pas inférieure à l'homme (Woman is not inferior to man)
Births
January 7 – Robert Anderson, Scottish critic (died 1803)
June 13 – James Burney, English rear-admiral and naval writer (died 1821)
September 5 – Robert Fergusson, Scottish poet writing in Braid Scots (died 1774)
October 21 – Juraj Fándly, Slovak non-fiction writer, entomologist and priest (died 1811)
October 31 – Leonor de Almeida Portugal, 4th Marquise of Alorna, Portuguese noblewoman, painter, and poet (died 1839)
unknown date – Henrietta Maria Bowdler, English author and expurgator (died 1830)
Deaths
February 8 – Aaron Hill, English dramatist (born 1685)
May 3 – John Willison, Scottish Christian writer (born 1680)
June 15 – Marguerite De Launay, Baronne Staal, French writer (born 1684)
November 11 – Apostolo Zeno, Venetian poet and journalist (born 1668)
November 18 – Susanna Highmore, English poet (born 1690)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1751%20in%20literature | 1751 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1751.
Events
May 19 – Demetrio, an opera based on lyrics by court poet Pietro Metastasio, with music by Davide Perez, is performed at Teatro San Samuele in Venice. In the same year, in Vienna, Metastasio writes the poem, Il rè pastore, later used by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to compose an opera seria.
June 28 – The first volume of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie is published.
undated
The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse becomes the first formally published modern cookbook in English.
John Smith & Son's bookshop is established in Glasgow. It claims to be the oldest surviving bookseller in the English-speaking world.
New books
Fiction
John Cleland – Memoirs of a Coxcomb
Francis Coventry – The History of Pompey the Little
Henry Fielding – Amelia
Eliza Haywood – The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless
Robert Paltock – The Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins, a Cornish Man
Tobias Smollett – The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle
Voltaire – Micromégas. Histoire philosophique
Drama
David Mallet – Alfred (masque)
Moses Mendes
Robin Hood
The Seasons
Edward Moore – Gil Blas
Poetry
Richard Owen Cambridge – The Scribleriad
Thomas Cooke – An Ode on the Powers of Poetry
Nathaniel Cotton – Visions in Verse
Thomas Gray – Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
Soame Jenyns – The Modern Fine Lady
Mary Leapor – Poems
Non-fiction
John Arbuthnot (died 1735) – Miscellaneous Works
Antoine Augustin Calmet – Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.
Catharine Trotter Cockburn – The Works of Mrs. Catharine Cockburn
John Gilbert Cooper – Cursory Remarks on Mr. Warburton's New Edition of Mr. Pope's Works
Denis Diderot – Encyclopédie
Ignacio de Luzán – Memorias literarias de París
Henry Fielding – An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers
James Harris – Hermes, a philosophical inquiry concerning universal grammar
Henry Home, Lord Kames – Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion
David Hume – An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
John Jortin – Remarks on Ecclesiastical History
Alexander Pope – The Works of Alexander Pope (ed. William Warburton)
Voltaire – The Age of Louis XIV
John Wesley – Serious Thoughts upon the Perseverance of Saints
Benjamin Whichcote – Works
Births
January 23 – Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, Baltic German writer (died 1792)
January 31 – Priscilla Wakefield (née Bell), English Quaker writer and philanthropist (died 1832)
February 20 – Johann Heinrich Voss, German poet and translator (died 1826)
October 9 – Pierre Louis de Lacretelle, French political writer (died 1824)
October 30 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish dramatist and politician (died 1816)
December 1 – Johan Henric Kellgren, Swedish poet and critic (died 1795)
unknown dates
John Bowles, English political writer and lawyer (died 1819)
Luciano Comella, Spanish dramatist (died 1812)
Elisabetta Caminèr Turra, Venetian writer and translator (died 1796)
probable year
Helen Craik, Scottish novelist and poet (died 1825)
Mary Scott, English poet (died 1793)
Deaths
May 24 – William Hamilton, Scottish poet (born c. 1665)
October 26 – Philip Doddridge, English nonconformist leader, educator and hymn writer (born 1702)
October 29 – Bartholomew Green, Boston printer (born 1701)
December 12 – Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, English political philosopher (born 1678)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1752%20in%20literature | 1752 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1752.
Events
January 4 – The Paper War of 1752–1753 begins with the first issue of The Covent-Garden Journal, where Henry Fielding starts a long quarrel with John Hill by declaring war against hack writers. Tobias Smollett soon becomes involved, accusing Fielding of plagiarism.
February 29 – Thomas Sheridan introduces at the Smock Alley Theatre in Dublin a version of Shakespeare's Coriolanus that incorporates parts of the version by James Thomson, as Coriolanus, or The Roman Matron.
September 15 – At Williamsburg, Virginia, Lewis Hallam begins a North American tour with his brother William's company, with a production of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice.
unknown date – The first of the Herculaneum papyri are discovered.
New books
Fiction
Charlotte Lennox – The Female Quixote
Voltaire – Histoire du docteur Akakia et du natif de Saint-Malo
Drama
Samuel Foote – Taste
Poetry
Moses Browne – The Works and Rest of the Creation
John Byrom – Enthusiasm
Richard Owen Cambridge – A Dialogue Between a Member of Parliament and His Servant
Thomas Cooke – Pythagoras
William Mason – Elfrida
Christopher Smart – Poems
Non-fiction
George Ballard – Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain Who Have Been Celebrated for their Writing or Skill in the Learned Languages, Arts, and Sciences
George Berkeley – A Miscellany
Thomas Birch – The Life of John Tillotson
Francis Blackburne – A Serious Inquiry into the Use and Importance of External Religion
William Dodd – The Beauties of Shakespeare
Henry Fielding as "Sir Alexander Drawcansir" – The Covent-Garden Journal (periodical)
John Hawkesworth – The Adventurer (periodical)
David Hume – Political Discourses
William Law
The Spirit of Love
The Way to Divine Knowledge
Henry St. John – Letters on the Study and Use of History
José Francisco de Isla – Cartas de Juan de la Encina
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Obra`
Births
January 3 – Johannes von Müller, Swiss historian (died 1809)
February 17 – Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, German dramatist and novelist (died 1831)
June 13 – Fanny Burney, English novelist and diarist (died 1840)
November 20 – Thomas Chatterton, English poet and forger of medieval poetry (died 1770)
Deaths
September 19 – Louis Fuzelier, French dramatist (born 1672)
September 22 – Péter Apor, Hungarian historian writing in Latin (born 1676)
October 24 – Christian Falster, Danish poet and philologist (born 1690)
November 2 – Johann Albrecht Bengel, German New Testament commentator (born 1687)
November 5 – Carl Andreas Duker, German classical scholar (born 1670)
Unknown date – Li E (厲鶚), Chinese poet (born 1692)
See also
Augustan literature
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1753%20in%20literature | 1753 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1753.
Events
c. January – Mercy Seccombe, having emigrated from Harvard, Massachusetts to Nova Scotia, Canada, begins the earliest recorded diary by a woman in North America.
February 1 – Christopher Smart makes his last contribution to the Paper War of 1752–1753, with The Hilliad, which one critic, Lance Bertelsen, describes as the "loudest broadside" of the war.
February 2 – Jane Austen's aunt Philadelphia, mother of Eliza de Feuillide, marries Tysoe Saul Hancock in India.
March 25 – Voltaire leaves the court of Frederik II of Prussia
December – The Paper War of 1752–1753 comes to a close, with the withdrawal of everyone except John Hill
New books
Fiction
Sarah Fielding – The Adventures of David Simple, Volume the Last
Eliza Haywood – The History of Jemmy and Jenny
Samuel Richardson – The History of Sir Charles Grandison
Tobias Smollett – The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom
Drama
Giacomo Casanova – La Moluccheide
Kitty Clive – The Rehearsal
Samuel Foote – The Englishman in Paris
Richard Glover – Boadicea
Carlo Goldoni
The Mistress of the Inn (La locandiera)
Servant of Two Masters (Il servitore di due padroni, revised)
Henry Jones – The Earl of Essex
Edward Moore – The Gamester
Voltaire – L'Orphelin de la Chine
Edward Young – The Brothers
Poetry
John Armstrong – Taste
Thomas Cooke – An Ode on Benevolence
Robert Dodsley – Public Virtue
Thomas Franklin – Translation
Richard Gifford – Contemplation
Thomas Gray and Richard Bentley the younger – Designs by Mr. R. Bently for Six Poems by Mr. T. Gray
Henry Jones – Merit
William Kenrick – The Whole Duty of Woman
Heyat Mahmud – Hitaggyānbāṇī; Bengali
Christopher Smart – The Hilliad
Thomas Warton – The Union
George Whitefield – Hymns for Social Worship
Non-fiction
Theophilus Cibber – The Lives of the Poets
Jane Collier – An Essay on the Art of Ingeniously Tormenting
William Hogarth – The Analysis of Beauty
David Hume – Essays and Treatises
Charlotte Lennox – Shakespear Illustrated, or, The novels and histories on which the plays of Shakespear are founded, vol. 1
Christopher Pitt et al. – The Works of Virgil in Latin and English
Thomas Richards of Coychurch – Antiquæ linguæ Britannicæ thesaurus
Henry St. John – A Letter to Sir William Windham
John Toland – Hypatia
William Warburton – The Principles of Natural and Revealed Religion
Births
March 8 – William Roscoe, English historian and miscellaneous writer (died 1831)
March 13 – József Fabchich, Hungarian translator of Greek and lexicographer (died 1809)
April 8 – Pigault-Lebrun, French novelist and playwright (died 1835)
April 11 – Sophia Burrell, English poet and dramatist (died 1802)
May 8 – Phillis Wheatley, African-American poet (died 1784)
June 26 – Antoine de Rivarol, French Royalist writer (died 1801)
July 8 – Ann Yearsley, née Cromartie, English poet, writer and library proprietor (died 1806)
August 11 – Thomas Bewick, English engraver, writer and natural historian (died 1828)
September 16 – Märta Helena Reenstierna, Swedish diarist (died 1841)
October 15 – Elizabeth Inchbald, English novelist, dramatist and actress (died 1821)
October 16 – Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, German Protestant theologian (died 1827)
Deaths
January 14 – Bishop George Berkeley, Irish philosopher (born 1685)
May 11 – Jean-Joseph Languet de Gergy, French theologian (born 1677)
May 23 – Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa, Polish dramatist (born 1705)
June 13 – Marie Huber, Swiss theologian, editor and translator (born 1695)
September 18 – Hristofor Zhefarovich, Macedonian artist and poet (date of birth unknown)
November – Giuseppe Valentini, Italian poet, composer and painter (born 1681)
November 24 – Nicholas Mann, English antiquarian (date of birth unknown)
Unknown dates
Matthew Adams, American essayist (year of birth unknown)
John Richardson, English Quaker preacher and autobiographer (born 1667)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1754%20in%20literature | 1754 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1754.
Events
January 28 – Horace Walpole, in a letter to Horace Mann, coins the word serendipity (from the Persian fairy tale The Three Princes of Serendip).
March 2 – Riot at Smock Alley Theatre in Dublin. Thomas Sheridan, the manager, resigns, and leaves Ireland on September 15 for London where his wife Frances Sheridan meets Samuel Richardson.
Élie Catherine Fréron's journal Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps is replaced by his Année littéraire.
New books
Fiction
Jane Collier and Sarah Fielding – The Cry: A New Dramatic Fable
Mary Davys – The Reformed Coquet; or Memoirs of Amoranda
Henry Fielding – The Life of Mr. Jonathan Wild the Great (enlarged and expanded from the Miscellanies of 1743)
Solomon Gessner – Daphnis
Sarah Scott:
Agreeable Ugliness
A Journey Through Every Stage of Life
John Shebbeare – The Marriage Act
Poetry
Thomas Cooke – An Ode on Poetry, Painting, and Sculpture
John Duncombe – The Feminiad
Henry Jones – The Relief
William Whitehead – Poems
Non-fiction
Anonymous – Critical Remarks on Sir Charles Grandison, Clarissa and Pamela
Thomas Birch – Memoirs of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth
Charles Bonnet – Essai de psychologie
John Gilbert Cooper – Letters Concerning Taste
John Douglas – Letter on the Criterion of Miracles
John Gillies – Historical Collections Relating to Remarkable Period of the Success of the Gospel
Zachary Grey – Critical, Historical, and Explanatory Notes on Shakespeare
Benjamin Hoadly – Sixteen Sermons
David Hume – The History of England (volume 1)
William Law – The Second Part of the Spirit of Love
Isaac Newton (died 1727) – An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (written 1690)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Discourse on Inequality
Henry St. John – Philosophical Works
Jonathan Swift
Brotherly Love
The Works of Jonathan Swift (the Hawkesworth edition)
William Warburton – A View of Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy
Thomas Warton – Observations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser
Drama
Samuel Crisp – Virginia
David Garrick – Catharine and Petruchio (adapted from The Taming of the Shrew)
John Gay – The Rehearsal at Goatham
Macnamara Morgan:
Philoclea (from Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia)
The Sheep-Shearing, or Florizel and Perdita (a farce adapted from The Winter's Tale)
Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – Le Triumvirat
William Whitehead – Creusa, Queen of Athens
Births
March 24 – Joel Barlow, American poet and diplomat (died 1812)
May 23 – William Drennan, Irish physician, poet, radical and educationalist (died 1820)
July 11 – Thomas Bowdler, English editor (died 1825)
August 2 – Lady Charlotte Murray, English writer and botanist (died 1808)
October 13 – Frances Jacson, English novelist (died 1842)
December 24 – George Crabbe, English poet (died 1832)
unknown date – Ioan Caragea, Greek Prince of Wallachia, translator and theatrical promoter (died 1844)
Deaths
January 11 – Wu Jingzi, Chinese scholar and novelist (born 1701)
January 28 – Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian philosopher, historian and playwright (born 1684)
April 2 – Thomas Carte, English historian (born 1686)
April 9 – Christian Wolff, German philosopher (born 1679)
October 8 – Henry Fielding English novelist (born 1707)
November 12 – Robert Morris, English architect and writer on architecture (born 1703)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1755%20in%20literature | 1755 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1755.
—Self-deprecating definition by Samuel Johnson from A Dictionary of the English Language
Events
April 15 – Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language is published by the group of London booksellers who commissioned it in June 1746.
unknown dates
Milton's Paradise Lost is translated into French prose by Louis Racine.
The first New Testament in the Ume Sami language is published.
New Books
Fiction
Charlotte Charke – The History of Mr. Henry Dumont and Miss Charlotte Evelyn
Eliza Haywood as "Exploralibus" – The Invisible Spy
Samuel Richardson – A Collection of ... Sentiments
John Shebbeare – Letters on the English Nation
Tobias Smollett – The History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote
Poetry
John Byrom – Epistle in Defence of Rhyme
George Colman, the Elder and Bonnell Thornton (ed.) – Poems by Eminent Ladies
John Gilbert Cooper – The Tomb of Shakespear
David Dalrymple (editor) – Edom of Gordon: an ancient Scottish poem
Stephen Duck – Caesar's Camp
Non-fiction
Thomas Amory – Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain
Theophilus Cibber – An Epistle to David Garrick
Madame de Maintenon – Mémoires
Philip Doddridge – Hymns Founded on Various Texts
Henry Fielding – The Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon
Aryeh Leib ben Asher Gunzberg – Shaagas Aryeh (Hebrew: שאגת אריה, "Roar of the Lion")
James Hervey – Theron and Aspasio; or a series of letters upon the most important and interesting subjects
Benjamin Hoadly – Twenty Sermons
Francis Hutcheson – A System of Moral Philosophy
Samuel Johnson – A Dictionary of the English Language
Étienne-Gabriel Morelly – Code de la nature, ou de véritable esprit de ses lois
Frederic Louis Norden – Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie
Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men
Charles Wesley – An Epistle to John Wesley
Edward Young – The Centaur not Fabulous; in five letters to a friend
Drama
John Brown – Barbarosa
John Cleland – Titus Vespasian
Thomas Francklin – The Orphan of China
David Garrick – The Fairies (opera)
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing – Miss Sara Sampson
David Mallet – Britannia
Vicente Garcia de la Huerta – Endimión
Births
February 17 – Dorothy Kilner, English children's writer (died 1836)
February 21 – Anne Grant, Scottish poet (died 1838)
March 5 – Jozef Ignác Bajza, pioneer Slovak novelist, satirist and priest (died 1836)
March 15 – George Dyer, English poet and classicist (died 1841)
December 31 – Thomas Grenville, English politician and book collector (died 1846)
Unknown date – Maria Elizabetha Jacson, English writer on botany and gardening (died 1829)
1755/6 – Eliza Fay, English letter-writer and traveler (died 1816)
Deaths
February 10 – Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, French satirist (born 1689)
March – Jane Collier, English novelist (born 1715)
April 6 – Richard Rawlinson, English antiquary and cleric (born 1690)
September 9 – Johann Lorenz von Mosheim, German Lutheran church historian (born 1693)
December 29 – Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve, French children's writer (born c. 1695)
Unknown date – Antoni Serra Serra, Spanish religious writer (born 1708)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1756%20in%20literature | 1756 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1756.
Events
March 1 – The first issue of The Critical Review is published, with Tobias Smollett as editor.
April–May – Beginning of the Seven Years' War in Europe.
June 20 – The Black Hole of Calcutta incident inspires renewed British efforts in India.
October 29 – Frances Abington first acts with the company of the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London.
November – Gilbert White becomes curate at his birthplace of Selborne in Hampshire, England, for the second time.
December 14 – Rev. John Home's blank verse tragedy Douglas is performed for the first time, in Edinburgh, with considerable success, in spite of the opposition of the local church presbytery, who summon Rev. Alexander Carlyle to answer for having attended its representation. However, it fails in its early promise to set up a new Scottish dramatic tradition.
New books
Fiction
Anonymous – The Life and Memoirs of Mr. Ephraim Tristram Bates
Thomas Amory – Life of John Buncle
Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont – "La Belle et la Bête" ("Beauty and the Beast", abridged version, in Magasin des enfants, ou dialogues entre une sage gouvernante et plusieurs de ses élèves)
Charlotte Lennox – The Memoirs of the Countess of Berci
Samuel Richardson (anonymously) – The Paths of Virtue Delineated, children's versions of Pamela, Clarissa, and Sir Charles Grandison
Poetry
Isaac Bickerstaffe – Leucothoe
Richard Owen Cambridge – An Elegy Written in an Empty Assembly Room (parody of Pope's Eloisa to Abelard)
Thomas Cole – The Arbour
William Kenrick – Epistles to Lorenzo
William Mason – Odes
Christopher Pitt – Poems
Christopher Smart
Hymn to the Supreme Being
The Works of Horace
Drama
Frances Brooke – Virginia
John Brown – Athelstane
Samuel Foote
The Englishman Return'd from Paris
The Green-Room Squabble or a Battle Royal between the Queen of Babylon and the Daughter of Darius
David Garrick
Catherine and Petruchio
The Tempest (opera)
Carlo Goldoni – Il campiello
John Home – Douglas
Non-fiction
Corporate authorship – The Literary Magazine (periodical to 1758)
Thomas Birch – The History of the Royal Society of London vol. i
William Blackstone – An Analysis of the Laws of England
Edmund Burke – A Vindication of Natural Society
Alban Butler – The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints (frequently abridged and reprinted)
Theophilus Cibber – Dissertations on Theatrical Subjects
Daniel Fenning – The Universal Spelling Book, or, A New and Easy Guide to the English Language
José Francisco de Isla – Triunfo del amor y de la lealtad o Día Grande de Navarra
Johann Matthias Gesner – Primæ lineæ isagoges in eruditionem universalem
James Grieve – translation of A. Cornelius Celsus of Medicine
Eliza Haywood
as "Mira" – The Wife
posthumously – The Husband: in Answer to The Wife
David Hume – The History of Great Britain vol. ii
Leopold Mozart – Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule
Alexander Russell – The Natural History of Aleppo
Tobias Smollett
A Compendium of Authentic and Entertaining Voyages
(et al.) The Critical Review (periodical to 1790)
Voltaire – Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations
Joseph Warton – An Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope
John Wesley – An Address to the Clergy
Births
March 3 – William Godwin, English writer (died 1836)
April – William Gifford, English satirist (died 1826)
June 13 – Edmund Lodge, English biographer and writer on heraldry (died 1839)
July 13 – Thomas Rowlandson, English caricaturist (died 1827)
July 25 (probable year) – Elizabeth Hamilton, Irish-born Scottish essayist, poet and novelist (died 1816)
September 15 – Karl Philipp Moritz (C. P. Moritz), German essayist and travel writer (died 1793)
November 2 – Pierre Laromiguière, French philosopher (died 1837)
November 18 – Thomas Burgess, English philosopher and bishop (died 1837)
Deaths
February 25 – Eliza Haywood, English writer and actress (born 1693)
March 26 – Gilbert West, English poet (born 1703)
March 30 to April 2 – Stephen Duck, English poet (suicide, born c. 1705)
June 4 – Benjamin Elbel, German theologian (born 1690)
December 29 – Thomas Cooke, English translator, dramatist and critic (born 1703)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1757%20in%20literature | 1757 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1757.
Events
February 16 – Jonathan Edwards becomes President of the institution that will become Princeton University.
May 3 – The Irish-born actress Peg Woffington, playing Rosalind in As You Like It, suffers a stroke on stage at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in London and never acts again.
May 6 – Asylum confinement of Christopher Smart: The poet Christopher Smart is confined to St Luke's Hospital for Lunatics in London.
May – The Baskerville typeface, designed by John Baskerville of Birmingham, England, is first used in a wove paper quarto edition of Virgil (Publii Virgilii Maronis Bucolica, Georgica, et Æneis).
September – Pierre-Augustin Caron begins using the name Beaumarchais.
September 9 – The Parlement of Toulouse orders a public burning of Jesuit author Hermann Busenbaum's Medulla Theologiae Morales because of its treatment of the subject of regicide.
December 11 – On the death of Colley Cibber as Poet Laureate of Great Britain, the post is declined by Thomas Gray and passes to William Whitehead.
unknown dates
Angelo Maria Bandini is appointed librarian of the Laurentian Library in Florence.
Robert Raikes becomes proprietor of the Gloucester Journal.
Horace Walpole begins the Strawberry Hill Press.
Thomas Warton is appointed Professor of Poetry at the University of Oxford.
New books
Prose
John Brown – An Estimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times
Edmund Burke – A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful
John Dalrymple – An Essay Towards a General History of Feudal Property in Great Britain
Samuel Derrick (probable compiler) – Harris's List of Covent Garden Ladies (1st edn)
Adam Ferguson – The Morality of Stage-Plays Seriously Considered
Sarah Fielding – The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia
Edward and Elizabeth Griffith – A Series of Genuine Letters between Henry and Frances vols. i – ii.
David Hume – The Natural History of Religion
Soame Jenyns – A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil
Richard Price – Review of the Principal Questions in Morals
Madame Riccoboni – Lettres de Mistriss Fanny Butlerd.
Tobias Smollett – A Complete History of England
Horace Walpole – A Letter from Xo Ho, a Chinese Philosopher at London, to his Friend Lien Chi at Peking
William Warburton – Remarks upon Mr. David Hume's Essay on the Natural History of Religion
Joseph Warton – Essay on Pope
John Wesley – The Doctrine of Original Sin
Drama
Anonymous – The Taxes
Phanuel Bacon – Humorous Ethics, or an Attempt to Cure the Vices and Follies of the Age by a Method Entirely New (5 plays)
Denis Diderot – Le Fils naturel
Samuel Foote – The Author
David Garrick – Lilliput
John Home – Douglas
Tobias Smollett – The Reprisal
Poetry
Robert Andrews – Eidyllia
Cornelius Arnold – Poems
Samuel Boyce – Poems
John Gilbert Cooper as "Aristippus" – Epistles to the Great
John Duncombe – The Feminead (answer to 1754's Feminiad)
William Duncombe – The Works of Horace in English Verse (various translators).
John Dyer – The Fleece
Carlo Gozzi – La tartana degli influssi per l'anno 1756
Thomas Gray – Odes
William Thompson – Poems
William Wilkie – Epigoniad
Edward Young – The Works of the Author of Night Thoughts
Births
February 1 – John Philip Kemble, English actor (died 1823)
February 6 – Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Polish poet and dramatist (died 1841)
April 9 – Wojciech Bogusławski, Polish actor, director and dramatist (died 1829)
July 21 – Basilius von Ramdohr, German journalist and critic (died 1822)
November 9 – William Sotheby, English poet and translator (died 1833)
November 13 – Archibald Alison, Scottish essayist and cleric (died 1839)
November 18 – William Blake, English poet and artist (died 1827)
November 27 (possible year) – Mary Robinson (née Darby), English poet, actress and royal mistress (died 1800)
December 4 – Charles Burney, English classicist and book thief (died 1817)
Unknown date – Giovanni Antonio Galignani, Italian publisher (died 1821)
Deaths
January 9 – Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, French dramatist and author (born 1657)
January 19 – Thomas Ruddiman, Scottish classical scholar, editor, printer and librarian (born 1674)
March 1 – Edward Moore, English dramatist (born 1712)
March 8 – Thomas Blackwell, Scottish classical scholar (born 1701)
August 28 – David Hartley, English philosopher and psychologist (born 1705)
December 11
Colley Cibber, English dramatist, actor-manager and Poet Laureate of Great Britain (born 1671)
Edmund Curll, English bookseller and publisher (born 1675)
December 15 (burial) – John Dyer, a Welsh poet, painter and Anglican cleric (born 1699)
In literature
John Dickson Carr – The Demoniacs (1962)
James Fenimore Cooper – The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 (1826)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1758%20in%20literature | 1758 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1758.
Events
April 15 – Samuel Johnson begins publishing a series of essays, The Idler (1758–1760), in the Universal Chronicle.
April 24 – Robert Dodsley and his brother James sign a contract with Edmund Burke to launch The Annual Register.
April 27 – The French historian Jean-François Marmontel enters the service of Madame de Pompadour.
July/August – The poet and children's writer Anna Laetitia Barbauld and her family move to Warrington in north-west England.
October – Voltaire buys an estate at Ferney in eastern France.
unknown date – The French mathematician and philosopher Pierre Louis Maupertuis moves to his final home in Basel, Switzerland.
New books
Prose
John Armstrong as Launcelot Temple – Sketches, or, Essays on Various Subjects
Charlotte Lennox – Henrietta
Thomas Marryat – Therapeutics, or a New Practice of Physic (in Latin)
Madame Riccoboni – Histoire du marquis de Cressy
Horace Walpole
A Dialogue Between Two Great Ladies
Fugitive Pieces
Drama
John Cleland – Tombo-Chiqui, or, The American Savage (not produced)
Denis Diderot – Le Père de famille
Robert Dodsley – Cleone
David Garrick – Florizel and Perdita
John Home – Aegis
Charlotte Lennox – Philander
Arthur Murphy – The Upholsterer
George Alexander Stevens – Albion Restored
Poetry
Mark Akenside – An Ode to the Country Gentlemen
Anica Bošković – Dijalog
John Gilbert Cooper – The Call of Aristippus
Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim – Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier (Prussian War Songs of a Grenadier)
Eugenio Gerardo Lobo – Obras poéticas
James Macpherson – The Highlander
Heyat Mahmud – Āmbiyābāṇī; Bengali
Thomas Parnell – Posthumous Works
Non-fiction
William Blackstone – A Discourse on the Study of Law
John Brown – An Explanatory Defence of the Estimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times (see 1757)
Andrés Marcos Burriel – Paleografía española
Elizabeth Carter (translator) – All the Works of Epictetus Which Are Now Extant
José Francisco de Isla – Historia del famoso predicador Fray Gerundio de Campazas, alias Zotes
Benjamin Franklin – Father Abraham's Sermon
Oliver Goldsmith as "James Willington" – The Memoirs of a Protestant
William Hawkins – Tracts in Divinity
Claude Adrien Helvétius – De l'Esprit
Henry Home – Historical Law-Tracts
Robert Lowth – The Life of William of Wykeham
Thomas Marryat – Therapeutics, or a New Practice of Physic
Antoine-Joseph Pernety
Dictionnaire mytho-hermétique, dans lequel on trouve les allégories fabuleuses des poètes, les métaphores, les énigmes et les termes barbares des philosophes hermétiques expliqués
Les Fables égyptiennes et grecques dévoilées et réduites au même principe, avec une explication des hiéroglyphes et de la guerre de Troye
Antoine Simon Le Page Du Pratz – Histoire de la Louisiane (History of Louisiana)
Richard Price – A Review of the Principal Questions and Difficulties in Morals
Emanuel Swedenborg
Earths in the Universe
Heaven and Hell
New Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine
The Last Judgement
Jonathan Swift – The History of the Last Four Years of the Queen
Horace Walpole – A Catalogue of the Royal and Noble Authors of England
Arthur Young – The Theatre of the Present War in North America
Births
January 12 – Dmitry Gorchakov, Russian writer, dramatist and poet (died 1824)
February 3
Vasily Kapnist, Ukrainian poet and playwright (died 1823)
Valentin Vodnik, Carniolan Slovene poet, writer and priest (died 1819)
February 10 – Amalia Holst, German writer, intellectual, and feminist (died 1829)
March 15 – Magdalene Sophie Buchholm, Norwegian poet (died 1826)
April 30 – Jane West (Prudentia Homespun), English novelist and writer of conduct books (died 1852)
October 16 – Noah Webster, American lexicographer (died 1843)
December 9 – Richard Colt Hoare, English antiquary, archeologist and traveler (died 1838)
Deaths
January 7 – Allan Ramsay the Elder, Scottish poet (born 1686)
March 22 – Jonathan Edwards, American theologian and preacher (born 1703)
October – Theophilus Cibber, English dramatist and actor (born 1703; lost at sea)
October 27 bur. – Elizabeth Blackwell, Scottish botanic writer and illustrator (born 1707)
December 25 – James Hervey, English religious writer and cleric (born 1714)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1759%20in%20literature | 1759 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1759.
Events
By January 15 – Voltaire's satirical novel Candide, ou l'Optimisme is published simultaneously in five countries.
January 15 – The British Museum opens in London.
March 5 – Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie is proscribed by the Vatican and temporarily suppressed by the French government. The ban is lifted in September to allow publication of a revised version.
July 27 – The earliest known professional performance of Shakespeare's Hamlet in North America (in Garrick's version) is given by the American Company in Philadelphia, with Lewis Hallam Jr. as Hamlet.<ref"></ref>
August 12 – In the Seven Years' War Battle of Kunersdorf, the German poet Major Ewald Christian von Kleist is fatally injured.
December – Laurence Sterne has the first two volumes of his comic metafictional novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman printed in York, in a shop owned by Ann Ward.
December 22 – The writer and critic William Warburton is nominated Anglican Bishop of Gloucester.
unknown dates
Rev. Hugh Blair begins to teach a course on the principles of literary composition at the University of Edinburgh, the first held in the field of English literature.
Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch becomes a professor of rhetoric and poetry at the University of Jena.
New books
Fiction
Anonymous – The History of Some of the Penitents in the Magdalen-House (dated 1760)
Sarah Fielding – The History of the Countess of Dellwyn
Samuel Johnson – The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (on Wikisource).
Gotthold Lessing – Fables
Madame Riccoboni – Lettres de Milady Juliette Catesby
William Rider – Candidus (translation of Candide)
Laurence Sterne – The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, vols 1–2
Voltaire – Candide
Drama
William Hawkins – Cymbeline (adapted from William Shakespeare)
Arthur Murphy – The Orphan of China
James Townley – High Life Below Stairs
Poetry
Samuel Butler – The Genuine Remains (collected works)
Edward Capell – Prolusions
John Gilbert Cooper – Ver-Vert (transl.)
William Mason – Caractacus
Augustus Montague Toplady – Poems on Sacred Subjects
Non-fiction
Franz Aepinus – Tentamen Theoriae Electricitatis et Magnetismi (An Attempt at a Theory of Electricity and Magnetism)
Edmund Burke – The Annual Register
Angélique du Coudray – Abrégé de l'art des accouchements (The Art of Obstetrics)
Alexander Gerard – An Essay on Taste
Oliver Goldsmith
The Bee (periodical solely by Goldsmith)
An Enquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europe
David Hume – The History of England, Under the House of Tudor
Richard Hurd – Moral and Political Dialogues
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon – The Life of Edward Earl of Clarendon Written by Himself
Rai Chatar Man Kayath – Chahar Gulshan
William Robertson – The History of Scotland during the Reigns of Queen Mary and of King James
Adam Smith – The Theory of Moral Sentiments
Arthur Young – Reflections on the Present State of Affairs at Home and Abroad
Edward Young – Conjectures on Original Composition
Births
January 25 – Robert Burns, Scottish poet writing in Braid Scots and English (died 1796)
March 5 – John Jamieson, Scottish lexicographer (died 1838)
March 29 – Alexander Chalmers, Scottish biographer and editor (died 1834)
April 27 – Mary Wollstonecraft, English political writer and advocate of women's rights (died 1797)
May 4 (baptism) – Isabella Kelly, Scottish novelist and poet (died 1857)
June 17 – Helen Maria Williams, English novelist, poet and translator from French (died 1827)
October 13 – Mary Hays, English writer and advocate of women's rights (died 1843)
November 10 – Friedrich Schiller, German poet and dramatist (died 1805)
December 25 – Richard Porson, English classicist (died 1808)
unknown date – Deen Mahomet, author of first book in English by an Indian (died 1851)
Deaths
June 12 – William Collins, English poet (born 1721)
June 26 – Arthur Young, English religious writer and cleric (born 1693)
July 27 – Pierre Louis Maupertuis, French philosopher (born 1698)
July 29 – Kata Bethlen, Hungarian memoirist and correspondent (born 1700)
August 16 – Eugene Aram, English philologist and murderer, hanged (born 1704)
August 24 – Ewald Christian von Kleist, German poet (born 1715)
September 5 – Lauritz de Thurah, Danish architectural historian (born 1706)
October 7 – Joseph Ames, English bibliographer and antiquary (born 1680)
unknown date – Francis Coventry, clergyman and novelist (born 1725)
probable – Anton Wilhelm Amo, West African-born German philosopher (born 1703)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1760%20in%20literature | 1760 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1760.
Events
January – Oliver Goldsmith's series of fictionalised "letters from a Chinese philosopher," later collected in The Citizen of the World, begins in The Public Ledger.
October 25 – With the death of King George II of Great Britain, the era of Augustan literature that started in 1702 is considered to be at an end.
James Beattie becomes a professor at the University of Aberdeen.
Fanny Burney and her family move to London, where her father teaches music and she meets Dr Samuel Johnson.
Jupiter Hammon's poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" is published as a broadside in British America, making him the first known published African American author.
The play Edward III is attributed to William Shakespeare by the noted Shakespearean editor Edward Capell in his Prolusions; or, Select Pieces of Ancient Poetry, Compil'd with great Care from their several Originals, and Offer'd to the Publicke as Specimens of the Integrity that should be Found in the Editions of worthy Authors.
The Danish Royal Library, MS NKS 1867 4° (Den nye kongelige samling) manuscript is written.
New books
Fiction
Belinda; Or, Happiness the Reward of Constancy: Mannifested in a Series of the Most Interesting and Surprizing Events Ever Yet Made Publick
John Cleland – The Romance of a Day
Sarah Fielding – The History of Ophelia
Charles Johnstone – Chrysal vols. i–ii
Tobias Smollett – The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves
Drama
George Colman the Elder – Polly Honeycombe
Carlo Goldoni
La casa nova
I rusteghi
Samuel Foote – The Minor
John Home – The Siege of Aquileia
Arthur Murphy
The Desert Island
The Way to Keep Him
George Alexander Stevens – The French Flogged
Poetry
James Beattie – Original Poems and Translations
George Colman the Elder – Odes
John Delap – Elegies
Robert Lloyd
The Actor
The Tears and Triumphs of Parnassus
George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton – Dialogues of the Dead
James Macpherson as "translator" – Fragments of Ancient Poetry Collected in the Highlands of Scotland
John Scott – Four Elegies
Non-fiction
John Balguy – Sermons, vol. 2 (posthumously published)
William Law – Of Justification by Faith and Works
John Shebbeare – The History of the Sumatrans (satire on the Whigs)
Tobias Smollett – The British Magazine (periodical)
Laurence Sterne – The Sermons of Mr. Yorick (the author's sermons)
William Tytler – An Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Evidence Against Mary Queen of Scots
Births
March 10 – Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Spanish dramatist and poet (died 1828)
May 10 – Johann Peter Hebel, German poet and story writer (died 1826)
June 12 – Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvrai, French novelist, playwright and diplomat (died 1797)
August 28 – István Ballér (Števan Baler), Slovene hymnist and Lutheran minister (died 1835)
October 1 – William Thomas Beckford, English novelist and travel writer (died 1844)
October 25 – Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, German historian (died 1842)
October 26 – Maria Petronella Woesthoven, Dutch poet (died 1830)
March 2 – Christina Charlotta Cederström, Swedish poet (died 1832)
Unknown date – Alecu Beldiman, Moldavian poet-chronicler and translator (died 1826)
Deaths
February 5 – Browne Willis, English antiquary and writer (born 1682)
February 14 – Isaac Hawkins Browne, English poet and politician (born 1705)
April 6 – Charlotte Charke, English novelist and dramatist (born 1713)
April 10 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian (born 1687)
November 30 – Friederike Caroline Neuber, German actor-manager (born 1697)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1761%20in%20literature | 1761 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1761.
Events
August – Following the death of Johann Matthias Gesner, the chair of rhetoric at the University of Göttingen is refused by both Johann August Ernesti and David Ruhnken. It eventually goes to Christian Gottlob Heyne.
September – Carlo Goldoni informs fellow playwright Francesco Albergati Capacelli that he is moving permanently from Venice to Paris, where he is appointed director of the Italian theatre.
unknown date – Denis Diderot begins writing Rameau's Nephew
New books
Fiction
John Hawkesworth – Almoran and Hamet
William Kenrick – Eloisa
Thomas Percy (translated) – Hau Kou Choan
James Ridley (as Sir Charles Morrell) – The History of James Lovegrove
Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse
Frances Sheridan – Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph
Laurence Sterne – The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman vols. iii – iv.
Drama
Isaac Bickerstaffe – Judith
Henry Brooke – The Earl of Essex (adapted)
George Colman the Elder – The Jealous Wife
Richard Cumberland – The Banishment of Cicero
Richard Glover – Medea
Carlo Goldoni
Una delle ultime sere di Carnevale
La villeggiatura (or La trilogia della villeggiatura, The Resort)
Carlo Gozzi
L'amore delle tre melarance (The Love for Three Oranges)
Il corvo (The Raven)
Arthur Murphy
All in the Wrong
The Citizen
The Old Maid
Poetry
John Armstrong – A Day: An epistle to John Wilkes
Charles Churchill
The Apology
Night: An epistle to Robert Lloyd
The Rosciad
John Cleland – The Times!, vol. 2
Francis Fawkes – Original Poems and Translations
Robert Lloyd – An Epistle to Charles Churchill
Diego de Torres Villarroel – Poesías sagradas y profanas
Non-fiction
Thomas Cole – Discourses on Luxury, Infidelity, and Enthusiasm
George Colman the Elder – Critical Reflections on the Old English Dramatick Writers
Robert Dodsley – Select Fables of Esop and Other Fabulists (anthology)
Enrique Flórez – Memorias de las reinas católicas
Edward Gibbon – Essai sur l’Étude de la Littérature
Baron d'Holbach – Christianity unveiled
Henry Home – Introduction to the Art of Thinking
David Hume – The History of England, from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Accession of Henry VII
Joseph Priestley – The Rudiments of English Grammar
Tiphaigne de la Roche – L'Empire des Zaziris sur les humains ou la Zazirocratie
Martín Sarmiento – Noticia sobre la verdadera patria de Cervantes
Benjamin Victor – History of the Theatres of London and Dublin vol. 1–2
Births
March 8 – Jan Potocki, Polish count, military engineer, ethnologist, Egyptologist, linguist, aeronaut, adventurer and novelist (suicide 1815)
May 3 – August von Kotzebue, German dramatist (died 1819)
July 25 – Charlotte von Kalb, German writer (died 1843)
September 8 – François Juste Marie Raynouard, French dramatist (died 1836)
September 13 – Santō Kyōden, born Iwase Samuru, Japanese fiction writer, poet and artist (died 1816)
November 13 – Elizabeth Meeke, English popular novelist (died c.1826)
Unknown dates
Mary Pilkington, English novelist, poet and children's writer (died 1839)
Mariana Starke, English playwright and travel writer (died 1838)
Deaths
February 25 – Daniel Henchman, Colonial American bookseller and publisher (born 1689)
April 9 – William Law, English theologian (born 1686)
April 15 – William Oldys, English antiquary and bibliographer (born 1696)
April 17 – Benjamin Hoadly, English bishop and instigator of the Bangorian Controversy (born 1676)
July 4 – Samuel Richardson, English novelist (born 1689)
August 3 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German librarian and classicist (born 1691)
December 15 – Henrietta Louisa Fermor, Countess of Pomfret, English letter writer (born 1698)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1762%20in%20literature | 1762 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1762.
Events
April 27 – Rev. Hugh Blair is appointed first Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh by King George III, the first such chair in English literature.
June 19 – Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract (Du Contrat social, ou Principes du droit politique) and Emile, or On Education (Émile, ou De l’éducation), recently published in Amsterdam and The Hague respectively, are publicly burned in Paris. They are also prohibited in Rousseau's native Republic of Geneva.
June 20 – In Paris, the Comédie-Italienne, having merged with the Opéra-Comique, performs at the Hôtel de Bourgogne.
The Sorbonne library is founded.
The Académie française produces a new edition of its dictionary of the French language, the fourth to be published.
Benjamin Victor's adaptation of The Two Gentlemen of Verona (with expanded roles for the clown Launce and his dog) is staged by David Garrick at Drury Lane, and runs for five nights. It is the earliest known performance of that Shakespearean play in any form.
Christoph Martin Wieland begins publishing his prose translations of 22 Shakespearean plays, the first translations of them into German (in 8 volumes, through 1766).
New books
Fiction
John Cleland (attributed) – The Romance of a Night
Oliver Goldsmith – The Citizen of the World
Charles Johnstone – The Reverie
John Langhorne – Solyman and Almena
Thomas Leland – Longsword, Earl of Salisbury: An Historical Romance
Charlotte Lennox – Sophia
Sarah Scott – Millenium Hall and the Country Adjacent
Tobias Smollett – The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves
Laurence Sterne – The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (vols. v–vi)
Drama
John Delap – Hecuba
Nicolás Fernandez de Moratín – La petimetra
Samuel Foote – The Orators
David Garrick – Cymbeline (adapted)
Carlo Goldoni – Le baruffe chiozzotte (The Brawl in Chioggia)
Carlo Gozzi – Turandot
Charlotte Lennox – The Sister
Hannah More – The Search after Happiness ("for young ladies to act")
William Whitehead – The School for Lovers
Poetry
James Boswell – The Cub at Newmarket
Elizabeth Carter – Poems on Several Occasions
Charles Churchill – The Ghost (books i–ii)
Mary Collier – Poems
John Cunningham – The Contemplatist
Tomás Antônio Gonzaga – Marília de Dirceu
Edward Jerningham – The Nunnery
Robert Lloyd – Poems
James Macpherson as "Ossian" – Fingal
William Whitehead – A Charge to the Poets
Edward Young – Resignation
Non-fiction
The North Briton (newspaper)
George Campbell – A Dissertation on Miracles
Jacques Cazotte – Ollivier.
Denis Diderot
Éloge de Richardson
Rameau's Nephew (Le Neveu de Rameau ou La Satire seconde; completed; first published 1805)
Nicolas Fernández de Moratín – Desengaños al teatro español
Henry Fielding – Works
Oliver Goldsmith
The Life of Richard Nash
The Mystery Revealed (on the Cock Lane Ghost)
Paisiy Hilendarski – Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya (Slavonic-Bulgarian History)
Henry Home – Elements of Criticism
Richard Hurd – Letters on Chivalry and Romance
William Kenrick – Emilius and Sophia (translation of Rousseau)
John Langhorne – Letters on Religious Retirement, Melancholy and Enthusiasm
Robert Lowth – A Short Introduction to English Grammar
William Williams Pantycelyn – Llythyr Martha Philopur at y Parchedig Philo Evangelius eu hathro (Martha Philopur's letter to the Reverend Philo Evangelius, her teacher)
John Parkhurst – An Hebrew and English Lexicon
Joseph Priestley – A Course of Lectures on the Theory of Language, and Universal Grammar
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract
Emile, or On Education
Horace Walpole – Anecdotes of Painting in England, Volume 1
Births
January 11 – Andrew Cherry, Irish playwright and actor-manager (died 1812)
May 19 – Johann Gottlieb Fichte, German philosopher (died 1814)
September 11 – Joanna Baillie, Scottish poet and dramatist (died 1851)
September 24 – William Lisle Bowles, English poet and critic (died 1850)
October 30 – André Chénier, French poet (guillotined 1794)
Susanna Rowson née Haswell, English-born American novelist, poet, playwright, religious writer, actress, educator and abolitionist (died 1824)
Deaths
May 26 – Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher (born 1714)
June 17 – Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon, French poet and tragedian (born 1674)
June 26 – Luise Gottsched, German poet, comic playwright and translator (born 1713)
August 21 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English letter writer and poet (born 1698)
October 14 – Hieronymus Pez, Austrian historian and monastic librarian (born 1685)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1764%20in%20literature | 1764 in literature | This article is a summary of literary events and publications during 1764.
Events
January 19 – John Wilkes is expelled from the British House of Commons for seditious libel in an article criticizing King George III in The North Briton.
February – Samuel Johnson co-founds The Club, a literary dining club in London.
June 21 – The Quebec Gazette newspaper begins publication; its successor survives.
October 15 – While visiting Rome, Edward Gibbon conceives the idea for The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire "as I sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the barefooted fryars were singing Vespers in the temple of Jupiter". Gibbon is at the Franciscan Basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli on the Capitoline Hill, actually the site of the Temple of Juno.
October 29 – The Hartford Courant newspaper is founded in Connecticut.
December 24 – Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto ("A Story. Translated by William Marshal, Gent. From the Original Italian of Onuphrio Muralto, Canon of the Church of St. Nicholas at Otranto"), the first Gothic novel, is published by his Strawberry Hill Press in England.
unknown dates – The French scholar Jean-Jacques Barthélemy deciphers the Phoenician language using inscriptions on the Cippi of Melqart from Malta.
Mme. Necker and Mlle. de Lespinasse establish literary salons in Paris
New books
Fiction
John Cleland – The Surprises of Love
Phebe Gibbes
The History of Lady Louisa Stroud and the Honorable Miss Caroline Stretton
The Life and Adventures of Mr. Francis Clive
Susannah Minifie – Family Pictures
George Psalmanazar (pseudonym) – Memoirs of ***, Commonly Known by the Name of George Psalamanazar
James Ridley (as Sir Charles Morell) – The Tales of the Genii
Horace Walpole – The Castle of Otranto
Drama
Samuel Foote – The Patron
Antoine-Marin Lemierre – Idomne
Arthur Murphy
No One's Enemy But His Own
What We Must All Come To
Kane O'Hara – Midas
Frances Sheridan – The Dupe
Christopher Smart – Hannah
Ramón de la Cruz – El petimetre
Poetry
Charles Churchill
The Candidate
The Duellist
The Farewell
Gotham (book i)
Independence
The Times
John Gilbert Cooper – Poems
Oliver Goldsmith – The Traveller
James Grainger – The Sugar-Cane
Johann Georg Jacobi – Foeiische Versuche
Edward Jerningham – The Nun
George Keate – The Ruins of Netley Abbey
Mary Latter – Liberty and Interest: a Burlesque Poem on the Present Times
William Mason – Poems
William Williams Pantycelyn – Bywyd a Marwolaeth Theomemphus (in Welsh)
Christopher Smart – A Poetical Translation of the Fables of Phaedrus
Thomas Warton – The Oxford Sausage
Non-fiction
David Erskine Baker – The Companion to the Play-house (dictionary of dramatists and plays)
John Barrow – Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
Cesare Beccaria (anonymous) – On Crimes and Punishments (Dei delitti e delle pene)
Charles Bonnet – Contemplation de la natureOliver Goldsmith – An History of EnglandEdward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (posthumously) – The Life of Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (concluded 1624)
Immanuel Kant – Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime (Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen)Gottfried Leibniz (posthumous) – New Essays on Human Understanding (Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain) (completed 1704)
John Newton (anonymous) – An Authentic Narrative of Some Remarkable And Interesting Particulars in the Life of ------ Communicated, in a Series of Letters, to the Reverend T. Haweiss (autobiography)
Francisco Mariano Nipho – La nación española defendida de los insultos del Pensador y sus secuacesAnthony Purver – A New and Literal Translation of all the Books of the Old and New Testament (Bible)
Thomas Reid – An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common SenseWilliam Shenstone (posthumous) – WorksVoltaireDictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary)Commentaires sur CorneilleJohann Joachim Winckelmann – Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (History of Ancient Art)
Births
January 23 – Morris Birkbeck, American writer and social reformer (died 1825)
February 11 – Joseph Chénier, French poet (died 1811)
March 6 – Catharina Heybeek, Dutch journalist, feminist and editor (died 1810)
April 29 – Ann Hatton (Ann of Swansea), English novelist (died 1838)
May 7 – Therese Huber, German writer and scholar (died 1829)
June 23 – Gabriel-Marie Legouvé, French poet and dramatist (died 1812)
June 19 – John Barrow, English writer, geographer and linguist (died 1848)
July 4 – Prokop František Šedivý, Czech playwright, actor, and translator (died c. 1810)
July 9 – Ann Radcliffe, English Gothic novelist (died 1823)
August 18 – Judah Leib Ben-Ze'ev, Galician Jewish modern Hebrew philologist, lexicographer, Biblical scholar and poet (died 1811)
October 19 – Victor-Joseph Étienne de Jouy, French dramatist (died 1846)
November 1 – Frederic Reynolds, English dramatist (died 1841)
December 3 – Mary Lamb, English miscellanist and co-author with brother Charles Lamb (died 1847)unknown date'' – Sophie de Condorcet, French salonist and feminist (d. 1822)
Deaths
April 17 – Johann Mattheson, German writer, lexicographer and musician (born 1681)
June 18 – Christmas Samuel, Welsh-language writer and Independent minister (born 1674)
July 30 – Philipp Hafner, Austrian writer of farce (born 1735)
September 11 – Countess Dash, French writer (born 1704)
September 23 – Robert Dodsley, English miscellanist and bookseller (born 1703)
October 23 – Pierre-Charles Roy, French poet and librettist (born 1683)
November 1 – Agustín de Montiano y Luyando, Spanish dramatist (born 1697)
November 4 – Charles Churchill, English poet and satirist (born 1731)
December 15 – Robert Lloyd, English poet and satirist (born 1733)
December 18 – Mattheus Pinna da Encarnaçao, Spanish Benedictine theologian (born 1687)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Nike | Project Nike | Project Nike (Greek: Νίκη, "Victory", pronounced [nǐːkɛː]) was a U.S. Army project, proposed in May 1945 by Bell Laboratories, to develop a line-of-sight anti-aircraft missile system. The project delivered the United States' first operational anti-aircraft missile system, the Nike Ajax, in 1953. A great number of the technologies and rocket systems used for developing the Nike Ajax were re-used for a number of functions, many of which were given the "Nike" name (after Nike, the goddess of victory from Greek mythology).
The missile's first-stage solid rocket booster became the basis for many types of rocket including the Nike Hercules missile and NASA's Nike Smoke rocket, used for upper-atmosphere research.
History
Project Nike began during 1944 when the War Department demanded a new air defense system to combat new jet aircraft, as existing gun-based systems proved largely incapable of dealing with the speeds and altitudes at which jet aircraft operated. Two proposals were accepted. Bell Laboratories offered Project Nike while General Electric proposed a much longer-ranged, collision-course system named Project Thumper, which eventually delivered the BOMARC missile.
Bell Labs' proposal would have to deal with bombers flying at 500 mph (800 km/h) or more, at altitudes of up to 60,000 ft (20,000 m).
At these speeds, even a supersonic rocket is no longer fast enough to be simply aimed at the target. The missile must "lead" the target to ensure the target is hit before the missile depletes its fuel. This means that the missile and target cannot be tracked by a single radar, increasing the complexity of the system. One part was well developed. By this point, the US had considerable experience with lead-calculating analog computers, starting with the British Kerrison Predictor and a series of increasingly capable U.S. designs.
For Nike, three radars were used. The acquisition radar (such as the AN/GSS-1 Electronic Search Central with the AN/TPS-1D radar) searched for a target to be handed over to the Target Tracking Radar (TTR) for tracking. The Missile Tracking Radar (MTR) tracked the missile by way of a transponder, as the missile's radar signature alone was not sufficient. The MTR also commanded the missile by way of pulse-position modulation, the pulses were received, decoded and then amplified back for the MTR to track. Once the tracking radars were locked the system was able to work automatically following launch, barring any unexpected occurrences. The computer compared the two radars' directions, along with information on the speeds and distances, to calculate the intercept point and steer the missile. The entirety of this system was provided by the Bell System's electronics firm, Western Electric.
The Douglas-built missile was a two-stage missile using a solid fuel booster stage and a liquid fueled (IRFNA/UDMH) second stage. The missile could reach a maximum speed of 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h), an altitude of 70,000 ft (21 km) and had a range of 25 miles (40 km). The missile contained an unusual three part payload, with explosive fragmentation charges at three points down the length of the missile to help ensure a lethal hit. The missile's limited range was seen by critics as a serious flaw, because it often meant that the missile had to be situated very close to the area it was protecting.
After disputes between the Army and the Air Force (see the Key West Agreement), all longer-range systems were assigned to the Air Force during 1948. They merged their own long-range research with Project Thumper, while the Army continued to develop Nike. During 1950 the Army formed the Army Anti-Aircraft Command (ARAACOM) to operate batteries of anti-aircraft guns and missiles. ARAACOM was renamed the US Army Air Defense Command (USARADCOM) during 1957. It adopted a simpler acronym, ARADCOM, in 1961.
Nike Ajax
The first successful Nike test was during November 1951, intercepting a drone B-17 Flying Fortress. The first type, Nike Ajax (MIM-3), were deployed starting in 1953. The Army initially ordered 1,000 missiles and 60 sets of equipment. They were placed to protect strategic and tactical sites within the US. As a last-line of defense from air attack, they were positioned to protect cities as well as military installations. The missile was deployed first at Fort Meade, Maryland during December 1953. A further 240 launch sites were built up to 1962. They replaced 896 radar-guided anti-aircraft guns, operated by the National Guard or Army to protect certain key sites. This left a handful of 75 mm Skysweeper emplacements as the only anti-aircraft artillery remaining in use by the US. By 1957 the Regular Army AAA units had been replaced by missile battalions. During 1958 the Army National Guard began to replace their guns and adopt the Ajax system.
Each launch site had three parts, separated by at least 1,000 yards (914 m). One part (designated C) of about six acres (24,000 m2) contained the IFC (Integrated Fire Control) radar systems to detect incoming targets (acquisition and target tracking) and direct the missiles (missile tracking), along with the computer systems to plot and direct the intercept. The second part (designated L), around forty acres (160,000 m2), held 1–3 underground missile magazines each serving a group of four launch assemblies and included a safety zone. The site had a crew of 109 officers and men who ran the site continuously. One launcher would be on 15 minutes alert, two on 30 minutes and one on two hour alert. The third part was the administrative area (designated A), which was usually co-located with the IFC and contained the battery headquarters, barracks, mess, recreation hall, and motor pool. The actual configuration of the Nike sites differed depending on geography. Whenever possible the sites were placed on existing military bases or National Guard armories; otherwise land had to be purchased.
The Nike batteries were organized in Defense Areas and placed around population centers and strategic locations such as long-range bomber bases, nuclear plants, and (later) ICBM sites. The Nike sites in a Defense Area formed a circle around these cities and bases. There was no fixed number of Nike batteries in a Defense Area and the actual number of batteries varied from a low of two in the Barksdale AFB Defense Area to a high of 22 in the Chicago Defense Area. In the Continental United States the sites were numbered from 01 to 99 starting at the north and increasing clockwise. The numbers had no relation to actual compass headings, but generally Nike sites numbered 01 to 25 were to the northeast and east, those numbered 26 to 50 were to the southeast and south, those numbered 51 to 75 were to the southwest and west, and those numbered 76 to 99 were to the northwest and north. The Defense Areas in the Continental United States were identified by a one- or two-letter code which were related to the city name. Thus those Nike sites starting with C were in the Chicago Defense Area, those starting with HM were in the Homestead AFB/Miami Defense Area, those starting with NY were in the New York Defense Area, and so forth. As an example Nike Site SF-88L refers to the launcher area (L) of the battery located in the northwestern part (88) of the San Francisco Defense Area (SF).
During the early-to-mid-1960s the Nike Ajax batteries were upgraded to the Hercules system. The new missiles had greater range and destructive power, so about half as many batteries provided the same defensive capability. Regular Army batteries were either upgraded to the Hercules system or decommissioned. Army National Guard units continued to use the Ajax system until 1964, when they too upgraded to Hercules. Eventually, the Regular Army units were replaced by the National Guard as a cost-saving measure, since the Guard units could return to their homes when off duty.
A Nike Ajax missile accidentally exploded at a battery in Leonardo, New Jersey on 22 May 1958, killing 6 soldiers and 4 civilians. A memorial can be found at Fort Hancock in the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area.
Nike Hercules
Even as Nike Ajax was being tested, work started on Nike-B, later renamed Nike Hercules (MIM-14). It improved speed, range and accuracy, and could intercept ballistic missiles. The Hercules had a range of about 100 miles (160 km), a top speed in excess of 3,000 mph (4,800 km/h) and a maximum altitude of around 150,000 ft(30 km). It had solid fuel boost and sustainer rocket motors. The boost phase was four of the Nike Ajax boosters strapped together. In the electronics, some vacuum tubes were replaced with more reliable solid-state components.
The missile also had an optional nuclear warhead to improve the probability of a kill. The W-31 warhead had four variants offering 2, 10, 20 and 30 kiloton yields. The 20 kt version was used in the Hercules system. At sites in the United States the missile almost exclusively carried a nuclear warhead. Sites in foreign nations typically had a mix of high explosive and nuclear warheads. The fire control of the Nike system was also improved with the Hercules and included a surface-to-surface mode which was successfully tested in Alaska. The mode change was accomplished by changing a single plug on the warhead from the "Safe Plug" to "Surface to Air" or "Surface to Surface".
The Nike Hercules was deployed starting in June 1958. First deployed to Chicago, 393 Hercules ground systems were manufactured. By 1960 ARADCOM had 88 Hercules batteries and 174 Ajax batteries, defending 23 zones across 30 states. Peak deployment was in 1963 with 134 Hercules batteries not including the US Army Hercules batteries deployed in Germany, Greece, Greenland, Italy, Korea, Okinawa, Taiwan, and Turkey.
In 1961, SAC and the U.S. Army began a joint training mission with benefits for both parties. SAC needed fresh (simulated) targets which the cities ringed by Nike/Hercules sites provided, and the Army needed live targets to acquire and track with their radar. SAC had many Radar Bomb Scoring (RBS) sites across the country which had very similar acquisition and tracking radar, plus similar computerized plotting boards which were used to record the bomber tracks and bomb release points. Airmen from these sites were assigned TDY to Nike sites across the country to train the Nike crews in RBS procedures. The distances from the simulated bomb landing point and the "target" were recorded on paper, measured, encoded, and transmitted to the aircrews. The results of these bomb runs were used to promote or demote air crews. ECM activity also took place between the bombers and the Nike sites. The performance of the NIKE crews improved remarkably with this "live target" practice.
Many Nike Hercules batteries were manned by Army National Guard troops, with a single active Army officer assigned to each battalion to account for the unit's nuclear warheads. The National Guard air defense units shared responsibility for defense of their assigned area with active Army units in the area, and reported to the active Army chain of command. This is the only known instance of Army National Guard units being equipped with operational nuclear weapons.
Nike Zeus
Development continued, producing Improved Nike Hercules and then Nike Zeus A and B. The Zeus was aimed at intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).
Zeus, with a new 400,000 lbf (1.78 MN) thrust solid-fuel booster, was first test launched during August 1959 and demonstrated a top speed of 8,000 mph (12,875 km/h). The Nike Zeus system utilized the ground-based Zeus Acquisition Radar (ZAR), a significant improvement over the Nike Hercules HIPAR guidance system. Shaped like a pyramid, the ZAR featured a Luneburg lens receiver aerial weighing about 1,000 tons. The first successful intercept of an ICBM by Zeus was in 1962, at Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands. Despite its technological advancements, the Department of Defense terminated Zeus development in 1963. The Zeus system, which cost an estimated $15 billion, still suffered from several technical flaws that were believed to be uneconomical to overcome.
Still, the Army continued to develop an anti-ICBM weapon system referred to as "Nike-X" – that was largely based on the technological advances of the Zeus system. Nike-X featured phase-array radars, computer advances, and a missile tolerant of skin temperatures three times those of the Zeus. In September 1967, the Department of Defense announced the deployment of the LIM-49A Spartan missile system, its major elements drawn from Nike X development.
In March 1969. the Army started the anti-ballistic missile Safeguard Program, which was designed to defend Minuteman ICBMs, and which was also based on the Nike-X system. It became operational in 1975, but was shut down after just three months.
Nike-X
Nike-X was a proposed US Army anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system designed to protect major cities in the United States from attacks by the Soviet Union's ICBM fleet. The name referred to its experimental basis, it was intended to be replaced by a more appropriate name when the system was put into production. This never came to pass; the original Nike-X concept was replaced by a much more limited defense system known as the Sentinel program that used some of the same equipment.
Nike-X was a response to the failure of the earlier Nike Zeus system. Zeus had been designed to face a few dozen Soviet ICBMs in the 1950s, and its design would mean it was largely useless by mid-1960s when it would be facing hundreds. It was calculated that a salvo of only four ICBMs would have a 90% chance of hitting the Zeus base, as their radars could only track a few warheads at the same time. Worse, the attacker could use radar reflectors or high-altitude nuclear explosions to obscure the warheads until they were too close to attack, making a single warhead attack highly likely to succeed.
Nike-X addressed these concerns by basing its defense on a very fast, short-range missile known as Sprint. Large numbers would be clustered near potential targets, allowing successful interception right up to the last few seconds of the warhead's re-entry. They would operate below the altitude where decoys or explosions had any effect. Nike-X also used a new radar system that could track hundreds of objects at once, allowing salvoes of many Sprints. It would require dozens of missiles to overwhelm the system. Nike-X considered retaining the longer range Zeus missile, and later developed an extended range version known as Zeus EX. It played a secondary role in the Nike-X system, intended primarily for use in areas outside the Sprint protected regions.
Nike-X required at least one interceptor missile to attack each incoming warhead. As the USSR's missile fleet grew, the cost of implementing Nike-X began to grow as well. Looking for lower-cost options, a number of studies carried out between 1965 and 1967 examined a variety of scenarios where a limited number of interceptors might still be militarily useful. Among these, the I-67 concept suggested building a lightweight defense against very limited attacks. When the Chinese exploded their first H-bomb in 1967, I-67 was promoted as a defense against a Chinese attack, and this system became Sentinel in October. Nike-X development, in its original form, ended.
Decommissioning
Soviet development of ICBMs decreased the value of the Nike (aircraft) air defense system. Beginning around 1965, the number of Nike batteries was reduced. Thule air defense was reduced during 1965 and SAC air base defense during 1966, reducing the number of batteries to 112. Budgetary cuts reduced that number to 87 in 1968, and 82 in 1969.
Some small-scale work to use Nike Zeus as an anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) was carried out from 1962 until the project was canceled in favor of the Thor based Program 437 system during 1966.
In the end, neither development would enter service. However, the Nike Zeus system did demonstrate a hit to kill capability against ballistic missiles during the early 1960s. See National Missile Defense and anti-ballistic missile systems.
Nike Hercules was included in SALT I discussions as an ABM. Following the treaty signed during 1972, and further budget reduction, almost all Nike sites in the continental United States were deactivated by April 1974. Some units remained active until the later part of that decade in a coastal air defense role.
Specifications
Support vehicles
These trucks and trailers were used with the Nike system.
Trucks
M254 truck, missile rocket motor, Nike Ajax
M255 truck, body section, Nike Ajax
M256 truck, inert, Nike Ajax
M257 truck, inert, Nike Ajax
M442 truck, guided missile, rocket motor, Nike Hercules
M451 truck, guided missile test set, Nike Hercules
M473 truck, guided missile body section, Nike Hercules
M489 truck, missile nose section, Nike Hercules
G789 Trailers
M242 trailer, M33 fire control, radar dish van mount, 2-ton,
M243 trailer, M33 fire control, antenna hauler, 2-ton,
M244 trailer, M33 fire control, computer van, 2-ton,
M258 van, radar tracking central
M259 van, guided missile directors trailer
M260 low bed antenna mount
M261 flat bed, guided missile
M262 van, launch control station
M304 van, electronic shop, Nike Ajax
M359 van, electronic repair shop
M382 van, electronic repair shop
M383 van, electronic repair shop
M406 low bed antenna mount
M424 van, guided missile directors trailer
M428 van, guided missile tracking station
M429 dolly, for Nike trailers
M430 dolly, trailer, rear, for Nike trailers
M431 dolly, trailer, front, for Nike trailers
M432 dolly, trailer, rear, for Nike trailers
M529 trailer, low bed, 7-ton, missile, Nike
M564 trailer van, electronic shop, 9-ton,
M565 dolly, trailer, front,
M573 dolly, front, launch control station,
M582 van, shop
M583 van, shop
M584 dolly, trailer, front,
M589 dolly, trailer, front, electronic,
M595 dolly, trailer, front, antenna,
M657 trailer, van radar simulator test station,
M699 dolly trailer, rear,
M802 trailer, electric shop, radar course direct central, Nike Hercules
Deployment
By 1958, the Army deployed nearly 200 Nike Ajax batteries at 40 "Defense Areas" within the United States (including Alaska and Hawaii) in which Project Nike missiles were deployed. Within each Defense Area, a "Ring of Steel" was developed with a series of Nike Integrated Firing and Launch Sites constructed by the Corps of Engineers.
The deployment was designed to initially supplement and then replace gun batteries deployed around the nation's major urban areas and vital military installations. The defense areas consisted of major cities and selected United States Air Force Strategic Air Command bases which were deemed vital to national defense. The original basing strategy projected a central missile assembly point from which missiles would be taken out to prepared above-ground launch racks ringing the defended area. However, the Army discarded this semimobile concept because the system needed to be ready for instantaneous action to fend off a "surprise attack." Instead, a fixed-site scheme was devised.
Due to geographical factors, the placement of Nike batteries differed at each location. Initially, the planners chose fixed sites well away from the defended area and the Corps of Engineers Real Estate Offices began seeking tracts of land in rural areas. However, Army planners determined that close-in perimeter sites would provide enhanced firepower. Staggering sites between outskirt and close-in locations to urban areas gave defenders a greater defense-in-depth capability.
Each Nike missile battery was divided into two basic parcels: the Battery Control Area and the Launch Area.
The Battery Control Area contained the radar and computer equipment. Housing and administration buildings, including the mess hall, barracks, and recreation facilities, were sometimes located in a third parcel of land. More likely, however, the housing and administration buildings were located at either the Battery Control Area or the Launch Area, depending upon site configuration, obstructions, and the availability of land.
The Launch Area provided for the maintenance, storage, testing, and firing of the Nike missiles. The selection of this area was primarily influenced by the relatively large amount of land required, its suitability to extensive underground construction, and the need to maintain a clear line-of-sight between the missiles in the Launch Area and the missile-tracking-radar in the Battery Control Area.
The first Nike sites featured above-ground launchers. This quickly changed as land restrictions forced the Army to construct space-saving underground magazines. Capable of hosting 12 Nike Ajax missiles, each magazine had an elevator that lifted the missile to the surface in a horizontal position. Once above ground, the missile could be pushed
manually along a railing to a launcher placed parallel to the elevator. Typically, four launchers sat atop the magazine.
Near the launchers, a trailer housed the launch control officer and the controls he operated to launch missiles. In addition to the launch control trailer, the launch area contained a generator building with three diesel generators, frequency converters, and missile assembly and maintenance structures.
Because of the larger size of the Nike Hercules, an underground magazine's capacity was reduced to eight missiles. Thus, storage racks, launcher rails, and elevators underwent modification to accept the larger missiles. Two additional features that readily distinguished newly converted sites were the double fence and the kennels housing dogs that patrolled the perimeter between the two fences.
The Nike Hercules was designed to use existing Nike Ajax facilities. With the greater range of the Nike Hercules allowing for wider area coverage, numerous Nike Ajax batteries were permanently deactivated. In addition, sites located further
away from target areas were desirable due to the nuclear warheads carried by the missile. Unlike the older Ajax sites, these batteries were placed in locations that optimized the missiles' range and minimized the warhead damage. Nike Hercules batteries at SAC bases and in Hawaii were installed in an outdoor configuration. In Alaska, a unique above-ground shelter configuration was provided for batteries guarding Anchorage and Fairbanks. Local Corps of Engineer Districts supervised the conversion of Nike Ajax batteries and the construction of new Nike Hercules batteries.
Nike missiles remained deployed around strategically important areas within the continental United States until 1974. The Alaskan sites were deactivated in 1978 and Florida sites stood down during the following year. Although the missile left the U.S. inventory, other nations maintained the missiles in their inventories into the early 1990s and sent their soldiers to the United States to conduct live-fire exercises at Fort Bliss, Texas.
Leftover traces of the approximately 265 Nike missile bases can still be seen around cities across the country. As the sites were decommissioned they were first offered to federal agencies. Many were already on Army National Guard bases who continued to use the property. Others were offered to state and local governments while others were sold to school districts. The left-overs were offered to private individuals. Thus, many Nike sites are now municipal yards, communications and FAA facilities (the IFC areas), probation camps, and even renovated for use as Airsoft gaming and MilSim training complexes. Several were obliterated and turned into parks. Some are now private residences. Only a few remain intact and preserve the history of the Nike project. There are also a few sites abroad, notably in Germany, Turkey and Greece.
Defense areas within the United States were:
Anchorage Defense Area, AK
Barksdale Defense Area, LA
Bergstrom AFB Defense Area, TX
Boston Defense Area, MA
Bridgeport Defense Area, CT
Chicago–Gary Defense Area, IL-IN
Cincinnati–Dayton Defense Area, OH-IN
Cleveland Defense Area, OH
Dallas–Fort Worth Defense Area, TX
Detroit Defense Area, MI
Dyess AFB Defense Area, TX
Ellsworth AFB Defense Area, SD
Fairbanks Defense Area, AK
Fairchild AFB Defense Area, WA
Hanford Defense Area, WA
Hartford Defense Area. CT
Homestead–Miami Defense Area, FL
Kansas City Defense Area, KS-MO
Lincoln AFB Defense Area, NE
Loring AFB Defense Area, ME
Los Angeles Defense Area, CA
Milwaukee Defense Area, WI
Minneapolis–St.Paul Defense Area, MN
New York Defense Area, NY
Niagara Falls–Buffalo Defense Area, NY
Norfolk Defense Area, VA
Oahu Defense Area, HI
Offutt AFB Defense Area, NE
Philadelphia Defense Area, PA-NJ
Pittsburgh Defense Area, PA
Providence Defense Area, RI-MA
Robbins AFB Defense Area, GA
St. Louis Defense Area, MO
San Francisco Defense Area, CA
Schilling AFB Defense Area, KS
Seattle Defense Area, WA
Travis AFB Defense Area, CA
Turner AFB Defense Area, GA
Walker AFB Defense Area, NM
Washington–Baltimore Defense Area, MD-VA
Nike booster motor as sounding rocket stage
The Nike boosters were also used as stages in sounding rockets as they became surplus starting in the 1950s in the following versions:
Nike Apache (Argo-13)
Nike-Asp (ASPAN)
Nike Cajun
Nike Deacon
Nike Genie
Nike Hawk
Nike Hydac
Nike Iroquois
Nike Javelin
Nike Malemute
Nike Nike
Nike Orion
Nike Recruit
Nike T40 T55
Nike Tomahawk
Nike Viper
Nike-Python
Nike-Yardbird
Nike-Smoke
Nike-Nike
Survivors
Bases
The best preserved Nike installation is site SF88L located in the Marin Headlands just west of the Golden Gate Bridge, north of San Francisco, California. The site is a museum, and contains the missile bunkers, and control area, as well as period uniforms and vehicles that would have operated at the site. The site has been preserved in the condition it was in at the time it was decommissioned in 1974. The site began as a Nike Ajax base and was later converted to Nike Hercules. Three Nike Hercules are displayed in the original bunkers. The base is open to the public, including demonstrations of the operational missile lift from the bunker to the surface. Hours and tours vary during the year, but are usually held on Saturdays. Additional days may be added during the summer and holidays.
The second best preserved Nike installation is site NY-56 at Fort Hancock in Sandy Hook, New Jersey. The site has been restored and contains the original missile bunkers, as well as three Nike Ajax and a Nike Hercules on display. Each fall the base holds a Cold War Day. Tours one weekend a month from April to October. The site is on the National Register of Historic Places. It is open to the public. Tours are conducted by members of the Fort Hancock Nike Association.
HM69 in Everglades National Park has a Nike Hercules restored by George T. Baker Aviation School students. The Nike site is operated by the National Park Service and is open in the winter for guided tours.
San Vicente Mountain Park is a former Nike site on Mulholland Drive in the Santa Monica Mountains, California.
In Carrollton, part of Isle of Wight County, Virginia, the Nike Park is a county owned park and recreation area that houses the former Nike missile base. Several original buildings still stand and are used on a daily basis. One building is still a voting location for residents. The underground missile compartments are still there with the concrete pads that covered the missile storage silos. The county has considered demolishing the buildings in the early 2000s in favor of modern buildings but opposition from historians preserved the structures. The City of Hampton recently agreed to donate its Nike missiles to the county to display at the park.
Missiles
Two Nike Ajax are on display at The AAF Tank And Ordnance Museum in Danville, VA
A Nike Zeus is on display at the Space Camp in Huntsville, Alabama.
Two Nike Ajax are on display at Camp Navajo in Bellemont, Arizona.
A Nike Ajax, Nike Hercules, and Nike Zeus are on display at the Redstone Arsenal in Alabama.
A Nike Ajax and Nike Hercules are on display at the Royal Museum of the Army and Military History in Brussels, Belgium.
A Nike missile is on display at Camp San Luis Obispo near Morro Bay, California.
A Nike Ajax and a Nike Hercules are on display at the Peterson Air and Space Museum in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Two Nike Ajax and a Hercules are on display at the Cape Canaveral Space & Missile Museum in Cape Canaveral, Florida.
A Nike Ajax is on display at the War Museum in Athens, Greece.
A Nike Ajax on its launcher and a Hercules are on display in front of the American Legion post in Cedar Lake, Indiana.
A Nike missile is on display at the Combat Air Museum in Topeka, Kansas.
A Nike Ajax is on display in Marion, Kentucky.
A Nike Ajax and Hercules are on display at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Aberdeen, Maryland.
A Nike Ajax is on display in front of the VFW post in Hancock, Maryland.
Two Nike Ajax and a Hercules are on display at a small Cold War museum in Ft. Meade, Maryland.
A Nike Ajax and Hercules are on display at the Dutch Air Force Museum in Soesterberg Air Base.
A Nike Ajax is on display at The Space Center in Alamogordo, New Mexico.
A Nike Ajax is on display near the administrative buildings at the former Nike site in Rustan, about 40 km to the southwest of Oslo, Norway.
Two Nike Ajax and a Nike Hercules are on display near the Bataan Building at Camp Perry, near Port Clinton, Ohio.
A Nike Ajax is on display near the Toledo Rockets Glass Bowl Stadium on the campus of the University of Toledo in Toledo, Ohio.
A Nike Ajax is displayed in front of an Army Surplus store located near the Letterkenny Army Depot in Pennsylvania.
A Nike Ajax and Hercules are on display at the Pennsylvania National Guard Department of Military Arts building at Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania.
A Nike Ajax and Hercules are on display at the Air Power Park in Hampton, Virginia. At least one of these missiles has been agreed to be donated by the city to the County of Isle of Wight for display at Carrollton Nike Park.
A Nike Ajax missile cutaway, as well as a complete Nike Ajax missile are on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum at Washington Dulles International Airport, in Chantilly, Virginia.
A Nike Ajax and Nike Hercules are on display in the Berryman War Memorial Park in Bridgeport, Washington.
A Nike Hercules and transport trailer are on display at the Ft. Lewis Military Museum in Tacoma, Washington.
A Nike Ajax on its launcher is on display outside an American Legion hall in Okauchee Lake, Wisconsin.
A Nike Hercules on its transporter (trailer) is on display outside a public storage (former site MS-20) facility in Roberts, Wisconsin. http://www.nikestorage.com/history-of-the-site/
A Nike Ajax is on display in front of the American Legion Post in Waynesboro, Pennsylvania.
A Nike Hercules is on display outside the Royal Norwegian Air Force's training centre at Kjevik, Norway.
A Nike Hercules and what seems to be the tip of a Nike Ajax is on display at Trøgstad Fort, about 45 km to the southeast of Oslo, Norway.
A Nike Hercules is on display at Stævnsfortet, about 50 km south of Copenhagen.
A Nike Hercules is on display in a park in St. Bonifacius, Minnesota.
A Nike Hercules is on display in Young Patriot's Park(Formally Nike base D-54) in Riverview, Michigan.
A Nike Ajax missile is on display at Richard Montgomery High School in Rockville, Maryland.
A Nike Ajax and Hercules on launchers and an additional Nike Ajax and Hercules missile without launchers are on display at the Air Defense Artillery Museum. Fort Sill, Oklahoma
See also
Wasserfall was a World War II German project for a surface-to-air missile.
Missile guidance
Sprint
LIM-49 Spartan
Safeguard Program
S-25 Berkut
Soviet Air Defence Forces
ABM-1 Galosh
List of U.S. military vehicles by supply catalog designation (G-789)
Cold War Museum
List of U.S. Army Rocket Launchers By Model Number
Sources
References
External links
Nike Missile Manual Collection
The Continental Air Defense Collection at the United States Army Center of Military History
Video Documentary of History of Nike-Hercules Project in U.S.
Community für ehemaliges Nike-Hercules-Personal (In German)
Nike missile site at alpha.fdu.edu
Nike Historical Society
Nike Hercules in Alaska
Nike Zeus info
Pictures of a demilitarized Nike site in Germany
Nike Sites of the Los Angeles Defense Area
The Nike Missile Program, Doug Crompton Area Hoejerup and Stevns Fort. Denmark. English/danish
Nike Ajax Explosion Marker: Gateway National Recreation Area
Huell Howser. "Nike Missile Site". California's Golden Parks. Episode 159.
Rockets and missiles
Cold War surface-to-air missiles of the United States
MIM003
United States Army projects | [
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|
225740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1765%20in%20literature | 1765 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1765.
Events
January 10 – Arthur Murphy introduces Hester Thrale and her husband to Samuel Johnson.
August 12 – I'tisam-ud-Din writes the Treaty of Allahabad between the Mughal Empire and the British East India Company
October 10 – Samuel Johnson and George Steevens' edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare is published in London after ten years in the making.
unknown date – Denis Diderot completes the Encyclopédie.
Approximate year – Beginning of the Sturm und Drang movement in German literature.
New books
Fiction
Henry Brooke – The Fool of Quality (volume one; the fifth and last appeared in 1770)
Madame Riccoboni – L'Histoire d'Ernestine
Laurence Sterne – The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (vol vii–viii)
Children
Anonymous – The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes (attributed to Oliver Goldsmith)
Drama
Isaac Bickerstaffe – operas
Daphne and Amintor
The Maid of the Mill
Dorothea Biehl – Den listige Optrækkerske
George Colman the Elder – The Comedies of Terence
Ramón de la Cruz – El Prado por la noche
Charles Dibdin – The Shepherd's Artifice
Samuel Foote – The Commissary
Carlo Gozzi – L'augellino bel verde
Elizabeth Griffith – The Platonic Wife
Michel-Jean Sedaine – Philosophe sans le savoir
William Shirley – Electra
Poetry
James Beattie
The Judgment of Paris
Verses Occasioned by the Death of Charles Churchill
William Collins – Works
Edward Jerningham – An Elegy Written Among the Ruins of an Abbey
James Macpherson – The Works of Ossian
Thomas Percy – Reliques of Ancient English Poetry
Christopher Smart – A Translation of the Psalms of David
Percival Stockdale – Churchill Defended
Nicolás Fernandez de Moratín – La Diana o Arte de la caza
Non-fiction
William Blackstone – Commentaries on the Laws of England (publication begins)
John Bunyan (died 1688) – Imprisonment of Mr. John Bunyan
Anders Chydenius – The National Gain ()
Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro – Opera omnia
Henry Fuseli – Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks (translation of Johann Joachim Winckelmann)
Oliver Goldsmith – Essays
William Kenrick – A Review of Doctor Johnson's New Edition of Shakespeare
Filip Lastrić
Epitome vetustatum Bosnensis provinciae
Friedrich Christoph Oetinger – Swedenborg und anderer Irrdische und himmlische Philosophie
Joseph Priestley – Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life
George Alexander Stevens – The Celebrated Lecture on Heads
Tobias Smollett – Continuation of the History of England (a supplement to Hume's History of England; final volume)
Pedro Rodríguez, Conde de Campomanes – Tratado de la regalía de amortización
Births
January 4 – Jacob Grimm, German philologist and mythologist (died 1863)
January 11 – Antoine Alexandre Barbier, French librarian (died 1825)
March 27 – Franz Xaver von Baader, German philosopher (died 1841)
April 22 – James Grahame, Scottish poet (died 1811)
September 14 – Carl Friedrich Ernst Frommann, German bookseller (died 1837)
September 15 – Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, Portuguese poet (died 1805)
October 24 – James Mackintosh, Scottish historian (died 1832)
November 30 – Johann Friedrich Abegg, German theologian (died 1840)
unknown date – Jippensha Ikku (十返舎 一九 Shigeta Sadakazu), Japanese novelist (died 1831)
Probable year of birth – Henry Luttrell, English wit (died 1851)
Deaths
March 3 – William Stukeley, English antiquary (born 1687)
April 5 – Edward Young, English poet, playwright and literary theorist (born 1683)
April 11 – Lewis Morris, Welsh poet, antiquary and lexicographer (born 1701)
April 15 – Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian polymath (born 1711)
April 23 – Sarah Dixon, English poet (born 1671 or 1672)
May 1 – Franz Neumayr, German controversialist and theologian (born 1697)
December 31 – Samuel Madden, Irish social and political writer (born 1686)
Unknown date
David Mallet, Scottish poet and playwright (born c. 1705)
James Ridley (Sir Charles Morell), English novelist and story writer (born 1736)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1766%20in%20literature | 1766 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1766.
Events
Early – The young Fanny Burney pays one of many visits to Samuel Crisp, a frustrated author and friend of her father living in retirement at Chessington Hall, England.
May 30 – The Theatre Royal, Bristol, England, opens. Also this year in England, the surviving Georgian Theatre (Stockton-on-Tees) opens as a playhouse.
July 1 – François-Jean de la Barre, a young French nobleman, is tortured and beheaded before his body is burnt on a pyre, with a copy of Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique nailed to his torso, for the crime of not saluting a Roman Catholic religious procession in Abbeville and for other acts of sacrilege, including desecration of a crucifix.
December 2 – The Law on the Freedom of Printing abolishes censorship in Sweden and guarantees freedom of the press.
unknown dates
The Drottningholm Palace Theatre is reopened as an opera house in Stockholm, Sweden, in its surviving form, designed by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz.
Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg begins to publish his Briefe über Merkwürdigkeiten der Litteratur, in which he formulates the literary principles of Sturm und Drang.
New books
Fiction
Henry Brooke – The Fool of Quality
Oliver Goldsmith – The Vicar of Wakefield
Catherine Jemmat – Miscellanies
Charlotte Lennox – The History of Eliza
Susannah Minifie – The Picture
Sarah Scott – The History of Sir George Ellison
Pu Songling (died 1715) – Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (聊齋誌異, Liaozhai Zhiyi; first surviving printed edition)
Christoph Martin Wieland – Geschichte des Agathon
Anna Williams – Miscellanies in Prose and Verse
Drama
George Colman the Elder and David Garrick – The Clandestine Marriage
Ramón de la Cruz – La pradera de San Isidro
Thomas Francklin – The Earl of Warrick
Elizabeth Griffith – The Double Mistake
Poetry
Mark Akenside – An Ode to the Late Thomas Edwards
Christopher Anstey – The New Bath Guide
James Beattie – Poems
John Cunningham – Poems
John Freeth – The Political Songster
Oliver Goldsmith, ed. – Poems for Young Ladies
Charles Jenner – Poems
Henry James Pye – Beauty
Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg – Gedicht eines Skalden
Non-fiction
Francis Blackburne – The Confessional (theology of confession)
Edmund Burke – A Short Account of a Late Short Administration
Denis Diderot – Essais sur la peinture
James Fordyce – Sermons to Young Women
Immanuel Kant – Dreams of a Spirit-Seer
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing – Laocoön
Franz Mesmer – De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum (On the Influence of the Planets on the Human Body)
Thomas Pennant – The British Zoology
Pedro Rodríguez Mohedano and Rafael Rodríguez Mohedano – Historia literaria de España, desde su primera población hasta nuestros días (Literary history of Spain, from the first publication to the present day)
Samuel Sharp – Letters from Italy
Tobias Smollett – Travels through France and Italy
Laurence Sterne – The Sermons of Mr Yorick vols. iii-iv
George Stevens (editor) – Twenty of the Plays of Shakespeare
Thomas Tyrwhitt – Observations and Conjectures Upon Some Passages of Shakespeare
John Wesley – A Plain Account of Christian Perfection
Births
January 3 – Nguyễn Du, Vietnamese poet (died 1820)
January 15 – Nathan Drake, English essayist and physician (died 1836)
February 1 – Eliza Fenwick, English novelist and children's writer (died 1840)
February 14 – Thomas Robert Malthus, English political scientist (died 1834)
April 22 – Germaine de Staël (Anne Louise Germaine Necker), French novelist and saloniste (died 1817)
May 11 – Isaac D'Israeli, English literary scholar (died 1848)
August 16 – Carolina Oliphant, Lady Nairne, Scottish songwriter and collector (died 1845).
October 11 – Nólsoyar Páll, Faroese merchant and poet (lost at sea c. 1808)
Deaths
March 3 – William Rufus Chetwood, Anglo-Irish playwright, novelist and publisher (year of birth unknown)
March 21 – Richard Dawes, English classicist (born 1708)
December 12 - Johann Christoph Gottsched, German philosopher (born 1700)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1767%20in%20literature | 1767 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1767.
Events
January 29 – The former watchmaker and entrepreneur Pierre Beaumarchais has his first full-length drama, Eugénie, premièred at the Comédie-Française. Revised in two days, it establishes his reputation in this field.
February – King George III of Great Britain requests an introduction to Samuel Johnson from his librarian, Frederick Augusta Barnard. They meet in the library of the Queen's House.
April 24 – First professional performance of a play by an American, The Prince of Parthia by Thomas Godfrey (died 1763), at the new Southwark Theatre in Philadelphia with Lewis Hallam Jr. in a leading rôle.
December 7 – John Street Theatre (Manhattan), the first permanent theater in New York City, is opened by David Douglass with a performance of The Beaux' Stratagem.
Construction of Teatro Real Coliseo de Carlos III de Aranjuez, the first enclosed theatre in Spain, begins.
Richard Price's volume of sermons, Four Dissertations, is published by Andrew Millar and Thomas Cadell in London, and he joins the "Bowood circle", a group of liberal intellectuals around William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, at Bowood House in Wiltshire (England) and corresponds with Benjamin Franklin.
Publication of the Epistles and Book of Revelation in Manx as Sceeuyn Paul yn Ostyl gys ny Romanee completes the first translation of the New Testament into that language.
Publication of the first secular prose book in any of the Sorbian languages by Jurij Mjeń.
New books
Fiction
James Boswell – Dorando
Phebe Gibbes – The Woman of Fashion
Hugh Kelly – Memoirs of a Magdalen
Susannah Minifie – Barford Abbey
Frances Sheridan
Continuation of the Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph (posthumous)
The History of Nourjahad
Laurence Sterne – The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman vol. ix
Unca Eliza Winkfield (pseudonym) – The Female American
Arthur Young – The Adventures of Emmera
Drama
Pierre Beaumarchais – Eugénie
Richard Bentley – Philodamus
Isaac Bickerstaffe – Lace in the City
George Colman the Elder
The English Merchant
The Oxonian in Town
David Garrick – Cymon
Hall Hartson – The Countess of Salisbury
Thomas Hull – The Perplexities
William Kenrick – The Widowed Wife
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing – Minna von Barnhelm
Arthur Murphy – The School for Guardians
Poetry
Michael Bruce – Elegy Written in Spring
Francis Fawkes – Partridge-Shooting
Oliver Goldsmith, ed. – The Beauties of English Poesy
Richard Jago – Edge-Hill
Henry Jones – Kew Garden
Christopher Smart (translation) – The Works of Horace, Translated into Verse
Non-fiction
John Byrom – The Universal English Short-hand
William Duff – An Essay on Original Genius
Richard Farmer – An Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare
Adam Ferguson – An Essay on the History of Civil Society
Baron d'Holbach, Paul Henry Thiry – Christianisme dévoilé
Catharine Macaulay – Loose Remarks on Mr. Hobbes's Philosophical Rudiments of Government and Society (on Hobbes's 1651 work)
Moses Mendelssohn – Phädon
Joseph Priestley – The History and Present State of Electricity
William Warburton – Sermons and Discourses
Arthur Young – The Farmer's Letters to the People of England
Births
January 1 – Maria Edgeworth, Anglo-Irish novelist (died 1849)
February 4 – Andrew Marschalk, American printer (died 1838)
February 6 – Saul Ascher, German political writer and translator (died 1822)
March 1 – Alexander Balfour, Scottish novelist, short-story writer and poet (died 1829)
April 9 – Joseph Fiévée, French journalist, essayist, novelist and dramatist (died 1839)
April 24 – Dorothy Ripley, English missionary and reformist writer (died 1832)
September 6 – Thomas Bayly Howell, English legal writer (died 1815)
September 8 – August Wilhelm Schlegel, German poet and translator (died 1845)
September 10 – Melchiorre Gioia, Italian philosophical writer (died 1829)
October 25 – Benjamin Constant, Swiss-French novelist (died 1830)
November 26 (bapt.) – Elizabeth Bentley, English poet (died 1839)
December 8 – Antoine Fabre d'Olivet, French poet and composer (died 1825)
Deaths
February 16 – David Erskine Baker, English writer on drama and translator (born 1730)
February 28 – Charles Balguy, English translator and medical writer (born 1708)
April 27 – Johann Gottlob Carpzov, German Biblical scholar (born 1679)
July 15 – Michael Bruce, Scottish poet and hymnist (born 1746)
July 26 – Paul Gottlieb Werlhof, German poet and physician (born 1699)
August 21 – Thomas Osborne, English publisher and bookseller (born 1704)
September 11 – Theophilus Evans, Welsh historian and cleric (born 1693)
October 1 – Léon Ménard, French historical writer and lawyer (born 1706)
December 22 – John Newbery, English children's author and publisher (born 1713)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1768%20in%20literature | 1768 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1768.
Events
March – John Wilkes, returning from exile in France, is elected to the Parliament of Great Britain.
May 10 – John Wilkes is imprisoned for attacking King George III of Great Britain in print.
July 28 – Thomas Gray succeeds Lawrence Brockett as Regis Professor of History at the University of Cambridge.
December 12 – Walter Butler, 16th Earl of Ormonde, father of Lady Eleanor Butler, inherits Kilkenny Castle in Ireland. This brings about the first meeting of the Ladies of Llangollen.
unknown dates
John Murray (publisher) is established in London.
The Theatre Royal, Bath (Old Orchard Street Theatre) and Theatre Royal, Norwich assume these titles on being granted Royal Patents, making them officially England's only legal provincial theaters.
The Leeds Library is founded, becoming the oldest surviving subscription library of its type in Britain.
New books
Fiction
John Cleland – The Woman of Honour (attributed)
Alexander Dow (translated) – Tales Translated from the Persian of Inatulla of Delhi
Voltaire – La Princesse de Babylone
José Francisco de Isla – Historia del famoso predicador fray Gerundio de Campazas, alias Zotes (second part)
Anonymous – Fumoto no iro ()
Children
Christopher Smart – Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (verse)
Drama
Isaac Bickerstaffe
Lionel and Clarissa
The Hypocrite
The Padlock
Alexander Dow – Zingis
Samuel Foote – The Devil on Two Sticks
Oliver Goldsmith – The Good-Natur'd Man
John Hoole – Cyrus
Hugh Kelly – False Delicacy
Arthur Murphy – Zenobia
Michel-Jean Sedaine – La gageure imprévue
Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg – Ugolino
Horace Walpole – The Mysterious Mother (published)
William Shakespeare, ed. Edward Capell – Mr. William Shakespeare His Comedies, Histories and Tragedies
Poetry
Isaac Hawking Browne – Poems
Thomas Gray – Poems
Richard Jago – Labour and Genius
Edward Jerningham – Amabella
Mary Wortley Montagu – Poetical Works
Henry James Pye – Elegies
Alexander Ross – The Fortunate Shepherdess
Christopher Smart – The Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ
William Wilkie – Fables
Non-fiction
Abraham Booth – The Reign of Grace
James Boswell – An Account of Corsica
William Gilpin – An Essay upon Prints, containing remarks upon the principles of picturesque beauty
Oliver Goldsmith – The Present State of the British Empire in Europe, America, Africa, and Asia
Richard Gough – Anecdotes of British Topography
Joseph Priestley – An Essay on the First Principles of Government
Tobias Smollett – The Present State of all Nations
Laurence Sterne – A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy
Gilbert Stuart – An Historical Dissertation Concerning the Antiquity of the English Constitution
Emanuel Swedenborg – Deliciae Sapientiae de Amore Conjugiali
Abraham Tucker (as Edward Search) – The Light of Nature Pursued
Horace Walpole – Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III
Arthur Young – A Six Weeks' Tour Through the Southern Counties of England and Wales
Births
March 22 – Melesina Trench, Irish-born writer and socialite (died 1827)
September 4 – François-René de Chateaubriand, French writer and diplomat (died 1848
November 18 – Zacharias Werner, German religious poet (died 1823)
November 21 – Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian (died 1834)
Deaths
March 1 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German philosopher (born 1694)
March 18 – Laurence Sterne, Irish-born novelist and cleric (born 1713)
April 9 – Sarah Fielding, English novelist and children's author (born 1710)
May 30 – Eggert Ólafsson, Icelandic writer and linguist (drowned, born 1726)
July 4 – Willem van Haren, Dutch poet (born 1710)
August 20 – Joseph Spence, English memoirist and professor of poetry (born 1699)
November 25 – Alexander Russell, Scottish physician and naturalist (born c. 1715)
December 20 – Carlo Innocenzio Maria Frugoni, Italian poet (born 1692)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20M.52 | Miles M.52 | The Miles M.52 was a turbojet-powered supersonic research aircraft project designed in the United Kingdom in the mid-1940s. In October 1943, Miles Aircraft was issued with a contract to produce the aircraft in accordance with Air Ministry Specification E.24/43. The programme was highly ambitious for its time, aiming to produce an aircraft and engine capable of unheard-of speeds of at least during level flight, and involved a very high proportion of cutting-edge aerodynamic research and innovative design work.
Between 1942 and 1945, all work on the project was undertaken with a high level of secrecy. In February 1946, the programme was terminated by the new Labour government of Clement Attlee, seemingly due to budgetary reasons, as well as a disbelief held by some ministry officials on the viability of supersonic aircraft in general. In September 1946, the existence of the M.52 was revealed to the general public, leading to calls for official explanation as to why the project had been terminated and derision of the decision. The Air Ministry controversially decided to revive the design, but as a series of unmanned rocket-powered 30 per cent scale models instead of the original manned full-scale aircraft that had been previously under development. These unmanned scale models were air-launched from a modified de Havilland Mosquito mother ship.
During one successful test flight, Mach 1.38 was achieved by a scale model in normally controllable transonic and supersonic level flight, a unique achievement at that time which validated the aerodynamics of the M.52. At that point, the ministry had cancelled that project and issued a new requirement, which would ultimately result in the English Electric Lightning interceptor aircraft. Work on the afterburning version of the Power Jets W.B.2/700 turbojet was also cancelled and the Power Jets company was incorporated into the National Gas Turbine Establishment. According to senior figures at Miles, the design and the research gained from the M.52 was shared with the American company Bell Aircraft, and that this was applied to their own Bell X-1, a ground-breaking high-speed prototype aircraft which broke the sound barrier.
Development
Background
Prior to the Second World War, conventional wisdom throughout the majority of the aviation industry was that manned flight at supersonic speeds, those in excess of the sound barrier, was next to impossible, mainly due to the apparently insurmountable issue of compressibility. During the 1930s, few researchers and aerospace engineers chose to explore the field of high-speed fluid dynamics; notable pioneers in this area were the German aerospace engineer Adolf Busemann, British physicist Sir Geoffrey Taylor, and British engine designer Sir Stanley Hooker. While Germany gave considerable attention to exploring and implementing Busemann's theories on the swept wing and its role in drag-reduction during high-speed flight, both Britain and the United States overlooked this research on the whole. It was only by 1944 that information regarding the rocket-propelled Messerschmitt Me 163 or the jet-propelled Me 262, both having been equipped with swept wings, did wider attitudes on its merits begin to change. Prior to this point, the British Air Ministry had already launched a research programme of its own.
In Autumn 1943, the Air Ministry issued a call for nothing less than a revolutionary aircraft in the form of Air Ministry Specification E.24/43. The Specification sought to produce a jet-powered research aircraft for the ambitious purpose of being able to reach supersonic speeds, which was faster than any aircraft had ever flown at that point. It called for an "aeroplane capable of flying over in level flight, over twice the existing speed record at that time, along with the ability to climb to in 1.5 minutes." Aviation author Derek Wood described E.24/43 as being "the most far-sighted official requirement ever to be issued by a Government department...a complete venture into the unknown with engine, airframe, and control techniques beyond anything remotely considered before". In fact, the specification had only been intended to produce a British aircraft that could match the supposed performance of an apparently existing German aircraft: the 1,000 mph (supersonic) requirement had resulted from the mistranslation of an intercepted communication which had reported that the maximum speed to have been 1,000 km/h (subsonic). This report is believed to have been referring to either the Messerschmitt Me 163A or the Me 262.
The Miles Aircraft company had its beginnings in the 1920s and made a name for itself during the 1930s by producing affordable ranges of innovative light aircraft, perhaps the best known amongst these being the Miles Magister and Miles Master trainers, large numbers of both types seeing heavy use by the RAF for fighter pilot training. Although the company's products were relatively low-technology trainers and light aircraft, and did not include any jet-propelled aircraft, Miles had a good relationship with the Air Ministry and the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), and had submitted several proposals for advanced aircraft in response to ministry specifications. Miles was invited to undertake a top-secret project to meet the requirements of Specification E.24/43; thus began Miles' involvement in high-speed aviation. The decision to involve the company has been alleged to have been partially in order to resolve a dispute about a separated contract that allegedly had been mishandled by the Ministry of Aircraft Production; Wood states that the Minister of Aircraft Production Sir Stafford Cripps had been impressed by Miles' designs and development team and thus favoured it to meet the specification.
Fred Miles of Miles Aircraft was summoned to the Ministry of Aircraft to meet with researcher Ben Lockspeiser for the latter to outline the difficulties and challenges involved in developing such an aircraft. The project required the highest level of secrecy throughout, Miles being responsible for the development and manufacturing of the airframe while Frank Whittle's Power Jets company developed and produced a suitable engine to equip the aircraft. For this project, Miles would cooperate with and receive assistance from the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in Farnborough and the National Physical Laboratory. On 8 October 1943, Miles received the formal go-ahead to proceed from Air Marshal Ralph Sorley, and immediately set about establishing appropriate secure facilities for the project.
Early development
Faced with limited amounts of existing relevant information from available sources upon which to base the aircraft's design, Miles turned to the field of ballistics instead. He had reasoned that, as it was widely known that bullets could attain supersonic speeds, aerodynamic properties that would enable an aircraft to be capable of becoming supersonic would likely to be present amongst such shapes. In particular, as a result of studying this design data, the emerging aircraft would feature both a conical nose and very thin elliptical wings complete with sharp leading edges. This contrasted against many early jet aircraft, which were furnished with round noses, thick wings and hinged elevators, resulting in these aircraft possessing critical Mach numbers that were below the speed of sound and thus were less suitable for research into high subsonic speeds (in dives) than the earlier Supermarine Spitfire with its thinner wings. In 1943, RAE tests conducted using Spitfires had proved that drag was the main factor that would need to be addressed by high-speed aircraft.
Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilot's control column. Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive. A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents. An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely without a loss of pilot control. The M.52 was the first instance of this solution, which has since gone on to be universally applied upon high-speed aircraft.
An initial version of the aircraft was to be test-flown using Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W.2/700. This engine, which was envisaged to be capable of providing 2,000 lb of thrust, calculated to be capable of providing subsonic performance; when flown in a shallow dive, it would also be capable of transonic flight. Wood described the engine as being "remarkable as it incorporated ideas far ahead of its time". In order to get the M.52 to achieve supersonic speeds, the installation of projected further development of the W.2/700 engine would be necessary.
This further advanced model of the engine, intended to be a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, was partially achieved by the incorporation of a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner. Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen present in the exhaust. To supply more air to the afterburner than could move through the fairly small engine, an augmentor fan powered by the engine was to be fitted behind the engine to draw air around the engine via ducts. These changes were estimated to provide an additional 1,620 lb of thrust at 36,000 ft and 500 mph. Much greater thrust gains were believed to be available at speeds in excess of 500 mph.
The M.52's design underwent many changes during development due to the uncertain nature of the task. The overseeing committee was concerned that the biconvex wing would not give sufficient altitude for testing the aircraft in a dive. The thin wing could have been made thicker if required, or a section added to increase the wing span. As the project progressed, an increase in total weight led to concerns that power would be insufficient; thus, the adoption of rocket assistance or extra fuel tanks were considered. Another proposed measure was that the M.52 be adapted to become a parasite aircraft, launching at high altitude from beneath a large bomber serving as a mother ship. The calculated landing speed of (comparable with modern fighters but high for that time) combined with its relatively small undercarriage track was another concern; however, this arrangement was accepted.
Testing
During 1943, a single Miles M.3B Falcon Six light aircraft, which had been previously used for wing tests by the RAE, was provided to Miles for purpose of performing low-speed flight testing work on the project. A full size wooden model of the M.52 wing, test instrumentation, and a different undercarriage were fitted to this aircraft. Owing to the wing's thinness and sharp leading and trailing edges somewhat resembling a razor blade, the aircraft was nicknamed the "Gillette Falcon". On 11 August 1944, this low-speed demonstrator performed its maiden flight. These tests found the wing to present favourable aileron function, but also indicated that landing without flaps to be more difficult than its contemporaries. Compared with a standard Falcon Six, wing area was reduced by about 12 per cent; it had the effect of increasing the landing speed by over 50 per cent from , higher than any prior aircraft.
For high-speed testing, the flying tail of the M.52 was fitted to the fastest aircraft then available, a Supermarine Spitfire. RAE test pilot Eric Brown stated that he tested this aircraft successfully during October and November 1944; on one such flight, he managed to attain a recorded speed of Mach 0.86 during a dive from high altitude. The flying tail was also fitted to the "Gillette Falcon", which proceeded to conduct a series of low speed flight tests at the RAE in April 1945.
Due to the limited capability of existing wind tunnel facilities in Britain, Miles elected to manufacture their own wind tunnel, which was used to conduct the first M.52 aerodynamic tests. This undertaking necessitated Miles to construct their own on-site small-scale foundry, both due to secrecy requirements and to produce components of sufficient tolerance. By August 1945, the design of the M.52 had been firmly established and development had proceeded to an advanced stage. By early 1946, 90 per cent of the detailed design work had been finished, the component assembly programme was well underway, while the jigs and innovative augmentor fan had been manufactured; a maiden flight of the first M-52 prototype had been anticipated to occur that summer.
Design
The Miles M.52 was envisioned to be a supersonic research aircraft capable of achieving in level flight. In order to achieve what was at the time previously unachievable speeds, a very high number of advanced features were incorporated into the design of the M.52; many of which had been the product of detailed study and acquired knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics. Wood summarises the qualities of the M.52's design as possessing "all the ingredients of a high-performance aircraft of the late fifties and even some of the early sixties".
The fuselage of the M.52 was cylindrical and, like the rest of the aircraft, was constructed of high tensile steel with light-alloy covering. The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle-like arrangement placed over the upper area around it. The engine was positioned with its center of gravity coincident with that of the aircraft and the wings were attached to the main structure just aft of the engine. The use of a shock cone in the nose was another key design choice; the inlet cone slowed incoming air to the subsonic speeds determined by the engine, but with lower losses than a subsonic aircraft pitot intake. A retractable tricycle undercarriage was used. The nose wheel was positioned close to the pilot's feet and the main wheels were fitted onto the main fuselage, folding out under the wings when deployed.
The M.52 had very thin wings of biconvex section, which had been first proposed by Jakob Ackeret, as they gave a low level of drag. These wings were so thin that they were known to test pilots as 'Gillette' wings, named after the brand of razor. The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave that was generated by the nose of the aircraft. Both wide-chord ailerons and split-flaps were fitted to the wings. As a high-speed wing of this shape and size had not been tested before, Miles produced a full-scale wooden model of the wing for aerodynamic testing purposes; other representative portions of the aircraft, such as the tailplane, would be similarly produced and underwent low-speed flight testing.
The Power Jets W.2/700 turbojet engine was intended to be the first powerplant for the M.52. Initial aircraft would have been powered by a less-capable 'interim' model of the W.2/700 and thus be limited to subsonic speeds only; it did not feature either the afterburner or the additional aft fan that were to be present on the projected more advanced version with which later-built M.52s would have been equipped. In addition to the W.2/700 engine, a centrifugal-flow jet engine, designs were prepared for the M.52 to be fitted with a variety of different engines and types of propulsion, including what would become the newer Rolls-Royce Avon axial-flow jet engine, and a liquid-fuel rocket motors.
The M.52's single pilot, who, for the intended first flight, would have been test pilot Eric Brown, would have flown the aircraft from a small cockpit which was set inside the shock cone at the nose of the aircraft. The pressurised cockpit, in which the pilot would have had to fly the aircraft in a semi-prone position, was complete with a curved windscreen that was aligned with the contours of the bullet-shaped nose. In the event of an emergency, the entire section could be jettisoned, the separation from the rest of aircraft being initiated via multiple cordite-based explosive bolts. Air pressure would force the detached capsule off the fuselage while a parachute would slow its descent; during the capsule's descent, the pilot would bail out at a lower altitude and then parachute to safety. In order to serve its role as a research aircraft, the M.52 was to be equipped with comprehensive flight instrumentation, including automated instrument recorders and strain gauging throughout the structure connected to an oscilloscope.
Operational history
Prototypes
In 1944, design work was considered 90 per cent complete and Miles was told to proceed with the construction of a total of three prototype M.52s. Later that year, the Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange high-speed research and data. Miles Chief Aerodynamicist Dennis Bancroft stated that the Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M.52; however, the U.S. reneged on the agreement and no data was forthcoming in return. Unknown to Miles, Bell had already started construction of a rocket-powered supersonic design of their own but, having adopted a conventional tail for their aircraft, were battling the problem of control. A variable-incidence tail appeared to be the most promising solution; the Miles and RAE tests supported this conclusion. Later, following the conversion of the aircraft's tail, pilot Chuck Yeager practically verified these results during his test flights, and all subsequent supersonic aircraft would either have an all-moving tailplane or a delta wing.
Cancellation
In February 1946, Miles was informed by Lockspeiser of the immediate discontinuation of the project and to cease work on the M.52. Frank Miles later stated of this decision: "I did not know what to say or think when this extraordinary decision was sprung upon me, without warning of any kind. At our last official design meeting all members, including the Ministry and Power Jets' representatives, had been cheerful and optimistic". According to Frank Miles, when he approached Lockspeiser for reasons behind the cancellation, he was informed that it was due to economic reasons; Lockspeiser also stated his belief that aeroplanes would not fly supersonically for many years and may not ever do so. By this point, the postwar Labour government, headed by Clement Attlee, had implemented dramatic budget cuts in various areas, which may have provided an inducement for the cancellation of the M.52, which was projected to involve considerable cost. According to Wood, "the decision not to go ahead was purely a political one made by the Attlee Government".
In February 1946, around the same time as the termination of the M.52's development, Frank Whittle resigned from Power Jets, stating that this was due to his disagreement with official policy. At the point of cancellation, the first of the three M.52s had been 82 per cent completed and it had been scheduled to commence the first test flights within only a few months. The test programme would have involved the progressive testing and development of the M.52 by the RAE, initially without reheat installed. The ultimate aim of the tests would have been to have achieved Mach 1.07 by the end of 1946.
Miles made a last ditch attempt to revive the project, submitting a proposal for a single near-complete M.52 prototype to be outfitted with a captured German rocket engine and automated controls, eliminating the requirement for a pilot to be on board. However, this proposal was rejected. Due to the project falling under the Official Secrets Act, the existence of the M.52 was unknown to the wider British public; thus, neither the nation nor the world knew that a supersonic aircraft had nearly been built, nor of its unceremonious termination. The Ministry repeatedly refused to allow Miles to hold press conferences on the M.52 and, while conducting its own press conference on the topic of high-speed flight on 18 July 1946, the Ministry made no mention of the project at all. It wasn't until September 1946 that the Ministry allowed Miles to announce the existence of the M.52 and its cancellation.
Upon the announcement of the M.52's existence, there was a huge amount of press interest in the story, who pressured the government to provide more detail on the cancellation. A spokesman for the Ministry of Supply eventually commented on the topic, suggesting that other approaches had been suggested by later research that were being pursued in place of the M.52. According to Wood, the response from the Ministry was "a complete smokescreen...it was unthinkable to admit that supersonic expertise was non-existent." Lockspeiser's role in cancelling the M.52 became public knowledge, leading to his decision being derided in the press as "Ben's blunder".
It was not until February 1955 that another official reason for the M.52's cancellation emerged; a white paper issued that month stated that "the decision was also taken in 1946 that, in light of the limited knowledge then available, the risk of attempting supersonic flight in manned aircraft was unacceptably high and that our research into the problems involved should be conducted in the first place by means of air launched models." This same paper acknowledged that the termination decision had seriously delayed the advancement of aeronautical progress by Britain. It has since been widely recognised that the cancellation of the M.52 was a major setback in British progress in the field of supersonic design.
In 1947, Miles Aircraft Ltd entered receivership and the company was subsequently re-structured; its aircraft assets including the design data for the M.52 were acquired by Handley Page.
Subsequent work
Instead of a revival of the full-scale M.52, the government decided to institute a new programme involving expendable, pilotless, rocket-propelled missiles; it was envisioned that a total of 24 flights would be performed by these models, which would explore six different wing and control surface configurations, including alternative straight wing and swept wing arrangements. Wood referred to the failure to revive the full-scale aircraft as "at one stroke Britain had opted out of the supersonic manned aircraft race". The contract for the expendable missiles was not issued to Miles but to Vickers-Armstrongs, whose design team was led by noted British engineer and inventor Barnes Wallis. While the base design work was conducted by Wallis' team, engine development was performed by the RAE itself. The product of these efforts was a 30 per cent scale radio-controlled model of the original M.52 design, powered by a single Armstrong Siddeley Beta rocket engine, fuelled by a mix of high-test peroxide.
In total, there had been an overall interval of 15 months between the termination of the manned M.52 and the emergence of the first flight-ready rocket-powered test model. As envisioned, the test model would be launched from altitude via a flying mother ship in the form of a modified de Havilland Mosquito; it was installed upon a purpose-built rack installed in between the aircraft's bomb bay doors. Shortly after launch, its onboard autopilot was to level the model out prior to the rocket motor being started. Within 70 seconds of being released, the model was envisioned to be capable of achieving a speed of Mach 1.3 (880 mph); it was then to descend into the ocean below without any chance of recovery. The acquired data on each flight was to be provided via transmitted radio telemetry, which was received by a ground station based on the Scilly Isles.
On 8 October 1947, the first launch of a test model occurred from high altitude; however, the rocket unintentionally exploded shortly following its release. Only days later, on 14 October, the Bell X-1 broke the sound barrier. There was a flurry of denunciation of the government's decision to cancel the project, with the Daily Express taking up the cause for the restoration of the M.52 programme, to no effect. On 10 October 1948, a second rocket was launched, and the speed of Mach 1.38 was obtained in stable level flight, a unique achievement at that time. By this point, the X-1 and Yeager had already reached M1.45 on 25 March of that year. Instead of diving into the sea as planned, the model failed to respond to radio commands and was last observed (on radar) heading out into the Atlantic. Following that successful supersonic test flight, further work on this project was cancelled, being followed up immediately by the issue of Ministry of Supply Experimental Requirement ER.103.
One of the official reasons given for the cancellation was "the high cost for little return". Wood commented of the model programme: "with the money thus wasted the piloted M.52 could have been completed and flown and a great store of invaluable information obtained...the pilot was shown to be essential for any worthwhile development process and a well designed test-bed aircraft to be a sine qua non for full-scale knowledge".
Many important design principles that were incorporated in the M.52 did not reappear until the mid- to late 1950s, with the development of truly supersonic aircraft such as the Fairey Delta 2, and the English Electric P.1 which became the highly regarded English Electric Lightning. And the X-1, D-558-2, F-100, F-101, F-102, F-104, Mig-19 etc. in the 40s and early 50s. The wing design of the M.52 was similar to the supersonic Wasserfall German rocket. Both of those aircraft were developed in response (initially) to requirement ER.103 of 1947, informed by the knowledge gained from the M.52 aircraft and missile research projects together with German experimental data.
Specifications (M.52)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Amos, Peter. Miles Aircraft – The Early Years: The Story of F G Miles and his Aeroplanes, 1925–1939. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd, 2009. .
Brown, Don Lambert. Miles Aircraft Since 1925. London: Putnam & Company, 1970. .
Brown, Eric. "Miles M.52: The Supersonic Dream." Air Enthusiast Thirteen, August–November 1980. pp. 35–42 .
Brown, Eric. The Miles M.52: Gateway to Supersonic Flight. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: The History Press, 2012. .
Brown, Eric. Wings on my Sleeve. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006. .
Breaking Sound Barrier. Secret History (Channel 4) documentary, first broadcast 7 July 1997. Heavily re-edited as Faster than Sound. NOVA (PBS) documentary, first broadcast 14 October 1997.
McDonnell, Patrick. "Beaten to the Barrier." Aeroplane Monthly Volume 26, No. 1, Issue 297, January 1998.
Miller, Jay. The X-planes: X-1 to X-45. Midland Publishing, 2001. .
Pisano, Dominick A., R. Robert van der Linden and Frank H. Winter. Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1: Breaking the Sound Barrier. Washington, DC: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (in association with Abrams, New York), 2006. .
Temple, Julian C. Wings Over Woodley – The Story of Miles Aircraft and the Adwest Group. Bourne End, Bucks, UK: Aston Publications, 1987. .
Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company Inc., 1975. .
Yeager, Chuck et al. The Quest for Mach One: A First-Person Account of Breaking the Sound Barrier. New York: Penguin Studio, 1997. .
External links
Faster than Sound – Nova documentary
transcript of the Nova programme
Jets45 Histories
A video of a modern radio controlled model replica of the M.52 flying
Eric "Winkle" Brown talks about the M.52 in 2008
Museum of Berkshire Aviation: "The M.52 Story"
"High Speed Research" (pdf download). The Aeroplane Spotter, 19 October 1946.
"Miles on supersonic flight." Flight, October 1946, p. 355.
Supersonic Approach by H. F. King, M.B.E.Flight 3 April 1947
Ministry of Supply report "Flight Trials of a Rocket-propelled Transonic Research Model : The R.A.E.-Vickers Rocket Model"
"Transonic Research" a 1946 Flight article on the M.52-based Vickers test rocket.
1940s British experimental aircraft
Cancelled aircraft projects
M.52
Rocket-powered aircraft
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
History of science and technology in the United Kingdom | [
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|
225745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1769%20in%20literature | 1769 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1769.
Events
January 21 – The first of the Letters of Junius criticising the government appears in the Public Advertiser (London). The identity of Junius remains a mystery, but modern-day scholarly consensus favours Philip Francis.
February–April – John Wilkes is expelled from the Parliament of Great Britain three times.
May – One of 16-year-old Thomas Chatterton's poems attributed to the imaginary medieval monk "Thomas Rowley" – Elinoure and Juga – first appears in Alexander Hamilton's Town and Country Magazine. This year also Chatterton sends specimens of "Rowley"'s poetry and history The Ryse of Peyncteynge yn Englade to Horace Walpole, who at first offers to print them, but discovering Chatterton's age, rightly considers they may be forgeries and scornfully dismisses him.
September 5–7 – English actor-manager David Garrick stages a Shakespeare Jubilee festival in Stratford-upon-Avon (with no performances of Shakespeare's works). On October 14 a version opens at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London as The Jubilee.
unknown date – Jean-François Ducis stages his version of Shakespeare's Hamlet in Paris.
New books
Fiction
Elizabeth Bonhôte – Hortensia, or, The Distressed Wife
Frances Brooke – The History of Emily Montague (the first novel written in Canada)
Elizabeth Griffith – The Delicate Distress (published together with Richard Griffith – The Gordian Knot)
Charles Jenner – The Placid Man
Susannah Minifie – The Cottage
Nicolas-Edme Rétif – Le Pied de Fanchette
Tobias Smollett – The History and Adventures of an Atom
William Tooke – The Loves of Othniel and Achsah
Poetry
Basílio da Gama – O Uraguai
Thomas Gray – Ode Performed in the Senate-House at Cambridge
Clara Reeve – Poems
Drama
Mary Bowes, Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne – The Siege of Jerusalem (published)
Richard Cumberland – The Brothers
Ramón de la Cruz – El Manolo
Alexander Dow – Zingis
Jean-François Ducis – Hamlet (an adaptation of Shakespeare)
David Garrick – The Jubilee
Elizabeth Griffith – The School for Rakes (an adaptation of Beaumarchais' Eugenie)
John Home – The Fatal Discovery
Charlotte Lennox – The Sister
Non-fiction
William Blackstone – A Reply to Dr. Priestley
Charles Bonnet – Palingénésie philosophique
William Buchan – Domestic Medicine
Edmund Burke – Observations on a Late State of the Nation
Charles Burney – An Essay Towards a History of the Principal Comets that have Appeared Since 1742
William Falconer – An Universal Dictionary of the Marine
Adam Ferguson – Institutes of Moral Philosophy
Junius
The Political Contest i–ii
The Letters from Junius to the D***of G***** (Duke of Grafton)
Oliver Goldsmith – The Roman History (textbook)
James Granger – Biographical History of England from Egbert the Great to the Revolution
Johann Gottfried Herder – Kritische Wälder
Elizabeth Montagu – An Essay on the Writings and Genius of Shakespear
Joshua Reynolds – A Discourse
William Robertson – The History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V
Laurence Sterne
A Political Romance
Sermons by the Late Rev. Mr. Sterne
Births
January 1 – Jane Marcet, née Haldimand, English science writer (died 1858)
February 9 – Susette Borkenstein Gontard, German lover of poet Friedrich Hölderlin (died 1802)
March 7 – Richmal Mangnall, English schoolbook writer (died 1820)
May 21 – John Hookham Frere, English diplomat and author (died 1846)
September 9 (August 29 O.S.) – Ivan Kotliarevsky, Ukrainian writer (died 1838)
September 14 – Alexander von Humboldt, German explorer, natural philosopher and educator (died 1859)
November 12 – Amelia Opie, English novelist (died 1853)
December 7 (baptised) – Ann Batten Cristall, English poet (died 1848)
December 26 – Ernst Moritz Arndt, German patriotic author and poet (died 1860)
Deaths
January 5 – James Merrick, English poet and scholar (born 1720)
February 26 – William Duncombe, English dramatist and author (born 1690)
March 28 – Samuel Derrick, British hack writer (born 1724)
July – Goronwy Owen, Welsh-language poet (born 1723)
October 25 – Owen Ruffhead, English miscellanist and editor (born 1723)
December 13 – Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, German poet (born 1715)
December 16 – Lady Elizabeth Germain, English philanthropist, correspondent of Jonathan Swift (born 1680)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issaries | Issaries | Issaries can refer to:
Issaries, Inc., a role-playing game publishing house
Issaries, the fictional Lightbringer god of trade in the Glorantha setting of the role-playing game RuneQuest | [
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|
225747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1771%20in%20literature | 1771 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1771.
Events
April 9 – Pedro Correia Garção is arrested and committed to prison by Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal.
unknown dates
Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling inaugurates the fashion for sentimentalism in novels.
Sophie von La Roche's Geschichte des Fräuleins von Sternheim: Von einer Freundin derselben aus Original-Papieren und andern zuverläßigen Quellen gezogen ("History of Lady von Sternheim"), completed at Bönnigheim and published this year in Leipzig edited by the author's cousin Christoph Wieland in 2 volumes, is, within the tradition of German literature, the first significant novel by a woman, the first epistolary novel and the first "sentimental" novel.
Matthias Claudius begins editing and publishing the newspaper Der Wandsbecker Bothe.
Slovene literature: The Nouvi Zákon, a translation of the New Testament into the Prekmurje Slovene language by István Küzmics, the Hungarian Slovene writer and evangelical pastor, is published (in Halle).
Archbishop Richard Robinson founds the Armagh Public Library in the north of Ireland.
New books
Fiction
Sophia Briscoe – Miss Melmoth; or the New Clarissa
Claude Joseph Dorat – Les Sacrifices de l'amour
Elizabeth Griffith – The History of Lady Barton
John Langhorne – Letters to Eleonara
Henry Mackenzie – The Man of Feeling
Louis-Sébastien Mercier – L'An 2440, rêve s'il en fut jamais
Tobias Smollett – The Expedition of Humphry Clinker
Sophie von La Roche – Geschichte des Fräuleins von Sternheim
Children
Christopher Smart – Hymns for the Amusement of Children
Drama
Isaac Bickerstaffe – He Wou'd If He Cou'd
José Cadalso – Sancho García
Richard Cumberland – The West Indian
Denis Diderot – Le Fils Naturel
Carlo Goldoni – Le Bourru Bienfaisant
Hugh Kelly – Clementina
George Alexander Stevens – The Fair Orphan
Alexander Sumarokov – Dmitri the Usurper
Poetry
James Beattie – The Minstrel
James Cawthorn – Poems
John Langhorne – The Fables of Flora
Thomas Percy – The Hermit of Warkworth
Henry James Pye – The Triumph of Fashion
Christoph Martin Wieland – Der neue Amadis
Non-fiction
John Brown – Description of the Lake of Keswick
Charles Burney – The Present State of Music in France and Italy
John Dalrymple – Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland
John William Fletcher – Five Checks to Antinomianism
Oliver Goldsmith – The History of England
Samuel Johnson – Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands
Martinez de Pasqually – Traité sur la réintégration des êtres dans leur première propriété, vertu et puissance spirituelle divine (approximate year)
Thomas Pennant – A Tour in Scotland
Richard Price – Observations on Reversionary Payments
William Smellie – Encyclopædia Britannica (in 100 volumes)
Emanuel Swedenborg – True Christian Religion
John Wesley – Works
Arthur Young – The Farmer's Tour Through the East of England
Real Academia Española – Gramática
Births
January 17 – Charles Brockden Brown, American novelist (died 1810)
February 5 – John Lingard, English historian and Catholic priest (died 1851)
March 23 – Lumley Skeffington, English playwright and fop (died 1850)
June 13 – Sydney Smith, English wit and cleric (died 1845)
August 15 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish novelist and poet (died 1832)
November 4 – James Montgomery, Scottish-born poet and hymnist (died 1854)
December 25 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and poet (died 1855)
December 26 – Heinrich Joseph von Collin, Austrian dramatist (died 1811)
Deaths
January 11 – Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens, French philosopher (born 1704)
February 2 – John Lockman, English historian, poet and translator (born 1698)
March 9 – Henry Pemberton, English man of letters and physician (born 1694)
May 21 – Christopher Smart, English poet (born 1722)
July 30 – Thomas Gray, English poet (born 1716)
September 17 – Tobias Smollett, Scottish novelist, journalist and translator (born 1721)
October 14 – John Gill, English theologian (born 1697)
December 26 – Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosopher (born 1715)
probable – Luis Galiana y Cervera, Spanish theologian, philologist and writer (born 1740)
References
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|
225748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1773%20in%20literature | 1773 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1773.
Events
January – Christoph Martin Wieland begins publishing the influential literary monthly Der Teutsche Merkur in Weimar.
March 15 – Oliver Goldsmith's comedy She Stoops to Conquer is performed for the first time, at the Covent Garden Theatre in London.
April 13 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan marries singer and actress Elizabeth Ann Linley.
May 1 – Richard Wroughton takes the role of Prince Henry in Henry II, King of England by John Bancroft at Covent Garden.
May 4 – Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill composes the keen Caoineadh Airt Uí Laoghaire over the body of her husband Art Ó Laoghaire.
August 6 – Samuel Johnson sets out for Scotland, where on August 14 he meets James Boswell in Edinburgh for their tour to the Hebrides.
unknown dates
Cláudio Manuel da Costa writes his epic poem Vila Rica, relating the history of the homonymous Brazilian city, modern-day Ouro Preto; it is not published until 1839.
The last five cantos of Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock's epic poem Der Messias are published in Hamburg.
Compilation of the Siku Quanshu ("Complete Library of the Four Treasuries") begins in Qing Dynasty China. The Wenjin Chamber is built at the Chengde Mountain Resort to accommodate a copy.
New books
Fiction
Elizabeth Bonhote – The Fashionable Friend
Calixto Bustamante Carlos (Concolorcorvo) – Lazarillo de ciegos caminantes
José Cadalso – Cartas marruecas (Moroccan letters)
Mrs Fogerty – The Fatal Connexion
Richard Graves – The Spiritual Quixote
Henry Mackenzie – The Man of the World
Johann Karl Wezel – Lebensgeschichte Tobias Knauts, des Weisen, sonst der Stammler genannt: aus Familiennachrichten gesammelt (Life story of Tobias Knaut the Wise, Otherwise Called the Stammerer; publication begins)
Drama
Charles Dibdin – The Deserter
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Götz von Berlichingen
Oliver Goldsmith – She Stoops to Conquer
Thomas Hawkins – The Origin of the English Drama
John Home – Alonzo
William Kenrick – The Duellist
Henry Mackenzie – The Prince of Tunis
Arthur Murphy – Alzuma
Mercy Otis Warren – The Adulateur
George Stevens (editor) – The Plays of William Shakespeare
Poetry
Anna Laetitia Barbauld – Poems
John Bicknell and Thomas Day – The Dying Negro
José Cadalso – Ocios de mi juventud
Robert Fergusson
Poems
Auld Reikie
Richard Graves – The Love of Order
Edward Jerningham – Faldoni and Teresa
George Keate – The Monument in Arcadia
James Macpherson – The Iliad
Hannah More – A Search After Happiness
Thomas Scott – Lyric Poems
Phillis Wheatley (described as "Negro Servant to Mr. John Wheatley, of Boston, in New England") – Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral
John Wolcot – Persian Love Elegies
Non-fiction
Anna Laetitia Barbauld and John Aikin – Miscellaneous Pieces
Patrick Brydone – A Tour Through Sicily and Malta
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo – Of the Origin and Progress of Language
Charles Burney – The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, and United Provinces
José Cadalso – Apuntaciones autobiográficas
Hester Chapone – Letters on the Improvement of the Mind
David Dalrymple, Lord Hailes – Remarks on the History of Scotland
Antoine Court de Gébelin – Le Monde primitif (publication begins)
John Hawkesworth – An Account of the Voyages for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere
Thomas Hawkins – The Origin of the English Drama
Tomás de Iriarte – Los literatos en Cuaresm`
Thomas Leland – The History of Ireland, from the invasion of Henry II
William Melmoth – Cato
Louis-Sébastien Mercier – L'Essai sur l'art dramatique
John Scott – Observations on the Present State of the Parochial and Vagrant Poor
Births
April 9 – Étienne Aignan, French translator, librettist and dramatist (died 1824 in literature)
May 19 – Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi, Swiss scholar of literature, history and economics (died 1842)
August 21 – Jens Christian Djurhuus, Faroese poet (died 1853)
October 1 – Peter Kaiser, Liechtenstein statesman and historian (died 1864)
October 23 – Francis Jeffrey, Scottish jurist and critic (died 1850)
December 9 – Marianne Ehrenström, Swedish musician and writer (died 1867)
Deaths
January 21 – Alexis Piron, French dramatist and epigrammatist (born 1689)
April 20 – Hubert-François Gravelot, French book illustrator (born 1699)
April 25 – Daniele Farlati, ecclesiastical historian (born 1690)
May 15 – Alban Butler, hagiographer (born 1710)
July 5 – Francisco José Freire, Portuguese historian and philologist (born 1719)
August 3 – Stanisław Konarski, Polish political writer, poet and dramatist (born 1700)
August 20 – Enrique Florez, Spanish historian (born 1729)
August 28 – John Ranby, English surgeon and writer on surgery (born 1703)
September 18 – John Cunningham, Irish poet, dramatist and actor (born 1729)
November 16 – John Hawkesworth, English poet and editor (born c. 1715)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1777%20in%20literature | 1777 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1777.
Events
February 8 – Thomas Chatterton's volume Poems, Supposed to Have Been Written at Bristol, by Thomas Rowley, and Others, in the Fifteenth Century is published anonymously and posthumously in London, edited by Thomas Tyrwhitt, who still believes them to be genuine work by a medieval monk transcribed by Chatterton.
March – Fanny Burney is introduced to Samuel Johnson by her father, Charles Burney.
April 1 – Friedrich Maximilian Klinger's play Sturm und Drang is premièred by the Seyler theatrical company in Leipzig. It gives its name to the Sturm und Drang movement in German literature.
April 12 – The poet and grammarian Robert Lowth is appointed Bishop of London.
May 8 – The first performance of Richard Brinsley Sheridan's comedy of manners The School for Scandal takes place at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.
October – James Boswell's essays first appear as a column called The Hypochondriak in The London Magazine.
unknown date – Det Dramatiske Selskab is founded in Copenhagen (Denmark) as an acting academy.
New books
Fiction
Frances Brooke – The Excursion
Henry Mackenzie – Julia de Roubigne
Samuel Jackson Pratt
Charles and Charlotte
(as Courtney Melmoth) Travels for the Heart
Clara Reeve (anonymously) – The Champion of Virtue
Lady Mary Walker
Letters from the Duchesse de Crui
Memoirs of the Marchioness de Louvoi
Drama
Charles Dibdin – The Quaker
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Iphigenie auf Tauris
John O'Keeffe – The Shamrock
Richard Brinsley Sheridan – The School for Scandal
Nicolás Fernández de Moratín – Guzman el Bueno
Hannah More – Percy (prologue and epilogue by David Garrick)
Friedrich Maximilian Klinger – Sturm und Drang
Poetry
Thomas Chatterton – Poems
William Combe
The Diaboliad
The First of April
Thomas Day – The Desolation of America
William Dodd – Thoughts in Prison
William Roscoe – Mount Pleasant
Thomas Warton – Poems
Paul Whitehead – Poems
Nicolás Fernández de Moratín – Las naves de Cortés destruidas
Non-fiction
Hugh Blair – Sermons
Jacques-François Blondel – Cours d'architecture ou traité de la décoration, distribution et constructions des bâtiments contenant les leçons données en 1750, et les années suivantes, vol. 9
Edmund Burke – Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol
James Cook – A Voyage Toward the South Pole
Georg Forster – A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5
Nicolás Fernández de Moratín – Carta histórica sobre el origen y progresos de las fiestas de toros en España
John Howard – The State of the Prisons in England and Wales
David Hume – The Life of David Hume
Hannah More – Essays
Maurice Morgann – An Essay on the Dramatic Character of Sir John Falstaff
Joseph Priestley
Disquisitions Relating to Matter and Spirit
The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated
Isaac Reed – The Repository
William Robertson – The History of America
Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield – Characters
Johannes Nikolaus Tetens – Philosophische Versuche über die menschliche Natur und ihre Entwicklung (Philosophical Essays on Human Nature and Its Development)
Births
February – James Johnson, Irish surgeon and medical writer (died 1845)
February 12 – Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, German Romantic novelist (died 1843)
February 16 – Maria Hack, English children's writer (died 1844)
June 3 – Antonio Gasparinetti, Italian poet, playwright and military officer (died 1824)
July 27 – Thomas Campbell, Scottish poet (died 1844)
Deaths
February 3 – Hugh Kelly, Irish poet and dramatist (born 1739)
September 24 (bur.) – James Fortescue, English poet (born 1716)
October 12 (October 1 O.S.) – Alexander Sumarokov, Russian poet and dramatist (born 1717)
October 21 – Samuel Foote, English dramatist (born 1720)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1779%20in%20literature | 1779 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1779.
Events
April 6 – The premiėre of Iphigenie auf Tauris by Johann Wolfgang Goethe is held at the private Ducal Palace in Weimar.
October 8 – William Blake enrols as a student with the Royal Academy of Arts at Somerset House in London.
New books
Fiction
Richard Graves – Columella
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi – Woldemar
Ignacy Krasicki – Fables and Parables (Bajki i przypowieści)
Nocturnal Revels
Samuel Jackson Pratt as "Courtney Melmoth"
Shenstone-Green
The Tutor of Truth
The Sorrows of Werther (anonymous translation of a Johann Wolfgang von Goethe work)
Children
Joachim Heinrich Campe – Robinson der Jüngere (based on Defoe)
Drama
Fanny Burney – The Witlings (unpublished)
Hannah Cowley
Albina, Countess Raimond
Who's the Dupe
Richard Cumberland – Calypso
Hugh Downman – Lucius Junius Brutus
Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian – Les Deux Billets
William Hodson – Zoraida
Robert Jephson – The Law of Lombardy
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing – Nathan der Weise (published)
Richard Brinsley Sheridan – The Critic
Poetry
William Cowper and John Newton – Olney Hymns
Robert Fergusson – Poems
William Hayley – Epistle to Admiral Keppel
Ann Murry – Poems
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos – Epístola de Jovino a Anfriso, escrita desde el Paular
Leandro Fernandez de Moratín – La toma de Granada por los Reyes Católicos don Fernando y doña Isabel
Tomás de Iriarte – La música
Non-fiction
John Abercrombie – The British Fruit Gardener and Art of Pruning
Anna Barbauld – Lessons for Children
James Burnett – Antient Metaphysics
Edward Capell – Notes and Various Readings to Shakespeare
George Chalmers – Political Annals of the Present United Colonies
Edward Gibbon – A Vindication of Some Passages in the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
David Hume (died 1776; anonymously) – Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
Samuel Johnson – Prefaces, Biographical and Critical, to the Works of the English Poets
Vicessimus Knox – Essays
Franz Mesmer – Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal
John Moore – A View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland, and Germany
Thomas Scott – The Force of Truth
Horace Walpole – A Letter to the Editor of the Miscellanies of Thomas Chatterton
Births
January 18 – Peter Mark Roget, English lexicographer (died 1869)
March 1 – Gottfried Weber, German writer on music (died 1839)
March 3 – Matthäus Casimir von Collin, Austrian poet and dramatist (died 1824)
March 10 – Frances Trollope (born Frances Milton), English novelist and writer (died 1863)
March 30 – Antoine Ó Raifteiri, Irish Gaelic poet (died 1835)
May 2 – John Galt, Scottish novelist and entrepreneur (died 1839)
May 28 – Thomas Moore, Irish poet and songwriter (died 1852)
August 1 – Francis Scott Key, American poet (died 1843)
September 10 – Alexander Voeykov, Russian poet (died 1839)
November 14 – Adam Oehlenschläger, Danish Romantic poet and dramatist (died 1850)
December 22 – Thomas Gaisford, English classicist (died 1855)
December 31 – Horace (Horatio) Smith, English poet and novelist (died 1849)
Deaths
January 20 – David Garrick, English dramatist, actor and impresario (born 1717)
March 4 – Heinrich Leopold Wagner, German dramatist (born 1747)
June 7 – William Warburton, English writer, critic and cleric (born 1698)
June 10 – William Kenrick, English novelist, playwright and satirist (born c. 1725)
July 10 – Jane Gomeldon, English essayist and writer of maxims (born c. 1720)
July 21 – Caleb Fleming, English minister and pamphleteer (born 1698)
November 16 – Pehr Kalm, Swedish/Finnish botanist, naturalist and travel writer (born 1716)
December 22 – István Küzmics (Števan Küzmič), Hungarian writer in Prekmurje Slovene (Wendish) (born c. 1723)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1780%20in%20literature | 1780 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1780.
Events
September/October – Richard Brinsley Sheridan is elected to Parliament in the 1780 British general election.
December – Karl von Marinelli becomes head of the Schultz theatre company (Schultzsche Gesellschaft) of Baden.
unknown dates
Det Dramatiske Selskab in Christiania, an amateur acting troupe, is formed and gives the first regular stage performances in Norway.
A legal deposit law entitles the Załuski Library in Warsaw to a copy of every book published in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
New books
Fiction
Elizabeth Blower – The Parsonage House
Herbert Croft – Love and Madness
Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire – The Sylph
Thomas Holcroft – Alwyn
Samuel Jackson Pratt – Emma Corbett, or, The miseries of civil war
Children
Mrs. Trimmer – An Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature, and Reading the Holy Scriptures. Adapted to the Capacities of Children
Drama
Hannah Cowley – The Belle's Stratagem
Sophia Lee – The Chapter of Accidents
Isaac Reed – A Select Collection of Old Plays (from Robert Dodsley's press)
Poetry
Hannah Cowley – The Maid of Aragon
George Crabbe – The Candidate
Herbert Croft – The Abbey of Kilkhampton; or, Monumental Records for the Year 1980 (satire)
Susannah Harrison – Songs in the Night
William Hayley – An Essay on History
Anna Seward – Elegy on Captain Cook
Christoph Martin Wieland – Oberon
Non-fiction
William Beckford – Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters
Jacob Bryant – An Address to Dr. Priestley
Edmund Burke – Speech on Oeconomical Reformation
Giacomo Casanova – Opuscoli miscellanei (containing Il duello and Lettere della nobil donna Silvia Belegno alla nobil donzella Laura Gussoni)
William Combe – Letters of the Late Lord Lyttelton (forgeries)
Martin Madan – Thelyphthora (in favor of polygamy)
Johannes von Müller – Geschichten der Schweizer
John Nichols – A Select Collection of Poems
Richard Price – An Essay on the Population of England
Joseph Priestley – Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever
William Shakespeare – Supplement to the Edition of Shakespeare's Plays Published in 1778 by Samuel Johnson and George Steevens (by Edmond Malone)
Horace Walpole – On Modern Gardening
John Wesley – Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion
Arthur Young – A Tour in Ireland
Births
March 10 – Frances Trollope, English novelist (died 1863)
June 1 – Carl von Clausewitz, German soldier and military historian and theorist (died 1831)
June 3 – William Hone, English satirist (died 1842)
August 14 – George Croly, Irish poet, novelist and historian (died 1860)
November 27 – William Cardell, American grammarian and writer of boys' stories (died 1828)
December 20 – John Wilson Croker, Irish statesman and author (died 1857)
December 26 – Mary Somerville, Scottish science writer and polymath (died 1872)
probable
Maria Elizabeth Budden, English novelist and writer of didactic children's books (died 1832)
Anna Maria Porter, English poet and novelist (died 1832)
Deaths
January 31 – Jonathan Carver, American explorer and writer (born 1710)
February 14 – William Blackstone, English jurist and legal author (born 1723)
February 17 – Andreas Felix von Oefele, German historian and librarian (born 1706)
April 29 – Claude Joseph Dorat, "Le Chevalier Dorat", French poet and novelist (born 1734)
May 11 – Nicolas Fernández de Moratín, Spanish literary reformer (born 1737)
July 14 – Charles Batteux, French philosopher (born 1713)
September 4 – Sir John Fielding, English social reformer and half-brother of Henry Fielding (born 1721)
September 8 – Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont, French novelist (born 1711)
September 23 – Marie Anne de Vichy-Chamrond, marquise du Deffand, French salon hostess (born 1697)
December 22 – James Harris, English grammarian (born 1709)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1781%20in%20literature | 1781 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1781.
Events
March 27 – George Crabbe writes to Edmund Burke, enclosing examples of his work. The outcome is the publication of Crabbe's poem The Library.
August 5 – Antonín Strnad completes an inventory of the contents of the Clementinum in Prague, which becomes a national library.
Uncertain date
Rudolf Erich Raspe (anonymously) publishes "M-h-s-nsche Geschichten" ("M-h-s-n Stories") in the Berlin humor magazine Vade mecum für lustige Leute ("Handbook for Fun-loving People"), the first appearance of Baron Munchausen in fiction.
New books
Fiction
Robert Bage – Mount Henneth
Christoph Friedrich Bretzner – Belmont und Constanze
William Combe – Letters of an Italian Nun and an English Gentleman
Eugenio Espejo – La ciencia blancardina
Benjamin Franklin – A Letter To A Royal Academy
Charles Johnstone – The History of John Juniper
Henry Mackenzie – Julia de Roubignei
Glocester Ridley – Melanpus
Anna Seward – Monody on Major André
Children
Mrs. Barbauld – Hymns in Prose for Children
Joachim Heinrich Campe – Die Entdeckung von Amerika (Discovery of America)
Drama
Miles Peter Andrews – Dissipation
Frances Brooke – The Siege of Sinope
Hannah Cowley – The World as it Goes
Elizabeth Craven – The Miniature Picture
John Delap – The Royal Suppliants
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Iphigenia in Tauris (revised version)
Thomas Holcroft – Duplicity
Elizabeth Inchbald – Polygamy
Robert Jephson – The Count of Narbonne
John O'Keeffe – The Agreeable Surprise
Samuel Jackson Pratt – The Fair Circassian
Friedrich Schiller – The Robbers (Die Räuber, published)
Richard Brinsley Sheridan
The Critic (published)
A Trip to Scarborough
Poetry
William Cowper – Anti-Thelyphthora
George Crabbe – The Library
Maria De Fleury – Poems, Occasioned by the Confinement and Acquittal of the Right Honourable Lord George Gordon, President of the Protestant Association
Santa Rita Durão – Caramuru
Anne Francis – A Poetical Translation of the Song of Solomon
Philip Freneau – The British Prison-Ship
William Hayley – The Triumphs of Temper
George Keate – Works
Samuel Jackson Pratt – Sympathy
Non-fiction
Maria De Fleury – Unrighteous Abuse Detected and Chastised
Mary Deverell – Sermons on the Following Subjects...
Edward Gibbon – Volumes II and III of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Henry Home – Loose Hints Upon Education
Samuel Johnson
The Beauties of Johnson
Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets
Immanuel Kant – Critique of Pure Reason
John Moore – A View of Society and Manners in Italy
John Newton – Cardiphonia
John Nichols – Biographical Anecdotes of William Hogarth
Magister Pianco (Hans Heinrich von Ecker und Eckhoffen) – Der Rosenkreutzer in seiner Blösse
Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Essai sur l'origine des langues
Births
January 26 – Ludwig Achim von Arnim, German poet and novelist (died 1831)
January 30 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German poet and botanist (died 1838)
February 26 – Peter Andresen Oelrichs, Heligoland-born lexicographer (died 1869)
March 17 – Ebenezer Elliott, English poet (died 1849)
May 14 – Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer, German historian (died 1873)
June 12 (probable) – Christian Isobel Johnstone, Scottish journalist and novelist (died 1857)
November 6 – Lucy Aikin (Mary Godolphin), English historical writer (died 1864)
December 6 – Charlotte von Ahlefeld, German novelist (died 1849)
December 11 – David Brewster, Scottish scientist and writer (died 1868)
Deaths
February 15 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German philosopher and dramatist (born 1729)
February 22 – Anna Magdalena Godiche, Danish book printer and publisher (born 1721)
February 24 – Edward Capell, English Shakespeare scholar (born 1713)
March 1 – Jean-Baptiste de La Curne de Sainte-Palaye, French historian, classicist and lexicographer (born 1697)
March 17 – Johannes Ewald, Danish dramatist and poet (born 1743)
May 8 – Richard Jago, English poet and cleric (born 1715)
June 24 – Anna Miller, English poet and salon hostess (born 1741)
September 11 – Johann August Ernesti, German theologian and philologist (born 1707)
November 2 – José Francisco de Isla, Spanish satirist (born 1703)
November 4 – Johann Nikolaus Götz, German poet (born 1721)
December 7 – Judith Madan, English poet (born 1702)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1782%20in%20literature | 1782 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1782.
Events
January 13 – Friedrich Schiller's first play, the revolutionary melodrama The Robbers (Die Räuber), causes a sensation in Mannheim at its first performance. Schiller, a military doctor at the time, is arrested for attending the performance without having permission to leave his regiment.
August 18 – William Blake marries Catherine Boucher at St Mary's Church, Battersea. In the same year, he meets his future patron, John Flaxman.
October 10 – Sarah Siddons makes a triumphant return to the Drury Lane Theatre in London, in the title role of David Garrick's adaptation of Thomas Southerne's Isabella, or, The Fatal Marriage.
unknown dates
Charles Dibdin becomes joint manager of the Royal Circus, afterwards known as the Surrey Theatre, in London.
The Siku Quanshu is completed, the largest literary compilation in China's history. The books are bound in 36,381 volumes with more than 79,000 chapters, containing about 2.3 million pages and 800 million Chinese characters.
New books
Fiction
Elizabeth Blower – George Bateman
Fanny Burney (anonymously) – Cecilia
J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur – Letters from an American Farmer
Pierre Choderlos de Laclos – Les Liaisons dangereuses
Lady Mary Hamilton – The Life of Mrs. Justman
Johann Karl August Musäus – Volksmärchen der Deutschen (first volume)
Betje Wolff and Aagje Deken – Historie van mejuffrouw Sara Burgerhart
Drama
Vittorio Alfieri – Saul
Hannah Cowley – The Belle's Stratagem
Richard Cumberland – The Walloons
Charles Nicolas Favart – Le Diable boiteux
Denis Fonvizin – The Minor
Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian – Le Bon Ménage
Louis-Sébastien Mercier
Le Déserteur (first performed)
La Destruction de la ligue
John O'Keeffe
The Castle of Andalusia
Harlequin Teague
The Lord Mayor's Day
Poetry
William Cowper
The Diverting History of John Gilpin
Verses Supposed to be Written by Alexander Selkirk
Poems
John Freeth – Modern Songs
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – "Erlkönig"
William Hayley – An Essay on Epic Poetry in Five Epistles to Mason
William Mason
An Archaeological Epistle to Jeremiah Milles....
King Stephen's Watch
Hannah More – Sacred Dramas for Young Persons
Edward Rushton – The Dismember'd Empire (attributed)
John Scott – Poetical Works
Helen Maria Williams – Edwin and Eltruda
John Wolcot as "Peter Pindar" – Lyric Odes, to the Royal Academicians
Non-fiction
Thomas Day – Reflections upon the Present State of England, and the Independence of America
William Gilpin – Observations on the River Wye, and Several Parts of South Wales
Edmond Malone – Cursory Observations on the Poems Attributed to Thomas Rowley (debunking Chatterton's hoax)
John Nichols – Biographical and Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer
Thomas Pennant – The Journey from Chester to London
Isaac Reed – Biographia Dramatica
Joseph Ritson – Observations on the Three First Volumes of the History of English Poetry (on Thomas Warton)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Confessions
Reveries of a Solitary Walker
J. Hector St. John – Letters from an American Farmer
Louis Claude de Saint-Martin – Tableau naturel des rapports qui existent entre Dieu, l'homme, et l'univers
Ignatius Sancho – Letters of the Late Ignatius Sancho, an African
Thomas Spence – The History of Crusonia on Robinson Crusoe's Island
Emanuel Swedenborg – Heaven and Hell (translated by Antoine-Joseph Pernety from Latin into French)
Thomas Tyrwhitt – A Vindication of the Appendix to the Poems, called Rowley's
Joseph Warton – An Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope
Thomas Warton – An Enquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems Attributed to Thomas Rowley
Births
January 30 – Ann Taylor, English poet and critic (died 1866)
February – Georg Koës, Danish philologist (died 1811)
March 2 – Isaac Pocock, English dramatist and painter (died 1835)
April 16 – William Jerdan, Scottish journalist (died 1869)
June 9 – Peter Fisher, Canadian historian (died 1848)
September 7 – Susan Edmonstone Ferrier, Scottish novelist (died 1854)
September 19 – Richard Lower, English dialect poet (died 1865)
September 25 – Charles Maturin, Irish dramatist and novelist (died 1824
Uncertain dates
Alexander Jamieson, Scottish textbook writer, schoolmaster and rhetorician (died 1850)
Grace Kennedy, Scottish novelist (died 1825)
Benjamin Thorpe, English scholar of Anglo-Saxon (died 1870)
Deaths
January 1 – Juan Crespí, Majorcan explorer and diarist (born 1721)
January 21 – Giovanni Cristofano Amaduzzi, Italian philologist (born 1740)
January 29 – Johanna Charlotte Unzer, German writer (b. 1725)
February 10 – Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, German theosopher (born 1702)
February 14 – Thomas Newton, English Biblical commentator (born 1704)
April 12 – Metastasio, Italian poet (born 1698)
July 2 – Jean-Jacques Rousseau, French philosopher (born 1712)
December 27 – Henry Home, Lord Kames, Scottish philosopher (born 1696)
unknown date – Jean-Martin de Prades, French theologian (born c. 1720)
References
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|
225755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1783%20in%20literature | 1783 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1783.
Events
April 14 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's drama Nathan der Weise receives its first professional performance, in Berlin.
May 6 – William Cobbett arrives in London to work, and later in the year joins the 54th (West Norfolk) Regiment of Foot.
September – Friedrich Schiller, having left Stuttgart for Weimar to avoid persecution, becomes resident dramatist at Mannheim.
November 18 – August von Kotzebue leaves St Petersburg to take up a position with the high court of appeal in Reval, then subject to the Russian Empire.
New books
Fiction
Rhijnvis Feith – Julia
Thomas Holcroft – The Family Picture
Sophia Lee – The Recess
Johann Karl August Musäus – Volksmärchen der Deutschen (second volume)
Clara Reeve – The Two Mentors
Children
Thomas Day (anonymously) – The History of Sandford and Merton (first of three story books)
Ellenor Fenn (as Mrs. Teachwell) – Cobwebs to Catch FliesDorothy Kilner (as M. P.) – The Life and Perambulation of a MouseMary Ann KilnerA Course of Lectures for Sunday Evenings. Containing religious advice to young persons(as S. S.) The Adventures of a PincushionDrama
Vittorio Alfieri – AgamennoneFrances Brooke – RoxinaHannah Cowley – Which is the Man?Richard Cumberland – The Mysterious HusbandJohn O'Keeffe – The Poor Soldier William Jackson – The Metamorphosis Samuel Jackson Pratt – The School for VanityPoetry
Lady Anne Barnard – Auld Robin Gray (ballad) (published anonymously)
William Blake – Poetical SketchesJudith Cowper – The Progress of PoetryGeorge Crabbe – The VillageJoseph Ritson – A Select Collection of English SongsJohn Wolcot (as Peter Pindar) – More Lyric Odes, to the Royal AcademiciansSee also 1783 in poetryNon-fiction
James Beattie – Dissertations Moral and CriticalWilliam Beckford – Dreams, Waking Thoughts and IncidentsHugh Blair – Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles LettresEdmund Burke – Letter on the Penal Laws Against Irish CatholicsAdam Ferguson – History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman RepublicWilliam Godwin – Life of Lord ChathamImmanuel Kant – Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Present Itself as a ScienceVicesimus Knox – Elegant ExtractsMémoires secrets (anonymous)
Moses Mendelssohn – JerusalemEzra Stiles – The United States elevated to Glory and HonorHorace-Bénédict de Saussure – Essai sur l'hygrométrie''
Births
January 23 – Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), French novelist (died 1842)
April 3 – Washington Irving, American short story writer, essayist and politician (died 1859)
May 14 – Samuel Lee, English orientalist and linguist (died 1852)
September 23 – Jane Taylor, English poet and novelist (died 1824)
December 10 – María Bibiana Benítez, Puerto Rican poet and playwright (died c. 1873)
Deaths
January 2 – Johann Jakob Bodmer, Swiss journalist and critic writing in German (born 1698)
April 17 – Louise d'Epinay French writer and salon hostess (born 1726)
September 6 – Anna Williams, Welsh-born poet (born 1706)
October 10 – Henry Brooke, Irish novelist, playwright, and poet (born 1703)
October 29 – Jean le Rond d'Alembert, French mathematician and philosopher (born 1717)
November 3 – Charles Collé, French dramatist and songwriter (born 1709)
November 23 – Ann Eliza Bleecker, American poet, novelist and letter writer (born 1752)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1786%20in%20literature | 1786 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1786.
Events
January 19 – Franziska Stading plays the female lead in Gustav Vasa (with libretto personally overseen by King Gustav III of Sweden) at the Royal Swedish Opera.
July 31 – Scottish poet Robert Burns' Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect is published by John Wilson in Kilmarnock in 612 copies (the text having been submitted to him on July 13). The volume proves so popular that Burns abandons his plans to emigrate to Jamaica on September 1 for a post as a bookkeeper on a slave plantation and on November 27–28 journeys on a borrowed pony from Mossgiel Farm for his first visit to Edinburgh. Two weeks later he extemporises his "Address to a Haggis", which is first published on December 20 in the Caledonian Mercury.
October 5 – Death of French official Jean-Baptiste Marie de Piquet, Marquess of Méjanes; his book collection is bequeathed to form the basis of the Bibliothèque Méjanes at Aix-en-Provence.
September 3–December – Goethe undertakes his Italian Journey (published 1817).
November – The Boydell Shakespeare Gallery is inaugurated in London.
New books
Fiction
William Thomas Beckford – Vathek
James Boswell – Dorado, a Spanish Tale (published anonymously)
Harriet Lee – The Errors of Innocence
Isabelle de Montolieu (as "le traducteur de Werther") – Caroline de Lichtfield, ou Mémoires extraits des papiers d'une famille prussienne
Johann Karl August Musäus – Volksmärchen der Deutschen (fourth volume)
André-Robert Andréa de Nerciat – Le Diable au Corps
Friedrich Schiller – The Ghost-Seer (Der Geisterseher, publication commences)
Children
Mrs. Trimmer
Fabulous Histories
A Description of a Set of Prints of Scripture History
Rudolf Erich Raspe (published anonymously)
Singular Travels, Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnikhouson, commonly pronounced Munchausen (2nd ed.)
Translated into German from English by Gottfried August Bürger – The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchhausen
Drama
Tituš Brezovački – Sveti Aleksij
John Burgoyne – The Heiress and Richard Coeur de Lion
Hannah Cowley – A School for Greybeards
John Delap – The Captives
Germaine de Staël – Sophie
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Iphigenia in Tauris (verse version)
Elizabeth Inchbald – The Widow’s Vow
James Johnstone – The Disbanded Officer
John O'Keeffe
Love in a Camp
The Siege of Curzola
Poetry
Robert Burns – Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect
Helen Maria Williams – Poems (on religious and political subjects)
Non-fiction
Thomas Clarkson – An Essay of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, Particularly the African (translation of a 1784 Latin essay competition entry)
John Gilchrist – A Dictionary English and Hindoostanee. To which Is Prefixed a Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language (begins publication)
William Herschel – Catalogue of One Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars
Immanuel Kant – Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft
Richard Payne Knight – An Account of the Remains of the Worship of Priapus... (later A Discourse on the Worship of Priapus...)
Friedrich Schiller – Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre
Emanuel Swedenborg – Divine Love and Wisdom (translated from Latin into French by Antoine-Joseph Pernety)
Hester Thrale – Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson
John Horne Tooke – 'Epea Pteroenta' – The Diversions of Purley (Winged Words, part 2 in 1805)
Births
February 3 – Wilhelm Gesenius, German philologist and theologian (died 1842)
February 11 – James Cowles Prichard, English ethnologist and psychiatrist
February 24 – Wilhelm Grimm, German philologist and folklorist (died 1859)
May 10 – Esther Copley, English children's writer and tractarian (died 1851)
May 12 – Jean-François Barrière, French historian (died 1868)
June 20 – Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, French poet (died 1859)
June 26 – Sunthorn Phu, Thai poet (died 1855)
August 25 – James Silk Buckingham, English journalist and travel writer (died 1855)
October 23 – Barron Field, English-born Australian poet (died 1846)
December 6 – Caroline Anne Southey (Caroline Anne Bowles), English poet (died 1854)
Unknown date
Helena Charlotta Åkerhielm, Swedish dramatist and translator (died 1828)
Eaton Stannard Barrett, Irish satirical poet and novelist (died 1820)
Deaths
January 4 – Moses Mendelssohn, German philosopher of the Haskalah or Jewish enlightenment (born 1729).
January 19 – John Duncombe, English writer and cleric (born 1729)
March 11 – Jacobus Bellamy, Dutch poet (born 1757)
April 13 – Jan Tomáš Kuzník, Czech musician and poet (born 1716)
May 4 – Johann Kaspar Füssli, artist, writer and publisher (born 1743)
August 15 – Thomas Tyrwhitt, English classicist and critic (born 1730)
November 30 – Thomas Thistlewood, English-born Jamaican diarist (born 1721)
December 26 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian dramatist and critic (born 1713)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1787%20in%20literature | 1787 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1787.
Events
January 15 – Ann Ward marries William Radcliffe, gaining the surname by which she will be known as a writer of Gothic novels.
April 16 – Royall Tyler's The Contrast becomes the first comedy written by an American citizen to be professionally produced, at the John Street Theatre (Manhattan).
April 17 – The Edinburgh edition of Robert Burns' Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect is published by William Creech. It includes a Burns portrait by Alexander Nasmyth. The poet has great social success in the city's literary circles; 16-year-old Walter Scott meets him at the house of Adam Ferguson.
June 1 – King George III of Great Britain issues a Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice, which can be used to prosecute obscene publications.
June 27 – Just before midnight, Edward Gibbon completes The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in the small summerhouse in his garden in Lausanne, Switzerland.
July – Friedrich Schiller arrives in Weimar.
November 21 – François-Joseph Talma makes his professional stage debut at the Comédie-Française as Seide, in Voltaire's Mahomet.
December 4 – Robert Burns meets Agnes Maclehose at a party given by Miss Erskine Nimmo.
New books
Fiction
Elizabeth Bonhôte – Olivia, or, The Deserted Bride
Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvrai – Les Amours du chevalier de Faublas
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – The Sorrows of Young Werther (revised edition)
Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse – Ardinghello and die glückseligen Inseln
Elizabeth Helme – Louisa; or the Cottage on the Moor
Johann Karl August Musäus – Volksmärchen der Deutschen (fifth volume)
Elizabeth Sophia Tomlins – The Victim of Fancy
Bernardin de Saint-Pierre – Paul et Virginie
Betje Wolff and Aagje Deken – Abraham Blankaart
Children
François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil – Fanfan et Lolotte, ou Histoire de deux enfants abandonnés dans une île déserte (Fanfan and Lolotte, Story of Two Children Abandoned on a Desert Island)
Drama
Pierre Beaumarchais – Tarare (opera)
George Colman the Younger – Inkle and Yarico (comic opera)
Richard Cumberland – The Country Attorney
Germaine de Staël – Jeanne Grey
Thomas Holcroft – Seduction
Harriet Lee – The New Peerage
Friedrich Schiller – Don Karlos, Infant von Spanien
Royall Tyler – The Contrast
Poetry
Non-fiction
Thomas Best – A Concise Treatise on the Art of Angling
Mathurin Jacques Brisson – Pesanteur Spécifique des Corps
Ottobah Cugoano – Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species
(Sir) John Fenn (ed.) – The Paston Letters (Original letters, written during the reigns of Henry VI, Edward IV, and Richard III)
John Hawkins – Life of Samuel Johnson
Scots Musical Museum, vol. 1
Mary Wollstonecraft – Thoughts on the Education of Daughters
Births
April 26 – Ludwig Uhland, German poet (died 1862)
September 13 – John Adamson, English antiquary and expert on Portuguese (died 1855)
November 4 – Edmund Kean, English actor (died 1833)
November 21 – Bryan Procter (Barry Cornwall), English poet (died 1874)
December 16 – Mary Russell Mitford, English novelist (died 1855)
Deaths
April 2 – Francisco Javier Clavijero, Mexican-born historian (born 1731)
June 19 – John Brown, Scottish theologian (born 1722)
October 28 – Johann Karl August Musäus, German satirist and children's writer (born 1735)
October 30 – Ferdinando Galiani, Italian economist (born 1728)
November 3 – Robert Lowth, English poet, grammarian and bishop (born 1710)
December 19 – Soame Jenyns, English poet and essayist (born 1704)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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|
225758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788%20in%20literature | 1788 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1788.
Events
May – Joseph Johnson and Thomas Christie found the radical Analytical Review in London.
May 10 – Sweden's Royal Dramatic Theatre (Kungliga Dramatiska Teatern) is founded.
New books
Fiction
Bernardin de St. Pierre – Paul et Virginie
Charlotte Turner Smith – Emmeline; or The Orphan of the Castle
Mary Wollstonecraft – Mary: A Fiction
Yuan Mei – What the Master Would Not Discuss
Children
Thomas Day – A History of Little Jack
François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil – Alexis, ou la Maisonnette dans les bois (Alexis or the Little House in the Woods)
Mary Wollstonecraft – Original Stories from Real Life, with Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections, and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness
Drama
Frances Brooke – Marian
Hannah Cowley – The Fate of Sparta
Olympe de Gouges – Zamore et Mirza (published)
Elizabeth Inchbald – Animal Magnetism
John O'Keeffe – Aladdin
Poetry
Maria and Harriet Falconar
Poems
Poems on Slavery
Samuel Jackson Pratt – Sympathy
Non-fiction
Anthony Benezet – Some Historical Account of Guinea
Ralph Broome – Letters of Simkin the Second to his dear brother in Wales, containing a humble description of the trial of Warren Hastings, Esq. (further instalments up to 1791)
Edward Gibbon – Volumes IV, V, and VI of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay – The Federalist Papers
George Hepplewhite (attr.) – Cabinet Maker and Upholsterers Guide
Immanuel Kant – Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft)
Hannah More – Thoughts on the Importance of the Manners of the Great to General Society
Richard Porson – Letters to Archdeacon Travis
Thomas Scott – Commentary on the Whole Bible (beginning 174 weekly numbers)
Births
January 22 – George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, English poet (died 1824)
February 28 – Samuel Bamford, English writer, poet and radical (died 1872)
March 1 – Gheorghe Asachi, Moldavian polymath (died 1869)
March 20 – Thomas Medwin, English poet, biographer and translator (died 1869)
September 22 – Theodore Edward Hook, English man of letters and composer (died 1841)
c. October 14 – Robert Millhouse, English weaver poet (died 1839)
October 24 – Sarah Josepha Hale, American novelist and poet (died 1879)
December 6 – Richard Harris Barham (Thomas Ingoldsby), English novelist, poet and cleric (died 1845)
Deaths
March 31 – Frances Vane, Viscountess Vane (Lady Fanny), English memoirist (born 1715)
May 17 – Dorothea Biehl, Danish dramatist and translator (born 1731)
July 21 – Gaetano Filangieri, Italian philosopher (born 1752)
August 4 – Evan Evans (Ieuan Fardd or Ieuan Brydydd Hir), priest and poet, 57
August 16 – Francisco Javier Alegre, Mexican historian and translator (born 1729)
September 16 – Andrea Spagni, Italian theologian (born 1716)
October 13 – Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent, Irish politician and poet (born 1709)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago%20Bernab%C3%A9u%20Stadium | Santiago Bernabéu Stadium | The Santiago Bernabéu Stadium (, ) is a football stadium in Madrid, Spain. With a current seating capacity of 81,044, it has been the home stadium of Real Madrid since its completion in 1947. It is the second-largest stadium in Spain and third-largest home to a top-flight European club after Camp Nou and Westfalenstadion.
Named after footballer and former Real Madrid president Santiago Bernabéu, the stadium is one of the world's most famous football venues. It has hosted the final of the European Cup/UEFA Champions League on four occasions: in 1957, 1969, 1980, 2010. The stadium also hosted the second leg of the 2018 Copa Libertadores Finals, making Santiago Bernabéu the first (and only) stadium to host the two most important premier continental cup finals (UEFA Champions League and Copa Libertadores).
The final matches for the 1964 European Nations' Cup and the 1982 FIFA World Cup were also held at the Bernabéu, making it the first stadium in Europe to host both a UEFA Euro final and a FIFA World Cup final.
History
On 22 June 1944, the Banco Mercantil e Industrial bank granted credit to Santiago Bernabéu and Rafael Salgado for the purchase of the land adjacent to the old Chamartín Stadium. On 5 September 1944, architects Manuel Muñoz Monasterio and Luis Alemany Soler were hired and the structure on the site began to give way to the new stadium. On 27 October 1944, construction work on the stadium began.
The () was inaugurated on 14 December 1947 with a match between Real Madrid and the Portuguese side Os Belenenses, which resulted in a 3–1 victory for Los Blancos. The stadium had an initial capacity of 75,145 spectators, 27,645 of which had seats (7,125 covered) and 47,500 for standing fans. Sabino Barinaga was the first player to score in the new stadium.
The 1950s
The first major renovation occurred in 1955. On 19 June of that year, the stadium expanded to accommodate 125,000 spectators. Thus, the Madrid coliseum became the biggest stadium of all the participants of the newly established European Cup.
On 4 January 1955, after the General Assembly of Members Compromisaros, it was decided that the stadium adopt its present name in honour of club President Santiago Bernabéu.
In March 1957, floodlights were installed to allow nighttime games. On 18 May of the same year, the new floodlights were officially inaugurated in a game against Brazilian club Sport Recife, which Real Madrid won 5–3.
The 1980s
The next big changes did not occur until the early 1980s with the hosting of the 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain. The stadium had to adapt to the changing times and with this, architects Rafael Luis Alemany and Manuel Salinas were hired for the stadium's renovation project. The brothers were sons of Luis Alemany Soler, who carried out the original construction project next to Muñoz Monasterio. The work lasted 16 months and had a cost of 704 million pesetas (US $4.7 million), of which 530 million was paid by the City of Madrid.
The improvements included a number of points. First, FIFA forced two-thirds of the seating area to be covered. For this reason, Real Madrid installed a roof covering the perimeter of the first and second tiers of seating, except the east side. The stadium's capacity was reduced from 120,000 to 98,000 spectators, 24,550 of which were covered by the new roof. The project also involved remodeling the façade, the installation of new electronic signs in the north and south ends, as well as the renovation of the press areas, lockers rooms, access, and ancillary areas.
The stadium hosted four matches in the World Cup: three second-round Group Two matches (West Germany vs. England, West Germany vs. Spain, and Spain vs. England) and the prestigious final match (Italy vs. West Germany).
The 1990s
Following a series of spectator fatalities in the 1980s (most notably the Heysel Stadium in Belgium and the Hillsborough Stadium in England), English authorities released the Taylor Report on how to improve football spectator safety in English venues. UEFA followed suit across Europe. The stadium was forced to create separate shortcuts to different stadium sections and seats for all spectators.
In 1992, the board of Ramón Mendoza awarded an expansion and renovation project to Gines Navarro Construcciones, S.A. The work started on 7 February 1992 and concluded on 7 May 1994 with a final cost of more than 5 billion pesetas, substantially raising the debt of the club, having no institutional support. The work concluded with the creation of an amphitheater on the west side and in the foundations, as well as the opening of the new commercial center, "La esquina del Bernabéu." In total, 20,200 upgraded seats were installed, with each seat having a tilt of 87 degrees, ensuring a perfect view and proximity to the pitch. In addition, four entrance towers were erected on the outside, each with two staircases and a central spiral ramp, so the spectators could access the new tier and exit more quickly.
With the new structure, the height of the stadium was increased from 22 m to 45 m. This caused problems during the winter, leaving two-thirds of the field of play in the shade. This lack of sunlight led to grass deterioration on the pitch. For this reason, a polypropylene pipe network was installed at a 20 cm depth under the pitch. At over 30 km long the pipe system circulates hot water, keeping the turf from freezing in cold temperatures.
Also, due to the height of the stand, it was necessary to improve and increase the lighting capability. A retractable protective roof was also installed to protect the fans from the elements. After the renovation, the stadium's capacity was 106,000 spectators.
In 1997, with Lorenzo Sanz as president, UEFA required the Santiago Bernabéu to adopt an all-seating arrangement, bringing its capacity down from 106,000 to 74,328 spectators.
On 20 May 1999, the Tour Bernabéu opened, along with the club museum.
2000s
As the club kept growing in all regards, thoughts for further changes to the stadium appeared. When Florentino Pérez became the president of the club, he launched a "master plan" with one goal: to improve the comfort of the Santiago Bernabéu and the quality of its facilities, and maximise revenue for the stadium.
Pérez invested €127 million in five years (2001–2006) by adding an expansion to the east side of the stadium, as well as adding a new façade on Father Damien street, new boxes and VIP areas, new dressing rooms, a new stage in honour of the east side, a new press area (also located on the east side), a new audio system, new bars, integration of heating in the stands, panoramic lifts, new restaurants, escalators in the tower access, and implementation of the multipurpose building in Father Damien street. Following the enlargement of the lateral east side and the creation of new galleries, the capacity of the Santiago Bernabéu was expanded to 80,354, all seated.
In addition, UEFA decided to give the Santiago Bernabéu elite stadium status on 14 November 2007, a month before the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the inauguration of the stadium. In the latest UEFA revision on 24 October, the day a Champions League group stage match against Olympiacos was played, they decided the stadium met the expectations of an elite stadium, and upgraded its category accordingly.
Pérez proposed construction of a retractable roof before he resigned in 2005. In 2009, following the re-election of Pérez as the club president, it was announced that the roof construction was looking unlikely due to the financial situation of the club. According to Spanish sports newspaper Marca, however, Pérez wants to restructure Santiago Bernabéu. According to the newspaper, the architect in charge will be chosen from among a shortlist of Spanish architects Santiago Calatrava and Pritzker Prize-winner Rafael Moneo, and Chinese-American Ieoh Ming Pei, also a Pritzker winner.
2010s
In 2011, around 1,000 seats were added, bringing the stadium to its current capacity, 81,044.
On 16 October 2013, Pérez announced that Real Madrid was seeking to sell the naming rights for its stadium and looking for a sponsor for the €400 million renovation project. The proposed design of the stadium renovation, produced by German architects GMP, was unveiled on 31 January 2014. The bold design includes a retractable roof, with the overall cost of around €400 million likely to be met half via the sale of naming rights and half via a bond issue to Real members according to Spanish media reports. Pérez said, "We want to make the Santiago Bernabéu the best stadium in the world." Real Madrid then announced a sponsorship agreement with IPIC to assist the club in the redevelopment of the stadium. Pérez then said that in compliance to the agreement the name of the stadium would be renamed "IPIC Bernabeu" or "CEPSA Bernabeu". The surface has been replaced with Mixto hybrid grass manufactured in Italy.
Real Madrid and Microsoft launched the first interactive audioguide for the Bernabéu Tour on 3 April 2017. Over 200,000 people toured the stadium in 2016, of whom over 60% were foreigners.
Renovation plans
A €525-million renovation project was initially set to begin in summer 2017, but began in 2019. The capacity will be increased by approximately 4000 with the addition of an extra tier, bringing it to just over the 85000 mark, furthermore the height will also be increased by ten metres and a retractable roof as well as a retractable pitch will be added. The club is expected to sell the naming rights to the renovated stadium.
The work is expected to last three and a half years (2019–2022).
The renovation team utilises Roman techniques with raising the top, so as not to affect the operation of the stadium during the football season. "The project is complex because it will not stop the football and therefore complicates the works and design, which has a roof that encloses the whole stadium. They are going to lift the roof like the Romans did, but with modern technology. They will raise the inner ring by string-pulling with hydraulic jacks, bridge technology and ski lifts in a short period of time in the summer to respect the sporting calendar," said Tristán López Chicheri, the individual in charge of the renovation. In March 2020, Real Madrid decided to expedite the renovations after the Royal Spanish Football Federation suspended La Liga due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The expedition included interior work, which made the pitch unplayable and prompted Real Madrid to play their matches at the Alfredo Di Stéfano Stadium instead until the end of the 2020–21 season.
Chicheri believes the renovation will bring tourists to the stadium all year round, with many attractions planned. The stadium is supposed to have more restaurants, a shopping centre and a hotel, with some rooms having a view of the pitch. The "digital stadium of the future" will be equipped with a 360-degree screen and retractable roof. "It is not only on matchdays that it will be used – there are venues like the Bernabéu that are in the middle of the city and it is a shame that they have no life beyond 35–40 matches a year," said Chicheri.
Location
The stadium is located in the Chamartín district of Madrid. It occupies the block bounded by the Paseo de la Castellana and the streets of Concha Espina, Padre Damián, and Rafael Salgado.
Transportation
The stadium is served by its own metro station along the Line 10 called Santiago Bernabéu. It is also served by bus routes 14, 27, 40, 43, 120, 147 and 150.
Major international tournaments
Euro 1964
Santiago Bernabéu hosted three matches of the 1964 European Nations' Cup, a tournament which Spain hosted: one qualifying match and two in the main tournament, including the final. All three matches involved Spain.
Qualifying rounds
The stadium hosted one qualifying round match against Romania, which resulted in a 6–0 win.
Main tournament
The stadium hosted two matches of the tournament, including the final.
Final
The match was contested by the 1960 winners, the Soviet Union, and the hosts, Spain, at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid. Spain won the match 2–1, with goals coming from Chus Pereda and Marcelino. Galimzyan Khusainov scored for the Soviet Union.
1982 FIFA World Cup
In the 1982 World Cup held in Spain, the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium hosted four matches: three in the second round (West Germany–England, West Germany–Spain and Spain–England) as well as the final between West Germany and Italy.
Main tournament
Second round
The stadium hosted three second round matches.
Final
The 1982 FIFA World Cup Final was a football match contested between Italy and West Germany. It was played on 11 July 1982.
After a scoreless first half during which Antonio Cabrini fired a penalty low and wide to the right of goal, Paolo Rossi scored first, heading home a bouncing Claudio Gentile cross from the right from close range. Marco Tardelli then scored from the edge of the area with a low left footed shot before Alessandro Altobelli, at the end of a counterattack by winger Bruno Conti, made it 3–0 with another low left footed shot.
Italy's lead appeared secure, encouraging Italian president Sandro Pertini to wag his finger at the cameras in a playful 'not going to catch us now' gesture from the stands. Paul Breitner scored for Germany in the 83rd minute, firing low past the goalkeeper from the right, but Italy held on to claim their first World Cup title in 44 years, and their third in total with a 3–1 victory.
Major games
1957 European Cup Final
This match was contested between Real Madrid, champions of Spain, and Fiorentina, champions of Italy. In this season, 16 teams played for the trophy. Real Madrid won 2–0 in the final after goals from Alfredo Di Stéfano and Francisco Gento in the second half. This was the second consecutive European Cup for Real Madrid after having won his first trophy one year before, in the Parc des Princes against Stade de Reims.
1969 European Cup Final
This year Milan, champions of Italy, played Ajax, champions of the Netherlands, to determine who would be the champions of Europe. Milan defeated Ajax 4–1 to win their second European championship. Ajax made history by being the first Dutch team to reach a final.
1980 European Cup Final
In this final, defending champions Nottingham Forest of England faced Hamburger SV, champions of Germany. The match ended with a victory for the English team with a 1–0 result. The new champions of Europe retained the trophy and achieved a historic second consecutive European Cup.
2010 UEFA Champions League Final
A game played between two best teams in the Champions League which consists of group stage and knock-out stage. The final is played at a different stadium each year. In 2010, Bayern Munich, who eliminated Lyon in the semi-finals, faced Internazionale, who defeated Barcelona in the semi-finals. Inter won 2–0 after two goals from Diego Milito.
2018 Copa Libertadores Final
The two-legged 2018 CONMEBOL Libertadores final pitted Argentine archrivals of Buenos Aires in Boca Juniors and River Plate against each other in the final for the first time. The first leg was held at Boca Juniors' home pitch, La Bombonera, on 11 November 2018, ending in a 2–2 draw with no away goal rule applied.
During the planned second leg on 24 November 2018, scheduled for El Monumental, the home stadium of River Plate, numerous River Plate fans threw glass bottles and stones at the Boca Juniors team bus headed to the stadium, injuring numerous players as a result. CONMEBOL postponed the match and moved the second leg to Europe for 9 December 2018 in Madrid, a neutral site, for security and travel reasons. Both sets of fans attended the match as River Plate won 3–1 after extra time (5–3 on aggregate) to lift the trophy outside of South America for the first time.
References
External links
Official Website
Bernabéu Tour
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium on Facebook
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium at Google Maps
Profile at Estadios de España
Real Madrid CF
Football venues in Madrid
1982 FIFA World Cup stadiums
1964 European Nations' Cup stadiums
Sports venues completed in 1947
Spain
1947 establishments in Spain
Stadiums that have hosted a FIFA World Cup final match
UEFA European Championship final stadiums
Buildings and structures in Chamartín District, Madrid | [
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225761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxemics | Proxemics | Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behaviour, communication, and social interaction.
Proxemics is one among several subcategories in the study of nonverbal communication, including haptics (touch), kinesics (body movement), vocalics (paralanguage), and chronemics (structure of time).
Edward T. Hall, the cultural anthropologist who coined the term in 1963, defined proxemics as "the interrelated observations and theories of humans use of space as a specialized elaboration of culture". In his foundational work on proxemics, The Hidden Dimension, Hall emphasized the impact of proxemic behavior (the use of space) on interpersonal communication. According to Hall, the study of proxemics is valuable in evaluating not only the way people interact with others in daily life, but also "the organization of space in [their] houses and buildings, and ultimately the layout of [their] towns". Proxemics remains a hidden component of interpersonal communication that is uncovered through observation and strongly influenced by culture.
Human distances
Interpersonal distance
Hall described the interpersonal distances of humans (the relative distances between people) in four distinct zones: (1) intimate space, (2) personal space, (3) social space, and (4) public space.
Horizontal
Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering
Close phase – less than one inch (one to two cm)
Far phase –
Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family
Close phase –
Far phase –
Social distance for interactions among acquaintances
Close phase –
Far phase –
Public distance used for public speaking
Close phase –
Far phase – or more.
The distance surrounding a person forms a space. The space within intimate distance and personal distance is called personal space. The space within social distance and out of personal distance is called social space, and the space within public distance is called public space.
Personal space is the region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs. Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger, or anxiety when their personal space is encroached. Permitting a person to enter personal space and entering somebody else's personal space are indicators of perception of those people's relationship. An intimate zone is reserved for close friends, lovers, children and close family members. Another zone is used for conversations with friends, to chat with associates, and in group discussions. A further zone is reserved for strangers, newly formed groups, and new acquaintances. A fourth zone is used for speeches, lectures, and theater; essentially, public distance is that range reserved for larger audiences.
Entering somebody's personal space is normally an indication of familiarity and sometimes intimacy. However, in modern society, especially in crowded urban communities, it can be difficult to maintain personal space, for example when in a crowded train, elevator or street. Many people find such physical proximity to be psychologically disturbing and uncomfortable, though it is accepted as a fact of modern life. In an impersonal, crowded situation, eye contact tends to be avoided. Even in a crowded place, preserving personal space is important, and intimate and sexual contact, such as frotteurism and groping, is unacceptable physical contact.
The amygdala is suspected of processing people's strong reactions to personal space violations since these are absent in those in which it is damaged and it is activated when people are physically close. Research links the amygdala with emotional reactions to proximity to other people. First, it is activated by such proximity, and second, in those with complete bilateral damage to their amygdala, such as patient S.M., lack a sense of personal space boundary. As the researchers have noted: "Our findings suggest that the amygdala may mediate the repulsive force that helps to maintain a minimum distance between people. Further, our findings are consistent with those in monkeys with bilateral amygdala lesions, who stay within closer proximity to other monkeys or people, an effect we suggest arises from the absence of strong emotional responses to personal space violation."
A person's personal space is carried with them everywhere they go. It is the most inviolate form of territory. Body spacing and posture, according to Hall, are unintentional reactions to sensory fluctuations or shifts, such as subtle changes in the sound and pitch of a person's voice. Social distance between people is reliably correlated with physical distance, as are intimate and personal distance, according to the delineations below. Hall did not mean for these measurements to be strict guidelines that translate precisely to human behavior, but rather a system for gauging the effect of distance on communication and how the effect varies between cultures and other environmental factors.
Vertical
The distances mentioned above are horizontal distance. There is also vertical distance that communicates something between people. In this case, however, vertical distance is often understood to convey the degree of dominance or sub-ordinance in a relationship. Looking up at or down on another person can be taken literally in many cases, with the higher person asserting greater status.
Teachers, and especially those who work with small children, should realize that students will interact more comfortably with a teacher when they are in same vertical plane. Used in this way, an understanding of vertical distance can become a tool for improved teacher-student communication. On the other hand, a disciplinarian might put this information to use in order to gain psychological advantage over an unruly student.
Biometrics
Hall used biometric concepts to categorize, explain, and explore the ways people connect in space. These variations in positioning are impacted by a variety of nonverbal communicative factors, listed below.
Kinesthetic factors: This category deals with how closely the participants are to touching, from being completely outside of body-contact distance to being in physical contact, which parts of the body are in contact, and body part positioning.
Haptic code: This behavioral category concerns how participants are touching one another, such as caressing, holding, feeling, prolonged holding, spot touching, pressing against, accidental brushing, or not touching at all.
Visual code: This category denotes the amount of eye contact between participants. Four sub-categories are defined, ranging from eye-to-eye contact to no eye contact at all.
Thermal code: This category denotes the amount of body heat that each participant perceives from another. Four sub-categories are defined: conducted heat detected, radiant heat detected, heat probably detected, and no detection of heat.
Olfactory code: This category deals in the kind and degree of odor detected by each participant from the other.
Voice loudness: This category deals in the vocal effort used in speech. Seven sub-categories are defined: silent, very soft, soft, normal, normal+, loud, and very loud.
Neuropsychology
Whereas Hall's work uses human interactions to demonstrate spatial variation in proxemics, the field of neuropsychology describes personal space in terms of the kinds of "nearness" to an individual body.
Extrapersonal space: The space that occurs outside the reach of an individual.
Peripersonal space: The space within reach of any limb of an individual. Thus, to be "within arm's length" is to be within one's peripersonal space.
Pericutaneous space: The space just outside our bodies but which might be near to touching it. Visual-tactile perceptive fields overlap in processing this space. For example, an individual might see a feather as not touching their skin but still experience the sensation of being tickled when it hovers just above their hand. Other examples include the blowing of wind, gusts of air, and the passage of heat.
Previc further subdivides extrapersonal space into focal-extrapersonal space, action-extrapersonal space, and ambient-extrapersonal space. Focal-extrapersonal space is located in the lateral temporo-frontal pathways at the center of our vision, is retinotopically centered and tied to the position of our eyes, and is involved in object search and recognition. Action-extrapersonal-space is located in the medial temporo-frontal pathways, spans the entire space, and is head-centered and involved in orientation and locomotion in topographical space. Action-extrapersonal space provides the "presence" of our world. Ambient-extrapersonal space initially courses through the peripheral parieto-occipital visual pathways before joining up with vestibular and other body senses to control posture and orientation in earth-fixed/gravitational space. Numerous studies involving peripersonal and extrapersonal neglect have shown that peripersonal space is located dorsally in the parietal lobe whereas extrapersonal space is housed ventrally in the temporal lobe.
Organization of space in territories
While personal space describes the immediate space surrounding a person, territory refers to the area which a person may "lay claim to" and defend against others. There are four forms of human territory in proxemic theory. They are:
Public territory: a place where one may freely enter. This type of territory is rarely in the constant control of just one person. However, people might come to temporarily own areas of public territory.
Interactional territory: a place where people congregate informally
Home territory: a place where people continuously have control over their individual territory
Body territory: the space immediately surrounding us
These different levels of territory, in addition to factors involving personal space, suggest ways for us to communicate and produce expectations of appropriate behavior.
In addition to spatial territories, the interpersonal territories between conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the "angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders". Hall has also studied combinations of postures between dyads (two people) including lying prone, sitting, or standing.
Cultural factors
Personal space is highly variable, due to cultural differences and personal preferences. On average, preferences vary significantly between countries. A 2017 study found that personal space preferences with respect to strangers ranged between more than 120 cm in Romania, Hungary and Saudi Arabia, and less than 90 cm in Argentina, Peru, Ukraine and Bulgaria.
The cultural practices of the United States show considerable similarities to those in northern and central European regions, such as Germany, Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom. Greeting rituals tend to be the same in Europe and in the United States, consisting of minimal body contact—often confined to a simple handshake. The main cultural difference in proxemics is that residents of the United States like to keep more open space between themselves and their conversation partners (roughly compared to in Europe). European cultural history has seen a change in personal space since Roman times, along with the boundaries of public and private space. This topic has been explored in A History of Private Life (2001), under the general editorship of Philippe Ariès and Georges Duby. On the other hand, those living in densely populated places likely have lower expectations of personal space. Residents of India or Japan tend to have a smaller personal space than those in the Mongolian steppe, both in regard to home and individual spaces. Different expectations of personal space can lead to difficulties in intercultural communication.
Hall notes that different culture types maintain different standards of personal space. Realizing and recognizing these cultural differences improves cross-cultural understanding, and helps eliminate discomfort people may feel if the interpersonal distance is too large ("stand-offish") or too small (intrusive).
Adaptation
People make exceptions to and modify their space requirements. A number of relationships may allow for personal space to be modified, including familial ties, romantic partners, friendships and close acquaintances, where there is a greater degree of trust and personal knowledge. Personal space is affected by a person's position in society, with more affluent individuals expecting a larger personal space. Personal space also varies by gender and age. Males typically use more personal space than females, and personal space has a positive relation to age (people use more as they get older). Most people have a fully developed (adult) sense of personal space by age twelve.
Under circumstances where normal space requirements cannot be met, such as in public transit or elevators, personal space requirements are modified accordingly. According to the psychologist Robert Sommer, one method of dealing with violated personal space is dehumanization. He argues that on the subway, crowded people often imagine those intruding on their personal space as inanimate. Behavior is another method: a person attempting to talk to someone can often cause situations where one person steps forward to enter what they perceive as a conversational distance, and the person they are talking to can step back to restore their personal space.
Implementing appropriate proxemic cues has been shown to improve success in monitored behavioral situations like psychotherapy by increasing patient trust for the therapist (see active listening). Instructional situations have likewise seen increased success in student performance by lessening the actual or perceived distance between the student and the educator (perceived distance is manipulated in the case of instructional videoconferencing, using technological tricks such as angling the frame and adjusting the zoom). Studies have shown that proxemic behavior is also affected when dealing with stigmatized minorities within a population. For example, those who do not have experience dealing with disabled persons tend to create more distance during encounters because they are uncomfortable. Others may judge that the disabled person needs to have an increase of touch, volume, or proximity.
The idea has been floated that the COVID-19 pandemic has made people adverse to hugs or handshakes. Long-term effects, if any, are uncertain. In an article in Psychology Today, author Jane Adams discussed "boundary style," as the way we behave when we come in contact with people. "Some changes in how we interact with others may be temporary while others could be long-lasting," she says.
Applied research
The theory of proxemics is often considered in relation to the impact of technology on human relationships. While physical proximity cannot be achieved when people are connected virtually, perceived proximity can be attempted, and several studies have shown that it is a crucial indicator in the effectiveness of virtual communication technologies. These studies suggest that various individual and situational factors influence how close we feel to another person, regardless of distance. The mere-exposure effect originally referred to the tendency of a person to positively favor those who they have been physically exposed to most often. However, recent research has extended this effect to virtual communication. This work suggests that the more someone communicates virtually with another person, the more he is able to envision that person's appearance and workspace, therefore fostering a sense of personal connection. Increased communication has also been seen to foster common ground, or the feeling of identification with another, which leads to positive attributions about that person. Some studies emphasize the importance of shared physical territory in achieving common ground, while others find that common ground can be achieved virtually, by communicating often.
Much research in the fields of communication, psychology, and sociology, especially under the category of organizational behavior, has shown that physical proximity enhances peoples' ability to work together. Face-to-face interaction is often used as a tool to maintain the culture, authority, and norms of an organization or workplace. An extensive body of research has been written about how proximity is affected by the use of new communication technologies. The importance of physical proximity in co-workers is often emphasized.
Advertising
Part of Facebook's earning comes from on-site advertising. During these years, Facebook has offered companies the ability to post and present content in a timeline format on their free brand or business page. By doing so, companies can deliver a more comprehensive promotional message and increase audience engagement. If a user "likes" a brand page, corporate content posted on the brand page will appear in the user's news feed. Many users felt angry about the overly implanted ads that showed up in their Facebook timeline.
Users that consider Facebook advertising "annoying" and "intrusive" may do so because companies are invading their social domain (territory) with targeted, paid-for, corporate communications. Those that "hate" receiving targeted messages on their social media profiles could be experiencing frustration. It is likely that these users are devoting effort to the creation and maintenance of boundaries around their social role, only to have advertisers break through these boundaries with promotional content.
Cinema
Proxemics is an essential component of cinematic mise-en-scène, the placement of characters, props and scenery within a frame, creating visual weight and movement. There are two aspects to the consideration of proxemics in this context, the first being character proxemics, which addresses such questions as: How much space is there between the characters?, What is suggested by characters who are close to (or, conversely, far away from) each other?, Do distances change as the film progresses? and, Do distances depend on the film's other content? The other consideration is camera proxemics, which answers the single question: How far away is the camera from the characters/action? Analysis of camera proxemics typically relates Hall's system of proxemic patterns to the camera angle used to create a specific shot, with the long shot or extreme long shot becoming the public proxemic, a full shot (sometimes called a figure shot, complete view, or medium long shot) becoming the social proxemic, the medium shot becoming the personal proxemic, and the close up or extreme close up becoming the intimate proxemic.
Film analyst Louis Giannetti has maintained that, in general, the greater the distance between the camera and the subject (in other words, the public proxemic), the more emotionally neutral the audience remains, whereas the closer the camera is to a character, the greater the audience's emotional attachment to that character. Or, as actor/director Charlie Chaplin put it: "Life is a tragedy when seen in close-up, but a comedy in long shot."
Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is a communication phenomenon in which a bully utilizes electronic media in order to harass peers. Adolescents favor texting or computer-mediated communication as an alternative to the more directly combative face-to-face interactions because it takes advantage of evading imposed social norms such as "school rules", which are likely to be especially repressive of aggression involving females. Online bullying has a lot in common with bullying in school: Both behaviors include harassment, humiliation, teasing, and aggression. Cyberbullying presents unique challenges in the sense that the perpetrator can attempt to be anonymous, and attacks can happen at any time of day or night.
The main factor that encourages cyberbullying is the fact that a cyberbully can hide behind the shield of online anonymity. In other words, social media magnifies the face-to-face social space into a virtual space where a cyberbully can say anything about the victims without the pressure of facing them.
Virtual environments
Bailenson, Blascovich, Beall, and Loomis conducted an experiment in 2001, testing Argyle and Dean's (1965) equilibrium theory's speculation of an inverse relationship between mutual gaze, a nonverbal cue signaling intimacy, and interpersonal distance. Participants were immersed in a 3D virtual room in which a virtual human representation (that is, an embodied agent) stood. The focus of this study is on the subtle nonverbal exchanges that occur between a person and an embodied agent. Participants in the study clearly did not treat the agent as a mere animation. On the contrary, the results suggest that, in virtual environments, people were influenced by the 3D model and respected personal space of the humanoid representation. The result of the experiment also indicated that women are more affected by the gaze behaviors of the agent and adjust their personal space more accordingly than do men. However, men do subjectively assign gaze behavior to the agent, and their proxemic behavior reflects this perception. Furthermore, both men and women demonstrate less variance in their proxemic behavior when the agent displays mutual gaze behavior than when the agent does not.
Other researchers have established that proxemics can be a valuable tool for measuring the behavioral realism of an agent or an avatar. People tend to perceive nonverbal gestures on an implicit level, and degree of personal space appears to be an accurate way to measure people's perception of social presence and realism in virtual environments. Nick Yee in his PhD thesis at Stanford discovered that real world proxemic distances also were applied in the virtual world of Second Life. Other studies demonstrate that implicit behavioral measures such as body posture can be a reliable measure of the user's sense of presence in virtual environments. Similarly, personal space may be a more reliable measure of social presence than a typical ratings survey in immersive virtual environments.
See also
References
Further reading
Herrera, D. A. (2010). Gaze, turn-taking and proxemics in multiparty versus dyadic conversation across cultures (Ph.D.). The University of Texas at El Paso, United States—Texas.
McArthur, J.A. (2016). Digital Proxemics: How technology shapes the ways we move. Peter Lang.
Busbea, Larry D. (2020). Proxemics and the Architecture of Social Interaction. Columbia Books on Architecture and the City (Columbia UP)
Semiotics
Ethology
Interpersonal communication
Environmental psychology
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|
225762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Lord%20Fauntleroy | Little Lord Fauntleroy | Little Lord Fauntleroy is a novel by Frances Hodgson Burnett. It was published as a serial in St. Nicholas Magazine from November 1885 to October 1886, then as a book by Scribner's (the publisher of St. Nicholas) in 1886. The illustrations by Reginald B. Birch set fashion trends and the novel set a precedent in copyright law when Burnett won a lawsuit in 1888 against E. V. Seebohm over the rights to theatrical adaptations of the work.
Plot
In a shabby New York City side street in the mid-1880s, young Cedric Errol lives with his mother (known to him as "Dearest") in genteel poverty after the death of his father, Captain Cedric Errol. One day, they are visited by an English lawyer named Havisham with a message from young Cedric's grandfather, the Earl of Dorincourt, an unruly millionaire who despises the United States and was very disappointed when his youngest son married an American woman. With the deaths of his father's elder brothers, Cedric has now inherited the title Lord Fauntleroy and is the heir to the earldom and a vast estate. Cedric's grandfather wants him to live in England and be educated as an English aristocrat. He offers his son's widow a house and guaranteed income, but he refuses to have anything to do with her, even after she declines his money.
However, the Earl is impressed by the appearance and intelligence of his American grandson and is charmed by his innocent nature. Cedric believes his grandfather to be an honorable man and benefactor, and the Earl cannot disappoint him. The Earl therefore becomes a benefactor to his tenants, to their delight, though he takes care to let them know that their benefactor is the child, Lord Fauntleroy.
Meanwhile, back in New York, a homeless bootblack named Dick Tipton tells Cedric's old friend Mr. Hobbs, a New York City grocer, that a few years prior, after the death of his parents, Dick's older brother Benjamin married an awful woman who got rid of their only child together after he was born and then left. Benjamin moved to California to open a cattle ranch while Dick ended up in the streets. At the same time, a neglected pretender to Cedric's inheritance appears in England, the pretender's mother claiming that he is the offspring of the Earl's eldest son, Bevis. The claim is investigated by Dick and Benjamin, who come to England and recognize the woman as Benjamin's former wife. She flees, and the Tipton brothers and the pretender, Benjamin's son, do not see her again. Afterward, Benjamin goes back to his cattle ranch in California where he happily raises his son by himself. The Earl is reconciled to his American daughter-in-law, realizing that she is far superior to the impostor.
The Earl planned to teach his grandson how to be an aristocrat. Instead, Cedric teaches his grandfather that an aristocrat should practice compassion towards those dependent on him. The Earl becomes the man Cedric always innocently believed him to be. Cedric is happily reunited with his mother, and Mr. Hobbs, who decides to stay to help look after Cedric.
Impact on fashion
The Fauntleroy suit (see also Buster Brown suit), so well described by Burnett and realised in Reginald Birch's detailed pen-and-ink drawings, created a fad for formal dress for American middle-class children:
The Fauntleroy suit appeared in Europe as well but nowhere was it as popular as in America. The classic Fauntleroy suit was a velvet cut-away jacket and matching knee pants, worn with a fancy blouse and a large lace or ruffled collar. These suits appeared right after the publication of Burnett's story (1885) and were a major fashion for boys until after the turn of the 20th century. Many boys who did not wear an actual Fauntleroy suit wore suits with Fauntleroy elements, such as a fancy blouse or floppy bow. Only a minority of boys wore ringlet curls with these suits, but the photographic record confirms that many boys did.
It was most popular for boys about 3–8 years of age, but some older boys wore them as well. It has been speculated that the popularity of the style encouraged many mothers to breech their boys earlier than before, and it was a factor in the decline of the fashion for dressing small boys in dresses and other skirted garments. Clothing that Burnett popularised was modelled on the costumes which she tailored herself for her two sons, Vivian and Lionel.
Reception
Polly Hovarth writes that Little Lord Fauntleroy "was the Harry Potter of his time and Frances Hodgson Burnett was as celebrated for creating him as J. K. Rowling is for Potter." During the serialisation in St. Nicholas magazine, readers looked forward to new installments. The fashions in the book became popular with velvet Lord Fauntleroy suits being sold, as well as other Fauntleroy merchandise such as velvet collars, playing cards, and chocolates. During a period when sentimental fiction was the norm, and in the United States the "rags to riches" story popular, Little Lord Fauntleroy was a hit.
Edith Nesbit included in her own children's book The Enchanted Castle (1907) a rather unflattering reference:
Gerald could always make himself look interesting at a moment's notice (...) by opening his grey eyes rather wide, allowing the corners of his mouth to droop, and assuming a gentle, pleading expression, resembling that of the late little Lord Fauntleroy who must, by the way, be quite old now, and an awful prig.
Adaptations
Stage
In 1888, after discovering her novel had been plagiarized for the stage, Burnett successfully sued and then wrote her own theatrical adaptation of Little Lord Fauntleroy. It opened May 14, 1888, at Terry's Theatre in London, and was presented in the English provinces, France, Boston and New York City.
The Broadway production of Burnett's play opened December 10, 1888, at the Broadway Theatre, New York City. The original cast follows:
Earl of Dorincourt – J. H. Gilmour
Cedric Errol (Lord Fauntleroy) – Elsie Leslie and Tommy Russell
Mr. Havisham, a Solicitor – F. F. Mackay
Mr. Hobbs, a Grocer – George A. Parkhurst
Dick, a Bootblack – Frank E. Lamb
Higgins, a Farmer – John Swinburne
Wilkins, a Groom – Alfred Klein
Thomas, a Footman – John Sutherland
James, a Servant – T. J. Plunkett
Mrs. Errol ("Dearest") – Kathryn Kidder
Minna – Alice Fischer
Mary – Effie Germon
Touring versions of the play were common in the late 19th and early 20th century. Notable productions include an 1906 version that cast 11 year old Buster Keaton in the role of Lord Fauntleroy.
In 1994, an Australian open-air/site specific theatre production of Little Lord Fauntleroy, adapted by Julia Britton and directed by Robert Chuter, was presented in the historical gardens of the National Trust of Australia (Victoria) property Rippon Lea.
Film and television
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1914), a British silent film, one of the last made in Kinemacolor, directed by F. Martin Thornton, starring Gerald Royston (Cedric); H. Agar Lyons (The Earl); Jane Wells (Dearest); Bernard Vaughan (Mr. Havisham); F. Tomkins (Mr. Hobbs); and Harry Edwards (Dick).
Little Lord Fauntleroy (A Kis Lord) (1918), a Hungarian silent film, directed by Alexander Antalffy, starring Tibor Lubinszky (Cedric); Alexander Antalffy (The Earl); Giza Báthory (Dearest); József Hajdú (Mr. Havisham); Jenõ Horváth (Mr. Hobbs); Ernõ Kenessey (Dick).
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1921), an American silent film, directed by Alfred E. Green and Jack Pickford, starring Mary Pickford (Cedric & Dearest); Claude Gillingwater (The Earl); Joseph J. Dowling (Mr. Havisham); James A. Marcus (Mr. Hobbs); Fred Malatesta (Dick).
L'ultimo Lord (1926), an Italian silent film, directed by Augusto Genina, starring Carmen Boni (Freddie). Based on L'ultimo Lord by Ugo Falena.
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1936), arguably the best-known adaptation, directed by John Cromwell, starring Freddie Bartholomew (Cedric); C. Aubrey Smith (The Earl); Dolores Costello (Dearest); Henry Stephenson (Mr. Havisham); Guy Kibbee (Mr. Hobbs); Mickey Rooney (Dick).
Il ventesimo duca (1945), an Italian film, directed by Lucio De Caro, starring Paola Veneroni ("Freddie"). Based on L'ultimo Lord by Ugo Falena.
O Pequeno Lorde (1957), Brazilian TV movie, directed da Júlio Gouveia and Antonino Seabra, starring Rafael Neto (Cedric).
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1957), an American TV miniseries, starring Richard O'Sullivan (Cedric).
Il piccolo Lord (1960), an Italian TV miniseries (sceneggiato) aired on RAI, directed by Vittorio Brignole, starring Sandro Pistolini (Cedric); Michele Malaspina (The Earl); Andreina Paul (Dearest); Attilio Ortolani (Mr. Havisham); Giuseppe Mancini (Mr. Hobbs); Ermanno Anfossi (Dick).
Der kleine Lord (1962), a German TV film aired on Bayerischer Rundfunk (BR), directed by Franz Josef Wild, starring Manfred Kunst (Cedric); Albrecht Schoenhals (The Earl); Gertrud Kückelmann (Dearest); Sigfrit Steiner (Mr. Havisham); Eric Pohlmann (Mr. Hobbs); Michael Ande.
Lille Lord Fauntleroy (1966), a Norwegian TV film, directed by Alfred Solaas, starring Gøsta Hagenlund (Cedric).
Il Piccolo Lord (1971), an Italian TV movie, directed by Luciano Emmer, starring Ellen and Alice Kessler, Johnny Dorelli, Dina Perbellini, and Alice Rossi.
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1976), a BBC TV miniseries, directed by Paul Annett, starring Glenn Anderson (Cedric); Paul Rogers (the Earl); Jennie Linden (Dearest); Preston Lockwood (Mr. Havisham); Ray Smith (Mr. Hobbs); Paul D'Amato (Dick).
As one installment in 1977 of the late 1970s children's television show Once Upon a Classic
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1980), a popular adaptation, directed by Jack Gold, starring Ricky Schroder (Cedric); Alec Guinness (The Earl); Connie Booth (Dearest); Eric Porter (Mr. Havisham); Colin Blakely (Mr. Hobbs); and Rolf Saxon (Dick). This film has become a Christmas classic in Germany.
The Adventures of Little Lord Fauntleroy was an 1982 TV movie, directed by Desmond Davis and Starring Jerry Supiran (Cedric); John Mills (The Earl), and Caroline Smith (Dearest). .
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1988), a Japanese anime series, also known as Shōkōshi Cedie (小公子セディ Shōkōshi Sedi, trans. Little Prince Cedie), directed by Kōzō Kusuba, spanning 43 episodes (20–25-minute each per episode) based on the same novel. The anime has been translated in many languages, notably French, German, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Tagalog, Polish and Arabic. In this adaptation (and in the Filipino film adaptation based on it), Mrs. Errol is named "Annie."
Il Piccolo Lord/Der kleine Lord (1994), an Italian and German co–production TV movie, aired on RAI and ARD, directed by Gianfranco Albano, starring Francesco De Pasquale (Cedric) and Mario Adorf (The Earl).
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1995), a BBC TV mini-series adaptation by Julian Fellowes, directed by Andrew Morgan, starring Michael Benz (Cedric) and George Baker (The Earl).
Cedie: Ang Munting Prinsipe (Cedie: The Little Prince) (1996), a Filipino film adaptation, directed by Romy Suzara, starring Tom Taus.
Radosti i pechali malenʹkogo lorda (Little lord's joy and sorrow) (Радости и печали маленького лорда) (2003), a Russian film, directed by Ivan Popov, starring Aleksey Vesyolkin (Cedric).
Die kleine Lady (2012), an Austrian TV movie aired on ZDF, directed by Gernot Roll, starring Philippa Schöne in the role of a little Countess.
References
Sources
Rutherford, L.M. (1994), "British Children's Writers 1880–1914", in Laura M. Zaldman, Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 141, Detroit: Gale Research Literature Resource Center
External links
Little Lord Fauntleroy suits
1880s fashion
1886 British novels
1886 American novels
American children's novels
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into plays
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into plays
Children's clothing
English-language novels
Novels adapted into operas
American novels adapted into television shows
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Frances Hodgson Burnett
Novels first published in serial form
Suits (clothing)
Works originally published in St. Nicholas Magazine
1880s children's books | [
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|
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