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225763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half%20guinea | Half guinea | The half guinea gold coin of the Kingdom of England and later of Great Britain was first produced in 1669, some years after the Guinea entered circulation. It was officially eliminated in the Great Recoinage of 1816, although, like the guinea, it was used in quoting prices until decimalisation.
Value
The value of the guinea had fluctuated over the years from twenty to thirty shillings, and back down to twenty one shillings and sixpence by the start of George I's reign. A Royal Proclamation of December 1717 fixed the value of the guinea at twenty one shillings. The value of the half guinea was thus fixed at ten shillings and sixpence (written as 10s 6d or 10/6: the latter is the style used on the price ticket of The Hatter's hat in the story Alice's Adventures in Wonderland).
The present day value of a 1717 half guinea is about £. A golden half guinea in fine condition would be worth considerably more.
History
Charles II
During the reign of King Charles II, the elephant and castle logo of the Africa Company appeared on some coins from 1676 to 1684, although the denomination was produced in all years between 1669 and 1684. The coin weighed 4.2 grams and was 20 millimetres in diameter.
The obverse and reverse of this coin were designed by John Roettier (1631 – ). The obverse showed a fine right-facing bust of the king wearing a Laurel wreath, surrounded by the legend CAROLVS II DEI GRATIA, while the reverse showed four crowned cruciform shields bearing the arms of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, between which were four sceptres, and in the centre were four interlinked "C"s, surrounded by the inscription MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date. To avoid confusion with gilded silver coins the edge was milled to deter clipping or filing—in 1669 the milling was perpendicular to the coin, giving vertical grooves, while from 1670 the milling was diagonal to the coin.
James II
John Roettier continued to design the dies for this denomination in the reign of King James II. In this reign, the coins were of the same dimensions as before, and were minted in 1686-1688. The elephant and castle mark was only used on some coins in 1686, which are particularly scarce. The King's head faces left in this reign, and is surrounded by the inscription IACOBUS II DEI GRATIA, while the obverse is the same as in Charles II's reign except for omitting the interlinked "C"s in the centre of the coin. The edge of the coins are milled diagonally.
William and Mary
With the removal of James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, his daughter Mary, and her husband Prince William of Orange ruled jointly by agreement as co-monarchs. Their heads appear conjoined on the guinea piece in Roman style, with William's head uppermost, with the legend GVLIELMVS ET MARIA DEI GRATIA. In a departure from the previous reigns the reverse featured a totally new design of a large crowned shield which bore the arms of France in the first quarter, of Scotland in the second quarter, of Ireland in the third quarter, and of England in the fourth quarter, the whole ensemble having a small shield in the centre bearing the rampant lion of Nassau; the legend on the obverse read MAG BR FR ET HIB REX ET REGINA date. By the early part of this reign the value of the guinea had increased to nearly thirty shillings. The half guineas of this reign weighed 4.2 grams, were 20 millimetres in diameter. The credit for the design of the gold coinage of this reign is usually given to James and Norbert Roettier, but the 1689 coin bears somewhat caricatured heads of the monarchs, and it is thought that this is in the style of George Bower (d. 1689/90), an artist who designed the first type of penny and halfpenny of 1689 and also produced a number of medals with grotesque and cartoon-like busts. Records show that Bower was instructed in July 1689 'to make a puncheon for the Halfe Guinneys ande to worke it in the Mint'; the heads of the halfpenny, penny, and half guinea of 1689 don't share the harmony of design of later Roettier work. Half guineas were produced in all years between 1689 and 1694 with the elephant and castle appearing in 1691 and 1692.
William III
Following the death of Queen Mary from smallpox in 1694, William continued to reign as William III. The half guinea coin was produced in all years from 1695 to 1701, with the elephant and castle appearing on some coins from 1695, 1696, and 1698, the design probably being the work of James Roettier and John Croker.
The coins of William III's reign weighed 4.2 grams with a diameter of 20 millimetres. William's head faces right on his coins, with the legend GVLIELMVS III DEI GRATIA, while the reverse design of William and Mary's reign was judged to be unsuccessful, so the design reverted to that used by Charles II and James II, but with a small shield with the lion of Nassau in the centre, with the legend MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date. The coin had a diagonal milled edge.
Anne
The reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714) produced pre-Union half guineas in 1702, 1703, and 1705. The 1703 half guinea bears the word VIGO under the Queen's bust, to commemorate the origin of the gold taken from the Spanish ships at the Battle of Vigo Bay. With the Union of England and Scotland the design of the reverse of the half guinea was changed. Until the Union, the cruciform shields on the reverse showed the arms of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland in order, separated by sceptres and with a central rose, and the legend MAG BR FRA ET HIB REG date. With the union, the English and Scottish arms appear conjoined on one shield, with the left half being the English arms and the right half being the Scottish arms, and the order of arms appearing on the shields becomes England+Scotland, France, England+Scotland, Ireland and the legend MAG BRI FR ET HIB REG date. The centre of the reverse design shows Star of the Order of the Garter. The coins weighed 4.2 grams, were 20 millimetres in diameter. The edge of the coin is milled diagonally.
The dies for all half-guineas of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, an immigrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy of Saxony.
George I
King George I's half guinea coins were struck between 1715 and 1727 except 1716, with the elephant and castle sometimes appearing in 1721. The coins weighed 4.2 grams, were 20 millimetres in diameter, with a diagonally milled edge.
The obverse shows the right-facing portrait of the king with the legend GEORGIVS D G M BR FR ET HIB REX F D. The reverse follows the same general design as before, except the order of the shields is England+Scotland, France, Ireland, and Hanover, with the legend BRVN ET L DVX S R I A TH ET EL date -- Duke of Brunswick and Lueneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire.
George II
King George II's guinea pieces marks are a complex issue, with eight obverses and five reverses used through the 33 years of the reign. The coins were produced in all years of the reign except 1735, 1741, 1742, 1744, 1754, and 1757. The coins weighed 4.2 grams, and were 20 millimetres in diameter. Some coins issued between 1729 and 1739 carry the mark EIC under the king's head, to indicate the gold was provided by the East India Company, while some 1745 coins carry the mark LIMA to indicate the gold came from Admiral Anson's round-the-world voyage. The edge of the coin was milled diagonally, the coin being too thin to take the chevron milling applied to the larger gold coins from 1739.
The obverse has a left-facing bust of the king with the legend GEORGIVS II DEI GRATIA (GEORGIUS II DEI GRATIA between 1740 and 1745), while the reverse features a single large crowned shield with the quarters containing the arms of England+Scotland, France, Hanover, and Ireland, and the legend M B F ET H REX F D B ET L D S R I A T ET E -- King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, Duke of Brunswick and Lueneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire.
George III
The half guinea was minted in nearly all the years of the long reign of King George III (1760–1820).
The half guineas of George III weighed 4.2 grams and were 20 millimetres in diameter except from 1787 when they were 20-21 millimetres in diameter. They were issued with seven different obverses and three reverses in 1762-1766, 1768, 1769, 1772–1779, 1781, 1783–1798, 1800–1806, 1808–1811 and 1813. All the obverses show right-facing busts of the king with the legend GEORGIVS III DEI GRATIA with different portraits of the king. The reverse of half guineas issued between 1761 and 1786 show a crowned shield bearing the arms of England+Scotland, France, Ireland and Hanover, with the legend M B F ET H REX F D B ET L D S R I A T ET E date. In 1787 a new design of reverse featuring a spade-shaped shield was introduced, with the same legend; this has become known as the Spade Half-Guinea.
In 1774 almost 20 million worn guineas of William III and Queen Anne were melted down and recoined as guineas and half-guineas.
In 1801 the king relinquished his claim on the French throne, and the legend on the reverse was altered to reflect this, and the Hanoverian arms were removed from the coat of arms. The reverse of the 1801-1813 half guinea features a crowned shield within a Garter, with HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE on the Garter, and BRITANNIARUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR around the edge, and date between the edge inscription and the garter.
Replacement
In the Great Recoinage of 1816, the guinea was replaced as the major unit of currency by the pound.
See also
For other denominations, see British coinage
Notes
External links
British Coins - Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum.
British gold coins
Coins of Great Britain
Coins of England
Coins of the United Kingdom | [
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225765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratwurst | Bratwurst | Bratwurst () is a type of German sausage made from veal, beef, or most commonly pork. The name is derived from the Old High German Brätwurst, from brät-, finely chopped meat, and Wurst, sausage, although in modern German it is often associated with the verb braten, to pan fry or roast. Beef and veal are usually incorporated amongst a blend often including pork.
History
While sausage recipes can be found as early as 228 AD, the first documented evidence of the Bratwurst in Germany dates to 1313 and can be found in the Franconian city of Nuremberg, which is still an internationally renowned center for the production of grilling sausages.
Types and traditions
Germany
Recipes for the sausage vary by region and even locality; some sources list over 40 different varieties of German bratwurst, many of the best known originating in Franconia (today for the most part situated in northern Bavaria, but still culturally quite distinct), its northern neighbour Thuringia and adjacent areas. How the sausages are served is also locally different, but most commonly they are regarded as a simple snack served with or in a white bread roll made from wheat flour and eaten with mustard. As a pub dish, it is often accompanied by sauerkraut or potato salad and sometimes served with dark, crusty country bread made predominantly from rye flour, less commonly with a Brezel (pretzel). It is a very popular form of fast food in German-speaking countries, often cooked and sold by street vendors from small stands, and is also traditionally popular with fans at soccer games.
Franconian varieties
Fränkische Bratwurst
The Franconian sausage is a relatively long (), thick, coarse sausage, common to the whole Franconian region with slight variations. It dates back to 1313. With marjoram as a characteristic ingredient, it is close in taste to the Nürnberger Bratwurst but juicier, due to its size and coarseness. The Fränkische Bratwurst is traditionally served with sauerkraut or potato salad.
Coburger Bratwurst
Bratwurst originating in the city of Coburg in Franconia was first documented there in 1498. It is made from pork and a minimum of 15% beef, seasoned with only salt, pepper, nutmeg, and lemon zest, and bound with raw egg. It is coarse in texture and is about long. Traditionally, it is grilled over pinecones and served in a bread roll (Brötchen).
Kulmbacher Bratwurst
The Kulmbacher Bratwurst is a finely-ground Rohwurst from the city of Kulmbach in Upper Franconia. Long and thin, it is made mostly from very finely ground veal, with very little pork. This sausage may be seasoned with salt, white pepper, nutmeg, lemon peel, marjoram, caraway, and garlic. The exact mixture is a closely guarded trade secret of each butcher. Kulmbacher bratwursts are usually pan-fried, or grilled over a wood fire. They are sold and served freshly grilled from vendors' stands in the Marktplatz, in pairs, with or without mustard, on crusty rolls sprinkled with anise.
Nürnberger Rostbratwurst
The small, thin bratwurst from Franconia's largest city, Nuremberg, was first documented in 1567; it is long, and weighs between 20 and 25 g. The denominations Nürnberger Bratwurst and Nürnberger Rostbratwurst (Rost comes from the grill above the cooking fire) are Protected Geographical Indications (PGI) under EU law since 2003, and may therefore only be produced in the city of Nürnberg, where an "Association for the Protection of Nürnberger Bratwürste" was established in 1997.
Pork-based and typically seasoned with fresh marjoram which gives them their distinctive flavour, these sausages are traditionally grilled over a beechwood fire. As a main dish three to six pairs are served on a pewter plate with either sauerkraut or potato salad, and accompanied by a dollop of horseradish or mustard. They are also sold as a snack by street vendors as Drei im Weckla (three in a bun; the spelling Drei im Weggla is also common, Weggla/Weckla being the word for "bread roll" in the Nuremberg dialect), with mustard.
Another way of cooking Nuremberg sausages is in a spiced vinegar and onion stock; this is called Blaue Zipfel (blue lobes).
Würzburger Bratwurst
The Würzburger Bratwurst, also known as the Winzerbratwurst, comes from the city of Würzburg in Franconia. Its size is similar to the Thüringer Rostbratwurst, but its ingredients include white Franken-Wine.
Other varieties
Thüringer Rostbratwurst
The Thüringer Rostbratwurst is a spicy sausage from Thuringia. It is thin and long. It is traditionally grilled over a charcoal fire and eaten with mustard and bread. The name Thüringer Rostbratwurst is also recognised as a PGI under EU law.
Triggered by the discovery in 2000 of an account entry of 1404 first mentioning the Bratwurst in Thuringia in the town of Arnstadt, the association "Friends of the Thuringian Bratwurst" was founded in 2006. In the same year, the association established the Erstes Deutsches Bratwurstmuseum (First German Bratwurst Museum) in the village of Holzhausen. A two-metre-high wooden monument of a Bratwurst in a bun on a local traffic roundabout advertises the museum.
Nordhessische Bratwurst
The -long Nordhessische Bratwurst (from northern Hessen) is similar to the Thüringer Rostbratwurst in taste. It is made from coarsely ground pork and is heavily seasoned. Traditionally, it is grilled over a wood fire and served on a cut-open roll with mustard.
Rote Wurst
The Rote Wurst (red sausage) is a favorite Bratwurst of the Swabian region. It is similar to the Bockwurst, and is made from finely ground pork and bacon, and has a spicy taste. To prevent splitting during grilling or pan frying, an X is cut into the ends of the sausage, which opens during cooking. Sometimes a row of x-shaped cuts are made along its length.
Switzerland
In 1438, bratwurst started to become popular in eastern Switzerland, especially in St. Gallen. "St. Galler bratwurst", traditionally made from veal, has been famous since then. St. Galler bratwurst with a round bread is sold on the street, and also served in restaurants with rösti.
United States
Bratwurst, often shortened to "brat" in American English, is a common type of sausage in the United States, especially in the Upper Midwestern region; the home to many people of German-American ethnicity. Wisconsin, where the largest ancestry group is German, is known for its bratwursts. Brats are also popular in other Upper Midwestern states such as Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Indiana and Iowa, as well as cities with large populations like New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Originally brought to North America by German immigrants, it is a common sight at summer cookouts, along with hot dogs. Many grocery stores and butcher shops sell varieties with popular additions such as cheddar cheese and jalapeño peppers. Wisconsin is the home of the "beer brat", where the brats are simmered in beer (generally a mixture of a pilsner style beer with butter and onions) before or after grilling over charcoal.
Bratwurst was popularized in Sheboygan County, Wisconsin, in the 1920s. In general, each local butcher shop would take orders and hand make bratwurst fresh to be picked up on a particular day. The fat content of the sausages was substantial, making daily pick up necessary to avoid spoilage; some of the fat is lost on cooking over charcoal.
Bratwurst has also become popular as a mainstay of sports stadiums, especially baseball parks, after Bill Sperling introduced bratwurst to Major League Baseball in Milwaukee County Stadium in 1954, when the Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee. The brats, which sold for 35 cents, were grilled and placed into a container of a special tomato sauce with green pepper and onions before being served. The bratwursts were so popular, Sperling said, that Duke Snider of the Brooklyn Dodgers took a case back to New York City. Miller Park in Milwaukee sells more bratwurst than hot dogs. Current Miller Park foodservice provider Delaware North (through their Sportservice subsidiary) markets Secret Stadium Sauce at retail as a complement to bratwurst.
Every year, during the Memorial Day weekend, the city of Madison, Wisconsin, hosts the Brat Fest, which is billed as the "world's largest bratwurst festival".
The town of Bucyrus, Ohio, (which calls itself the "Bratwurst Capital of America") has held the three-day Bucyrus Bratwurst Festival annually since 1967.
See also
Blood sausage
Bockwurst
Boerewors
Braadworst
Currywurst
Frankfurter Würstchen
Hot dog
Kielbasa
List of sandwiches
List of sausage dishes
List of sausages
Knackwurst
Regensburger Wurst
Weisswurst
Wienerwurst
Wollwurst
Wurst mart
References
External links
Bratwurst recipes
600 Years Bratwurst in Katzenelnbogen
The History of Bratwurst
German sausages
American sausages
Cuisine of Wisconsin
Veal dishes
German-American cuisine | [
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225766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%20Mears | Warren Mears | Warren Mears is a fictional character that is portrayed by Adam Busch in the American television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The character also appears in canonical comic book series continuation of that series. He is the main antagonist in season six, until Willow turns to her dark side and kills him.
Appearances
Television
Warren's first appearance is in the Season Five episode "I Was Made to Love You" (2001) when a sex robot he built, April (Shonda Farr), goes on the loose in Sunnydale. After Warren falls for a real girl (in Dutton), Katrina Silber (Amelinda Embry), he leaves April to run out of batteries and die. That episode's exposition establishes that Warren briefly attended Sunnydale High with the show's main character before transferring. April attacks Slayer Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar) out of jealousy for Warren, but dies shortly thereafter. At the end of the episode, the vampire Spike commissions Warren to build him a Buffy robot; Warren delivers it to him in "Intervention".
In Season Six, Warren is re-introduced in "Flooded" (2001), having become leader of "the Trio," a gang of self-styled genius supervillains who attended Sunnydale High. Along with sorcerer Jonathan (Danny Strong) and demon-summoner Andrew (Tom Lenk), he plans to eliminate Buffy. They are a nuisance to Buffy; they plague her with a time loop in "Life Serial" and freeze rays in "Smashed", and turn Buffy invisible in "Gone". Warren tries to use technology in "Dead Things" to force Katrina to sleep with him against her will; when she snaps out of the trance, she accuses him of rape and threatens to go the police. Panicked, he kills her and tries to make Buffy believe she committed the crime. In "Normal Again", they make Buffy believe her whole life is a mental patient's delusion. In "Seeing Red", Warren tries to acquire mystical orbs to give him superhuman strength to rival Buffy; when she foils him yet again, he shows up at her house with a gun and shoots her, with a stray bullet accidentally killing Tara (Amber Benson). In "Villains", Buffy recovers due to the magical abilities of Tara's girlfriend, Willow (Alyson Hannigan), who then seeks revenge on Warren. When Willow attacks and defeats him with black magic, he begs for his life. After realizing that Tara was not his first victim, confirmed by an apparition of Katrina, Willow flays him alive.
Warren reappears in the Season Seven première episode, "Lessons" (2002) as an apparition of the First Evil (a primordial evil entity), taunting Spike. The First assumes this form again in "Never Leave Me" and "Conversations with Dead People" as a means of manipulating Andrew. In the episode "The Killer in Me", a repentant and good-once-more Willow begins to take on Warren's appearance and personality after kissing Kennedy (Iyari Limon). She later discovers that it is the result of a curse from her former friend Amy (Elizabeth Anne Allen), who tells Willow that her own subconscious chose the punishment; kissing Kennedy triggered the transformation because of Tara's memory, and moving on from her grief helps her revert to normal. Warren appears one last time in "Storyteller", in which Andrew re-imagines the circumstances of his friendship with Warren in the course of his storytelling.
Literature
Warren appears in the canonical comic book continuation of Buffy, as a surprise reveal in the final panel of an issue of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight. In "The Long Way Home, Part Three" (2007), Warren is revealed to be the "boyfriend" that Amy had been living with beneath the Hellmouth following the collapse of Sunnydale in the television series finale. In Part Four of "The Long Way Home", he reveals the means of his survival. Amy saved Warren's life and suspended his life with her magical powers. In penciller Georges Jeanty's interior artwork, Warren is depicted as skinless, as in his last on-screen moments in "Villains". Warren bears a considerable grudge against both Willow and Buffy. Though he lobotomizes a captive Willow, she is rescued by Buffy and Japanese Slayer Satsu on a rescue mission; Warren escapes by teleporting away with Amy. With regards to the continuity issue of the First Evil impersonating dead people, and Warren being "saved" by Amy, Whedon clarified in the Letters column of a later issue by stating that Warren had been legally dead for "like a second". In "Time of Your Life, Part One" (2008), serving under series' villain Twilight, Amy and Warren attack Buffy's Scottish citadel with a missile and spectral warriors, killing seven Slayers. In the "Retreat" (2009) story arc, Warren and Amy assist Twilight in tracking Buffy and Willow's movements through their use of magic, forcing the group into hiding in Tibet, where they learn to suppress their abilities, leading to an all-out brawl between Twilight's military forces and Buffy's depowered Slayers. Later, in "Twilight" (2010), Warren discovers he has been working for Angel, Buffy's ex-boyfriend, and Twilight's true identity. When extra-dimensional demons start pouring in, Warren and Andrew (now Buffy's trusted associate) squabble over who gets ownership of a geeky composite superhero defensive armor (working replicas of Iron Man's glove, the Punisher's vest, Batman's utility belt, Captain America's shield, a Star Trek tricorder and a Star Wars X-wing helmet). After Andrew takes a severe injury, Warren is left to protect him (and shows genuine concern for Andrew) using the Iron Man repulsors. Later, once Spike arrives, he and Amy are taken as prisoners aboard Spike's ship; they escape, however, when the ship arrives in Sunnydale. In the final arc, in "Last Gleaming, Part IV", Buffy destroys the Seed of Wonder and thereby dispels all magic from the universe. Warren is with Amy at a cafe away from the fray in Sunnydale when the spell that replicates his skin ends. He turns to a pile of blood and bones before Amy's eyes. Warren does not appear in Buffy Season Nine.
The possibility of resurrecting Warren is brought up in both titles of Buffy season 10. In the "Return to Sunnydale" arc the Scooby Gang fear Andrew will use Buffy's Vampyr book which now shapes the rules of magic for the world to bring Warren back. While The Trio are revealed to have left DNA samples and digital ghosts of themselves on flash drives in case they were killed, Andrew destroys Warren's intending to bring back only Johnathan and Tara. Andrew is talked out of disturbing Tara's peace but decides to build a robot body for Johnathan's digital personality. In the "Angel & Faith" book Angel tries to keep the peace is London's new Magic Town ghetto, home to several magical mutants and a different variety of magic from the rest of the world. Amy is revealed to be there with a jar of Warren's remains and approaches Angel for his help in resurrecting him. Angel refuses and Amy reveals her true goal is to test the power Magic Town gives her against him to prepare for killing Willow and bringing Warren back on her own. Angel's ally the Slayer and seer Nadira reveals Magic Town's energy is sentient and working with her, turning Amy into a rat once again. Angel gives the jar of Warren's remains to the magical 'archmage' Alastair Coames for safekeeping.
Powers and abilities
Although Warren displays no independent supernatural powers, he does possess a genius-level intellect, especially in the fields of technology and robotics. He is capable of building highly advanced robots which look like and can pass for ordinary humans, though their mannerisms and speech patterns are imperfect by human standards. The Buffybot he built successfully masqueraded as Buffy Summers for several weeks while the real Slayer was dead, in addition to fooling Buffy's friends and family into believing that it was the real deal, and a robotic duplicate of himself easily fooled Willow, even with her mystical tracking abilities. Some of his other creations include a freeze ray, a small microchip capable of slowing and speeding up time, and at least two jet packs (cf. "Seeing Red"). Other items which were fused with magic and technology, included an invisibility ray with a magic diamond (cf. "Gone"); and a cerebral dampener, which strips the will of any female within its range, rendering her a slave; In Season Eight, he also displays enough knowledge of biology to perform a lobotomy (cf. "The Long Way Home, Part Four").
In Season Six's "Seeing Red", Warren gains the power of the Orbs of Nezzla'khan, two orbs which grant him superhuman strength and invulnerability, respectively. In this state, he is more than a physical match for Buffy and overpowers her, until Jonathan reveals the source of his power to her. During this time Warren does not display any particular affinity for martial arts as Buffy does, instead relying on brute power.
Characterization
Actor Adam Busch claims that he does not see Warren as simply a villain or purely evil person. He explains that the character has various flaws and positives, and is always given the chance to redeem himself. "He's always given that moment where he can do the right thing that he never ever does," says Busch. "Because he is flawed and he does have a lot of issues and an inability to communicate or talk to anyone or really explain what it is that he wants." Writer Jane Espenson draws comparisons between the characters of Buffy and Warren, claiming, "When Buffy's talking with Warren about his break-up with April, she's actually identifying with him, because she did a lot of the same stuff with Riley that he did with April."
Romantic interests
April: Lonely, Warren built the robot April to be the perfect girlfriend, but eventually grows bored of her, abandoning her rather than dumping her face-to-face. Despite her pleasant and cheerfully optimistic nature, April is dangerously loyal to Warren and physically attacks anybody who came between them, including Spike, Buffy, and Katrina. April is designed with the ability to growl and included several fetish programs (as seen in her point of view shot), along with other details, such as an inability to cry.
Katrina Silber: Has at least one sibling mentioned in "I Was Made to Love You", a sister. Warren is found to be in a relationship with Katrina in the Season Five episode "I Was Made to Love You". Although seemingly happy at first, Katrina grows more and more suspicious of her boyfriend throughout the episode, only to discover his robot-girlfriend, April. This discovery repulses her, resulting in their immediate break-up. In "Dead Things" Warren tries to have sex with her while she is under the influence of a mind-control spell. When Katrina fights back Warren smashes her head in with a glass bottle.
Amy Madison: In the Season Eight comics, Warren reveals that he had been with Amy since she saved his life offscreen in the Season Six episode, "Villains". Amy refers to him as her boyfriend on several occasions and addresses him as "sweetie".
Appearances
Warren has made 31 canonical Buffyverse appearances.
Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Adam Busch guest starred as Warren in 16 episodes:
Season 5 (2001): "I Was Made to Love You", "Intervention"
Season 6 (2001-02): "Flooded", "Life Serial", "Smashed", "Gone", "Dead Things", "Normal Again", "Entropy", "Seeing Red", "Villains"
Season 7 (2002-03): "Lessons", "Conversations with Dead People", "Never Leave Me", "The Killer in Me", "Storyteller"
Warren appeared in 15 issues:
Season 8 (2007-10): "The Long Way Home, Parts 3 & 4", "Time of Your Life, Parts 1 & 4", "Retreat, Parts 1, 2 & 5", "Twilight, Parts 1-4", "Last Gleaming, Parts 1, 3 & 4", "Always Darkest"
See also
List of Buffyverse villains and supernatural beings
References
Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters
Fictional characters from Los Angeles County, California
Fictional inventors
Fictional murderers
Fictional private military members
Fictional roboticists
Fictional scientists
Television characters introduced in 2001
Male characters in television
Fictional murdered people
American male characters in television
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225777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Civitate | Battle of Civitate | The Battle of Civitate was fought on 18 June 1053 in southern Italy, between the Normans, led by the Count of Apulia Humphrey of Hauteville, and a Swabian-Italian-Lombard army, organised by Pope Leo IX and led on the battlefield by Gerard, Duke of Lorraine, and Rudolf, Prince of Benevento. The Norman victory over the allied papal army marked the climax of a conflict between the Norman mercenaries who came to southern Italy in the eleventh century, the de Hauteville family, and the local Lombard princes. By 1059 the Normans would create an alliance with the papacy, which included a formal recognition by Pope Nicholas II of the Norman conquest in south Italy, investing Robert Guiscard as Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and Count of Sicily.
Background
The arrival of the Normans in Italy
The Normans had arrived in Southern Italy in 1017, in a pilgrimage to the sanctuary of St. Michael Archangel in Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano (Apulia). These warriors had been used to counter the threat posed by the Saracens, who, from their bases in Sicily, raided South Italy without much resistance from the Lombard and Byzantine rulers of the affected lands.
The availability of this mercenary force (the Normans were famous for being militariter lucrum quaerens, "seeking wealth through military service") could not escape the notice of the Christian rulers of Southern Italy, who employed the Normans in their internal wars. The Normans took advantage of this turmoil; in 1030, Rainulf Drengot obtained the County of Aversa.
After this first success, many other Normans sought to expand into Southern Italy. Among their most important leaders were Hauteville family members. In short time, the Hauteville created their own state: William Iron Arm became, in 1042, Count of Apulia.
The anti-Norman coalition
The Norman advances in southern Italy had alarmed the papacy for many years, though the impetus for the battle itself came about for several reasons. First, the Norman presence in Italy was more than just a case of upsetting the power balance, for many of the Italian locals did not take kindly to the Norman raiding and wished to respond in kind, regarding them as little better than brigands. An abbot from Normandy, John of Fécamp, for example wrote of such local sentiments in a letter to Pope Leo himself:
The raiding activities which brought about such hatred also occurred in the see of Benevento, a deed not emphasized in the Norman chronicles, but for Pope Leo this was the more significant concern in the political instability of the region. In fact, according to Graham Loud, the Beneventians, who previously had been approached by both the German Emperor Henry III and by the Pope previously to swear fealty, finally appealed and submitted to Leo to personally take over the control of the city (as well as lifting a previous excommunication) in 1051. At this point, Benevento was also the border and march land between Rome and the German Empire and the newly established Norman holdings.
The second reason behind the conflict of Civitate was the instability brought about on the Norman side by the murder in unclear circumstances of Drogo de Hauteville, who up to that time had been the nominal war leader of the Normans and Count of Apulia. According to Malaterra's account, the native Lombards were responsible for the plot, and a courtier named Rito committed the deed at the castrum of Montillaro. Despite the benefit the pope and both Greek and German emperors would have drawn from his murder, it is difficult to speculate beyond Malaterra's report since the details of the murder do not appear in most other sources, particularly the Norman chronicles. Nevertheless, there was certainly a strong reaction to Drogo's death, with his brother Humphrey taking over the leadership position and in response scoured the countryside for his enemies:
Finally, in 1052, Leo met his relative Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor in Saxony, and asked for aid in curbing the growing Norman power. Initially, substantial aid was refused and Leo returned to Rome in March 1053 with only 700 Swabian infantry. Adalbert II, Count of Winterthur (modern day Switzerland), their leader, raised the 700 Swabian knights from the very House out of which the House of Kyburg would later emerge. The Duchy of Swabia, at the time, included most modern day German-speaking Cantons of Switzerland.
But there were others worried about the Norman power, in particular the Italian and Lombard rulers in the south. The Prince of Benevento, Rudolf, the Duke of Gaeta, the Counts of Aquino and Teano, the Archbishop and the citizens of Amalfi — together with Lombards from Apulia, Molise, Campania, Abruzzo and Latium — answered the call of the Pope, and formed a coalition that moved against the Normans. However, while these forces included troops from almost every great Italian magnate, they did not include forces from Prince of Salerno, who would have gained more than the others from a Norman defeat.
The Pope had also another friendly power, the Byzantine Empire ruled by Constantine IX. At first, the Byzantines, established in Apulia, had tried to buy off the Normans and press them into service within their own largely mercenary army; since the Normans were famous for their avarice. So, the Byzantine commander, the Lombard Catepan of Italy Argyrus, offered money to disperse as mercenaries to the Eastern frontiers of the Empire, but the Normans rejected the proposal, explicitly stating that their aim was the conquest of southern Italy. Thus spurned, Argyrus contacted the Pope, and when Leo and his army moved from Rome to Apulia to engage the Normans in battle, a Byzantine army personally led by Argyrus moved from Apulia with the same plan, catching the Normans in a pinch.
The Normans understood the danger and collected all available men and formed a single army under the command of the new Count of Apulia and Drogo's eldest surviving brother, Humphrey of Hauteville, as well as the Count of Aversa, Richard Drengot, and others of the de Hauteville family, amongst which was Robert, later known under the name of Robert Guiscard.
The battle
Despite several contemporary sources of the background and lead-up to the battle, the narrative source which gives the most detail of the battle itself is the Gesta Wiscardi of William of Apulia.
To begin with, Leo moved to Apulia, and reached the Fortore River near the city of Civitate (or Civitella, northwest of Foggia). The Normans went forth to intercept the Papal army near Civitella and prevent its union with the Byzantine army, led by Argyrus. The Normans were short on supplies because of the harvest season, and had fewer men than their enemies, with no more than 3,000 horsemen and 500 infantry against 6,000 horsemen and infantry. Both Amatus' account and William of Apulia agree that the Normans were suffering from hunger and lack of nutrition, and both also add that the Normans forces were in fact so lacking that they, "by the example of the Apostles took the heads of grain, rubbed them in their hands, and ate the kernels," some may have cooked them over the fire beforehand as well. Because of this, the Normans were driven to ask for a truce, but were refused, though there is some disagreement on who the greater enemies of the Normans were in refusing the negotiations, varying between the Lombards, the Germans, and the curia of Pope Leo himself, whom the Normans in fact wished to swear their fidelitas.
The two armies were divided by a small hill. The Normans put their horsemen in three companies, with the heavy cavalry of Richard of Aversa on the right, Humphrey with infantry, dismounted knights and archers in the center, and Robert Guiscard, with his horsemen and his infantry (the sclavos, the Slavic infantry), on the left. Other Norman commanders included Peter and Walter, the illustrious sons of Amicus, Aureolanus, Hubert, Rainald Musca, and Count Hugh and Count Gerard, who commanded respectively the Beneventans and the men of Telese, and also Count Radulfus of Boiano. In front of them, the Papal army was divided into two parts, with the heavy Swabian infantry on a thin and long line from the center extending to the right, and the Italian levies amassed in a mob on the left, under the command of Rudolf. Pope Leo was in the city, but his standard, the vexillum sancti Petri, was with his allied army.
The battle started with the attack of Richard of Aversa against the Italians on the left with a flanking movement and charge. After moving across the plain, they arrived in front their opponents, who broke formation and fled without even trying to resist. The Normans killed many of them as they retreated and moved further towards the Papal field-camp, before eventually attempting to return to the main engagement.
The Swabians, in the meantime, had moved to the hill, and came into contact with the Norman center and the forces of Humphrey, skirmishing with arrows and archers before entering a general melee. Most likely, this engagement was primarily on foot, as the Germans are often referred to as "taking up their swords and shields", William of Apulia adds that this was a part of their German character:
The fight with the Swabians was the main focus of much of the battle, with the Normans attempting to flank the Swabians while Humphrey engaged them. Robert Guiscard, seeing his brother in danger, moved with the left wing to the hill, and succeeded in easing the Swabian pressure, and also displayed his personal bravery with the aid of the Calabrians under the command of Count Gerard.
The situation on the center however, remained balanced. Yet thanks to the continued Norman discipline in holding the line against the Swabians, the day was at last decided by the return of Richard's forces from pursuing the Italians, which resulted in the defeat of the Papal coalition.
Aftermath
After preparing a siege of the town of Civitate itself, the Pope was taken prisoner by the victorious Normans.
There is some uncertainty over how this happened. Papal sources say that Leo left Civitate and surrendered himself to prevent further bloodshed. Other sources including Malaterra indicate that the inhabitants of Civitate handed over the Pope and drove him "out of the gates," after seeing the Norman threat manifested in siege towers and earthen ramparts. He was treated respectfully but was imprisoned at Benevento for almost nine months, and forced to ratify a number of treaties favorable to the Normans. However, according to the Norman accounts, Leo was treated more as an honored guest than as a prisoner, and by no means lacked for comforts, Amatus claims that "they continually furnished him with wine, bread, and all the necessities," and was "protected" by the Normans until he returned to Rome ten months later. According to John Julius Norwich, Leo attempted a long, passive resistance to agreeing to anything for the Normans, and was waiting for an imperial relief army from Germany. In addition, Norwich believes that despite the lack of concrete support until later popes, Leo did eventually acknowledge the Normans as the rulers of the South in order to get a release for his freedom. Meanwhile, Argyros and the Byzantine army were forced to disband and return to Greece via Bari, since their forces were not strong enough to fight the Normans now that the papal forces had been defeated. Argyros may even have been banished from the Empire by Constantine himself.
More importantly, the Battle of Civitate proved to be a turning point in the fortunes of the Normans in Italy, who were able to win a victory despite their differences even among themselves, and solidifying their legitimacy in the process. Not only that, it was the first major victory for Robert Guiscard, who would eventually rise to prominence as the leader of the Normans in the South. In terms of its implications, the Battle of Civitate had the same long-term political ramifications as had the Battle of Hastings in England and Northern Europe, a reorientation of power and influence into a Latin-Christendom world. Finally, while Leo attempted to maintain an anti-Norman alliance with the Byzantines in hopes of driving them out on religious grounds, the inability of the papal legates to negotiate with the Greek court in addition to Leo's untimely death negated any hope for aid from the Byzantines, except at the command of the Eastern emperor himself. The schism, in this case, worked to the favor of the Normans at least in the political realm.
After six more years, and three more anti-Norman popes, the Treaty of Melfi (1059) marked the recognition of the Norman power in South Italy. There were two reasons for this change in papal politics. First, the Normans had shown themselves to be a powerful (and nearby) enemy, whereas the emperor was a weak (and far off) ally. Second, Pope Nicholas II had decided to cut the bonds between the Roman Church and the Holy Roman emperors, reclaiming for "the Roman cardinals the right to elect the pope (see Investiture Controversy), thus reducing the importance of the emperor. And in the foreseeable struggle against the Empire, a strong ally was more desirable than a strong enemy.
References
Sources
Primary sources
medievalsicily.com The Medieval Mediterranean Islamic and Norman Sicily (800-1200), Chronicles and Narrative Sources with English translations by Graham Loud
Amatus of Montecassino (translated by Prescott N. Dunbar and edited by Graham Loud). The History of the Normans. Rochester: The Boydell Press, 2004.
Gaufredo Malaterra, De rebus gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae comitis et Roberti Guiscardi ducis fratris eius at The Latin Library
William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi at The Latin Library
Secondary sources
Brown, Gordon S. The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily. Jefferson NC: McFarland & Company, 2003.
Eads, Valerie. "Civitate, Battle of," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Edited by Clifford J. Rogers. Vol. 1. Oxford: University Press, 2010. pp. 402–403.
Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris: 1907.
Joranson, Einar. "The Inception of the Career of the Normans in Italy: Legend and History." Speculum, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Jul., 1948), pp. 353–396.
Le Patourel, John. "Normans and Normandy," in Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Edited by Joseph R. Strayer. Vol. 9. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons: New York, 1989. pp. 159–170.
Loud, Graham Alexander. "Continuity and change in Norman Italy: the Campania during the eleventh and twelfth centuries." Journal of Medieval History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (December, 1996), pp. 313–343.
Loud, Graham Alexander. "How 'Norman' was the Norman Conquest of Southern Italy?" Nottingham Medieval Studies, Vol. 25 (1981), pp. 13–34.
Loud, Graham Alexander. The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest. New York: Longman, 2000.
Meschini, Marco, Battaglie Medievali, pp. 13–36.
Norwich, John Julius. The Other Conquest. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
External links
The Normans, a European People, by the European Commission
Breve Chronicon Northmannicum (Latin).
The Normans Jersey heritage trust
Patrick Kelly The Normans: their history, arms and tactics
Civitate
Civitate
Conflicts in 1053
1053 in Europe | [
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225779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program%20optimization | Program optimization | In computer science, program optimization, code optimization, or software optimization is the process of modifying a software system to make some aspect of it work more efficiently or use fewer resources. In general, a computer program may be optimized so that it executes more rapidly, or to make it capable of operating with less memory storage or other resources, or draw less power.
General
Although the word "optimization" shares the same root as "optimal", it is rare for the process of optimization to produce a truly optimal system. A system can generally be made optimal not in absolute terms, but only with respect to a given quality metric, which may be in contrast with other possible metrics. As a result, the optimized system will typically only be optimal in one application or for one audience. One might reduce the amount of time that a program takes to perform some task at the price of making it consume more memory. In an application where memory space is at a premium, one might deliberately choose a slower algorithm in order to use less memory. Often there is no "one size fits all" design which works well in all cases, so engineers make trade-offs to optimize the attributes of greatest interest. Additionally, the effort required to make a piece of software completely optimal incapable of any further improvement is almost always more than is reasonable for the benefits that would be accrued; so the process of optimization may be halted before a completely optimal solution has been reached. Fortunately, it is often the case that the greatest improvements come early in the process.
Even for a given quality metric (such as execution speed), most methods of optimization only improve the result; they have no pretense of producing optimal output. Superoptimization is the process of finding truly optimal output.
Levels of optimization
Optimization can occur at a number of levels. Typically the higher levels have greater impact, and are harder to change later on in a project, requiring significant changes or a complete rewrite if they need to be changed. Thus optimization can typically proceed via refinement from higher to lower, with initial gains being larger and achieved with less work, and later gains being smaller and requiring more work. However, in some cases overall performance depends on performance of very low-level portions of a program, and small changes at a late stage or early consideration of low-level details can have outsized impact. Typically some consideration is given to efficiency throughout a project though this varies significantly but major optimization is often considered a refinement to be done late, if ever. On longer-running projects there are typically cycles of optimization, where improving one area reveals limitations in another, and these are typically curtailed when performance is acceptable or gains become too small or costly.
As performance is part of the specification of a program a program that is unusably slow is not fit for purpose: a video game with 60 Hz (frames-per-second) is acceptable, but 6 frames-per-second is unacceptably choppy performance is a consideration from the start, to ensure that the system is able to deliver sufficient performance, and early prototypes need to have roughly acceptable performance for there to be confidence that the final system will (with optimization) achieve acceptable performance. This is sometimes omitted in the belief that optimization can always be done later, resulting in prototype systems that are far too slow often by an order of magnitude or more and systems that ultimately are failures because they architecturally cannot achieve their performance goals, such as the Intel 432 (1981); or ones that take years of work to achieve acceptable performance, such as Java (1995), which only achieved acceptable performance with HotSpot (1999). The degree to which performance changes between prototype and production system, and how amenable it is to optimization, can be a significant source of uncertainty and risk.
Design level
At the highest level, the design may be optimized to make best use of the available resources, given goals, constraints, and expected use/load. The architectural design of a system overwhelmingly affects its performance. For example, a system that is network latency-bound (where network latency is the main constraint on overall performance) would be optimized to minimize network trips, ideally making a single request (or no requests, as in a push protocol) rather than multiple roundtrips. Choice of design depends on the goals: when designing a compiler, if fast compilation is the key priority, a one-pass compiler is faster than a multi-pass compiler (assuming same work), but if speed of output code is the goal, a slower multi-pass compiler fulfills the goal better, even though it takes longer itself. Choice of platform and programming language occur at this level, and changing them frequently requires a complete rewrite, though a modular system may allow rewrite of only some component for example, a Python program may rewrite performance-critical sections in C. In a distributed system, choice of architecture (client-server, peer-to-peer, etc.) occurs at the design level, and may be difficult to change, particularly if all components cannot be replaced in sync (e.g., old clients).
Algorithms and data structures
Given an overall design, a good choice of efficient algorithms and data structures, and efficient implementation of these algorithms and data structures comes next. After design, the choice of algorithms and data structures affects efficiency more than any other aspect of the program. Generally data structures are more difficult to change than algorithms, as a data structure assumption and its performance assumptions are used throughout the program, though this can be minimized by the use of abstract data types in function definitions, and keeping the concrete data structure definitions restricted to a few places.
For algorithms, this primarily consists of ensuring that algorithms are constant O(1), logarithmic O(log n), linear O(n), or in some cases log-linear O(n log n) in the input (both in space and time). Algorithms with quadratic complexity O(n2) fail to scale, and even linear algorithms cause problems if repeatedly called, and are typically replaced with constant or logarithmic if possible.
Beyond asymptotic order of growth, the constant factors matter: an asymptotically slower algorithm may be faster or smaller (because simpler) than an asymptotically faster algorithm when they are both faced with small input, which may be the case that occurs in reality. Often a hybrid algorithm will provide the best performance, due to this tradeoff changing with size.
A general technique to improve performance is to avoid work. A good example is the use of a fast path for common cases, improving performance by avoiding unnecessary work. For example, using a simple text layout algorithm for Latin text, only switching to a complex layout algorithm for complex scripts, such as Devanagari. Another important technique is caching, particularly memoization, which avoids redundant computations. Because of the importance of caching, there are often many levels of caching in a system, which can cause problems from memory use, and correctness issues from stale caches.
Source code level
Beyond general algorithms and their implementation on an abstract machine, concrete source code level choices can make a significant difference. For example, on early C compilers, while(1) was slower than for(;;) for an unconditional loop, because while(1) evaluated 1 and then had a conditional jump which tested if it was true, while for (;;) had an unconditional jump . Some optimizations (such as this one) can nowadays be performed by optimizing compilers. This depends on the source language, the target machine language, and the compiler, and can be both difficult to understand or predict and changes over time; this is a key place where understanding of compilers and machine code can improve performance. Loop-invariant code motion and return value optimization are examples of optimizations that reduce the need for auxiliary variables and can even result in faster performance by avoiding round-about optimizations.
Build level
Between the source and compile level, directives and build flags can be used to tune performance options in the source code and compiler respectively, such as using preprocessor defines to disable unneeded software features, optimizing for specific processor models or hardware capabilities, or predicting branching, for instance. Source-based software distribution systems such as BSD's Ports and Gentoo's Portage can take advantage of this form of optimization.
Compile level
Use of an optimizing compiler tends to ensure that the executable program is optimized at least as much as the compiler can predict.
Assembly level
At the lowest level, writing code using an assembly language, designed for a particular hardware platform can produce the most efficient and compact code if the programmer takes advantage of the full repertoire of machine instructions. Many operating systems used on embedded systems have been traditionally written in assembler code for this reason. Programs (other than very small programs) are seldom written from start to finish in assembly due to the time and cost involved. Most are compiled down from a high level language to assembly and hand optimized from there. When efficiency and size are less important large parts may be written in a high-level language.
With more modern optimizing compilers and the greater complexity of recent CPUs, it is harder to write more efficient code than what the compiler generates, and few projects need this "ultimate" optimization step.
Much code written today is intended to run on as many machines as possible. As a consequence, programmers and compilers don't always take advantage of the more efficient instructions provided by newer CPUs or quirks of older models. Additionally, assembly code tuned for a particular processor without using such instructions might still be suboptimal on a different processor, expecting a different tuning of the code.
Typically today rather than writing in assembly language, programmers will use a disassembler to analyze the output of a compiler and change the high-level source code so that it can be compiled more efficiently, or understand why it is inefficient.
Run time
Just-in-time compilers can produce customized machine code based on run-time data, at the cost of compilation overhead. This technique dates to the earliest regular expression engines, and has become widespread with Java HotSpot and V8 for JavaScript. In some cases adaptive optimization may be able to perform run time optimization exceeding the capability of static compilers by dynamically adjusting parameters according to the actual input or other factors.
Profile-guided optimization is an ahead-of-time (AOT) compilation optimization technique based on run time profiles, and is similar to a static "average case" analog of the dynamic technique of adaptive optimization.
Self-modifying code can alter itself in response to run time conditions in order to optimize code; this was more common in assembly language programs.
Some CPU designs can perform some optimizations at run time. Some examples include Out-of-order execution, Speculative execution, Instruction pipelines, and Branch predictors. Compilers can help the program take advantage of these CPU features, for example through instruction scheduling.
Platform dependent and independent optimizations
Code optimization can be also broadly categorized as platform-dependent and platform-independent techniques. While the latter ones are effective on most or all platforms, platform-dependent techniques use specific properties of one platform, or rely on parameters depending on the single platform or even on the single processor. Writing or producing different versions of the same code for different processors might therefore be needed. For instance, in the case of compile-level optimization, platform-independent techniques are generic techniques (such as loop unrolling, reduction in function calls, memory efficient routines, reduction in conditions, etc.), that impact most CPU architectures in a similar way. A great example of platform-independent optimization has been shown with inner for loop, where it was observed that a loop with an inner for loop performs more computations per unit time than a loop without it or one with an inner while loop. Generally, these serve to reduce the total instruction path length required to complete the program and/or reduce total memory usage during the process. On the other hand, platform-dependent techniques involve instruction scheduling, instruction-level parallelism, data-level parallelism, cache optimization techniques (i.e., parameters that differ among various platforms) and the optimal instruction scheduling might be different even on different processors of the same architecture.
Strength reduction
Computational tasks can be performed in several different ways with varying efficiency. A more efficient version with equivalent functionality is known as a strength reduction. For example, consider the following C code snippet whose intention is to obtain the sum of all integers from 1 to :
int i, sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= N; ++i) {
sum += i;
}
printf("sum: %d\n", sum);
This code can (assuming no arithmetic overflow) be rewritten using a mathematical formula like:
int sum = N * (1 + N) / 2;
printf("sum: %d\n", sum);
The optimization, sometimes performed automatically by an optimizing compiler, is to select a method (algorithm) that is more computationally efficient, while retaining the same functionality. See algorithmic efficiency for a discussion of some of these techniques. However, a significant improvement in performance can often be achieved by removing extraneous functionality.
Optimization is not always an obvious or intuitive process. In the example above, the "optimized" version might actually be slower than the original version if were sufficiently small and the particular hardware happens to be much faster at performing addition and looping operations than multiplication and division.
In some cases, however, optimization relies on using more elaborate algorithms, making use of "special cases" and special "tricks" and performing complex trade-offs. A "fully optimized" program might be more difficult to comprehend and hence may contain more faults than unoptimized versions. Beyond eliminating obvious antipatterns, some code level optimizations decrease maintainability.
Optimization will generally focus on improving just one or two aspects of performance: execution time, memory usage, disk space, bandwidth, power consumption or some other resource. This will usually require a trade-off where one factor is optimized at the expense of others. For example, increasing the size of cache improves run time performance, but also increases the memory consumption. Other common trade-offs include code clarity and conciseness.
There are instances where the programmer performing the optimization must decide to make the software better for some operations but at the cost of making other operations less efficient. These trade-offs may sometimes be of a non-technical nature such as when a competitor has published a benchmark result that must be beaten in order to improve commercial success but comes perhaps with the burden of making normal usage of the software less efficient. Such changes are sometimes jokingly referred to as pessimizations.
Bottlenecks
Optimization may include finding a bottleneck in a system a component that is the limiting factor on performance. In terms of code, this will often be a hot spot a critical part of the code that is the primary consumer of the needed resource though it can be another factor, such as I/O latency or network bandwidth.
In computer science, resource consumption often follows a form of power law distribution, and the Pareto principle can be applied to resource optimization by observing that 80% of the resources are typically used by 20% of the operations. In software engineering, it is often a better approximation that 90% of the execution time of a computer program is spent executing 10% of the code (known as the 90/10 law in this context).
More complex algorithms and data structures perform well with many items, while simple algorithms are more suitable for small amounts of data — the setup, initialization time, and constant factors of the more complex algorithm can outweigh the benefit, and thus a hybrid algorithm or adaptive algorithm may be faster than any single algorithm. A performance profiler can be used to narrow down decisions about which functionality fits which conditions.
In some cases, adding more memory can help to make a program run faster. For example, a filtering program will commonly read each line and filter and output that line immediately. This only uses enough memory for one line, but performance is typically poor, due to the latency of each disk read. Caching the result is similarly effective, though also requiring larger memory use.
When to optimize
Optimization can reduce readability and add code that is used only to improve the performance. This may complicate programs or systems, making them harder to maintain and debug. As a result, optimization or performance tuning is often performed at the end of the development stage.
Donald Knuth made the following two statements on optimization:
"We should forget about small efficiencies, say about 97% of the time: premature optimization is the root of all evil. Yet we should not pass up our opportunities in that critical 3%"
(He also attributed the quote to Tony Hoare several years later, although this might have been an error as Hoare disclaims having coined the phrase.)
"In established engineering disciplines a 12% improvement, easily obtained, is never considered marginal and I believe the same viewpoint should prevail in software engineering"
"Premature optimization" is a phrase used to describe a situation where a programmer lets performance considerations affect the design of a piece of code. This can result in a design that is not as clean as it could have been or code that is incorrect, because the code is complicated by the optimization and the programmer is distracted by optimizing.
When deciding whether to optimize a specific part of the program, Amdahl's Law should always be considered: the impact on the overall program depends very much on how much time is actually spent in that specific part, which is not always clear from looking at the code without a performance analysis.
A better approach is therefore to design first, code from the design and then profile/benchmark the resulting code to see which parts should be optimized. A simple and elegant design is often easier to optimize at this stage, and profiling may reveal unexpected performance problems that would not have been addressed by premature optimization.
In practice, it is often necessary to keep performance goals in mind when first designing software, but the programmer balances the goals of design and optimization.
Modern compilers and operating systems are so efficient that the intended performance increases often fail to materialize. As an example, caching data at the application level that is again cached at the operating system level does not yield improvements in execution. Even so, it is a rare case when the programmer will remove failed optimizations from production code. It is also true that advances in hardware will more often than not obviate any potential improvements, yet the obscuring code will persist into the future long after its purpose has been negated.
Macros
Optimization during code development using macros takes on different forms in different languages.
In some procedural languages, such as C and C++, macros are implemented using token substitution. Nowadays, inline functions can be used as a type safe alternative in many cases. In both cases, the inlined function body can then undergo further compile-time optimizations by the compiler, including constant folding, which may move some computations to compile time.
In many functional programming languages macros are implemented using parse-time substitution of parse trees/abstract syntax trees, which it is claimed makes them safer to use. Since in many cases interpretation is used, that is one way to ensure that such computations are only performed at parse-time, and sometimes the only way.
Lisp originated this style of macro, and such macros are often called "Lisp-like macros." A similar effect can be achieved by using template metaprogramming in C++.
In both cases, work is moved to compile-time. The difference between C macros on one side, and Lisp-like macros and C++ template metaprogramming on the other side, is that the latter tools allow performing arbitrary computations at compile-time/parse-time, while expansion of C macros does not perform any computation, and relies on the optimizer ability to perform it. Additionally, C macros do not directly support recursion or iteration, so are not Turing complete.
As with any optimization, however, it is often difficult to predict where such tools will have the most impact before a project is complete.
Automated and manual optimization
See also :Category:Compiler optimizations
Optimization can be automated by compilers or performed by programmers. Gains are usually limited for local optimization, and larger for global optimizations. Usually, the most powerful optimization is to find a superior algorithm.
Optimizing a whole system is usually undertaken by programmers because it is too complex for automated optimizers. In this situation, programmers or system administrators explicitly change code so that the overall system performs better. Although it can produce better efficiency, it is far more expensive than automated optimizations. Since many parameters influence the program performance, the program optimization space is large. Meta-heuristics and machine learning are used to address the complexity of program optimization.
Use a profiler (or performance analyzer) to find the sections of the program that are taking the most resources the bottleneck. Programmers sometimes believe they have a clear idea of where the bottleneck is, but intuition is frequently wrong. Optimizing an unimportant piece of code will typically do little to help the overall performance.
When the bottleneck is localized, optimization usually starts with a rethinking of the algorithm used in the program. More often than not, a particular algorithm can be specifically tailored to a particular problem, yielding better performance than a generic algorithm. For example, the task of sorting a huge list of items is usually done with a quicksort routine, which is one of the most efficient generic algorithms. But if some characteristic of the items is exploitable (for example, they are already arranged in some particular order), a different method can be used, or even a custom-made sort routine.
After the programmer is reasonably sure that the best algorithm is selected, code optimization can start. Loops can be unrolled (for lower loop overhead, although this can often lead to lower speed if it overloads the CPU cache), data types as small as possible can be used, integer arithmetic can be used instead of floating-point, and so on. (See algorithmic efficiency article for these and other techniques.)
Performance bottlenecks can be due to language limitations rather than algorithms or data structures used in the program. Sometimes, a critical part of the program can be re-written in a different programming language that gives more direct access to the underlying machine. For example, it is common for very high-level languages like Python to have modules written in C for greater speed. Programs already written in C can have modules written in assembly. Programs written in D can use the inline assembler.
Rewriting sections "pays off" in these circumstances because of a general "rule of thumb" known as the 90/10 law, which states that 90% of the time is spent in 10% of the code, and only 10% of the time in the remaining 90% of the code. So, putting intellectual effort into optimizing just a small part of the program can have a huge effect on the overall speed if the correct part(s) can be located.
Manual optimization sometimes has the side effect of undermining readability. Thus code optimizations should be carefully documented (preferably using in-line comments), and their effect on future development evaluated.
The program that performs an automated optimization is called an optimizer. Most optimizers are embedded in compilers and operate during compilation. Optimizers can often tailor the generated code to specific processors.
Today, automated optimizations are almost exclusively limited to compiler optimization. However, because compiler optimizations are usually limited to a fixed set of rather general optimizations, there is considerable demand for optimizers which can accept descriptions of problem and language-specific optimizations, allowing an engineer to specify custom optimizations. Tools that accept descriptions of optimizations are called program transformation systems and are beginning to be applied to real software systems such as C++.
Some high-level languages (Eiffel, Esterel) optimize their programs by using an intermediate language.
Grid computing or distributed computing aims to optimize the whole system, by moving tasks from computers with high usage to computers with idle time.
Time taken for optimization
Sometimes, the time taken to undertake optimization therein itself may be an issue.
Optimizing existing code usually does not add new features, and worse, it might add new bugs in previously working code (as any change might). Because manually optimized code might sometimes have less "readability" than unoptimized code, optimization might impact maintainability of it as well. Optimization comes at a price and it is important to be sure that the investment is worthwhile.
An automatic optimizer (or optimizing compiler, a program that performs code optimization) may itself have to be optimized, either to further improve the efficiency of its target programs or else speed up its own operation. A compilation performed with optimization "turned on" usually takes longer, although this is usually only a problem when programs are quite large.
In particular, for just-in-time compilers the performance of the run time compile component, executing together with its target code, is the key to improving overall execution speed.
References
Jon Bentley: Writing Efficient Programs, .
Donald Knuth: The Art of Computer Programming
External links
How To Write Fast Numerical Code: A Small Introduction
"What Every Programmer Should Know About Memory" by Ulrich Drepper explains the structure of modern memory subsystems and suggests how to utilize them efficiently
"Linux Multicore Performance Analysis and Optimization in a Nutshell", presentation slides by Philip Mucci
Programming Optimization by Paul Hsieh
Writing efficient programs ("Bentley's Rules") by Jon Bentley
"Performance Anti-Patterns" by Bart Smaalders
Programming language topics
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] |
225791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macclesfield%20Town%20F.C. | Macclesfield Town F.C. | Macclesfield Town Football Club was a professional association football club in Macclesfield, Cheshire, England, which was wound-up after a High Court ruling on 16 September 2020.
Initially known as Macclesfield F.C., the club was formed in 1874 and from 1891 played home games at Moss Rose. It competed in the short-lived Combination league in the 1890–91 season, reforming in the Manchester League at the end of the century. The club won the Manchester League title twice, before becoming inaugural members of the Cheshire County League at the start of the 1919–20 season, ultimately winning the League six times. Renamed Macclesfield Town in 1946, the club were founder members of the Northern Premier League in 1968, winning the league in its first two years, as well as the FA Trophy in 1970. They were promoted to the Conference after they won their third Northern Premier League title in 1986–87.
Manager Sammy McIlroy led Macclesfield Town to the top of the Conference in 1993–94, but they were not promoted as Moss Rose did not meet Football League requirements. They won the FA Trophy for a second time in 1996. They again won the Conference title in 1996–97 and this time were promoted, winning promotion in their inaugural Football League campaign with a second-place finish in the Third Division in 1997–98. However they were immediately relegated from the Second Division. The club stayed in the fourth tier of the Football League from 1999 to 2012, losing a play-off semi-final in 2005, before being relegated back into the Conference. Despite financial constraints, manager John Askey led the club back into the Football League as champions of the National League in 2017–18. In 2018–19, the club avoided relegation back to the National League, but financial issues continued to affect it. After a points deduction activated on 11 August 2020, the club was relegated to the National League, the 5th tier of English football, for the 2020–21 season.
On 14 September 2020, Macclesfield Town played their final fixture, a friendly against Witton Albion of the Northern Premier League. Following the winding-up order, the club was initially suspended and then expelled from the National League with effect from 12 October 2020.
In October 2020, local businessman Robert Smethurst purchased the assets of Macclesfield Town, and established Macclesfield F.C., entering it into the North West Counties Football League in the 2021–22 season.
History
19th century
The beginnings of Macclesfield Town Football Club can be traced, at least in part, to the 8th Cheshire Rifle Volunteers who were formed in 1873 and played regularly in Macclesfield from October 1874. It was agreed at a public meeting on 21 October 1876 that the 8th Cheshire Rifle Volunteers and the Olympic Cricket club teams be merged to form Macclesfield F.C.; initially matches alternated between association and rugby rules. At the beginning of the 1878–79 Macclesfield United Football Club merged with Macclesfield Football Club. The club played in the FA Cup competition for the first time on 18 November 1882, losing 3–4 to Lockwood Brothers and first entered the Cheshire Senior Cup in the 1879–80 season, winning this competition for the first time on 22 March 1890 when they beat Nantwich 4–1 and went on to be winners on three more occasions before the turn of the century.
Macclesfield became members of The Combination at the start of the 1890–91 season and moved from Victoria Road to the Moss Rose on 12 September 1891 which remains the home of the Silkmen today. In July 1894 the first limited company, Macclesfield Football and Athletic Club Limited, was formed but only lasted until the end of the 1896–97 season when it was wound up and Macclesfield Football Club withdrew from The Combination due to financial constraints. For the 1897–98 season, and the following two seasons, local amateur side Hallefield moved their fixtures to the Moss Rose.
1900 to World War II
Having re-formed, Macclesfield became members of the Manchester League for the 1900–01 season and were champions in the 1908–09 and 1910–11 seasons. They fielded two senior teams for the 1911–12 season, continuing in the Manchester League with the second team competing in the Lancashire Combination 2nd Division. Having withdrawn from the Manchester League at the end of the 1911–12 season, the club reverted to one senior team for the 1912–13 season which competed in the Lancashire Combination 2nd Division. They gained promotion as runners-up at the end of the 1913–14 season to compete in the 1st Division for the 1914–15 season. In line with all other football clubs after a decree by the government there was no further competitive football at the Moss Rose during hostilities.
Macclesfield became inaugural members of the Cheshire County League at the start of the 1919–20 season of which they were champions in the 1931–32 and 1932–33 seasons. In the 1933–34 season, Albert Valentine set an all-time club record scoring 83 goals in the season. The first ever manager, James Stevenson, was appointed for the 1936–37 season. Between 1900 and 1939 they won the Cheshire Senior Cup three times (1910–11, 1929–30 and 1934–35). Although a member of the Cheshire War-time League (1939 West Series and 1940 East Series), due to dwindling attendances and increasing debts Macclesfield withdrew from the league at the end of the 1939–40 season and no further football was played on the Moss Rose during the Second World War. It would be just prior to the 1946–47 season before the outstanding debts were settled.
1946 to 1999
When competitive football resumed after World War II, Macclesfield Town Football Club Ltd was formed and the club gained their current name. The club re-joined the Cheshire County League in 1946–47, playing their first game after reformation on 31 August 1946, a 2–0 defeat to Buxton. The club's form in the remainder of the 1940s was largely indifferent, with the exception of a Cheshire League Challenge Cup win in 1948. The 1950s proved more successful, with four trophies in as many years from 1951 to 1954, including the club's first Cheshire County League title in 20 years in 1953, though the team's fortunes faded in the latter half of the decade.
Macclesfield Town progressed through four qualifying rounds to make their first appearance in the FA Cup first round in 1960 under manager Frank Bowyer, but lost 7–2 to Southport. At the end of that season the club won the Cheshire County League, beginning a nine-year period in which they won three league titles and finished no lower than fifth, and in 1964 won the Cheshire County League by a record-equalling 13 point margin. The club reached the FA Cup third round for the first time in 1968, meeting First Division Fulham at Craven Cottage. Macclesfield Town lost 4–2, but the performance resulted in Macclesfield Town's Keith Goalen becoming the first non-league player to be named Footballer of the Month by the London Evening Standard.
The club were founder members of the Northern Premier League, one of three leagues at the fifth tier of English football, upon its creation in 1968. Macclesfield Town were champions in each of the first two seasons of the competition, finishing 12 points clear in 1968–69, and by goal average in 1969–70. The 1969–70 season also resulted in a trip to Wembley for the inaugural final of the FA Trophy, a knockout competition for non-league clubs. Macclesfield Town defeated Telford United 2–0 in front of more than 28,000 spectators to win the competition. A period of decline then followed, despite the performances of Willie Mailey in goal, and the side's fortunes reached a nadir when the club finished bottom of the Northern Premier League in 1979, a year when the stronger teams from the division formed the national Alliance Premier League (now known as the National League). The 1980s saw steady rebuilding. The club finished as Northern Premier League runners-up in the 1984–85 season.
Macclesfield Town's third Northern Premier League title in the 1986–87 season resulted in promotion to the Football Conference; they also lifted the League Challenge Cup and President's Cup. They finished in mid-table in their first Conference season, and eliminated two League teams, Carlisle and Rotherham, from the FA Cup. The club reached the FA Trophy final for the second time in 1989, facing Telford United. However, the team did not match the achievement of their predecessors 19 years earlier, losing 1–0. From a high of a fourth place league finish in 1989–90, Macclesfield Town's final standing diminished each season, and following a struggle against relegation in 1992–93, manager Peter Wragg was sacked, and replaced with former Manchester United midfielder Sammy McIlroy.
McIlroy took charge at the start of the 1993–94 season, and guided the club to the Football Conference championship in his second season as manager. However. the club was denied promotion to the English Football League because the Moss Rose did not meet league requirements of having a 6,000 total capacity including at least 1,000 seats by the League's deadline of 31 December 1994. Macclesfield Town won the Conference title again two seasons later in 1996–97, by which time the stadium had been upgraded and they were promoted to Division Three of the Football League in place of Hereford United.
Upon gaining League status, the club turned fully professional. Macclesfield Town's first League match was a 2–1 win at home to Torquay United. The momentum of the Conference success continued, and, unbeaten at home in their first League season, Macclesfield Town finished runners-up in Division Three and were promoted for the second consecutive season, this time to Division Two. However, the higher level proved a step too far for the club, who finished the 1998–99 season bottom of Division Two and were relegated. McIlroy soon left to become the Northern Ireland national coach and was replaced by former Manchester United colleague Peter Davenport.
2000 to 2020
A dismal start to the following season cost Davenport his job though, and Gil Prescott took over for the remainder of the season, keeping Macclesfield Town clear of relegation. David Moss in turn succeeded Prescott as manager and delivered two decent mid-table finishes, but a bad start to the 2003–04 season resulted in his sacking. Club stalwart John Askey succeeded Moss initially on a temporary basis, and earned the job permanently with some promising early results. However, a terrible run of one win in three months meant that Askey's term as manager was short-lived.
In March 2004, with relegation to the Conference threatening, Macclesfield Town turned to the experienced 55-year-old Brian Horton to take charge. Horton reinvigorated Macclesfield Town who finished fifth in the 2004–05 season, resulting in a playoff place, but the team were eliminated in the semi-finals by Lincoln City. In 2005–06, the team finished an undistinguished 17th. Horton was sacked by the club in late September 2006, following a 12-game winless start to the season, leaving the club bottom of the Football League.
On 23 October 2006, Paul Ince was confirmed as Macclesfield Town's new player-manager. He lost his first match in charge 3–2 to Mansfield Town, and it took Macclesfield Town until 20 games into the season to record their first league win under Ince, on 5 December 2006. The team then went on a nine match unbeaten run, earning Ince the League Two Manager of the Month award for December 2006, and also securing an FA Cup tie against then English champions Chelsea away in the 3rd round of the FA Cup, which Town lost 6–1. They were then just able to survive after drawing 1–1 with Notts County on the final day of the 2006–07 season, after a poor run of results landed the team back in the relegation zone; this game also saw the last appearance (and booking) of Paul Ince as a professional footballer. On 24 June 2007, Ince resigned to become MK Dons manager.
On 29 June 2007, Ian Brightwell was announced as the new manager, with Asa Hartford as his assistant. Macclesfield Town started the 2007–08 season away with a 1–1 draw to former Premier League club Bradford City and narrowly lost 1–0 to another former Premier League team Leeds United in the first round of the Football League Cup. Away from the pitch, in January 2008, Chairman Rob Bickerton left the club after 7 years to join Shrewsbury Town. He was replaced by club supporter Mike Rance, with ex-player Andy Scott, founder of Bank Fashion Retail stores, as vice-chairman.
Following a poor run of results and with the club again flirting with the relegation zone to the Football Conference, on 27 February 2008, Brightwell and Hartford left the club with immediate effect. Keith Alexander was named as manager until the end of the season. Alexander kept the Silkmen in League Two following a run of four wins and three draws in nine games and was awarded a new two-year contract. On 3 March 2010, Macclesfield Town announced that manager Alexander had died at the age of 53. Alexander, who suffered a brain aneurysm in November 2003, died after arriving home from the League Two match at Notts County. Subsequently, on 13 April 2010, Macclesfield Town announced Gary Simpson, previously Alexander's assistant, as manager on a two-year contract in May 2011, which was subsequently extended by a further year. On 10 January 2011, it was announced that midfield player Richard Butcher had died aged 29. The club retired the number 21 shirt in his honour.
Macclesfield Town failed to win any match from the start of January 2012 until the end of the season (23 league and two FA Cup games; eight draws and 17 defeats). After defeat at Dagenham & Redbridge on 17 March continued a winless streak of 14 League matches, Simpson was asked to step down as manager by chairman Mike Rance, and was replaced by Brian Horton. However, Horton was unable to change Town's poor form and the team were relegated to the Conference Premier on 28 April 2012 following a home defeat to Burton Albion. Horton then left the club and Glyn Chamberlain took charge of the team for the final game of the season, before Steve King was appointed as manager on 21 May 2012. At the same time, it was announced that Andy Scott would stand down as deputy chairman with immediate effect, and that three other directors, including Rance, would stand down in due course.
On 5 January 2013, Macclesfield Town beat Championship Leaders Cardiff City in the FA Cup 3rd round 2–1. This gave them a place in the 4th round of the tournament for the first time in their 139-year history. Macclesfield Town were generally in or around the Conference National play-off places for much of the season, but a failure to secure a play-off spot resulted in the sacking of Steve King just before the season ended, with the club reappointing former manager John Askey as King's replacement.
Macclesfield regularly finished in the top half of the fifth tier despite financial difficulties and on 21 May 2017, the club visited Wembley Stadium for a fourth time, their first appearance since the stadium was rebuilt, losing the 2017 FA Trophy Final 3–2 against York City. A total of 7,698 Silkmen supporters attended the final. Macclesfield topped the National League table for the majority of the 2018/19 season and on 21 April 2018, the Silkmen beat Eastleigh 2–0 to win the title along with promotion back to the Football League after six years playing non-league football.
Following the departure of John Askey for Shrewsbury Town, Mark Yates was named as manager in June 2018. Yates departed the club in October 2018 after failing to win any of his first twelve league games in charge. After Danny Whitaker and Neil Howarth briefly took temporary charge, former Premier League and England defender Sol Campbell was appointed manager in November 2018. In his first managerial role, Campbell secured safety (and 22nd place) on the final day of the season with a draw against Cambridge United.
2019–20 financial issues and relegation
In early 2019, off-pitch financial issues meant players were not paid for three months, with some players threatening to boycott the Cambridge game. Six players issued a winding-up order against the club, which was taken over by HM Revenue and Customs in September but the High Court hearing was adjourned 10 times. A hearing on 25 March 2020 was then postponed, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, to 17 June, when it was adjourned for an 11th time, to 9 September 2020.
Campbell left the club by mutual consent on 15 August 2019, with Daryl McMahon taking over as manager; Campbell later backed the HMRC winding-up bid, claiming to be owed £180,000.
In October 2019, players again went unpaid, seeking help from the EFL – which, in November, began a formal investigation into the club's failure to pay its players. A strike by first team players over the unpaid wages jeopardised Macclesfield's FA Cup first round tie against non-league Kingstonian at the Moss Rose on 9 November 2019, but the club fulfilled the fixture, fielding six youth team players and five loanees, losing the tie 4–0 amid protests from Macclesfield supporters, many of whom boycotted the game. Meanwhile, local businessman Joe Sealey, son of former Manchester United goalkeeper Les Sealey, said he wanted to buy the club, though the takeover later (21 November) stalled.
On 14 November 2019, Macclesfield was charged with misconduct by the EFL and referred to a disciplinary panel after failing to pay players. As some players remained unpaid, they said they would not play in the 16 November League Two fixture against Mansfield Town unless paid by 6pm GMT on 15 November. Most were paid so the game went ahead. Two weeks later, Macclesfield players again told the club's owner they would not train, or play on 7 December against Crewe Alexandra, if owed wages were not paid. The game was officially 'suspended' on 6 December, with the EFL triggering further disciplinary action. On 19 December, the EFL docked Macclesfield six points (with a further four-point deduction suspended) over this infraction, but after a January 2020 arbitration panel upheld a "lenient" penalty imposed on Bolton Wanderers for not fulfilling two 2019 fixtures, Maccclesfield Town appealed against its points deduction and the deduction was reduced to four points (with three suspended). The 21 December fixture against Plymouth Argyle was then postponed due to a Moss Rose ground safety issue; the EFL again charged the club with misconduct for failing to fulfil its fixture obligations.
Meanwhile, Macclesfield supporters set up a hardship fund, raising over £11,000 to provide short-term financial emergency support for players and non-playing staff, fearing their club could follow Bury F.C. into "extinction" and blaming owner Amar Alkhadi. He claimed to be in "advanced negotiations with various third parties" over a possible takeover of the club, and on 15 January 2020 said a bid to buy the club had been accepted in principle.
Frustrated by the club's financial position, with December's pay arriving late, manager McMahon resigned after four months in charge, on 2 January 2020, joining Dagenham & Redbridge the following day, along with assistant Steve Gritt. After Danny Whitaker took temporary charge, on 16 January 2020, Mark Kennedy was appointed head coach. On 29 January, three Macclesfield players (Emmanuel Osadebe, Theo Vassell and Miles Welch-Hayes) approached the EFL and had their contracts terminated ahead of the transfer deadline. Club staff wages for February were also not paid on time, leading the PFA to contact the club. On 9 March, the club was charged with misconduct by the EFL for failing to pay players on time, and was referred to an independent disciplinary commission after failing to fulfil the Crewe and Plymouth fixtures. In April 2020, it was reported that the club had not paid its players for a fifth time, failing to pay March's wages, and later that the first team, backroom staff and most office staff had been put on furlough (temporary leave) due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In May 2020, the club was given a seven-point deduction (with a further two-point deduction suspended) for failing to fulfil the Plymouth fixture in December 2019, and for failing to pay players' wages. After the Silkmen Supporters' Trust provided a loan of £10,000 to help towards the payment of players' wages for April, further misconduct charges were brought by the EFL on 1 June, relating to late payment of salaries in March. These latest charges left Macclesfield at risk of relegation as, on 9 June, an EFL EGM agreed outstanding promotion and relegation issues, with "ongoing disciplinary matters" meaning Macclesfield could go down in place of Stevenage if further points deductions were made. Continued uncertainty ahead of the disciplinary hearing on 19 June 2020 was reported to be affecting the mental health of the club's players and staff, and having an impact on the club's potential sale to Joe Sealey, who said he would only be interested if EFL status was retained. On 1 June, Macclesfield received a two-point deduction – retaining the club's League Two status – along with a suspended four-point deduction and a £20,000 fine plus costs. However, on 3 July, the EFL said it would appeal against the independent disciplinary panel's sanctions on Macclesfield; the hearing was set for 11 August 2020. In the meantime, the club provided the EFL with a "robust" business plan showing sustainable future financial and management resources, and on 4 August, chairman Amar Alkadhi resigned his position.
On 11 August 2020, the club was relegated to the National League following the EFL's appeal. The suspended four-point deduction was activated, dropping Macclesfield to the bottom of the table, and reprieving Stevenage. The following day, manager Mark Kennedy and his assistant resigned.
2020 winding-up order
On 9 September 2020, the High Court granted Macclesfield a seven-day extension (effectively a 12th adjournment) to a winding-up petition over unpaid tax to give time for a possible takeover of the club by Robert Benwell (previously linked with a move to buy Bury F.C.). If the takeover – said to be at "an advanced stage" – fell through, current owner Amar Alkadhi said outstanding debts would be paid (HMRC was owed £188,721.09, with eight creditors owed £592,000).
On 16 September 2020, the High Court made a winding-up order against the club, pushing the club into liquidation. Judge Sebastian Prentis made the order after receiving no evidence relating to the club's sale or satisfactory evidence of the club's ability to pay creditors, saying "nothing gives me comfort that the club can pay its debts in a reasonable period".
The Silkmen Supporters' Trust were reported to be exploring what actions they could take to save the club, and to be seeking a meeting with the receiver. However, on 29 September 2020, the club was suspended by the National League and its first three scheduled games were postponed, pending a notice of expulsion taking effect from 12 October 2020.
The club's final match was a 2–1 victory in a friendly match at Cheshire neighbours Witton Albion on 15 September 2020.
Macclesfield Football Club establishment
On 13 October 2020, the Official Receiver confirmed that the assets of Macclesfield Town had been sold to Macc Football Club Limited. Local businessman (and owner of 10th tier Stockport Town) Robert Smethurst had purchased the assets, intending to establish a new club, Macclesfield Football Club, and enter the North West Counties Football League in the 2021–22 campaign. Former Wales international Robbie Savage, now a Stockport Town player, joined the club's board, and former Town manager Danny Whittaker became team manager.
Kit and badge
Macclesfield Town's colours were blue and white; the club have used combinations of these colours since 1947, with the exception of the 1975–76 season, when the team wore tangerine and black as part of a sponsorship deal. Earlier incarnations of the club wore several colours. The first Macclesfield kit was amber and black stripes, but between 1882 and 1947 the club also used red and white, red, yellow and blue, blue and white, and black and white. The club currently play in a blue home shirt and a black away shirt. Their sponsors include ZAM and Macclesfield College.
The club crest is based upon the coat of arms of Macclesfield, and features a blue Lion Rampant holding a wheatsheaf. A new club crest was planned for the start of the 2007–08 season. However, many loyal supporters were not happy with the modern design so the plans were delayed and a re-designed badge was introduced in early 2008, which won the approval of the majority of fans.
Stadium
Macclesfield Town played their home games at the Moss Rose stadium in the south of the town from 1891. The first game at the ground adjoining the then named Moss Rose Inn took place on 12 September 1891. Before moving to the Moss Rose, three other grounds were used: Macclesfield Grammar School, Rostron's Field (near Coare Street) and Victoria Road (then known as Bowfield Lane).
The current capacity of the Moss Rose is 6,335, of which 2,599 is seated. The Silk FM Stand (traditionally known as the London Road or Main Stand) runs along one side of the pitch and consists of a seated grandstand with open air terracing to either side, and the opposite side is the seated Alfred McAlpine Stand. The club's most vociferous supporters congregate in the Star Lane End, which is a mixture of terracing and seating. Visiting supporters are housed in the open air Silkman End (named after a public house which formerly adjoined the terrace) and part of the McAlpine Stand.
The record attendance for Macclesfield Town at the Moss Rose is sometimes given as 7,002 for an FA Cup tie against Spennymoor United in 1968. Phythian's Saga of the Silkmen (p. 85) and the News of the World Football Annual both give the record attendance of Moss Rose games involving Macclesfield Town as 9,003, in the Cheshire Cup tie vs. Winsford United, 14 February 1948. The Macclesfield Times (19 February 1948) reported that 80 coachloads of supporters had arrived from Winsford. Euro 96 winners Germany used the Moss Rose as a training base during the championships.
In September 2007, the club made a statement about possibly relocating to a new stadium in the proposed 'South Macclesfield Development Area', approximately one mile south of the Moss Rose. However, with the club in the lower part of League Two, and as England lost the bid to host the 2018 World Cup (which would have helped the cause for a new stadium), the Moss Rose would remain the club's ground for the foreseeable future.
Supporters and rivalries
During their spell as a Football League club, Macclesfield Town had a low level of support in comparison with other teams playing at the same level. The club's average attendance of 1,832 in the 2010–11 season was the lowest in Football League Two and the Football League; in 2019-2020, average attendance was 1,998—less than half of the averages achieved by nearby League Two rivals Port Vale and Crewe Alexandra. Reasons for this include the proximity of Macclesfield to cities with large football clubs such as Manchester and Liverpool, and a lack of historical success, as Macclesfield Town had only been a Football League club since 1997.
Most supporters are from Macclesfield and its environs with small pockets of fans from Norway, Japan, Port Talbot in south Wales and Fleet in Hampshire (The Southern Silkmen Lads – SSL). In April 2011, football magazine FourFourTwo voted Macclesfield Town supporters "League Two Best Away Fans".
Macclesfield Town's traditional rivals were Altrincham and Northwich Victoria, rivalries dating back to when all three clubs were in the Cheshire League, and later the Northern Premier League and Football Conference. Their closest rival in the Football League years has been Stockport County; however, as Stockport were relegated at the end of the 2010–11 season this rivalry was briefly interrupted. Following relegation for the Silkmen, this local derby was briefly resumed, until Stockport's relegation to the Conference North at the end of the 2012–13 season. Altrincham were promoted to the National League in the 2013/14 season; however, two years later, they were relegated to the National League North.
On 23 April 2021, local band and Macclesfield fans, Glass Ankle released a video for their song "Super Silkmen" which featured clips recorded by supporters whilst in COVID lockdown, as well as photos of former players and managers held in high esteem. Lyrics within the second verse reference the rivalries held with Crewe, Altrincham, and Stockport County.
Honours and achievements
FA Trophy:
Winners 1969–70, 1995–96
National League
Champions 1994–95, 1996–97, 2017–18
League Cup winners 1993–94
Northern Premier League
Champions 1968–69, 1969–70, 1986–87
Challenge Cup winners 1986–87
President's Cup winners 1986–87
Cheshire County League
Champions 1931–32, 1932–33, 1952–53, 1960–61, 1963–64, 1967–68
Cheshire Senior Cup
Winners 1889–90, 1890–91, 1893–94, 1895–96, 1910–11, 1929–30, 1934–35, 1950–51, 1951–52, 1953–54, 1959–60, 1963–64, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1972–73, 1982–83, 1990–91, 1991–92, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2014–15
Manchester League
Champions 1908–09, 1910–11
Staffordshire Senior Cup
Winners 1992–93, 1995–96
Club records
All records correct as at 29 September 2018.
Highest Football League finish — 24th in Division Two (3rd Tier) – (1998–99 season)
Record Football League victory — 6–0 v. Stockport County (2005–06 season)
Record Football League defeat — 8–0 v. West Ham United (Away) – 2018–19 EFL Cup Third Round
Highest Football League Home attendance — 6,381 v. Manchester City (1998–99 season)
Lowest Football League Home attendance — 1,035 v. Northampton Town (2009–10 season)
Highest Overall Away attendance — 41,434 v. Chelsea FA Cup 3rd Round (2006–07 season)
Highest Football League Away attendance — 31,086 v. Manchester City (1998–99 season)
Lowest Football League Away attendance — 1,210 v. Accrington Stanley (2009–10 season)
Record transfer fee paid — £40,000 to Bury for Danny Swailes (2004–05 season)
Record transfer fee received — £300,000 from Stockport County for Rickie Lambert (2002–03 season)
Record Football League appearances
Most Football League appearances — 263, Darren Tinson (1997–98 to 2002–03 season) but see below for the club's all-time record holder, John Askey
Youngest Football League appearance — 16 years 342 days, Elliott Hewitt (2010–11 season)
Oldest Football League appearance — 39 years 196 days, Paul Ince (2006–07 season)
John Askey holds the all-time record for the total number of appearances – 679 matches (1984–85 to 2002–03 season) including Non-League, Football League and Cup matches.
Record Football League goalscorers
Most Football League goals scored — 50, Matthew Tipton (2001–02 to 2009–10 season)
Most Football League goals scored in a season — 22, Jon Parkin (2004–05 season)
Albert Valentine scored the overall most goals in a season scoring 83 in the 1933–34 season.
In Macclesfield Town's first 14 seasons in the Football League (1997–98 to 2010–11 season), they played 644 games, winning 204, drawing 181 and losing 259 games. They scored 750 and conceded 883 goals, and used 215 players.
Chris Priest, a Macclesfield Town player, scored the final goal of the 2nd millennium AD.
Retired numbers
21 – Richard Butcher. Midfielder (2010–11) – posthumous honour
Sources and references
External links
The Star Lane End
The Silkmen Archives
Defunct football clubs in Cheshire
Association football clubs established in 1874
1874 establishments in England
Lancashire Combination
Cheshire County League
Former English Football League clubs
Association football clubs disestablished in 2020
2020 disestablishments in England
Military football clubs in England
Defunct English Football League clubs
Defunct football clubs in England | [
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225793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hull | Hull | Hull may refer to:
Structures
Chassis, of an armored fighting vehicle
Fuselage, of an aircraft
Hull (botany), the outer covering of seeds
Hull (watercraft), the body or frame of a ship
Submarine hull
Mathematics
Affine hull, in affine geometry
Conical hull, in convex geometry
Convex hull, in convex geometry
Carathéodory's theorem (convex hull)
Holomorphically convex hull, in complex analysis
Injective hull, of a module
Linear hull, another name for the linear span
Skolem hull, of mathematical logic
Places
England
Hull, the common name of Kingston upon Hull, a city in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Hull City A.F.C., a football team
Hull FC, rugby league club formed in 1865, based in the west of the city
Hull Kingston Rovers (Hull KR), rugby league club formed in 1882, based in the east of the city
Port of Hull
University of Hull
River Hull, river in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Canada
Hull, Quebec, a settlement opposite Ottawa, now part of the city of Gatineau
Hull (provincial electoral district)
Hull (federal electoral district), now named Hull—Aylmer
United States
Hull, Florida
Hull, Georgia
Hull, Illinois
Hull, Iowa
Hull, Massachusetts
Hull, North Dakota
Hull, Texas
Hull, West Virginia
Hull, Marathon County, Wisconsin
Hull, Portage County, Wisconsin
Other places
Hul, Nové Zámky District, Slovakia
Hull Island (disambiguation), several places
People
List of people with surname Hull
Other uses
Hull classification symbol (hull code or hull number), a system to identify ships
Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago, Illinois, United States
USS Hull, any of four U.S. Navy ships
Hull note, the final U.S. proposal delivered to the Empire of Japan before the attack on Pearl Harbor
See also
Hulk (ship)
Hull–White model of interest rates, in economics | [
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225801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance%20tuning | Performance tuning | Performance tuning is the improvement of system performance. Typically in computer systems, the motivation for such activity is called a performance problem, which can be either real or anticipated. Most systems will respond to increased load with some degree of decreasing performance. A system's ability to accept higher load is called scalability, and modifying a system to handle a higher load is synonymous to performance tuning.
Systematic tuning follows these steps:
Assess the problem and establish numeric values that categorize acceptable behavior.
Measure the performance of the system before modification.
Identify the part of the system that is critical for improving the performance. This is called the bottleneck.
Modify that part of the system to remove the bottleneck.
Measure the performance of the system after modification.
If the modification makes the performance better, adopt it. If the modification makes the performance worse, put it back the way it was.
This is an instance of the measure-evaluate-improve-learn cycle from quality assurance.
A performance problem may be identified by slow or unresponsive systems. This usually occurs because high system loading, causing some part of the system to reach a limit in its ability to respond. This limit within the system is referred to as a bottleneck.
A handful of techniques are used to improve performance. Among them are code optimization, load balancing, caching strategy, distributed computing and self-tuning.
Performance analysis
See the main article at Performance analysis
Performance analysis, commonly known as profiling, is the investigation of a program's behavior using information gathered as the program executes. Its goal is to determine which sections of a program to optimize.
A profiler is a performance analysis tool that measures the behavior of a program as it executes, particularly the frequency and duration of function calls. Performance analysis tools existed at least from the early 1970s. Profilers may be classified according to their output types, or their methods for data gathering.
Performance engineering
See the main article at Performance engineering
Performance engineering is the discipline encompassing roles, skills, activities, practices, tools, and deliverables used to meet the non-functional requirements of a designed system, such as increase business revenue, reduction of system failure, delayed projects, and avoidance of unnecessary usage of resources or work.
Several common activities have been identified in different methodologies:
Identification of critical business processes.
Elaboration of the processes in use cases and system volumetrics.
System construction, including performance tuning.
Deployment of the constructed system.
Service management, including activities performed after the system has been deployed.
Code optimization
See the main article at Optimization (computer science).
Some optimizations include improving the code so that work is done once before a loop rather than inside a loop or replacing a call to a simple selection sort with a call to the more complicated algorithm for a quicksort.
Configuration optimization
Modern software systems, e.g., Big data systems, comprises several frameworks (e.g., Apache Storm, Spark, Hadoop). Each of these frameworks exposes hundreds configuration parameters that considerably influence the performance of such applications. Some optimizations (tuning) include improving the performance of the application finding the best configuration for such applications.
Caching strategy
Caching is a fundamental method of removing performance bottlenecks that are the result of slow access to data. Caching improves performance by retaining frequently used information in high speed memory, reducing access time and avoiding repeated computation. Caching is an effective manner of improving performance in situations where the principle of locality of reference applies. The methods used to determine which data is stored in progressively faster storage are collectively called caching strategies. Examples are ASP.NET cache, CPU cache, etc.
Load balancing
A system can consist of independent components, each able to service requests. If all the requests are serviced by one of these systems (or a small number) while others remain idle then time is wasted waiting for used system to be available. Arranging so all systems are used equally is referred to as load balancing and can improve overall performance.
Load balancing is often used to achieve further gains from a distributed system by intelligently selecting which machine to run an operation on based on how busy all potential candidates are, and how well suited each machine is to the type of operation that needs to be performed.
Distributed computing
Distributed computing is used for increasing the potential for parallel execution on modern CPU architectures continues, the use of distributed systems is essential to achieve performance benefits from the available parallelism. High-performance cluster computing is a well-known use of distributed systems for performance improvements.
Distributed computing and clustering can negatively impact latency while simultaneously increasing load on shared resources, such as database systems. To minimize latency and avoid bottlenecks, distributed computing can benefit significantly from distributed caches.
Self-tuning
A self-tuning system is capable of optimizing its own internal running parameters in order to maximize or minimize the fulfillment of an objective function; typically the maximization of efficiency or error minimization. Self-tuning systems typically exhibit non-linear adaptive control. Self-tuning systems have been a hallmark of the aerospace industry for decades, as this sort of feedback is necessary to generate optimal multi-variable control for nonlinear processes.
Bottlenecks
The bottleneck is the part of a system which is at capacity. Other parts of the system will be idle waiting for it to perform its task.
In the process of finding and removing bottlenecks, it is important to prove their existence, such as by sampling, before acting to remove them. There is a strong temptation to guess. Guesses are often wrong, and investing only in guesses can itself be a bottleneck.
See also
Performance Application Programming Interface
References
External links
Address Scalability Bottlenecks with Distributed Caching
ASP.NET Web Cache Spurs Performance and Scalability
Improve SharePoint 2010 Performance with RBS
Clouds Done Right - Distributed Caching Removes Bottlenecks
Computer hardware tuning
Network performance | [
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225805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boombox | Boombox | A boombox is a transistorized portable music player featuring one or two cassette tape recorder/players and AM/FM radio, generally with a carrying handle. Beginning in the mid 1980s, a CD player was often included. Sound is delivered through an amplifier and two or more integrated loudspeakers. A boombox is a device typically capable of receiving radio stations and playing recorded music (usually cassettes or CDs usually at a high volume). Many models are also capable of recording onto cassette tapes from radio and other sources. In the 1990s, some boomboxes were available with minidisc recorders and players. Designed for portability, boomboxes can be powered by batteries as well as by line current. The boombox was introduced to the American market during the late 1970s. The desire for louder and heavier bass led to bigger and heavier boxes; by the 1980s, some boomboxes had reached the size of a suitcase. Some larger boomboxes even contained vertically mounted record turntables. Most boomboxes were battery-operated, leading to extremely heavy, bulky boxes.
The boombox quickly became associated with urban society in the United States, particularly African American and Hispanic youth. The wide use of boomboxes in urban communities led to the boombox being coined a "ghetto blaster". Some cities petitioned for the banning of boomboxes from public places, and over time, they became less acceptable on city streets. The boombox became closely linked to American hip hop culture and was instrumental in the rise of hip hop music.
History
The first boombox was developed by the inventor of the audio compact cassette, Philips of the Netherlands. Their first 'Radiorecorder' was released in 1966. The Philips innovation was the first time that radio broadcasts could be recorded onto cassette tapes without the cables or microphones that previous stand-alone cassette tape recorders required. Although the sound quality of early cassette tape recordings was poor, improvements in technology and the introduction of stereo recording, chromium tapes, and Dolby noise reduction made hifi quality devices possible. Several European electronics brands, such as Grundig, also introduced similar devices.
Boomboxes were soon also developed in Japan in the early 1970s and soon became popular there due to their compact size and impressive sound quality. The Japanese brands rapidly took over a large portion of the European boombox market and were often the first Japanese consumer electronics brands that a European household might purchase. The Japanese innovated by creating different sizes, form factors, and technology, introducing such advances as stereo boomboxes, removable speakers, built-in TV receivers, and built-in CD players.
The boombox became popular in America during the late 1970s, with most then being produced by Panasonic, Sony, General Electric, and Marantz. It was immediately noticed by the urban adolescent community and soon developed a mass market, especially in large metropolitan centers such as New York, Los Angeles, and Washington D.C.
The earliest known boombox with integrated portable television was released in the early 1980s.
The earlier models were a hybrid that combined the booming sound of large in-home stereo systems and the portability of small portable cassette players; they were typically small, black or silver, heavy, and capable of producing high volumes. The effective AM/FM tuner, standard in all early boomboxes, was the most popular feature of the early boombox up until the incorporation of input and output jacks into the boxes, which allowed for the coupling of devices such as microphones,
turntables, and CD players.
The development of audio jacks brought the boombox to the height of its popularity, and as its popularity rose, so did the level of innovation in the features included in the box. Consumers enjoyed the portability and sound quality of boomboxes, but one of the most important features, especially to the youth market, was the bass. The desire for louder and heavier bass led to bigger and heavier boxes.
Regardless of the increasing weight and size, the devices continued to become larger to accommodate the increased bass output; newer boombox models had heavy metal casings to handle the vibrations from the bass.
Design
A boombox, in its most basic form, is composed of two or more loudspeakers, an amplifier, a radio tuner, and a cassette and/or CD player component, all housed in a single plastic or metal case with a handle for portability. Most units can be powered by AC or DC cables in addition to batteries.
As boomboxes grew in popularity, they also became more complex in design and functionality. By the mid 1980s, many boomboxes included separate high and low frequency speakers and a second tape deck to allow the boombox to record both from the radio and from other pre-recorded cassettes. Equalizers, balance adjusters, Dolby noise reduction, and LED sound gauges were other later additions.
In the mid 1980s, the boombox began to become a status symbol; the popularity among young urbanites caused increasing demand for extravagant boxes. The growing popularity of the compact disc (CD) in the late 1980s led to the introduction of the CD player in standard boombox design. During the 1990s, boombox manufacturers began designing smaller, more compact boomboxes, which were often made out of plastic instead of metal as their counterparts from the previous decade had been.
The rectangular, angular, chrome aesthetic of many 1980s models was frequently replaced with black plastic in the 1990s, and modern designs are typically characterized by a rounded, curved appearance instead of sharp angles. However, the designs of the older models are a source of much interest among boombox enthusiasts and collectors, who frequently seek the larger feature-packed models that represented the cutting edge of portable music technology in their day. Today most boomboxes have replaced the cassette player with iPod docks to access MP3 technology, and some even come equipped with integrated or removable satellite radio tuners.
Boombox designs vary greatly in size. Larger, more powerful units may require 10 or more size-D batteries, may measure more than in width, and can weigh more than . Some take a 12-volt sealed lead-acid battery, or can be a portable enclosure for a car audio head unit.
Audio quality and feature sets vary widely, with high-end models providing features and sound comparable to some home stereo systems. Most models offer volume, tone and balance (left/right) controls.
Most brands were manufactured in Japan by consumer electronics companies such as Aiwa, Sanyo, Hitachi, JVC, Panasonic, Sharp, Sony, and Toshiba. European brands include Philips or Grundig. Some boomboxes were also manufactured in Eastern Europe, notably in the Soviet Union (Vega, Oreanda and VEF), East Germany (RFT), Hungary (Orion and Videoton) and Romania (the Stereo Spatial RC). Although their quality was lower, some of them were exported to the West as budget, discount or low cost products.
More sophisticated models may feature dual cassette decks (often featuring high-speed dubbing, or sometimes even digitally controlled servo cassette mechanics), separate bass and treble level controls, five- or ten-band graphic equalizers, Dolby noise reduction, analog or LED sound level (VU) meters or even VFD, larger speakers, 'soft-touch' tape deck controls, multiple shortwave (SW) band reception with fine tuning, digital tuner with PLL (phase-locked loop), automatic song search functions for cassettes, line and/or phono inputs and outputs, microphone inputs, loudness switches, and detachable speakers, full function infrared remote control. A handful of models even featured an integrated record turntable, an 8-track tape player, a minidisc player/recorder, or a (typically black-and-white) television screen, although the basic radio/cassette models have historically been by far the most popular.
Cultural significance
The boombox quickly became associated with urban society, particularly black and Hispanic youth. The wide use of boomboxes in urban communities led to the boombox being coined a "ghetto blaster", a nickname which was soon used as part of a backlash against the boombox and hip hop culture. Cities began banning boomboxes from public places, and they became less acceptable on city streets as time progressed.
The boombox became intrinsically linked to hip hop culture and, as Fab Five Freddy puts it, was "instrumental" in the rise of hip hop. Certain models like the JVC RC-M90 and the Sharp GF-777 were known as the boombox kings, having the power to drown out other ghetto blasters; they were frequently used in music battles. The Beastie Boys embraced the boombox as a signature, The Clash always had a boombox with them, and Schoolly D carried around a Conion C-100F in the UK.
Decline
The 1990s were a turning point for the boombox in popular culture. The rise of the Walkman and other advanced electronics eliminated the need to carry around such large and heavy audio equipment, and boomboxes quickly disappeared from the streets. As boombox enthusiast Lyle Owerko puts it, "Towards the end of any culture, you have the second or third generation that steps into the culture, which is so far from the origination, it's the impression of what's real, but it's not the full definition of what's real. It's just cheesy." The Consumer Electronics Association reported that only 329,000 boombox units without CD players were shipped in the United States in 2003, compared to 20.4 million in 1986.
Compressed digital audio and the future of boomboxes
Although many boomboxes had dual cassette decks and included dubbing, line, and radio recording capabilities, the rise of recordable CDs, the decline of audio cassette technology, and the popularity of high-density MP3 players and smart phones have reduced the popularity of high-quality boomboxes to such an extent that it is difficult to find a new dual-decked stereo. Dubbing remains popular among audiophiles, bootleggers, and pirates, though most tasks are now accomplished through digital means or analog-to-digital conversion technology.
Most modern boomboxes include a CD player compatible with CD-R and CD-RW, which allows the user to carry their own music compilations on a higher fidelity medium. Many also permit iPod and similar devices to be plugged into them through one or more auxiliary ports. Some also support formats such as MP3 and WMA. Some models, typically higher-end, are able to display metadata such as title, artist, album (known as "ID3 tag" on MP3 specifically), file name, and parent folder or file path, on the segment display itself or a separate character row.
The simplest way to connect an older boombox to an MP3 player is to use a cassette adapter, which interfaces an MP3 player's output directly to the cassette player's heads. The 'Line In' (also known as 'Aux In') can be used if the boombox has one.
Some modern boombox designs provide other connections for MP3 (and sometimes other digital formats) such as a USB connector for use with a removable USB drive, slots for various flash memory media such as SD, MMC, SmartMedia, and Memory Stick, or even a CD drive capable of reading MP3s directly from a CD, thus allowing for a relatively cheap and large music storage to be carried and played back at full volume.
Starting in mid-2010, there are new lines of boomboxes that use Bluetooth technology known as Stereo Bluetooth, or A2DP (Advanced Audio Distribution Profile). They use the wireless Bluetooth technology to "stream" audio to the boombox from a compatible Bluetooth device, such as a mobile phone or Bluetooth MP3 player. An example of this is the JAMBOX, which is marketed as a "Smart Speaker" as it can also function as a speakerphone for voice calls in addition to being an audio playback device.
Another modern variant is a DVD player/boombox with a top-loading CD/DVD drive and an LCD video screen in the position once occupied by a cassette deck. Many models of this type of boombox include inputs for external video (such as television broadcasts) and outputs to connect the DVD player to a full-sized television.
Some newer boomboxes, may also have DAB/DAB+ radio, internet radio, or network capabilities and various apps, like TuneIn, Spotify, MusicCast, DLNA,etc. Also they have Wi-Fi, Network RJ45 connection. However, this may limit their portability, as internet access is needed in order to use them at full potential. Without internet service, they can operate as standard, radio (both FM, AM and DAB), usb and cd player (if available), aux input, and bluetooth (if available).
See also
AV receiver
Portable media player
Radio receiver
Shelf stereo
Vehicle audio
References
Further reading
CBS Sunday Morning – Boomboxes: A REAL blast from the past
New York Times Review – The Boombox Project
Photographer Lyle Owerko, documented the cultural history of the device in his 2010 book The Boombox Project: The Machines, the Music and the Urban Underground (), with a foreword by Spike Lee.
External links
Boombox History
Mentions of the boombox in songs, movies, television, film and print at the Boombox Museum, PocketCalculatorShow.com
Huck Magazine Boombox Retrospective
1980s in music
1990s in music
Audio players
Boombox culture
Portable audio players | [
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225808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naevius%20Sutorius%20Macro | Naevius Sutorius Macro | Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro (21 BC – AD 38) was a prefect of the Praetorian Guard, from 31 until 38, serving under the Roman Emperors Tiberius and Caligula. Upon falling out of favour, he committed suicide.
Biography
Macro was born in 21 BC at Alba Fucens, a Roman town at the foot of Monte Velino, situated on a hill just to the north of the Via Valeria in Italy. Inscriptional evidence from the ruins of this town reveal that, prior to becoming Praetorian prefect, Macro had served as Praefectus vigilum, prefect of the vigiles, the Roman fire brigade and night watch. The date of this appointment and the length of his tenure are unknown.
Macro was appointed Praetorian prefect by Tiberius after the arrest of Sejanus. According to Tacitus, Macro was active in discrediting Sejanus and in directing the subsequent purge against his family and followers. As prefect, Macro wielded considerable influence. He furthered his ambitions by befriending Tiberius' grand-nephew Caligula, one of the Emperor's prospective heirs. According to Suetonius, Macro gained further favour by turning a blind eye to his wife Ennia Thrasylla's affair with Caligula, around the year 34.
When Tiberius died in the year 37, Macro sided with the new Emperor Caligula. According to Tacitus, Macro even played a role in bringing about Caligula's rise to power, by ordering Tiberius to be killed after it was revealed that reports of his death had been premature: Caligula had begun to take power immediately upon hearing that Tiberius had died of natural causes but without making sure that Tiberius was dead. Tiberius was still alive and, shortly after, was heard calling for food. In order to prevent an embarrassing and potentially dangerous situation, should Tiberius have reacted angrily to Caligula's hasty ascension to power, Macro "ordered the old Emperor to be smothered under a huge heap of clothes."
Macro was confident of rapid promotion for past services but Emperor Caligula was aware of the potential threat Macro posed and soon removed him from office. According to some sources, Macro was promised the governorship of Egypt but upon arriving at Ostia with Ennia to take ship, he was instead arrested and stripped of his office. Macro committed suicide soon after. Macro was able to leave enough money to provide an amphitheatre for his home town of Alba Fucens.
Cultural depictions
In the 1954 film, Demetrius and the Gladiators, he was played by Karl Davis.
In the 1968 ITV Granada-TV production The Caesars, Jerome Willis played the part of Macro.
John Rhys-Davies played him in the 1976 BBC serial I, Claudius.
Guido Mannari portrays Macro in Caligula.
In Francesco Vezzoli's fake promotional video, Trailer for a Remake of Gore Vidal's "Caligula", he was played by Benicio del Toro.
In the 2017 American docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, Macro is portrayed by Michael Morris.
References
21 BC births
38 deaths
1st-century Roman governors of Egypt
1st-century Romans
Ancient Roman assassins
Ancient Romans who committed suicide
Joint suicides
Quintus, Cordus Sutorius Macro
People from the Province of L'Aquila
Praetorian prefects | [
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] |
225810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne-Henri%20Gravelotte | Eugène-Henri Gravelotte | Eugène-Henri Gravelotte (6 February 1876 in Paris – 23 August 1939 in Bénodet) was a French fencer. He was the first modern Olympic champion in foil and first French gold medalist, winning the event at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens.
Gravelotte was undefeated in his group for the preliminary round, defeating Greek fencers Athanasios Vouros, Konstantinos Komninos-Miliotis, and Georgios Balakakis in succession. He then faced fellow Frenchman Henri Callot, who had gone undefeated in the other group, in the final. Gravelotte won that match 3–2.
References
External links
1876 births
1939 deaths
Fencers from Paris
Fencers at the 1896 Summer Olympics
19th-century sportsmen
French male foil fencers
Olympic gold medalists for France
Olympic fencers of France
Olympic medalists in fencing
Medalists at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
French military personnel of World War I | [
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225811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halizah | Halizah | Halizah (or chalitzah; ) is, under the biblical system of levirate marriage known as yibbum, the process by which a childless widow and a brother of her deceased husband may avoid the duty to marry.
The process involves the widow making a declaration, taking off a shoe of the brother (i.e. her brother-in-law), and spitting on the floor. Through this ceremony, the brother and any other brothers are released from the obligation of marrying the woman for the purpose of conceiving a child which would be considered the progeny of the deceased man. The ceremony of chalitzah makes the widow free to marry whomever she desires, except for a Cohen (priest). ().
It is sufficient for only one brother-in-law to perform the ceremony. The mode of levirate marriage () is thus modified in the Deuteronomic code attributed to Moses, by permitting the surviving brother to refuse to marry his brother's widow, provided he submits to the ceremony of halitzah. In the Talmudic period the tendency against the original mode was intensified by apprehension that the brother-in-law might desire to marry his brother's widow for motives other than that of "establishing a name unto his brother." Therefore, many Talmudic and later rabbis preferred halitzah to actual marriage. Thus the ancient institution of the levirate marriage fell into disuse, so that at present halitzah is the general rule and marriage the rare exception.
In theory, however, the Biblical law of levirate marriage is still presumed in force, thus making the childless widow who remarries someone other than her brother-in-law without performing the halitzah ceremony an adulterer.
The ceremony
Deuteronomy describes the ceremony simply. In the presence of town elders, the widow recites a prescribed formula which scolds him for not building his brother's household, loosens the shoe of the brother-in-law, and spits on the floor. In the Talmud, however, the rabbis explained the ceremony as a more solemn and public act. The ceremony must take place before a court of three, who need not be very learned, but must at least understand Hebrew. All those who are disqualified from testifying in legal matters are disqualified also from acting on this board of judges. These three appoint two others to assist them, and at the service on the evening preceding the day of the ceremony they appoint a place for its performance, to give the matter more publicity. The place chosen is usually the synagogue court or the house of the rabbi, although the ceremony may take place in the house of the widow. All investigations into the concerned parties are conducted the previous day, on which both are instructed in ceremony details, and on which the yebamah (widowed sister-in-law) is not allowed to eat. The halitzah should not be performed in the evening, nor on a Sabbath or a holiday, nor on the eve of a Sabbath or a holiday.
On the day set for the halitzah, immediately after the morning service, when all the people are still in the synagogue, the three judges and their two assistants, who also act as witnesses, meet at the appointed place. The three judges sit on one bench, the two assistants on a bench placed beside it; the yabam (brother-in-law) and the yebamah stand between them. Before the ceremony, a public examination establishes the relationship of the parties and their maturity. If one is a minor, a deaf-mute, a mute, or mentally handicapped, or has a crooked or turned foot, the halitzah cannot be performed. The court must also know whether she is left-handed or whether he is left-footed, and must be convinced that more than ninety-one days have passed since the death of her husband.
To establish these matters it is not necessary to have legally eligible witnesses. Even those who are otherwise disqualified from testifying may become witnesses. Both the yabam and the yebamah must be made aware of the fact that by this ceremony the widow becomes free to marry whomever she may desire.
The halitzah shoe
After these preliminary details, and after the yabam makes a public declaration that he has not been forced by outside influence to submit to the halitzah, but acts of his own free will, the ceremony commences. The shoe, which is usually the property of the community, is brought forth and examined as to cleanliness and construction, in accordance with the precepts of the law. The halitzah shoe is made entirely of leather, usually from the hide of a kosher animal.
It is made of two pieces, the upper part and the sole, sewn together with leather threads. Three small straps are attached to the front of the shoe, each of which has a knot (humrata) at the top to fit a hole made on the other side of the shoe. Two white leather straps attach to either side of the shoe and fasten it to the leg.
The yabam must have his right foot, on which the shoe is placed, washed very scrupulously, and after he has strapped it on he must walk four cubits in the presence of the judges. Then the chief judge reads the following passage, which the yebamah repeats word for word:
"My brother-in-law refuses to raise unto his brother a name in Israel; he will not marry me."
Then the yabam repeats the sentence:
"I do not wish to take her."
He then presses his right foot against the floor while she loosens the straps with her right hand and, holding his leg in her left hand, takes off the shoe and throws it some distance away. Then she places herself in front of the yabam, spits on the floor in front of him, and repeats these words after the presiding judge:
"So shall it be done unto that man who will not build up his brother's house, and his name shall be called in Israel, 'the house of him that hath his shoe loosed."
She repeats the last phrase three times and the assembly recites it three times after her. Then the yabam returns the shoe to the court, and the judges say:
"May it be the will [of God] that Jewish women be no more subjected to halitzah or to yibbum."
As they rise, the chief of the judges says:
"Blessed be He who sanctified us with the commandments and statutes of Abraham our father."
All the passages recited by the yabam and by the yebamah must be read in Hebrew as they are found in the original in Deuteronomy. If the parties do not understand Hebrew the passages must be translated for them.
The ceremony of loosening the shoe has been explained in various ways. From the incident in the Book of Ruth (), which certainly refers to this ancient custom, it seems the loosening of the shoe symbolized a transfer of rights, and had no stigma attached to it. Some later rabbis—Yechiel of Paris, for instance—say the removal of the shoe symbolized the entrance into a state of mourning. From the time the yabam refused to marry his brother's widow and thus perpetuate his name in Israel, the brother was considered dead, and the yebamah, by drawing off his shoe, thus declared to him that from that time on he was a mourner.
Another possibility comes from Wesley's Notes:
Deut 25:10 His name - That is, his person, and his posterity also. So it was a lasting blot.
A similar example of renouncing rights by removing one's shoe, in this case the renunciation of rights to redeem one's brother's land, appears in the Book of Ruth.
Halitzah document
To prevent the yabam from extorting money from the widow who wishes release from the shackles of perpetual widowhood, the Rabbis established the institution of the shetar halitzah ("halitzah document"). This institution provides that at a young couple's marriage, all brothers must sign a document pledging to submit to halitzah without remuneration, in case their brother dies childless. In the case of a minor brother, who could not legally sign the document, the institution of the shetar bitchon halitzah, established by the Rabbis for such cases, had the father of the bridegroom promise to pay money to the bride if the minor son should later refuse the halitzah ceremony. The practice of signing these halitzah documents has fallen out of currency in North America.
Frequency
Although rare, Orthodox Jews still observe halitzah in all its details when the occasion requires. There are generally between 10 and 20 ceremonies per year in Israel.
In Reform Judaism
The Reform view, as expressed in various treatises written by the leaders of the movement, and as adopted at the different rabbinical conferences held in Germany and in America, is that the ceremony of halitzah is not essential to the remarriage of the widow. The Philadelphia Conference (1869) resolved that "The precept of levirate marriage and of halizah has lost to us all meaning, import, and binding force." The Second Israelite Synod, held in Augsburg (1871), passed a resolution to the same effect, adding that "For the sake of liberty of conscience, however, no rabbi will refuse, on request of the parties, to conduct the ceremony of halizah in a proper form."
See also
Yibbum
Takkanot Shum
References
Jewish marital law
Uses of leather in Judaism
Positive Mitzvoth
Uses of shoes
Widow inheritance | [
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225812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Harding%20%28archaeologist%29 | Phil Harding (archaeologist) | Philip Harding DL FSA (born 25 January 1950) is a British field archaeologist. He became a familiar face on the Channel 4 television series Time Team.
Harding trained on various excavations with the Bristol University Extra Mural Department and other bodies from 1966; he has been a professional archaeologist since 1971.
Life and career
Early life
Born in Oxford on 25 January 1950 and brought up in Wexcombe, Wiltshire, Harding was educated at Marlborough Royal Free Grammar School in Marlborough. As a young boy, he became fascinated with the Stone Age. He learned flint-knapping from his uncle, Fred, and in only a few months became a skilled knapper, crafting many different hunting tools from pieces of flint. He made his first archaeological finds digging up his parents' garden, much to the annoyance of his mother, Elsie. In 1966, while still at school, he attended a training excavation by Bristol University Extra Mural Department in Fyfield and West Overton. Since then, he has dug every year, though at first his archaeological activities had to be fitted into holidays and any spare time. His father, Ralph, died of a heart attack in 1977 at the age of 57.
Career
After Harding left school, he worked in a puppet factory in Marlborough until he became a full-time archaeologist in 1971. He worked initially for the Southampton City Council Archaeology Unit, combining this with five seasons of excavations (1972–1976) run by the British Museum at the Neolithic flint mines of Grimes Graves, Norfolk. He has since become an acknowledged expert on flint-knapping and is skilled in lithic reduction using both percussive techniques and pressure flaking, in which, instead of striking the flint with blows, pressure is exerted on the edges to shape the tool.
From the mid-1970s, he worked on excavations in Berkshire, Hampshire, Dorset, Wiltshire and the Isle of Wight for the Department of the Environment (DOE). In 1979, the archaeological section of the DOE for the region became Wessex Archaeology, a non-profit organisation which is one of the biggest archaeological practices in the country. He continues to work for Wessex Archaeology when not filming.
He has been a member of the Institute of Field Archaeologists since 1985, and in 2006 was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. On 24 July 2008, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Southampton in archaeology. As a qualified SCUBA diver, he is the president of the Nautical Archaeology Society, a Portsmouth-based charity formed to further interest in nautical cultural heritage.
Television
In 1991, Harding took part in the series Time Signs, which was produced by Tim Taylor, who went on to create Channel 4's popular archaeology series Time Team. Harding was a regular on Time Team from the first series in 1994 until its cancellation in 2013. He also took part in the various spin-off series such as Time Team Extra (1998), Time Team Digs (2002) and Time Team Live. In addition, he has appeared in episodes of Meet the Ancestors (2003) and Chris Moyles' Quiz Night (2009).
He appeared in an episode of BBC's Digging for Britain in December 2016.
Honours
Commonwealth honours
Commonwealth honours
Appointments
Scholastic
Honorary degrees
Awards
References
External links
Wessex Archaeology
The Guardian: Why I love Phil Harding
Lectures by Phil Harding for Waterloo Uncovered Project
Interview with Phil Harding during Salisbury 2020:Digital Big Weekend
Salisbury Sites Blog and Salisbury Uncovered film
1950 births
Deputy Lieutenants of Wiltshire
English archaeologists
Living people
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
People from Oxford
People from Salisbury
Archaeologists appearing on Time Team
Experimental archaeology
Prehistorians | [
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225813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20World%20flycatcher | Old World flycatcher | The Old World flycatchers are a large family, the Muscicapidae, of small passerine birds mostly restricted to the Old World (Europe, Africa and Asia). These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing. The family includes 324 species and is divided into 51 genera.
Taxonomy
The name Muscicapa for the family was introduced by the Scottish naturalist John Fleming in 1822. The word had earlier been used for the genus Muscicapa by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. Muscicapa comes from the Latin musca meaning a fly and capere to catch.
In 1910 the German ornithologist Ernst Hartert found it impossible to define boundaries between the three families Muscicapidae, Sylviidae (Old World warblers) and Turdidae (thrushes). He therefore treated them as subfamilies of an extended flycatcher family that also included Timaliidae (Old World babblers) and Monarchidae (Monarch flycatchers). Forty years later a similar arrangement was adopted by the American ornithologists Ernst Mayr and Dean Amadon in an article published in 1951. Their large family Muscicapidae which they termed the "primitive insect eaters" contained 1460 species divided into eight subfamilies. The use of the extended group was endorsed by a committee set up following the Eleventh International Ornithological Congress held in Basel in 1954. Subsequent DNA–DNA hybridization studies by Charles Sibley and others showed that the subfamilies were not closely related to one another. As a result, the large group was broken up into a number of separate families, although for a while most authorities continued to retain the thrushes in Muscicapidae. In 1998 the American Ornithologists' Union chose to treat the thrushes as a separate family in the seventh edition of their Check-list of North American birds and subsequently most authors have followed their example.
Description
The appearance of these birds is very varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls. They are small to medium birds, ranging from 9 to 22 cm in length. Many species are dull brown in colour, but the plumage of some can be much brighter, especially in the males. Most have broad, flattened bills suited to catching insects in flight, although the few ground-foraging species typically have finer bills.
Old World flycatchers live in almost every environment with a suitable supply of trees, from dense forest to open scrub, and even the montane woodland of the Himalayas. The more northerly species migrate south in winter, ensuring a continuous diet of insects.
Depending on the species, their nests are either well-constructed cups placed in a tree or cliff ledge, or simply lining in a pre-existing tree hole. The hole-nesting species tend to lay larger clutches, with an average of eight eggs, rather than just two to five.
Genera
The family formerly included fewer species. At the time of the publication of the third edition of Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World in 2003, the genera Myophonus, Alethe, Brachypteryx and Monticola were included in Turdidae. Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the species in these four genera are more closely related to species in Muscicapidae. As a consequence, these four genera are now placed here. In contrast, the genus Cochoa which was previously placed in Muscicapidae has been shown to belong in Turdidae.
Two large molecular phylogenetic studies of species within Muscicapidae published in 2010 showed that the genera Fraseria, Melaenornis and Muscicapa were non-monophyletic. The authors were unable to propose revised genera as not all the species were sampled and not all the nodes in their phylogenies were strongly supported. A subsequent study published in 2016, that included 37 of the 42 Muscicapini species, confirmed that the genera were non-monophyletic and proposed a reorganised arrangement of the species with several new or resurrected genera.
List of genera
Muscicapid genera as listed by the International Ornithologists' Union with subdivisions proposed by George Sangster and colleagues in 2010: For a complete list of species, see "List of Old World flycatcher species".
Family Muscicapidae
Alethe
Subfamily Muscicapinae (Fleming, 1822)
Tribe Copsychini (Sundevall, 1872)
Cercotrichas – scrub robins
Copsychus – magpie-robins or shamas
Tribe Muscicapini (Fleming, 1822)
Fraseria – forest flycatchers
Myioparus – tit-flycatchers
Melaenornis
Empidornis – single species: silverbird
Muscicapa
Subfamily Niltavinae (Sangster, Alström, Forsmark and Olsson, 2010)
Leucoptilon – single species: white-tailed flycatcher
Anthipes
Cyornis
Niltava
Cyanoptila
Eumyias
Sholicola
Subfamily Erithacinae (G.R. Gray, 1846) – African forest robin assemblage
Erithacus – single species: European robin
Chamaetylas – (4 species)
Cossyphicula – single species: white-bellied robin-chat
Cossypha – robin-chats
Xenocopsychus – single species: Angolan cave chat
Swynnertonia – single species: Swynnerton's robin
Pogonocichla – single species: white-starred robin
Stiphrornis – single species: forest robin
Sheppardia – akalats
Cichladusa – palm thrushes
Subfamily Saxicolinae (Vigors, 1825)
Heinrichia – single species: great shortwing
Leonardina – single species: Bagobo babbler
Heteroxenicus – single species: Gould's shortwing
Brachypteryx – shortwings
Vauriella
Larvivora
Luscinia – nightingales and relatives
Irania – single species: white-throated robin
Calliope
Myiomela
Tarsiger – bush robins and bluetails
Enicurus – forktails
Myophonus – whistling thrushes
Cinclidium – single species: blue-fronted robin
Ficedula – flycatchers
Phoenicurus – redstarts
Monticola – rock thrushes
Saxicola – stonechats and chats
Campicoloides – single species: buff-streaked chat
Emarginata
Pinarochroa – single species: moorland chat
Thamnolaea – cliff chats
Myrmecocichla
Oenanthe – wheatears
Subfamily not determined
Namibornis – single species: Herero chat
Humblotia – single species: Humblot's flycatcher
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Old World flycatcher videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by John Fleming (naturalist) | [
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225815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jewish%20Encyclopedia | The Jewish Encyclopedia | The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day is an English-language encyclopedia containing over 15,000 articles on the history, culture, and state of Judaism up to the early 20th century. The encyclopedia's managing editor was Isidore Singer and the editorial board was chaired by Isaac K. Funk and Frank H. Vizetelly.
The work's scholarship is still highly regarded. The American Jewish Archives deemed it "the most monumental Jewish scientific work of modern times", and Rabbi Joshua L. Segal said "for events prior to 1900, it is considered to offer a level of scholarship superior to either of the more recent Jewish encyclopedias written in English."
It was originally published in 12 volumes between 1901 and 1906 by Funk & Wagnalls of New York, and reprinted in the 1960s by KTAV Publishing House. It is now in the public domain.
History
Conception
Singer conceived of a Jewish encyclopedia in Europe and proposed creating an Allgemeine Encyklopädia für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums in 1891. He envisioned 12 volumes, published over 10 to 15 years, at a cost of 50 dollars as a set. They would contain scientific and unbiased articles on ancient and modern Jewish culture. This proposal received good press coverage and interest from the Brockhaus publishing company. After the House of Rothschild in Paris, consulted by Zadoc Kahn, offered to back the project with only eight percent of the minimum funds requested by Brockaus, the project was abandoned. Following the Dreyfus affair and associated unpleasantness, Singer emigrated to New York City.
Initially believing that American Jews could do little more than provide funding for his project, Singer was impressed by the level of scholarship in the United States. He wrote a new prospectus, changing the title of his planned encyclopedia to Encyclopedia of the History and Mental Evolution of the Jewish Race. His radical ecumenism and opposition to orthodoxy upset many of his Jewish readers; nevertheless he attracted the interest of publisher Isaac K. Funk, a Lutheran minister who also believed in integrating Judaism and Christianity. Funk agreed to publish the encyclopedia on the condition that it remain unbiased on issues which might seem unfavorable for Jews. Singer accepted and was established in an office at Funk & Wagnalls on .
Publication of the prospectus in 1898 created a severe backlash, including accusations of poor scholarship and of subservience to Christians. Kaufmann Kohler and Gotthard Deutsch, writing in American Hebrew, highlighted Singer's factual errors, and accused him of commercialism and irreligiosity. Now considering that the project could not succeed with Singer at the helm, Funk & Wagnalls appointed an editorial board to oversee creation of the encyclopedia.
Editorial board
Funk & Wagnalls assembled an editorial board between October 1898 and March 1899. Singer toned down his ideological rhetoric, indicated his desire to collaborate, and changed the work's proposed title to The Jewish Encyclopedia. Despite their reservations about Singer, rabbi Gustav Gottheil and Cyrus Adler agreed to join the board, followed by Morris Jastrow, Frederick de Sola Mendes, and two published critics of the project: Kauffmann Kohler and Gotthard Deutsch
Theologian and Presbyterian minister George Foot Moore was added to the board for balance. Soon after work started, Moore withdrew and was replaced by Baptist minister Crawford Toy. Last was added the elderly Marcus Jastrow, mostly for his symbolic imprimatur as America's leading Talmudist. In March 1899, the Central Conference of American Rabbis, which had been contemplating a competing project, agreed to discuss collaborating with Funk & Wagnalls—thus securing the position of the Jewish Encyclopedia as the only major project of its kind. Shuly Rubin Schwartz describes the payment scheme arranged at this time as follows:
Other editors participating in all 12 volumes were Gotthard Deutsch, Richard Gottheil, Joseph Jacobs, Kaufmann Kohler, Herman Rosenthal, and Crawford Howell Toy. Morris Jastrow, Jr. and Frederick de Sola Mendes assisted with volumes I to II; Marcus Jastrow with volumes I, II, and III; Louis Ginzberg with the first four volumes; Solomon Schechter with volumes IV through VII; Emil G. Hirsch with volumes IV through XII; and Wilhelm Bacher with volumes VIII through XII. William Popper served as assistant revision editor and chief of translation for volumes IV through XII.
The editors plunged into their enormous task and soon identified and solved some inefficiencies with the project. Article assignments were shuffled around and communication practices were streamlined. Joseph Jacobs was hired as a coordinator. He also wrote four hundred articles and procured many of the encyclopedia's illustrations. Herman Rosenthal, an authority on Russia, was added as an editor. Louis Ginzberg joined the project and later became head of the rabbinical literature department.
The board naturally faced many difficult editorial questions and disagreements. Singer wanted specific entries for every Jewish community in the world, with detailed information about, for example, the name and dates of the first Jewish settler in Prague. Conflict also arose over what types of Bible interpretation should be included, as some editors feared that Morris Jastrow's involvement in "higher criticism" would lead to unfavorable treatment of scripture.
Scholarship
The scholarly style of The Jewish Encyclopedia aligns directly to the , an approach to Jewish scholarship and religion that flourished in 19th-century Germany. The encyclopedia may be regarded as the culmination of this movement, which sought to modernize scholarly methods in Jewish research. In the 20th century, the movement's members dispersed to Jewish Studies departments in the United States and Israel.
The scholarly authorities cited in the encyclopedia—besides the classical and medieval exegetes—are almost uniformly figures, such as Leopold Zunz, Moritz Steinschneider, Solomon Schechter, Wilhelm Bacher, Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport, David Zvi Hoffmann, and Heinrich Graetz. Its scholarly style is evident by the encyclopedia's almost obsessive attention to manuscript discovery, editing, publication, comparison, and dating. These endeavors were among the foremost interests of Wissenschaft scholarship.
The Jewish Encyclopedia is an English-language work, but the vast majority of the encyclopedia's contemporary sources are German-language sources, since this was the mother tongue of the scholars and the lingua franca of Biblical scholarship in general in that period. Of all works cited not in German—usually the more classical works—the largest part are either in Hebrew or Arabic. The only heavily cited English-language source of contemporary scholarship is Schechter's publications in The Jewish Quarterly Review.
The significance of the work's publication in English rather than German or Hebrew is captured by Harry Wolfson, writing in 1926:
The editors and authors of The Jewish Encyclopedia proved prescient in their choice of language, since within that same span of 25 years, English rose to become the dominant language of academic Jewish scholarship and among Jews worldwide. Wolfson continues that "if a Jewish Encyclopedia in a modern language were planned for the first time, the choice would undoubtedly have fallen upon English."
Editions
The unedited text of the original can be found at The Jewish Encyclopedia website. The site offers both JPEG facsimiles of the original articles and Unicode transcriptions of all texts.
The search capability is somewhat handicapped by the fact that the search mechanism fails to take into account the decision to maintain all diacritical marks in the transliterated Hebrew and Aramaic from the 1901–1906 text, which used a large number of diacriticals not in common use today. Thus, for example, to successfully search for "Halizah"—the ceremony by which the widow of a brother who has died childless released her brother-in-law from the obligation of marrying her—one would have to know that they have transliterated this as "Ḥaliẓah". The alphabetic index ignores diacriticals so it can be more useful when searching for an article whose title is known.
The scholarly apparatus of citation is thorough, but can be a bit daunting to contemporary users. Books that might have been widely known among scholars of Judaism at the time the encyclopedia was written (but which are quite obscure to a lay reader today) are referred to by author and title, but with no publication information and often without indication of the language in which they were written.
The Jewish Encyclopedia was heavily used as a source by the 16-volume Jewish Encyclopedia in Russian, published by Brockhaus and Efron in Saint Petersburg between 1906 and 1913.
See also
Encyclopaedia Judaica
Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia
The New Jewish Encyclopedia
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Jewish Encyclopedia Online
1901 non-fiction books
1906 non-fiction books
20th-century encyclopedias
American online encyclopedias
Funk & Wagnalls books
Jewish encyclopedias
Reference works in the public domain | [
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225818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access%20Copyright | Access Copyright | Access © or Access Copyright is the operating name of a Canada Business Corporations Act corporation whose official registration name is The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (formerly Cancopy). It is a not-for-profit copyright collective that collects revenues from licensed Canadian businesses, government, schools, libraries and other copyright users for the photocopying of print works and distributes those monies to the rightsholders of those works, such as publishers and authors from Canada and around the world.
Access Copyright covers works published in Australia, Argentina, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States.
University model license
When universities sign on to a license with Access Copyright (negotiated by the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) or the Association of Canadian Community Colleges), their professors and students are given permission to do certain copying of copyrighted works. The university is generally charged a base rate per full-time student for this license, usually passed down to students in the form of mandatory fees.
2011 AUCC model license
A new model, negotiated by AUCC in 2011, would see universities pay a rate of $26 per full-time student. The old agreement, which expired in 2010, charged only $3.38 plus an additional 10 cents per page coursepacks, photocopied compilations of readings designed by instructors and sold to students. Moreover, additional stipulations would proscribe faculty and students from keeping copies of journal articles in personal libraries, or on personal computers or email accounts.
These changes have proved controversial, and numerous universities have opted out of the deal.
Universities that have opted out:
Athabasca University
Brock University
Carleton University
MacEwan University
McMaster University
Memorial University
Mount Allison University
Mount Royal University
Queen's University
Ryerson University
University of Alberta
University of British Columbia
University of Calgary
University of New Brunswick
University of Ottawa
University of Saskatchewan
University of Toronto
University of Victoria
University of Manitoba
University of Northern British Columbia
University of Waterloo
University of Western Ontario
University of Windsor
University of Winnipeg
York University
Universities that have signed on:
Controversy
Access Copyright has also started charging universities for e-mailing links to copyrighted information, even in cases where there was no copyrighted material present. They are charging the full price for each link e-mailed.
In late 2019, Access Copyright obtained a court order requiring 300 schools across Canada to supply handouts and lesson plans from the last seven years. The demand, intended to find use of copyright material, was described as a 'logistical nightmare'.
See also
Copyright Clearance Center
Captain Copyright
Alberta (Education) v Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)
References
External links
Access Copyright website
Canadian copyright law
Copyright collection societies | [
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225819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Playing%20Card%20Company | United States Playing Card Company | The United States Playing Card Company (USPC, though also commonly known as USPCC) is a large American producer and distributor of playing cards. It was established in 1867 as Russell, Morgan & Co. and founded in its current incarnation in 1885. Its many brands include Bicycle, Bee, Tally-Ho, Congress, Aviator, Aristocrat, Mohawk, Maverick, KEM, Hoyle and Fournier. It also produces novelty and custom playing cards, and other playing card accessories such as poker chips. For decades the company was based in Cincinnati, Ohio, but is now headquartered in the Cincinnati suburb of Erlanger, Kentucky as of 2009.
In December 2019, The United States Playing Card Company became a subsidiary of Belgian card manufacturer Cartamundi.
History
The company was founded in 1867 as Russell, Morgan & Co., a printing company.
In 1881, Colonel Robert J. Morgan, recruited a talented, young inventor from New York named Samuel J. Murray, whose patented inventions increased the output of cards at the company's Norwood, Ohio plant fourfold and cut labor costs by 66 percent. Murray also created a two-sided enameling machine.
The company began printing four brands of playing cards in 1881: Tigers ( 101), Sportsman's ( 202), Army and Navy (both 303, 505 with gold edges), and Congress ( 404, 606 with gold edges). They began printing Bicycle cards, which would become their most popular line, in 1885. Business boomed and in 1891 Russel, Morgan, & Co. changed its name to the United States Printing Company. The playing card business was successful enough that it was spun off as a separate business in 1894, as The United States Playing Card Company.
The same year, the company began its long history of acquiring smaller playing card manufacturers when it acquired the Standard Playing Card Company, the Perfection Playing Card Company, and the New York Consolidated Card Company (makers of Bee and innovators of the "squeezer" card identifications in the corners: a design still in use today). Acquisitions continued throughout its history: Andrew Dougherty in 1907 (adding Tally-Ho), Russell Playing Card Co. in 1929 (adding Aristocrat), Heraclio Fournier, S.A in 1986, Arrco (formerly Arrow) Playing Card Company in 1987, Hoyle Products in 2001, and finally KEM Playing Cards in 2004. In 1930, USPCC subsidiaries Consolidated Card Co., Standard Playing Card Co., and Andrew Dougherty merged into Consolidated-Dougherty which continued to produce cards from all three brands including Bee and Tally-Ho.
Meanwhile, the company would itself be acquired several times during its history: starting with Diamond International in 1969, Jessup & Lamont in 1982, Frontenac in 1989, and then a return to self-ownership in 1994 before finally becoming a subsidiary of Jarden which was in turn acquired by Newell Brands.
The USPCC has historically supported wartime soldiers, starting with the inexpensive Canteen brand of cards during the Spanish–American War and the Pickett brand during World War I. During World War II, USPCC manufactured spotter cards so soldiers could identify enemy units and cooperated with the U.S. Government in creating clandestine decks given to POWs; these cards could be moistened and peeled apart to reveal escape maps.
In 2009, the USPCC closed down the Cincinnati factory, and relocated across the Ohio River to Erlanger, Kentucky. Playing cards produced between 2009 and 2012 at the Kentucky USPCC factory had various quality control issues including miss-centering of art and card handling quality. For example, several playing cards produced in 2010 were "sticky", meaning they did not separate, fan, and perform well. This created a demand for Cincinnati produced playing cards on the market. Playing cards produced in Cincinnati typically featured a blue seal, while cards in Kentucky typically feature a black seal, and to this day Cincinnati produced cards are still sought after by magicians, cardists, professional gamblers, and collectors.
In May 2011, Marc Hill was named president of The United States Playing Cards Company. In October 2011, the United States Playing Card Company in a partnership with Encore Software announced that they are launching the 2012 Hoyle product line - Hoyle Card Games 2012, Hoyle Casino Games 2012 and Hoyle Puzzle & Board Games 2012.
In June 2019, Newell agreed to sell USPCC to Belgian card manufacturer Cartamundi, including its two plants in Erlanger, Kentucky and Vitoria, Spain.
Product lines
The company offers several brands of playing cards, including:
500
The 500 (or Five Hundred) brand was originally created by the National Playing Card Company as a "6 handed" 60-card rummy deck which includes 11-spot and 12-spot cards, as well as one joker. Eventually 500 decks also included 2 13-spot playing cards for the hearts and diamond suits, bringing up the total number of playing cards to 62 (excluding the joker). When introduced, 500 brand playing cards came in Ivory or Air-Cushion finish and were available in four back designs - Bid, Full-House, Griffin, and Swastika (which was discontinued likely due to association with the Nazi Party). Originally it was stored in an ornate hard tuck case with gold lettering. Around the 1970s the fancier tuck cases were phased out. Sometime during the 1990s the unique box art was changed to a plainer design that says "500 Playing Card Game". It is currently produced and sold mainly for export to Australia.
Aladdin
The Aladdin brand was first produced by the National Card Company of Indianapolis in the 1880s. The stock number is "1001," although there is also a "1002" version, which is identical except that the 1002 features gilded edges. There is also a "1004" variant, which had no indices in the corners. At least four different back designs were produced, but it is unknown how many were produced, or for how long. Aladdins were retained and marketed by USPCC after USPCC acquired NCC. They are produced by USPCC today primarily for export. The cards are said to be designed to withstand the constant humidity and heat of Singapore. They are produced with a "smooth finish" and an "air-cushion" finish.
Aristocrat
The Aristocrat brand was created in 1915 by the Russell Playing Card Company of New York, which was acquired by the USPC in 1929. It was best known for its higher quality of card stock and varied but always intricate scroll work, in particular the "bank note" back, which resembled the design of United States currency notes at the time it was introduced, as Russell had acquired the playing card business of the American Bank Note Company in 1914. While the cards sold to the public carried the unique scroll-work, Aristocrat also produced the "Club Special" line of Aristocrat cards specifically for casinos. These were similar to Bee cards in that their backs were borderless with a diamond pattern and could optionally have casino logos added to the backs. Aristocrat was discontinued as a retail brand in the mid-1980s, but continued to be sold directly to casinos. Out of print for over thirty years, original Aristocrat cards were reprinted in 2017, and are currently still in production.
Aviator
Introduced in 1927 in commemoration of Charles Lindbergh's trans-Atlantic flight in the Spirit of St. Louis, Aviator playing cards (stock 914) feature a bordered, monochrome back design of predominantly circles. Aviator cards are less expensive compared to Bee and Bicycle as the card stock is thinner and has a smooth finish, unlike the textured "air-cushion" finish used in many of the company's premium brands. Until the late 1980s, the Aviator Ace of Spades and Joker carried no specific branding. Aviator cards were often used as a generic brand for limited-run, giveaway or promotional/advertising decks. They also were used to fill boxes of cards primarily sold for export or for military or institutional use. Budget brands such as Caravan, Torpedo, Mohawk, Battle Axe, Uncle Sam, and Tuxedo were generally filled with Aviator cards, and a few of these brands are still sold in other countries.
Bee
Bee is a casino card brand also sold at retail. Bee playing cards were first manufactured by the New York Consolidated Card Company in 1892, hence the number "92" on the Ace of Spades; the USPC acquired the company two years later, but it continued to operate independently, even after merging with Andrew Dougherty and Standard Playing Card Company to form Consolidated-Dougherty. Standard Bee playing cards have a diamond back, typically blue or red, though casinos frequently use customized Bee cards featuring a logo added to the various colored backs. Until 2010, Bee cards were also sometimes printed in a smooth finish, with a back known as "No. 35", which features worm-like squiggle patterns. Unlike Bicycle cards, Bee cards usually have borderless backs, making the facing of any card that is even partially revealed clearly visible. However, the standard diamond back of the card is very regular and low-profile compared to other back designs, which simplifies "bottom-dealing" and some other forms of sleight-of-hand.
Bicycle
Bicycle Playing Cards (stock 808) are the USPC's flagship brand of cards, introduced in 1885.
The typical Bicycle deck is a standard deck of cards consisting of 52 traditional French-suited playing cards, two jokers and two advertising cards. The Bicycle trademark is printed on the ace of spades. The type number of a Bicycle deck can be found both on the bottom of the deck box and on the stone of the joker artwork. Bicycle cards have a textured 'air cushion' finish for improved handling.
Bicycle cards are sold in poker and bridge widths, with additional deck configurations for use in other games such as pinochle, rummy, euchre, and canasta. Back designs include the standard 'Rider' back, the 'Vintage' back modeled on the original card design, and many specialty designs. Back colors include traditional red and blue, along with black, silver, and pastel colors. Face designs include standard, jumbo index, low-vision cards for the visually impaired, and a 'PokerPeek' design on their pro-series decks that simplifies looking at hole cards. Novelty 'Big Bicycle' cards that are four times the normal bridge card size, and mini-sized cards are also available.
Bicycle playing cards are commonly used by magicians in card magic and flourishes due to their ordinary appearance. In addition to specialty decks specifically designed for magic, cardistry or purely aesthetic reasons, USPC also make other kinds of non-standard card decks, such as a gaff deck (contained in a mirrored-art box) with an assortment of unusually altered cards that can be used with regular cards for tricks.
Starting in 2019, Bicycle started a "Games by Bicycle" division to enter into the hobby board game market, with party games and light strategic games using playing-card sized cards. These include Tattoo Stories, It's Blunderful, and Shuffle Grand Prix.
Subject to certain guidelines, the Bicycle brand can be licensed from USPC.
Congress
Congress was the most expensive of the first four brands introduced by the company in 1881, when it was still known as Russell, Morgan, and Co. Congress was printed under two stocks: their standard 404 and the deluxe 606 which had gold edges.
In modern use, the Congress brand is used for contract bridge and canasta cards and accessories. Congress cards are available in a wide assortment of back designs, and are typically housed in a velour covered box with a pull-out tray. Each Congress deck consists of the 52 standard cards, two jokers (which feature an image of the United States Capitol), and an information card describing bridge scoring. Congress cards are usually sold in coordinated sets of two decks to facilitate the common bridge practice of alternating decks between hands. Early Congress cards came in three variations: Poker size (1881-1922), Whist size (early 1900s to 1922), and bridge size 1922-on). From 1881 to around 1900, decks featured Lord Dundreary as the joker and the backs were solid color borders with gold (and sometimes copper) colored ink, affectionately called “lacquer backs”. In 1899, pictorial backs became the norm. Between 1897 and 1904, the jokers were a black and white image of the back design. These decks are highly sought by congress collectors.
Fournier
Naipes Heraclio Fournier S.A. manufactures many different sets of playing cards, most for sale in Europe. Fournier cards are also common choices for casinos around the world. In addition to their signature 1 Spanish playing cards, they also produce poker cards (the 18 line), tarot cards, and specialty cards. Since their acquisition by USPC, Fournier has also made use of the Bicycle brand name to distribute special-edition decks featuring unique artwork. They have also taken advantage of USPC's acquisition of KEM's plastic card technology to sell all-plastic versions of their cards ( 2100 is the all-plastic version of their 1).
Hoyle
The Hoyle brand was originally produced by the Brown & Bigelow Company in 1927, and was the main competitor to USPC's Bicycle brand for over 70 years. The cards proved such a success that Brown & Bigelow's card division was renamed Hoyle Products in 1975. Hoyle's shell back design is well-recognized, but Hoyle's most iconic figure is its Joker: a colorful jester whose face (repeated atop his scepter) is an optical illusion. The USPC purchased Hoyle Products from Brown & Bigelow in 2001, and unlike most of its other playing card company acquisitions, has kept a few of the popular Hoyle brands in print. Since production was taken over by the USPCC, Hoyle playing cards are also produced in an all-plastic version.
KEM
KEM cards were first manufactured in 1935. Unlike normal playing cards which are made from plastic-coated paper, KEM cards are made entirely from cellulose acetate and are waterproof. USPC purchased KEM Cards in 2004. After a two-year hiatus, USPC restarted KEM card production, which continues today. KEM cards are available to the consumer (usually at specialty game shops) with various back colors and designs in both poker and bridge sizes. In 2007, KEM bridge cards (using Bicycle artwork) were adopted as the official cards of the World Series of Poker.
Maverick
Maverick was Hoyle's budget brand when it was acquired by USPC with the rest of Hoyle Products in 2001. It was introduced in 1959, during the run of the popular Maverick TV series. Unlike most USPC current product lines, Maverick is now being printed by outsourced manufacturers.
Rambler
Rambler playing cards (Stock 23,) are another brand of playing cards that were originally produced by National Card Company. They feature gilded edges and a waterproof smooth aluminum oxide finish. They are primarily produced for export along with Aladdin playing cards, for usage in humid regions of Asia. Original production halted in 2009 with the closure of the Cincinnati factory and did not resume until 2011 due to quality control issues at the Kentucky plant.
Streamline
Streamline came to the USPCC from the Arrco Playing Card Company, longtime manufacturers of a large variety of low-end and budget-priced cards, which the USPC acquired in 1987. Streamline is a low-end brand, similar to Maverick, with a bordered monochrome back and a smooth plastic-coated finish. They are also produced by outsourced manufacturers.
Squeezers
Squeezer brand cards were originally printed by the New York Consolidated Card Company. The New York Consolidated Card Company, Andrew Dougherty and Standard Playing Card Company were all eventually bought out and merged to form the Consolidated-Doughterty branch of the USPCC. Squeezer playing cards are printed with the Cambric Finish of Bee playing cards. Squeezer playing cards traditionally came in several back designs, but only the two most popular (the famous Bulldog and Angel Back) are still printed. Unlike most other USPCC cards, these cards are only printed occasionally.
Tally-Ho
Tally Ho was originally a product of Andrew Dougherty, one of the earliest American card manufacturers, introduced in 1885, the same year Bicycle was introduced. Dougherty's company was acquired by the USPC in 1907, bringing Tally-Ho into its assortment. Dougherty would then be merged with New York Consolidated Card Company and Standard Playing Card Company to form Consolidated-Doughterty. Tally-Ho cards come in two back designs, known as the "fan" back and the "circle" back, typically in traditional red and blue. Due to the unique finish, known as "linoid", and the distinct designs, they are popular for card flourishes.
Discontinued brands
Arrco
The Arrco Playing Card Company began operations in Chicago 1927 under the name Arrow Playing Card Company. The company's founder, Theodore Regensteiner, helped popularized the Arrco brand by implementing a new easy-to-handle plastic coating for his decks. While Arrco sustained sales throughout the later half of the 20th century, the Regensteiner family decided to sell the company to USPC in 1987. The USPC continued to print the Arrco brand until it was discontinued in 2011.
Army & Navy
One of the first five brands of cards introduced by the company in 1881, when it was still known as Russell, Morgan, and Co., Army and Navy were originally two separate brands although they shared the same two stock numbers: their standard 303 and the deluxe 505 which had gold edges. The two brands were then merged into the single Army & Navy brand in 1884. True to the name, the Joker and Ace of Spades of these brands tended to feature American military imagery, which changed over the years of its production.
Canteen & Picket
Stock 515, Canteen was issued during the Spanish–American War in 1898. They were of a low quality so as to be inexpensive and easily bought by the soldiers. It was discontinued shortly after the war. In World War I, the stock number was reused for Picket, another inexpensive brand which was again printed for sale to soldiers. Printing of Picket ceased after the Armistice.
Sportsman's
One of the first four brand of cards introduced by the company in 1881, when it was still known as Russell, Morgan, and Co., Sportsman's (stock 202) was the highest-end brand of playing cards originally produced, featuring hunting and fishing themes. The card backs featured game animals, whilst the ace of spades and jokers featured hunters, guns and hunting dogs. Production of these cards continued until 1936.
Steamboat 999
The fifth brand of cards introduced by the USPC (stock 999, introduced in 1883), this brand was introduced to meet a growing demand for inexpensive playing cards (at the time of their introduction, Steamboat cards were available for as little as 5¢ a pack). Until the 1990s when the cards had a cardstock change, Steamboat was the company's least expensive line of playing cards. The cards had a price increase as the original 999 stock was replaced with Aviator and Bicycle 808 stock. Steamboat cards were offered with an Air Cushion finish until 2009 when the United States Playing Card Company moved to Erlanger.
Stud
Stud was an exclusive house brand of the Walgreens drug store chain. They were originally produced by the Arrco company, and used the primary Arrco casino export card stock, Stock 21. When acquired by the USPCC in 1986, Stud playing cards stopped being printed on Arrco stock and were printed on the linen finish Aristocrat stock. They feature a "stud" horse on the tuck case, ace of spades, and jokers, as well as windmills on the card backs. The playing cards feature the Arrco styled court cards. Stud playing cards of all ages are widely sought after by cardistry enthusiasts and magicians due to their excellent handling. The Stud name was discontinued briefly and replaced by "Play Right", but the name change was not popular. Even less popular was the unusual indexing (Red decks were standard size, and blue decks were jumbo size). In 2019, Walgreens stopped ordering Stud playing cards in favor of Theory11 designed cards.
Texan No. '45
The Texan No. '45, originally printed as the '45 Texan, was in print for over 120 years. These playing cards, unlike most, were borderless, and featured a scene of Texas palmetto leaves, with a star in the center. The cards also were unique, as they were slightly asymmetrical. Whilst originally printed in the United States, the Texan No. '45, in later years, was a Canadian-exclusive brand of playing cards. Unlike some other brands, the Texan brand was still printed after the move to Erlanger. After being in print for over 120 years, the production ceased.
Tigers
Stock 101, Tigers was the first brand published in 1881 and the cheapest of the earliest four brands. Its name comes from the tiger that appeared on the joker. After the introduction of the Steamboat line, the importance of Tigers was diminished. It was discontinued around 1930.
Notes
External links
Playing card manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Kentucky
American companies established in 1867
Manufacturing companies established in 1867
1867 establishments in Ohio
1969 mergers and acquisitions
1982 mergers and acquisitions
1989 mergers and acquisitions
2004 mergers and acquisitions
2016 mergers and acquisitions
2019 mergers and acquisitions
Kenton County, Kentucky
American subsidiaries of foreign companies | [
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225823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%20Greenwood | Ed Greenwood | Ed Greenwood (born July 21, 1959) is a Canadian fantasy writer and the original creator of the Forgotten Realms game world. He began writing articles about the Forgotten Realms for Dragon magazine beginning in 1979, and subsequently sold the rights to the setting to TSR, the creators of the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game, in 1986. He has written many Forgotten Realms novels, as well as numerous articles and D&D game supplement books.
Early life and the Forgotten Realms
Greenwood grew up in the upscale Toronto suburb of Don Mills. He began writing stories about the Forgotten Realms as a child, starting in the mid 1960s; they were his "dream space for swords and sorcery stories". Greenwood conceived of the Forgotten Realms as one world in a "multiverse" of parallel worlds which includes the Earth. He imagined such worlds as being the source of humanity's myths and legends.
Greenwood discovered the Dungeons & Dragons game in 1975 and soon became a regular player. He used the Realms as a setting for his campaigns, which centered around the fictional locales of Waterdeep and Shadowdale, locations that would figure prominently in his later writing. According to Greenwood, his players' thirst for detail pushed him to further develop the Forgotten Realms setting: "They want[ed] it to seem real, and work on 'honest jobs' and personal activities, until the whole thing [grew] into far more than a casual campaign."
Beginning with the periodical's 30th issue in 1979, Greenwood published a series of short articles that detailed the setting in The Dragon magazine, the first of which was about a monster known as The Curst. He wrote voluminous entries to Dragon magazine, using the Realms as a setting for his descriptions of magic items, monsters, and spells.
Partnership with TSR
In 1986, the American game publishing company TSR began looking for a new campaign setting for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game, and assigned Jeff Grubb to find out more about the setting used by Greenwood in his articles for Dragon magazine. According to Greenwood, Grubb asked him "Do you just make this stuff up as you go, or do you really have a huge campaign world?"; he answered "yes" to both questions. TSR felt that the Forgotten Realms would be a more open-ended setting than the epic Dragonlance setting, and chose the Realms as a ready-made campaign for AD&D 2nd Edition.
Greenwood agreed to work on the project, and began to prepare his Forgotten Realms material for official publication. He sent TSR a few dozen cardboard boxes stuffed with pencil notes and maps, and sold all rights to the Realms for a token fee. The following year, Greenwood used this material as a basis for writing the Forgotten Realms Campaign Set along with coauthor Jeff Grubb.
The campaign setting was a major success, and Greenwood continued to be involved with all subsequent incarnations of the Forgotten Realms in D&D. He retained the rights to his fictional universe and went on to write numerous Forgotten Realms novels. Many of these center around the wizard Elminster, whom Greenwood has frequently portrayed at conventions and gaming events.
Greenwood feels his work on the Realms that he likes best are "those products that impart some of the richness and color of the Realms, such as the novel I wrote with Jeff Grubb, Cormyr; the Volo's Guides; Seven Sisters; The Code of the Harpers; City of Splendors; and stuff that lots of gamers have found useful, such as Drow of the Underdark and Ruins of Undermountain."
Greenwood has also been contributing editor and creative editor of Dragon magazine.
Personal life and other activities
Greenwood has published over two hundred articles in Dragon Magazine and Polyhedron Newszine, is a lifetime charter member of the Role Playing Game Association (RPGA) network, and has been Gen Con Game Fair guest of honor many times. Greenwood has written over thirty-five novels for TSR, and written, co-written, or contributed to over two hundred books and game products from other publishers. Greenwood has also contributed to The Book of All Flesh (2001), an anthology based on All Flesh Must Be Eaten, and written short stories based on the Silver Age Sentinels role-playing game. Greenwood's Castlemourn setting was published by Margaret Weis Productions. He is co-creator (with fantasy novelist Lynn Abbey) of the Mornmist fantasy setting.
He has also contributed to most Forgotten Realms gaming accessories, and authored many more—including the detailed Volo's Guide series—and continues to DM his own campaign. He writes regular Realmslore columns for the Wizards of the Coast website.
In addition to all these activities, Greenwood works as a library clerk (and sometimes as a librarian) and has edited over a dozen small press magazines. When not appearing at conventions, he lives in an old farmhouse in the countryside of Ontario.
As of 1998, Greenwood lived in applegrowing country on Lake Ontario, still working full-time at the North York Community Library, as he had since 1974, and continued to run his original Waterdeep campaign with the same core group he started with, albeit meeting only sporadically.
Awards and honors
Greenwood won "best player" at the 1984 Gen Con AD&D Open tournament and several Gamer's Choice Awards and Origins Awards for his game design. He was inducted into the Gamer's Choice Hall of Fame in 1992 and the Academy of Adventure Gaming's Hall of Fame in 2003. Order of Cramahe 2017. He received the Port Hope Civic Awards Arts & Culture Award 2019.
Bibliography
Shandril's Saga
Spellfire (1987);
Crown of Fire (1994);
Hand of Fire (2002)
The Elminster Series
Elminster – The Making of a Mage (1994);
Elminster in Myth Drannor (1997);
The Temptation of Elminster (1998);
Elminster in Hell (2001);
Elminster's Daughter (2004);
Spellstorm (2015)
The Shadow of the Avatar Trilogy
Shadows of Doom (Greenwood novel)|Shadows of Doom (1995);
Cloak of Shadows (1995);
All Shadows Fled (1995)
The Cormyr Saga
Cormyr: A Novel (1996);
Death of the Dragon (2000)
The Harpers
Crown of Fire (1994);
Stormlight (novel)|Starlight (1996)
Double Diamond Triangle Saga
The Mercenaries (novel)|The Mercenaries (1998);
The Diamond (novel)|The Diamond (1998)
Sembia
"The Burning Chalice" - The Halls of Stormweather: A Novel In Seven Parts (2000)
The Knights of Myth Drannor Trilogy
Swords of Eveningstar (2006);
Swords of Dragonfire (August 2007);
The Sword Never Sleeps (November 2008);
The Sage of Shadowdale series
Elminster Must Die (August 2010)
Bury Elminster Deep (August 2011)
Elminster Enraged (August 2012)
The Sundering
The Herald (2013)
Other titles
Silverfall: Stories of the Seven Sisters (1999)
Death Masks (Forgotten Realms novel)|Death Masks (2016)
Anthology novellas
"One Comes Unheralded, to Zirta" - originally written in 1967, published in Best of the Realms 2 (2005);
"Elminster at the Mage Fair" - Realms of Valor (1993);
"So High A Price" - Realms of Infamy (1994);
"The Eye of the Dragon" - Realms of Magic (1995);
"A Slow Day In Skullport" - Realms of the Underdark (1996);
"The Whispering Crown" - Realms of the Arcane (1997);
"The Place Where Guards Snore at their Posts" - Realms of the Deep (2000);
"When Shadows Come Seeking A Throne" - Realms of Shadow (2002)
"Lord of the Darkways" - Untold Adventures (2011)
Non-Forgotten Realms novels
Band of Four Series
The Kingless Land (Tor Books 2000)
The Vacant Throne (Tor Books 2001)
A Dragon's Ascension (Tor Books 2002)
The Dragon's Doom (Tor Books 2003)
The Silent House: A Chronicle of Aglirta (Tor Books 2004)
Falconfar Series
Dark Lord (Ed Greenwood novel)|Dark Lord (Solaris Books 2007)
Arch Wizard (Solaris Books 2008)
Falconfar (Solaris Books 2010)
Novel of Niflheim Series
Dark Warrior Rising: A Novel of Niflheim (Tor Books 2007)
Dark Vengeance (Tor Books 2008)
Pathfinder Tales Series
The Wizard's Mask (Paizo Publishing 2013)
The Iron Assassin (Tor Books 2015)
Hellmaw Series
Hellmaw: Your World Is Doomed! (The Ed Greenwood Group 2016)
Hellmaw: Throckmorton's Trick (The Ed Greenwood Group 2017)
Hellmaw: My Talons In Her Throat (The Ed Greenwood Group 2017)
Stormtalons Series
Words Of Unbinding (The Ed Greenwood Group 2016)
Folklore: The Affliction Series
Folklore: The Affliction: The Whispering Skull (The Ed Greenwood Group 2017)
Come Octember (Haunted Castle Press 2018)
Other fiction anthology contributions
"The Sword of Dreams" - Tales From Tethedril (1998)
"The Witch of the Dawn" - Be Afraid! (2000)
"The Shadow of a Sword" - The Doom of Camelot (2000)
"One Last, Little Revenge" - The Book of All Flesh (2001)
"Writhe, Damn You" - Northern Horror (2002)
"No Stars to Steer By" - Oceans of Space (2002)
"All One Under the Stars" - The Bakka Anthology (2002)
"O Silent Knight of Cards" - Be Very Afraid! (2002)
"The Secret in the Cellar" - The Book of Final Flesh (2003)
"The Man In The Wall" - Path of the Just (2003)
"The Fallen Star" - Children of the Rune (2004)
"Stormsong" - Summoned by Destiny I: Realms of Wonder (2004)
"The Mad Mohj of Onteth" - The Dragons' Return (2005)
"Wrathclaw's Wyrmtide" - We Three Dragons (2005)
"Beowulf and the Wraith" - The Further Adventures of Beowulf: Champion of Middle Earth (2006)
"It Came From the Swamp" - Astounding Hero Tales (2006)
"Oroon Rising" - Wizards of the Coast (2006)
"King Harrowhelm" - Heroes in Training (2007)
"Secrets" - Dragons of Krynn (2007)
"Father Maims Best" - Catopolis (2008)
"What Dreams May Go" - Lilith Unbound (2008)
"How Fear Came To Ornath" - Worlds of Their Own (2008)
"A Perfect Night to Watch Detroit Burn" - Grants Pass (2009)
"Rescuing the Elf Princess Again" - Gamer Fantastic (2009)
"Edge of Moonglow" - Tesseracts Fifteen: A Case of Quite Curious Tales (2011)
"Biting a Dead Man's Hand" - First Contact: Digital Science Fiction Anthology 1 (2011)
"My Silent Slayer" - Heir Apparent: Digital Science Fiction Anthology 4 (2011)
"Daggers in her Garters" - Beauty Has Her Way (Dark Quest Books) (2011)
"Best Served Flash-Frozen" - Foreshadows: The Ghosts of Zero (2012)
"Midnight Knight" - The New Hero (2012)
"A Girl and Her Scaly Bits" - The Awakened (2013)
"Fae Blades for the Dread Duke" - By Faerie Light (2013)
"A Matter of Knives" - Pathfinder Tales (2013)
"Kheltae's Bright Scheme" - Tournament of Death (2014)
"The Sword of the Lord" - Arcane Synthesis (2014)
"Ghosts Galore" - Cadaver Bone (2014)
"The Dragon" - Gods, Memes, and Monsters (2015)
"The Magpie" - Gods, Memes, and Monsters (2015)
"The Haunting of the Lordly Lion" - The Bard's Tale: Stories and Recipes From The Black Dragon Inn (2015)
"Many Tentacles, Reaching" - The Awakened II (2016)
"My Doom May Come Soon" - Champions of Aetaltis (2016)
"Wolves Run By Night" - The Awakened Modern (2017)
"Under the Queen's Throne" - Art of War (2018)
"Three Aces for the Dancer" - Rocket Age Anthology 1: Tales of the Solar System (2018)
"Words to Die For" - Sisterhood of the Blade (2018)
Creatures from Fairy-Tale and Myth (2019)
Anthologies edited
When the Hero Comes Home (edited by Ed Greenwood and Gabrielle Harbowy) – Dragon Moon Press (2011)
When the Villain Comes Home (edited by Ed Greenwood and Gabrielle Harbowy) – Dragon Moon Press (2012)
Women In Practical Armor (edited by Ed Greenwood and Gabrielle Harbowy) – Evil Girlfriend Media (2017)
Video games
J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Vol. II: The Two Towers Eye of the Beholder III: Assault on Myth Drannor Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor Haunted Halls of Eveningstar Mages of MystraliaMedia mentions
Ed Greenwood has appeared in the following podcasts, newspaper and magazine articles, websites, and podcasts.
Podcasts
Open Design No. 004: Dwarves of the Ironcrags. Ed provides the voice for the introduction to this show.
RPG Countdown: 29 July 2009 episode (Kobold Quarterly 010)
Dungeon Masters Block: Episode 69 & 70
Worldcasting: Episode 12 (by Worldbuilding Magazine)
Magazines
"To Believe the Magic Is Real: A Conversation with Ed Greenwood". Clarkesworld Magazine, December 2008.
Interview with Ed Greenwood, Cryptych'' Issue 1/IV, February 1994
Radio interviews
Sounds Like Canada: August 28, 2007 episode
References
External links
Ed Greenwood on YouTube
Biography of Ed Greenwood at Wizards.com
1959 births
Living people
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
Canadian fantasy writers
Canadian male novelists
Canadian science fiction writers
Dungeons & Dragons game designers
Role-playing game designers | [
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225824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeo%20Yoshikawa | Takeo Yoshikawa | was a Japanese spy in Hawaii before the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
Early career
A 1933 graduate of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima (graduating at the top of his class), Yoshikawa served briefly at sea aboard the armored cruiser Asama as well as submarines. He had begun training as a naval pilot near the end of 1934 when a severe stomach ailment prevented him from completing his training. He was subsequently discharged from the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1936. As a result, he briefly contemplated suicide.
A year later he began a career in Naval intelligence, being assigned to Navy Headquarters in Tokyo. He became an expert in the U.S. Navy, perusing every source he could possibly get his hands on. While on intelligence duty he intercepted a shortwave radio message in plain English that 17 troop transports were en route to England, having cleared the port of Freetown, Sierra Leone. He passed this information to the German Embassy, and many of the ships were destroyed as a result. Yoshikawa subsequently received a personal letter of thanks from Adolf Hitler. In 1940 he became a junior diplomat after passing the Foreign Ministry English examinations.
A spy in Hawaii
Because of his expertise on the U.S. Navy, Yoshikawa was sent to Hawaii posing as a vice-consul named Tadashi Morimura (森村 正 Morimura Tadashi), arriving on March 27, 1941, with Nagao Kita (喜多 長雄 Kita Nagao), the new Japanese Consul-General aboard the liner Nitta Maru. He rented a second-story apartment that overlooked Pearl Harbor and would often wander around the island of Oahu, taking notes on fleet movements and security measures. He rented small airplanes at John Rodgers Airport and flew around, observing U.S. installations; he also dove under the harbor using a hollow reed as a breathing device. He gathered information by taking the Navy's own harbor tugboat and listening to local gossip. He worked closely with German Abwehr agent Bernard Kuehn, as well as another former Etajima graduate, Kokichi Seki (関 興吉 Seki Kō'kichi), an untrained spy who served as the consulate's treasurer.
According to Yoshikawa, although some 160,000 persons of Japanese ancestry lived in Hawaii at that time, he never tried to make use of this resource in his espionage activities. He and Seki agreed that, while Hawaii should be the "easiest place" to carry out such work in view of the large Japanese population, both looked upon the locals with disdain. "[T]hose men of influence and character who might have assisted me in my secret mission were unanimously uncooperative...."
Although he had no knowledge of a planned attack on Naval Station Pearl Harbor, Yoshikawa assumed that the intelligence would help prepare for such an eventuality and worked tirelessly to that end. His reports were transmitted by the Japanese consulate in PURPLE code to the Foreign Ministry, which passed them on to the Navy. Although the code had been broken by Allied codebreakers and messages to and from Tokyo were intercepted and decrypted, communications between Tokyo and the consulate were considered low-priority because they contained so many messages that were entirely commercial in nature. However, one such message addressed to Kita (but actually to Yoshikawa) and sent on September 24, 1941, should have received more attention. It divided Pearl Harbor into five distinct zones and requested that the location and number of warships be indicated on a "plot" (i.e., grid) of the harbor. However, due to delays caused by staff shortages and other priorities the message was not decrypted and distributed until mid-October, and then dismissed as being of little consequence. However, it was the reports that he sent twice a week based on this request that enabled Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto to finalize his plan for the attack.
When he heard the "East wind, rain" code phrase on the short wave radio bringing the news from Tokyo to signal that an attack against the United States was to proceed, Yoshikawa destroyed all evidence of his activities. When the FBI picked him up on the day of the attack, there was no incriminating evidence of his espionage. He eventually returned to Japan in August 1942 in a diplomat prisoner exchange. It was not known for some time that he was the chief Japanese agent in Hawaii.
Return to Japan and later life
Yoshikawa continued to work for naval intelligence during the remainder of the war. When the war ended and Japan was occupied by U.S. forces, he went into hiding (disguised as a Buddhist monk) for fear of being prosecuted for his role in the Pearl Harbor attack. He returned to his wife (whom he married shortly after his return from the U.S.) when the occupation ended.
Yoshikawa never received official recognition of his services during the war. In 1955, he opened a candy business but it failed as word spread of his role in the war. The locals blamed Yoshikawa for the war. "They even blamed me for the atomic bomb," he declared in one interview. Penniless and jobless, he was supported by his wife for the rest of his life via her position selling insurance. "My wife alone shows me great respect," said the old former spy. "Every day she bows to me. She knows I am a man of history." He died in a nursing home.
Over the years, the mysterious spies of Pearl Harbor were always mentioned in passing in history books. While the Yoshikawa case appeared to retroactively justify the decision to intern Japanese Americans, he claimed that he distrusted the Japanese-American community and that it was loyal to America over Japan.
Sources
1912 births
1993 deaths
Military personnel from Ehime Prefecture
World War II spies for Japan
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Imperial Japanese Navy officers | [
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225825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launceston%20Elliot | Launceston Elliot | Launceston Elliot (9 June 1874 – 8 August 1930) was a Scottish weightlifter, and the first British Olympic champion.
Biography
Launceston Elliot was conceived in Launceston, Tasmania, Australia, after which he was named, but before his birth his family moved to India and he was born in Kaladagi and baptised at Guledgudd, now in Karnataka State. His family was an established part of the Scottish aristocracy with Lord Minto being head of the family which had strong connections with India. The 4th Earl Minto served as Viceroy of India (1905–10). Launceston Elliot was the grandson of Sir Charles Elliot, the onetime governor of Saint Helena, and his father Gilbert Wray Elliot served as magistrate with the Indian Civil Service.
In 1887, Elliot's father gave up his post in India and took his family to England where he began farming in Essex. The 13-year-old Launceston, an exceptionally well-built youth, who was seeing England for the first time, immediately came under the influence of the great Eugen Sandow and soon developed into an unusually talented lifter. In January 1891, aged only 16, he performed creditably at what is now recognised as the first British Championships held at the fashionable Café Monico in Piccadilly, London. Three years later he was the winner of the championships at the Royal Aquarium, Westminster.
Continuing success encouraged the 21-year-old Elliot to travel to Athens for the first modern Olympic Games. At the time, there were no internationally accepted rules or classifications for weightlifting and the 1896 Olympics added further to the huge variety of classes contested on the contemporary scene. The two-handed lift came first on the program and, after a long drawn out contest, Viggo Jensen of Denmark and Elliot had both lifted 111.5 kilograms, but Prince George awarded the Dane first place for having done so in better style. Jensen's lift was accomplished with a superb clean lift whereas Elliot had certainly encountered difficulty. By contrast, the one-handed event was a short, sharp event. Elliot declined Prince George's courteous offer of a rest break but he asked that he might this time lift after Jensen, as in the two-handed event the Dane had the advantage of lifting after Elliot. The request was granted although the order of lifting was not to have a material effect on the result. Elliot raised 71.0 kilograms without difficulty whereas Jensen, who had injured his shoulder trying to raise 112.5 kilograms in the two-handed event, could only manage 57.0 kilograms and Britain's first Olympic champion was crowned.
Elliot also competed in the 100 metres in the athletics programme. He placed third in his heat and did not advance to the final. In the wrestling event, Elliot was defeated in the first round by Carl Schuhmann of Germany, the gymnastics champion.
He finished last of the five competitors in the rope climbing event on the gymnastics program.
Following his victory in Athens, he set four new records at the 1899 Amateur Championships and, as a prominent figure on the British weightlifting scene, his financial success was virtually assured. He also competed at the 1900 Summer Olympics, throwing the discus and placing eleventh (no weightlifting events were held that year). In 1903 he turned professional. After his retirement Elliot carried on farming in England for a few years before settling in Melbourne in 1923. He died of cancer of the spine on 8 August 1930 aged 56 and is buried in Melbourne's Fawkner Cemetery.
Photographs of Launceston Elliot are featured among the distinguished Scottish athletes in the sport section of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh (re-opened after a major refurbishment in 2011).
References
External links
An article about Launceston Elliot by Ian Buchanan
Launceston Elliot at Sandow Museum
Oxford DNB entry
1874 births
1930 deaths
People associated with physical culture
People from Bagalkot district
Scottish male weightlifters
British male sport wrestlers
Scottish male sprinters
British male discus throwers
Scottish male discus throwers
Olympic athletes of Great Britain
Olympic weightlifters of Great Britain
Olympic wrestlers of Great Britain
Olympic gold medallists for Great Britain
Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain
Olympic medalists in weightlifting
Athletes (track and field) at the 1896 Summer Olympics
19th-century sportsmen
Athletes (track and field) at the 1900 Summer Olympics
Gymnasts at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Weightlifters at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Wrestlers at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Scottish Olympic medallists
Europeans in India
Anglo-Scots
Medalists at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Deaths from spinal cancer
Neurological disease deaths in Victoria (Australia)
Deaths from cancer in Victoria (Australia) | [
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] |
225827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viggo%20Jensen | Viggo Jensen | Alexander Viggo Jensen (born 22 June 1874 in Copenhagen, Denmark; died 2 November 1930 in Copenhagen, Denmark) was a Danish weightlifter, sport shooter, gymnast, and athlete. He was the first Danish Olympic champion, at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens.
The first weightlifting event held was the two-handed lift, in a style now known as the clean and jerk. Jensen and Launceston Elliot of Great Britain and Ireland finished the competition tied at 111.5 kilograms, though the judges declared Jensen had performed the lift with better form and would be awarded first place. The British delegation protested, resulting in more attempts being given both lifters to improve their scores. Neither did and therefore Jensen retained first place, but he had injured his shoulder in the extra attempts.
That injury hampered Jensen's efforts in the one-handed lift, the snatch. He was able to lift only 57.0 kilograms to Elliot's 71.0 kilograms, taking second place in the event. Jensen competed in the shot put, placing fourth. He was not among the top four in the discus throw, placing sixth.
In the gymnastics competitions, Jensen entered the rope climbing event. He did not finish the climb, placing fourth behind the two Greeks who did reach the top of the 14 metre rope and Fritz Hofmann, who had gotten higher than Jensen. He was ahead of Launceston Elliot in the event.
He also competed in the two rifle events. In the military rifle, Jensen placed sixth with a score of 1,640 points and 30 hits of 40 shots. The free rifle was more successful for him, as he finished third at 1,305 points on 31 hits. His scores for each string of 10 shots were 392, 423, 280, and 210.
References
External links
1874 births
1930 deaths
Olympic athletes of Denmark
Olympic gymnasts of Denmark
Olympic shooters of Denmark
Olympic weightlifters of Denmark
Athletes (track and field) at the 1896 Summer Olympics
19th-century sportsmen
Gymnasts at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Shooters at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Shooters at the 1900 Summer Olympics
Weightlifters at the 1896 Summer Olympics
Danish male shot putters
Danish male discus throwers
Danish male artistic gymnasts
Danish male sport shooters
ISSF rifle shooters
Danish male weightlifters
Olympic gold medalists for Denmark
Olympic silver medalists for Denmark
Olympic bronze medalists for Denmark
Olympic medalists in weightlifting
Olympic medalists in shooting
Medalists at the 1896 Summer Olympics
People associated with physical culture | [
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225830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penitent%20thief | Penitent thief | The Penitent Thief, also known as the Good Thief, Wise Thief, Grateful Thief or the Thief on the Cross, is one of two unnamed thieves in Luke's account of the crucifixion of Jesus in the New Testament. The Gospel of Luke describes him asking Jesus to "remember him" when Jesus arrives at his kingdom. The other, as the impenitent thief, challenges Jesus to save himself and both of them to prove that he is the Messiah.
He is officially venerated in the Catholic Church. The Roman Martyrology places his commemoration on 25 March, together with the Feast of the Annunciation, because of the ancient Christian tradition that Christ (and the penitent thief) were crucified and died exactly on the anniversary of Christ's incarnation.
He is given the name Dismas in the Gospel of Nicodemus and is traditionally known in Catholicism as Saint Dismas (sometimes Dysmas; in Spanish and Portuguese, Dimas). Other traditions have bestowed other names:
In Coptic Orthodox tradition and the Narrative of Joseph of Arimathea, he is named Demas.
In the Codex Colbertinus, he is named Zoatham or Zoathan.
In the Arabic Infancy Gospel, he is named Titus.
In Russian Orthodox tradition, he is named Rakh (Russian: Рах).
Gospel of Luke
Narrative
Two men were crucified at the same time as Jesus, one on his right and one on his left, which the Gospel of Mark interprets as fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 53:12 ("And he was numbered with the transgressors"). According to the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, respectively, both of the thieves mocked Jesus; Luke, however, relates:
Attempts have been made to reconcile the apparent contradiction between Luke's account and that of Mark and Matthew. Augustine of Hippo suggested that the authors of Mark and Matthew, for the sake of concision, employed a figure of speech whereby the plural was put for the singular. Later commentators, such as Frederic Farrar, have drawn attention to the difference between the Greek words used: "The two first Synoptists tell us that both the robbers during an early part of the hours of crucifixion reproached Jesus (ὠνείδιζον), but we learn from St Luke that only one of them used injurious and insulting language to Him (ἐβλασφήμει)."
"Amen ... today ... in paradise"
The phrase translated "Amen, I say to you, today you will be in paradise" in Luke 23:43 ("Ἀμήν σοι λέγω σήμερον μετ’ ἐμοῦ ἔσῃ ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ." Amén soi légo sémeron met' emoû ése en tôi paradeísoi) is disputed in a minority of versions and commentaries. The Greek manuscripts are without punctuation, so attribution of the adverb "today" to the verb "be", as "Amen I say to you, today you will be with me in paradise" (the majority view), or the verb "say", as "Amen I say to you today, you will be with me in paradise" (the minority view), is dependent on analysis of word order conventions in Koine Greek. The majority of ancient Bible translations also follow the majority view, with only the Aramaic language Curetonian Gospels offering significant testimony to the minority view. As a result, some prayers recognize the good thief as the only person confirmed as a saint—that is, a person known to be in Paradise after death—by the Bible, and by Jesus himself. Thomas Aquinas wrote:
Unnamed
Only the Gospel of Luke describes one of the criminals as penitent, and that gospel does not name him.
Augustine of Hippo does not name the thief, but wonders if he might not have been baptized at some point.
According to tradition, the Good Thief was crucified to Jesus' right and the other thief was crucified to his left. For this reason, depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus often show Jesus' head inclined to his right, showing his acceptance of the Good Thief. In the Russian Orthodox Church, both crucifixes and crosses are usually made with three bars: the top one, representing the titulus (the inscription that Pontius Pilate wrote and was nailed above Jesus' head); the longer crossbar on which Jesus' hands were nailed; and a slanted bar at the bottom representing the footrest to which Jesus' feet were nailed. The footrest is slanted, pointing up towards the Good Thief, and pointing down towards the other.
According to John Chrysostom, the thief dwelt in the desert and robbed or murdered anyone unlucky enough to cross his path. According to Pope Gregory I, he "was guilty of blood, even his brother's blood" (fratricide).
Named
"Dismas"
Luke's unnamed penitent thief was later assigned the name Dismas in an early Greek recension of the Acta Pilati and the Latin Gospel of Nicodemus, portions of which may be dated to the late fourth century. The name "Dismas" may have been adapted from a Greek word meaning "sunset" or "death". The other thief's name is given as Gestas. In Syriac Infancy Gospel's Life of the Good Thief (Histoire Du Bon Larron French 1868, English 1882), Augustine of Hippo said, the thief said to Jesus, the child: "O most blessed of children, if ever a time should come when I shall crave Thy Mercy, remember me and forget not what has passed this day."
Anne Catherine Emmerich saw the Holy Family "exhausted and helpless"; according to Augustine of Hippo and Peter Damian, the Holy Family met Dismas, in these circumstances. Pope Theophilus of Alexandria (385–412) wrote a Homily on the Crucifixion and the Good Thief, which is a classic of Coptic literature.
"Demas"
In Coptic Orthodoxy, he is named Demas. This is the name given to him in the Narrative of Joseph of Arimathea.
"Titus"
The apocryphal Syriac Infancy Gospel calls the two thieves Titus and Dumachus, and adds a tale about how Titus (the good one) prevented the other thieves in his company from robbing Mary and Joseph during their flight into Egypt.
"Rakh"
In the Russian tradition, the Good Thief's name is "Rakh" (Russian: Рах).
Sainthood
The Catholic Church remembers the Good Thief on 25 March. In the Roman Martyrology, the following entry is given: "Commemoration of the holy thief in Jerusalem who confessed to Christ and canonized him by Jesus himself on the cross at that moment and merited to hear from him: 'Today you will be with me in Paradise.
A number of towns, including San Dimas, California, are named after him. Also, parish churches are named after him, such as the Church of the Good Thief in Kingston, Ontario, Canada—built by convicts at nearby Kingston Penitentiary, Saint Dismas Church in Waukegan, Illinois, the Old Catholic Parish of St Dismas in Coseley and the Church of St. Dismas, the Good Thief, a Catholic church at the Clinton Correctional Facility in Dannemora, New York.
The Eastern Orthodox Church remembers him on Good Friday, along with the crucifixion. The Synaxarion offers this couplet in his honor:
Eden's locked gates the Thief has opened wide,
By putting in the key, "Remember me."
He is commemorated in a traditional Eastern Orthodox prayer said before receiving the eucharist: "I will not speak of Thy Mystery to Thine enemies, neither like Judas will I give Thee a kiss; but like the thief will I confess Thee: Remember me, O Lord in Thy Kingdom."
Art
In medieval art, St Dismas is often depicted as accompanying Jesus in the Harrowing of Hell as related in and the Apostles' Creed (though neither text mentions the thief).
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, one of the hymns of Good Friday is entitled, "The Good Thief" (or "The Wise Thief", Church Slavonic: "Razboinika blagorazumnago"), and speaks of how Christ granted Dismas Paradise. Several compositions of this hymn are used in the Russian Orthodox Church and form one of the highlights of the Matins service on Good Friday.
In Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot, the main characters Vladimir and Estragon briefly discuss the inconsistencies between the Four Evangelists' accounts of the penitent and impenitent thieves. Vladimir concludes that since only Luke says that one of the two was saved, "then the two of them must have been damned [...] why believe him rather than the others?"
In popular culture
The thief features in Christian popular music, as in Christian rock band Third Day's 1995 song "Thief", and the name of the Christian rock band Dizmas. The thief also is the narrator in Sydney Carter's controversial song "Friday Morning".
Portrayed by Stelio Savante in the award-winning Good Friday film Once We Were Slaves directed by Dallas Jenkins
St. Dismas is central to the early plot of the video game Uncharted 4: A Thief's End in which treasure hunter Nathan Drake uses a St. Dismas statue to aid in his search for pirate treasure.
Dismas is the name of one of two starting characters in the video game Darkest Dungeon. He is also referred to as a rogue, thief, and highwayman in the in-game descriptions. A comic showing his backstory, as well as in-game item descriptions, implies that he is attempting to redeem himself after killing an innocent woman and her child. A special achievement is granted if both starting characters reach the game's final challenge, fittingly titled "On the old road, we found redemption."
In the 1967 romantic comedy caper film Fitzwilly, butler mastermind Claude Fitzwilliam (Dick Van Dyke) and his larcenous staff operate St. Dismas Thrift Shoppe in Philadelphia, a fictional charity where they send and store their stolen loot.
St. Dismas is prominently mentioned throughout the 1946 film The Hoodlum Saint starring William Powell, Esther Williams and Angela Lansbury.
See also
Impenitent thief Gestas, the other thief crucified alongside Jesus
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
Passion (Christianity)
List of names for the biblical nameless
Saint Dismas, patron saint archive
San Dimas A city named after the Penitent Thief
References
External links
The Wise Thief hymn from Eastern Orthodox Good Friday service (in English)
Saint Dismas – Freebase
Christian saints from the New Testament
10s births
30s deaths
Christian folklore
Gospel of Luke
Followers of Jesus
People executed by crucifixion
Saints from the Holy Land
Year of birth unknown
Unnamed people of the Bible | [
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225833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1700%20in%20literature | 1700 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1700.
Events
February 1 – Richard Bentley becomes Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Early March - William Congreve's comedy The Way of the World is first performed at the New Theatre, Lincoln's Inn Fields in London.
May 5 – Within days of John Dryden's death on May 1, his last written work, The Secular Masque, is performed as part of Vanbrugh's version of The Pilgrim.
New books
Fiction
Aphra Behn (posthumously) – Histories, Novels, and Translations (fiction and nonfiction)
Tom Brown – Amusements Serious and Comical
Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras – Mémoires de Monsieur d'Artagnan
Peter Anthony Motteux, editor – The History of the Renown'd Don-Quixote de la Mancha, translated by several hands, Volume 1 (Volumes 2–4 published in 1712 in the third edition)
Drama
Anonymous – Caledonia, or the Pedlar Turned Merchant
Abel Boyer – Achilles; or, Iphigenia in Aulis: a tragedy
William Burnaby – The Reformed Wife
Susannah Centlivre – The Perjur'd Husband; or, The Adventures of Venice: A tragedy
Colley Cibber – The Tragical History of King Richard III
William Congreve – The Way of the World, a comedy performed in March
John Dennis – Iphigenia: A tragedy, performed in December 1699
George Farquhar – The Constant Couple
Charles Gildon – Measure for Measure
Charles Hopkins – Friendship Improv'd; or, The Female Warriour: A tragedy, performed November 7, 1699
Francis Manning – The Generous Choice
John Oldmixon – The Grove, or Love's Paradise published ("semi-opera", music by Henry Purcell)
William Philips – St. Stephen's Green
Mary Pix – The Beau Defeated
Nicholas Rowe – The Ambitious Stepmother
Thomas Southerne – The Fate of Capua: A tragedy, performed about April
John Vanbrugh – The Pilgrim: A comedy, anonymous; performed in April
Poetry
See 1700 in poetry
Richard Blackmore – A Satyr Against Wit
Thomas Brown – A Description of Mr. Dryden's Funeral, verse
Samuel Cobb – Poetae Britannici
Daniel Defoe – The Pacificator
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz – Fama y obras póstumas del Fénix de México
William King – The Transactioneer With Some of his Philosophical Fancies (satire of Philosophical Transactions)
John Pomfret – Reason
John Tutchin – The Foreigners, published anonymously (verse satire on William III's Dutch ministers; Daniel Defoe replied in The True-Born Englishman in 1701))
Ned Ward – The Reformer
Non-fiction
Mary Astell – Some Reflections upon Marriage
James Brome – Travels over England, Scotland, and Wales
Jeremy Collier – A Second Defence of the Short View of the Profaneness and Immorality of the English Stage &c (See 1698 in literature)
Eugenia (authorship unknown) – The Female Advocate: Or, a plea for the just liberty of the tender sex, and particularly of married women...
Francis Moore – Vox Stellarum: An almanac for 1701 (first in a series of yearly "almanacs" of astrology)
Sir William Temple – Letters Written by Sir W. Temple, and Other Ministers of State, Both at Home and Abroad (putatively edited by Jonathan Swift)
Pavao Ritter Vitezović – Croatia Rediviva
Ned Ward – A Step to the Bath: With a character of the place, published anonymously
Births
February 2 – Johann Christoph Gottsched, German philosopher (died 1766)
May 25 – Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, German theologian (died 1760)
September 11 – James Thomson, Scottish poet (died 1748)
November 25 – Kata Bethlen, Hungarian memoirist and correspondent (died 1759)
Deaths
January 7 – Raffaello Fabretti, Italian antiquary (born 1618)
March 14 – Henry Killigrew, English clergyman, poet and playwright (born 1613)
May 12
Joseph Athias, Spanish-born publisher of Hebrew Bible (born 1635)
John Dryden English poet (born 1631)
July – Thomas Creech, English translator (born 1659; suicide)
August 6 – Johann Beer, Austrian author, court official and composer (born 1655; hunting accident)
August 8 – Joseph Moxon, English mathematician and lexicographer (born 1627)
August 22 – Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Mexican priest, poet, geographer, and historian (born 1645)
Unknown date – Charles Hopkins, Anglo-Irish poet and dramatist (born 1664)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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225834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1703%20in%20literature | 1703 in literature | Events from the year 1703 in literature.
Events
July 29–31 – Daniel Defoe is pilloried at Temple Bar, London, as part of a sentence for seditious libel, after publishing his satirical pamphlet The Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702). He is released from Newgate Prison in mid-November.
unknown date – Richard Mead is appointed physician at St Thomas's Hospital, London.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – A Letter from Italy
Abel Boyer – The History of the Reign of Queen Anne
Gilbert Burnet – A Third Collection of Several Tracts and Discourses
Edmund Calamy – A Defence of Moderate Non-Conformity
Jeremy Collier – Mr Collier's Dissuasive from the Play-House
William Dampier – A Voyage to New Holland, &c. in the Year 1699
Daniel Defoe
A Brief Explanation of a Late Pamphlet, entitled, The Shortest Way with the Dissenters
A Dialogue Between a Dissenter and the Observator
A Hymn to the Funeral Sermon
Hymn to the Pillory
More Reformation: A satyr upon himself
The Shortest Way to Peace and Union
A True Collection of the Writings of the Author of the True-Born English-man
John Dunton – The Shortest Way with Whores and Rogues (satire on Defoe)
Thomas Hearne – Reliquiae Bodleianae
George Hickes – Linguarum veterum septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archæologicus
Benjamin Hoadly – The Reasonableness of Conformity to the Church of England
Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan – New Voyages to North America
Bernard de Mandeville – Some Fables After the Easie and Familiar Method of Monsieur de la Fontaine
Leonty Magnitsky – Arithmetic (Арифметика)
Henry Maundrell – A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter A.D. 1697
Ned Ward – The Secret History of the Calves-head Clubb (against Republicanism)
Benjamin Whichcote – Moral and Religious Aphorisms
Drama
Thomas Baker – Tunbridge Walks
Charles Boyle – As You Find It
Marie-Anne Barbier – Cornélie, mère des Gracques
William Burnaby – Love Betrayed
Susanna Centlivre – Love's Contrivance
Chikamatsu Monzaemon – The Love Suicides at Sonezaki (曾根崎心中, Sonezaki Shinjū)
Thomas d'Urfey – The Old Mode and the New
Richard Estcourt – The Fair Example
Charles Gildon – The Patriot (adapted by Nathaniel Lee)
John Oldmixon – The Governour of Cyprus
Mary Pix – The Different Widows
Nicholas Rowe – The Fair Penitent
Richard Steele – The Lying Lover
William Walker – Marry, or Do Worse
Richard Wilkinson – Vice Reclaimed
Poetry
Lady Mary Chudleigh – Poems on Several Occasions
William Congreve
A Hymn to Harmony
The Tears of Amaryllis for Amyntas
Sarah Fyge Egerton – Poems on Several Occasions
Pavao Ritter Vitezović – Plorantis Croatiae saecula duo (Two centuries of Croatia in mourning)
See also 1703 in poetry
Births
March 23 – Cajsa Warg, Swedish cookbook author (died 1769)
May 18 – İbrahim Hakkı Erzurumi, Turkish Sufi philosopher (died 1780)
June 28 – John Wesley, English writer of sermons and hymns (died 1791)
October 5 – Jonathan Edwards, American theologian (died 1758)
November 26 – Theophilus Cibber, English playwright (died 1758)
unknown dates
Henry Brooke, Irish novelist and dramatist (died 1783)
Charles Clémencet, French historian (died 1778)
Thomas Cooke, English writer and translator (died 1756)
John Ranby, English surgeon and writer on surgery (died 1773)
Ando Shoeki (安藤 昌益), Japanese philosopher (died 1762)
Gilbert West, English poet and translator (died 1756)
Deaths
January 11 – Johann Georg Graevius, German critic (born 1632)
February 17 – Philippe Goibaud-Dubois, French translator (born 1626)
March 3 – Robert Hooke, English natural philosopher (born 1635)
March 5 – Gabrielle Suchon, French moral philosopher (born 1631)
April 20 – Lancelot Addison, English writer and cleric (born 1632)
May 8 – Vincent Alsop, English religious writer and wit (born c. 1630)
May 16 – Charles Perrault, French writer of fairy tales (born 1628)
May 26 – Samuel Pepys, English diarist (born 1633)
August 21 – Thomas Tryon, English self-help author (born 1634)
September 29 – Charles de Saint-Évremond, French essayist and literary critic (born 1631)
unknown date – Samuel Johnson, English pamphleteer (born 1649)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1702%20in%20literature | 1702 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1702.
Events
March 8 (O.S.) – Accession of Anne, Queen of Great Britain, upon the death of her brother-in-law William III.
March 11 (O.S.) – The first regular English national newspaper, The Daily Courant, begins publication, in Fleet Street in the City of London. It covers only foreign news.
October – Jonathan Swift returns to Ireland in the company of Esther Johnson.
unknown dates
Ballet master John Weaver presents the burlesque Tavern Bilkers at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London, the first English pantomime. It is not a success.
The first book set in the Romain du Roi Roman type, devised for use by the Imprimerie nationale in France: Médailles sur les principaux événements du règne de Louis le Grand, is printed.
Castle Howard in Yorkshire, England, is completed to the design of playwright John Vanbrugh and architect Nicholas Hawksmoor.
New books
Prose
Louise de Bossigny, comtesse d'Auneuil – La Tiranie des fées détruite (The Tyranny of the Fairies Destroyed)
Thomas Brown, et al. – Letters From the Dead to the Living
Edmund Calamy – An Abridgement of Mr Baxter's History of His Life and Times
Daniel Defoe
An Enquiry into Occasional Conformity
The Mock-Mourners (on the death of William III)
A New Test of the Church of England's Loyalty
Reformation of Manners
The Shortest Way with the Dissenters (anonymous; December)
The Spanish Descent
John Dennis – The Monument
Laurence Echard – A General Ecclesiastical History
George Farquhar – Love and Business
Edmund Gibson – Synodus Anglicana (on the convocation)
Charles Gildon (?) – A Comparison Between the Two Stages (on the "War of the Theatres")
Examen Miscellaneum
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon – The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (1702–1704, written in the 1640s and late 1660s. Also known as Clarendon's History)
George Keith – The Standard of the Quakers Examined
John Kersey – A New English Dictionary; or, a complete collection of the most proper and significant words, commonly used in the language
Cotton Mather – Magnalia Christi Americana
Matthew Prior – To a Young Gentleman in Love
John Toland – Paradoxes of State
Catherine Trotter Cockburn – A Defence of the Essay of Human Understanding (re John Locke)
Drama
William Burnaby – The Modish Husband
Susanna Centlivre –
The Beau's Duel
The Stolen Heiress
Colley Cibber – She Would and She Would Not
John Dennis – The Comical Gallant
George Farquhar
The Inconstant
The Twin Rivals
Charles Gildon – The Patriot
Bevil Higgons – The Generous Conqueror (printed, performed in 1701)
Francis Manning – All for the Better
John Oldmixon – The Governor of Cyprus
Nicholas Rowe – Tamerlane
Sir Charles Sedley – The Tyrant King of Crete
John Vanbrugh – The False Friend
Poetry
Matsuo Bashō (posthumously) – Oku no Hosomichi (Narrow Road to the Deep North)
Births
June 26 – Philip Doddridge, English religious and writer and hymnist (died 1751)
Unknown date – Margareta Momma, Swedish journalist and publisher (died 1772)
Deaths
January 1 – Samuel Green, American printer (born c. 1614)
January 17 – Roger Morrice, English journalist and diarist (born 1628)
February 17 – Peder Syv, Danish philologist, folklorist and priest (born 1631)
April 22 – François Charpentier, French archeologist and writer (born 1620)
May 17 (bur.) – Richard Sault, English mathematician, editor and translator (unknown year of birth)
May 27 – Dominique Bouhours, French literary critic (born 1628)
November – John Pomfret, English poet (born 1667)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1704%20in%20literature | 1704 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1704.
Events
July – The Storm: or, a collection of the most remarkable casualties and disasters which happen'd in the late dreadful tempest, both by sea and land, a documentary account by Daniel Defoe of the Great Storm of 1703 in England, is published in London by John Nutt.
December – John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, arrives back in Britain after his victory at the Battle of Blenheim. The English architect and dramatist Sir John Vanbrugh is commissioned by Queen Anne to begin Blenheim Palace.
unknown dates
A Tale of a Tub, the first major satire by Jonathan Swift (written 1694–1697), is published in London by John Nutt with The Battle of the Books as part of the prolegomena, running through three editions this year.
Antoine Galland publishes the first volume of Les mille et une nuits, the first translation of One Thousand and One Nights into a European language.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – The Campaign
Mary Astell – A Fair Way with Dissenters and their Patrons (reply to Defoe)
Willem Bosman – Nauwkeurige beschrijving van de Guinese Goud- Tand- en Slavekust (A new and accurate description of the coast of Guinea, divided into the Gold, the Slave, and the Ivory coasts)
William Chillingworth – The Works of William Chillingworth
Mary Davys – The Amours of Alcyippus and Leucippe
Daniel Defoe
The Address
The Dissenters Answer to the High-Church Challenge
An Elegy on the Author of the True-Born English-man
An Essay on the Regulation of the Press (attrib.)
Giving Alms No Charity, and Employing the Poor a Grievance to the Nation
A Hymn to Victory
More Short-Ways with the Dissenters
A Review of the Affairs of France
The Storm
John Dennis – The Person of Quality's Answer to Mr Collier's Letter
"Dictionnaire de Trévoux" (Dictionnaire universel françois et latin)
Andrew Fletcher – An Account of a Conversation Concerning a Right Regulation of Governments for the Good of Mankind
Pierre Jurieu – Histoire critique des dogmes et des cultes
White Kennett – The Christian Scholar (attrib.)
Sarah Kemble Knight – The Journals of Madam Knight
Charles Leslie – The Wolf Stript of his Shepherd's Clothing (against Defoe'sShortest Way)
Paul Lucas – Voyage du Sieur Paul Lucas au Levant
Bernard de Mandeville – Typhon
Isaac Newton – Opticks
Mary Pix – Violenta
George Psalmanazar – An Historical and Geographical Description of Formosa (hoax)
Matthew Prior – A Letter to Monsieur Boileau Depreaux
Jonathan Swift
A Tale of a Tub
The Battle of the Books
Drama
Thomas Baker – An Act at Oxford
Colley Cibber – The Careless Husband
William Congreve, John Vanbrugh, William Walsh – Squire Trelooby
David Crauford – Love At First Sight
John Dennis – Liberty Asserted
George Farquhar – The Stage Coach
Nicholas Rowe -The Biter
Richard Steele – The Lying Lover
William Taverner – The Faithful Bride of Granada
Joseph Trapp – Abra-Mule
Poetry
William Wycherley – Miscellany Poems
See also 1704 in poetry
Births
January 1 – Soame Jenyns, English poet and essayist (died 1787)
February 12 – Charles Pinot Duclos, French writer (died 1772)
April – Thomas Osborne, English publisher and bookseller (died 1767)
June 16 – Joseph Thurston, English poet (died 1732)
June 22 – John Taylor, English classicist (died 1766)
August 11 – James Miller, English playwright, poet and satirist (died 1744)
unknown dates
John Adams, American poet (died 1740)
Yuan Mei (袁枚), Chinese poet, diarist and gastronome (died 1797)
Deaths
January 15 – Henry Herringman, English bookseller and publisher (born 1628)
February 23 – Henry Noris, Italian church historian and theologian (born 1631)
April 12 – Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, French writer (born 1627)
June 18 – Tom Brown, English satirist (born 1662)
July 9 – Yan Ruoqu (閻若璩), Chinese scholar and polymath (born 1636)
July 24 – István Gyöngyösi, Hungarian poet (born 1620)
August 19 – Jane Leade, English visionary and Christian mystic writer (born 1624)
October 28
John Locke, English philosopher (born 1632)
Goodwin Wharton, English autobiographer and politician (born 1653)
December 11 – Roger L'Estrange, English Royalist pamphleteer (born 1616)
unknown date – Barbara Blaugdone, English Quaker autobiographer (born c. 1609)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1705%20in%20literature | 1705 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1705.
Events
April/May – Richard Steele, having left the army, marries a wealthy widow, Margaret Stretch.
July 29 – Richard Challoner enters the English College, Douai.
October 7 – William Somervile inherits his father's estate, where field sports will inspire much of his poetry.
October 30 – John Vanbrugh's play The Confederacy, adapted from the French, is first performed at his new London playhouse, The Queen's Theatre in the Haymarket.
December 27 – John Vanbrugh's play The Mistake is likewise adapted from the French and first performed at The Queen's Theatre.
unknown dates
George Hickes' Linguarum veterum septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archæologicus vol. 2 (published in Oxford) includes the first published reference to Beowulf and the single surviving transcript of the Finnesburg Fragment.
Chikamatsu Monzaemon (近松門左衛門) almost abandons writing kabuki plays and becomes a staff writer to the bunraku theatre in Osaka.
Claude Pierre Goujet, religious historian and Jansenist, enters holy orders.
William Walsh begins a correspondence with Alexander Pope.
Work begins on Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, England, designed by the playwright John Vanbrugh for the Duke of Marlborough.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – Remarks on Several Parts of Italy
Mary Astell – The Christian Religion as Profess'd by a Daughter of the Church
Dimitrie Cantemir – Historia Hieroglyphica (the first novel to use the Romanian language)
George Cheyne – Philosophical Principles of Natural Religion (deist)
Samuel Clarke – A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God
Mary Davys – The Fugitive (prose)
Daniel Defoe
The Consolidator
A Second Volume of the Writings of the Author of the True-Born Englishman
John Dunton – The Life and Errors of John Dunton Late Citizen of London (humor)
Edmund Gibson – Family-Devotion
Charles Gildon – The Deist's Manual
Marie-Jeanne L'Héritier – La Tour ténébreuse, et les jours lumineux: contes anglois
Charles Johnson – The Queen; a Pindaric Ode
Bernard de Mandeville – The Grumbling Hive (pirated edition)
Delarivière Manley – The Secret History, of Queen Zarah, and the Zarazians (roman à clef)
John Philips
Blenheim
The Splendid Shilling
Katherine Philips – Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus
Matthew Prior (posthumous) – An English Padlock
John Toland – Primitive Constitution of the Christian Church
Drama
Thomas Baker – Hampstead Heath
Susannah Centlivre
The Gamester (anonymously)
The Basset-Table
Colley Cibber – The Careless Husband
Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – Idoménée
John Dennis – Gibraltar, or the Spanish Adventure
George Granville – The British Enchanters
William Grimston, 1st Viscount Grimston – The Lawyer’s Fortune or Love in a Hollow Tree
Peter Anthony Motteux
The Amorous Miser, or the Younger the Wiser
Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus (opera)
William Mountfort – Zelmane
Mary Pix (attributed) – The Conquest of Spain (adapted from William Rowley's All's Lost by Lust)
Nicholas Rowe – Ulysses
Richard Steele – The Tender Husband
John Vanbrugh –
The Confederacy
The Mistake
Poetry
Richard Blackmore – Eliza
Daniel Defoe
The Double Welcome
The Dyet of Poland
Quan Tangshi
Ned Ward – Hudibras Redidivus
Isaac Watts – Horae Lyricae
See also 1705 in poetry
Births
January 21 – Isaac Hawkins Browne, English poet (died 1760)
February 13 – Franciszka Urszula Radziwillowa, Polish dramatist (died 1753)
May – Ambrosius Stub, Danish poet (died 1758)
June 21 – David Hartley, English philosopher (died 1757)
September 2 – Abraham Tucker (Edward Search), English philosopher (died 1774)
October 29 – Gerhardt Friedrich Müller, German historian (died 1783)
November 23 – Thomas Birch, English historian (died 1766)
probable – Stephen Duck, English poet (died 1756)
Deaths
January 4 – Madame d'Aulnoy, French author of fairy tales (born c. 1650)
January 10 – Étienne Pavillon, French lawyer and poet (born 1632)
February 5 – Philipp Jakob Spener, German theologian (born 1635)
April 2 – John Howe, English theologian (born 1630)
May 5 – Johann Ernst Glück, German writer and translator (born 1654)
June 10 – Michael Wigglesworth, English poet (born 1631)
October 17 – Ninon de l'Enclos, French courtesan and salonnière (born 1620)
November 10 – Justine Siegemund, German writer on midwifery (born 1636)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1706%20in%20literature | 1706 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1706.
Events
April 8 – George Farquhar's Restoration comedy The Recruiting Officer is performed for the first time, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, in London.
April/May – Philosopher Samuel Clarke attacks the views of Henry Dodwell on the immortality of the soul.
September 13 – Daniel Defoe leaves England for Edinburgh, Scotland, where he acts as a government agent to promote ratification of the Treaty of Union.
unknown date – The first translation of the New Testament into the Upper Sorbian language, made by pastor Michał Frencel who dies this year, is published by his son Abraham in Zittau.
New books
Prose
Anonymous – The Arabian Nights' Entertainments (serial, the first English translation of One Thousand and One Nights, taken from the first French translation)
Samuel Clarke – A Discourse Concerning the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion
Stephen Clay – An Epistle from the Elector of Bavaria to the French King
Daniel Defoe
An Essay at Removing National Prejudices Against a Union with Scotland
A True Relation of the Apparition of one Mrs. Veal (attrib)
John Dennis – Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner
White Kennett – The History of England from the Commencement of the Reign of Charles I to the End of William III
John Locke – Posthumous Works of Mr John Locke
Simon Ockley – Introductio ad linguas orientates
Jonathan Swift – Baucis and Philemon
Matthew Tindal – The Rights of the Christian Church Asserted
Ned Ward – The London Spy
Drama
Thomas Betterton – The Amorous Widow
Susanna Centlivre –
Love at a Venture
The Platonick Lady
Colley Cibber – Perolla and Izadora
Catherine Trotter Cockburn – The Revolution of Sweden
Antoine Danchet – Cyrus
Thomas D'Urfey – Wonders in the Sun (opera)
George Farquhar – The Recruiting Officer
George Granville – The British Enchanters, or No Magic Like Love
Delarivière Manley – Almyna, or The Arabian Vow
Mary Pix (attr.) – Adventures in Madrid
Jean-François Regnard – Le Légataire universel (The Residuary Legatee)
John Vanbrugh – The Mistake
José de Cañizares – El pastelero de Madrigal
Poetry
Richard Blackmore – An Advice to the Poets: a poem occasioned by the wonderful success of Her Majesty's arms, under the conduct of the Duke of Marlborough in Flanders
William Congreve – A Pindarique Ode.... The Conduct of the Duke of Marlborough
Daniel Defoe
Caledonia
A Hymn to Peace
Jure Divino (on divine right)
The Vision (on national union)
John Dennis – The Battle of Ramillia
John Philips – Cerealia: An imitation of Milton
Matthew Prior – The Squirrel
Thomas Tickell – Oxford
Isaac Watts – Horae Lyricae
Births
January 17 – Benjamin Franklin, American polymath and politician (died 1790)
February 10 – Benjamin Hoadly, English physician and dramatist (died 1757)
November 8 – Johann Ulrich von Cramer, German philosopher and jurist (died 1772)
December 17 – Émilie du Châtelet, French writer and translator (died 1749)
Deaths
January 21 – Adrien Baillet, French critic (born 1649)
February 27 – John Evelyn, English diarist (born 1620)
August 6 – Jean-Baptiste du Hamel, French natural philosopher (born 1624)
December 8 – Abraham Nicolas Amelot de la Houssaye, French historian (born 1634)
December 28 – Pierre Bayle, French encyclopedist and philosopher (born 1647)
unknown dates
John Phillips, English satirist (born 1631)
Rahman Baba, Indian Pashto poet (born 1632)
Guillaume Vandive, French printer and bookseller (born 1680)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1707%20in%20literature | 1707 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1707.
Events
January – The publisher Edmund Curll announces he will publish Matthew Prior's Poems on Several Occasions, even though the rights belong to someone else.
March 8 – George Farquhar's Restoration comedy The Beaux' Stratagem is first staged, at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, London.
May 1 – The new sovereign Kingdom of Great Britain comes into being under the Acts of Union. It combines the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into a single realm under Anne, Queen of Great Britain. Supporters of this include Daniel Defoe and John Arbuthnot.
May 30 – Thomas Wilson, Anglican Bishop of Sodor and Man, publishes Principles and Duties of Christianity... in English and Manks (Coyrie Sodjey), the first book in the Manx language.
September 9 – Richard Steele marries Mary Scurlock. Their literary marriage gains fame through their correspondence.
New books
Prose
Anonymous
Memoirs of the Court of England (translation)
The History of the Earl of Warwick; Sirnam'd the King-maker (transl.)
Richard Baxter – The Poetical Works of the Late Richard Baxter
Thomas Brown – The Works of Mr Thomas Brown
Anthony Collins – Essay Concerning the Use of Reason
Jean de Beaugué – Histoire de la guerre d'Ecosse (translation by Patrick Abercromby)
François Pétis de la Croix (translated and adapted) – Contes Turcs (Turkish Tales)
Thomas D'Urfey – Stories, Moral and Comical
Laurence Echard – The History of England vol. 1
William Fleetwood – Chronicon Preciosum
Aaron Hart – Urim v'tumim (the first book printed in Hebrew in London)
Alain-René Lesage – Le Diable boiteux (The Devil upon Two Sticks)
Edward Lhuyd – Archaeologia Britannica: an Account of the Languages, Histories and Customs of Great Britain...
Delarivière Manley – The Lady's Pacquet of Letters (fiction)
Isaac Newton – Arithmetica Universalis
John Oldmixon – The Muses Mercury (periodical)
Matthäus Schiner – A Philippick Oration to Incite the English Against the French (translated by John Toland)
Hans Sloane – A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica, v. 1
Dr. Thomas Smith – Vitæ quorundam Eruditissimorum et Illustrium Virorum
Jonathan Swift – A Critical Essay upon the Faculties of the Mind
Matthew Tindal – A Defence of the Rights of the Christian Church (sequel to 1706 work)
Catherine Trotter – A Discourse Concerning a Guide in Controversies
Isaac Watts – Hymns and Spiritual Songs (frequently reprinted)
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester – The Miscellaneous Works of the Late Earls of Rochester and Roscommon
Drama
Joseph Addison – Rosamond (opera)
Susanna Centlivre – The Platonick Lady
Colley Cibber
The Lady's Last Stake
The Double Gallant
Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – Atrée et Thyeste
George Farquhar – The Beaux' Stratagem
Alain-René Lesage – Crispin rival de son maître
Peter Anthony Motteux – Thomyris, Queen of Scythia (opera)
Nicholas Rowe – The Royal Convert
Nahum Tate – Injur'd Love (an adaptation of Webster's The White Devil)
Poetry
Samuel Cobb – Poems on Several Occasions
John Pomfret – Quae Rara, Chara (poem)
Nicholas Rowe – A Poem Upon the Late Glorious Successes
Nahum Tate – The Triumph of Union
Births
January 13 – John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork, English writer (died 1762)
January 28 (baptized) – John Baskerville, English printer and typographer (died 1775)
February 14 – Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon, French novelist (died 1777)
February 25 – Carlo Goldoni, Venetian dramatist (died 1793)
April 20 – Robert Foulis, Scottish printer and publisher (died 1776)
April 22 – Henry Fielding, English novelist (died 1754)
June 22 (baptized) – Elizabeth Blackwell, Scottish botanic writer and illustrator (died 1758)
August 14 – Johann August Ernesti, German philologist (died 1781)
September 7 – Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French philosopher (died 1788)
December 18 – Charles Wesley, English hymnist, religious writer and cleric (died 1788)
unknown date – Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Italian rabbi, kabbalist and philosopher (died 1746)
Deaths
January 20 – Humphrey Hody, English theologian (born 1659)
April 20 – George Farquhar, Irish dramatist (born 1677)
June 23 – John Mill, English theologian and exegete (born c. 1645)
August 17 – Petter Dass, Norwegian poet (born 1647)
September 15 – George Stepney, English poet and diplomat (born 1663)
September 23 – John Tutchin, English controversialist (born c. 1660–64)
September 24 – Vincenzo da Filicaja, Italian poet (born 1642)
December 27 – Jean Mabillon, French scholar (born 1632)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1708%20in%20literature | 1708 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1708.
Events
July 14 – Joseph Trapp becomes the first Oxford Professor of Poetry.
unknown date – Edward Lhuyd becomes a Fellow of the Royal Society.
New books
Prose
Joseph Addison – The Present State of the War (pro-Marlborough tract)
Francis Atterbury – Fourteen Sermons Preach'd on Several Occasions
Joseph Bingham – Origines Ecclesiasticae, or Antiquities of the Christian Church, vol. 1
Laurent Bordelon – Mital; ou Aventures incroyables
Elizabeth Burnet – A Method of Devotion
Jeremy Collier – An Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain, Chiefly of England, vol. 1
Ebenezer Cooke – The Sot-Weed Factor
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury – A Letter Concerning Enthusiasm (opposing radical Protestantism)
Edmund Curll – The Charitable Surgeon
Anne Dacier (Anne Lefèvre) – Homer's Odyssey (prose, first translation into French)
John Downes – Roscius Anglicanus (historical review of the stage)
John Fisher, Cardinal Bishop of Rochester (executed 1535) – Funeral Sermon for Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby (originally delivered 1509; published with an anonymous preface by Thomas Baker)
John Gay – Wine
Charles Gildon
Libertas Triumphans (re Battle of Oudenarde)
The New Metamorphosis (fiction)
John Harris – Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, vol. 1 (2nd edition)
Aaron Hill & Nahum Tate – The Celebrated Speeches of Ajax and Ulysses, for the Armour of Achilles (from Ovid)
Benjamin Hoadly – The Unhappiness of the Present Establishment, and the Unhappiness of Absolute Monarchy
Anne de La Roche-Guilhem – La Foire de Beaucaire
François Leguat – Voyage et avantures de François Leguat et de ses compagnons, en deux isles désertes des Indes orientales (A new voyage to the East-Indies)
John Locke (died 1704) – Some Familiar Letters
Simon Ockley – The Conquest of Syria, Persia, and Aegypt by the Saracens (vol. 1 of History of the Saracens)
John Oldmixon – The British Empire in America
Jonathan Swift
Predictions for the Year 1708
The Accomplishment of the First of Mr. Bickerstaff's Predictions (together with part of the "Bickerstaff Papers")
An Argument against Abolishing Christianity
Drama
Thomas Baker – The Fine Lady's Airs (first performed December 18)
Charles Goring – Irene
Peter Anthony Motteux – Love's Triumph (opera)
Nicholas Rowe – The Royal Convert
William Taverner – The Disappointment
Lewis Theobald – The Persian Princess
Poetry
Richard Blackmore – The Kit-Cats
Elijah Fenton – Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems
William King – The Art of Cookery (poem)
Matthew Prior – Poems on Several Occasions (see also 1707)
Births
April 23 – Friedrich von Hagedorn, German poet (died 1754)
July 8 – Claude-Henri de Fusée de Voisenon, French dramatist (died 1775)
August 29 – Olof von Dalin, Swedish poet (died 1763)
September 2 – André le Breton, French publisher (died 1779)
October 16 – Albrecht von Haller, Swiss biologist and poet (died 1777)
unknown dates
Richard Dawes, English classical scholar (died 1766)
Thomas Seward, English poet (died 1790)
Deaths
January 1 – Johannes Kelpius, German polymath (born 1673)
March 4 – Thomas Ward, English Catholic writer (born 1652)
March 5 – Charles Le Gobien, French Jesuit writer (born 1653)
March 15 – William Walsh, English poet and critic (born 1662)
October 11 – Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, German philosopher (born 1651)
October 21
Kata Szidónia Petrőczy, Hungarian Baroque writer (born 1659)
Christian Weise, German dramatist and poet (born 1642)
October 22 – Hermann Witsius, Dutch theologian (born 1636)
November 15 – Gregory Hascard, English religious writer and cleric (year of birth unknown)
unknown date – Nikolai Spathari (Nicolae Milescu), Moldavian travel writer and diplomat (born 1636)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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225841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1709%20in%20literature | 1709 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1709.
Events
February 1 or 2 – Alexander Selkirk, the inspiration for Robinson Crusoe, is rescued from the Juan Fernández Islands, where he was marooned, and begins his return to civilization.
April 12 – The magazine The Tatler is founded in London by Richard Steele, writing as Isaac Bickerstaff. On July 8 "Mrs. (Phoebe) Crackenthorpe" (perhaps Delarivier Manley) begins publication of The Female Tatler.
April 26 – An act of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland provides for public libraries in presbyteries.
May–October 20 – Mrs. Delarivier Manley's roman à clef The New Atalantis (Secret Memoirs and Manners of Several Persons of Quality, of both Sexes, From The New Atalantis, an Island in the Mediterranean) is published in London (in two volumes, anonymously), purporting to be translated from Italian. Its satire of the Whigs is so scurrilous that the author is detained for questioning from October 29 to November 5. It goes through seven editions.
May 2 – Alexander Pope's career as a poet is launched with the publication of the anthology Poetical Miscellanies, The Sixth Part, edited by John Dryden and published by Jacob Tonson in London.
June 28 – Historian Gustaf Adlerfelt is killed at the Battle of Poltava; his eyewitness account is continued by his son.
unknown dates
The Works of Mr William Shakespear edited by dramatist Nicholas Rowe appears. It is the first modern edition of Shakespeare's plays, including scene divisions, dramatis personæ and a prefatory account of Shakespeare's life, the first substantial biography of him. An unauthorised seventh volume, including Shakespeare's poems, is perhaps edited by Charles Gildon.
Ælfric of Eynsham's An English-Saxon Homily on the Birth-day of St. Gregory is translated from Old English by Elizabeth Elstob.
Anthim the Iberian, Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia, establishes the first Georgian printing press in Tbilisi.
New books
Prose
Abbé Olivier – Memoirs of the Life and Adventures of Signor Rozelli
Mary Astell – Bart'lemy Fair
Thomas Baker – Reflections on Learning, showing the Insufficiency thereof in its several particulars, in order to evince the usefulness and necessity of Revelation, vol. 1
George Berkeley – An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision
Richard Blackmore – Instructions to Vander Beck
Samuel Cobb – The Female Reign
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury – (philosophy)
Daniel Defoe – The History of the Union of Great Britain
Charles Gildon – The Golden Spy (satire)
White Kennett – A Vindication of the Church and Clergy of England
William King – Miscellanies in Prose and Verse
John Lawson – A New Voyage to Carolina
Delarivier Manley – The New Atalantis
John Strype – Annals of the Reformation and Establishment of Religion
Jonathan Swift
A Famous Prediction of Merlin
A Project for the Advancement of Religion and the Reformation of Manners ("By a Person of Quality")
A Vindication of Isaac Bickerstaff
William Temple – Memoirs: Part III (ed. Jonathan Swift)
John Trenchard – The Natural History of Superstition
Giambattista Vico – De Nostri Temporis Studiorum Rationae (On the Study Methods of Our Times)
Drama
Anthony Aston – Love in a Hurry
Susanna Centlivre
The Busie Body
The Man's Bewitched
Colley Cibber – The Rival Fools
Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon – Electre
John Dennis – Appius and Virginia
Thomas d'Urfey – The Modern Prophets
Juan Claudio de la Hoz y Mota – José, salvador de Egipto
Charles Johnson – Love and Liberty (not performed)
Alain-René Lesage – Turcaret
Mary Pix – The Adventures in Madrid
Poetry
John Reynolds – Death's Vision Represented in a Philosophical Sacred Poem
Poetical Miscellanies: The Sixth Part (also called Tonson's Miscellanies)
Births
April 14 – Charles Collé, French dramatist (died 1783)
July 24 – James Harris, English grammarian (died 1780)
August 7 – Jean-Jacques Lefranc, Marquis de Pompignan, French polymath, author and poet (died 1784)
August 29 – Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset, French poet and dramatist (died 1777)
September 3 – Joan Claudi Peiròt, French writer in Occitan (died 1795)
September 18 – Samuel Johnson, English author, critic, lexicographer and poet (died 1784)
November 1 – Ignatius von Weitenauer, German Jesuit writer, exegete and Orientalist (died 1783)
November 23 – Julien Offray de La Mettrie, French philosopher and physician (died 1751)
December 14 – Caspar Friedrich Hachenberg, German grammarian (died 1793)
unknown dates
Richard Burn, English legal writer (died 1785)
John Bancks, English poet, bookseller and biographer (died 1751)
probable
James Adair, Irish historian (died 1783)
John Armstrong, Scottish poet, satirist and physician (died 1779)
John Cleland, controversial English novelist (died 1789)
Deaths
January – Robert Gould, English poet (born c. 1660)
February 15 – John Philips, English poet (born 1676)
May 17 – Mary Pix, English novelist and dramatist (born 1666)
June 28 – Gustaf Adlerfelt, Swedish military diarist (died in action, born 1671)
June 30 – Edward Lhuyd, Welsh naturalist and antiquary (born 1660)
September 4 – Jean-François Regnard, French poet and dramatist (born 1655)
December 1 – Abraham a Sancta Clara, Austrian theologian (born 1644)
December 3 – Elizabeth Burnet, English religious writer and philanthropist (born 1661)
December 8
Thomas Corneille, French dramatist (born 1625)
Bernadine a Piconio, French theologian and exegete (born 1633)
References
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225842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1701%20in%20literature | 1701 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1701.
Events
January
Matthew Prior, English poet, enters Parliament as the member for East Grinstead.
George Granville's The Jew of Venice, an adaptation of The Merchant of Venice, receives its première at Lincoln's Inn Fields, with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio. It is so popular it displaces the original from the stage for the next four decades.
July 9 – St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, makes a grant for work on Marsh's Library, newly established by Narcissus Marsh (Archbishop of Dublin (Church of Ireland)) as the first public library in Ireland (architect: Sir William Robinson) with refugee French Huguenot scholar Élie Bouhéreau as its first librarian.
September 7 – The Treaty of Den Haag is the catalyst for the War of the Spanish Succession, which will continue and have frequent discussion in literature until 1713.
unknown date – Biblioteca Casanatense in Rome is established by the Dominican Order.
New books
Prose
Daniel Defoe, The Original Power of the Collective Body of the People of England
John Dennis, The Advancement and Reformation of Modern Poetry
Richard Steele, The Christian Hero
Jonathan Swift, A Discourse of the Contests and Dissensions Between the Nobles and the Commons in Athens and Rome
William Temple (posthumously), Miscellanea: the Third Part
John Toland, The Art of Governing by Partys
Benjamin Whichcote, Several Discourses, posthumously published in four volumes, from this year to 1707
Drama
Thomas Baker, The Humour of the Age
Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery (died 1679), Altemira
William Burnaby, The Ladies Visiting Day
Colley Cibber, Love Makes a Man (published; performed 13 December 1700; combines two Beaumont and Fletcher plays: The Custom of the Country and The Elder Brother
William Congreve, The Judgment of Paris: A masque (performed in March)
Thomas D'Urfey, The Bath; or, The Western Lass: A comedy
George Farquhar, Sir Harry Wildair, performed about April; sequel to The Constant Couple 1699
Charles Gildon, Love's Victim: or, the Queen of Wales: A tragedy (published anonymously, performed)
George Granville, The Jew of Venice: A comedy (adaptation of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, published anonymously, performed about May)
Peter Anthony Motteux, The Masque of Acis and Galatea (performed about March)
Mary Pix, The Double Distress (performed about March)
Nicholas Rowe, The Ambitious Step-Mother(possibly performed in December)
Elkanah Settle , The Virgin Prophetess
Sir Edward Sherburne (translator and editor) The Tragedies of Seneca the Younger (L. Annaeus Seneca)
Richard Steele, The Funeral: or, Grief a-la-mode: A comedy (published, despite year 1702 given, performed)
Catherine Trotter, later Cockburn:
Love at a Loss; or, Most Votes Carry It: A comedy (performed November 23, 1700)
The Unhappy Penitent (performed February 4)
Jane Wiseman, Antiochus the Great (performed in November)
Poetry
Lady Mary Chudleigh, The Ladies Defiance: Or, the Bride-woman's Counsellor Answer'd
Jeremy Collier (translator), The Great Historical, Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary, translated from Louis Moreri, Le Grand Dictionnaire historique (continuation "by another hand", published 1705)
Daniel Defoe, The True-Born Englishman (satire on John Tutchin)
Peter Anthony Motteux - A Poem in Praise of Tea
John Norris, An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World
John Philips, The Sylvan Dream
Pavao Ritter Vitezović, Stemmatografia, an illustrated heraldic essay written mostly in verse
Births
March 2 – Lewis Morris, Welsh lexicographer and writer (died 1765)
March 12 – Johann Friedrich Cotta, German theologian (died 1779)
unknown dates
Matthew Concanen, Irish wit, poet and playwright (died 1749)
Wu Jingzi, Chinese scholar and novelist (died 1754)
Deaths
June 2 – Madeleine de Scudéry, French salonnière (born 1607)
August 1 – Jan Chryzostom Pasek, Polish memoirist (born 1636)
August 20 – Sir Charles Sedley, 5th Baronet, English playwright (born 1639)
August 24 – Ahasverus Fritsch, German poet and legal writer (born 1629)
September 15 – Edmé Boursault, French dramatist (born 1638)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature | [
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] |
225846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickadee%20%28disambiguation%29 | Chickadee (disambiguation) | Chickadees are a group of birds in the family Paridae:
Black-capped chickadee
Boreal chickadee
Carolina chickadee
Chestnut-backed chickadee
Mexican chickadee
Mountain chickadee
Chickadee may also refer to:
Places
Chickadee Lake, a lake in Idaho, United States
Arts, entertainment, and media
Chickadee (magazine), a Canadian children's magazine
My Little Chickadee, a US film, starring W.C. Fields and Mae West
Ships
USS Chickadee (AM-59), a minesweeper in the United States Navy
See also
Douglas squirrel, also known as the chickaree | [
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225860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy%20Lamour | Dorothy Lamour | Dorothy Lamour (born Mary Leta Dorothy Slaton; December 10, 1914 – September 22, 1996) was an American actress and singer. She is best remembered for having appeared in the Road to... movies, a series of successful comedies starring Bing Crosby and Bob Hope.
Lamour began her career in the 1930s as a big band singer. In 1936, she moved to Hollywood, where she signed with Paramount Pictures. Her appearance as Ulah in The Jungle Princess (1936) brought her fame and marked the beginning of her image as the "Sarong Queen".
In 1940, Lamour made her first Road series comedy film Road to Singapore. The Road series films were popular during the 1940s. The sixth film in the series, Road to Bali, was released in 1952. By this time, Lamour's screen career began to wane, and she focused on stage and television work. In 1961, Crosby and Hope teamed for The Road to Hong Kong, but actress Joan Collins was cast as the female lead. Lamour made a brief appearance and sang a song near the end of that film.
In the 1970s, Lamour revived her nightclub act, and in 1980, released her autobiography My Side of the Road. She made her final movie appearance in 1987.
Lamour married her second husband, William Ross Howard III, in 1943. They had two sons and remained married until Howard's death in 1978. Lamour died at her home in 1996 at the age of 81.
Early life
Mary Leta Dorothy Slaton was born on December 10, 1914, in New Orleans, the daughter of Carmen Louise (née LaPorte; 1892–1930) and John Watson Slaton (1895–1963), both of whom were waiters. Lamour was of Spanish with some English, French and possibly also distant Irish descent. Her parents' marriage lasted only a few years. Her mother married for the second time to Clarence Lambour, whose surname Dorothy later adopted and modified as her stage name. That marriage also ended in divorce when Dorothy was a teenager.
Lamour quit school at age 14. After taking a business course, she worked as a secretary to support herself and her mother. She began entering beauty pageants, was crowned Miss New Orleans in 1931, and went on to compete in Galveston's Pageant of Pulchritude. Miss Lamour was close friends with Dorothy Dell, who was in the Ziegfeld Follies. Lamour used the prize money to support herself while she worked in a stock theatre company. She and her mother later moved to Chicago. Lamour found a job working at Marshall Field's department store, working as an elevator operator at the age of 16. Her boss, Douglas Singleterry, referred to her as 'Dolly Face'; he also recalled that she'd spend a lot of her time auditioning around Chicago. She was discovered by orchestra leader Herbie Kay when he spotted her in performance at a Chicago talent show held at the Hotel Morrison. She had an audition the next day; Kay hired her as a singer for his orchestra and, in 1935, Lamour went on tour with him. Her work with Kay eventually led Lamour to vaudeville and work in radio. In 1935, she had her own 15-minute weekly musical program on NBC Radio. Lamour also sang on the popular Rudy Vallée radio show and The Chase and Sanborn Hour. On January 30, 1944, Lamour starred in "For This We Live", an episode of Silver Theater on CBS radio.
Career
In 1936, Lamour moved to Hollywood. Around that time, Carmen married her third husband, Ollie Castleberry, and the family lived in Los Angeles. That same year, she did a screen test for Paramount Pictures and signed a contract with them.
Lamour made her first film for Paramount, College Holiday (1936), in which she has a bit part as an uncredited dancer.
The Jungle Princess and "sarong" roles
Her second film for Paramount, The Jungle Princess (1936) with Ray Milland, solidified her fame. In the film, Lamour plays the role of "Ulah", a jungle native who wore an Edith Head-designed sarong throughout the film. The Jungle Princess was a big hit for the studio and Lamour would be associated with sarongs for the rest of her career. It also gave her a hit song "Moonlight and Shadows".
She followed it with a support role in a Carole Lombard–Fred MacMurray musical Swing High, Swing Low (1937) where she got to sing "Panamania". She was top billed in The Last Train from Madrid (1937).
Lamour supported Irene Dunne and Randolph Scott in High, Wide and Handsome (1937), singing "The Things I Want". Sam Goldwyn borrowed her for John Ford's The Hurricane (1937), where she was back in a sarong playing an island princess alongside Jon Hall. Her swimming and diving scenes were handled by stunt double Lila Finn, who at one point dropped the sarong and was filmed diving into a lagoon in the nude. The film was a massive success and gave Lamour another hit song with "The Moon of Manakoora".
Lamour had a cameo in Thrill of a Lifetime (1937) and was third billed in The Big Broadcast of 1938 (1938) after W.C. Fields and Martha Raye; the cast also included Bob Hope in an early appearance.
Paramount reunited her with Milland and a sarong for Her Jungle Love (1938). Tropic Holiday (1938) cast her as a Mexican alongside Bob Burns, Raye and Milland, then she supported George Raft and Henry Fonda in the adventure film Spawn of the North (1938). Raft was meant to be Lamour's leading man in St. Louis Blues (1939) but he turned down the part and was replaced by Lloyd Nolan.
Lamour was Jack Benny's leading lady in the musical Man About Town (1939) then played a Chinese girl in a melodrama, Disputed Passage (1939).
The "Road" movies
In 1940, Lamour starred in Road to Singapore, a spoof of Lamour's "sarong" films. It was originally meant to co-star Fred MacMurray and Jack Oakie, then George Burns and Gracie Allen, before Paramount decided to use Bob Hope and Bing Crosby; Lamour was billed after Crosby and above Hope. The two male stars began ad-libbing during filming. "I was trying to follow the script but just couldn't get my lines out", she said later. "Finally, I realised that I should just get the general idea of a scene rather than learn the words by heart, then go along with the boys." Said Hope, "Dottie is one of the bravest gals in pictures. She stands there before the camera and ad-libs with Crosby and me knowing that the way the script is written she'll come second or third best, but she fears nothing."
The movie was a solid hit and response to the team was enthusiastic.
20th Century Fox borrowed her to play Tyrone Power's leading lady in the gangster film Johnny Apollo (1940). She sang "This is the Beginning of the End" and "Dancing for Nickels and Dimes".
It was back to sarongs for Typhoon (1940). Her male co-star in the latter was Robert Preston who was also with Lamour in Moon Over Burma (1940). Fox borrowed her again for Chad Hanna (1941) with Henry Fonda.
Response to Road to Singapore had been such that Paramount reunited Lamour, Hope and Crosby in Road to Zanzibar (1941) which was even more successful and eventually led to a series of pictures (although from this point on Lamour was billed beneath Hope). She and Hope then did Caught in the Draft (1941) which was one of the biggest hits of the year.
Lamour was reunited with her old Hurricane star, Jon Hall, in Aloma of the South Seas (1941). She did a popular musical with Eddie Bracken, William Holden and Betty Hutton, The Fleet's In (1942), which gave her a hit song, "I Remember You".
There was another sarong movie, Beyond the Blue Horizon (1942). Both were well liked by the public but neither was as popular as her third "Road" movie, Road to Morocco (1942).
Lamour was one of many Paramount stars who did guest shots in Star Spangled Rhythm (1942). She and Hope were borrowed by Sam Goldwyn for a comedy They Got Me Covered (1943), then she did one with Crosby without Hope, Dixie (1943), a popular biopic of Dan Emmett.
During World War II, Lamour was among the more popular pinup girls among American servicemen, along with Betty Grable, Rita Hayworth, Lana Turner, and Veronica Lake. Lamour was also known for her volunteer work, selling war bonds during tours in which movie stars would travel the country selling U.S. government bonds to the public. Lamour reportedly sold $300 million worth of bonds earning her the nickname "The Bond Bombshell". She also volunteered at the Hollywood Canteen where she would dance and talk to soldiers. In 1965, Lamour was awarded a belated citation from the United States Department of the Treasury for her war bond sales.
Lamour made Melody Inn (1943) with Dick Powell, then And the Angels Sing (1944) with Fred MacMurray and Hutton, where she sang "It Should Happen to You". She made one last sarong movie, Rainbow Island (1944), co-starring Bracken.
Lamour played a Mexican in A Medal for Benny (1945), based on a story by John Steinbeck, co-starring Arturo de Córdova. She was one of many Paramount stars to cameo in Duffy's Tavern (1945), then did a fourth "Road", Road to Utopia (1945), then Masquerade in Mexico (1945) with de Cordova.
She was in three big hits in a row: My Favorite Brunette (1947), a comedy with Hope; Wild Harvest (1947), a melodrama with Alan Ladd and Preston; and Road to Rio (1947). She also sang a duet with Ladd in Variety Girl (1947). Then she left Paramount.
After Paramount
Lamour emceed Front and Center, a 1947 variety comedy show, as a summer replacement for The Fred Allen Show, with the Army Air Force recruiting as sponsors. The show changed to The Sealtest Variety Theater in September 1948.
After leaving Paramount, Lamour made a series of films for producer Benedict Bogeaus: the all-star comedy On Our Merry Way (1948); Lulu Belle (1948), a melodrama with George Montgomery; and The Girl from Manhattan (1948), also with Montgomery.
She tried two comedies: The Lucky Stiff (1949), produced by Jack Benny co-starring Brian Donlevy, then Slightly French (1949) with Don Ameche. Manhandled (1950) was a film noir with Dan Duryea for Pine-Thomas. None of these films were particularly popular.
Lamour played a successful season at the London Palladium in 1950 then was in two big hits: The Greatest Show on Earth (1952), Cecil B. De Mille's circus epic, and Road to Bali (1952). However this did not seem to lead to better film offers, and Lamour began concentrating on being a nightclub entertainer and a stage actress.
She also began working on television, guest starring on Damon Runyon Theater and was on Broadway in Oh Captain! (1958).
1960s
Lamour returned to movies with a cameo in the final "Road" film, The Road to Hong Kong (1962); she was replaced as a love interest by Joan Collins because Bing Crosby wanted a younger actress. However, Bob Hope would not do the film without Lamour, so she appeared in an extended cameo.
She had a bigger part in John Ford's Donovan's Reef (1963) with John Wayne and Lee Marvin, and made guest appearances on shows like Burke's Law, I Spy and The Name of the Game, and films such as Pajama Party (1964) and The Phynx (1970).
Lamour moved to Baltimore with her family, where she appeared on TV and worked on the city's cultural commission. Then David Merrick offered her the chance to headline a road company of Hello Dolly! which she did for over a year near the end of the decade.
Singing
Lamour starred in a number of movie musicals and sang in many of her comedies and dramatic films as well. For several years beginning in the late 1930s, Harriet Lee was her voice teacher. Lamour introduced a number of standards, including "The Moon of Manakoora", "I Remember You", "It Could Happen to You", "Personality", and "But Beautiful".
Later years
1970s
In the 1970s, Lamour was a popular draw at dinner theatres and in shows such as Anything Goes.
She guest starred on shows such as Marcus Welby, M.D. and The Love Boat and films like Won Ton Ton: The Dog Who Saved Hollywood (1976) and Death at Love House (1976). In 1977, she toured in the play Personal Appearance.
Her husband died in 1978, but she continued to work for "therapy".
1980s
In 1980, Lamour published her autobiography My Side of the Road and revived her nightclub act.
During the remainder of the decade, she performed in plays and television shows such as Hart to Hart, Crazy Like a Fox, Remington Steele, and Murder, She Wrote.
In 1984, she toured in a production of Barefoot in the Park.
In 1986 she said "I'm still as busy at 71 as I was when I was just a slip of a girl. I do concerts, television and a lot of dinner theatre, where I sing old songs and talk about Bob and Bing and starting out at Paramount at $200 a week and working myself up to $450,000 a picture...I feel wonderful. Age is only in the mind and I'm grateful that God has taken care of me. And I'm very grateful for that sarong. It did a lot for me! But to be truthful, the sarong was never my favorite wearing apparel."
In 1987, she made her last big-screen appearance in the movie Creepshow 2, appearing with George Kennedy as an aging couple who are killed during a robbery. The wooden, Native American statue in front of their general store comes to life to avenge their death. The 72-year-old Lamour quipped: "Well, at my age you can't lean against a palm tree and sing 'Moon of Manakoora'", she said. "People would look at that and say 'What is she trying to do?
1990s
During the 1990s, she made only a handful of professional appearances but remained a popular interview subject for publications and TV talk and news programs.
In 1995, the musical Swinging on a Star, a revue of songs written by Johnny Burke (who wrote many of the most famous Road to ... movie songs as well as the score to Lamour's film And the Angels Sing (1944)) opened on Broadway and ran for three months; Lamour was credited as a "special advisor". It was nominated for the Best Musical Tony Award; the actress playing her in the road movie segment, Kathy Fitzgerald, also was nominated.
Personal life
Lamour's first marriage was to orchestra leader Herbie Kay, with whose orchestra Lamour sang. The two married in 1935 and divorced in 1939.
Early in her career, Lamour met J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. According to Hoover's biographer Richard Hack, Hoover pursued a romantic relationship with Lamour, and the two spent a night together at a Washington, D.C. hotel. When Lamour was later asked if she and Hoover had a sexual relationship, she replied: "I cannot deny it." In her autobiography My Side of the Road (1980), Lamour does not discuss Hoover in detail; she refers to him only as "a lifelong friend".
On April 7, 1943, Lamour married Air Force captain and advertising executive William Ross Howard III in Beverly Hills. The couple had two sons: John Ridgely (1946–2018) and Richard Thomson Howard (born 1949).
In 1957, Lamour and Howard moved to the Baltimore, Maryland, suburb of Sudbrook Park. In 1962, the couple and their two sons moved to Hampton, another Baltimore suburb in Dulaney Valley, with their oldest son, John, attending Towson High School. She also owned a home in Palm Springs, California. Howard died in 1978.
Lamour was a registered Republican who supported the presidency of Ronald Reagan as well as Reagan's re-election in 1984.
Death
Lamour died at her home in North Hollywood on September 22, 1996, at the age of 81. Her funeral was held at St. Charles Catholic Church in North Hollywood, California, where she was a member. She was interred in the Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles.
For her contribution to the radio and motion picture industry, Lamour has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Her star for her radio contributions is located at 6240 Hollywood Boulevard, and her star for her motion picture contributions is located at 6332 Hollywood Boulevard.
Filmography
Film
Television
Broadway musicals
Books
In popular culture
Lamour is the heroine of Matilda Bailey's young adult novel, Dorothy Lamour and the Haunted Lighthouse (1947), whose "heroine has the same name and appearance as the famous actress but has no connection ... it is as though the famous actress has stepped into an alternate reality in which she is an ordinary person." The story was written for a young teenage audience and is reminiscent of the adventures of Nancy Drew. It is part of a series known as "Whitman Authorized Editions", 16 books published between 1941 and 1947 that each featured a film actress as heroine.
She was featured in a brief print run of 2-3 issues during the 1950s, in Dorothy Lamour Jungle Princess Comics, a series of comic books dedicated to her on-film Jungle Princess persona (featuring screenshots from past movies as the covers).
Her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was featured in David Lynch's 2006 film Inland Empire.
Name-checked in Little Feat song Apolitical Blues.
Name-checked in Michael Penn's song "Seen the Doctor" (rhymed with "Singapore").
Referenced in the TV sitcom "The Golden Girls" when Sophia Petrillo refers to her son as a " six foot two, married man with kids who likes to dress up like Dorothy Lamour."
References
External links
1914 births
1996 deaths
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
Actresses from New Orleans
Actresses from Palm Springs, California
American beauty pageant winners
American film actresses
20th-century American memoirists
American radio actresses
American radio personalities
American Roman Catholics
American people of French descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Spanish descent
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American women memoirists
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
California Republicans
Louisiana Republicans
Paramount Pictures contract players
Torch singers
Traditional pop music singers
Vaudeville performers | [
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225866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Wanamaker | Sam Wanamaker | Samuel Wanamaker, (born Wattenmacker; June 14, 1919 – December 18, 1993) was an American actor and director who moved to the United Kingdom after becoming fearful of being blacklisted in Hollywood due to his communist views. He is credited as the person most responsible for saving The Rose Theatre, which led to the modern recreation of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London, where he is commemorated in the name of the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, the site's second theatre.
Early years
Wanamaker was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of tailor Maurice Wattenmacker (Manus Watmakher) and Molly (née Bobele). His parents were Ukrainian Jews from Nikolayev. He was the younger of two brothers, the elder being William, long-term cardiologist at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center.
He trained at the Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University) and began working with summer stock theatre companies in Chicago and northern Wisconsin, where he helped build the stage of the Peninsula Players Theatre in 1937.
Career
Wanamaker began his acting career in traveling shows and later worked on Broadway. In 1942 he starred with Ingrid Bergman in the play Joan of Lorraine and directed Two Gentlemen from Athens the following year.
In 1943, Wanamaker was part of the cast of the play Counterattack at the National Theatre, Washington, D.C. During the play, he became enamored of the ideals of communism. He attended Drake University prior to serving in the U.S. Army between 1943 and 1946, during the Second World War. In 1947, he returned to civilian life as an actor and director. In 1948 he starred in and directed the original Broadway production of Goodbye, My Fancy.
In 1951, Wanamaker made a speech welcoming the return of two of the Hollywood Ten. In 1952, at the height of the McCarthy "Red Scare" period, Wanamaker, who was then acting in the UK, learned that despite his distinguished service in the Army during World War II, his years as a communist could lead to his being blacklisted in Hollywood. He consequently decided to remain in England, where he reestablished his career as a stage and film actor, along with becoming a director and producer. He explained:
In 1952, he made his debut as both actor and director in London in Clifford Odets' Winter Journey. The play, which co-starred Michael Redgrave, was considered "sensational" by critics. He later appeared in other plays, including The Big Knife, The Shrike, The Rainmaker, and A Hatful of Rain. In 1956 he directed the British premiere of Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill's musical play The Threepenny Opera (revived in New York in 1954 in a translation by Marc Blitzstein.)
In 1957, he was appointed director of the neglected New Shakespeare Theatre in Liverpool. He brought a number of notable productions to the theatre, such as A View From the Bridge, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Rose Tattoo and Bus Stop. It was also transformed into a lively arts centre as a result of including other cultural attractions, such as films, lectures, jazz concerts and art exhibits.
As a result of all his various activities, Wanamaker became London's "favourite American actor and director", noted The Guardian. In 1959, he joined the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre company at Stratford-upon-Avon, playing Iago to Paul Robeson's Othello in Tony Richardson's production that year. In the 1960s and 1970s, he produced or directed several works at venues including the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, and directed the Shakespeare Birthday Celebrations in 1974.
As a director and actor, he worked in both films and television, with roles in The Spiral Staircase (1974), Private Benjamin (1980), Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987), and Baby Boom (1987).
In 1968, he produced and directed the pilot episode of the Western TV series Lancer; A fictionalized version of this is depicted in the 2019 film Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, and 2021 novelization with Wanamaker portrayed by Nicholas Hammond in the film.
He also directed stage productions, including the world premiere production of Michael Tippett's opera The Ice Break. In 1980, he directed Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida starring Luciano Pavarotti at San Francisco Opera (now broadcast version released as DVD). He was also featured as the widowed and very ruthless department store owner Simon Berrenger on the short-lived television drama Berrenger's in 1985.
Restoring the Globe Theatre
In 1970 Wanamaker's career took a dramatic turn after he was annoyed that while a number of replicas of the Globe Theatre existed in the United States, the site of the original in London was marked by only a plaque on a nearby brewery. He then made it his goal to restore an exact replica of the Globe to feature plays and a museum.
It became Wanamaker's "great obsession" to restore Shakespeare's Globe Theatre at its original location. He secured financial support from philanthropists and fellow lovers of Shakespeare, such as Samuel H. Scripps, to see that it would be created. Wanamaker then founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust, which raised well over ten million dollars.
Though, as in the late 16th and 17th centuries, the 20th century Royal family were more or less supportive, British officialdom was far less so, since they wanted to develop the site for new high-rise housing and commercial use. English Heritage, which controlled the site, refused to give Wanamaker the precise dimensions of the original Globe.
According to Karl Meyer of The New York Times:
The Shakespeare project helped Mr. Wanamaker keep his sanity and dignity intact. On his first visit to London in 1949, he had sought traces of the original theatre and was astonished to find only a blackened plaque on an unused brewery. He found this neglect inexplicable, and in 1970 launched the Shakespeare Globe Trust, later obtaining the building site and necessary permissions despite a hostile local council. He siphoned his earnings as actor and director into the project, undismayed by the scepticism of his British colleagues.
On the south bank of the River Thames in London, near where the modern recreation of Shakespeare's Globe stands today, is a plaque that reads: "In Thanksgiving for Sam Wanamaker, Actor, Director, Producer, 1919–1993, whose vision rebuilt Shakespeare's Globe Theatre on Bankside in this parish". There is a blue plaque on the river-side wall of the theatre, and the site's Jacobean indoor theatre, opened in January 2014, is named the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse after him.
For his work in reconstructing the Globe Theatre, Wanamaker, in July 1993, was made an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). He was also honoured with the Benjamin Franklin Medal by the Royal Society of Arts in recognition of his contribution to theatre.
When multi-Tony Award-winning British actor Mark Rylance accepted his third Tony on stage in New York City during the televised ceremonies on June 8, 2014, he did so with a note of thanks to Wanamaker.
Personal life
In 1940, Wanamaker married Canadian actress Charlotte Holland.
In her 2014 memoir, I Said Yes to Everything, Lee Grant claimed that during production of the film Voyage of the Damned (1976), Wanamaker engaged in an affair with British actress Lynne Frederick, who was twenty-one at the time.
Actress Zoë Wanamaker is his daughter and film historian Marc Wanamaker is his nephew.
Death
Wanamaker died of prostate cancer in London on December 18, 1993, aged 74, prior to the grand opening of the Globe by Queen Elizabeth II on 12 June 1997. He was survived by three daughters, Abby, Zoë, and Jessica.
Filmography
Actor
My Girl Tisa (1948) as Mark Denek
Give Us This Day (1949) as Geremio
Mr. Denning Drives North (1952) as Chick Eddowes
The Secret (1955) as Nick Delaney
The Battle of the Sexes (1959) as Narrator (voice)
The Criminal (1960) as Mike Carter
Taras Bulba (1962) as Filipenko
Man in the Middle (1964) as Maj. Leon Kaufman, a psychiatrist
The Spy Who Came In from the Cold (1965) as Peters
Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965) as George Gruber
Warning Shot (1967) as Frank Sanderman
The Day the Fish Came Out (1967) as Elias
Danger Route (1968) as Lucinda
Arturo UI (1972, TV Movie) as O'Casey
The Law (1974, TV Movie) as Jules Benson
Mousey (1974, TV Movie) as Inspector
The Spiral Staircase (1975) as Lieutenant Fields
The Sell Out (1976) as Harry Sickles
Voyage of the Damned (1976) as Carl Rosen
Billy Jack Goes to Washington (1977) as Bailey
The Billion Dollar Bubble (1978) as Stanley Goldblum
Death on the Nile (1978) as Sterndale Rockford
Holocaust (1978, TV mini-series) as Moses Weiss
Contro 4 bandiere (1979) as Ray MacDonald
Charlie Muffin (1979, TV Movie) as Ruttgers
Private Benjamin (1980) as Teddy Benjamin
The Competition (1980) as Andrew Erskine
Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years (1981) as Bernard Baruch
Our Family Business (1981, TV Movie) as Ralph
I Was a Mail Order Bride (1982, TV Movie) as Frank Tosconi
Heartsounds (1984, TV Movie) as Moe Silverman
Irreconcilable Differences (1984) as David Kessler
The Ghost Writer (1984, TV Movie) as E.I. Lonoff
Berrenger's (1985, TV Series) as Simon Berrenger
The Aviator (1985) as Bruno Hansen
Embassy (1985, TV Movie) as Ambassador Arthur Ingram
Deceptions (1985, TV Movie) as Jim Nolan
Raw Deal (1986) as Luigi Patrovita
Sadie and Son (1987, TV Movie) as Marty Goldstein
Baby Boom (1987) as Fritz Curtis
Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987) as David Warfield
The Two Mrs. Grenvilles (1987, TV Movie) as District Attorney
Baby Boom (1988, TV series based on the 1987 film) as Fritz Curtis
Judgment in Berlin (1988) as Bernard Hellring
Tajna manastirske rakije (1988) as Ambassador Morley
The Shell Seekers (1989, TV Movie) as Richard
Always Remember I Love You (1990, TV Movie) as Grandfather Mendham
Running Against Time (1990, TV Movie) as Doctor Koopman
Guilty by Suspicion (1991) as Felix Graff
Pure Luck (1991) as Highsmith
City of Joy (1992) (uncredited)
Killer Rules (1993, TV Movie) as Gambon
Bloodlines: Murder in the Family (1993, TV Movie) as Gerald Woodman
Wild Justice (1994, TV Movie) as Kingston Parker (final film role)
Television
Holocaust (1978 TV Mini-Series) as Moses Weiss
Cameo Theatre in "Manhattan Footstep" (episode # 1.4) June 7, 1950
Danger Man – as Patrick Laurence in "The Lonely Chair" (episode # 1.8) October 30, 1960
The Defenders – as Dr. Ralph Ames in "The Hundred Lives of Harry Simms" (episode # 1.7) October 28, 1961
The Defenders – as James Henry David in "A Book for Burning" (episode # 2.27) March 30, 1963
Man of the World – as Nicko in "The Bandit" (episode # 2.1) May 11, 1963
Espionage – as Sprague in "Festival of Pawns" (episode # 1.10) December 11, 1963
The Outer Limits – as Dr. Simon Holm in "A Feasibility Study" (episode # 1.29) April 13, 1964
The Defenders – as Edward Banter in "Hollow Triumph" (episode # 3.35) June 20, 1964
The Defenders – as United States Attorney Brooker in "A Taste of Ashes" (episode # 4.8) November 12, 1964
The Wild Wild West – as Dr. Arcularis in "The Night of the Howling Light" (episode # 1.14) December 17, 1965
Gunsmoke – as Asa Longworth in "Parson Comes to Town" (episode # 11.31) April 30, 1966
Run for Your Life – as Major Joe Rankin in two episodes
The Baron – as Sefton Folkard in "You Can't Win Them All" (episode # 1.19) February 1, 1967
Judd for the Defense – as Shelly Gould in "The Gates of Cerberus" (episode # 2.8) November 15, 1968
Thirty-Minute Theatre in "A Wen" (episode # 1.233) December 27, 1971
Rafferty – as Hollander in "Rafferty" (Pilot) (episode # 1.1) September 5, 1977
Return of the Saint – as Domenico in "Dragonseed" (episode # 1.22) February 25, 1979
Director
The Defenders (TV series) – episode "Eyewitness" (1965)
Court Martial (TV series) – episode "The Bitter Wind" (1966)
Hawk (TV series) – episodes "Do Not Mutilate or Spindle", "Game with a Dead End" and "How Close Can You Get?" (1966)
Cimarron Strip (TV series) – episode "Broken Wing" (1967)
Custer (TV series) – episode "Sabers in the Sun" (1967)
Dundee and the Culhane (TV series) – episode "The Jubilee Raid Brief" (1967)
Coronet Blue (TV series) – episodes "The Rebels", "Man Running", "Saturday" and "The Presence of Evil" (1967)
Lancer (TV series) – episode "The High Riders" (1968)
Premiere (TV series) – episode "Lassiter" (1968)
The Champions (TV series) – episode "To Trap A Rat" (1968)
The File of the Golden Goose (1969)
The Executioner (1970)
Catlow (1971)
Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977)
Columbo: The Bye-Bye Sky High IQ Murder Case (1977) (TV)
David Cassidy - Man Undercover (TV series) – episode "Cage of Steel" (1978)
Hart to Hart (TV series) – episode "Death in the Slow Lane" (1979)
Return of the Saint (TV series) – episode "Vicious Circle" (1979)
Mrs. Columbo aka Kate Loves a Mystery (TV series) – episodes "A Puzzle for Prophets" and "Falling Star" (1979)
The Killing of Randy Webster (1981) (TV)
Columbo: Grand Deceptions (1989) (TV)
Notes
References
External links
, video
Interview with Sam Wanamaker, September 18, 1992 [Mostly about directing opera]
1919 births
1993 deaths
Male actors from Chicago
American emigrants to England
Film directors from Illinois
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male stage actors
American theatre directors
Burials at Southwark Cathedral
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from prostate cancer
Drake University alumni
Jewish American male actors
American male Shakespearean actors
Laurence Olivier Award winners
Hollywood blacklist
United States Army soldiers
United States Army personnel of World War II
Jewish socialists
20th-century American male actors
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire | [
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225870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola%20formula | Coca-Cola formula | The Coca-Cola Company's formula for Coca-Cola syrup, which bottlers combine with carbonated water to create the company's flagship cola soft drink, is a closely guarded trade secret. Company founder Asa Candler initiated the veil of secrecy that surrounds the formula in 1891 as a publicity, marketing, and intellectual property protection strategy. While several recipes, each purporting to be the authentic formula, have been published, the company maintains that the actual formula remains a secret, known only to a very few select (and anonymous) employees.
History
Coca-Cola inventor John Pemberton is known to have shared his original formula with at least four people before his death in 1888. In 1891, Asa Candler purchased the rights to the formula from Pemberton's estate, founded The Coca-Cola Company, and instituted the shroud of secrecy that has since enveloped the formula. He also made changes to the ingredients list, which by most accounts improved the flavor, and also entitled him to claim that anyone in possession of Pemberton's original formula no longer knew the "real" formula.
In 1919, Ernest Woodruff led a group of investors in purchasing the company from Candler and his family. As collateral for the acquisition loan, Woodruff placed the only written copy of the formula in a vault at the lending bank, Guaranty Bank in New York. In 1925, when the loan had been repaid, Woodruff relocated the written formula to the Trust Company Bank (now Truist Financial) in Atlanta. On December 8, 2011, the company placed it in a vault on the grounds of the World of Coca-Cola in Atlanta, where it remains on public "display".
According to the company, only two employees are privy to the complete formula at any given time and they are not permitted to travel together. When one dies, the other must choose a successor within the company and impart the secret to that person. The identity of the two employees in possession of the secret is itself a secret.
It has been noted, however, that the company's "secret formula" policy is more of a marketing strategy than an actual trade secret: any competitor in possession of the genuine Coke recipe would be unable to obtain certain key ingredients, such as processed coca leaf (see below), and even if all components were available, could not market the reproduced product as Coca-Cola.
During the late 19th century, Coca-Cola was one of many popular coca-based drinks with purported medicinal properties and benefits to health; early marketing materials claimed that Coca-Cola alleviated headaches and acted as a "brain and nerve tonic". Coca leaves were used in Coca-Cola's preparation; the small amount of cocaine they contained – along with caffeine originally sourced from kola nuts – provided the drink's "tonic" quality. In 1903, cocaine was removed, leaving caffeine as the sole stimulant ingredient, and all medicinal claims were dropped. By one account, the FDA still screens random samples of Coca-Cola syrup for the presence of cocaine.
A few sources claim that coca leaf extract, with the cocaine chemically removed, remains part of the formula as a flavoring. According to these accounts, the company obtains the ingredient from the Stepan Company of Maywood, New Jersey, which legally extracts cocaine from coca leaves for use in pharmaceuticals, then sells the processed leaf material for use in Coca-Cola. The company will neither confirm nor deny this, deferring to the secret nature of the formula.
In 1911, the United States government sued The Coca-Cola Company for violations of the Pure Food and Drug Act, claiming that the high concentration of caffeine in Coca-Cola syrup was harmful to health. The case was decided in favor of Coca-Cola, but a portion of the decision was set aside in 1916 by the Supreme Court. As part of a settlement, the company agreed to reduce the amount of caffeine in its syrup.
Current ingredients
The company protects the secrecy of its syrup recipe by shipping ingredients to its syrup factories in the form of anonymous "merchandises", numbered 1 through 9. Factory managers are told the relative proportions of each numbered merchandise, and the mixing procedure, but not the ingredients in the merchandises, some of which are themselves mixtures of more basic ingredients. Merchandise no. 1 is known to be sugar, in the form of high-fructose corn syrup or sucrose (see variations, below); caramel coloring is no. 2, caffeine is no. 3, and phosphoric acid is no. 4. The identities of merchandises 5 through 9 are a matter of debate – particularly "merchandise 7X" (the "X" has never been explained), which is thought to contain a mixture of essential oils such as orange, lime, lemon, and lavender.
Despite the implications of its name, there is no evidence that the current version of Coca-Cola syrup contains kola nut extract, which was originally included for its caffeine content. The modern source of that additive is probably caffeine citrate, a byproduct of the decaffeination of coffee.
The primary taste of Coca-Cola is thought to come from vanilla and cinnamon, with trace amounts of essential oils, and spices such as nutmeg. A 2014 study identified and measured 58 aroma compounds in the top three US brands of cola, confirming significant amounts of compounds found in the essential oils of cinnamon, lemon, orange, neroli, coriander, nutmeg and vanilla.
Formula variations in the United States
During the 1980s, most U.S. Coca-Cola bottlers switched their primary sweetening ingredient from cane sugar (sucrose) to the cheaper high-fructose corn syrup. , the only U.S. bottler still using sucrose year-round was the Coca-Cola Bottling Company of Cleveland, which serves northern Ohio and a portion of Pennsylvania. Many bottlers outside the U.S. also continue to use sucrose as the primary sweetener. glass bottles of sucrose-sweetened Coca-Cola imported from Mexico are available in many U.S. markets for those consumers who prefer the sucrose version (see "Mexican Coke", below).
Passover
Coca-Cola was certified kosher in 1935 by Rabbi Tobias Geffen after beef tallow-derived glycerin was replaced with vegetable glycerin. However, the high-fructose corn syrup used by most U.S. bottlers since the 1980s renders it kitniyot by the definitions of Jewish kosher law, and therefore forbidden during Passover according to certain traditions. Each year, in the weeks leading up to Passover, bottlers in markets with substantial Jewish populations switch to sucrose sweetener in order to obtain Kosher for Passover certification.
"New Coke"
In April 1985, in response to marketing research suggesting that a majority of North American consumers preferred the taste of rival Pepsi to Coca-Cola, the company introduced a sweeter, less effervescent version of Coca-Cola in the U.S. and Canada. Although the new formulation had beaten both Pepsi-Cola and the old Coke formula in multiple blind taste tests, consumer response was overwhelmingly negative. The company quickly reintroduced the original beverage, rebranded as "Coca-Cola Classic", while continuing to market the new version as simply "Coke".
The new version remained on the market, in North America only, for 17 years—the last 10 as "Coke II"—until it was quietly discontinued in 2002. The "Classic" designation remained on the original product's label, its prominence gradually decreasing over the years, until it was removed entirely in 2009.
Mexican Coke
In the early 2000s, cane-sugar-sweetened Coca-Cola produced in Mexico began to appear in bodegas and Hispanic supermarkets in the Southwestern United States; in 2005, Costco began offering it. All were obtaining the Mexican product—which was not labeled in accordance with U.S. food labeling laws—outside the official Coca-Cola distribution network. In 2009, the Coca-Cola Company began officially importing Coca-Cola produced in Mexico, with proper labeling, for distribution through official channels.
Purported secret recipes
Pemberton recipe
Coca-Cola inventor John Pemberton is said to have written this recipe in his diary shortly before his death in 1888. The recipe does not specify when or how the ingredients are mixed, nor the flavoring oil quantity units of measure (though it implies that the "Merchandise 7X" was mixed first). This was common in recipes at the time, as it was assumed that preparers knew the method.
Ingredients:
caffeine citrate
citric acid
vanilla extract
lime juice
"flavoring" (i.e., "Merchandise 7X")
sugar
fluid extract of coca leaves (flavor essence of the coca leaf)
water
caramel sufficient to give color
"Mix caffeine acid and lime juice in 1 quart boiling water add vanilla and flavoring when cool."
Flavoring (Merchandise 7X):
1 qrt alcohol
80 oil orange
40 oil cinnamon
120 oil lemon
20 oil coriander
40 oil nutmeg
40 oil neroli
"Let stand 24 hours."
Merory recipe
Recipe is from Food Flavorings: Composition, Manufacture and Use. Makes one of syrup. Yield (used to flavor carbonated water at per bottle): 128 bottles, .
Mix of sugar with just enough water to dissolve the sugar fully. (High-fructose corn syrup may be substituted for half the sugar.)
Add of caramel, caffeine, and phosphoric acid.
Extract the cocaine from of coca leaf (Truxillo growth of coca preferred) with toluol; discard the cocaine extract.
Soak the coca leaves and kola nuts (both finely powdered); in of 20% alcohol.
California white wine fortified to 20% strength was used as the soaking solution circa 1909, but Coca-Cola may have switched to a simple water/alcohol mixture.
After soaking, discard the coca and kola and add the liquid to the syrup.
Add lime juice (a former ingredient, evidently, that Coca-Cola now denies) or a substitute such as a water solution of citric acid and sodium citrate at lime-juice strength.
Mix together
orange oil,
cassia (Chinese cinnamon) oil,
lemon oil, traces of
nutmeg oil, and, if desired, traces of
coriander,
neroli, and
lavender oils.
Add water to the oil mixture and let stand for twenty-four hours at about . A cloudy layer will separate.
Take off the clear part of the liquid only and add to the syrup.
Add glycerine (from vegetable source, not hog fat, so the drink can be sold to Jews and Muslims who observe their respective religion's dietary restrictions) and of vanilla extract.
Add water (treated with chlorine) to make a gallon of syrup.
Beal recipe
In 2011, Ira Glass announced on his Public Radio International show, This American Life, that show staffers had found a recipe in "Everett Beal's Recipe Book", reproduced in the February 28, 1979, issue of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton's original formula for Coca-Cola, or a version that he made either before or after the product was first sold in 1886. The formula is very similar to the one found in Pemberton's diary. Coca-Cola archivist Phil Mooney acknowledged that the recipe "could be a precursor" to the formula used in the original 1886 product, but emphasized that the original formula is not the same as the one used in the current product.
Fluid extract of Coca: 3 drams USP
Citric acid: 3 oz
Caffeine: 1 oz
Sugar: 30 lbs
Water: 2.5 gal
Lime juice: 2 pints (1 quart)
Vanilla: 1 oz
Caramel: 1.5 oz or more for color
The secret 7X flavor (use 2 oz of flavor to 5 gals syrup):
Alcohol: 8 oz
Orange oil: 20 drops
Cinnamon oil: 10 drops
Lemon oil: 30 drops
Coriander oil: 5 drops
Nutmeg oil: 10 drops
Neroli oil: 10 drops
Commercial teaser
On January 23, 2011, in a commercial aired during the NFL Football AFC Championship Game, Coca-Cola teased that they would share the secret formula, only to flash a comical "formula" for a few frames. This required the use of a video recording device to freeze on the formula for any analysis, and it ultimately proved to be a marketing ploy with no intention of sharing the full official formula. Ingredients listed in the commercial included nutmeg oil, lime juice, cocoa, vanilla extract, caffeine, "flavoring", and a smile.
See also
List of brand name soft drink products
List of soft drink flavors
Open-source cola
OpenCola
References
External links
Secret Formula of Coca-Cola, documentary by National Geographic, March 9, 2011
Coca-Cola
Trade secrets | [
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225873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna%20Circle | Vienna Circle | The Vienna Circle () of Logical Empiricism was a group of philosophers and scientists drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, chaired by Moritz Schlick. The Vienna Circle's influence on 20th-century philosophy, especially philosophy of science and analytic philosophy, is immense up to the present day.
The philosophical position of the Vienna Circle was called logical empiricism (German: logischer Empirismus), logical positivism or neopositivism. It was influenced by Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, French conventionalism (Henri Poincaré and Pierre Duhem), Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. The Vienna Circle was pluralistic and committed to the ideals of the Enlightenment. It was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. Main topics were foundational debates in the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics; the modernization of empiricism by modern logic; the search for an empiricist criterion of meaning; the critique of metaphysics and the unification of the sciences in the unity of science.
The Vienna Circle appeared in public with the publication of various book series – Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science) and the journal Erkenntnis – and the organization of international conferences in Prague; Königsberg (today known as Kaliningrad); Paris; Copenhagen; Cambridge, UK, and Cambridge, Massachusetts. Its public profile was provided by the Ernst Mach Society (German: Verein Ernst Mach) through which members of the Vienna Circle sought to popularize their ideas in the context of programmes for popular education in Vienna.
During the era of Austrofascism and after the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany most members of the Vienna Circle were forced to emigrate. The murder of Schlick in 1936 by a former student put an end to the Vienna Circle in Austria.
History of the Vienna Circle
The history and development of the Vienna Circle shows various stages:
The "First Vienna Circle" (1907–1912)
The pre-history of the Vienna Circle began with meetings on the philosophy of science and epistemology from 1908 on, promoted by Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn and Otto Neurath.
Hans Hahn, the oldest of the three (1879–1934), was a mathematician. He received his degree in mathematics in 1902. Afterwards he studied under the direction of Ludwig Boltzmann in Vienna and David Hilbert, Felix Klein and Hermann Minkowski in Göttingen. In 1905 he received the Habilitation in mathematics. He taught at Innsbruck (1905–1906) and Vienna (from 1909).
Otto Neurath (1882–1945) studied mathematics, political economy, and history in Vienna and Berlin. From 1907 to 1914 he taught in Vienna at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie (Viennese Commercial Academy). Neurath married Olga, Hahn's sister, in 1911.
Philipp Frank, the youngest of the group (1884–1966), studied physics at Göttingen and Vienna with Ludwig Boltzmann, David Hilbert and Felix Klein. From 1912, he held the chair of theoretical physics in the German University in Prague.
Their meetings were held in Viennese coffeehouses from 1907 onward. Frank remembered:
A number of further authors were discussed in the meetings such as Brentano, Meinong, Helmholtz, Hertz, Husserl, Freud, Russell, Whitehead, Lenin and Frege.
Presumably the meetings stopped in 1912, when Frank went to Prague, to hold the chair of theoretical physics left vacant by Albert Einstein. Hahn left Vienna during World War I and returned in 1921.
The formative years (1918–1924)
The formation of the Vienna Circle began with Hahn returning to Vienna in 1921. Together with the mathematician Kurt Reidemeister he organized seminars on Ludwig Wittgenstein's Tractatus logico-philosophicus and on Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica.
With the support of Hahn, Moritz Schlick was appointed to the chair of philosophy of the inductive sciences at the University of Vienna in 1922 – the chair formerly held by Ernst Mach and partly by Boltzmann. Schlick had already published two important works Raum und Zeit in die gegenwärtigen Physik (Space and Time in contemporary Physics) in 1917 and Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre (General Theory of Knowledge) in 1918.
Immediately after Schlick's arrival in Vienna, he organized discussions with the mathematicians around Hahn. In 1924 Schlick's students Friedrich Waismann and Herbert Feigl suggested to their teacher a sort of regular "evening circle". From winter term 1924 on regular meetings were held at the Institute of Mathematics in Vienna's Boltzmanngasse 5 on personal invitation by Schlick. These discussions can be seen as the beginning of the Vienna Circle.
The non-public phase of the Vienna Circle – The Schlick Circle (1924–1928)
The group that met from 1924 on was quite diverse and included not only recognized scientists such as Schlick, Hahn, Kraft, Philipp Frank, Neurath, Olga Hahn-Neurath, and Heinrich Gomperz, but also younger students and doctoral candidates. In addition, the group invited foreign visitors.
In 1926 Schlick and Hahn arranged to bring Rudolf Carnap to the University of Vienna as a Privatdozent (private lecturer). Carnap's Logical Structure of the World was intensely discussed in the Circle.
Also Wittgenstein's Tractatus logico-philosophicus was read out loud and discussed. From 1927 on personal meetings were arranged between Wittgenstein and Schlick, Waismann, Carnap and Feigl.
The public phase – Schlick Circle and Verein Ernst Mach (1928–1934)
In 1928 the Verein Ernst Mach (Ernst Mach Society) was founded, with Schlick as its chairman. The aim of the society was the spreading of a "scientific world conception" through public lectures that were in large part held by members of the Vienna Circle.
In 1929 the Vienna Circle made its first public appearance under this name – invented by Neurath – with the publication of its manifesto Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis (The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle also known as Viewing the World Scientifically: The Vienna Circle) The pamphlet is dedicated to Schlick, and its preface was signed by Hahn, Neurath and Carnap.
The manifesto was presented at the Tagung für Erkenntnislehre der exakten Wissenschaften (Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences) in autumn 1929, organized by the Vienna Circle together with the Berlin Circle. This conference was the first international appearance of logical empiricism and the first of a number of conferences: Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934), Paris (1935), Copenhague (1936), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Mass. (1939), and Chicago (1941).
While primarily known for its views on the natural sciences and metaphysics, the public phase of the Vienna Circle was explicitly political. Neurath and Schlick were both socialists and believed the rejection of magic was a necessary component for liberation of the working classes. The manifesto linked Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche to their political and anti-metaphysical views, indicating a blur between what are now considered two separate schools of contemporary philosophy - analytic philosophy and continental philosophy.
In 1930 the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Society took over the journal Annalen der Philosophie and made it the main journal of logical empiricism under the title Erkenntnis, edited by Carnap and Reichenbach. In addition, the Vienna Circle published a number of book series: Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception, ed. by Schlick und Frank, 1928–1937), Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science, edited by Neurath, 1933–1939), and later the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (edited by Neurath, Carnap and Charles W. Morris, 1938–1970).
Disintegration, emigration, internationalization (1934–1938)
From the beginning of the 1930s first signs of disintegration appeared for political and racist reasons: Herbert Feigl left Austria in 1930. Carnap was appointed to a chair at Prague University in 1931 and left for Chicago in 1935.
1934 marks an important break: Hahn died after surgery, Neurath fled to Holland because of the victory of Austrofascism in the Austrian Civil War following which the Ernst Mach Society was dissolved for political reasons by the Schuschnigg regime.
The murder of Moritz Schlick by the former student Hans Nelböck for political and personal reasons in 1936 set an end to the meetings of the Schlick Circle.
Some members of the circle such as Kraft, Waismann, Zilsel, Menger and Gomperz continued to meet occasionally. But the annexation of Austria to Nazi Germany in 1938 meant the definite end of the activities of the Vienna Circle in Austria.
With the emigration went along the internationalization of logical empiricism. Many former members of the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Circle emigrated to the English-speaking world where they had an immense influence on the development of philosophy of science. The unity of science movement for the construction of an International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, promoted mainly by Neurath, Carnap, and Morris, is symptomatic of the internationalization of logical empiricism, organizing numerous international conferences and the publication of the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science.
Overview of the members of the Vienna Circle
Apart from the central figures of the Schlick Circle the question of membership in the Vienna Circle is in many cases unsettled. The partition into "members" and "those sympathetic to the Vienna Circle" produced in the manifesto from 1929 is representative only of a specific moment in the development of the Circle. Depending on the criteria used (regular attendance, philosophical affinities etc.) there are different possible distributions in "inner circle" and "periphery".
In the following list (in alphabetical order), the "inner circle" is defined using the criterion of regular attendance. The "periphery" comprises occasional visitors, foreign visitors and leading intellectual figures who stood in regular contact with the Circle (such as Wittgenstein and Popper).
Inner Circle: Gustav Bergmann, Rudolf Carnap, Herbert Feigl, Philipp Frank, Kurt Gödel, Hans Hahn, Olga Hahn-Neurath, Béla Juhos, Felix Kaufmann, Victor Kraft, Karl Menger, Richard von Mises, Otto Neurath, Rose Rand, Josef Schächter, Moritz Schlick, Friedrich Waismann, Edgar Zilsel.
Periphery: Alfred Jules Ayer, Egon Brunswik, Karl Bühler, Josef Frank, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Heinrich Gomperz, Carl Gustav Hempel, Eino Kaila, Hans Kelsen, Charles W. Morris, Arne Naess, Karl Raimund Popper, Willard Van Orman Quine, Frank P. Ramsey, Hans Reichenbach, Kurt Reidemeister, Alfred Tarski, Olga Taussky-Todd, Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Reception in the United States and the United Kingdom
The spread of logical positivism in the United States occurred throughout the 1920s and 1930s. In 1929 and in 1932, Schlick was a Visiting Professor at Stanford, while Feigl, who immigrated to the United States in 1930, became lecturer (1931) and professor (1933) at the University of Iowa. The definite diffusion of logical positivism in the United States was due to Carl Hempel, Hans Reichenbach, Rudolf Carnap, Philipp Frank, and Herbert Feigl, who emigrated and taught in the United States.
Another link to the United States is Willard Van Orman Quine, who traveled in 1932 and 1933 as a Sheldon Traveling Fellow to Vienna, Prague, and Warsaw. Moreover, American semiotician and philosopher Charles W. Morris helped many German and Austrian philosophers emigrate to the United States, including Rudolf Carnap, in 1936.
In the United Kingdom it was Alfred Jules Ayer who acquainted the British academia with the work of the Vienna Circle with his book Language, Truth, and Logic (1936). Karl Popper was also important for the reception and critique of their work, even though he never participated in the meetings of the Vienna Circle.
Congresses and publications
The Vienna Circle was very active in advertising their new philosophical ideas. Several congresses on epistemology and philosophy of science were organized, with the help of the Berlin Circle. There were some preparatory congresses: Prague (1929), Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934) and then the first congress on scientific philosophy held in Paris (1935), followed by congresses in Copenhagen (1936), Paris (1937), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Massachusetts. (1939). The Königsberg congress (1930) was very important, for Kurt Gödel announced that he had proven the completeness of first-order logic and the incompleteness of formal arithmetic. Another very interesting congress was the one held in Copenhagen (1936), which was dedicated to quantum physics and causality.
Between 1928 and 1937, the Vienna Circle published ten books in a collection named Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), edited by Schlick and Frank. Karl Raimund Popper's book Logik der Forschung was published in this collection. Seven works were published in another collection, called Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science). In 1930 Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach undertook the editorship of the journal Erkenntnis, which was published between 1930 and 1940 (from 1939 the editors were Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris).
The following is the list of works published in the two collections edited by the Vienna Circle.
Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), edited by Schlick and Frank:
Richard von Mises, Wahrscheinlichkeit, Statistik und Wahrheit, 1928 (Probability, Statistics, and Truth, New York: Macmillan company, 1939)
Rudolf Carnap, Abriss der Logistik, 1929
Moritz Schlick, Fragen der Ethik, 1930 (Problems of Ethics, New York: Prentice-Hall, 1939)
Otto Neurath, Empirische Soziologie, 1931
Philipp Frank, Das Kausalgesetz und seine Grenzen, 1932 (The Law of Causality and its Limits, Dordrecth; Boston: Kluwer, 1997)
Otto Kant, Zur Biologie der Ethik, 1932
Rudolf Carnap, Logische Syntax der Sprache, 1934 (The Logical Syntax of Language, New York: Humanities, 1937)
Karl Raimund Popper, Logik der Forschung, 1934 (The Logic of Scientific Discovery, New York: Basic Books, 1959)
Josef Schächter, Prolegomena zu einer kritischen Grammatik, 1935 (Prolegomena to a Critical Grammar, Dordrecht; Boston: D. Reidel Pub. Co., 1973)
Victor Kraft, Die Grundlagen einer wissenschaftliche Wertlehre, 1937 (Foundations for a Scientific Analysis of Value, Dordrecht; Boston: D. Reidel Pub. Co., 1981)
Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science), edited by Carnap, Frank, Hahn, Neurath, Jørgensen (after Hahn's death), Morris (from 1938):
Hans Hahn, Logik, Mathematik und Naturerkennen, 1933
Otto Neurath, Einheitswissenschaft und Psychologie, 1933
Rudolf Carnap, Die Aufgabe der Wissenschaftlogik, 1934
Philipp Frank, Das Ende der mechanistischen Physik, 1935
Otto Neurath, Was bedeutet rationale Wirtschaftsbetrachtung, 1935
Otto Neurath, E. Brunswik, C. Hull, G. Mannoury, J. Woodger, Zur Enzyklopädie der Einheitswissenschaft. Vorträge, 1938
Richard von Mises, Ernst Mach und die empiristische Wissenschaftauffassung, 1939
These works are translated in Unified Science: The Vienna Circle Monograph Series Originally Edited by Otto Neurath, Kluwer, 1987.
Monographs, arranged in chronological order, published in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science:
Otto Neurath, Niels Bohr, John Dewey, Bertrand Russell, Rudolf Carnap, Charles Morris, Encyclopedia and unified science, 1938, vol.1 n.1
Charles Morris, Foundations of the theory of signs, 1938, vol.1 n.2
Victor Lenzen, Procedures of empirical sciences, 1938, vol.1 n.5
Rudolf Carnap, Foundations of logic and mathematics, 1939, vol.1 n.3
Leonard Bloomfield, Linguistic aspects of science, 1939, vol.1 n.4
Ernest Nagel, Principles of the theory of probability, 1939, vol.1 n.6
John Dewey, Theory of valuation, 1939, vol.2 n.4
Giorgio de Santillana and Edgar Zilsel, The development of rationalism and empiricism, 1941, vol.2 n.8
Otto Neurath, Foundations of social sciences, 1944, vol.2 n.1
Joseph H. Woodger, The technique of theory construction, 1949, vol.2 n.5
Philipp Frank, Foundations of physics, 1946, vol.1 n.7
Erwin Finlay-Freundlich, Cosmology, 1951, vol.1 n.8
Jørgen Jørgensen, The development of logical empiricism, 1951, vol.2 n.9
Egon Brunswik, The conceptual framework of psychology, 1952, vol.1 n.10
Carl Hempel, Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science, 1952, vol.2 n.7
Felix Mainx, Foundations of biology, 1955, vol.1 n.9
Abraham Edel, Science and the structure of ethics, 1961, vol.2 n.3
Thomas S. Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions, 1962, vol.2 n.2
Gerhard Tintner, Methodology of mathematical economics and econometrics, 1968, vol.2 n.6
Herbert Feigl and Charles Morris, Bibliography and index, 1969, vol.2 n.10
Topics and debates
The Vienna Circle cannot be assigned one single philosophy. First, there existed a plurality of philosophical positions within the Circle, and second, members often changed their views fundamentally in the course of time and in reaction to discussions in the Circle. It thus seems more convenient to speak of "the philosophies (in the plural) of the Vienna Circle".
However, some central topics and debates can be identified.
The Manifesto (1929)
This states the scientific world-conception of the Vienna Circle, which is characterized "essentially by two features. First it is empiricist and positivist: there is knowledge only from experience. Second, the scientific world-conception is marked by the application of a certain method, namely logical analysis."
Logical analysis is the method of clarification of philosophical problems; it makes an extensive use of symbolic logic and distinguishes the Vienna Circle empiricism from earlier versions. The task of philosophy lies in the clarification—through the method of logical analysis—of problems and assertions.
Logical analysis shows that there are two different kinds of statements; one kind includes statements reducible to simpler statements about the empirically given; the other kind includes statements which cannot be reduced to statements about experience and thus they are devoid of meaning. Metaphysical statements belong to this second kind and therefore they are meaningless. Hence many philosophical problems are rejected as pseudo-problems which arise from logical mistakes, while others are re-interpreted as empirical statements and thus become the subject of scientific inquiries.
One source of the logical mistakes that are at the origins of metaphysics is the ambiguity of natural language. "Ordinary language for instance uses the same part of speech, the substantive, for things ('apple') as well as for qualities ('hardness'), relations ('friendship'), and processes ('sleep'); therefore it misleads one into a thing-like conception of functional concepts". Another source of mistakes is "the notion that thinking can either lead to knowledge out of its own resources without using any empirical material, or at least arrive at new contents by an inference from given states of affair". Synthetic knowledge a priori is rejected by the Vienna Circle. Mathematics, which at a first sight seems an example of necessarily valid synthetic knowledge derived from pure reason alone, has instead a tautological character, that is its statements are analytical statements, thus very different from Kantian synthetic statements. The only two kinds of statements accepted by the Vienna Circle are synthetic statements a posteriori (i.e., scientific statements) and analytic statements a priori (i.e., logical and mathematical statements).
However, the persistence of metaphysics is connected not only with logical mistakes but also with "social and economical struggles". Metaphysics and theology are allied to traditional social forms, while the group of people who "faces modern times, rejects these views and takes its stand on the ground of empirical sciences". Thus the struggle between metaphysics and scientific world-conception is not only a struggle between different kinds of philosophies, but it is also—and perhaps primarily—a struggle between different political, social, and economical attitudes. Of course, as the manifesto itself acknowledged, "not every adherent of the scientific world-conception will be a fighter". Many historians of the Vienna Circle see in the latter sentence an implicit reference to a contrast between the so-called 'left wing' of the Vienna Circle, mainly represented by Neurath and Carnap, and Moritz Schlick. The aim of the left wing was to facilitate the penetration of the scientific world-conception in "the forms of personal and public life, in education, upbringing, architecture, and the shaping of economic and social life". In contrast, Schlick was primarily interested in the theoretical study of science and philosophy. Perhaps the sentence "Some, glad of solitude, will lead a withdrawn existence on the icy slopes of logic" is an ironic reference to Schlick.
The manifesto lists Walter Dubislav, Josef Frank, Kurt Grelling, Hasso Härlen, Eino Kaila, Heinrich Loewy, F. P. Ramsey, Hans Reichenbach, Kurt Reidemeister, and Edgar Zilsel as people "sympathetic to the Vienna Circle" and Albert Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein as its "leading representatives".
Unified science
The final goal pursued by the Vienna Circle was unified science, that is the construction of a "constitutive system" in which every legitimate statement is reduced to the concepts of lower level which refer directly to the given experience. "The endeavour is to link and harmonise the achievements of individual investigators in their various fields of science". From this aim follows the search for clarity, neatness, and for a symbolic language that eliminates the problems arising from the ambiguity of natural language. The Vienna Circle published a collection, called Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science), edited by Rudolf Carnap, Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn, Otto Neurath, Jørgen Jørgensen (after Hahn's death) and Charles W. Morris (from 1938), whose aim was to present a unified vision of science. After the publication in Europe of seven monographs from 1933 to 1939, the collection was dismissed, because of the problems arising from the World War II. In 1938 a new series of publications started in the United States. It was the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, an ambitious project never completed devoted to unified science. Only the first section Foundations of the Unity of Sciences was published; it contains two volumes for a total of twenty monographs published from 1938 to 1969. As remembered by Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris in the Preface to the 1969 edition of the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science:
Thomas Kuhn's well known work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, was published in this Encyclopedia in 1962, as the number two in the second volume.
Critique of metaphysics
The attitude of Vienna Circle towards metaphysics is well expressed by Carnap in the article 'Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache' in Erkenntnis, vol. 2, 1932 (English translation 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language' in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath, New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31). A language—says Carnap—consists of a vocabulary, i.e., a set of meaningful words, and a syntax, i.e., a set of rules governing the formation of sentences from the words of the vocabulary. Pseudo-statements, i.e., sequences of words that at first sight resemble statements but in reality have no meaning, are formed in two ways: either meaningless words occur in them, or they are formed in an invalid syntactical way. According to Carnap, pseudo-statements of both kinds occur in metaphysics.
A word W has a meaning if two conditions are satisfied. First, the mode of the occurrence of W in its elementary sentence form (i.e., the simplest sentence form in which W is capable of occurring) must be fixed. Secondly, if W occurs in an elementary sentence S, it is necessary to give an answer to the following questions (that are—according to Carnap—equivalent formulation of the same question):
What sentences is S deducible from, and what sentences are deducible from S?
Under what conditions is S supposed to be true, and under what conditions false?
How is S verified?
What is the meaning of S?
(Carnap, "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra 1996, p. 12)
An example offered by Carnap concerns the word 'arthropod'. The sentence form "the thing x is an arthropod" is an elementary sentence form that is derivable from "x is an animal", "x has a segmented body" and "x has jointed legs". Conversely, these sentences are derivable from "the thing x is an arthropod". Thus the meaning of the word 'arthropod' is determined.
According to Carnap, many words of metaphysics do not fulfill these requirements and thus they are meaningless. As an example, Carnap considers the word 'principle'. This word has a definite meaning, if the sentence "x is the principle of y" is supposed to be equivalent to the sentence "y exists by virtue of x" or "y arises out of x". The latter sentence is perfectly clear: y arises out of x when x is invariably followed by y, and the invariable association between x and y is empirically verifiable. But—says Carnap—metaphysicians are not satisfied with this interpretation of the meaning of 'principle'. They assert that no empirical relation between x and y can completely explain the meaning of "x is the principle of y", because there is something that cannot be grasped by means of the experience, something for which no empirical criterion can be specified. It is the lacking of any empirical criterion—says Carnap—that deprives of meaning the word 'principle' when it occurs in metaphysics. Therefore, metaphysical pseudo-statements such as "water is the principle of the world" or "the spirit is the principle of the world" are void of meaning because a meaningless word occurs in them.
However, there are pseudo-statements in which occur only meaningful words; these pseudo-statements are formed in a counter-syntactical way. An example is the word sequence "Caesar is a prime number"; every word has a definite meaning, but the sequence has no meaning. The problem is that "prime number" is a predicate of numbers, not a predicate of human beings. In the example the nonsense is evident; however, in natural language the rules of grammar do not prohibit the formation of analogous meaningless word sequences that are not so easily detectable. In the grammar of natural languages, every sequence of the kind "x is y", where x is a noun and y is a predicate, is acceptable. In fact, in the grammar there is no distinction between predicate which can be affirmed of human beings and predicate which can be affirmed of numbers. So "Caesar is a general" and "Caesar is a prime number" are both well-formed, in contrast for example with "Caesar is and", which is ill-formed. In a logically constructed language—says Carnap—a distinction between the various kinds of predicate is specified, and pseudo-statements as "Caesar is a prime number" are ill-formed. Now, and this is the main point of Carnap's argument, metaphysical statements in which meaningless words do not occur, are indeed meaningless because they are formed in a way which is admissible in natural languages, but not in logically constructed languages. Carnap attempts to indicate the most frequent sources of errors from which metaphysical pseudo-statements can arise. One source of mistakes is the ambiguity of the verb "to be", which is sometimes used as a copula ("I am hungry"), and sometimes to designate existence ("I am"). The latter statement incorrectly suggests a predicative form, and thus it suggests that existence is a predicate. Only modern logic, with the introduction of an explicit sign to designate existence (the sign ), which occurs only in statements such as , never as a predicate, has shown that existence is not a predicate, and thus has revealed the logical error from which pseudo-statements such as "cogito, ergo sum" has arisen.
Another source of mistakes is type confusions, in which a predicate of a kind is used as a predicate of another kind. For example, the pseudo-statements "we know the Nothing" is analogous to "we know the rain", but while the latter is well-formed, the former is ill-formed, at least in a logically constructed language, because "Nothing" is incorrectly used as a noun. In a formal language, "Nothing" only means , such as "there is nothing which is outside"—i.e., , and thus "Nothing" never occurs as a noun or as a predicate.
According to Carnap, although metaphysics has no theoretical content, it does have content: metaphysical pseudo-statements express the attitude of a person towards life, and this is the role of metaphysics. He compares it to an art like lyrical poetry; the metaphysician works with the medium of the theoretical; he confuses art with science, attitude towards life with knowledge, and thus produces an unsatisfactory and inadequate work. "Metaphysicians are musicians without musical ability".
Institute Vienna Circle / Vienna Circle Society
In 1991 the Institute Vienna Circle (IVC) was established as a society in Vienna. It is dedicated to studying the work and influence of the Vienna Circle. In 2011 it was integrated in the University of Vienna as a subunit of the Faculty of Philosophy and Education. Since 2016 the former society continues its activities in close cooperation with the IVC under the changed name Vienna Circle Society (VCS). In 2015 the Institute co-organized an exhibition on the Vienna Circle in the main building of the University of Vienna.
See also
Formalism (mathematics)
Logical behaviorism
Logicism
List of Austrian intellectual traditions
Notes
Bibliography
Primary literature
Carnap, Rudolf. "Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache" in Erkenntnis, vol. 2, 1932 (English translation "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath, New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31)
Neurath, Otto and Carnap, Rudolf and Morris, Charles W. Foundations of the Unity of Sciences, vol. 1, Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis, 1929. English translation The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: from 1900 to the Vienna Circle, New York : Garland Publishing, 1996, pp. 321–340
Stadler, Friedrich and Uebel, Thomas (eds.): Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis. Hrsg. vom Verein Ernst Mach (1929). Reprint of the first edition. With translations into English, French, Spanish and Italian. Vienna: Springer, 2012.
Stöltzner, Michael and Uebel, Thomas (eds.). Wiener Kreis. Texte zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung. Meiner, Hamburg, 2006, . (Anthology in German)
Secondary literature
Arnswald, Ulrich, Stadler, Friedrich and Weibel, Peter (ed.): Der Wiener Kreis – Aktualität in Wissenschaft, Literatur, Architektur und Kunst. Wien: LIT Verlag 2019.
Ayer, Alfred Jules. Language, Truth and Logic. London, Victor Gollancz, 1936.
Ayer, Alfred Jules. Logical Positivism. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1959.
Barone, Francesco. Il neopositivismo logico. Roma Bari: Laterza, 1986.
Bergmann, Gustav. The Metaphysics of Logical Positivism. New York: Longmans Green, 1954.
Cirera, Ramon. Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Empiricism and Logical Syntax. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994.
Frank, Philipp: Modern Science and its Philosophy. Cambridge, 1949.
Friedman, Michael, Reconsidering Logical Positivism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Gadol, Eugene T. Rationality and Science: A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth. Wien: Springer, 1982.
Geymonat, Ludovico. La nuova filosofia della natura in Germania. Torino, 1934.
Giere, Ronald N. and Richardson, Alan W. Origins of Logical Empiricism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
Haller, Rudolf. Neopositivismus. Eine historische Einführung in die Philosophie des Wiener Kreises. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1993, . (German)
Holt, Jim. "Positive Thinking" (review of Karl Sigmund, Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science, Basic Books, 449 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 74–76.
Kraft, Victor. The Vienna Circle: The Origin of Neo-positivism, a Chapter in the History of Recent Philosophy. New York: Greenwood Press, 1953.
Limbeck, Christoph and Stadler, Friedrich (eds.). The Vienna Circle. Texts and Pictures of an Exhibition. Münster-Berlin-London 2015.
McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Waismann. Trans. by Joachim Schulte and Brian McGuinness. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1979.
Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Merrilee H. (ed.) Logical Empiricism – Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003.
Reisch, George. How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science : To the Icy Slopes of Logic. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Rescher, Nicholas (ed.). The Heritage of Logical Positivism. University Press of America, 1985.
Richardson, Alan W. "The Scientific World Conception. Logical Positivism", in: T. Baldwin (Hg.), The Cambridge History of Philosophy, 1870–1945, 2003, 391–400.
Richardson, Alan W. and Uebel, Thomas (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Logical Empiricism. Cambridge, 2007.
Salmon, Wesley and Wolters, Gereon (ed.), Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories: Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial, University of Konstanz, 21–24 May 1991, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994.
Sarkar, Sahotra. The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: From 1900 to the Vienna Circle. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.
Sarkar, Sahotra. Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
Sarkar, Sahotra. Logical Empiricism and the Special Sciences: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
Sarkar, Sahotra. Decline and Obsolescence of Logical Empiricism: Carnap vs. Quine and the Critics. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
Sarkar, Sahotra. The Legacy of the Vienna Circle: Modern Reappraisals. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.), Erkenntnis Orientated: A Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991.
Stadler, Friedrich. The Vienna Circle. Studies in the Origins, Development, and Influence of Logical Empiricism. New York: Springer, 2001. – 2nd Edition: Dordrecht: Springer, 2015.
Stadler, Friedrich (ed.). The Vienna Circle and Logical Empiricism. Re-evaluation and Future Perspectives. Dordrecht – Boston London, Kluwer, 2003.
Uebel, Thomas. Vernunftkritik und Wissenschaft: Otto Neurath und der erste Wiener Kreis. Wien-New York 2000. (German)
Uebel, Thomas, "On the Austrian Roots of Logical Empiricism" in Logical Empiricism – Historical and contemporary Perspectives, ed. Paolo Parrini, Wesley C. Salmon, Merrilee H. Salmon, Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003, pp. 76–93.
External links
Institute Vienna Circle
Vienna Circle Society
Vienna Circle Foundation Amsterdam
Thomas Uebel, "Vienna Circle", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Logical positivism
Science studies
Philosophy of science
Epistemology
Epistemology of science
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225874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved%20Mysteries | Unsolved Mysteries | Unsolved Mysteries is an American mystery documentary television show, created by John Cosgrove and Terry Dunn Meurer. Documenting cold cases and paranormal phenomena, it began as a series of seven specials, presented by Raymond Burr, Karl Malden, and Robert Stack, beginning on NBC on January 20, 1987, becoming a full-fledged series on October 5, 1988, hosted by Stack. After nine seasons on NBC, the series moved to CBS for its 10th season on November 13, 1997. After adding Virginia Madsen as a co-host during season 11 failed to boost slipping ratings, CBS canceled the series after only a two-season, 12-episode run on June 11, 1999. The series was revived by Lifetime in 2000, with season 12 beginning on July 2, 2001. Unsolved Mysteries aired 103 episodes on Lifetime, before ending on September 20, 2002, an end that coincided with Stack's illness and eventual death.
After a six-year absence, the series was resurrected by Spike in 2007, and began airing on October 13, 2008. This new, revived version was hosted by Dennis Farina, who mainly tied together repackaged segments from the original episodes. Farina hosted 175 episodes before the series ended again on April 27, 2010. Cosgrove-Meurer Productions maintains a website for the show, featuring popular accounts and ongoing cold cases (murder or missing persons), with a link to an online form should a viewer have information on an unsolved crime. As of 2017, the show maintains a YouTube page where viewers can submit their own mysteries. If accepted, Unsolved Mysteries posts a video of the viewer describing the mystery. That same year, FilmRise acquired worldwide digital distribution rights to the series and announced its intent to release updated versions of its episodes. These shows are currently streaming on Amazon Prime, Tubi TV, and on its own dedicated channel on Pluto TV in the United States and the United Kingdom. Since February 2017, the Spike episodes have been officially posted on YouTube, split into eight seasons. In July 2017, the series began streaming on Hulu in the United States. Between February and March 2019, FilmRise began posting digitally restored and re-edited episodes, hosted by Stack, on YouTube.
On June 22, 2018, Terror Vision Records released the official soundtrack for the series. In 2017, the show's creators expressed interest in reviving the series. On January 18, 2019, Netflix picked up a reboot of the series which premiered on July 1, 2020.
Overview
Unsolved Mysteries used a documentary format to profile real-life mysteries and featured re-enactments of unsolved crimes, missing persons cases, conspiracy theories and unexplained paranormal phenomena (alien abductions, ghosts, UFOs, and "secret history" theories).
The concept was created in a series of three specials produced by John Cosgrove and Terry-Dunn Meurer, which were pitched to NBC in 1985 and shown in 1986 with the title, "Missing... Have You Seen This Person?" The success of the specials led Cosgrove and Meurer to broaden the series to include mysteries of all kinds.
The pilot of what eventually became Unsolved Mysteries was a special that aired on NBC on January 20, 1987, with Raymond Burr as host/narrator. Throughout the 1987–88 television season, six more specials aired, the first two hosted by Karl Malden and the final four by Robert Stack.
In 1988, the show debuted as a weekly program on NBC. Ratings steadily dropped after the 1993–94 season. Until 2002, it was hosted by Stack. In its second season on CBS in 1999, Stack was joined by co-host Virginia Madsen. Episodes released between 1995 and 1997 featured journalist Keely Shaye Smith and television host Lu Hanessian as correspondents in the show's "phone center", where they provided updates on previous stories as information for "special bulletin" segments. A March 14, 1997, episode featured journalist Cathy Scott in the reenactment of rapper Tupac Shakur's 1996 unsolved murder. This broadcast was one week after the murder of Biggie Smalls. In 2002, the series was canceled by Lifetime. In 2008, television network Spike revived the series with Dennis Farina as its host; the Spike revival ended in 2010.
The show was known for its eerie theme song composed by Michael Boyd and Gary Remal Malkin, and for Stack's grim presence and ominous narration. The theme music was changed seven times, in 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2008, and 2020. The 2020 version of the theme was arranged, performed, and recorded by West Dylan Thordson.
CBS had aired a similar half-hour crime documentary series during the 1955–56 season entitled Wanted, hosted by Walter McGraw.
Updates
Viewers were occasionally given updates on success stories, where suspects were brought to justice and loved ones were reunited.
The show itself has been credited for bringing increased attention to certain cases and thus allowing them to be solved. One episode featured a video of an arsonist filming an unidentified house being burned down while he was giving strange commentary. Once it had been featured on the show, viewers were able to identify the house involved, and two suspects were arrested.
Broadcast history
NBC (1987–1997)
The show first aired on NBC from 1987 to 1997. The pilot episode was hosted by actor Raymond Burr. Karl Malden and Robert Stack were also hired to host further specials. When the series became a full-fledged television program in 1988, Stack became the full-time host. Unsolved Mysteries was also one of the few prime-time shows of its era to appeal to fans of the supernatural and used effective special effects to enhance tales of the unexplained.
In 1992, NBC aired a short-lived dramatized court show spin-off program called Final Appeal: From the Files of Unsolved Mysteries, also hosted by Stack. The premise of this program was to try to give the unjustly accused a final appeal for help, with the debut episode taking an in-depth look at the Jeffrey MacDonald case. The program was canceled after only a few episodes due to poor ratings.
CBS (1997–1999)
The ratings for Unsolved Mysteries''' had been steadily declining ever since it was moved from its original Wednesday evening timeslot to Friday evenings in the fall of 1994. At the end of the 1996–97 season, it was canceled by NBC. Upon the cancelation from NBC, CBS picked up the series for a tenth season. The first episode aired in November of 1997 as an Unsolved Mysteries special. When CBS canceled its Block Party line-up in the spring of 1998, the network moved the show to its Friday 9:00 pm timeslot. During the show's run on CBS, the series was limited to only six-episode seasons, and was airing only on a sporadic schedule. Reruns aired during the summer of 1998 with heavy promotion of the return of the NFL on CBS with the upcoming 1998 NFL season. When the series returned for its abbreviated 11th season in the spring of 1999, Stack was joined by actress Virginia Madsen for hosting duties in an attempt to boost its female audience. But the effort failed, and CBS canceled the show soon afterwards. Later cable reruns of segments originally narrated by Madsen were re-dubbed with Stack's voice.
Lifetime (2001–2002)
Lifetime Television, which had been airing re-runs of the NBC episodes since the early 1990s, had ordered a two-season run of new episodes which began airing in 2001. Consisting of a mixture of new and old cases, these episodes were produced between 2001 and 2002, and usually aired on weekdays between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. The program ceased producing new episodes when Stack was diagnosed with prostate cancer in late 2002. He died of heart failure in May 2003.
After Stack's death, old episodes continued to run in syndication on several television networks in the U.S., Canada, and Australia.
During some shows, callers gave tips to the telecenter. When the show was in active production, the Toll Free number was displayed on the bottom of the screen below the title logo at the end of each segment. When the show left active production following Stack's death and went into reruns, the number was removed and replaced with a P.O. box address.
Spike TV (2008–2010)
According to Broadcasting & Cable, in 2007, HBO Distribution announced plans to bring back Unsolved Mysteries when the cable channel Lifetime's contract expired in 2008. The show featured a new set, a new logo, new music, and updates on old cases. In addition, actor Dennis Farina became the new host, as Stack had died five years earlier. The show debuted on Spike on October 13, 2008.
This repackaged series run was criticized by fans for its presentation of past cases only, with no new case segments being produced. The existing segments were also edited to be shorter so the show could be expanded to present five cases in an hour rather than the four of the original series. Because the majority of the cases were now between 20 and 40 years old, the re-edited segments usually did not reference the years in which the events presented originally occurred. When updates for solved cases aired, Dennis Farina's voiceover would refer to cases "in a recent broadcast...", when the case may have already been solved during the show's original run or during the series' hiatus from 2002 onward. Unsolved Mysteries ended its run on Spike on April 27, 2010.
As of November 24, 2020, Oxygen Network airs 12 episode marathons of this version on Tuesdays from Noon ET/11:00 AM CT.
Netflix (2020)
A 12-part reboot was announced by Deadline Hollywood on January 18, 2019. The series is being "refreshed" by Stranger Things executive producer Shawn Levy and his company 21 Laps Entertainment along with Cosgrove-Meurer Productions and Netflix. Cosgrove and Meurer are showrunners for the series, with Levy and Josh Barry being executive producers. Robert Wise is a co-executive producer, along with showrunner Dunn Meurer. Each episode focuses on a single mystery. Cosgrove stated that the reboot would be "pure documentary style" and would have no host or narrator; however, an image of longtime host Robert Stack can be seen in the title sequence for each episode as an homage to his impact on the show. The first six episodes of the new season became available to stream starting July 1, 2020. In August 2020, it was reported that 13.7% of subscribers had watched the series over its first month. On September 1, 2021, Netflix formally announced that it had ordered an additional season of the series set to launch in the summer of 2022.
Episodes
Spin-offs
On September 18, 1992, NBC debuted a short-lived 6-episode spin-off series, hosted by Robert Stack himself, titled Final Appeal: From the Files of Unsolved Mysteries.
On January 23, 1995, NBC aired a two-hour primetime movie called Escape from Terror: The Teresa Stamper Story.
On April 22, 1996, NBC aired a two-hour primetime movie special titled, From the Files of Unsolved Mysteries: Voice from the Grave.
On April 28, 1997, NBC aired a new primetime movie called From the Files of Unsolved Mysteries: The Sleepwalker Killing.
Notable actors and celebrities
Famous actors and celebrities have appeared on the show, both as role actors (before finding stardom) and also in episodes where they had a connection with the events being portrayed.
As role actors
In 1992, Unsolved Mysteries filmed in Texas and cast Matthew McConaughey to play a murder victim. This was one of McConaughey's earliest on-screen roles. Cheryl Hines, Stephnie Weir, Bill Moseley, Ned Bellamy, Scott Wilkinson, Daniel Dae Kim, David Ramsey, and Taran Killam also appeared on the program before receiving more notable work in Hollywood. Hill Harper also appeared in an episode about a woman looking for a childhood friend whom she later discovered was indeed her sister.
Connections with episodes
Comedian Blake Clark was interviewed in the "Comedy Store Ghosts" episode.
Author James Ellroy appeared in an episode looking for the man who murdered his mother.
Football player Reggie White appeared in an episode trying to find the arsonists who set fire to his church.
Musician Henry Rollins and actor Dennis Cole both appeared to find the people responsible for the murder of Cole's son, Joe.
Musician Ron Bushy appeared in a story about the disappearance of fellow Iron Butterfly bandmate, Philip Taylor Kramer.
Musician Jon Bon Jovi was interviewed about the death of his personal manager's daughter, Katherine Korzilius.
U.S. television ratings and awards
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of Unsolved Mysteries.
Note: U.S. network television seasons generally start in late September and end in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.The figure reflected starting with the 1988–89 season and ending with the 1996–97 season represents the total number of households viewing the program. Starting with the 1997–98 season, the viewing figure is based on total number of viewers.
The original NBC telecast was nominated six times for an Emmy Award for outstanding informational series in 1989–1993 and 1995. The series won the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers Award for Top TV Series twice, in 1992 and 1993; both times, the recipients were Michael Boyd and Gary Malkin for their work on the show's music theme.
Home media
First Look Studios released six theme-based DVD sets in Region 1 in 2004/2005. The sets were re-released on June 21, 2005 with a lower suggested retail price. On March 21, 2006, a compilation set called The Best of Unsolved Mysteries was released, which contained selected segments from each of the earlier DVD sets along with some previously unreleased-on-DVD content. A special boxed set featuring the first six sets along with the new content from the Best of collection was also produced.
Soundtrack
In 2018, Terror Vision Records made a deal with program creator John Cosgrove to release the show's official score on vinyl, Unsolved Mysteries: Ghosts/Hauntings/The Unexplained. Two sets on color vinyl were released on June 22, 2018 – the first, a three vinyl set collecting the scores written for each of the show's ghost and missing/wanted segments along with three theme songs; the second, a 34 tracks single vinyl collection featuring the best cuts off the first three vinyl set. Segment cues were taken from the show's original DAT tapes. A second collection entitled Unsolved Mysteries Volume Two: Bizarre Murders/UFOs/The Unknown was released in December 2019.
Podcast
On October 21, 2020, it was announced that Cosgrove/Meurer Productions had struck a deal with Entercom-owned Cadence13 for an official Unsolved Mysteries'' weekly podcast. The podcast is narrated by voice-over artist Steve French.
See also
References
External links
1987 American television series debuts
1997 American television series endings
1997 American television series debuts
1999 American television series endings
2001 American television series debuts
2002 American television series endings
2008 American television series debuts
2010 American television series endings
2020 American television series debuts
NBC original programming
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
Lifetime (TV network) original programming
Spike (TV network) original programming
English-language Netflix original programming
1980s American mystery television series
1990s American mystery television series
2000s American mystery television series
2010s American mystery television series
2020s American mystery television series
Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television
Paranormal television
American television series revived after cancellation
Television series featuring reenactments
Television shows set in the United States
Works about unsolved crimes
Netflix original documentary television series
Audio podcasts
Crime podcasts
2021 podcast debuts | [
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225878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Rolling%20Thunder | Operation Rolling Thunder | Operation Rolling Thunder was the title of a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the United States (U.S.) 2nd Air Division (later Seventh Air Force), U.S. Navy, and Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) from 2 March 1965 until 2 November 1968, during the Vietnam War.
The four objectives of the operation (which evolved over time) were to boost the sagging morale of the Saigon regime in the Republic of Vietnam; to persuade North Vietnam to cease its support for the communist insurgency in South Vietnam without sending ground forces into communist North Vietnam; to destroy North Vietnam's transportation system, industrial base, and air defenses; and to halt the flow of men and materiel into South Vietnam. Attainment of these objectives was made difficult by both the restraints imposed upon the U.S. and its allies by Cold War exigencies, and by the military aid and assistance received by North Vietnam from its communist allies, the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China and North Korea.
The operation became the most intense air/ground battle waged during the Cold War period; it was the most difficult such campaign fought by the United States since the aerial bombardment of Germany during World War II. Supported by its communist allies, the Soviet Union and China, North Vietnam fielded a potent mixture of sophisticated air-to-air and surface-to-air weapons that created one of the most effective air defenses ever faced by American military aviators.
Gradually escalating action
Background
In response to President Ngo Dinh Diem's abrogation of the 1956 reunification election and suppression of communists during the late 1950s, Hanoi had begun sending arms and materiel to the Vietcong (VC), who were fighting an insurgency to topple the American-supported Saigon government. To combat the VC and to shore up the government in the south, the U.S. initially delivered monetary aid, military advisors, and supplies. Between 1957 and 1963, the U.S. found itself committed, through its acceptance of the policy of containment and belief in the domino theory, to defending South Vietnam from what it saw as expansive communist aggression.
U.S. policy was for a time dictated by its perception of improvement in the Saigon government. No further commitment by the Americans would occur without tangible proof of the regime's survivability. Events in South Vietnam, however, outpaced this plan. By the beginning of 1965, the policy was reversed in the belief that without further American action the Saigon government could not survive. As late as 8 February, however, in a cable to US Ambassador to South Vietnam Maxwell Taylor, Johnson stressed that the paramount goal of a bombing campaign would be to boost Saigon's morale, not to influence Hanoi, expressing hope "that the building of a minimum government will benefit by ... assurances from us to the highest levels [of the South Vietnamese government] that we ... intend to take continuing action."
Questions then arose among the U.S. administration and military leadership as to the best method by which Hanoi (the perceived locus of the insurgency) could be dissuaded from its course of action. The answer seemed to lie in the application of air power. By 1964 most of the civilians surrounding President Lyndon B. Johnson shared the Joint Chiefs of Staff's collective faith in the efficacy of strategic bombing to one degree or another. They reasoned that a small nation like North Vietnam, with a tiny industrial base that was just emerging after the First Indochina War, would be reluctant to risk its new-found economic viability to support the insurgency in the south. Constantly affecting this decision-making process were fears of possible counter moves or outright intervention by the Soviet Union, China, or both. The civilians and the military were divided, however, on the manner of affecting Hanoi's will to support the southern insurgency. The civilians thought in terms of changing the regime's behavior while the military men were more concerned with breaking its will.
In August 1964, as a result of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, in which U.S. naval vessels were attacked by North Vietnamese patrol boats, President Johnson ordered retaliatory air strikes (Operation Pierce Arrow) launched against the north. This did not, however, satisfy the military chiefs, who demanded a wider and more aggressive campaign.
Implementation
In March 1964 the Commander in Chief Pacific (CINCPAC) began developing plans for a sustained eight-week air campaign designed to escalate in three stages. This was published at the end of August as CINCPAC OPLAN 37-64, which included the "94 target list". Bridges, rail yards, docks, barracks and supply dumps were all targeted, and selected based on a criterion system considering:
There was widespread concern that an air campaign could lead to a wider conflict involving the Chinese or Soviets. Westmoreland referred to "an almost paranoid fear of nuclear confrontation with the Soviet Union" and a "phobia" that the Chinese would invade. Johnson later noted:
For a time, no overt action was taken, and the plans continued to evolve. A further refinement of the plan was developed by William and McGeorge Bundy on 29 November 1964, with a more moderate target list, which the Joint Chiefs opposed. No action was taken while these, and other, plans were considered. But matters came to a head with the attack on Camp Holloway on 7 February 1965, which demanded immediate action, and resulted in a reprisal raid known as Operation Flaming Dart. A sapper raid against an American enlisted men's billet at Qui Nhon on the 10th led to Flaming Dart II. These small-scale operations were launched against the southern region of the country, where the bulk of North Vietnam's ground forces and supply dumps were located.
These actions led to the plans for a sustained air campaign being reconsidered. On 13 February a new plan was approved and given the name Rolling Thunder, merging targets and priorities from the lists produced by the Bundys and the JCS. This campaign was not aimed at specific actions on the part of the North Vietnamese, but was intended as a larger response to the growing hostilities as a whole. Although some within the administration believed that the campaign would be costly, and that it might not work, they reasoned that it was "an acceptable risk, especially when considered against the alternative of introducing American combat troops." Rolling Thunder called for an eight-week air campaign consistent with the restrictions imposed by that Johnson and Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara. If the insurgency continued "with DRV support, strikes against the DRV would be extended with intensified efforts against targets north of the 19th parallel."
It was believed that selective pressure, controlled by Washington, combined with diplomatic overtures, would prevail and compel Hanoi to end its aggression. The military was still not satisfied, since, for the time being, the bombing campaign was to be limited to targets below the 19th parallel, each of which would have to be cleared individually by the President and McNamara.
The first mission of the new operation was launched on 2 March against an ammunition storage area near Xom Bang. On the same day, 19 RVNAF A-1 Skyraiders struck the Quang Khe Naval Base. The Americans were shocked when six of their aircraft were shot down during the mission. Five of the downed crewmen were rescued, but it was a portent of things to come.
Over the north
Strategic persuasion
Under the doctrine of "gradualism", in which threatening destruction would serve as a more influential signal of American determination than destruction itself, it was thought better to hold important targets "hostage" by bombing trivial ones. From the beginning of Rolling Thunder, Washington dictated which targets would be struck, the day and hour of the attack, the number, and types of aircraft and the tonnages and types of ordnance utilized, and sometimes even the direction of the attack. Airstrikes were strictly forbidden within of Hanoi and within of the port of Haiphong. A thirty-mile buffer zone also extended along the length of the Chinese frontier. According to U.S. Air Force historian Earl Tilford:
Targeting bore little resemblance to reality in that the sequence of attacks was uncoordinated and the targets were approved randomly – even illogically. The North's airfields, which, according to any rational targeting policy, should have been hit first in the campaign, were also off-limits.
Although some of these restrictions were later loosened or rescinded, Johnson (with McNamara's support) kept a tight rein on the campaign, which continuously infuriated the American military commanders, right-wing members of Congress, and even some within the administration itself. One of the primary objectives of the operation, at least to the military, should have been the closure of Haiphong and other ports by aerial mining, thereby slowing or halting the flow of seaborne supplies entering the north. Johnson refused to take such a provocative action, however, and such an operation was not implemented until 1972. There was also little consultation between Johnson and the military chiefs during the target selection process. Even the chairman of the Joint Chiefs, General Earle G. Wheeler, was not present for most of the critical discussions of 1965 and participated only occasionally thereafter.
The majority of strikes during Rolling Thunder were launched from four air bases, in Thailand: Korat, Takhli, Udorn, and Ubon. The aircraft refueled from aerial tankers over Laos before flying on to their targets in the DRV. After attacking their targets (usually by dive-bombing) the strike forces would either fly directly back to Thailand or exit over the relatively safe waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. It was quickly decided that, in order to limit airspace conflicts between air force and naval strike forces, North Vietnam was divided into six target regions called "route packages", each of which was assigned to either the air force or navy and into which the other was forbidden to intrude.
Navy strikes were launched from the aircraft carriers of Task Force 77, cruising off the North Vietnamese coast at Yankee Station. Naval aircraft, which had shorter ranges (and carried lighter bomb loads) than their air force counterparts, approached their targets from seaward with the majority of their strikes flown against coastal targets.
On 3 April the Joint Chiefs persuaded McNamara and Johnson to launch a four-week attack on North Vietnam's lines of communications, which would isolate the country from its overland sources of supply in China and the Soviet Union. About one-third of the North's imports came down the Hanoi–Lào Cai railway from China, while the remaining two-thirds came by sea through Haiphong and other ports. For the first time in the campaign, targets were to be chosen for their military, rather than their psychological, significance. During the four weeks, 26 bridges and seven ferries were destroyed. Other targets included the extensive North Vietnamese radar system, barracks, and ammunition depots.
The panhandle of southern North Vietnam remained the primary focus of operations, and total sorties flown there rose from 3,600 in April to 4,000 in May. Slowly moving away from the destruction of fixed targets, "armed reconnaissance" missions, in which small formations of aircraft patrolled highways, railroads, and rivers, searching for targets of opportunity, were authorized. These missions increased from two to 200 sorties per week by the end of 1965. Eventually, armed reconnaissance missions constituted 75 percent of the total bombing effort, in part because the system through which fixed targets were requested, selected, and authorized was so complicated and unwieldy.
Changing priorities and POL strikes
If Rolling Thunder was supposed to "send signals" to Hanoi to desist in its actions, it did not seem to be working. On 8 April, responding to requests for peace negotiations, North Vietnamese premier, Pham Van Dong, stated that they could only begin when: the bombing was halted; the U.S. had removed all of its troops from the south; the Saigon government recognized the demands of the VC, and it was agreed that the reunification of Vietnam would be settled by the Vietnamese themselves.
As part of a large attack on the Thanh Hóa Bridge on 3 April, the VPAF first appeared as two flights of four Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17s launched from Noi Bai airbase and shot down an F-8 Crusader, while losing just one of their own aircraft, written off when it landed on a river bed after running short of fuel. A repeat the next day resulted in a classic dogfight with F-100 Super Sabres and F-105s fighting with more MiG-17s. In total, the USAF lost eleven aircraft to air and ground forces, while the VPAF lost three of their fighters.
The entire complexion of the American effort was altered on 8 March 1965, when 3,500 U.S. Marines came ashore at Da Nang, ostensibly to defend Da Nang Air Base which was committed to prosecuting Rolling Thunder. The mission of the ground forces was expanded to combat operations, and the aerial campaign became a secondary operation, overwhelmed by troop deployments and the escalation of ground operations in South Vietnam. Until the third week of April, Rolling Thunder had enjoyed at least equal status with air missions conducted in the south. After that time, strikes that interfered with requirements for the southern battlefield were either cut back or canceled.
On 5 April 1965, U.S. reconnaissance discovered that the North Vietnamese were constructing positions for what could only be surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries. The air force and navy then filed a joint appeal to Washington for permission to strike the sites, but they were refused since most of the sites were near the restricted urban areas. Then, on 24 July, an F-4 was shot down by a SA-2 Guideline missile. Three days later, a one-time strike was authorized against the two offending missile sites. The Americans, however, fell for an elaborate trap when the sites turned out to be dummies surrounded by anti-aircraft artillery defenses. One American pilot described the action which followed as "looking like the end of the world." Six of the strike craft were destroyed (two of the pilots were killed, one missing, two captured, and one rescued) during the ambush.
On 29 June 1965, airstrikes against the North's petroleum, oil, and lubricants (POL) storage areas were authorized by Johnson. The American military had advocated such strikes since the inception of the operation, believing that to deny North Vietnam its POL would cause its military effort to grind to a halt. At first, the strikes appeared highly successful, destroying tank farms near Hanoi and Haiphong and leading the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to estimate that 70 percent of North Vietnam's oil facilities had been destroyed for the loss of 43 aircraft. The loss of the oil storage tank farms and refineries proved to be only a short-term inconvenience for North Vietnam, however, since Hanoi had anticipated just such a campaign and had during that time dispersed the majority of its POL stocks in drums across the length of the country. The POL attacks were halted on 4 September, after U.S. intelligence admitted that there was "no evidence yet of any shortages of POL in North Vietnam."
By 24 December 1965, 170 U.S. aircraft had been lost during the campaign (85 Air Force, 94 Navy and one Marine Corps). Eight RVNAF aircraft had also been lost. Air Force aircrews had flown 25,971 sorties and dropped 32,063 tons of bombs. Naval aviators had flown 28,168 sorties and dropped 11,144 tons. The RVNAF had contributed 682 missions with unknown ordnance tonnages.
Reactions
Problems
Rolling Thunder exposed many problems within the American military services committed to it and tended to exacerbate others. A key interservice issue (and one which was not solved until 1968) was the command and control arrangement in Southeast Asia. The USAF's 2nd Air Division (replaced by the Seventh Air Force on 1 April 1966) was ostensibly responsible for aerial operations over North and South Vietnam. It was subordinate, however, to MACV and its commander, U.S. Army General William C. Westmoreland, who tended to see his problems centered in the south. The U.S. Seventh/Thirteenth Air Force, based in Thailand (which carried out the majority of the Air Force's strikes in North Vietnam), had a dual command structure. It reported to the Seventh on operational matters and to the Thirteenth Air Force (whose headquarters was in the Philippines) for logistical and administrative concerns. These command and control complexities grew even more tangled with the division of the aerial effort into four competing operational areas (those in South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and Laos (both north and south).
The Navy's Task Force 77 took its orders via 7th Fleet from CINCPAC, a Navy admiral based in Honolulu, through his subordinate, the Air Force commander of Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Due to their influence, the Navy could not be persuaded to integrate its air operations over North Vietnam with those of the Air Force. General William W. Momyer, commander of the Seventh, had the impression that CINCPAC and PACAF wanted to keep the Thai-based aircraft out of his hands. "By denying Momyer, they were really denying Westmoreland and keeping air operations against the DRV under their control." To complicate matters, the U.S. ambassadors to Thailand (Graham Martin) and Laos (William H. Sullivan) exerted undue influence over operational and command arrangements.
This bizarre command structure went against the grain of the Air Force's single air manager concept, which dictated that one commander was to control and coordinate all aircraft within a combat theater. The chain through which operational strike requests had to flow gave some indication of the growing overcomplexity of the campaign. Requests for airstrikes originated with the 2nd Air Division and Task Force 77 in Vietnam and then proceeded to CINCPAC, who in turn reported to his superiors, the Joint Chiefs, at the Pentagon. After input from the State Department and the CIA, the requests then proceeded to the White House, where the president and his "Tuesday Cabinet" made decisions on the strike requests on a weekly basis.
Another problem exposed by Rolling Thunder was the unpreparedness of the Air Force for the operations it was undertaking. Its aircraft had been designed and its pilots trained for strategic operations against the Soviet Union – for nuclear, not conventional war. The new campaign exposed years of neglect in conventional tactics, while aircraft capabilities and armament were ill-suited to the task at hand. The Air Force was also embarrassed by the fact that the Navy was better prepared. It possessed the only all-weather bomber in the U.S. inventory in the new A-6 Intruder and was also responsible for the development of the F-4 Phantom fighter-bomber, which became ubiquitous during the Vietnam War.
Once air-to-air combat began over North Vietnam, the Air Force was again found lacking. The mainstay missiles of the air war turned out to be the Navy-developed AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM-7 Sparrow, not its own AIM-4 Falcon. The Air Force continuously opposed adapting to the war in Southeast Asia, since its leadership believed that it was an aberration that would be quickly resolved. It could then turn its attention (and its more modern weapons) against the greater threat posed by the Soviet Union. None in the Air Force high command foresaw that the war would drag on for nearly a decade.
The Air Force did possess an aircraft which had an all-weather capability, radar-guided bombing equipment, and awesome destructive potential – the B-52 Stratofortress. The civilian administration, however, never considered utilizing the big bombers (whose operations remained under the control of the Strategic Air Command) very far north of the DMZ, believing that it was too overt an escalation. Air Force Chief of Staff John P. McConnell also opposed sending the bombers into the air defense environment in the north and limited B-52 strikes to Route Package One.
Compounding these issues was the one-year rotation policy adopted by the Pentagon in Southeast Asia. Although the first aircrews arriving in-theater were highly experienced, the rapidly growing tempo and ever-expanding length of the operation demanded more personnel. This exacerbated a growing lack of experienced aircrews. This dilemma was further compounded by an Air Force policy which dictated universal pilot training while proscribing involuntary second combat tours, which combined, had the effect of rotating personnel to different aircraft. Conversely, the Navy tended to maintain its aircrews within the same community for the duration of their careers, thereby retaining their expertise, but also incurring greater losses among experienced crews undergoing multiple combat tours.
Another factor was the weather within the operational theater. The cyclical monsoon patterns meant that the weather was deplorable for flight operations eight months of the year (from late September to early May) when rain and fog tended to conceal targets. Lack of adequate all-weather and night-bombing capability made it necessary for the majority of U.S. missions to be conducted during daylight hours, thereby easing the burden on the air defense forces of North Vietnam.
According to Budiansky, "...captured documents showed that the North Vietnamese had at least thirty to forty-five minutes' warning of 80 to 90 per cent of Rolling Thunder missions." The North Vietnamese signals intelligence staff of 5,000 "proved adept at exploiting traffic analysis as NSA was. Every U.S. bombing mission was preceded by an upsurge of traffic involving logistics, ordnance loading, weather flights, and aerial refueling tankers, and even if none of the content of the signals was readable, the pattern was a dead giveaway." Additionally, "nearly all radio communications of the U.S. air operations used unencrypted tactical voice."
People's War in the air
Before Rolling Thunder even began the North Vietnamese leadership knew what was coming. It issued a February 1965 directive to the military and the population to "maintain communication and transportation and to expect the complete destruction of the entire country, including Hanoi and Haiphong." The communist leadership declared "a people's war against the air war of destruction...each citizen is a soldier, each village, street, and plant a fortress on the anti-American battlefront." All except those deemed "truly indispensable to the life of the capital" were evacuated to the countryside. By 1967, Hanoi's population had been reduced by half.
Since gaining air superiority over U.S. forces was out of the question, the northern leadership decided to implement a policy of air deniability. At the beginning of the campaign, North Vietnam possessed approximately 1,500 anti-aircraft weapons, most of which were of the light 37 and 57mm variety. Within one year, however, the U.S. estimated that the number had grown to over 5,000 guns, including 85 and 100mm radar-directed weapons. That estimate was later revised downward from a high of 7,000 in early 1967 to less than a thousand by 1972. Regardless, during Rolling Thunder, 80 percent of U.S. aircraft losses were attributed to anti-aircraft fire.
Backing up the guns were the fighter aircraft of the VPAF, which originally consisted of only 53 MiG-17 fighter aircraft. Though considered antiquated by the Americans when compared to their supersonic jets, the North Vietnamese turned their aircraft's weaknesses into strengths. They were fast enough for hit and run ambush operations and they were also maneuverable enough to shock the American fighter community by shooting down more advanced F-8 Crusaders and F-105 Thunderchiefs, which had to quickly develop new tactics. The newer missile-armed F-4 Phantom would become the Americans' primary dogfighting platform.
The simple appearance of MiGs could often accomplish their mission by causing American pilots to jettison their bomb loads as a defensive measure. In 1966, the MiG-17 were joined by more modern Soviet-built Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21s, which could fight on a more equal footing with the American aircraft. By 1967, the North Vietnamese Air Force was maintaining an interceptor force of 100 aircraft, many of which were based on Chinese airfields and out of reach of American air attack.
The northern economy was decentralized for its protection, and large factories, located in the heavily populated Red River Delta region, were broken up and scattered into caves and small villages throughout the countryside. In the more heavily bombed southern panhandle, entire villages moved into tunnel complexes for the duration. Food shortages in North Vietnam became widespread, especially in the urban areas, as rice farmers went into the military or volunteered for service repairing bomb damage. When the nation's transportation system came under attack, destroyed bridges were repaired or replaced by dirt fords, ferries, and underwater or pontoon bridges. The system proved to be durable, well built, easily repaired, and practically impossible to shut down.
Perhaps North Vietnam's ultimate resource was its population. During 1965, 97,000 North Vietnamese civilians volunteered to work full-time in repairing the damage inflicted by U.S. bombs. Another 370,000–500,000 civilians worked part-time. When the nation's lines of communication came under attack, railroad supply trains and truck convoys were split into smaller elements which traveled only at night. The logistical effort was supported by citizens on sampans, driving carts, pushing wheelbarrows, or man-portering supplies on their backs to keep the war effort going. They were motivated by slogans like "Each kilogram of goods...is a bullet shot into the head of the American pirates."
Air combat
SAMs and Wild Weasels
Between 1964 and early 1965, the Vietnamese had nothing to threaten American pilots in the air. U.S aircraft flew at an altitude of 4−5 kilometers, and the Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns were unable to reach them. However, after an SA-2 shot down some U.S aircraft, the U.S bombers began to descend below three kilometers. This brought them within the reach of Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns.
On 24 July 1965, four USAF F-4C Phantoms took part in an airstrike against the Dien Bien Phu munitions storage depot and the Lang Chi munitions factory west of Hanoi. One was shot down and three were damaged by SA-2 missiles. This was the first time that U.S aircraft had been attacked by SAMs.
After two days, President Johnson gave the order to attack all known SA-2 positions, which had also been discovered outside the 30-mile exclusion zone. On the morning of 27 July, 48 F-105s were to participate in the strike, designated Operation Spring High. But the Vietnamese knew that U.S. aircraft were coming and set up many 23 mm and 37 mm anti-aircraft guns at the site. These anti-aircraft guns were lethal at close range, the Vietnamese shot down six aircraft, and more than half of the remaining U.S aircraft suffered damage from groundfire. Both SAM sites were devoid of missiles and equipment, as the Vietnamese had substituted white-painted bundles of bamboo for the fake SA-2s. The U.S strike had destroyed two worthless targets for the loss of six aircraft and five pilots.
North Vietnam's deployment of SAMs forced American pilots to make hard choices: either approach targets at higher altitudes (to avoid anti-aircraft fire) and become prey to SAMs, or fly lower to avoid the missiles and become the target of anti-aircraft batteries. Due to altered tactics and the increased use of electronic radar jamming, the record of SAM kills decreased over time. U.S claimed missile success rate fell from one kill in 30 launches to less than one kill in 50.
The nature of the gradual escalation had given Hanoi time to adapt to the situation. By 1967, North Vietnam had formed an estimated 25 SAM battalions (with six missile launchers each) which rotated among approximately 150 sites. With the assistance of the Soviet Union, the North Vietnamese had also quickly integrated an early warning radar system of more than 200 facilities which covered the entire country, tracking incoming U.S. raids, and then coordinating SAMs, anti-aircraft batteries, and MiGs to attack them. During 1967 U.S. losses totaled 248 aircraft (145 Air Force, 102 Navy, and one Marine Corps).
To survive in this ever more lethal air defense zone, the U.S. had to adopt newer, more specialized tactics. Large-scale strikes, known as force packages in the Air Force and multi-carrier "Alpha strikes" by the Navy, were assigned numerous support aircraft to protect the fighter-bombers. First into the target areas were specialized Iron Hand flak suppression missions. These consisted of F-105 Wild Weasel hunter/killer teams configured with sophisticated electronic equipment to detect and locate the emissions associated with SAM guidance and control radars.
The Wild Weasels also carried electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment to protect themselves. They directed flak suppression strikes and carried AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation missiles (another Navy development), which homed in on the radar systems of the SAMs. The SA-2 had greater range than the Shrike, but if the Shrike was launched and the radar operator stayed on the air, the American missile would home in on the signal and destroy the radar source. A sophisticated cat and mouse game then ensued between North Vietnamese radar operators and the Wild Weasel pilots.
Next came the bomb-laden strike aircraft protected by escort fighters (Combat Air Patrol or MIGCAP) and electronic jamming aircraft to degrade enemy radar. New ECM devices had hurriedly been deployed to protect aircraft from missile attacks, but they remained subject to frequent breakdowns because of climate conditions in Southeast Asia. Also included in the missions were KC-135 aerial tankers and Search and Rescue (SAR) helicopters, which were, in turn, protected by propeller-driven A-1 escorts.
The Vietnamese were able to adapt to some of these tactics. The USSR upgraded the SA-2 radar several times to improve ECM resistance. They also introduced a passive guidance mode, whereby the tracking radar could lock on the jamming signal itself and guide missiles directly towards the jamming source. This also meant the SAM site's tracking radar could be turned off, which prevented Shrikes from homing in on it. Some new tactics were developed to combat the Shrike. One of them was to point the radar to the side and then turn it off briefly. Since the AGM-45 Shrike was a relatively primitive anti-radiation missile, it would follow the beam away from the radar and then simply crash when it lost the signal (after the radar was turned off). SAM crews could briefly illuminate a hostile aircraft to see if the target was equipped with a Shrike. If the aircraft fired one, the Shrike could be neutralized with the side-pointing technique without sacrificing any SA-2s. Another tactic was a "false launch" in which missile guidance signals were transmitted without a missile being launched. This could distract enemy pilots, or even occasionally cause them to drop ordnance prematurely to lighten their aircraft enough to dodge the nonexistent missile.
At the same time, both the evasion maneuvers were used, and intensive bombardments of the identified SAM firing positions were organized. Under these conditions, measures to observe the regime of camouflage and radio silence became especially important. After the combat launches, the anti-aircraft missile division was to leave the region immediately, otherwise it was destroyed by a bomb-assault strike. Until December 1965, according to American data, eight SA-2s systems were destroyed. However, not infrequently American aircraft fiercely bombed dummy positions that were equipped with fake missiles made of bamboo. Soviet and Vietnamese calculations claimed the destruction of 31 aircraft, the Americans acknowledged the loss of 13 aircraft. According to the memoirs of Soviet advisers, on average before an anti-aircraft missile unit was put out of action it destroyed five to six American aircraft.
From mid-1966 until the end of 1967, President Johnson continued to dole out sensitive targets one by one to the generals while simultaneously trying to placate the doves in Congress and within his own administration with periodic cutbacks and half-hearted peace initiatives. In the end, this erratic course satisfied no one and did little to alter the course of the war.
The nature of the targets and the risks involved in striking (and re-striking) them began to take a toll. Chief of Naval Operations David McDonald reported to his co-chiefs after a trip to South Vietnam in September 1966, that Rolling Thunder aircrews were angered with the targeting process and that they faulted the campaign due to "guidelines requiring repetitive air programs that seemed more than anything else to benefit enemy gunners." During 1967, the second full year of Rolling Thunder operations, 362 U.S. aircraft had been lost over North Vietnam (208 Air Force, 142 Navy, and 12 Marine Corps).
During the war, the Soviet Union delivered 95 SA-2 systems and 7,658 missiles to the Vietnamese. 6,806 missiles were launched or removed by outdating. According to the Vietnamese, the SA-2 shot down 31% of all downed US aircraft. By comparison, air-defense guns brought down 60% and 9% were shot down by MiG fighters. The higher rate of anti-aircraft artillery is partially caused by the fact gun units received data from the S-75 radar stations that significantly improved their effectiveness.
MiGs and interdiction
Rolling Thunder reached the last stage of its operational evolution during 1967 and 1968. The chief purpose of the American air effort in the higher Route Packages of North Vietnam was slowly transformed into that of interdicting the flow of supplies and materiel and the destruction of those segments of the north's infrastructure that supported its military effort.
In 1965, the VPAF had only 36 MiG-17s and a similar number of qualified pilots, which increased to 180 MiGs and 72 pilots by 1968. The Americans have at least 200 USAF F-4s and 140 USAF F-105s, plus at least 100 U.S Navy aircraft (F-8s, A-4s and F-4s) which operated from the aircraft carriers in the Gulf of Tonkin, plus scores of other support aircraft. The Americans had a multiple numerical advantage.
Although most U.S. aircraft losses continued to be inflicted by anti-aircraft fire, U.S. Air Force F-105s and Navy A-4s increasingly encountered SAMs and MiGs. North Vietnamese fighters also became a particular problem because of the lack of radar coverage in the Red River Delta region, which allowed the MiGs to surprise the strike forces. Airborne early warning aircraft had difficulty detecting the fighters at low altitudes and the aircraft themselves were difficult to see visually.
VPAF flew their interceptors with superb guidance from ground controllers, who positioned the MiGs in perfect ambush battle stations. The MiGs made fast and devastating attacks against US formations from several directions (usually the MiG-17s performed head-on attacks and the MiG-21s attacked from the rear). After shooting down a few American planes and forcing some of the F-105s to drop their bombs prematurely, the MiGs did not wait for retaliation, but disengaged rapidly. This "guerrilla warfare in the air" proved very successful. In December 1966 the MiG-21 pilots of the 921st FR downed 14 F-105s without any losses.
While F-105s did score 27 air-to-air victories, the overall exchange ratio was near parity. On 2 January 1967, the Americans sprang a surprise on the MiGs when they launched Operation Bolo. F-4 Phantoms, using the same radio call signs, direction of approach, altitude, and speed as a typical flight of bomb-laden F-105s, lured a group of MiG-21s toward what the MiG pilots thought would be easy prey. The result was seven MiG-21s shot down within 12 minutes for no U.S. losses.
The U.S. Air Force and the US Navy continued to have expectations of the F-4 Phantom, assuming that the massive arms, the perfect on-board radar, the highest speed and acceleration properties, coupled with the new tactics would provide "Phantoms" an advantage over the MiGs. But in encounters with lighter VPAF's MiG-21, the F-4 began to suffer defeats. From May to December 1966, the U.S lost 47 aircraft in air battles, destroying only 12 enemy fighters.
Although the MiG-21 lacked the long-range radar, missiles, and heavy bomb load of its contemporary multi-mission U.S. fighters, with its RP-21 Sapfir radar it proved a challenging adversary in the hands of experienced pilots, especially when used in high-speed hit-and-run attacks under GCI control. MiG-21 intercepts of F-105 strike groups were effective in downing US aircraft or forcing them to jettison their bomb loads.
Later in the year, the U.S. launched its most intense and sustained attempt to force North Vietnam into peace negotiations. Almost all of the targets on the Joint Chiefs' list had been authorized for attack, including airfields that had been previously off limits. Only central Hanoi, Haiphong, and the Chinese border area remained prohibited from attack. A major effort was made to isolate the urban areas by downing bridges and attacking LOCs. Also struck were the Thai Nguyen steel complex (origin of the Pardo's Push), thermal and electrical power plants, ship and rail repair facilities, and warehouses. North Vietnamese MiGs entered the battle en masse, as their capital was threatened and kill ratios fell to one U.S. aircraft lost for every two MiGs. During 1968, MiGs accounted for 22 percent of the 184 American aircraft (75 Air Force, 59 Navy, and five Marine Corps) lost over the north. As a result, operations against the last of North Vietnam's airfields, previously off-limits to attack, were authorized.
Despite the best interdiction efforts of Rolling Thunder, however, the VC and PAVN launched their largest offensive thus far in the war on 30 January 1968, striking throughout South Vietnam during the lunar new year holiday. The Tet Offensive concluded as a military disaster for North Vietnam and the VC, but it also adversely affected U.S. public opinion, which in turn affected the will of Washington. Fortunately for North Vietnam, many U.S. bombing advocates (including Air Force Chief of Staff McConnell) did not want to risk the one aircraft capable of delivering a lot of bombs in bad weather – the B-52. Without them, there was little that could be done over the north in response to Tet, since bad weather minimized fighter operations until the beginning of April.
End of the line
Opposition
Writing after the war, Robert McNamara stated that by spring 1967 he and other civilians in the administration had become convinced that both Rolling Thunder and the ground war in South Vietnam were not working. McNamara claimed that he and others within the administration continuously opposed the Joint Chief's recommendations for an increased tempo of bombing and the loosening of target restrictions. The generals found themselves on the horns of a dilemma of their own making. They continuously claimed that the campaign was working, yet they also had to continuously demand greater latitude in order to make the campaign succeed. The limited goals entailed in American foreign policy and the military's goal of total victory were simply not reconcilable. The great conundrum had then become how to defeat North Vietnam without defeating North Vietnam.On 9 August 1967 the Senate Armed Services Committee opened hearings on the bombing campaign. Complaints from the armed services had sparked the interest of some of the most vocal hawks on Capitol Hill. The military chiefs testified before the committee, complaining about the gradual nature of the air war and its civilian-imposed restrictions. It was obvious that McNamara, the only civilian subpoenaed and the last to testify before the committee, was to be the scapegoat. The Secretary of Defense marshaled his objections to an indiscriminate air war and adeptly rebutted the charges of the military chiefs. He bluntly admitted that there was "no basis to believe that any bombing campaign...would by itself force Ho Chi Minh's regime into submission, short, that is, of the virtual annihilation of North Vietnam and its people."
It had now become clear to President Johnson that McNamara had become a liability to the administration. In February 1968, McNamara resigned his position and was replaced by Clark Clifford, who was chosen because of his personal friendship with Johnson and his previous opposition to McNamara's suggestions that the number of troops in the South Vietnam be stabilized and that Rolling Thunder be ended. McNamara's position, however, was almost immediately taken up by Secretary of State Dean Rusk, until then an ardent advocate of the bombing campaign. Rusk proposed limiting the campaign to the panhandle of North Vietnam without preconditions and awaiting Hanoi's reaction. Within months Clifford too began to adopt the views of the man he had replaced, gradually becoming convinced that the U.S. had to withdraw from an open-ended commitment to the war.
Disappointed by perceived political defeats at home and hoping that Hanoi would enter into negotiations, President Johnson announced on 31 March 1968, that all bombing north of the 19th parallel would cease. As a result of that decision, the Air Force and Navy began to pour all the firepower they had formerly spread throughout North Vietnam into the area between the 17th and 19th parallels. The Air Force doubled the number of sorties sent into Route Package One to more than 6,000 per month with the campaign concentrated on interdiction "choke points", road closing, and truck hunting. Once again, the military commanders were faced a familiar dilemma: having opposed the bombing cutback, they then decided that the new policy had a lot of merit, especially when considering the alternative of no bombing at all. The North Vietnamese responded by doubling the number of anti-aircraft batteries in the panhandle, but most of their SAM batteries remained deployed around Hanoi and Haiphong.
Hanoi, which had continuously stipulated that it would not conduct negotiations while the bombing continued, finally agreed to meet with the Americans for preliminary talks in Paris. As a result, President Johnson declared that a complete bombing halt over North Vietnam would go into effect on 1 November 1968, just prior to the U.S. presidential election. Although the bombing halt was to be linked to progress in the peace talks, the Joint Chiefs were skeptical that the administration would reopen the bombing campaign under any circumstances. They were correct. North Vietnam was not the target of intense bombing again for another three and one-half years.
Conclusions
Between March 1965 and November 1968, USAF aircraft had flown 153,784 attack sorties against North Vietnam, while the Navy and Marine Corps had added another 152,399. On 31 December 1967, the Department of Defense announced that 864,000 tons of American bombs had been dropped on North Vietnam during Rolling Thunder, compared with 653,000 tons dropped during the entire Korean War and 503,000 tons in the Pacific theater during the Second World War.
The CIA privately estimated that damage inflicted in the north totaled $500 million in total damage. They also estimated that by April 1967, 52,000 casualties including 21,000 deaths had occurred as a result of the operation. The CIA estimated that 75 percent of casualties were involved in military or quasi military operations including civilians working on military and logistical operations. 45 percent of casualties in 1965 were civilians and logistics workers while that figure was 80 percent in 1966. In June 1967, they estimated 19,000 to 26,000 deaths including 13,000 to 17,000 civilian deaths were caused by the bombing. At the end of 1967, the CIA estimated 27,900 military and 48,000 civilians killed and wounded. The US government has estimated that 30,000 civilians were killed in total as a result of the operation.
Due to combat and operational circumstances, 506 USAF, 397 Navy and 19 Marine Corps aircraft were lost over or near North Vietnam. During the operation, of the 745 crewmen shot down, the USAF recorded 145 rescued, 255 killed, 222 captured (23 of whom died in captivity) and 123 missing. Figures on U.S. Navy and Marine Corps casualties were harder to come by. During the 44-month time frame, 454 naval aviators were killed, captured, or missing during combined operations over North Vietnam and Laos.
Rolling Thunder had begun as a campaign of psychological and strategic persuasion, but it changed very quickly to interdiction, a tactical mission. Its ultimate failure had two sources, both of which lay with the civilian and military policy-makers in Washington: first, neither group could ever conceive that the North Vietnamese would endure under the punishment that they would unleash upon it. The civilians, moreover, did not understand air power well enough to know that their policies might be crippling it; second, the American military leadership failed to initially propose and develop, or later to adapt, an appropriate strategy for the war.
Along the way, Rolling Thunder also fell prey to the same dysfunctional managerial attitude as did the rest of the American military effort in Southeast Asia. The process of the campaign became an end unto itself, with sortie generation as the standard by which progress was measured. Sortie rates and the number of bombs dropped, however, equaled efficiency, not effectiveness.
Legacy
Studying the outcome of the events in Rolling Thunder, the Air Force and Navy came to very different conclusions on how to adapt. The Air Force noted that most of their air-to-air losses were due to unseen attacks from the rear, and thus the problem could be addressed through additional technology that would provide early warning of such attacks. They began modifying their aircraft with built-in M61 Vulcans for close-in use, adopted the Sidewinder and began upgrading them to improve their performance, and introduced new ground and air-based radars to provide an overall watch over the battlefield. The Navy concluded that the primary problem was that their pilots had not been given proper air combat maneuvering training, and were forced to rely on missiles that were not performing as expected. In 1968 they introduced the TOPGUN program, a move that was welcomed by the F-8 pilots who had been campaigning for this all along.
Which of these two policies was more effective was immediately clear: during Rolling Thunder the US claimed a 3.7:1 kill ratio over the VPAF as a whole, but the Air Force's portion of that was closer to 2:1. By 1970 the Navy's kill ratio had climbed to 13:1. The Air Force, however, saw its ratio stagnate and actually decrease, for a short time being less than one. More critically, in 1970 the VPAF inflicted a kill on the USAF every three times they tried, while it took six missions to do the same against the Navy, and inversely, the VPAF lost a MiG every two engagements with the Air Force, but every time they engaged the Navy.
From April 1965 to November 1968, in 268 air battles conducted over North Vietnam, VPAF claimed to have shot down 244 US or RVNAF's aircraft, and they lost 85 MiGs. During the war, 13 VPAF's flying aces attained their status while flying the MiG-21 (compared to three in the MiG-17).
It was not until Operation Linebacker in 1972 that the problem became acute enough for the Air Force to finally take note. In the three months following the start of Linebacker in May 1972, the U.S. lost 48 aircraft, 21 to VPAF MiGs and 27 to improved ground defenses. In the same period, only 31 MiGs killed were claimed by U.S. aircraft and things worsened in the summer with 13 U.S. aircraft lost to MiGs and only 11 MiGs shot down were claimed. General John W. Vogt Jr., commander of the Seventh Air Force, reported to the USAF Chief of Staff that they were losing the air war. One immediate outcome was Operation Teaball, which reorganized the entire operational side of the Air Force's early warning systems, and tying them with the Navy's, so that every aircraft had a channel providing immediate warning of incoming aircraft. It was not until 1975, however, that the Air Force introduced Exercise Red Flag to match the performance of the Navy's TOPGUN.
See also
Action of 23 August 1967
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Published government documents
Document collections
Biographies & memoirs
Secondary sources
External links
Bibliography: Operation Rolling Thunder
Pilots from Takhli and Korat Airbases shot down between 1965–1972
Rolling Thunder
Rolling Thunder
United States Marine Corps in the Vietnam War
Strategic bombing operations and battles | [
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225880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20Sarazen | Gene Sarazen | Gene Sarazen (; February 27, 1902 – May 13, 1999) was an American professional golfer, one of the world's top players in the 1920s and 1930s, and the winner of seven major championships. He is one of five players (along with Ben Hogan, Gary Player, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods) to win each of the four majors at least once, now known as the Career Grand Slam:
U.S. Open (1922, 1932),
PGA Championship (1922, 1923, 1933),
The Open Championship (1932), and
Masters Tournament (1935).
Early life
Eugenio Saraceni was born on February 27, 1902, in Harrison, New York, his parents were poor Sicilian immigrants. He began caddying at age ten at local golf clubs, took up golf himself, and gradually developed his skills; Sarazen was essentially self-taught. Somewhat novel at the time, he used the interlocking grip to hold the club.
Career
Sarazen took a series of club professional jobs in the New York area from his mid-teens. In 1921, he became a professional at Titusville (Pa.) Country Club, and he contracted to be the professional at Highland Country Club near Pittsburgh, Pa. in 1922. Sarazen arrived in April, stocked the golf shop and gave a few lessons, but spent most of his time at Oakmont Country Club practicing with Emil Loeffler. At some point, the pair visited Skokie Country Club to practice on the course that would hold the U.S. Open; in July, he came from four shots behind to win the tournament. He returned to Pittsburgh and was feted at the William Penn Hotel, where he burst from a paper mâché golf ball. He did not return to Highland CC, broke his contract and became a 'touring' golf professional. Later that summer, he won the PGA Championship at Oakmont.
Sarazen was a contemporary and rival of amateur Bobby Jones, who was born in the same year; he also had many battles with Walter Hagen, who was nine years older. Sarazen, Jones, and Hagen were the world's dominant players during the 1920s. Rivalries among the three great champions significantly expanded interest in golf around the world during this period, and made the United States the world's dominant golf power for the first time, taking over this position from Great Britain. Sarazen has a plaque in his honor placed 195 yards out from the 15th green at Hororata Golf Club where he famously made a double eagle in the final round of sectional qualifiers. He earned his spot in his first United States Open in 1920 at age 18. Some say it was his greatest achievement as an amateur.
The winner of 38 PGA tour events, Sarazen was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. He was the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year in 1932, and won the PGA Tour's first Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996. He played on six U.S. Ryder Cup teams: 1927, 1929, 1931, 1933, 1935, and 1937.
Invents modern sand wedge
Sarazen claimed to have invented the modern sand wedge, and debuted the club (while keeping it secret during preliminary practice rounds) at The Open Championship at Prince's Golf Club in 1932 (which he won). He called it the sand iron, and his original club is no longer on display at Prince's as it is worth too much for the insurers to cover. However, a similar club was patented in 1928 by Edwin Kerr McClain, and it is possible Sarazen saw this club.
Sarazen had previously struggled with his sand play and there had been earlier sand-specific clubs. But Bobby Jones's sand club, for example, had a concave face, which actually contacted the ball twice during a swing; this design was later banned. Sarazen's innovation was to weld solder onto the lower back of the club, building up the flange so that it sat lower than the leading edge when soled. The flange, not the leading edge, would contact the sand first, and explode sand as the shot was played. The additional weight provided punch to power through the thick sand. Sarazen's newly developed technique with the new club was to contact the sand a couple of inches behind the ball, not actually contacting the ball at all on most sand shots.
Every top-class golfer since has utilized this wedge design and technique, and the same club design and method are also used by amateur players around the world. The sand wedge also began to be used by top players for shots from grass, shortly after Sarazen introduced it, and this led to a revolution in short-game techniques, along with lower scoring by players who mastered the skills.
Masters Tournament win
Sarazen hit "the shot heard 'round the world" at Augusta National Golf Club on the fifteenth hole in the final round of the Masters Tournament in 1935. He struck a spoon (the loft of the modern four wood) into the hole, scoring a double eagle. At the time he was trailing Craig Wood by three shots, and was then tied with him. He parred the 16th, 17th and 18th holes to preserve the tie. The following day, the pair played a 36-hole playoff, with Sarazen winning by five shots.
The Sarazen Bridge, approaching the left side of the 15th green, was named in 1955 to commemorate the double eagle's twentieth anniversary, which included a contest to duplicate, with the closest just over away. It remains one of the most famous golf shots in golf history.
Later years, legacy
In spite of his height of , Sarazen was one of the longest hitters of his era. He played several lengthy exhibition tours around the world, promoting his skills and the sport of golf, and earned a very good living from golf. One of his American tours in 1940 was sponsored by Golf Magazine and he played a match every day for 60 days. As a multiple past champion, he was eligible to continue competing after his best years were past, and occasionally did so in the top events, well into the 1960s, and occasionally into the 1970s. Throughout his life, Sarazen competed wearing knickers or plus-fours, which were the fashion when he broke into the top level.
For many years after his retirement, Sarazen was a familiar figure as an honorary starter at the Masters. From 1981 to 1999, he joined Byron Nelson and Sam Snead in hitting a ceremonial tee shot before each Masters tournament. He also popularized the sport with his role as a commentator on the Wonderful World of Golf television show, and was an early TV broadcaster at important events.
At age 71, Sarazen made a hole-in-one at The Open Championship in 1973, at the "Postage Stamp" at Troon in Scotland. In 1992, he was voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. Sarazen had what is still the longest-running endorsement contract in professional sports – with Wilson Sporting Goods from 1923 until his death, a total of 75 years.
Sarazen received an honorary degree in 1978 from Siena College, in Loudonville, New York. In 1998, shortly before his death, the Sarazen Student Union was named in his honor. He also established an endowed scholarship fund at the college, The Gene and Mary Sarazen Scholarship, which is awarded annually to students reflecting the high personal, athletic, and intellectual ideals of Dr. Sarazen. For many years, kitted in his signature plus-fours, he hit the first ball in an annual golf tournament, held to raise funds for the scholarship.
Sarazen died at age 97 in 1999 from complications of pneumonia in Naples, Florida. His wife Mary died thirteen years earlier in 1986, and they are interred at Marco Island Cemetery in Marco.
In 2000, Sarazen was ranked as the 11th greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine. In 2018, T.J. Auclair ranked Sarazen as the ninth greatest golfer of all time.
Professional wins (48)
PGA Tour wins (38)
1922 (3) Southern (Spring) Open, U.S. Open, PGA Championship
1923 (1) PGA Championship
1925 (1) Metropolitan Open
1926 (1) Miami Open
1927 (3) Long Island Open, Miami Beach Open, Metropolitan PGA
1928 (4) Miami Beach Open, Miami Open, Nassau Bahamas Open, Metropolitan PGA
1929 (2) Miami Open, Miami Beach Open
1930 (8) Miami Open, Agua Caliente Open, Florida West Coast Open, Concord Country Club Open, United States Pro Invitational, Western Open, Lannin Memorial Tournament, Middle Atlantic Open
1931 (3) Florida West Coast Open, La Gorce Open, Lannin Memorial Tournament
1932 (4) True Temper Open, Coral Gables Open, U.S. Open, The Open Championship
1933 (1) PGA Championship
1935 (3) Masters Tournament, Massachusetts Open, Long Island Open
1937 (2) Florida West Coast Open, Chicago Open
1938 (1) Lake Placid Open
1941 (1) Miami Biltmore International Four-Ball (with Ben Hogan)
Major championships are shown in bold.
Source:
Australian Tour win (1)
1936 Australian Open
Other wins (6)
this list may be incomplete
1923 Daily Dispatch Northern Professional Championship
1928 Miami International Four-Ball (with Johnny Farrell)
1939 Metropolitan PGA
1945 Shoreline Open
1948 Shoreline Open
1966 Northeast New York PGA Championship
Senior wins (3)
1954 PGA Seniors' Championship, World Senior Championship
1958 PGA Seniors' Championship
Major championships
Wins (7)
Note: The PGA Championship was match play until 1958
1 Defeated Craig Wood in a 36-hole playoff - Sarazen 144 (Even), Wood 149 (+5)
Results timeline
NYF = tournament not yet founded
NT = no tournament
WD = withdrew
DNQ = did not qualify for match play portion
CUT = missed the half-way cut
R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play
"T" indicates a tie for a place
Summary
Most consecutive cuts made – 44 (1920 U.S. Open – 1937 U.S. Open)
Longest streak of top-10s – 7 (1927 PGA – 1929 PGA)
See also
Career Grand Slam Champions
List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins
List of men's major championships winning golfers
Most PGA Tour wins in a year
Sarazen World Open
References
External links
World Golf Hall of Fame profile
Gene Sarazen Profile at Golf Legends
Electronic Resources on Gene Sarazen from SoHG Archives
Gene Sarazen swing sequences from SoHG Master Classes
American male golfers
PGA Tour golfers
Ryder Cup competitors for the United States
Winners of men's major golf championships
Men's Career Grand Slam champion golfers
World Golf Hall of Fame inductees
Golf writers and broadcasters
Golfers from New York (state)
American people of Italian descent
People from Harrison, New York
1902 births
1999 deaths | [
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225886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maitreya | Maitreya | Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ) is regarded as a prophesied Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, the being is referred to as Ajita.
According to Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who is prophesied to appear on Earth, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. According to scriptures, Maitreya will be a successor to the present Buddha, Gautama Buddha (also known as Śākyamuni Buddha). The arrival of Maitreya is prophesied to occur during an era when the dharma has been forgotten by most on the terrestrial world.
Maitreya has also been employed in a millenarian role by many non-Buddhist religions in the past, such as Theosophy, the White Lotus, as well as by modern new religious movements, such as Yiguandao.
Sources
The name Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit word maitrī "friendship", which is in turn derived from the noun mitra "friend". The Pali form Metteyya is mentioned in the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta (Digha Nikaya 26) of the Pāli Canon, and also in chapter 28 of the Buddhavamsa. Most of the Buddha's sermons are presented as having been presented in answer to a question, or in some other appropriate context, but this sutta has a beginning and ending in which the Buddha is talking to monks about something totally different. This leads scholar Richard Gombrich to conclude that either the whole sutta is apocryphal or that it has at least been tampered with.
In the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, in the first centuries CE in northern India, Maitreya was the most popular figure to be represented along with Gautama Buddha (often called Śākyamuni "sage of the Shakya"). In 4th to 6th-century China, "Buddhist artisans used the names Shakyamuni and Maitreya interchangeably... indicating both that the distinction between the two had not yet been drawn and that their respective iconographies had not yet been firmly set". An example is the stone sculpture found in the Qingzhou cache dedicated to Maitreya in 529 CE as recorded in the inscription (currently in the Qingzhou Museum, Shandong). The religious belief of Maitreya apparently developed around the same time as that of Amitābha, as early as the 3rd century CE.
Characteristics
One mention of the prophecy of Maitreya is in the . It implies that he is a teacher of meditative trance sādhanā and states that gods, men and other beings:
General description
Maitreya is typically pictured seated, with either both feet on the ground or crossed at the ankles, on a throne, waiting for his time. He is dressed in the clothes of either a bhikṣu (monk) or Indian royalty. As a bodhisattva, he would usually be standing and dressed in jewels. Usually he wears a small stupa in his headdress that represents the stupa with relics of Gautama Buddha to help him identify it when his turn comes to lay claim to his succession, and can be holding a dharmachakra resting on a lotus. A khata scarf is always tied around his waist as a girdle.
In the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, Maitreya is represented as a northern Indian nobleman, holding a kumbha in his left hand. Sometimes this is a "wisdom urn" (Tibetan: Bumpa). He is flanked by his two acolytes, the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu, who founded the Yogacara tradition.
The Maitreyasamiti was an extensive Buddhist play in pre-Islamic Central
Asia. The Maitreyavyakarana (in Sataka form) in Central Asia and the Anagatavamsa of South India also mention him.
Maitreya's Heaven
Maitreya currently resides in the Heaven (Pāli: Tusita), said to be reachable through meditation. Gautama Buddha also lived here before he was born into the world as all bodhisattvas live in the Heaven before they descend to the human realm to become Buddhas. Although all bodhisattvas are destined to become Buddhas, the concept of a bodhisattva differs greatly in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. In Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who is striving for full enlightenment (Arahantship in Pali), whereas in Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who vows to achieve enlightenment for the purpose of helping all sentient beings (a common misconception being that they delay their enlightenment, which is inaccurate according to the Nalanda tradition).
In Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhas preside over pure lands, such as Amitābha over Sukhavati. Once Maitreya becomes a buddha, he will rule over the Ketumati pure land, an earthly paradise sometimes associated with the city of Varanasi (also known as Benares) in Uttar Pradesh, India, and in other descriptions, the Shambhala.
In Theravada Buddhism, Buddhas are born as unenlightened humans, and are not rulers of any paradise or pure land. Maitreya's arising would be no different from the arising of Gautama Buddha, as he achieved full enlightenment as a human being and died, entering parinibbana (nirvana-after-death).
Activity of Maitreya in the current age
In Mahayana schools, Maitreya is traditionally said to have revealed the Five Treatises of Maitreya through Asanga. These texts are the basis of the Yogacara tradition and constitute the majority of the third turning within the Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma.
Future coming of Maitreya
According to Buddhist tradition, each kalpa has 1,000 Buddhas. The previous kalpa was the vyuhakalpa (Glorious aeon), and the present kalpa is called the bhadrakalpa (Auspicious aeon). The Seven Buddhas of Antiquity (Saptatathāgata) are seven Buddhas which bridge the vyuhakalpa and the bhadrakalpa:
Vipassī (the 998th Buddha of the vyuhakalpa)
Sikhī (the 999th Buddha of the vyuhakalpa)
Vessabhū (the 1000th and final Buddha of the vyuhakalpa)
Kakusandha (the first Buddha of the bhadrakalpa)
Koṇāgamana (the second Buddha of the bhadrakalpa)
Kassapa (the third Buddha of the bhadrakalpa)
Gautama (the fourth and present Buddha of the bhadrakalpa)
Maitreya will be the fifth and future Buddha of the bhadrakalpa, and his arrival will occur after the teachings of Gautama Buddha are no longer practiced.
The coming of Maitreya will be characterized by a number of physical events. The oceans are predicted to decrease in size, allowing Maitreya to traverse them freely. Maitreya will then reintroduce true dharma to the world.
His arrival will signify the end of the middle time, the time between the fourth Buddha, Gautama Buddha, and the fifth Buddha, Maitreya, which is viewed as a low point of human existence. According to the Cakkavatti Sutta: The Wheel-turning Emperor, Digha Nikaya 26 of the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon, Maitreya Buddha will be born in a time when humans will live to an age of eighty thousand years, in the city of Ketumatī (present Varanasi), whose king will be the Cakkavattī Sankha. Sankha will live in the palace where once dwelt King Mahāpanadā, but later he will give the palace away and will himself become a follower of Maitreya Buddha.
The scriptures say that Maitreya will attain bodhi in seven days (which is the minimum period), by virtue of his many lives of preparation for buddhahood similar to those reported in the Jataka tales.
At this time a notable teaching he will start giving is that of the ten non-virtuous deeds (killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, abusive speech, idle speech, covetousness, harmful intent and wrong views) and the ten virtuous deeds (the abandonment of: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, abusive speech, idle speech, covetousness, harmful intent and wrong views).
The Arya Maitreya Mandala, an order founded by Anagarika Govinda, is based on the idea of the future coming of Maitreya.
Buddhist texts from several traditions say that beings in Maitreya's time will be much bigger than during the time of Sakyamuni. In one prophecy his disciples are contemptuous of Mahakasyapa, whose head is no larger than an insect to them. Buddha's robe barely covers two fingers making them wonder how tiny Buddha was. Mahākāśyapa is said to be small enough in comparison to cremate in the palm of Maitreya's hand.
Foretold biography
Maitreya will be born to the Brahmins, Tubrahmā (father) and Brahmavadi (mother) in Ketumatī, which will be ruled by King Saṅkha, a Chakravarti. Maitreya's spouse will be Princess Sandamukkhī. His son will be Brahmavaṁsa. After the birth of his son, Maitreya will leave to practice asceticism. He will practice for 7 days. After the practice, he will be awakened under a Mesua ferrea tree. The disciples of Maitreya Buddha are:
Asoka, an Agraśrāvaka and the right-hand chief disciple
Brahmadeva, an Agraśrāvaka and the left-hand chief disciple
Sumana, the right-hand Agasāvikā
Padumā, the left-hand Agasāvikā
Sīha, a primary attendant.
Maitreya will be 88 cubits (132 feet, 40 meters) tall and will live for 88,000 years. Like Maṅgala Buddha, his rays will make people hard to distinguish between day and night. His teachings will preserve for the next 180,000 years. In the commentary of Anāgatavamsa, his teaching will last for 360,000 years.
Nichiren Buddhism and Maitreya as metaphor
According to the Lotus Sutra in Nichiren Buddhism, all people possess the potential to reveal an innate Buddha nature during their own lifetimes, a concept which may appear to contradict the idea of Buddha as savior or messiah.
Although Maitreya is a significant figure in the Lotus Sutra, the explanation of Nichiren is that Maitreya is a metaphor of stewardship and aid for the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, as written in the Lotus Sutra:
In much of his writing, Nichiren mentions the traditional Buddhist views on Maitreya but explains that the propagation of the Eternal Dharma of the Lotus Sutra was entrusted by Shakyamuni to the Bodhisattvas of earth: Thus, each individual can embody the character of the Maitreya because he is a metaphor for compassion:
Maitreya claimants
The following list is just a small selection of those people who claimed or claim to be the incarnation of Maitreya. Many have either used the Maitreya incarnation claim to form a new Buddhist sect or have used the name of Maitreya to form a new religious movement or cult.
In 613 the monk Xiang Haiming claimed himself Maitreya and adopted an imperial title.
In 690 Wu Zetian, empress regnant of the Wu Zhou interregnum (690–705), proclaimed herself an incarnation of the future Buddha Maitreya, and made Luoyang the "holy capital." In 693 she temporarily replaced the compulsory Dao De Jing in the curriculum with her own Rules for Officials.
Gung Ye, a Korean warlord and king of the short-lived state of Taebong during the 10th century, claimed himself as the living incarnation of Maitreya and ordered his subjects to worship him. His claim was widely rejected by most Buddhist monks and later he was dethroned and killed by his own servants.
Bahá’u’lláh (1817-1892), the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, is recognized by Bahá’ís as the promised Maitreya Buddha and Promised One of all religions.
Lu Zhongyi (1849-1925), the 17th patriarch of Yiguandao, claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya.
L. Ron Hubbard, founder of the belief systems Dianetics and Scientology, suggested he was "Metteya" (Maitreya) in the 1955 poem Hymn of Asia. Numerous editors and followers of Hubbard claim that in the book's preface, specific physical characteristics said to be outlined—in unnamed Sanskrit sources—as properties of the coming Maitreya were properties with which Hubbard's appearance supposedly aligned.
Samael Aun Weor (1917–1977) – stated in The Aquarian Message that "the Maitreya Buddha Samael is the Kalki Avatar of the New Age." The Kalkian Avatar and Maitreya Buddha, he claimed, are the same "White Rider" of the Book of Revelation.
Ram Bahadur Bomjon openly identifies himself with the "Next Buddha" Maitreya, calls himself Maitriya Guru and his followers claim "He plans to unite the world through a single Maitri religion, Maitri language and Maitri culture." He is a controversial figure currently under investigation for rape, and separately for the disappearance of four of his ashram members.
Adi Da was suggested by his devotees to be Maitreya:
Followers of B.R. Ambedkar in the Dalit Buddhist Movement regard him as a bodhisattva, the Maitreya, although he never claimed it himself.
Many scholars and analysts claimed Hindu Avatar Kalki as Maitreya.
Some Muslim writers, including those of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, claimed Islamic prophet Muhammad as Maitreya.
Maitreya sects in China
Pre-Maitreyan Buddhist messianic rebellions
Southern and Northern Dynasties
515: The 'Chinese Rebellion'. In the late summer of that year, the renegade monk Faqing 法慶 married a nun and formed a sect in the Northern Wei province of Jizhou 冀州 (in the southern part of today's Hebei province) with the assistance of a local aristocrat named Li Guibo 李歸伯. Li Guibo was given the titles of Tenth-stage Bodhisattva, Commander of the Demon-vanquishing Army, and King who Pacifies the Land of Han by Faqing.
Using drugs to send its members into a killing frenzy, and promoting them to Tenth-Stage Bodhisattva as soon as they killed ten enemies, the sect seized a prefecture and murdered all the government officials in it. Their slogan was "A new Buddha has entered the world; eradicate the demons of the former age", and they would kill all monks and nuns in the monasteries that they captured, also burning all the sutras and icons. After defeating a government army and growing to a size of over 50,000, the rebel army was finally crushed by another government army of 100,000. Faqing, his wife, and tens of thousands of his followers were beheaded, and Li Guibo was also captured later and publicly executed in the capital city Luoyang.
The Fozu Tongji (Comprehensive Records of the Buddha), a chronicle of Buddhist history written by the monk Zhipan in 1269, also contains an account of the Rebellion, but with significant deviations from the original account, such as dating the rebellion to 528 rather than 515.
516: The Moonlight Child Rebellion. Toward the end of that year, another sect was discovered by local authorities in Yanling, Jizhou. A man named Fa Quan and his associates were claiming that an eight-year-old child Liu Jinghui was a Bodhisattva called the Moonlight Child (yueguang tongzi pusa； 月光童子菩萨), and that he could transform into a snake or a pheasant. They were arrested and sentenced to death on suspicion of seditious intent, but Jinghui had his sentence commuted to banishment on account of his youth and ignorance.
517: Early in the spring of that year, surviving remnants of the rebels regrouped and mounted a sudden attack on the capital of Yingzhou province, which lay just northwest of their original base in Bohai prefecture. They were repelled only after a pitched battle with an army of slaves and attendants led by Yuwen Yan, the son of the provincial governor, and nothing more is known of their fate.
Although a "new Buddha" was mentioned, these rebellions are not considered "Maitreyan" by modern scholars. However, they would be a later influence on the rebel religious leaders that made such claims. Therefore, it is important to mention these rebellions in this context.
Maitreyan rebellions
Sui Dynasty
610: On the first day of the Chinese New Year, dozens of rebels dressed in white, burning incense and holding flowers proclaimed their leader as Maitreya Buddha and charged into the imperial palace through one of its gates, killing all the guards before they were themselves killed by troops led by an imperial prince. A massive investigation in the capital (Chang'an) implicated over a thousand families.
613: A skilled magician named Song Zixian claimed to be Maitreya in Tang County (northwest of Yingzhou), and allegedly could transform into the form of a Buddha and make his room emit a glow every night. He hung a mirror in a hall that could display an image of what a devotee would be reincarnated as: a snake, a beast or a human being. Nearly a thousand "from near and far" joined his sect every day, and he plotted to first hold a Buddhist vegetarian banquet, or wuzhe fohui, and then attack the emperor who was then touring Yingzhou. The plot was leaked, and Song was arrested and executed, along with over a thousand families of his followers.
613: The monk Xiang Haiming claimed to be Maitreya in Fufeng prefecture (western Shaanxi) and led a rebellion. The elite of the Chang’an area hailed him as dasheng, or holy man, because they had auspicious dreams after following him, and his army swelled to several tens of thousands before he was defeated by government troops.
Tang Dynasty
710: Wang Huaigu declared, "The Shakyamuni Buddha has declined; a new Buddha is about to appear. The House of Li is ending, and the House of Liu is about to rise".
Song Dynasty
1047: Army officer Wang Ze led a revolt of Buddhists expecting Maitreya; they took over the city of Beizhou in Hebei before they were crushed. The Song Dynasty government declared Maitreya Sects to be "heresies and unsanctioned religions". Tens of thousands of Maitreya Sect followers were killed.
Yuan and Ming Dynasty
1351: The Red Turban Rebellion (aka The First White Lotus Rebellion). Han Shantong (韓山童), leader of the White Lotus Society, and Army Commander Liu Futong () rebelled against the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty. Shantong's anti-Mongol slogan was "The empire is in utter chaos. Maitreya Buddha has incarnated, and the Manichaean King of Light has appeared in this world."
In 1355, Han Shantong's son, Han Lin'er (, 1355–1368?), was proclaimed "Emperor of the Great [Latter] Song" (大宋, referring to the defunct Song dynasty) by Liu Futong. Liu Futong claimed Han Lin'er was a direct descendant of the Zhao royal family who ruled the Song Dynasty. After Liu Futong's death, Zhu Yuanzhang took up command of the Red Turban Rebellion and later assassinated Han Lin'er to become the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty. (See History) According to Beijing University,
This suggests that the Ming dynasty was named after the White Lotus figures of the "Big and Little Bright Kings".
Qing Dynasty
1796: The White Lotus Rebellion (aka The Second White Lotus Rebellion). It broke out among impoverished settlers in the mountainous region that separates Sichuan province from Hubei and Shaanxi provinces. It apparently began as a White Lotus Society protest against heavy taxes imposed by Manchu rulers of the Qing Dynasty.
The Yi He Tuan (義和團), often called in English the "Society of Harmonious Fists" was a 19th-century martial-sect inspired in part by the White Lotus Society. Members of the "Harmonious Fists" became known as "Boxers" in the west because they practiced Chinese martial arts.
1899: The Boxer Rebellion (義和團之亂). Chinese rebellion from November 1899 to September 7, 1901, against foreign influence in such areas as trade, politics, religion and technology that occurred in China during the final years of the Qing Dynasty. By August 1900, over 230 foreigners, tens of thousands of Chinese Christians, an unknown number of rebels, their sympathizers and other innocent bystanders had been killed in the chaos. The uprising crumbled on August 14, 1900, when 20,000 foreign troops entered the Chinese capital, Peking (Beijing).
Albeit not in the name of Maitreya, both rebellions were perpetrated solely or in part by the White Lotus Society, a rebellious Maitreya sect.
Speculation
Some have speculated that inspiration for Maitreya may have come from Mithra, the ancient Indo-Iranian deity. The primary comparison between the two characters appears to be the similarity of their names, while a secondary comparison is that both were expected to come in the future.
Paul Williams claims that some Zoroastrian ideas like Saoshyant influenced the beliefs about Maitreya, such as "expectations of a heavenly helper, the need to opt for positive righteousness, the future millennium, and universal salvation". Possible objections are that these characteristics are not unique to Zoroastrianism, nor are they necessarily characteristic of the belief in Maitreya.
It is also possible that Maitreya Buddha originated with the Hindu Kalki, and that its similarities with the Iranian Mithra have to do with their common Indo-Iranian origin.
Non-Buddhist views
Theosophy
In Theosophy, the Maitreya (or Lord Maitreya) has multiple aspects signifying not just the future Buddha, but similar concepts from other religious or spiritual traditions.
In early 20th century, leading Theosophists became convinced that an appearance of the Maitreya as a "World Teacher" was imminent. A South Indian boy, Jiddu Krishnamurti, was thought to be destined as the "vehicle" of the soon-to-manifest Maitreya; however the manifestation did not happen as predicted, and did not fulfil Theosophists' expectations.
Post-theosophical movements
Since the growth of the theosophical movement in the 19th century, and influenced by theosophy's articulations on the Maitreya, non-Buddhist religious and spiritual movements have adopted and reinterpreted the concept in their doctrines. Share International, which equates Maitreya with the prophesied figures of multiple religious traditions, claims that he is already present in the world, but is preparing to make an open declaration of his presence in the near future. They claim that he is here to inspire mankind to create a new era based on sharing and justice.
In the beginning of the 1930s, the Ascended Master Teachings placed Maitreya in the "Office of World Teacher" until 1956, when he was described as moving on to the "Office of Planetary Buddha" and "Cosmic Christ" in their concept of a Spiritual Hierarchy.
In 1911, Rudolf Steiner claimed "Roughly three thousand years after our time the world will experience the Maitreya Buddha incarnation, which will be the last incarnation of Jeshu ben Pandira. This Bodhisattva, who will come as Maitreya Buddha, will also come in a physical body in our century in his reincarnation in the flesh — but not as Buddha — and he will make it his task to give humanity all the true concepts about the Christ Event." Steiner is careful to distinguish Jeshu ben Pandira as somebody entirely distinct from Jesus of Nazareth, as the Maitreya is entirely distinct from the Christ being. The Maitreya does work in support of the Christ being, as does Gautama, the current Buddha.
Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadiyyas believe Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908) fulfilled expectations regarding the Maitreya Buddha.
Baháʼí Faith
Followers of the Baháʼí Faith believe that Bahá'u'lláh is the fulfillment of the prophecy of appearance of Maitreya, the fifth Buddha. Baháʼís believe that the prophecy that Maitreya will usher in a new society of tolerance and love has been fulfilled by Bahá'u'lláh's teachings on world peace.
Korean shamanism
In many East Asian folk religions, including Korean shamanism, a deity by the name of Maitreya appears as an ancient creator god or goddess. A malevolent usurper deity by the name of Shakyamuni (the historical Buddha) claims dominion over Maitreya's world, and the two engage in a flower-growing contest to decide who will rule the world. Maitreya grows the flower while Shakyamuni cannot, but the usurper steals it while the creator sleeps. Shakyamuni thus becomes the ruler of the world and brings suffering and evil to the world.
Gallery
See also
Budai, a traditional manifestation of Maitreya
Christ (title)
Index of Buddhism-related articles
Kalki
Kalki Purana
Leshan Giant Buddha
Lord of Light
Mahdi
Maitreya (Benjamin Creme)
Maitreya (Mahābhārata)
Maitreya Project
Maitreya (Theosophy)
Messiah
Paraclete
Saoshyant
Secular Buddhism
Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent
Notes
Further reading
Mipham, Jamgon; Maitreya; Shenga, Khenpo; Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. (2013). Distinguishing Phenomena from Their Intrinsic Nature: Maitreya's Dharmadharmatavibhanga with Commentaries by Khenpo Shenga and Ju Mipham. Snow Lion. .
Iida, Shōtarō; Goldston, Jane, trans. (2016). Descent of Maitreya Buddha and his Enlightenment, (Taishō Volume 14, Number 454), Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai.
Mipham, Jamgon; Maitreya; Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. (2021). Middle Beyond Extremes: Maitreya's Madhyantavibhaga with Commentaries by Khenpo Shenga and Ju Mipham. Snow Lion. .
External links
The Maitreya Project, building a huge statue of Maitreya in Kushinagar, India
April 2010 Smithsonian Magazine Article
About the Future Buddha Ariya Ajita Metteyya
The Story of the Coming Buddha: Ariya Metteyya
Bodhisattvas
Buddhist eschatology
Sanskrit words and phrases
Messianism
Sinhalese Buddhist deities | [
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225891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamma%20%28caste%29 | Kamma (caste) | Kamma is a Hindu caste from South India. The community of Kammas is believed to have originated from agriculturists of the Kammanadu region of the Guntur and Prakasam districts in Andhra Pradesh. Propelled by their military activity in the Vijayanagara Empire, Kammas are believed to have spread out from the region during the Vijayanagara period, followed by some in-migration during the British period and out-migration again during the twentieth century.
Today they are regarded as the richest group in Andhra Pradesh and are a dominant caste from Coastal Andhra with socio-economic and political prominence throughout the Telugu-speaking regions of India (the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana).
They also have a notable, albeit smaller, presence in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. In recent times,
a sizeable number of Kammas have migrated to the United States.
Origins
The modern community of Kammas is believed to have originated from agriculturists of the Kammanadu region in coastal Andhra Pradesh. The region, lying between the Gundlakamma river and the Krishna river in the erstwhile Guntur district (which included the three subdistricts later transferred to the Ongole district in 1970), had an identity dating back to ancient times. The term "kamma" either referred to the two rivers that formed the boundaries of the region, or to the Buddhist monastic institutions called sanghakammas believed to have been once prevalent in the region.
As the people of the region migrated to other parts, they were often referred to as the Kamma community (kamma-kula). Terms such as kamma-brahmana, kamma-komati, kamma-sreshti and kamma-kapu are attested in inscriptions as descriptions of people. The migration was apparently quite extensive, and was made by possible by the Kammanadu's strategic location with access to the Deccan plateau as well as to the regions in the south and southwest. By 1872, only one-fourth of their total population was living in the original region. But the migrants retained links to the homeland and returned to it whenever the situation was favourable.
Medieval history
Post-Kakatiya period
The tradition holds that the Kammas, along with Velamas and Reddis, evolved out of the community of Kapus (cultivators) in the post-Kakatiya period. A popular legend collected by Edgar Thurston narrates that Kammas originated from the youngest son of a certain Belthi Reddi, who managed to recover his mother's ear-ornament (called "kamma" in Telugu) that had been appropriated by Emperor Prataparudra's minister. The other sons of Belthi Reddi are similarly said to have given rise to the other prominent caste communities of the Telugu people.
Vijayanagara period
Kammas served as ministers, military generals, and governors in the Vijayanagara Empire. During the reign of Krishnadevaraya, Kammas are said to have formed the bulwark of the Vijayanagara army. Their role in protecting the last great Hindu kingdom of India was significant. Krishnadevaraya's court had a significant presence of Kamma officers, and they entered into matrimonial alliances with the royal family. It's possible that the influence of Kamma generals led to the importance of the Telugu language in Vijayanagara and the rise of Telugu colonies in Tamil Nadu. During the reign of the Vijayanagara Empire, Kamma Nayaks (commanders) were appointed as governors in many areas of Tamil Nadu. Some of the notable Kamma Nayak clans of Vijayanagara include the Pemmasanis, Sayapanenis, and Ravellas.
Of the Pemmasani Nayaks, they controlled parts of Rayalaseema and had large mercenary armies that were the vanguard of the Vijayanagara Empire in the sixteenth century. Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayudu was a leading military commander under Krishnadevaraya, and Aliya Rama Raya and the Aravidus rose to power following a civil war largely because of the support of Pemmasani Erra Timmanayudu. Pemmasani Pedda Timmaraja was the minister of Sriranga I and later for Venkata II, the latter of whom oversaw the revival of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is also known that a Pemmasani Nayak, Timmanayudu, had court poets and ministers of his own, such as Channamaraju. Pemmasani Timmanayudu also assisted Venkata II in putting down a rebellion by the Nandyala Chiefs led by Krishnamaraja in 1580. The Pemmasani Nayaks are associated with Gandikota, where they started as commandants and later gained control of Gandikota Seema from the Nandyala Chiefs. Numerous Hindu temples, such as Bugga Ramalingeshwara Swamy Temple and Chintalarayaswamy Temple, were constructed and patronized by the Pemmasanis.
The Sayapaneni Nayaks started in service of Vijayanagara when Krishnadevaraya granted administrative control of the Dupadu Region to Shayappanayadu, a twenty-year old from the family. According to the Dupati Kaifiyat, this area was consolidated by Vengala Nayudu and Venkatadri Nayudu, who are Shayappa Nayudu's descendants, and their rule is presented as a peaceful epoch. Although modest actors in the Deccan, their main strength lay in their ability to shift allegiances, facilitated by Niyogi Brahmins, as seen with their initial allegiance to the Vijayanagara Empire and later to the Qutb Shahis and the Nizams after Vijayanagara's demise.
The Ravella Nayaks were another prominent clan that served the Vijayanagara Empire militarily and administratively since the Sangama Dynasty, and they exercised control (on behalf of Vijayanagara) over Srisailam, Udayagiri, Podili, and Kochcherlakota Seemas (regions) at various periods. The exploits of this clan are described by the poet Ratnakaram Gopala Kavi in Sovgandhika Prasavapaharanamu, including mentions of defeating the Qutb Shahis, Gajapatis, and recapturing forts like Adoni. Noted individuals in the Ravella Nayaks include Ravella Linga II, who is surmised to be one of the chief generals of the Vijayanagara Army during the reign of Aliya Rama Raya.
When the Vijayanagara Empire was troubled after the Battle of Tallikota in 1565, the Pemmasani Nayaks, Ravella Nayaks and Sayapaneni Nayaks helped the Aravidu Dynasty in keeping the Muslims at bay. It took another 90 years to consolidate the Muslim power in Andhra country with the capture of Gandikota in 1652 and the defeat of Pemmasani Timmanayudu by Mir Jumla. Following the Battle of Talikota, many Kamma Nayaks either migrated to the dominions of the Madurai and Thanjavur Nayaks where they governed villages and supplied military officers or obtained favours from the Qutb Shahis and Mughals and settled in Telugu regions as local military chiefs.
Qutb Shahi and Nizam period
Kammas were also in service of the Qutb Shahis. Their roles included serving as the regional aristocracy, revenue officers and military commanders. During the reign of the Qutb Shahis and Nizams, the Sayapaneni Nayaks (1626–1802) ruled a block of territory between the Krishna River and Nellore as vassals. It was also in the Qutb Shahi period that the Vasireddy clan of Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu received the deshmukhi of the Nandigama pargana in 1670. Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu, a Kamma zamindar, controlled 551 towns and villages in the Guntur and Krishna Districts, had a retinue of several thousand men, and became known for his patronization of Hindu religious rituals, festivals, temples, and Brahmins. The Kamma Yarlagadda zamindars of Challapalli obtained their zamindari in 1596 and deshmukhi jurisdiction in 1640, and they assisted the Muslim rulers in their military expeditions and collection of land taxes. This conferred on the Yarlagaddas the privileges of maintaining their own military force and control over the inhabitants in their area.
Following Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's reign, coastal Andhra witnessed a series of widespread rebellions against the local Mughal officials that enabled Kamma warrior chiefs to usurp administrative power over hundreds, if not thousands, of square miles of land. In the 1600-1800s, Kammas acquired land in the interior Deccan Plateau due to grants that were given by the Nizam of Hyderabad to encourage cultivation in uncultivated areas of Telangana. Moreover, in the Telangana region, Muslim rulers collected taxes through intermediaries from the dominant castes, such as the Kammas, who were given the title Chowdary.
British period
Although the 1802 Permanent Settlement by the British benefited the Kamma landed aristocracy by reinforcing the Zamindari system, most Kammas saw their landholdings consolidated, and their influence consequently increased, by the introduction of the ryotwari system as a replacement for the zamindari system in the 19th century. Akin to the jenmis of Kerala, there were also big Kamma ryotwari landlords in Andhra. Some Kammas also were in the Madras Army of the British East India Company. Among Telugu Hindus, the East India Company army initially recruited predominantly from the Kamma, Raju, and Velama castes and restricted recruitment from other castes.
In the 1872 census, the Kammas made up 40 per cent of the agricultural population of the Krishna district (which included the present Guntur district until 1904). Along with Brahmins, they formed the dominant community of the district. By 1921, their population in the district increased to 47 per cent, representing a large in-migration. Following Brahminical traditions, Kammas emulated the rituals of the Brahmins, and the literate Kammas learned the Vedas, wore the sacred threads, taught Sanskrit and even performed pujas for the lower-caste members, which is said to have generated controversies. Despite their attachment to Brahminical orthodoxy, the Kammas also related to the Kapus in a narrative. Kammas formed the Kamma Mahajana Sabha, a caste association, in 1910, which received encouragement from the political leaders. Ranga also started a Madras Kamma Association in 1919 and founded a journal Kamma Patrika, later renamed to Ryot Patrika. Kamma caste associations also spawned in Tamil Nadu in the 1920s, with two Kamma zamindars leading the Kamma Mahajana Sabha and the Dakshina Desa Kamma Mahasabha. Kammas constituted 6 per cent of the population in the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency in 1921, a figure slightly higher than Brahmins, but lagging far behind the 'Kapu or Reddi'.
Construction of dams and barrages and establishment of an irrigation system in Godavari and Krishna River deltas by Arthur Cotton was a great boon to the Kamma farmers. Availability of water and the natural propensity for hard work made the Kammas wealthy and prosperous. The money was put to good use by establishing numerous schools and libraries and encouraging their children to take up modern education. In 1921, Kammas had the highest literacy rate among other dominant castes, such as Reddis and Kapus, though it was lower than Brahmins. The money was also invested into various companies, industries, such as food processing and transportation, and moneylending. The Kammas of Tamil Nadu, who speak Telugu at home, have also excelled in the cultivation of black cotton soils and later diversified into various industrial enterprises, particularly in Coimbatore and Kovilpatti. Coimbatore was known as the ‘Manchester of South India’ and its textile industry, which is the main economic sector in the city, is almost entirely controlled by affluent Kamma families that were the landed aristocracy of Kongu Nadu.
By the mid 20th century, many Kammas had benefited greatly from the numerous educational institutes that had proliferated throughout Coastal Andhra such as Andhra Christian College or Guntur Medical College. Many of these were high-fee private educational institutes also formed by wealthy members of the dominant castes who often gave preference to students from their community in admissions.
Today
Today they are regarded as the wealthiest group in Andhra Pradesh and an entrepreneurial community influential in various industries, such as information technology, real estate, media and Telugu cinema. They are a dominant caste from Coastal Andhra with socio-economic and political prominence throughout the Telugu-speaking regions of India (the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana). In united-Andhra Pradesh (including present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana), Kammas made up 4.8% of the total state population in the last census. Kammas also have a notable, albeit smaller, presence in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Migration to USA
In recent times, a sizeable number of Kammas have migrated to the United States. Starting in the 1950s, some members of the dominant castes from Andhra Pradesh had gone to the US for higher education. After the lifting of immigration quota system in 1965, the highly-educated doctors, engineers and scientists started moving to US. Kammas, mainly from well-off families and having benefited from the spread of educational institutions in Coastal Andhra, took up the opportunity to move. After the IT boom in the 1990s, even more migrated to America. The success of those who migrated already incentivized more of their relatives and members of their network to migrate as well, and today having an "NRI child" is seen as a matter of pride for Kamma parents in coastal Andhra. For Kamma and other dominant caste women, although some have been sent by families for higher studies in America, many have moved to America due to marriage with NRI men.
Classification
The varna system of Brahmanic ritual ranking never took hold in South Indian society outside Kerala. There were essentially three classes: Brahmin, non-Brahmin and Dalit. Kammas naturally fall into the non-Brahmin class. Classification of social groups in the Andhra region has changed frequently as the various communities jostle for status. During the British Raj, the Kammas were considered to be "upper Shudra"/"Sat Shudra", along with the Reddy and Velama castes, under the varna system.
Selig Harrison said in 1956 that
Politics
Prior to the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh, creating the new state of Telangana, the Kammas and the Reddys were politically and economically dominant in the state. From 1953 to 1983, many Kammas initially associated themselves with the Indian National Congress and offered the party financing and media support. During the 1980s, they played a key role in state and national politics with the inception of the Telugu Desam Party by its then President N. T. Rama Rao also called as NTR.
Notable people
N. T. Rama Rao
Velagapudi Ramakrishna
Akkineni Nageswara Rao
D. Ramanaidu
Mullapudi Harishchandra Prasad
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Indian castes
Telugu society
Social groups of Tamil Nadu
Social groups of Andhra Pradesh
Agricultural castes | [
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225903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Grodin | Charles Grodin | Charles Sidney Grodin (April 21, 1935 – May 18, 2021) was an American actor, comedian, author, and television talk show host. Grodin began his acting career in the 1960s appearing in TV serials including The Virginian. After a small part in Rosemary's Baby in 1968, he played the lead in Elaine May's The Heartbreak Kid (1972) and supporting roles in Mike Nichols's Catch-22 (1970), the 1976 remake of King Kong, and Warren Beatty's Heaven Can Wait (1978).
Known for his deadpan delivery and often cast as a put-upon straight man, Grodin became familiar as a supporting actor in many Hollywood comedies of the era, including Real Life (1979), Seems Like Old Times (1980), The Great Muppet Caper (1981), Ishtar (1987), Dave (1993), and Clifford (1994). Grodin co-starred in the action comedy Midnight Run (1988) and in the family film Beethoven (1992). He made frequent appearances on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson and Late Night with David Letterman.
In the mid-1990s, Grodin retired from acting and wrote autobiographies; he became a talk show host on CNBC and in 2000 a political commentator for 60 Minutes II. He returned to acting with a handful of roles in the mid-2010s, including in Louis C.K.'s FX show Louie and Noah Baumbach's film While We're Young (2014).
Grodin won several awards, including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Special in 1978 for the Paul Simon Special alongside Chevy Chase, Lorne Michaels, Paul Simon, and Lily Tomlin. He was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for The Heartbreak Kid in 1972. He won Best Actor at the 1988 Valladolid International Film Festival for Midnight Run, and the American Comedy Award for Funniest Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture for his performance in Dave in 1993.
Early life
Grodin was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Orthodox Jewish parents, Theodore, who owned a store that sold wholesale supplies, and Lena (née Singer), who worked in her husband's business and volunteered for disabled veterans. His paternal grandfather had changed the family name from Grodinsky to Grodin. His maternal grandfather was an immigrant from Russia who "came from a long line of rabbis" and moved to the Chesapeake Bay area at the turn of the 20th century. Grodin had an older brother, Jack.
Grodin graduated as valedictorian from Peabody High School, where he was elected class president all four years. He attended the University of Miami but left without graduating to pursue acting. He studied acting at HB Studio in New York City under Uta Hagen.
Career
1950s/1960s: Early career
Grodin's film debut was an uncredited bit part in Disney's 1954 film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. A student of Lee Strasberg and Uta Hagen, he made his Broadway debut in a production of Tchin-Tchin, opposite Anthony Quinn. In 1965, he became an assistant to director Gene Saks and appeared on several television series including The Virginian.
Grodin had a small but pivotal part playing an obstetrician in the 1968 horror film Rosemary's Baby. In 1964, he played Matt Stevens on the ABC soap opera The Young Marrieds. During the late 1960s, he also co-wrote and directed Hooray! It's a Glorious Day...and All That, a Broadway play, and directed Lovers and Other Strangers and Thieves, also on Broadway. He also directed Simon and Garfunkel's television special Songs of America in 1969. However, he turned down the part of Benjamin Braddock in The Graduate because of the low salary offered by producer Lawrence Turman, although Turman assured him that the part would make him a star, as it ultimately did for Dustin Hoffman.
1970s/1980s
After a supporting role in the 1970 comedy film Catch-22, Grodin gained recognition as a comedy actor when he played the lead role in the 1972 film The Heartbreak Kid. Grodin subsequently appeared in several films during the decade, including the 1976 version of King Kong, the hit 1978 comedy Heaven Can Wait, and Albert Brooks's 1979 comedy Real Life. He both starred in and wrote the screenplay for 11 Harrowhouse (1974). During the 1970s, he also frequently appeared on Broadway and was involved in producing several plays.
In 1981, he landed a role in The Great Muppet Caper playing Nicky Holiday, a jewel thief who falls in love with Miss Piggy. He also appeared that same year opposite Lily Tomlin in The Incredible Shrinking Woman. His 1980s roles included Neil Simon's Seems Like Old Times (opposite Chevy Chase and Goldie Hawn) and 1988's well-reviewed comedy Midnight Run, a buddy movie co-starring Robert De Niro. Grodin also appeared in the 1986 CBS prime-time-soap sendup Fresno, playing the evil son of a raisin matriarch (Carol Burnett).
His Hollywood film roles of the 1980s usually saw him cast as uptight, bland, and world-weary white collar professionals, such as a psychiatrist having a nervous breakdown (The Couch Trip), a health conscious accountant (Midnight Run), an ineffectual advertising executive (Taking Care of Business), and a lonely, socially awkward nerd (The Lonely Guy). He was cast against this type as a scheming CIA agent in Ishtar.
Commenting on his work with regard to Ishtar, Hal Hinson in The Washington Post observed: "Grodin has a one-of-a-kind quality on the screen, a sort of inspired spinelessness. And with his cat-burglar rhythms – he seems to play all his scenes as if someone were asleep in the next room – he's become a very sly scene-stealer." Sandra Brennan at Rovi noted that: "Whereas many funnymen have been popular for their ability to overreact and mug their way around everyday obstacles, Grodin belonged, from the beginning, to the Bob Newhart school of wry comedy that values understatement and subtlety."
Aside from his film work, he was a frequent presence on television. In 1977, Grodin hosted an episode of the NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live, where the entire episode revolved around his forgetting that the show was live, and he proceeded to wreck sketches because of his failure to prepare accordingly. His many talk show appearances from the 1970s to the early 2020s often included confrontational and mock angry segments. At one time Johnny Carson "banned" him from The Tonight Show appearances after taking offense at things Grodin had said. The NBC network would receive angry letters from viewers who didn't understand the joke that he was playing a persona, trying to be as different from typical talk show guests as possible. His appearances on Late Night With David Letterman would sometimes erupt into shouting and name-calling, but Letterman always enjoyed Grodin's segments.
1990s/2000s: Family films and talk show host
Grodin's career took a turn in 1992, when he played the nervous family man George Newton in the kids' comedy Beethoven, opposite Bonnie Hunt. The film was a box-office hit, and he reprised the role in the 1993 sequel, Beethoven's 2nd. Also in 1993, Grodin played the role of Harrison Winslow in the film Heart and Souls. After a supporting role in the acclaimed Ivan Reitman comedy Dave, Grodin signed on to play The Old
Man in the 1994 limited release sequel to A Christmas Story, It Runs in the Family (a.k.a. My Summer Story). That same year also saw the much-delayed release of Clifford, in which Grodin portrayed the frustrated uncle opposite Martin Short's title role.
From 1995 to 1999, Grodin hosted his own issues-orientated cable news talk show, The Charles Grodin Show. It originated as a nightly show on CNBC, replacing Tom Snyder after he left to start The Late Late Show on CBS. The show was dropped by CNBC in 1998, but aired for a final year as a weekly show on MSNBC before ending its run in late 1999. From 2000 to 2003, he was a political commentator for 60 Minutes II.
In 2004, Grodin wrote The Right Kind of People, an off-Broadway play about co-op boards in certain buildings in Manhattan. Grodin's commentaries were heard on New York City radio station WCBS and other affiliates of the CBS Radio Network, as well as on the CBS Radio Network's Weekend Roundup.
After a 12-year-long hiatus from film, in 2006 Grodin returned to acting in the comedy The Ex starring Zach Braff.
2010s: Career resurgence
In the 2010s, Grodin made more frequent acting appearances, guest starring on television shows such as Law and Order: Special Victims Unit and The Michael J. Fox Show. Grodin had several supporting roles in films, including Barry Levinson's The Humbling (2014) and Taylor Hackford's The Comedian (2016). He had a prominent supporting role in Noah Baumbach's While We're Young (2015), playing a celebrated documentary filmmaker and the father of one of the lead characters.
In 2015, Grodin was cast in a recurring role in Louis C.K.'s FX show Louie as Dr. Bigelow, C.K.'s philosophical doctor and mentor in Season 4 and 5. In an interview with Deadline, Grodin talked about his relationship with C.K. stating, "I find him to be the single most talented person ... I've ever worked with, he's a wonderful director, writer, and actor."
He also portrayed the philanthropist and defrauded investor Carl J. Shapiro in the 2016 miniseries Madoff on ABC based on the Bernie Madoff Ponzi scheme debacle. His final movie was (An Imperfect Murder) The Private Life of a Modern Woman, released in 2017.
Grodin was also a prolific author and published his final book in 2013.
Personal life
Grodin had two children: daughter Marian (a comedian), from his marriage to Julie Ferguson, and son, Nicholas, from his marriage to Elissa Durwood. For a period in the 2000s, Grodin gave up show business to be a stay-at-home dad to his children.
Death
Grodin died from bone marrow cancer at his home in Wilton, Connecticut, on May 18, 2021. He was 86.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theatre
Awards and nominations
Bibliography
Plays
Grodin, Charles. Price of Fame: A Play. New York: Samuel French, 1991. .
Grodin, Charles. One of the All-Time Greats: A Comedy. New York: S. French, 1992. .
Grodin, Charles. The Right Kind of People. New York: Samuel French, 2008. .
Books
Grodin, Charles. It Would Be so Nice If You Weren't Here: My Journey Through Show Business. New York: Morrow, 1989. .
Grodin, Charles. How I Get Through Life: A Wise and Witty Guide. New York: Morrow, 1992. .
Grodin, Charles. Freddie the fly. New York : Random House, 1993. .
Grodin, Charles. We're Ready for You, Mr. Grodin: Behind the Scenes at Talk Shows, Movies, and Elsewhere. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1994. .
Grodin, Charles. I Like It Better When You're Funny: Working in Television and Other Precarious Adventures. New York: Random House, 2002. .
Grodin, Charles. If I Only Knew Then... Learning from Our Mistakes. New York: Springboard Press, 2007. .
Grodin, Charles. How I Got to Be Whoever It Is I Am. New York: Springboard Press, 2009. .
Grodin, Charles. Just When I Thought I'd Heard Everything: Humorous Observations on Life in America. Santa Monica, Calif: Homina Publishing, 2013. .
In popular culture
Grodin is mentioned as a hero of Mac and Dennis in an episode of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia.
He was referenced in three different episodes of The Simpsons (I'm Spelling as Fast as I Can, Little Big Girl and Mathlete's Feat).
The Rick and Morty episode, “Mortynight Run,” is a reference to the film. In the episode, Jerry watches the film with other Jerrys from parallel universes.
In the Seinfeld episode "The Doll" Jerry Seinfeld buys a bottle of sauce because the brand's mascot bears a resemblance to Grodin.
References
External links
Charles Grodin profile in The New York Observer
Charles Grodin's radio commentaries at WCBS880.com
"The Heartfelt Kid: Actor/Playwright Charles Grodin Premiers New Play in San Francisco", Jewish News Weekly, November 26, 2004.
Charles Grodin Urges New Yorkers To Mentor Kids
Interview with Charles Grodin
1935 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male comedians
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American television talk show hosts
CNBC people
Jewish American male actors
Jewish American writers
Jewish theatre directors
Male actors from Pittsburgh
Male actors from Virginia
Writers from Virginia
People from Wilton, Connecticut
Primetime Emmy Award winners
University of Miami alumni
Jewish American male comedians
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
Comedians from Pennsylvania
Deaths from cancer in Connecticut
Deaths from multiple myeloma
21st-century American Jews | [
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225905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint-Martens-Lierde | Sint-Martens-Lierde | Sint-Martens-Lierde is a village which is part of the municipality of Lierde. It is located in the Denderstreek and in the Flemish Ardennes, the hilly southern part of the Belgian province of East Flanders.
Overview
The village was first mentioned in 1189 as "Lierde sancti Martini". In 1329, the Carthusian priory "Sint-Maartens-Bos" was established. In 1783, the monastery was dissolved and became a parish church. In 1788, most of the monastery was demolished.
In 1867, the railway line Melle-Geraardsbergen was constructed with a train station at Sint-Martens-Lierde. The station was later closed.
The village's coat of arms shows some agricultural implements, and was granted in 1818.
Notable people
Emiel Faignaert (1919–1980), cyclist.
References
External links
Page on Sint-Martens-Lierde from the official Lierde website (only available in Dutch)
Lierde
Populated places in East Flanders | [
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225906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deftinge | Deftinge | Deftinge is a village which makes up part of the municipality of Lierde. It is located in the Denderstreek and in the Flemish Ardennes, the hilly southern part of the Belgian province of East Flanders. It was an independent municipality until 1977 when it was merged into Lierde.
Overview
The village was first mentioned as Davatinge in the middle of the 11th century. The village was a part of the heerlijkheid and barony of Boelare during the Middle Ages. The municipality was merged into Lierde in 1977.
The village's coat of arms is of unknown origin. The arms were granted on 24 February 1819 and confirmed on 21 July 1843.
Notable people
Ferdi Van Den Haute (1952), road bicycle racer.
References
External links
Page on Deftinge from the official Lierde website (only available in Dutch)
Lierde
Populated places in East Flanders | [
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225907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemelveerdegem | Hemelveerdegem | Hemelveerdegem is a village and borough which makes up part of the municipality of Lierde in the Denderstreek in the Belgian province of East Flanders. The village and estate were ruled from 1752 by the armigerous Boelare family.
Overview
The village was first mentioned around 963 as Ermfredeghe. In 1752, the village became part of the barony of Boelare. In 1977, the municipality was merged into Lierde.
The Saint John the Baptist Church mainly dates from the 18th century, however some parts have been estimated to originate from the 14th to 16th century. The reredos (altar piece) dates from the early 16th century, and is considered a masterpiece of wood work. The church has been designated a protected monument in 1969.
The village's coat of arms shows a beehive with a lion behind it. The arms were granted on 4 August 1818 and were confirmed on 7 September 1928.
References
External links
Page on Hemelveerdegem from the official Lierde website (only available in Dutch)
Lierde
Populated places in East Flanders | [
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225908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint-Maria-Lierde | Sint-Maria-Lierde | Sint-Maria-Lierde is a village which makes up part of the municipality of Lierde. It is located in the Denderstreek and in the Flemish Ardennes, the hilly southern part of the Belgian province of East Flanders.
Overview
The village was first mentioned as Lirda Sancte Marie in the late 12th century. Sint-Maria-Lierde was a small agricultural village situated in the north-east of the municipality. In 1840, a road nowadays known as N8 was constructed to the south. In 1867, the railway line Ghent–Geraardsbergen was constructed with a train station near the intersection with the road. The area around the trainstation started to develop, and was named Lierde after the station. In the 20th century, the village became mainly residential with a large proportion of commuters.
In 1977, the municipalities Deftinge, Hemelveerdegem, Sint-Maria-Lierde and Sint-Martens-Lierde were merged into Lierde.
The village's coat of arms shows a heart of Jesus beneath a crown. The arms were granted in 1818 and confirmed on 20 December 1840.
References
External links
Page on Sint-Maria-Lierde from the official Lierde website (only available in Dutch)
Lierde
Populated places in East Flanders
Former municipalities of East Flanders | [
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225928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AKG | ISO 3166-2:KG | ISO 3166-2:KG is the entry for Kyrgyzstan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Kyrgyzstan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 2 cities and 7 regions. The cities Bishkek and Osh have special status equal to the regions.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Kyrgyzstan. The second part is either of the following:
one letter: regions
two letters: city
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(ky): Kirghiz
(ru): Russian
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Kyrgyzstan
FIPS region codes of Kyrgyzstan
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: KG
Regions of Kyrgyzstan, Statoids.com
2:KG
ISO 3166-2
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225944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AES | ISO 3166-2:ES | ISO 3166-2:ES is the entry for Spain in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Spain, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:
17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities in North Africa
50 provinces
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Spain. The second part is one or two letters. For the provinces, the letters were originally used in vehicle registration plates. The codes for the following provinces are based on the names of their capital cities rather than their own names:
Álava/Araba (): Vitoria
Asturias (): Oviedo
Illes Balears (): Palma
Cantabria (): Santander
Gipuzkoa (): San Sebastián
La Rioja (): Logroño
Las Palmas (): Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Bizkaia (): Bilbao
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(es): Spanish
(eu): Basque
(ca): Catalan
(gl): Galician
Except where noted, the names given are in Spanish (Castilian). In autonomous communities and provinces where any of the regional languages is the sole official language, the Spanish name is given in square brackets for information. In subdivisions where a regional language is official alongside Spanish, both names are listed vertically.
Autonomous communities; autonomous cities in Spain
Notes
Provinces
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
Special territories
The following two areas not covered by European Union Customs arrangements are also exceptionally reserved ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes on the request of the World Customs Organization:
Ceuta, Melilla
Canary Islands
However, these codes do not correspond in any way to the ISO 3166-2 codes of the territories.
See also
Subdivisions of Spain
FIPS region codes of Spain
NUTS codes of Spain
Neighbouring countries: AD, FR, GI, MA, PT.
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: ES
Provinces of Spain, Statoids.com
2:ES
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-2
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225945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Blair | Hugh Blair | Hugh Blair FRSE (7 April 1718 – 27 December 1800) was a Scottish minister of religion, author and rhetorician, considered one of the first great theorists of written discourse.
As a minister of the Church of Scotland, and occupant of the Chair of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh, Blair's teachings had a great impact in both the spiritual and the secular realms. Best known for Sermons, a five volume endorsement of practical Christian morality, and Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, a prescriptive guide on composition, Blair was a valuable part of the Scottish Enlightenment.
Life
Blair was born in Edinburgh into an educated Presbyterian family. His father was John Blair, an Edinburgh merchant. He was great great grandson of Rev Robert Blair of St Andrews and great nephew of Very Rev David Blair the Moderator of the General Assembly in 1700.
From an early age it was clear that Blair, a weakly child, should be educated for a life in the church. Schooled at the High School, Blair studied moral philosophy and literature at the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. at the age of twenty-one. His thesis, "Dissertatio Philosophica Inauguralis de fundamentis et obligatione legis naturae", serves as a precursor to the later published Sermons in its discussion of the principles of morality and virtue.
In 1741, two years after the publication of his thesis, Blair received his license as a Presbyterian preacher. Shortly thereafter, the Earl of Leven heard of Blair's popularity and presented him to the Parish Church of Collessie in Fife, as their minister.
By 1743 Blair was elected as the second charge of the Canongate Kirk, under Rev James Walker in first charge. Although some records say he reached "first charge" this is not the case. Blair was appointed to the sole charge of Lady Yester's Kirk in 1754, and four years later in 1758 was translated to the second charge of the High Kirk of St Giles under Rev Robert Walker as "first charge". They became very close friends. Despite being "second charge" this was nevertheless one of the highest positions that a clergyman could achieve in Scotland. Blair maintained this position for many years, during which time he published a five volume series of his addresses entitled Sermons.
Having attained ultimate success in the church, Blair turned to matters of education. In 1757 he was presented with an honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity by the University of St Andrews and began to lecture in Rhetoric and Belles Lettres for the University of Edinburgh in 1759. At first Blair taught without remuneration from the university and was paid direct by his students, but the popularity of his course led to the institution of a permanent class and Blair was made Professor Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the university in 1762. a position ratified by King George III. He retained this position until his retirement in 1783. After retirement, Blair published several of his lectures in Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres.
In 1773 Blair was living at Argyle Square on the south side of Edinburgh's Old Town. The property was demolished in the mid-19th century to create Chambers Street.
In 1777, at the point of its creation, he was appointed Chaplain to the 71st Regiment of Foot, initially based at Edinburgh Castle.
In 1783 Blair was one of the founder members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He served as its Literary President from 1789 to 1796.
Blair's life was very full in both the public and the private spheres. As a central figure in the Scottish Enlightenment, he surrounded himself with other scholars in the movement. Hume, Carlyle, Adam Smith, Ferguson, and Lord Kames were among those Blair considered friends.
He died at home in Argyle Square on 27 December 1800.
Blair is buried near his home, in Greyfriars Churchyard in Edinburgh. The grave was originally unmarked, but a memorial was erected on the south-west section of Greyfriars Kirk to commemorate him, lying between tablets to Allan Ramsay and Colin MacLaurin. It is inscribed in Latin therefore gives his name as Hugo Blair.
He was succeeded in his chair at Edinburgh University by Andrew Brown (1763-1834). His position as second charge of St Giles was filled by Rev George Husband Baird.
Family
Blair had a very loving marriage to his cousin, Katherine Bannatine, whom he married in April 1748. Katherine was the daughter of Very Rev James Bannatine minister of Trinity College Church in north-east Edinburgh. He had been Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1739.
Together they had two children: a son who died at birth and a daughter Katherine (1749-1769) who died at the age of 20 i.e. both children predeceased them. Blair also outlived his wife, who died in February 1795 five years before his own death in December 1800. He was described as "amiable, kind to young authors, and remarkable for a harmless, but rather ridiculous vanity and simplicity".
Chronology of works
1739: Defundamentis et Obligatione Legis Naturæ
1753: The Works of Shakespeare (ed. Hugh Blair [Anon.])
1755: Review of Francis Hutcheson's A System of Moral Philosophy [Anon.]
1755: Observations on a Pamphlet (by John Bonar), entitled An Analysis of the Moral and Religious Sentiments contained in the Writings of Sopho and David Hume Esq [Anon.]
1760: 'Preface' [Anon.] to James Macpherson, Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland and translated from the Galic or Erse Language
1763: A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, the Son of Fingal
1777–1801: Sermons (5 vols) Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol. 4, Vol. 5
1783: Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3
Major works
Blair is best known for the publication of three major works: A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, Son of Fingal; Sermons; and Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. While little attention is given to his other works, Blair published several other works anonymously, the most important of which is an eight-volume edition of Shakespeare's works edited by Blair.
A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, the Son of Fingal
In 1763 Blair published A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, his first well known openly authored publication. Blair, having long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the Scottish Highlands, wrote a laudatory account of the poems of Ossian, the authenticity of which he maintained. Blair serves as the voice of authority on the legitimacy of the poems that he himself had urged friend James Macpherson to publish in Fragments of Ancient Poetry.
The dissertation directly opposes assertions that the poems Macpherson claimed to be ancient and sublime were in fact written by several modern poets, or possibly even by Macpherson himself. After 1765 Dissertation appeared in every publication of the Ossian to give the work credibility. Blair's praise ultimately proved futile as the poems were deemed false and Macpherson was convicted of literary forgery. While this work does not speak highly of Blair's skills as a literary critic, it does provide insight into Blair's own taste, a subject that is important to his later writing.
Sermons
Blair published the first of his five volume series Sermons in 1777. It is a compilation of the sermons promoting practical Christian morality he delivered as a Presbyterian preacher. Despite the declining popularity of published religious teachings at the time, the success of Sermons paralleled Blair's success as a preacher. Though Blair's oral delivery was poor, often described as a 'burr,' he was considered the most popular preacher in Scotland. His success is credited to the ease with which the audience could follow his polite, organised style; a style that was translated easily into print.
Sermons reflects Blair's position as a member of the moderate or latitudinarian party. In many respects, Blair was socially conservative. He did not believe in radical change, as his teachings were safe and ultimately prepared for the upper classes. Blair also had liberal tendencies demonstrated in his rejection of Calvinistic doctrines such as original sin, total corruption, and damnation.
Sermons focuses on questions of morality, rather than theology, and it emphasises patriotism, action in the public sphere, and moral virtue promoted by polite secular culture. Blair encourages people to improve their natural talents through hard work, but also to be content with their appointed stations in society. He urges people to play an active role in society, to enjoy the pleasures of life, to do good works, and to maintain faith in God.
Blair's appeal to both emotion and reason, combined with his non-confrontational, moderate and elegant style made each volume of Sermons increasingly popular. Four editions were published in Blair's lifetime and a fifth shortly after his death. Each volume was met with the greatest success, as they were published in many European languages and went through several printings. Though Blair's Sermons eventually fell out of favour for lacking doctrinal definiteness—"a bucket of warm water", as one opinion puts it—they were undoubtedly influential during Blair's lifetime and for several decades after his death.
In Jane Austen's Mansfield Park, Mary Crawford, a cynical critic of the church, suggests that a wise clergyman would do better to preach Blair's sermons than his own.
Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres
After retiring from his position as Chair of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh in 1783, Blair published his lectures for the first time, deeming it necessary because unauthorised copies of his work threatened the legacy of his teachings. The result is arguably Blair's most important work: Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Lectures, a compilation of 47 of Blair's lectures given to students at the University of Edinburgh, serves as a practical guide for youth on composition and language, a guide that makes Blair the first great theorist of written discourse.
Lectures is important not because it presents radical new theories. In fact, Blair himself admits that the work is a suffusion of his understanding of classical and modern theories of language. Lectures draws on the classic works of theorists such as Quintilian and Cicero combined with the modern works of Addison, Burke, and Lord Kames to become one of the first whole language guides. As one of the first works to focus on written discourse, rather than solely on oral discourse, Blair's Lectures is a comprehensive, accessible prescriptive composition guide that combines centuries of theory in a cohesive form.
The intention of Lectures is to provide youth with a simple, organised guide on the value of rhetoric and belles lettres in the quest for upward mobility and social success. Blair believed that social cultivation, and most importantly the proper use of polite literature and effective writing, was the key to social success. For him, an education in literature was socially useful, both in its ability to elevate one's social status and its ability to promote virtue and morality. Blair also acknowledged that a person must have virtue and personal character, as well as knowledge of literature to be an effective speaker or writer.
While his lectures certainly provide ideas on how to compose texts, the focus increasing becomes the proper response to written literature. He supplies sample writings from contemporary literature to illustrate the qualities of writings so that students would identify, analyze, and imbibe those qualities. The anticipated result is that students will cultivate a proper taste, and will be able to appreciate the aesthetic qualities in fine language.
Blair's concept of taste involved two distinctive aspects of the human mind- a person's senses and a person's thought processing. Through exercise of the five senses, a person can have their taste refined and perfected. Through a person's reasoning abilities, a person can determine what produces genuine pleasure and what produces something inauthentic. When combining exercise and reason, the critic develops taste-delicacy and correctness of taste. Taste delicacy ties into a critic's senses, making them stronger and more accurate when it comes to sense of sight, sound, smell, taste etc. Correctness of taste ties into a critic's logic process, giving the critic the ability to make a judgment and appraise the merit of something. This also makes it easier to recognize specifically what is good and genuine and what isn't pure or legitimate.
While Blair's outline of the requirements for an excellent speaker or writer is an important aspect of Lectures, the work covers a very broad scope of issues relating to composition. Blair's primary considerations are the issues of taste, language, style, and eloquence or public speaking. As well, Blair provides a critical examination of what he calls "the most distinguished species of composition, both in prose and verse" (15).
As an adherer to Scottish common sense realism, Blair's theories are founded in the belief that the principles of rhetoric evolve from the principles of nature. Blair's definition of taste reflects this sentiment: "The power of receiving pleasure from the beauties of nature and art: (15). His analysis of the nature of taste is one of his most important contributions to compositional theories because taste, according to Blair, is foundational to rhetoric and necessary for successful written and spoken discourse.
While Blair's work is generally a safe composite of multiple theories, it contains many valuable insights, such as the aforementioned analysis of taste. Blair's discussion of the history of written discourse is another important contribution to composition theory because this history was previously neglected. As well, Blair's naming and defining of four generic categories of writing: historical writing, philosophical writing, fictitious history, and poetry, and his analysis of the different parts of discourse plays an important role in the development of later compositional theories. One of Blair's more radical ideas is the rejection of Aristotelian figures of speech such as tropes. Blair argues that invention is the result of knowledge and cannot be aided by devices of invention as outlined by classic theorists. Though Blair rejects this traditional method of discourse, his work is still prescriptive in nature.
Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres combines the fundamental principles of belletristic rhetoric and literary theory in a concise, accessible form. Drawing on classic and modern theories, Blair's work is the most comprehensive prescriptive guide on composition in the 18th century. It enjoyed tremendous success for nearly a century, as 130 editions were published in numerous European languages. This work proved a best seller in Europe, for instance in Italy went through at least a dozen different editions, but the best remains that by Giambattista Bodoni in 1801. It was known in Italy as Ugone Blair.
Influence
Blair wrote in a time when print culture was flourishing and traditional rhetoric was falling out of favour. By focusing on issues of cultivation and upward mobility, Blair overshadowed the prevailing opinions of rhetoric and capitalised on the 18th century belief in the potential to rise above one's station. At this time, new money industrialists and merchants caused the middle class to rise and the English empire to grow. Blair's optimistic view that upward mobility could be affected by an understanding of eloquence and refined literature fit perfectly with the mentality of the time. In particular, the ideas presented in Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres were adapted in many prestigious institutions of learning and served as the guide on composition for many years. The Lectures were predominantly popular in the United States, with colleges such as Yale and Harvard implementing Blair's theories.
After the authenticity of the Ossian poems was disproved, A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian caused a decline in Blair's credibility. Sermons was criticised for its sentimentality and lack of doctrinal definiteness and it failed to adapt to changing tastes. Lectures too did not maintain its popularity as theorists such as Whately and Spencer, drawing on Blair's theories, dominated the domain of composition theory.
A portrait of Blair's Spanish translator, José Luis Munárriz, painted in 1815 by Goya, hangs in the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid. Munárriz holds one of Blair's books in his hands.
Notes
References
Further reading
Schmitz, Robert M., "Hugh Blair", King's Crown Press, New York (1948), 162 pages.
Corbett, Edward P. J. "Hugh Blair as an Analyzer of English Prose Style." College Composition and Communication 9(2): 93–103. 1958.
Downey, Charlotte. "Introduction." Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres.Delmar, N.Y.: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1993.
Hill, John. An Account of the Life and Writings of Dr. Hugh Blair,
Ulman, H. Lewis. Things, Thoughts, Words, and Actions: The Problem of Language in Late Eighteenth-Century British Rhetorical Theory. Illinois: Southern Illinois Press, 1994. ISSN 0161-7729
External links
Hugh Blair at James Boswell – a Guide
Hugh Blair at MSU – a Website on Hugh Blair's life and philosophy
Hugh Blair at Thoemmes Continuum – an Encyclopedia article
Great Scots at Electric Scotland – an Article on Hugh Blair's legacy as a Scottish theorist
1718 births
1800 deaths
Academics from Edinburgh
18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
Scottish rhetoricians
Rhetoric theorists
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Scottish religious writers
Scottish legal writers
Scottish literary critics
Philosophers from Edinburgh
Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
Calvinist and Reformed philosophers
Enlightenment philosophers
Ministers of St Giles' Cathedral
Clergy from Edinburgh | [
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225949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Conference%20of%20Governmental%20Industrial%20Hygienists | American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists | The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a professional association of industrial hygienists and practitioners of related professions, with headquarters in Cincinnati, Ohio. One of its goals is to advance worker protection by providing timely, objective, scientific information to occupational and environmental health professionals.
History
The National Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (NCGIH) convened on June 27, 1938, in Washington, D.C. NCGIH's original constitution limited full membership to two representatives from each governmental industrial hygiene agency. Associate membership was made available to other professional personnel of the agencies holding full memberships, and also to personnel of educational institutions engaged in teaching industrial hygiene. Governmental industrial hygiene personnel of other countries were eligible for affiliated membership.
The Conference came into being with 59 members, one affiliated member, and 16 associate members. Forty-three members, one associate and six guests, attended the initial Conference. All but five of the members were from health departments. The New York and Massachusetts state labor departments had two each present, and there was one from the West Virginia state compensation commission.
At the end of World War II, many individuals were leaving governmental employment and membership in the Conference declined from the peak of 281 in 1944 to 235 in 1946. Changes due to the transition to a peacetime economy, the development of other professional associations, and changes in the technical and administrative needs of state and local agencies, required the Conference to revise its constitution and make some major changes in its organizational structure.
The 1946 constitution revisions abandoned the concept of limiting full membership to only two individuals from each governmental industrial hygiene agency. This opened the doors to all of their professional personnel to participate in the activities of the organization on an equal basis. Governmental industrial hygiene personnel from foreign countries were also given the right to full membership. These changes, among others, were to have a salutary effect on the organization which, in 1946, changed its name to the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
In the mid 1950s, steady growth in membership resumed and by 1960 there were 511 members, including 54 from other countries. During the next decade these numbers more than doubled and in 1977 the total reached 1,800, of which 166 were from outside the United States.
For over 75 years, ACGIH has been dedicated to the industrial hygiene and occupational and environmental health and safety communities. They have grown and expanded without losing sight of their original goal - to encourage the interchange of experience among industrial hygiene workers and to collect and make accessible such information and data as might be of aid to them in the proper fulfillment of their duties. This original goal is reflected in both their current mission - the advancement of occupational and environmental health - and in their tagline: Defining the Science of Occupational and Environmental Health.
This scientific information is provided to members and others in the industry through our journal, professional conferences and seminars, as well as through a vast list of technical and scientific publications, including the TLVs and BEIs book.
Presently, nine ACGIH committees focus their energies on a range of topics: agricultural safety and health, air sampling instruments, bioaerosols, biological exposure indices, industrial ventilation, international, small business, chemical substance TLVs, and physical agent TLVs.
Publications
The Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene journal, was published from 1990 through 2003 and was formerly published as Applied Industrial Hygiene from 1986 through 1989. This ACGIH peer-reviewed journal provided scientific information and data to members until ACGIH and AIHA began publishing a joint journal.
The Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene (JOEH) is a joint publication of the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) and ACGIH. JOEH is a peer-reviewed journal devoted to enhancing the knowledge and practice of occupational and environmental hygiene and safety by widely disseminating research articles and applied studies of the highest quality.
Published monthly, JOEH provides a written medium for the communication of ideas, methods, processes, and research in the areas of occupational, industrial, and environmental hygiene; exposure assessment; engineering controls; occupational and environmental epidemiology, medicine and toxicology; ergonomics; and other related disciplines.
Committees
The activities of each Committee are directed by an individual mission statement.
Agricultural Safety & Health Committee
Mission - To promote those activities and programs necessary to our suited for agriculture or agro-business and to increase awareness of occupational health, safety. and environmental issues affecting this underserved population worldwide.
Air Sampling Instruments Committee
Mission - To report on the availability, efficiency, use, and limitations of existing and new sampling methodology and instrumentation.
Bioaerosols Committee
Mission - To compile and disseminate information on biologically derived contaminants that may become airborne, to develop recommendations for assessment, control, remediation, and prevention of such hazards, and to establish criteria for bioaerosol exposure limits.
Biological Exposure Indices Committee
Mission - To develop occupational biological exposure guidelines that are scientifically valid and supported by professional judgment, up-to-date, well-documented, understandable and clear, and produced by a clearly defined process that is balanced and free of conflict of interest.
Industrial Ventilation
Mission - To provide a safe and healthful environment by integrating state-of-the-art information from government and industry sources, using them to develop and recommend ventilation and other engineering controls to capture, collect, filter, and remove airborne contaminants from the workplace.
International Committee
Mission - To help develop and support ACGIH's international initiatives.
Small Business Committee
Mission - To develop and disseminate practical information that operators of small businesses and their employees can apply to the recognition, evaluation, and control of workplace hazards; and to assist and education safety and health professionals in working with small business concerns.
Threshold Limit Values for Chemicals Substances Committee
Mission - To recommend airborne concentrations of agents and exposure conditions for use in the practice of industrial hygiene and by other qualified professionals to protect worker health.
Threshold Limit Values for Physical Agents Committee
Mission - To develop and disseminate occupational exposure guidelines that are evidence-based, scientifically valid, and rigorously review.
TLVs and BEIs
ACGIH establishes the Threshold Limit Values ("TLVs") for chemical substances and physical agents and Biological Exposure Indices ("BEIs").
The Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances (TLV-CS) Committee was established in 1941. This group was charged with investigating, recommending, and annually reviewing exposure limits for chemical substances. It became a standing committee in 1944. Two years later, the organization adopted its first list of 148 exposure limits, then referred to as Maximum Allowable Concentrations. The term "Threshold Limit Values (TLV)" was introduced in 1956. The first list of Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices (the TLVs and BEIs book) was published in 1962. A new edition is now published annually. Today's list of TLVs and BEIs includes over 600 chemical substances and physical agents, as well as over 30 Biological Exposure Indices for selected chemicals.
The TLVs and BEIs are developed as guidelines to assist in the control of health hazards. These recommendations or guidelines are intended for use in the practice of industrial hygiene, to be interpreted and applied only by a person trained in this discipline.
In certain circumstances, individuals or organizations may wish to make use of these recommendations or guidelines if the use of TLVs and BEIs contributes to the overall improvement in worker protection.
References
External links
Occupational safety and health organizations
Safety organizations
Medical and health organizations based in Ohio
Non-profit organizations based in Cincinnati | [
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225950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mind%20Is%20a%20Terrible%20Thing%20to%20Taste | The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste | The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste is the fourth studio album by American industrial metal band Ministry, released on November 14, 1989 by Sire Records. The music took a more hardcore, aggressively guitar-driven direction, with Jourgensen inspired by Stormtroopers of Death and Rigor Mortis to add thrash metal guitars to the album and subsequent Ministry releases. As with most of Ministry's work, the album's lyrics deal mainly with political corruption, cultural violence, environmental degradation, nuclear war, drug addiction, and insanity.
Background
Jourgensen recalled the band's state as dysfunctional and the album's production as "complete chaos and mayhem", which gave the band a level of artistic freedom impossible had they planned it. Jourgensen says that despite being a fan favorite, it is not among his favorites because of the condition he was in at the time; he was heavily into drugs during recording and had a poor relationship with his bandmates. In one instance, he chased bassist Paul Barker around the studio with a chair and hit him on the head with it because he "couldn't stand him anymore". Jourgensen credited the era, the city, and the atmosphere at Chicago Trax Studios for the album. Bill Rieflin and Chris Connelly instead attributed the album's sound to the band's interest in technology.
For pre-production, Rieflin said he and Barker watched films for a month, sampling anything that caught their interest. Instead of writing music, they all improvised individually, rarely collaborating with each other. Connelly compared it to exquisite corpse, a Surrealist technique in which an artistic work is created collaboratively without any of the participants having knowledge of the others' contribution. Rieflin cited "So What" as the only track to feature two musicians in the studio at the same time.
After playing with the band on The Land of Rape and Honeys tour, Dave Ogilvie collaborated on this album. The New York-based rapper K-Lite sang vocals on "Test". Jourgensen said that Ministry and K-Lite had been recording songs at the same time at the studio. Both Jourgensen and K-Lite were impressed with the aggressiveness of each other's music, and Jourgensen invited him to contribute vocals for a track. Rieflin had previously recorded drums and bass after he became frustrated waiting for the others to contribute music to the track; Barker said he thinks that Rieflin played all the instruments on the song.
The female spoken word part of "Dream Song" is a recorded conversation with Angelina Lukacin, Jourgensen's future, and now ex-, wife. Jourgensen had met her while on tour in Canada and, impressed with her entertaining personality, called her on the phone several times while working on the album. Jourgensen recalled the conversations as her "babbling about dreams and angels" while high. Lukacin herself said "Dream Song" was a poem she wrote after having a dream about an angel. She did not know she was being recorded but enjoyed the song.
Album title and art
The title of the album is a reference to the UNCF's slogan, "A mind is a terrible thing to waste". Jourgensen was further inspired by the "Just Say No" anti-drug campaign. Rieflin said the other band members groaned when they heard it, but Jourgensen had the final say in naming. According to Connelly, the album art was inspired by a television program Jourgensen saw where migraine sufferers painted images of their pain. The image itself was a picture of an x-ray from a studio receptionist's mother, who had been in a car accident and received a metal plate. Jourgensen said he wanted that as the album artwork as soon as he found out about it, but the other band members disliked it. Barker praised the concept but said the execution was poor.
Release
The album peaked at #163 in the US and was certified Gold by the RIAA for sales in excess of 500,000 units in December 1995. "Burning Inside" reached #23 on Billboards Hot Modern Rock Tracks.
Reception
Music critic Tom Moon included the album in his book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, calling it "one of the great works of industrial music" and an influential album that is "way ahead of its time". In rating it 4.5/5 stars, AllMusic reviewer Marc van der Pol described it as a "wonderful album" that avoids the clichés common to industrial rock. Bill Wyman of the Chicago Tribune rated it 3/4 stars and called it Ministry's "best-sounding, most assured and consistent album". The A.V. Club, though praising the album's other tracks, described "Test" as "a novelty genre exercise from which Mind barely recovers". The A.V. Club also wrote about "So What", including it on a list of the best songs written from the point of view of a crazy person. They called it "the most obvious and best-executed" of Ministry's songs about violent psychosis.
Track listing
Samples
"Thieves"
"Get up! Get on your feet!" "You will not kill!" "I can't hear you!" – dialogue from R. Lee Ermey's drill instructor character in Full Metal Jacket. Jourgensen later attributed these samples to Kubrick's interest in having the band appear in A.I. Artificial Intelligence.
"I want peace." – Former U.S. President Richard Nixon.
"We are fighting for the liberation of man. Not for the rights of these pigs. The rights of society!" "We're going to rip this motherfucker off, we're going to tear this motherfucker down." "I hope they realize this is their last god damned chance!" "Power to the people!" from The War at Home documentary.
"Burning Inside"
(Intro of warning horn and synthesizer tones) - John Carpenter's The Thing (klaxons) and John Carpenter's Prince of Darkness (original score).
"Cannibal Song"
"The mind is a labyrinth." is from the film Hellbound: Hellraiser II.
"Breathe"
"Opening musical sequence (first 30 seconds)" - taken from the film Cry Freedom.
"So What"
The dialogue spoken during the song ("You have had all that money can give you", "Kill for a thrill", etc.) is from the judge's summing up at the end of the Ed Wood-scripted film The Violent Years.
"Go ahead!", "Assassin..." and the laughter sample are from the film Scarface.
"Faith Collapsing"
The song was inspired by a sample from Fahrenheit 451, and the band brainstormed from there. Other samples include Ingsoc propaganda from 1984.
"Dream Song"
Features the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir singing the song "Kalimankou Denkou" off of the 1975 compilation album Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares.
Personnel
Ministry
Alien Jourgensen – vocals (1-3, 5, 6), guitars, programming, production
Paul Barker – bass, programming, production
Additional personnel
Bill Rieflin – drums, programming, background vocals (8)
Mars Williams – saxophone (4)
Chris Connelly – lead vocals (3, 4), background vocals (5, 6)
The Grand Wizard (K. Lite) – vocals (7)
Joe Kelly – background vocals (1)
Kyle McKeough – background vocals (6)
Jeff Ward – background vocals (5)
Dave Ogilvie – background vocals (5, 8), engineer
The Slogan God (Tommie Boyskee) – vocals (7)
Bobbie DiBartollo – background vocals (8)
Angela Lukacen – vocals (9)
Keith Auerbach – engineer
Jeff Newell – engineer
Julian Herzfeld - engineer
"Dog" – cover design
"Ill" – cover design
Maura – cover design
Tom Young – cover photos
Tom Baker – mastering
Charts
References
1989 albums
Ministry (band) albums
Albums produced by Al Jourgensen
Sire Records albums
Warner Records albums | [
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] |
225951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%20hip%20hop | Polish hip hop | The Polish hip hop scene was born in the early 1990s, due to the popularity of American rap. Nevertheless, rap style in Polish music has its deep roots in the 1980s Polish punk rock, alternative rock, disco and funk music.
Polish hip-hop artists are well-known performers across Europe, especially in the former Eastern Bloc. Many rappers from Poland are collaborating with artists from Europe, the USA and even Cuba.
History
The first album by a Polish performer was East on the Mic by PM Cool Lee, which featured two songs in Polish. Lee was from Kielce, but Warsaw soon emerged as a center for hip hop, after KOLOR, a radio station, began broadcasting Kolor Shock, hosted by Bogna Świątkowska, Paul Jackson, an African American expatriate, Sylvia Opoku from London, and DJ Volt, whose crew, 1kHz, became performing stars in their own right in 1995. Volt also founded the first Polish independent hip hop label, Beat Records. Although the label did not last long, it did introduce groups like Trzyha and Molesta. In Poznań, PH Kopalnia's Polski Rap - Zakazane Piosenki (Polish rap - Forbidden Songs).
Now known as Liroy, the former PM Cool Lee released Alboom in 1995, which included the hit "Scyzoryk" (Penknife).
The most recognizable Polish hip hop band abroad is probably WWO, which is no longer active since 2006. Sokół (who is also the owner of the Prosto Label and the Prosto Wear company) since then recorded 3 albums with Pono and 2 with Marysia Starosta (who was also Sokół's fiancée). Jędker abandoned the Polish rap scene to make dance music with Robert M as Monopol (for which he is mocked and disrespected by the present Polish rap scene and most of the listeners) and DJ Deszczu Strugi is an owner of Otra Barwa Studio.
List of best-selling hip-hop music artists in Poland
General
Rappers
Bands
Duets
Singers
Producers
Foreign
See also
List of Polish musicians and musical groups#Hip-hop/rap
Notes
a. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Alboom (1995) - 4xPlatinum - 800,000 copies sold, Bafangoo Cz.1 (1996) - Gold - 100,000 copies sold, L (1997) - Gold - 100,000 copies sold, Dzień Szakala (Bafangoo Cz.2) (1999) - Platinum - 100,000 copies sold, and Bestseller (2001) - Gold - 50,000 copies sold.
b. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Slums Attack: Na legalu? (2001) - Platinum - 100,000 copies sold, Najlepszą obroną jest atak (2005) - Gold - 17,500 copies sold, Szacunek ludzi ulicy (2006) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, Fturując (2006) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, Reedukacja (2011) - Platinum - 30,000 copies sold, and CNO2 (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold. For Peja: Styl życia G'N.O.J.A. (2008) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold, and Na serio (2009) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
c. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for O.S.T.R.: HollyŁódź (2007) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, Ja tu tylko sprzątam (2008) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, O.c.b. (2009) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, Tylko dla dorosłych (2010) - Platinum - 30,000 copies sold, and Jazz, dwa, trzy (2011) - Platinum - 30,000 copies sold. For O.S.T.R. & Hades: Haos (2014) - 30,000 copies sold. For O.S.T.R. & Marco Polo: Kartagina (2013) - 15,000 copies sold. For POE (Projekt Ostry Emade) Złodzieje zapalniczek (2010) - 15,000 copies sold.
d. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Równonoc. Słowiańska Dusza (2012) - Diamond - 75,000 copies sold.
e. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Skandal (1998) - Gold - 50,000 copies sold, and Molesta i kumple (2008) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
f. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Sokół & Marysia Starosta: Czysta brudna prawda (2011) - Platinum - 30,000 copies sold, and Czarna biała magia (2013) - Platinum - 30,000 copies sold. For Sokół fest Pono: Teraz pieniądz w cenie (2007) - 15,000 copies sold.
g. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Droga (2009) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, Jedność (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, Lojalność (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, and Braterstwo (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
h. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: W 63 minuty dookoła świata (1998) - Gold - 50,000 copies sold.
i. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Kwiaty zła (2008) - Platinum - 15,000 copies sold , Dowód rzeczowy nr 1 (2010) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, and Dowód rzeczowy nr 2 (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
j. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Miuosh: Piąta strona świata (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, and Prosto przed siebie (2012) - Platinum - 30,000 copies sold. Fo Onar & Miuosh Nowe światło (2013) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
k. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Wideoteka (2003) - Gold - 35,000 copies sold.
l. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: WGW (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, and Jeden z Was (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
m. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Witam was w rzeczywistości (2005) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, and Życie na kredycie (2005) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
n. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Nie pytaj o nią (2008) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold, and Zapiski z 1001 nocy (2010) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
o. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Rekontatk (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
p. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Pezet & Małolat: Dziś w moim mieście (2010) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold. For Pezet: Radio Pezet. Produkcja Sidney Polak (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
q. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Mezo, Tabb & Kasia Wilk: Eudaimonia (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
r. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Note2 (2009) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold, FuckTede/Glam Rap (2010) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold, Mefistotedes (2012) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold, and Elliminati (2013) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold.
s. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: Złodzieje czasu (2009) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold, Dolina klaunoow (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
t. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Łona & Webber: Cztery i pół (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
u. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Kali: 50/50 (2011) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold, Gdy zgaśnie Słońce (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold. For Paluch & Kali: Milion dróg do śmierci (2013) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold. For Paluch: Lepszego życia diler (2013) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
w. Based on album certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: 23:55 (2010) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
x. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: for Ten Typ Mes: Kandydaci na szaleńców (2011) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold. For Popek: Monster (2013) - Gold - 7,500 copies sold. For Firma: Nasza broń to nasza pasja (2011) - Gold - 5,000 copies sold. For Zeus: Zeus. Nie żyje (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold. For Parias: Parias (2011) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold. For Paktofonika: Muzyka z filmu Jesteś Bogiem (2012) - Gold - 15,000 copies sold.
y. Based on albums certified by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry: The Marshall Mathers LP 2 (2004) - Platinum - 20,000 copies sold, Encore (2004) - Gold - 20,000 copies sold, The Eminem Show (2002) - Gold 20,000 copies sold, The Marshall Mathers (2000) - Platinum 40,000 copies sold.
References
Additional sources
For certification criteria by Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry between 2002-2005 (with time frame) Radek Miszczak, Andrzej Cała: Beaty, Rymy, Życie: Leksykon muzyki hip-hop. Poznań, Poland: Kurpisz S.A., 2005, page 22. .
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225956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%20Ames | Fisher Ames | Fisher Ames (; April 9, 1758 – July 4, 1808) was a Representative in the United States Congress from the 1st Congressional District of Massachusetts. He was an important leader of the Federalist Party in the House, and was noted for his oratorical skill.
Personal life
Ames was born in Dedham in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. His father, Dr. Nathaniel Ames, died when Fisher was but six years old, but his mother, Deborah Fisher resolved, in spite of her limited income, to give the boy a classical education. At the age of six he began the study of Latin, and at the age of twelve, he was sent to Harvard College, graduating in 1774 when he began work as a teacher. While teaching school Ames also studied law. He was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in Dedham in 1781.
He had a brother, also named Nathaniel Ames. He had polar opposite political views from his brother, and very different social styles as well. Nathaniel "enjoyed his role as country doctor, servant of the proletariat, and champion of the common man." He became the leader of the Democratic-Republican Party in Dedham. He was most at home around the farmers and laborers with whom he grew up. Fisher, on the other hand, liked to dress well, hobnob with Boston society, and was an influential Federalist. Fisher operated his law practice out of the first floor of the Ames Tavern.
He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1793. Ames had six children, including John, Seth, and William with his wife, Frances. Ames owned a farm on Federal Hill in Dedham that he rented out. If the weather was nice while he was home from Washington, he would walk to the farm every day to inspect the crops growing there.
Political career
Massachusetts
In 1788, he became a member of the Massachusetts convention that ratified the United States Constitution. His "lucid and persuasive" speeches in the convention helped to sway enough votes to adopt the Constitution. Later that year, he was elected to serve in the Massachusetts House of Representatives alongside Nathaniel Kingsbury.
After stepping down from Congress, he stayed in politics and was a member of the Governor's Council from 1798 to 1800. In his new role, Ames offered one of the great orations on the death of President Washington.
Federal
Ames was elected to the First United States Congress, having beaten Samuel Adams for the post. He was surprised by his win. He was a member of the Federalist Party, specifically its Essex Junto. James Madison wrote to Thomas Jefferson in 1794 that "Ames is said to owe his success to the votes of negroes and British sailors smuggled under a very lax mode of conducting the election there."
Ames also served in the Second and Third Congresses and as a Federalist to the Fourth Congress. He served in Congress from March 4, 1789 to March 3, 1797. During the First Congress, he was chairman of the Committee on Elections. In 1796, he was not a candidate for renomination but resumed the practice of law in Dedham.
Though he was young, he was considered one of the best orators in the Congress. Ames offered one of the first great speeches in American Congressional history when he spoke in favor of the Jay Treaty. Ames vigorously defended the interests of New England, such as opposing a tax on molasses. Despite his Federalist sympathies, Ames would dissent from his party when he felt it was not in the country's best interest. For example, in 1789 Ames argued against the appointment of Thomas Willing as the President of Hamilton's newly created Bank of the United States.
In 1794, the people of Charleston, South Carolina burned him in effigy alongside William Pitt, Benedict Arnold, and the Devil for his pro-British positions.
Political opinions
Ames became concerned by the rising popularity of Jefferson's Republicans, who advocated the United States adopt Republican type representative government along the lines of post-Revolution government in France. Hamilton's Federalists (of which Ames was one), although they too agreed with a Republic, advocated a stronger federal government with similar powers to the British example. Ames felt Federalism around a clear and firm constitution was the model the United States should follow to prevent the fledgling nation from failing. He cautioned against the excesses of democracy unfettered by morals and reason: "Popular reason does not always know how to act right, nor does it always act right when it knows." He also felt that democracy alone was too fragile a system to resist descent into tyranny. "A democracy cannot last. Its nature ordains that its next change should be into a military despotism....The reason is that the tyranny of what is called the people, and that by the sword, both operate alike to debase and corrupt, til there are neither men left with the spirit to desire liberty, nor morals with the power to sustain justice. Like the burning pestilence that destroys the human body, nothing can subsist by its dissolution but vermin." Likewise, Ames warned his countrymen of the dangers of flattering demagogues, who incite dis-union and lead their country into bondage:
"Our country is too big for union, too sordid for patriotism, too democratic for liberty. What is to become of it, He who made it best knows. Its vice will govern it, by practising upon its folly. This is ordained for democracies."
Later years
In the late 18th century, Massachusetts was a solidly Federalist state. Dedham, however, was divided between Federalists and Republicans.
Ames returned home to Dedham in 1797. Upon returning, he was alarmed by the growing number of Republicans in town, led by his brother Nathaniel, who lived next door. In 1798, he hosted a Fourth of July party for 60 residents that was complete with patriotic songs and speeches. The attendees wrote a complimentary letter to President John Adams, pledging their support should the new nation go to war with France. Referring to the XYZ Affair, they wanted France to know that "we bear no foreign yoke--we will pay no tribute."
Nathaniel Ames wrote in his diary that his brother had convinced "a few deluded people" into signing the letter by "squeezing teazing greazing" them with food and drink. Despite his brother the Congressman's efforts, Nathaniel believed that "the Great Mass of People" in the town were with the Republicans. For his part, Fisher wrote to Secretary of State Timothy Pickering after the party that "the progress of right opinions" was winning out in Dedham over "perhaps the most malevolent spirit that exists," the Republican Party. Members of the Federalist elite continued to visit him at his Dedham home, including Alexander Hamilton on June 24, 1800.
Ames supported calling Joshua Bates as minister of the First Church and Parish in Dedham, but later left that church and became an Episcopalian.
While attending a Town Meeting in Dedham, he rose to speak and delivered one of his "oratorical gems." A laborer rose to speak after him and said "Mr. Moderator, my brother Ames' eloquence reminds me of nothing but the shining of a firefly, which gives just enough light to show its own insignificance." He then immediately sat down.
In 1805, Ames was chosen president of Harvard University. He declined to serve because of failing health. As was just about everything he did in life, Ames' death on July 4, 1808 was an annoyance to his brother Nathaniel. Nathaniel had arraigned for a funeral in Dedham and had sent details to a printer to be published. George Cabot sent an employee to speak to Ames' widow about hosting the funeral in his home. The widow agreed. Nathaniel believed Cabot's intentions were to embarrass the Town of Dedham for its Republican political views and did not attend. Ames was interred in the Old Village Cemetery.
Legacy
He is the namesake of Ames Christian University. The Ames Schoolhouse, now Dedham's Town Hall, was named for him.
Despite his limited number of years in public service, Fisher Ames ranks as one of the more influential figures of his era. Ames led Federalist ranks in the House of Representatives. His acceptance of the Bill of Rights garnered support in Massachusetts for the new Constitution. His greatest fame however may have come as an orator, for which one historian has dubbed him "the most eloquent of the Federalists."
Writings
Ames got his start in politics by writing essays in the local press under the pen names of Camillus and Lucius Junius Brutus. doing so gave him a level of noteriety beyond the confines of Dedham. He also published a number of essays, critical of Jefferson's followers.
Notable quotes
"We have but a slender hold of our virtues; they ought, therefore, to be cherished with care, and practised with diligence."
"He who holds parley with vice and dishonor, is sure to become their slave and victim."
"The heart is more than half corrupted, that does not burn with indignation at the slightest attempt to seduce it."
"No man can be a sound lawyer who is not well read in the laws of Moses."
See also
Ames family
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
Arkin, Marc M. "Regionalism and the Religion Clauses: The Contribution of Fisher Ames." Buffalo Law Review 47 (1999): 763+.
Bernhard, Winfred E.A. Fisher Ames: Federalist and Statesman, 1758-1808. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965.
Douglass, Elisha P. "Fisher Ames, Spokesman for New England Federalism." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 103.5 (1959): 693-715. in JSTOR
Farrell, James M. "Fisher Ames and political judgment: Reason, passion, and vehement style in the Jay treaty speech." Quarterly Journal of Speech 76.4 (1990): 415-434.
Dictionary of American Biography (1934): Ames, Fisher
Primary sources
Works of Fisher Ames: With a Selection from His Speeches and Correspondence. Edited by Seth Ames. 2 vols. 1854.
External links
Fisher Ames Collection at the William L. Clements Library
1758 births
1808 deaths
Massachusetts lawyers
Members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts
Harvard College alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
People of colonial Massachusetts
Massachusetts Federalists
Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives
18th-century American politicians
Members of the Massachusetts Governor's Council
Burials at Old Village Cemetery | [
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225957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Ferguson%20%28minister%29 | Robert Ferguson (minister) | Robert Ferguson (c. 1637–1714) was a Scottish presbyterian minister, conspirator and political pamphleteer, known as "the Plotter".
Ancestry
He was the eldest son of William Ferguson (d. 1699) of Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, Scotland and Janet Black. His father disinherited him so the lands of Badifurrow passed to Ferguson's younger brother William, who pre-deceased William senior, so the lands were inherited by James Ferguson who immediately sold the estate and purchased Pitfour.
Another younger brother was Major General James Ferguson.
Life
After receiving a good education, probably at the University of Aberdeen, became a Presbyterian (Church of Scotland) minister.
According to Bishop Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians, but whether this be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became vicar of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by the Act of Uniformity 1662.
Some years later, having gained a reputation as a theological controversialist and become a person of importance among the Nonconformists, he attracted the notice of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury and the party which favoured the exclusion of the Duke of York from the throne, and he began to write political pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote "A Letter to a Person of Honour concerning the 'Black Box,'" in which he supported the claim of the Duke of Monmouth to the crown against that of the Duke of York [there was said to be a black box that contained a marriage contract between Charles II and Lucy Walter]. Returning to the subject after Charles II had solemnly denied the existence of a marriage between himself and Lucy Walter.
He took an active part in the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to be the author of the whole of the pamphlet "No Protestant Plot" (1681), parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury. Ferguson was deeply implicated in the Rye House Plot, although he asserted that he had frustrated both this and a subsequent attempt to assassinate the king, and he fled to the Netherlands with Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England early in 1683.
For his share in another plot against Charles II he was declared an outlaw, after which he entered into communication with Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Monmouth's reluctance to take part in this movement, he accompanied the duke to the west of England and drew up the manifesto against James II, escaping to the Netherlands after the Battle of Sedgemoor. He landed in England with William III of Orange in 1688, and aided William's cause with his pen, but William and his advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the Excise.
Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in correspondence with the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the plots against the life of William, and after his removal from the Excise in 1692 wrote violent pamphlets against the government. Although he was several times arrested on suspicion, he was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty, leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery.
It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led the English government to believe that he was a spy in their interests, and that his frequent escapes from justice were due to official connivance. In a proclamation issued for his arrest in 1683 he is described as "a tall lean man, dark brown hair, a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his face, speaks in the Scottish accent, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little in the shoulders."
Works
Besides numerous pamphlets, Ferguson wrote: History of the Revolution (1706); Qualifications requisite in a Minister of State (1710); and part of the History of all the Mobs, Tumults and Insurrections in Great Britain (London, 1715).
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
James Ferguson: Robert Ferguson, the Plotter. Edinburgh, 1887 (which gives a favourable account of Ferguson).
1630s births
1714 deaths
17th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
People from Aberdeenshire
Scottish writers
Scottish historians
Scottish spies
Scottish politicians
People of the Rye House Plot
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
17th-century spies
18th-century spies
Monmouth Rebellion
People from Godmersham | [
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225960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm%2069%3A%20The%20Way%20to%20Succeed%20and%20the%20Way%20to%20Suck%20Eggs | Psalm 69: The Way to Succeed and the Way to Suck Eggs | ΚΕΦΑΛΗΞΘ (commonly known as Psalm 69: The Way to Succeed and the Way to Suck Eggs or simply Psalm 69) is the fifth studio album by American industrial metal band Ministry, released on July 14, 1992, by Sire Records. It was produced by frontman Al Jourgensen and bassist Paul Barker, and was recorded from March 1991 to May 1992 in Chicago, Illinois and Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. The album's title, initially intended to be The Tapes of Wrath, ended up being derived from Aleister Crowley's The Book of Lies.
Psalm 69 features elements of speed metal, rockabilly, and psychobilly, with lyrics exploring social, political, and religious topics. With much anticipation following the success of Ministry's previous album The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste (1989), pressures on the band were said to be high, in addition to the growing substance abuse of several members and worsening relationships between them. It was also the first time Mike Scaccia had been significantly involved in a Ministry album, after appearing on tours in support of The Mind....
Preceded by lead single "Jesus Built My Hotrod", Psalm 69 was a critical and commercial success upon its release, peaking at number 27 on the US Billboard 200 and number 33 on the UK Albums Chart. It was supported by two more singles: "N.W.O." and "Just One Fix", with accompanying music videos directed by Peter Christopherson. Psalm 69 is considered to be Ministry's most successful album, having been certified gold in Canada and Australia, and platinum in the US. Following its release, Ministry joined the second annual Lollapalooza tour before commencing a tour through Europe and the US; "N.W.O.", "Just One Fix", and the title track have become permanent features of the band's live setlist. "N.W.O." was nominated for the Best Metal Performance at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards.
Background and recording
In March 1991, following the conclusion of the year-long tour in support of Revolting Cocks album Beers, Steers, and Queers, Al Jourgensen returned with his bandmates at Chicago Trax! studios, to work on Ministry's next major release. Jourgensen claimed that the record company Warner Bros. Records (to which Ministry were signed via their subsidiary, Sire Records) initially gave the band an enormous budget expecting a follow-up to The Mind... to become a big hit compared with Michael Jackson's album Thriller; actually, Jourgensen, as he claimed in 2013, with his then wife Patty (née Marsh) and guitarist Mike Scaccia spent most of the budget on drugs, paying $1,000 per day. Meanwhile, the first Lollapalooza tour had arrived in Chicago in early August 1991. Jourgensen went backstage attending a show by the band Butthole Surfers. After the gig, he had invited Butthole Surfers' singer Gibby Haynes to Chicago Trax! to record what became the vocals and spoken word parts for the song "Jesus Built My Hotrod". While finishing "Jesus Built My Hotrod", Jourgensen was contacted by Sire/Warner Bros. executives, who asked if he had any completed material. Jourgensen sent them "Jesus Built My Hotrod" since it was the only song recorded by this time. While the label was not happy with just having "Jesus Built My Hotrod", Jourgensen told them either to give another advance for further work or sign the band off. The label was doubtful if the band would record anything else, but decided to release "Jesus Built My Hotrod"; following its success, they gave the band necessary budget, with the condition that the band would eventually finish the record.
Besides drug problems, there was also growing animosity between the band's members, divided into two groups: while one group included Jourgensen and Scaccia, another—dubbed "the Book Club" by Jourgensen—included bassist Paul Barker, drummer Bill Rieflin and guest/live singer Chris Connelly. Jourgensen claimed that he and Scaccia added their parts separately from Barker, Rieflin and Connelly; once Jourgensen and Scaccia would come in, they erased about 80 percent of what the Book Club associates did.
The last songs included for the album, the instrumental tracks "Corrosion" and "Grace", were written mainly by Barker and recorded in February–March 1992; the album's last session was held on May 7, 1992. Over 15 months were spent on the recording, however, only nine of about 30 songs made its way onto the final cut, with the rest being distributed to side projects.
Etymology
The title of the album is linked to chapter 69 of The Book of Lies, a written work of Aleister Crowley, where he uses the expression "The way to succeed and the way to suck eggs" as a pun for the 69 sex position ("suck seed" and "suck eggs"). Moreover, Crowley titled the chapter ΚΕΦΑΛΗΞΘ (which translates literally as "shrugged" and contains the sound ΛΗΞ "licks") but has a second meaning as a compound of Greek κεφαλη ("head") and Ξ Θ (an encoded alphabetic reference to "69") which both have slang meanings in English for sexual acts).
Subsequent to the album's release, Ministry put multiple references to the number 69 in future albums. For example, the albums Dark Side of the Spoon and Houses of the Molé both have hidden tracks at track #69. A further reference to the number was exhibited on Houses of the Mole with a hidden track at #23 titled "Psalm 23", one third of 69.
Reception
Psalm 69 was ranked No. 80 on the Rolling Stone's "Top 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time" list, with author Suzy Exposito concluding that "the result of the album was a manic drag race into a swampy hellmouth of thrash Americana – and it worked". The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Accolades
"N.W.O." was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance at the Grammy Awards of 1993, but lost to Nine Inch Nails' "Wish".
Legacy
Video game composer Frank Klepacki cited Psalm 69 album as a primary influence in creating the soundtrack for the 1995 video game Command & Conquer.
Track listing
All songs credited to Ministry, except noted. Writing credits taken from ASCAP and BMI databases.
Chart positions and certifications
Album
Singles
Music certifications
Personnel
Credits adapted from the linear notes of the album.
Ministry
Al Jourgensen – vocals , guitars, keyboards, production
Mike Scaccia – guitar
Louis Svitek – guitar
Paul Barker – bass, programming, vocals, production
Bill Rieflin – drums
Additional musicians
Michael Balch – keyboards, programming
Howie Beno – programming
Gibby Haynes – vocals and lyrics
Production
Jeff "Critter" Newell – engineer
Paul Manno – engineer
Tom Baker – mastering
Paul Elledge – artwork
Dale Lavi – photography
"Thirst" – artwork assistant
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
ΚΕΦΑΛΗΞΘ's promotion at the July 25, 1992 [Vol. 104, No. 30] issue of Billboard via Google Books.
.
1992 albums
Ministry (band) albums
Albums produced by Al Jourgensen
Sire Records albums
Warner Records albums | [
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225965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentile%20rank | Percentile rank | In statistics, the percentile rank (PR) of a given score is the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are less than that score. Its mathematical formula is
where CF—the cumulative frequency—is the count of all scores less than or equal to the score of interest, F is the frequency for the score of interest, and N is the number of scores in the distribution. Alternatively, if CF is the count of all scores less than the score of interest, then
The figure illustrates the percentile rank computation and shows how the 0.5 × F term in the formula ensures that the percentile rank reflects a percentage of scores less than the specified score. For example, for the 10 scores shown in the figure, 60% of them are below a score of 4 (five less than 4 and half of the two equal to 4) and 95% are below 7 (nine less than 7 and half of the one equal to 7). Occasionally the percentile rank of a score is mistakenly defined as the percentage of scores lower than or equal to it, but that would require a different computation, one with the 0.5 × F term deleted. Typically percentile ranks are only computed for scores in the distribution but, as the figure illustrates, percentile ranks can also be computed for scores whose frequency is zero. For example, 90% of the scores are less than 6 (nine less than 6, none equal 6).
In educational measurement, a range of percentile ranks, often appearing on a score report, shows the range within which the test taker's "true" percentile rank probably occurs. The "true" value refers to the rank the test taker would obtain if there were no random errors involved in the testing process.
Percentile ranks are commonly used to clarify the interpretation of scores on standardized tests. For the test theory, the percentile rank of a raw score is interpreted as the percentage of examinees in the norm group who scored below the score of interest.
Percentile ranks are not on an equal-interval scale; that is, the difference between any two scores is not the same as between any other two scores whose difference in percentile ranks is the same. For example, is not the same distance as because of the bell-curve shape of the distribution. Some percentile ranks are closer to some than others. Percentile rank 30 is closer on the bell curve to 40 than it is to 20. If the distribution is normally distributed, the percentile rank can be inferred from the standard score.
See also
Quantile
Percentile
References
Summary statistics | [
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225966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AET | ISO 3166-2:ET | ISO 3166-2:ET is the entry for Ethiopia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Ethiopia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 2 administrations and 10 regional states.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Ethiopia. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(am): Amharic
(en): English
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Ethiopia
FIPS region codes of Ethiopia
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: ET
States of Ethiopia, Statoids.com
2:ET
ISO 3166-2
Ethiopia geography-related lists | [
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225968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Home | John Home | Rev John Home FRSE (13 September 1722 – 4 September 1808) was a Scottish minister, soldier and author. His play Douglas was a standard Scottish school text until the Second World War, but his work is now largely neglected. In 1783 he was one of the joint founders of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Biography
He was born on 13 September 1722 at Ancrum in Roxburghshire, but moved to Leith, near Edinburgh, in early childhood when his father, Alexander Home, a distant relation of the earls of Home, became town clerk. His mother was Christian Hay, the daughter of an Edinburgh lawyer. He was christened on 22 September 1722
John was educated at the Leith Grammar School, and at the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated MA in 1742. Though interested in being a soldier, he studied divinity, and was licensed to preach by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In the same year he joined as a volunteer against Bonnie Prince Charlie, and was taken prisoner at the Battle of Falkirk. With many others he was carried to Doune castle in Perthshire, but soon escaped, reaching Alloa on foot from where thet got passage on the sloop-of-war "Vulture" to Queensferry. From there he reached his father's house in Leith.
In July 1746, Home was presented to the parish of Athelstaneford in East Lothian, which had been left vacant by the death of Robert Blair.
In his spare time he visited his friends in Edinburgh and became especially close to David Hume who was a distant cousin. Other friends included Adam Smith, Adam Fergusson and William Robertson.
Home's first play, Agis, founded on Plutarch's narrative, was completed in 1747. He took it to London, England, and submitted it to David Garrick for representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected as unsuitable for the stage.
The tragedy of Douglas was suggested to him by hearing a lady sing the ballad of Gil Morrice or Child Maurice (Francis James Child, Popular Ballads, ii. 263).
The ballad supplied him with the outline of a simple and striking plot.
After five years, he completed his play and took it to London for Garrick's opinion.
It was rejected, but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it should be produced there.
It was performed on 14 December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite of the opposition of the presbytery, who summoned Alexander Carlyle to answer for having attended its representation.
Home wisely resigned his charge in 1757, after a visit to London, where Douglas was brought out at Covent Garden on 14 March. Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part which found a later exponent in Sarah Siddons. David Hume summed up his admiration for Douglas by saying that his friend possessed "the true theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined from the unhappy barbarism of the one and licentiousness of the other." Gray, writing to Horace Walpole (August 1757), said that the author "seemed to have retrieved the true language of the stage, which has been lost for these hundred years," but Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general enthusiasm, and averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole play (Boswell, Life, ed. Croker, 1348, p. 300).
In 1758, Home became private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron's influence procured him a pension of £300 per annum and in 1763 a sinecure worth another £500. Garrick produced Agis at Drury Lane on 21 February 1758. By dint of good acting and powerful support, according to Genest, the play lasted for eleven days, but it was lamentably inferior to Douglas. In 1760 his tragedy, The Siege of Aquileia, was put on the stage, Garrick taking the part of Aemilius. In 1769 another tragedy, The Fatal Discovery ran for nine nights; Alonzo also (1773) had fair success; but his last tragedy, Alfred (1778), was so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage.
Home was also an active participant in the social life of Edinburgh, and joined the Poker Club in 1762.
In May 1763 he succeeded George Lind as MP for Edinburgh.
In 1778, he joined a regiment formed by the Duke of Buccleuch. He sustained severe injuries in a fall from horseback which permanently affected his brain, and was persuaded by his friends to retire.
From 1767, he resided either at Edinburgh or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former parish.
It was at this time that he wrote his History of the Rebellion of 1745, which appeared in 1802.
Home died at Merchiston Bank, near Edinburgh, in his eighty-sixth year. He is buried in South Leith Parish Church. He died on 4 September and was buried on the 5th.
Works
The Works of John Home were collected and published by Henry Mackenzie in 1822 with "An Account of the Life and Writings of Mr John House," which also appeared separately in the same year, but several of his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor's observation. These are: "The Fate of Caesar", "Verses upon Inveraray", "Epistle to the Earl of Eglintoun", "Prologue on the Birthday of the Prince of Wales, 1759" and several "Epigrams", which are printed in vol. ii. of Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen (1762). See also Sir W Scott, "The Life and Works of John Home" in the Quarterly Review (June 1827). Douglas is included in numerous collections of British drama. Voltaire published his Le Gaffe, ou l'Ecossaise (1760), Londres (really Geneva), as a translation from the work of Hume, described as pasteur de l'église d'Edimbourg, but Home seems to have taken no notice of the mystification.
Memorials
Home is amongst the sixteen writers and poets depicted on the lower capital heads of the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh. He appears at the far right side on the east face.
A small bronze plaque stands near the site of his home on Maritime Street in Leith. His house was demolished in the 1950s and now holds a modern housing development (Bell's Court).
See also
References
External links
John Home at James Boswell – a Guide
Scottish literature
Scottish dramatists and playwrights
Scottish poets
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
1722 births
1808 deaths
British Army personnel of the Jacobite rising of 1745
People from Leith
People educated at Leith Academy
19th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
People from the Scottish Borders
Scottish educators
Scottish historians
18th-century British dramatists and playwrights
Paintings by Henry Raeburn
18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland | [
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225970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Forbes%20%28New%20Zealand%20politician%29 | George Forbes (New Zealand politician) | George William Forbes (; 12 March 1869 – 17 May 1947) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 22nd prime minister of New Zealand from 28 May 1930 to 6 December 1935.
Forbes was born in Lyttelton and later began farming near Christchurch. He became active in local politics. Forbes first entered the House of Representatives in 1908 as a member of the Liberal Party, and when that party declined he became the leader of the newly created United Party in 1928. His rise to power as Prime Minister was unexpected, and some believed him unsuited to the post; it was his misfortune to hold office during the very worst period of the Great Depression. He nevertheless remained in power for five years. Forbes headed the United–Reform coalition Government that eventually became the modern National Party.
Often referred to as "Honest George", Forbes had a reputation for probity, rare debating skill, and impressive memory. His courteous and friendly attitude earned him the liking and respect of parliamentarians from all sides of the House. Throughout his time in national politics his Hurunui constituents held Forbes in high regard: even when Prime Minister he would roll up his sleeves and help load sheep from his farm on the railway wagons for market.
Early life
Forbes was born in Lyttelton, just outside the city of Christchurch. He gained his education at Christchurch Boys' High School in Christchurch, and did not attend university. He became known for his ability at sport, particularly in athletics, rowing, and rugby where he captained the Canterbury team. After finishing school he briefly worked in his father's ships' chandlery business in Lyttelton, but later established himself as a successful farmer near Cheviot, to the north of Christchurch. He quickly became active in the local politics of the region, particularly with regard to the Cheviot County Council and the Cheviot Settlers' Association.
Entry to Parliament
At the , Forbes made his first attempt to enter national politics, standing for the electorate. He stood as an independent, having failed to gain the Liberal Party nomination. He lost the election. At the , however, he became the Liberal Party's official Hurunui candidate, and won the seat of Hurunui. He would hold this seat for thirty-five years.
Forbes remained a backbencher for some time, but became the Liberal Party's Whip when party leader Thomas Mackenzie became Prime Minister in March 1912. He retained this position when his party went into Opposition on 10 July 1912. However, he had considerably higher status within the party than his official responsibilities indicated, although few thought of him as a potential leader.
By the early 1920s, the Liberal Party faced a decision as to its political future. The Reform Party government of William Massey dominated the political scene, having secured the conservative vote, while the growing Labour Party had started to undermine Liberal's progressive voter-base. Many members of the Liberal Party believed an alliance with the Reform Party inevitable, seeing such co-operation as necessary to counteract the "radicalism" of the Labour Party. When Massey died in 1925, Liberal leader Thomas Wilford decided to approach Massey's successor with a merger-proposal, suggesting that the new party could use the name "the National Party". The Liberal Party chose Forbes to represent them at a joint conference. The new Reform Party leader, Gordon Coates, rejected the proposal, although Wilford declared that Liberal would adopt the name "National" regardless.
Party leader
Shortly after the merger proposal was rejected, Wilford resigned as leader, and Forbes unexpectedly became party leader. In the election later that year, however, the party did very badly, gaining only eleven seats compared with Reform's fifty-five. To compound the injury, Forbes no longer even held the post of Leader of the Opposition – the Labour Party had won twelve seats, enabling its leader Harry Holland to claim seniority in Opposition, although with two independents sitting in opposition as well the position of Leader of the Opposition remained vacant until Labour won the 1926 Eden by-election.
The party's poor fortune did not last long, however. In 1927, Liberal Party politician Bill Veitch secured an alliance with Albert Davy, a former Reform Party organiser who had become dissatisfied with what he saw as Reform's paternalism and intrusive governance. The former Liberal Party (still known as National) absorbed Davy's new "United New Zealand Political Organization", and adopted the name "the United Party". Forbes and Veitch both vied as candidates for the leadership of the United Party, but the position eventually went to a former Liberal Party Prime Minister, Joseph Ward. Forbes became one of two deputy leaders, having particular responsibility for the South Island.
Under the United banner, bolstered by Reform Party dissidents, the remnants of the old Liberal Party once again gained traction. In the 1928 election, United formed a government with backing from the Labour Party. Forbes gained the portfolios of Lands and Agriculture. Gradually, however, Ward's health declined to the state where he was unable to carry out his duties, and Forbes became leader in all but name. In 1930, Ward finally gave his official resignation, and Forbes became Prime Minister. He also made himself Minister of Finance.
Prime Minister
As Prime Minister, Forbes, described as "apathetic and fatalistic", reacted to events but showed little vision or purpose. Opponents also criticised him for relying too much on the advice of his friends. However, the depression years proved a difficult time for many governments around the world, and his defenders claim that he did the best job possible in the circumstances of the economic crisis. During his premiership, Forbes also served as the Minister of External Affairs between 1930 and 1935.
The Forbes government began to show signs of instability when the Labour Party withdrew its support. Labour expressed dissatisfaction with a number of the government's economic measures – Forbes intended them to reduce the government deficit and to stimulate the economy, but Labour claimed that they unnecessarily harmed the interests of poorer citizens. Forbes had perforce to continue with reluctant support from the Reform Party, which now feared Labour's growing popularity.
In late 1931, Forbes called for a "grand coalition" of United, Reform, and Labour to resolve the country's economic problems. Forbes told a joint conference that he would not implement the measures he deemed necessary without broad backing. Labour refused to join this coalition, but ex-PM Coates (prompted by the Reform Party's finance spokesperson, William Downie Stewart Jr) eventually agreed.
In the 1931 election, the United-Reform Coalition performed well, winning a combined total of fifty-one seats. Forbes remained Prime Minister, but surrendered the finance role to William Stewart. Slowly, however, many people came to believe that Coates held significantly too much power, and that Forbes showed himself overwilling to give in to Coates' demands. This view became reinforced when Coates and Stewart argued over financial policy – although Forbes was known to prefer Stewart's policy, he publicly sided with Coates, and Stewart resigned.
Coates replaced Stewart as Minister of Finance, and became even more dominant in the coalition. Stewart, noting this, complained that "the Prime Minister is too passive and the Minister of Finance is too active". Both Forbes and Coates, however, increasingly took the blame for the country's ongoing economic problems, and could not avoid public dissatisfaction. In the election of 1935 the Labour Party defeated the coalition government, gaining fifty-five votes to the coalition's nineteen.
In 1935, Forbes was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal, and in 1937, he was awarded the King George VI Coronation Medal.
Retirement
By 1935 Forbes had become increasingly weary of politics, writing that he agreed with Stewart's description of the profession as "slavery that is miscalled power". Nevertheless, Forbes reluctantly allowed his colleagues to select him as Leader of the Opposition, and from May 1936 led the new National Party (created out of United and Reform) until October 1936 when Adam Hamilton became the party leader. Both party and leader agreed on Forbes's tenure as leader of the new National Party as a temporary measure, as Forbes had indicated his desire to withdraw from the limelight, and younger figures in the party saw his past tenure as a political liability.
Forbes retained his parliamentary seat until 1943, when he retired after 35 years as a Member of Parliament. He declined the offer of the customary knighthood, and four years after his retirement he died at Crystal Brook, his farm near Cheviot.
The national memorial for Forbes, the George Forbes Memorial Library, forms part of Lincoln University near Christchurch.
References
Further reading
Work of Forbes
Works about Forbes
External links
Encyclopaedia of New Zealand 1966 (George William Forbes)
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Attorneys-General of New Zealand
Prime Ministers of New Zealand
Local political office-holders in New Zealand
New Zealand farmers
New Zealand finance ministers
New Zealand foreign ministers
New Zealand Liberal Party MPs
New Zealand National Party MPs
Leaders of political parties in New Zealand
People from Lyttelton, New Zealand
1869 births
1947 deaths
People educated at Christchurch Boys' High School
Leaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)
United Party (New Zealand) MPs
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
New Zealand MPs for South Island electorates
New Zealand members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom | [
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225971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized%20test | Standardized test | A standardized test is a test that is administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner. Standardized tests are designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent and are administered and scored in a predetermined, standard manner.
Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers, and graded in the same manner for everyone, is a standardized test. Standardized tests do not need to be high-stakes tests, time-limited tests, or multiple-choice tests. A standardized test may be any type of test: a written test, an oral test, or a practical skills performance test. The questions can be simple or complex. The subject matter among school-age students is frequently academic skills, but a standardized test can be given on nearly any topic, including driving tests, creativity, athleticism, personality, professional ethics, or other attributes.
The opposite of standardized testing is non-standardized testing, in which either significantly different tests are given to different test takers, or the same test is assigned under significantly different conditions (e.g., one group is permitted far less time to complete the test than the next group) or evaluated differently (e.g., the same answer is counted right for one student, but wrong for another student).
Most everyday quizzes and tests taken by students during school meet the definition of a standardized test: everyone in the class takes the same test, at the same time, under the same circumstances, and all of the students are graded by their teacher in the same way. However, the term standardized test is most commonly used to refer to tests that are given to larger groups, such as a test taken by all adults who wish to acquire a license to have a particular kind of job, or by all students of a certain age.
Because everyone gets the same test and the same grading system, standardized tests are often perceived as being fairer than non-standardized tests. Such tests are often thought of as fairer and more objective than a system in which some students get an easier test and others get a more difficult test. Standardized tests are designed to permit reliable comparison of outcomes across all test takers, because everyone is taking the same test. However, both testing in general and standardized testing in specific are criticized by some people. For example, some people believe that it is unfair to ask all students the same questions, if some students' schools did not have the same learning standards.
Definition
The definition of a standardized test has changed somewhat over time. In 1960, standardized tests were defined as those in which the conditions and content were equal for everyone taking the test, regardless of when, where, or by whom the test was given or graded. The purpose of this standardization is to make sure that the scores reliably indicate the abilities or skills being measured, and not other things, such as different instructions about what to do if the test taker does not know the answer to a question.
By the beginning of the 21st century, the focus shifted away from a strict sameness of conditions towards equal fairness of conditions. For example, a test taker with a broken wrist might write more slowly because of the injury, and it would be more equitable, and produce a more reliable understanding of the test taker's actual knowledge, if that person were given a few more minutes to write down the answers to a time-limited test. Changing the testing conditions in a way that improves fairness with respect to a permanent or temporary disability, but without undermining the main point of the assessment, is called accommodation. However, if the purpose of the test were to see how quickly the student could write, then giving the test taker extra time would become a modification of the content, and no longer a standardized test.
History
China
The earliest evidence of standardized testing was in China, during the Han Dynasty, where the imperial examinations covered the Six Arts which included music, archery, horsemanship, arithmetic, writing, and knowledge of the rituals and ceremonies of both public and private parts. These exams were used to select employees for the state bureaucracy.
Later, sections on military strategies, civil law, revenue and taxation, agriculture and geography were added to the testing. In this form, the examinations were institutionalized for more than a millennium.
Today, standardized testing remains widely used, most famously in the Gaokao system.
UK
Standardized testing was introduced into Europe in the early 19th century, modeled on the Chinese mandarin examinations, through the advocacy of British colonial administrators, the most "persistent" of which was Britain's consul in Guangzhou, China, Thomas Taylor Meadows. Meadows warned of the collapse of the British Empire if standardized testing was not implemented throughout the empire immediately.
Prior to their adoption, standardized testing was not traditionally a part of Western pedagogy. Based on the skeptical and open-ended tradition of debate inherited from Ancient Greece, Western academia favored non-standardized assessments using essays written by students. It is because of this, that the first European implementation of standardized testing did not occur in Europe proper, but in British India. Inspired by the Chinese use of standardized testing, in the early 19th century, British "company managers hired and promoted employees based on competitive examinations in order to prevent corruption and favoritism." This practice of standardized testing was later adopted in the late 19th century by the British mainland. The parliamentary debates that ensued made many references to the "Chinese mandarin system".
It was from Britain that standardized testing spread, not only throughout the British Commonwealth, but to Europe and then America. Its spread was fueled by the Industrial Revolution. The increase in number of school students during and after the Industrial Revolution, as a result of compulsory education laws, decreased the use of open-ended assessment, which was harder to mass-produce and assess objectively due to its intrinsically subjective nature.
Standardized tests such as the War Office Selection Boards were developed for the British Army during the Second World War to choose candidates for officer training and other tasks. The tests looked at soldiers' mental abilities, mechanical skills, ability to work with others, and other qualities. Previous methods had suffered from bias and resulted in choosing the wrong soldiers for officer training.
United States
Standardized testing has been a part of American education since the 19th century, but the widespread reliance on standardized testing in schools in the US is largely a 20th-century phenomenon.
Immigration in the mid-19th century contributed to the growth of standardized tests in the United States. Standardized tests were used when people first entered the US to test social roles and find social power and status.
The College Entrance Examination Board did not offer standardized testing for university and college admission until 1900. Their first examinations were administered in 1901, in nine subjects. This test was implemented with the idea of creating standardized admissions for the United States in northeastern elite universities. Originally, the test was also meant for top boarding schools, in order to standardize curriculum. Originally the standardized test was made of essays and was not intended for widespread testing.
During World War I, the Army Alpha and Beta tests were developed to help place new recruits in appropriate assignments based upon their assessed intelligence levels. The first edition of a modern standardized test for IQ, the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Test, appeared in 1916. The College Board then designed the SAT (Scholar Aptitude Test) in 1926. The first SAT test was based on the Army IQ tests, with the goal of determining the test taker's intelligence, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking. In 1959, Everett Lindquist offered the ACT (American College Testing) for the first time. As of 2020, the ACT includes four main sections with multiple-choice questions to test English, mathematics, reading, and science, plus an optional writing section.
Individual states began testing large numbers of children and teenagers through the public school systems in the 1970s. By the 1980s, American schools were assessing nationally. In 2012, 45 states paid an average of $27 per student, and $669 million overall, on large-scale annual academic tests. However, other costs, such as paying teachers to prepare students for the tests and for class time spent administering the tests, significantly exceeds the cost of the test itself.
The need for the federal government to make meaningful comparisons across a highly de-centralized (locally controlled) public education system has encouraged the use of large-scale standardized testing. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 required some standardized testing in public schools. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 further tied some types of public school funding to the results of standardized testing.
The goal of No Child Left Behind was to improve the education system in the United States by holding schools and teachers accountable for student achievement, including the educational achievement gap between minority and non-minority children in public schools. An additional factor in the United States education system is the socioeconomic background of the students being tested. According to the National Center for Children in Poverty, 41 percent of children under the age of 18 come from lower-income families. These students require specialized attention to perform well in school and on the standardized tests.
Under these federal laws, the school curriculum was still set by each state, but the federal government required states to assess how well schools and teachers were teaching the state-chosen material with standardized tests. Students' results on large-scale standardized tests were used to allocate funds and other resources to schools, and to close poorly performing schools. The Every Student Succeeds Act replaced the NCLB at the end of 2015. By that point, these large-scale standardized tests had become controversial in the United States because they were high-stakes tests for the school systems and teachers.
Australia
The Australian National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) standardized testing was commenced in 2008 by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, an independent authority "responsible for the development of a national curriculum, a national assessment program and a national data collection and reporting program that supports 21st century learning for all Australian students".
The testing includes all students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 in Australian schools to be assessed using national tests. The subjects covered in these testings include Reading, Writing, Language Conventions (Spelling, Grammar and Punctuation) and Numeracy.
The program presents students level reports designed to enable parents to see their child's progress over the course of their schooling life, and help teachers to improve individual learning opportunities for their students. Students and school level data are also provided to the appropriate school system on the understanding that they can be used to target specific supports and resources to schools that need them most. Teachers and schools use this information, in conjunction with other information, to determine how well their students are performing and to identify any areas of need requiring assistance.
The concept of testing student achievement is not new, although the current Australian approach may be said to have its origins in current educational policy structures in both the US and the UK. There are several key differences between the Australian NAPLAN and the UK and USA strategies. Schools that are found to be under-performing in the Australian context will be offered financial assistance under the current federal government policy.
Colombia
In 1968 the Colombian Institute for the evaluation of education - ICFES was born to regulate higher education. The previous public evaluation system for the authorization of operation and legal recognition for institutions and university programs was implemented.
Colombia has several standardized tests that assess the level of education in the country. These exams are performed by the ICFES.
Students in third grade, fifth grade and ninth grade take the "Saber 3°5°9°" exam. This test is currently presented on a computer in controlled and census samples.
Upon leaving high school students present the "Saber 11" that allows them to enter different universities in the country. Students studying at home can take this exam to graduate from high school and get their degree certificate and diploma.
Students leaving university must take the "Saber Pro" exam.
Canada
Canada leaves education, and standardized testing as result, under the jurisdiction of the provinces. Each province has its own province-wide standardized testing regime, ranging from no required standardized tests for students in Ontario to exams worth 50% of final high school grades in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Design and scoring
Design
Most commonly, a major academic test includes both human-scored and computer-scored sections.
A standardized test can be composed of multiple-choice questions, true-false questions, essay questions, authentic assessments, or nearly any other form of assessment. Multiple-choice and true-false items are often chosen for tests that are taken by thousands of people because they can be given and scored inexpensively, quickly, and reliably through using special answer sheets that can be read by a computer or via computer-adaptive testing. Some standardized tests have short-answer or essay writing components that are assigned a score by independent evaluators who use rubrics (rules or guidelines) and benchmark papers (examples of papers for each possible score) to determine the grade to be given to a response.
Any subject matter
Not all standardized tests involve answering questions. An authentic assessment for athletic skills could take the form of running for a set amount of time or dribbling a ball for a certain distance. Healthcare professionals must pass tests proving that they can perform medical procedures. Candidates for driver's licenses must pass a standardized test showing that they can drive a car. The Canadian Standardized Test of Fitness has been used in medical research, to determine how physically fit the test takers are.
Machine and human scoring
Since the latter part of the 20th century, large-scale standardized testing has been shaped in part, by the ease and low cost of grading of multiple-choice tests by computer. Most national and international assessments are not fully evaluated by people.
People are used to score items that are not able to be scored easily by computer (such as essays). For example, the Graduate Record Exam is a computer-adaptive assessment that requires no scoring by people except for the writing portion.
Human scoring is relatively expensive and often variable, which is why computer scoring is preferred when feasible. For example, some critics say that poorly paid employees will score tests badly. Agreement between scorers can vary between 60 and 85 percent, depending on the test and the scoring session. For large-scale tests in schools, some test-givers pay to have two or more scorers read each paper; if their scores do not agree, then the paper is passed to additional scorers.
Though the process is more difficult than grading multiple-choice tests electronically, essays can also be graded by computer. In other instances, essays and other open-ended responses are graded according to a pre-determined assessment rubric by trained graders. For example, at Pearson, all essay graders have four-year university degrees, and a majority are current or former classroom teachers.
Use of rubrics for fairness
Using a rubric is meant to increase fairness when the student's performance is evaluated. In standardized testing, measurement error (a consistent pattern of errors and biases in scoring the test) is easy to determine in standardized testing. In non-standardized assessment, graders have more individual discretion and therefore are more likely to produce unfair results through unconscious bias. When the score depends upon the graders' individual preferences, then the result an individual student receives depends upon who grades the test. Standardized tests also remove teacher bias in assessment. Research shows that teachers create a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in their assessment of students, granting those they anticipate will achieve with higher scores and giving those who they expect to fail lower grades.
Using scores for comparisons
There are two types of standardized test score interpretations: a norm-referenced score interpretation or a criterion-referenced score interpretation.
Norm-referenced score interpretations compare test-takers to a sample of peers. The goal is to rank students as being better or worse than other students. Norm-referenced test score interpretations are associated with traditional education. Students who perform better than others pass the test, and students who perform worse than others fail the test.
Criterion-referenced score interpretations compare test-takers to a criterion (a formal definition of content), regardless of the scores of other examinees. These may also be described as standards-based assessments, as they are aligned with the standards-based education reform movement. Criterion-referenced score interpretations are concerned solely with whether or not this particular student's answer is correct and complete. Under criterion-referenced systems, it is possible for all students to pass the test, or for all students to fail the test.
Either of these systems can be used in standardized testing. What is important to standardized testing is whether all students are asked equivalent questions, under equivalent circumstances, and graded equally. In a standardized test, if a given answer is correct for one student, it is correct for all students. Graders do not accept an answer as good enough for one student but reject the same answer as inadequate for another student.
The term normative assessment refers to the process of comparing one test-taker to his or her peers. A norm-referenced test (NRT) is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population. The estimate is derived from the analysis of test scores and other relevant data from a sample drawn from the population. This type of test identifies whether the test taker performed better or worse than other students taking this test. A criterion-referenced test (CRT) is a style of test which uses test scores to show whether or not test takers performed well on a given task, not how well they performed compared to other test takers. Most tests and quizzes that are written by school teachers are criterion-referenced tests. In this case, the objective is simply to see whether the student can answer the questions correctly. The teacher is not usually trying to compare each student's result against other students.
This makes standardized tests useful for admissions purposes in higher education, where a school is trying to compare students from across the nation or across the world. Examples of such international benchmark tests include the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). Performance on these exams have been speculated to change based on the way standards like the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) line up with top countries across the world.
Because the results can be compared across dissimilar schools, the results of a national standardized test can be used to determine what areas need to be improved. Tests that are taken by everyone can help the government determine which schools and which students are struggling the most. With this information, they can implement solutions to fix the issue, allowing students to learn and grow in an academic environment.
Standards
The considerations of validity and reliability typically are viewed as essential elements for determining the quality of any standardized test. However, professional and practitioner associations frequently have placed these concerns within broader contexts when developing standards and making overall judgments about the quality of any standardized test as a whole within a given context.
Evaluation standards
In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards was published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards was published in 2003.
Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. The tests are aimed at ensuring that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance, however; standardized tests offer narrow information on many forms of intelligence and relying on them harms students because they inaccurately measure a student's potential for success.
Testing standards
In the field of psychometrics, the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing place standards about validity and reliability, along with errors of measurement and issues related to the accommodation of individuals with disabilities. The third and final major topic covers standards related to testing applications, credentialing, plus testing in program evaluation and public policy.
Statistical validity
One of the main advantages of standardized testing is that the results can be empirically documented; therefore, the test scores can be shown to have a relative degree of validity and reliability, as well as results which are generalizable and replicable. This is often contrasted with grades on a school transcript, which are assigned by individual teachers. It may be difficult to account for differences in educational culture across schools, difficulty of a given teacher's curriculum, differences in teaching style, and techniques and biases that affect grading.
Another advantage is aggregation. A well designed standardized test provides an assessment of an individual's mastery of a domain of knowledge or skill which at some level of aggregation will provide useful information. That is, while individual assessments may not be accurate enough for practical purposes, the mean scores of classes, schools, branches of a company, or other groups may well provide useful information because of the reduction of error accomplished by increasing the sample size.
Test takers
There is criticism from students themselves that tests, while standardized, are unfair to the individual student. Some students are "bad test takers", meaning they get nervous and unfocused on tests. Therefore, while the test is standard and should provide fair results, the test takers are at a disadvantage, but have no way to prove their knowledge otherwise, as there is no other testing alternative that allows students to prove their knowledge and problem-solving skills.
Some students have test anxiety. Test anxiety applies to standardized tests as well, where students who may not have test anxiety regularly feel immense pressure to perform when the stakes are so high. High-stakes standardized testing includes exams like the SAT, the PARCC, and the ACT, where doing well is required for grade passing or college admission.
Annual standardized tests at school
Standardized testing is a very common way of determining a student's past academic achievement and future potential. However, high-stakes tests (whether standardized or non-standardized) can cause anxiety. When teachers or schools are rewarded for better performance on tests, then those rewards encourage teachers to "teach to the test" instead of providing a rich and broad curriculum. In 2007 a qualitative study done by Au Wayne demonstrated that standardized testing narrows the curriculum and encourages teacher-centered instruction instead of student-centered learning.
The validity, quality, or use of tests, particularly annual standardized tests common in education have continued to be widely both supported or criticized. Like the tests themselves, supports and criticisms of tests are often varied and may come from a variety of sources such as parents, test takers, instructors, business groups, universities, or governmental watchdogs.
Supporters of large-scale standardized tests in education often provide the following reasons for promoting testing in education:
Feedback or diagnosis of test taker's performance
Fair and efficient
Promotes accountability
Prediction and selection
Improves performance
Critics of standardized tests in education often provide the following reasons for revising or removing standardized tests in education:
Narrows curricular format and encourages teaching to the test.
Poor predictive quality.
Grade inflation of test scores or grades.
Culturally or socioeconomically biased.
Psychologically damaging.
Poor indicator of intelligence or ability.
Effects on schools
Standardized testing is used as a public policy strategy to establish stronger accountability measures for public education. While the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) has served as an educational barometer for some thirty years by administering standardized tests on a regular basis to random schools throughout the United States, efforts over the last decade at the state and federal levels have mandated annual standardized test administration for all public schools across the country.
The idea behind the standardized testing policy movement is that testing is the first step to improving schools, teaching practice, and educational methods through data collection. Proponents argue that the data generated by the standardized tests act like a report card for the community, demonstrating how well local schools are performing. Critics of the movement, however, point to various discrepancies that result from current state standardized testing practices, including problems with test validity and reliability and false correlations (see Simpson's paradox).
Along with administering and scoring the actual tests, in some cases the teachers are being scored on how well their own students perform on the tests. Teachers are under pressure to continuously raise scores to prove they are worthy of keeping their jobs. This approach has been criticized because there are so many external factors, such as domestic violence, hunger, and homelessness among students, that affect how well students perform.
Performance-based pay is the idea that teachers should be paid more if the students perform well on the tests, and less if they perform poorly. New Jersey Governor Chris Christie proposed educational reform in New Jersey that pressures teachers not only to "teach to the test," but also have their students perform at the potential cost of their salary and job security. The reform called for performance-based pay that depends on students' performances on standardized tests and their educational gains.
Schools that score poorly wind up being slated for closure or downsizing, which gives direct influence on the administration to result to dangerous tactics such as intimidation, cheating and drilling of information to raise scores.
Uncritical use of standardized test scores to evaluate teacher and school performance is inappropriate, because the students' scores are influenced by three things: what students learn in school, what students learn outside of school, and the students' innate intelligence. The school only has control over one of these three factors. Value-added modeling has been proposed to cope with this criticism by statistically controlling for innate ability and out-of-school contextual factors. In a value-added system of interpreting test scores, analysts estimate an expected score for each student, based on factors such as the student's own previous test scores, primary language, or socioeconomic status. The difference between the student's expected score and actual score is presumed to be due primarily to the teacher's efforts.
Affecting what is taught to students
Offers guidance to teachers. Standardized tests will allow teachers to see how their students are performing compared to others in the country. This will help them revise their teaching methods if necessary to help their students meet the standards.
Allows students to see own progress. Students will be given the opportunity to reflect on their scores and see where their strengths as well as weaknesses are.
Provide parents information about their child. The scores can allow parents to get an idea about how their child is doing academically compared to everyone else of the same age in the nation.
Critics also charge that standardized tests encourage "teaching to the test" at the expense of creativity and in-depth coverage of subjects not on the test. Multiple choice tests are criticized for failing to assess skills such as writing. Furthermore, student's success is being tracked to a teacher's relative performance, making teacher advancement contingent upon a teacher's success with a student's academic performance. Ethical and economical questions arise for teachers when faced with clearly underperforming or underskilled students and a standardized test.
Critics contend that overuse and misuse of these tests harms teaching and learning by narrowing the curriculum. According to the group FairTest, when standardized tests are the primary factor in accountability, schools use the tests to narrowly define curriculum and focus instruction. Accountability creates an immense pressure to perform and this can lead to the misuse and misinterpretation of standardized tests.
Critics say that "teaching to the test" disfavors higher-order learning; it transforms what the teachers are allowed to be teaching and heavily limits the amount of other information students learn throughout the years. While it is possible to use a standardized test without letting its contents determine curriculum and instruction, frequently, what is not tested is not taught, and how the subject is tested often becomes a model for how to teach the subject.
Critics also object to the type of material that is typically tested by schools. Although standardized tests for non-academic attributes such as the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking exist, schools rarely give standardized tests to measure initiative, creativity, imagination, curiosity, good will, ethical reflection, or a host of other valuable dispositions and attributes. Instead, the tests given by schools tend to focus less on moral or character development, and more on individual identifiable academic skills.
In her book, Now You See It, Cathy Davidson criticizes standardized tests. She describes our youth as "assembly line kids on an assembly line model," meaning the use of the standardized test as a part of a one-size-fits-all educational model. She also criticizes the narrowness of skills being tested and labeling children without these skills as failures or as students with disabilities. Widespread and organized cheating has been a growing culture.
Education theorist Bill Ayers has commented on the limitations of the standardized test, writing that "Standardized tests can't measure initiative, creativity, imagination, conceptual thinking, curiosity, effort, irony, judgment, commitment, nuance, good will, ethical reflection, or a host of other valuable dispositions and attributes. What they can measure and count are isolated skills, specific facts and function, content knowledge, the least interesting and least significant aspects of learning." In his book, The Shame of the Nation, Jonathan Kozol argues that students submitted to standardized testing are victims of "cognitive decapitation". Kozol comes to this realization after speaking to many children in inner city schools who have no spatial recollection of time, time periods, and historical events. This is especially the case in schools where due to shortages in funding and strict accountability policies, schools have done away with subjects like the arts, history and geography; in order to focus on the contest of the mandated tests.
There are three metrics by which the best performing countries in the TIMMS (the "A+ countries") are measured: focus, coherence, and rigor. Focus is defined as the number of topics covered in each grade; the idea is that the fewer topics covered in each grade, the more focus can be given to each topic. The definition of coherence is adhering to a sequence of topics covered that follows the natural progression or logical structure of mathematics. The CCSSM was compared to both the current state standards and the A+ country standards. With the most topics covered on average, the current state standards had the lowest focus. The Common Core Standards aim to fix this discrepancy by helping educators focus on what students need to learn instead of becoming distracted by extraneous topics. They encourage educational materials to go from covering a vast array of topics in a shallow manner to a few topics in much more depth.
Time and money
Standardized tests are a way to measure the education level of students and schools on a broad scale. From Kindergarten to 12th grade, most American students participate in annual standardized tests. The average student takes about 10 of these tests per year (e.g., one or two reading comprehension tests, one or two math tests, a writing test, a science test, etc.). The average amount of testing takes about 2.3% of total class time (equal to about four school days per year).
Standardized tests are expensive to administer. It has been reported that the United States spends about US$1.7 billion annually on these tests. In 2001, it was also reported that only three companies (Harcourt Educational Measurement, CTB McGraw-Hill and Riverside Publishing) design 96% of the tests taken at the state level.
Educational decisions
Test scores are in some cases used as a sole, mandatory, or primary criterion for admissions or certification. For example, some U.S. states require high school graduation examinations. Adequate scores on these exit exams are required for high school graduation. The General Educational Development test a standardized test that is often used as an alternative to a high school diploma in the U.S.
Other applications include tracking (deciding whether a student should be enrolled in the "fast" or "slow" version of a course) and awarding scholarships. In the United States, many colleges and universities automatically translate scores on Advanced Placement tests into college credit, satisfaction of graduation requirements, or placement in more advanced courses. Generalized tests such as the SAT or GRE are more often used as one measure among several, when making admissions decisions. Some public institutions have cutoff scores for the SAT, GPA, or class rank, for creating classes of applicants to automatically accept or reject.
Heavy reliance on standardized tests for decision-making is often controversial, for the reasons noted above. Critics often propose emphasizing cumulative or even non-numerical measures, such as classroom grades or brief individual assessments (written in prose) from teachers. Supporters argue that test scores provide a clear-cut, objective standard that serves as a valuable check on grade inflation.
The National Academy of Sciences recommends that major educational decisions not be based solely on a single test score. The use of minimum cut-scores for entrance or graduation does not imply a single standard, since test scores are nearly always combined with other minimal criteria such as number of credits, prerequisite courses, attendance, etc. Test scores are often perceived as the "sole criteria" simply because they are the most difficult, or the fulfillment of other criteria is automatically assumed. One exception to this rule is the GED, which has allowed many people to have their skills recognized even though they did not meet traditional criteria.
Some teachers would argue that a single standardized test only measures a student's current knowledge and it does not reflect the students progress from the beginning of the year. A result created by individuals that are not a part of the student's regular instruction, but by professionals that determine what students should know at different ages. In addition, teachers agree that the best test creator and facilitator are themselves. They argue that they are the most aware of students abilities, capacities, and necessities which would allow them to take a longer on subjects or proceed on with the regular curriculum.
Effects on disadvantaged students
Monty Neill, the director of the National Center for Fair and Open Testing, claims that students who speak English as a second language, who have a disability, or who come from low-income families are disproportionately denied a diploma due to a test score, which is unfair and harmful. In the late 1970s when the graduation test began in the United States, for example, a lawsuit claimed that many Black students had not had a fair opportunity on the material they were tested on the graduation test because they had attended schools segregated by law. "The interaction of under-resourced schools and testing most powerfully hits students of color", as Neill argues, "They are disproportionately denied diplomas or grade promotion, and the schools they attend are the ones most likely to fare poorly on the tests and face sanctions such as restructuring."
In the journal The Progressive, Barbara Miner explicates the drawbacks of standardized testing by analyzing three different books. As the co-director of the Center for Education at Rice University and a professor of education, Linda M. McNeil in her book Contradictions of School Reform: Educational Costs of Standardized Testing writes "Educational standardization harms teaching and learning and, over the long term, restratifies education by race and class." McNeil believes that test-based education reform places higher standards for students of color. According to Miner, McNeil "shows how test-based reform centralizes power in the hands of the corporate and political elite—a particularly frightening development during this time of increasing corporate and conservative influence over education reform." Such test-based reform has dumbed down learning, especially for students of color.
FairTest says that negative consequences of test misuse include pushing students out of school, driving teachers out of the profession, and undermining student engagement and school climate.
Use of standardized tests in university admissions
Standardized tests are reviewed by universities as part of the application, along with other supporting evidence such as personal statements, GPA, and letters of recommendation. Nathan Kuncel, a scholar of higher education, noticed that in college admission, SAT, ACT, and other standardized tests "help overwhelmed admissions officers divide enormous numbers of applicants into pools for further assessment. High scores don't guarantee admission anywhere, and low scores don't rule it out, but schools take the tests seriously."
Research shows that the tests predict more than just first-year grades and the level of courses a student is likely to take. The longitudinal research conducted by scientists shows that students with high test scores are more likely to take the challenging route through college.
Tests also can indicate the outcomes of students beyond college, including faculty evaluations, research accomplishments, degree attainment, performance on comprehensive exams and professional licensure.
Since GPA has difference across schools and even for two students in the same school, the common measure provided by the test score is more useful.
However, in an April 1995 "meta-analysis" published in the Journal of Educational and Psychological Measurement, Todd Morrison and Melanie Morrison examined two dozen validity studies of the test required to get into just about any Masters or PhD program in America: the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). This study encompassed more than 5,000 test-takers over the past 30 years. The authors found that GRE scores accounted for just 6 percent of the variation in grades in graduate school. The GRE appears to be "virtually useless from a prediction standpoint," wrote the authors. Repeated studies of the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT) find the same.
There is debate whether the test will indicate the long-term success in work and life since there are many other factors, but fundamental skills such as reading, writing, and math are related to job performance.
A longitudinal research in 2007 has demonstrated that major life accomplishments, such as publishing a novel or patenting technology, are also associated with test scores, even after taking into account educational opportunities. There is even a sizable body of evidence that these skills are related to effective leadership and creative achievements at work. Being able to read texts and make sense of them and having strong quantitative reasoning are crucial in the modern information economy.
Many arguments suggest that skills from tests are useful—but only up to a point.
However, a remarkable longitudinal study published in 2008 in the journal Psychological Science examined students who scored in the top 1% at the age of 13. Twenty years later, they were, on average, very highly accomplished, with high incomes, major awards and career accomplishments that would make any parent proud.
Admissions officers rely on a combination of application materials, including letters of recommendation, interviews, student essays, GPA, tests, and personal statements to evaluate the student comprehensively. However, most of these tools are not guarantee of future success. Problems with traditional interviews and letters of recommendation are so pervasive that many schools are looking for better options.
There is a correlation between test scores and social class, but success on standardized tests and in college is not simply dependent on class. The studies show that "the tests were valid even when controlling for socioeconomic class. Regardless of their family background, students with good tests scores and high-school grades do better in college than students with lower scores and weaker transcripts."
Another criticism relating to social class and standardized testing is that only wealthy people receive test preparation and coaching. However, "Researchers have conducted a mix of experimental studies and controlled field studies to test this question. They have generally concluded that the gains due to test prep are more on the order of 5 to 20 points and not the 100 to 200 points claimed by some test prep companies."
More importantly, many people hold the opinion that tests prevent diversity in admissions since minorities have lower scores in tests compared to other represented groups. A 2012 study looked at schools where admissions tests are optional for applicants and compared them to schools that use the tests, and the result shows that "recent research demonstrates that testing-optional schools have been enrolling increasingly diverse student bodies. But the same is true of schools that require testing."
Opponents claim that standardized tests are misused and uncritical judgments of intelligence and performance, but supporters argue that these aren't negatives of standardized tests, but criticisms of poorly designed testing regimes. They argue that testing should and does focus educational resources on the most important aspects of education — imparting a pre-defined set of knowledge and skills — and that other aspects are either less important, or should be added to the testing scheme.
Evidence shows that black and Hispanic students score lower than whites and Asians on average. Therefore, the math and reading standard tests such as SAT have faced escalating attacks from progressives. However, an exhaustive UC faculty senate report, commissioned by Ms. Napolitano and released in 2020, found the tests are not discriminatory and play an important role in protecting educational quality.
The report suggested that worsening grade inflation, especially at wealthy high schools, makes a standard assessment especially important.
Regarding UC schools' intention in dropping standard tests such as the SAT and ACT in college admissions, subjective and customized tests like essays and extra-curriculars can be easily tailored and detrimental to the students who are not familiar with the process. Admissions without testing may be even more tilted in favor of the well-connected.
In January 2020, the faculty senate at the University of California recommended that the UC system keep standardized tests as admissions requirements. The report says standardized math and reading tests are useful for predicting college performance. Based on data from the students in the UC system, the report concludes that "test scores are currently better predictors of first-year GPA than high school grade point average." The report continues: scores are also good at predicting total college GPA and the possibility a student will graduate. While the "predictive power of test scores has gone up," the report adds, "the predictive power of high school grades has gone down."
Test scores enable UC schools "to select those students from underrepresented groups who are more likely to earn higher grades and to graduate on time." "The original intent of the SAT was to identify students who came from outside relatively privileged circles who might have the potential to succeed in university," the report says. The SAT's maker, the Educational Testing Service (ETS), now claims the SAT is not an "aptitude" test but rather an assessment of "developed abilities".
Testing for students of color, those with disabilities, and those from low-income communities in the United States
Controversy
Standardized testing and the requirement of such tests for college admissions is a controversial topic. The reason for the controversy is that these tests can create unequal opportunities for students based on their economic status, race, or even ability status. It is common for students of color, those with disabilities, and those from low-income communities to have low student performance rates. This is most likely due to "generations of exclusionary housing, education, and economic policy". These achievement gaps aren't a new concept. In 1991, the gap between the average scores of white students and those of black students was .91 standard deviations, while in 2020, the gap had decreased to .79 standard deviations.
In March 2017, the New York Times reported, "The Board of Regents on Monday eliminated a requirement that aspiring teachers in New York State pass a literacy test to become certified after the test proved controversial because black and Hispanic candidates passed it at significantly lower rates than white candidates."
Cost of Taking The Tests
Standardized testing can be costly for students, in both prep courses/tutors and in actually taking test. The ACT and SAT can cost $55-$70 and $52-$68 respectively. Many students who can afford to end up taking the tests multiple time to see the best score they can get, and will submit "super-scores" or a score consisting of their best scores from each section. Students from low-income communities cannot always afford to take the test multiple times.
Cost of Test Prep
Students in low-income communities often times do not have the same resources for test prep that their peers from more affluent backgrounds do. This discrepancy in resources available causes there to be a significant difference in the scores of students from different racial backgrounds. In an analysis conducted by the Brookings Institution found that 59% of white students and 80% of Asian test takers are deemed "college ready" by the SAT standards in comparison to the under 25% of Black students and under 33% of Hispanic/Latino students who are deemed "college ready." While the College Board reports that socioeconomic factors do not directly impact a student's performance, it can indirectly impact it through the course of access to prep courses and better schooling, experiences that can heavily impact on test scores.
Students with Disabilities
When it comes to students with disabilities and special needs, these tests are not always an appropriate method to measure knowledge or readiness. For students with disabilities, it is not always realistic to expect them to sit at a desk for hours at a time and silently take a test. To refute that, students with disabilities can get accommodations, such as extra time to work on the tests.
See also
Major topics
Achievement test
Other topics
References
Further reading
FairTest, "What's Wrong With Standardized Tests," Fact Sheet. (New York: Basic Books, 1985), pp. 172–181.
Harris, Smith and Harris The Myths of Standardized Tests: Why They Don't Tell You What You Think They Do, Rowman & Littlefield 2011* Huddleston, Mark W. Boyer, William W.The higher civil service in the United States: quest for reform. (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996)
Phelps, Richard P. The Effect of Testing on Student Achievement, 1910–2010, International Journal of Testing, 10(1), 2012.
Phelps, Richard P., Ed. Correcting Fallacies about Educational and Psychological Testing. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2008)
Phelps, Richard P., Standardized Testing Primer. (New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2007)
Phelps, Richard P. The Role and Importance of Standardized Testing in the World of Teaching and Training
Ravitch, Diane, "The Uses and Misuses of Tests" , in The Schools We Deserve * Strauss, Valerie. Confirmed: Standardized testing has taken over our schools. But who’s to blame?
External links
Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation
Standardized Testing in School
The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
Definition of Standardized Test from National Council on Measurement in Education
Standards-based education
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225975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peg%20Woffington | Peg Woffington | Margaret Woffington (18 October 1720 – 28 March 1760), known professionally as Peg Woffington, was an Irish actress and socialite of the Georgian era. Peg and Peggy were a common pet name for those called Margaret until the late 20th century.
Early life
Woffington was born of humble origins in Dublin, Ireland. Her father is thought to have been a bricklayer, and after his death, the family became impoverished. Her mother was obliged to take in washing while Peg sold watercress door to door. It is said that she was walking through a marketplace as a pre-teen and happened upon Madame Violante, a famous tightrope walker. Signora Violante was so immediately enthralled by Peg’s beautiful face that she accompanied Peg home and asked her mother permission to take her in as her apprentice.
Acting career
Around 1730, Madame Violante featured the young Woffington in her Lilliputian Theatre Company's production of John Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera. Her performance as Mackheath served as a springboard for continued fame in Dublin. She continued dancing and acting in the area – playing Dorinda in an adaptation of The Tempest as the Theatre Royal, Dublin in 1735 and later joining the Smock Alley Theatre to perform with the well known actor, David Garrick. She danced and acted at various Dublin theatres until her early twenties, when her reputation drew a handsome offer from John Rich, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, to perform on the stages of London. There, she found immediate success, in the role of Sylvia in The Recruiting Officer by George Farquhar.
She drew public attention when she was cast as Sir Harry Wildair in The Constant Couple. Audiences were intrigued, as at the time the role was highly associated with actor Robert Wilks, who had died seven years prior. Nonetheless, her performance was well received, and audiences enjoyed her new interpretation of the role. She became well known as an actress thereafter. She performed at Drury Lane for several years and later returned to Dublin, appearing in a variety of plays. Her best-received performances were in comic roles, such as elegant women of fashion like Lady Betty Modish and Lady Townley, and breeches roles. She was impeded in the performance of tragedy by a harsh tone in her voice that she strove to eliminate.
While in London, she began living with fellow actor Charles Macklin. During this time, she became well acquainted with the foremost actor of the day David Garrick, and her other love affairs (including liaisons with Edward Bligh, 2nd Earl of Darnley and the MP Charles Hanbury Williams), were numerous and notorious. However, her affairs were not without controversy. One evening, Woffington and Garrick were almost caught in bed together by a visiting Noble Lord, who was believed to be enamoured with the actress. Upon fleeing, Garrick gathered his clothes, but noticed only once he had left the room that he had left behind his scratch wig. Woffington managed to evade the angry Lord's accusations by claiming the wig was her own, for an upcoming breeches role.
Though she was popular with society figures, having entertained such illustrious names as Samuel Johnson and Henry Fielding, Peg Woffington was not always favoured by her competition. She tended to create rivalries with similar-types of actresses at Drury Lane and Covent Garden. She even managed to offend “tragediennes for whom Peg’s comic powers posed no threat” with her “queenly ways”. Her fiercest rivalry was with “equally peppery” actress Kitty Clive. According to Garrick's biographer Thomas Davies, “No two women in high life ever hated each other more unreservedly than these two great dames of the stage.” When she returned to Covent Garden, rivalries with these women and with the manager, Mr. Rich, eventually sent her back to Dublin, where she was unrivalled and celebrated at the Smock Alley Theatre.
John Rich, manager of Covent Garden in London, decided to start a Beefsteak Club in 1749, also known as the Sublime Society of Steaks or “the Club.” Some of its members included Garrick and William Hogarth, as well as many other London celebrities. Not only was Peg Woffington the first female member of a (previously) all male dining club, in 1750 she became president of the club by election. She also educated and supported her sister Mary (usually known as Polly), and cared for and pensioned her mother.
Woffington parted from Garrick around 1744, and thence moved to the Thameside Middlesex village of Teddington, into a house called 'Teddington Place' (the building was demolished in 1946, its former grounds now being occupied by Udney Hall Gardens park and the church of St Alban's Church, Teddington). In 1754 she became the beneficiary of the will of the Irish impresario Owen Swiny. In 1756, she performed the part of Lady Randolph in Douglas, a part which found a later exponent in Sarah Siddons.
On 3 May 1757, she was playing the part of Rosalind in As You Like It when she collapsed on stage. She rallied, but would never act again, lingering with a wasting illness until 1760.
Death
She built and endowed by will some almshouses at Teddington, and after her death on 28 March 1760 in her 40th year her body was buried in the graveyard of St. Mary's Church there. Though she was born into a Catholic family, she was later buried a protestant, having been received into the Church of Ireland on 31 December 1753. Woffington died a woman of wealth and had left most of her fortune to her sister, Mary.
Portraits
Considered a society beauty of her era, Woffington was painted by several artists, including Jacobus Lovelace in 1744, Peter van Bleeck in 1747, and John Lewis in 1753. She was also eulogised in a poetical sketch by the dramatist Henry Jones.
She has been portrayed as a character in the stage plays A Laughing Matter by April De Angelis. and Mr Foote's Other Leg by Ian Kelly.
Popular culture
In 1852 Charles Reade and Tom Taylor wrote a play Masks and Faces which featured Woffington as a central character. Following the play's success, Reade wrote a novel Peg Woffington the following year.
Woffington featured in several films, particularly in the silent era. These portrayals were largely based on the works of Reade and Taylor and include Peg Woffington (1910), Peg Woffington (1912) and Masks and Faces (1917). In 1935 Anna Neagle played Woffington in the comedy Peg of Old Drury with Cedric Hardwicke playing David Garrick. Her character appeared in the 2015 play Mr Foote's Other Leg as a friend and colleague of Samuel Foote.
Woffington is also mentioned in the Cyclops episode of James Joyce's Ulysses.
Bibliography
Austin Dobson's Introduction to Charles Reade's novel Peg Woffington (London, 1899)
Augustin Daly's Woffington: a Tribute to the Actress and the Woman (1888)
Janet Camden Lucey's Lovely Peggy: The life and times of Margaret Woffington (Hurst and Blackett, 1952)
Janet Dunbar's Peg Woffington and her World (Heinemann, 1968)
Benjamin, Lewis Saul. Stage Favourites of the Eighteenth Century. Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday Doran & Company, Inc, 1929. Print.
Costigan, Ethna Byrne-. “Peg Woffington.” Dublin Historical Record 33.1 (1979): 11–21. Print.
Perry, Gillian. The First Actresses: Nell Gwyn to Sarah Siddons. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011. Print.
Powell, John, and Frank N. Magill. Great Lives from History: The 18th Century 1701-1800. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press, 2006. Print. Accessed online 27 February 2014.
Richards, Sandra. The Rise of the English Actress. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. Print.
Melville, Lewis. Stage Favourites of the Eighteenth Century. New York: Doubleday, 1929. Print.
Notes
References
External links
Peg Woffington at the London Metropolitan Archives
Various works in the National Portrait Gallery
1720 births
1760 deaths
People from County Dublin
18th-century Irish actresses
Irish emigrants to Great Britain | [
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225981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand%20wedge | Sand wedge | A sand wedge, or sand iron, is a type of golf club, an open-faced wedge primarily designed for getting out of sand bunkers. It has the widest sole of any wedge, which provides the greatest amount of bounce, allowing the club head to glide through sand and avoid digging in. After Gene Sarazen had success in 1932 with a new club that he had invented for sand play, its popularity quickly grew. The club can be advantageous in other soft lies—such as thick rough, soggy ground, or mud—and is also used from firmer grass lies for lobs or chips.
History
Gene Sarazen began to win tournaments in 1932 with a new club he had invented that was specialized for sand play. He is hailed as the inventor of the sand wedge, though its history goes about 4 years further back than that. Spoon clubs offered varying degrees of loft and allowed players to scoop their ball out of sand traps and deep rough. As manufacturers became more and more innovative with club design, new types of wedges appeared. Some had concave faces, others featured deeply grooved faces, but not all of these designs conformed to USGA and R&A regulations, and many were banned. With the concave-faced wedge having been outlawed in 1931, Sarazen designed his sand wedge with a straight face. Another modification that he made was to add extra lead to the front edge of the club face, allowing it to cut through the sand more smoothly. After he won the 1932 British and U.S. Opens with the help of his new club, its popularity vastly grew.
Design
The modern sand wedge is often the heaviest iron in a player's bag, with most weighing nearly . Traditionally it also had the highest loft at 56 degrees (55–56 being most common), although that distinction now goes to the lob wedge, which often has a loft of 60 degrees or more. It usually has one of the shortest shafts, between and , though in some sets the sand wedge has a longer shaft than the pitching wedge.
Bounce
The main distinguishing difference of the club from most others, however, is a feature called bounce. On most other irons, the sole of the club is perpendicular to the shaft, meaning it is roughly parallel to the ground when the club is at rest, allowing the leading edge to get between the ball and the ground more easily. A sand wedge however is designed with the sole of the club at an angle to the ground in the same position, lifting the leading edge of the club off the ground. This design accomplishes three things:First, this design generally requires more material, which increases the weight of the club head for more momentum and places that weight low and forward in the club head for higher launches.Second, the angled sole lifts the leading edge off the ground at the bottom of the swing, preventing the club from digging in to softer lies—e.g., sand, muddy ground, and thick grass—instead tending to skim over the surface. This in turn allows players more flexibility when addressing the ball; the player can line the ball up in the centre of their stance and take a normal swing in which the club will skim over the turf before contact with the ball, or alternatively they can move the ball rearward in their stance (towards the right foot for a right-handed player) and strike the ball earlier in the swing. The natural consequence of such a correctly executed shot is that the club face has less loft at contact, so the ball is launched at a lower angle for more distance. Without bounce, such a shot will generally cause the club to dig into the ground after it contacts the ball, even if executed correctly. With such a high-lofted club, the player is prevented from following through on their swing and can be injured.Lastly, when playing from a bunker, the ball may have buried itself deeply into the sand (depending on the sand's consistency and the degree of impact, the ball may be completely submerged). To lift it out, the club head must contact the ball from underneath, meaning the leading edge of the club must sometimes be under the surface of the sand at contact. The angle of the sole counteracts the natural downward pressure of the club face digging itself ever deeper into the sand, making it easier to swing the club down under the surface of the sand and then lift the club—and the ball—back out again.Other clubs, especially short irons and other wedges, now incorporate a small degree of bounce to assist in plays from the rough or other soft lies, but the sand wedge will typically have the highest amount of bounce of any club in a player's bag. There are however exceptions; Callaway Golf for instance markets a "Big Bertha" line of irons in which the lob wedge has significantly higher bounce than the sand wedge.
Usage
As its name suggests, a sand wedge is used most often to extract the ball from a sand bunker. However, the features which make it useful for this purpose are advantageous in other soft lies such as thick rough, soggy ground, or mud. It's also used from firmer grass lies for lobs or chips, generally onto the green. It can also be used as any other short iron would; with a full swing, a skilled golfer can typically hit a sand wedge between . Tour players often use a lob wedge (60° wedge) to get out of bunkers with controlled trajectory and much spin.
References
Golf clubs
Golf terminology
de:Golfschläger#Sand Wedge | [
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225982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground%20state | Ground state | The ground state of a quantum-mechanical system is its lowest-energy state; the energy of the ground state is known as the zero-point energy of the system. An excited state is any state with energy greater than the ground state. In quantum field theory, the ground state is usually called the vacuum state or the vacuum.
If more than one ground state exists, they are said to be degenerate. Many systems have degenerate ground states. Degeneracy occurs whenever there exists a unitary operator that acts non-trivially on a ground state and commutes with the Hamiltonian of the system.
According to the third law of thermodynamics, a system at absolute zero temperature exists in its ground state; thus, its entropy is determined by the degeneracy of the ground state. Many systems, such as a perfect crystal lattice, have a unique ground state and therefore have zero entropy at absolute zero. It is also possible for the highest excited state to have absolute zero temperature for systems that exhibit negative temperature.
Absence of nodes in one dimension
In one dimension, the ground state of the Schrödinger equation can be proven to have no nodes.
Derivation
Consider the average energy of a state with a node at ; i.e., . The average energy in this state would be
where is the potential.
With integration by parts:
Hence in case that is equal to zero, one gets:
Now, consider a small interval around ; i.e., . Take a new (deformed) wave function to be defined as , for ; and , for ; and constant for . If is small enough, this is always possible to do, so that is continuous.
Assuming around , one may write
where is the norm.
Note that the kinetic-energy densities hold everywhere because of the normalization. More significantly, the average kinetic energy is lowered by by the deformation to .
Now, consider the potential energy. For definiteness, let us choose . Then it is clear that, outside the interval , the potential energy density is smaller for the because there.
On the other hand, in the interval we have
which holds to order .
However, the contribution to the potential energy from this region for the state with a node is
lower, but still of the same lower order as for the deformed state , and subdominant to the lowering of the average kinetic energy.
Therefore, the potential energy is unchanged up to order , if we deform the state with a node into a state without a node, and the change can be ignored.
We can therefore remove all nodes and reduce the energy by , which implies that cannot be the ground state. Thus the ground-state wave function cannot have a node. This completes the proof. (The average energy may then be further lowered by eliminating undulations, to the variational absolute minimum.)
Implication
As the ground state has no nodes it is spatially non-degenerate, i.e. there are no two stationary quantum states with the energy eigenvalue of the ground state (let's name it ) and the same spin state and therefore would only differ in their position-space wave functions.
The reasoning goes by contradiction: For if the ground state would be degenerate then there would be two orthonormal stationary states and — later on represented by their complex-valued position-space wave functions and — and any superposition with the complex numbers fulfilling the condition would also be a be such a state, i.e. would have the same energy-eigenvalue and the same spin-state.
Now let be some random point (where both wave functions are defined) and set:
and
with
(according to the premise no nodes).
Therefore the position-space wave function of is
Hence
for all .
But i.e., is a node of the ground state wave function and that is in contradiction to the premise that this wave function cannot have a node.
Note that the ground state could be degenerate because of different spin states like and while having the same position-space wave function: Any superposition of these states would create a mixed spin state but leave the spatial part (as a common factor of both) unaltered.
Examples
The wave function of the ground state of a particle in a one-dimensional box is a half-period sine wave, which goes to zero at the two edges of the well. The energy of the particle is given by , where h is the Planck constant, m is the mass of the particle, n is the energy state (n = 1 corresponds to the ground-state energy), and L is the width of the well.
The wave function of the ground state of a hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric distribution centred on the nucleus, which is largest at the center and reduces exponentially at larger distances. The electron is most likely to be found at a distance from the nucleus equal to the Bohr radius. This function is known as the 1s atomic orbital. For hydrogen (H), an electron in the ground state has energy , relative to the ionization threshold. In other words, 13.6 eV is the energy input required for the electron to no longer be bound to the atom.
The exact definition of one second of time since 1997 has been the duration of periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K.
Notes
Bibliography
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225984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin%20Daly | Augustin Daly | John Augustin Daly (July 20, 1838June 7, 1899) was one of the most influential men in American theatre during his lifetime. Drama critic, theatre manager, playwright, and adapter, he became the first recognized stage director in America. He exercised a fierce and tyrannical control over all aspects of his productions. His rules of conduct for actors and actresses imposed heavy fines for late appearances and forgotten lines and earned him the title "the autocrat of the stage." He formed a permanent company in New York and opened Daly's Theatre in New York in 1879 and a second one in London in 1893.
Biography
Augustin Daly was born in Plymouth, North Carolina to Captain Denis Daly, a sea-captain and ship owner, and Elizabeth, daughter of Lieutenant John Duffy of the British Army. He was educated at Norfolk, Virginia, and in the public schools of New York City. His mother, early left a widow, brought her two boys to New York City, where they soon became frequent attendants at the theaters and were members of amateur groups, which under such names as the "Burton Association" or the "Murdoch Association" were the precursors of the Little Theatre Movement.
He was dramatic critic for several New York papers from 1859, and he adapted or wrote a number of plays, Under the Gaslight (1867) being his first success. In 1869 he became the manager of the Fifth Avenue Theatre on 24th St. and in 1873 the Fifth Avenue Theatre on 28th. In 1879 he rebuilt and opened Daly's Theatre at Broadway and 30th Street in New York, and, in 1893, Daly's Theatre in London.
At the first of these, he gathered a company of players, headed by Ada Rehan, which made for it a high reputation, and for them he adapted plays from foreign sources, and revived Shakespearean comedies in a manner before unknown in America. He took his entire company on tour, visiting England, Germany and France, and some of the best actors on the American stage have owed their training and first successes to him. Among these were Clara Morris, Sara Jewett, John Drew, Jr., Maurice Barrymore, Fanny Davenport, Agnes Ethel, Maude Adams, Mrs. Gilbert, Tyrone Power, Sr., Ada Dyas, Isadora Duncan, Maud Jeffries and many others. Daly's willingness to, as he put it, "stoop to the curb and bestow upon the low, untried actor a chance at greatness" earned him the nickname "Little Man Auggie" among his peers. His play Leah the Forsaken, adapted from Hermann Salomon Mosenthal's Deborah, was a star vehicle for Margaret Mather.
His Shakespeare productions were often severely criticized by George Bernard Shaw, who was active as a drama critic during those years. Shaw took Daly to task for cutting Shakespeare's plays and for presenting them in unorthodox ways. (Shaw was a strong believer in presenting Shakespeare's plays uncut.) Several of Shaw's criticisms of Daly's Shakespeare productions were reprinted in the anthology Shaw on Shakespeare.
In 1894, he was awarded the Laetare Medal by the university of Notre Dame, considered the most prestigious award for American Catholics.
Daly was a great book-lover, and his valuable library was dispersed by auction after his death, which occurred in Paris. Besides plays, original and adapted, he wrote Woffington: a Tribute to the Actress and the Woman (1888).
Dora Knowlton Ranous, a onetime actress in the Daly company, published a 1910 memoir of her experiences entitled Diary of a Daly Débutante.
Notable works
Under the Gaslight (1867) is an example of Daly's mixture of realism and melodrama, seen in the authenticity of his depiction of real locations and in his use of social commentary. The play introduced the now-clichéd device of the villain tying someone to railroad tracks, although in a reversal of the usual roles it was the hero who was tied up and the heroine who saved him. In the book Vagrant Memories, the author, William Winter recalls how Daly came up with the device. He says: "He once told me under what circumstances he hit upon this device. He was walking home toward night, thinking intently about the play which he had begun to write, when suddenly the crowning expedient occurred to him and at the same instant he stumbled over a misplaced flagstone, striking his right foot against the edge of the stone and sustaining a severe hurt. "I was near my door," he said, "and I rushed into the house, threw myself into a chair, grasping my injured foot with both hands, for the pain was great, and exclaiming, over and over again, 'I've got it! I've got it! And it beats hot-irons all to pieces!" I wasn't even thinking of the hurt. I had the thought of having my hero tied on a railroad track and rescued by his sweetheart, just in the nick of time, before the swift passage of an express train across a dark stage.
A Flash of Lightning (1868), like Under the Gaslight, is pure melodrama, with water and fire spectacles providing action scenes and special effects for its eager audiences.
Horizon (1871) is an adaptation of a Bret Harte story about the westward expansion of the States; it is an example of the popularity of western drama, coupled with Daly's interest in realism of the local color variety, although it remains melodramatic.
Divorce (1871) and Pique (1875), both adaptations of British novels, demonstrate Daly's attempts to create social comedy, although the plays remain somewhat melodramatic.
See also
Webster v. Daly
Brady v. Daly
References
Sources
Autograph letters signed from Miriam Coles Harris to Augustin Daly (1885) Google Books
Further reading
Archival materials
Collection of letters and papers of Augustin Daly, held by the Folger Shakespeare Library: 33 boxes, call numbers: Y.c.2602-3099, Y.c.4000-5378
Correspondence of Augustin Daly and Joseph F. Daly and documents serving for memoirs, 1858-1899, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts: 9 boxes, call number: *T-Mss 2001-251
portrait of Augustin Daly(North American Theatre Online, Alexander Street)
External links
American theatre managers and producers
Writers from North Carolina
1838 births
1899 deaths
People from Plymouth, North Carolina
Laetare Medal recipients
19th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American theater critics
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
American male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American businesspeople | [
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225990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Franklin | William Franklin | William Franklin (22 February 1730 – 17 November 1813) was an American-born attorney, soldier, politician, and colonial administrator. He was the acknowledged illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin. William Franklin was the last colonial Governor of New Jersey (1763–1776), and a steadfast Loyalist throughout the American Revolutionary War. (In contrast, his father Benjamin was one of the most prominent of the Patriot leaders of the American Revolution and a Founding Father of the United States.)
Following imprisonment by Patriots in 1776 to 1778, William became the chief leader of the Loyalists. From his base in New York City, he organized military units to fight on the British side. In 1782, he went into exile in Britain. He lived in London until his death.
Early life
William Franklin was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, then a colony in British America. He was the illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin, a leading figure in the city. His mother's identity is unknown. Confusion exists about Franklin's birth and parentage because Benjamin Franklin was secretive about his son's origins. In 1750, Benjamin Franklin told his mother that William was nineteen years old, but this may have been an attempt to make the youth appear legitimate.
William was raised by his father and Deborah Read, his father's common-law wife; she had been abandoned by her legal husband but not divorced. William always called her his mother. There is some speculation that Deborah Read was Franklin's biological mother, and that because of his parents' common-law relationship, the circumstances of his birth were obscured so as not to be politically harmful to him or to their marital arrangement.
Franklin joined a company of Pennsylvania provincial troops in 1746 and spent a winter in Albany in King George's War, obtaining the rank of captain in 1747. As he grew older, he accompanied his father on several missions, including trips to England. Although often depicted as a young child when he assisted his father in the famed kite experiment of 1752, Franklin was at least 21 years old at the time.
Marriage and family
As a young man, William became engaged to Elizabeth Graeme, daughter of prominent Philadelphia physician Dr. Thomas Graeme and step-granddaughter of Pennsylvania's 14th Governor, Sir William Keith. Neither family approved of the match, but when William went to London to study law about 1759, he left with the understanding that Elizabeth would wait for him.
Franklin studied law at the Middle Temple, chiefly under Richard Jackson "The Omniscient". While in London, Franklin sired an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, who was born 22 February 1762. His mother has never been identified, and Temple was placed in foster care.
Later that year, Franklin married Elizabeth Downes on 4 September 1762 at St George's, Hanover Square, in London. She was born in the English colony of Barbados to the sugar planter John Downes and his wife, Elizabeth (). She met Franklin while visiting England with her father in 1760. They moved to the New Jersey colony in 1763. Elizabeth died in 1777 while he was imprisoned as a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War. She was interred beneath the altar of St. Paul's Chapel in lower Manhattan, where she had resided after the British evacuated Perth Amboy. The memorial plaque on the wall at St. Paul's was commissioned by William Franklin from London, where he went into exile following the war. He was a widower for more than ten years.
On 14 August 1788, William married Mary Johnson d'Evelin, a wealthy Irish widow with children. William's son, Temple, after a failed business career in the U.S., lived with his father and stepmother for a time, and followed in his grandfather and father's footsteps and had an illegitimate daughter, Ellen (15 May 1798 London – 1875 Nice, France), with Ellen Johnson d'Evelin, the sister-in-law of his stepmother, Mary. William took responsibility for his granddaughter Ellen. Temple moved to Paris, where he lived the remainder of his life and never saw his father again. After Mary died in 1811, William continued to live with Ellen, age 13 at the time, and when he died in 1813 he left most of his small estate to her.
As Colonial Governor
William Franklin completed his law education in England, and was admitted to the bar. William and Benjamin Franklin became partners and confidants, working together to pursue land grants in what was then called the Northwest (now Midwest). Before they left England, the senior Franklin lobbied hard to procure his son an appointment, especially working with the Prime Minister Lord Bute.
Franklin was inducted into the original American Philosophical Society, founded by Benjamin Franklin, around 1758.
In 1763, William Franklin was appointed as the Royal Governor of New Jersey. He had asked the prime minister, Lord Bute for the position. Bute made the decision secretly to grant the request, not even informing Benjamin Franklin; he intended as a reward for Benjamin's role and a move to weaken the Penn faction. He replaced Josiah Hardy, a merchant and colonial administrator who sided with the New Jersey legislature against the government in London. Randall states:
American War of Independence
Owing to his father's role as a Founding Father and William's loyalty to Britain, the relationship between father and son became strained past the breaking point. When Benjamin decided to take up the Patriot cause, he tried to convince William to join him, but the son refused. After Ben Franklin was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by Solicitor-General Alexander Wedderburn before the Privy Council on 29 January 1774, he expected his son to resign in protest. Instead, William advised his father to take his medicine and retire from office. Skemp says "He did not abandon Benjamin, but Benjamin abandoned him."
His Loyalist position reflected his respect for benevolent authority and was consistent with his father's earlier anglophilia. William was a devout member of the Church of England, which reinforced his anglophilia. Financially he needed the salary and perquisites. On 13 January 1775, with revolution seeming imminent, Franklin delivered his "Two Roads" speech to the New Jersey legislature, urging the New Jersey Legislature to take the road toward prosperity as a part of England rather than a road to civil war and anarchy. The legislature instead unanimously issued a resolution in support of the radicals in Boston.
Capture and imprisonment, 1776–1778
William Franklin remained as governor of New Jersey, and secretly reported Patriot activities to London. He continued as governor until January 1776, when colonial militiamen placed him under house arrest, which lasted until the middle of June. After the Declaration of Independence, Franklin was formally taken into custody by order of the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, an entity which he refused to recognize, regarding it as an "illegal assembly." He was incarcerated in Connecticut for two years, in Wallingford and Middletown. He surreptitiously engaged Americans in supporting the Loyalist cause. Discovered, he was held in solitary confinement at Litchfield, Connecticut for eight months. When finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778, he moved to New York City, which was still occupied by the British.
New York Loyalist leader, 1778–1781
Once in New York, Boyd Schlenther says he became, "the acknowledged leader of the American loyalists, for whom he struggled to secure aid. He also built up an unofficial yet active spy network." He set up Loyalist military units to fight the Patriots, such as "Bacon's Refugees". In 1779, he had learned through his friend Jonathan Odell, and British Secret Service agent John André, that Benedict Arnold was secretly defecting to the British.
While in New York, Franklin tried to encourage a guerrilla war ermain led to Franklin receiving official blessing for the operation in 1780.
Asgill Affair
In 1782 Franklin was implicated in the Loyalist officer Richard Lippincott's hanging of Joshua Huddy. During a raid, Loyalist troops under Franklin's general oversight captured Joshua Huddy, an officer of the New Jersey militia. The Loyalist soldiers hanged Huddy in revenge for similar killings of Loyalists, particularly Phillip White. Huddy was a member of the Association of Retaliation, a vigilante body with a history of attacking and killing Loyalists and Neutrals in New Jersey. At the time, some alleged that Franklin had sanctioned the killing of Huddy. This claim was theoretically substantiated by a note left on Huddy's body, which read, "Up goes Huddy for Philip White."
When he heard of Huddy's death, General George Washington threatened to execute Captain Charles Asgill, a British officer who had been captured at Yorktown, unless Lippincott were handed over to the American military. The British refused, but tried Lippincott. The British acquitted him of charges in the hanging. Due to the intervention of the French King Louis XVI, who interceded with his American allies to prevent Asgill's execution, the British officer was eventually exchanged by the Americans. Despite the speed with which it was terminated, the Asgill Affair temporarily stalled peace talks between American and British authorities, extending uncertainty over the United States' prospects. Ironically, Benjamin Franklin was a senior negotiator for the revolutionary Americans in Paris when the Asgill Affair occurred.
Exile
The Surrender at Yorktown in October 1781 dimmed British hopes for victory, and in 1782, William Franklin departed for Britain, never to return. Once in London, he became a leading spokesman for the Loyalist community. Because of the continued strength of British forces in North America, in spite of the disaster at Yorktown, many expected Britain to continue fighting the war. The British naval victory against the French at the Battle of the Saintes and the successful defence of Gibraltar also raised their hopes. In summer 1782, a new British government came to power, who still hoped to achieve a reconciliation with the American colonies.
In 1783 he visited Scotland and was asked to be a founding member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Benjamin Franklin dedicated his autobiography (written before the war) to his son, though the only mention of William within the manuscript is the inclusion of a newspaper article in which Franklin noted that his son was authorized to make contracts to purchase carts for the British army. But the father and son were never reconciled; the elder Franklin became known for his uncompromising position related to not providing compensation nor amnesty for the Loyalists who left the colonies, during the negotiations in Paris for the Peace of Paris. His son's reputation as a Loyalist contributed to his position. The British government gave him £1,800 from the Commissioners of Loyalist Claims. That was the value of his furniture; there was no payment for his lands. He also received a brigadier's half-pay pension of £800 per year.
William Franklin sent a letter to his father, dated 22 July 1784, in an attempt at reconciliation. His father never accepted his position, but responded in a letter dated 16 August 1784, in which he states "[We] will endeavor, as you propose mutually to forget what has happened relating to it, as well we can." William saw his father one last time in 1785, when Benjamin stopped in Britain on his return journey to the U.S. after his time in France. The meeting was brief and involved tying up outstanding legal matters. In a reconciliation attempt, Benjamin also proposed that his son give land that he owned in New York and New Jersey to William's son Temple, who had served as Benjamin's secretary during the war and for whom the elder Franklin had great affection, in order to repay a debt William owed his father; in the event, William only ever transferred the New York portion of the land. In his 1788 will, Benjamin left William virtually none of his wealth, except some nearly worthless territory in Nova Scotia and some property already in William's possession. He said that had Britain won the war, he would have had no wealth to leave his son.
William died in 1813, and was buried in London's St Pancras Old Church churchyard. The grave is lost.
Legacy and honors
Franklin Township in Bergen County, New Jersey, was named in William's honor, as was the borough of Franklin Lakes.
See also
Burlington Company
Proprietary House
Notes
References
Bibliography
Epstein, Daniel Mark (2017). The Loyal Son: The War in Ben Franklin's House. Description & preview. Ballantine. Kirkus Review & Publishers Weekly Review
.
Gerlach, Larry R. William Franklin: New Jersey's Last Royal Governor (1976), a scholarly biography
.
.
Randall, Willard Sterne. "Franklin, William"; American National Biography Online 2000.
.
Schlenther, Boyd Stanley. "Franklin, William (1730/31–1813)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008 Boyd Stanley accessed 1 Oct 2017 doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/62971
Skemp, Sheila L. "Benjamin Franklin, Patriot, and William Franklin, Loyalist." Pennsylvania History 65.1 (1998): 35–45.
Skemp, Sheila L. "William Franklin: His Father's Son." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 109.2 (1985): 145–178.
Additional reading
External links
The Proprietary House (final home of the Royal Governor)
1731 births
1813 deaths
Benjamin Franklin
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Burials at St Pancras Old Church
Colonial governors of New Jersey
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Franklin family
Loyalists in the American Revolution from New Jersey
Politicians from Philadelphia
People of colonial New Jersey
People of colonial Pennsylvania
Royal American Regiment officers
Lawyers from Philadelphia
Loyalist military personnel of the American Revolutionary War | [
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225992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AIN | ISO 3166-2:IN | ISO 3166-2:IN is the entry for India in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for India, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 28 states and 8 union territories.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for India. The second part is two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates with some exceptions.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Notes
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
See also
Subdivisions of India
FIPS region codes of India
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: IN
States of India, Statoids.com
2:IN
States and union territories of India-related lists
Standards of India
Lists of subdivisions of India | [
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225993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Hartley%20Gilbert | Anne Hartley Gilbert | Anne Hartley Gilbert (October 21, 1821December 2, 1904) professionally billed as Mrs. G. H. Gilbert was a British actress.
She was born Anne Jane Hartley at Rochdale, Lancashire, England. At fifteen she was a pupil at the ballet school connected with Her Majesty's Theatre, in the Haymarket, conducted by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer. Her first conspicuous appearance on stage was made as a dancer, in the Norwich theatrical circuit, England, in 1845. In 1846 she married George H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer in the theatre company of which she was a member. Together they filled many engagements in English theatres, moving to America in 1849.
Her first 15 years in America were spent in inland cities such as Chicago, Cleveland, and Cincinnati. Mrs Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857 as Wichavenda in John Brougham's Po-ca-hon-tas.
One of the most brilliant and decisive successes of her professional life was gained at the Broadway Theatre where, on 5 August 1867, Mr. and Mrs. W. J. Florence presented Thomas William Robertson's comedy Caste, for the first time in America. On leaving the Broadway she went to Daly's Fifth Avenue Theatre on Twenty-fourth Street with Robertson's comedy of Play. The cast included E. L. Davenport, George Holland, William Davidge, J. L. Polk, Agnes Ethel, and George Clarke. Mrs. Gilbert played Mrs. Kinpeck. For many years she played opposite James Lewis as his "wife", or playing old women's parts, in which she had no equal.
After Mr. Daly's death in 1899 she came under Charles Frohman's management and later became a member of Annie Russell's company. On October 24, 1904, at the New Lyceum Theatre, Mrs. Gilbert made her first appearance as a star, being then in the eighty-second year of her age, in a play, by Clyde Fitch, called Granny with a young Marie Doro in one of her earliest roles. Granny was announced as her farewell role and she read a special poem composed by Fitch at the end of each performance. Her final New York appearance occurred at the Lyceum on November 12, 1904. She acted for fifty-four years (after five years as a dancer), and she remained in active employment to the last. Mrs Gilbert was uniquely respected and popular, both with audiences and behind the footlights. She performed last on December 1 three days after Granny opened in Chicago, and died there on the following day from a brain hemorrhage.
References
Bibliography
Brown, Thomas Allston, A History of the New York Stage from the Earliest Performances in 1732 to 1901, Vol. I, New York: Dodd Mead & Co., 1903.
Brown, Thomas Allston, A History of the New York Stage from the Earliest Performances in 1732 to 1901, Vol. II, New York: Dodd Mead & Co., 1903.
Gilbert, Anne Hartley, ed. by Charlotte M. Martin, The Stage Reminiscences of Mrs. Gilbert, New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1901.
Mantle, Burns, and Garrison P. Sherwood, eds., The Best Plays of 1899-1909, Philadelphia: The Blakiston Company, 1944.
Winter, William, The Wallet of Time, New York: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1913, pp. 198–214.
External links
1821 births
1904 deaths
English stage actresses
19th-century British actresses
British stage actresses
English female dancers
British expatriate actresses in the United States
People from Rochdale
19th-century English women
19th-century English people | [
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225995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AKH | ISO 3166-2:KH | ISO 3166-2:KH is the entry for Cambodia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Cambodia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 autonomous municipality and 24 provinces.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Cambodia. The second part is a number. The digits are currently used in postal codes, except for codes 1-9, for which one must include 0 before the number (1 becomes 01) to get the postal code from the ISO code:
1–21: autonomous municipalities and provinces as of late 1980s
22–25: autonomous municipalities and province created since the 1990s
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Subdivisions of Cambodia
FIPS region codes of Cambodia
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: KH
Provinces of Cambodia, Statoids.com
2:KH
ISO 3166-2
Cambodia geography-related lists | [
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225997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Brougham | John Brougham | John Brougham (9 May 1814 – 7 June 1880) was an Irish-American actor and dramatist.
Biography
He was born at Dublin. His father was an amateur painter, and died young. His mother was the daughter of a Huguenot, whom political adversity had forced into exile. John was the eldest of three children. The other two died in youth, and, the father being dead and the widowed mother left penniless, the surviving boy was reared in the family and home of an uncle.
He was prepared for college at an academy at Trim, County Meath, twenty miles from Dublin, and subsequently was sent to Dublin University. There he acquired classical learning, and formed interesting and useful associations and acquaintances; and there also he became interested in private theatricals. Brougham fell in with a crowd that put on their own shows, cast by drawing parts out of a hat. Though he most always traded off larger roles so he could pay attention to his studies, Brougham took quite an interest in acting. He was a frequent attendant, moreover, at the Theatre Royal in Hawkins Street.
He was educated with the intention of his becoming a surgeon, and walked the Peth Street Hospital for eight months, but misfortune came upon his uncle, and so the youth was obliged to provide for himself. Before leaving the university he, by chance, had become acquainted with the actress Madame Vestris.
He went to London in 1830, and, after a brief experience of poverty, suddenly determined to become an actor. He was destitute of everything except fine apparel, and he had actually taken the extreme step of offering himself as a cadet in the service of the East India Company; but, being dissuaded by the enrolling officer, who lent him a guinea and advised him to seek for other employment, and happening to meet with a festive acquaintance, he sought recreation at the Tottenham Theatre (afterward the Prince of Wales's) where Madame Vestris was acting.
His acquaintance with Madame Vestris led to him being engaged at the theatre, and he thus made his first appearance on the London stage in July in Tom and Jerry, in which he played six characters. In 1831 he was a member of Madame Vestris's company, and wrote his first play, a burlesque. He remained with Madame Vestris as long as she and Charles Mathews retained Covent Garden, and he collaborated with Dion Boucicault in writing London Assurance, the role of Dazzle being one of those with which he became associated. His success at small or "low" comic roles such as Dazzle earned him the nickname "Little Johnny Brougham," a moniker which he embraced and which boosted his popularity with working-class audiences.
In 1840 he managed the Lyceum theatre, for which he wrote several light burlesques, but in 1842 he moved to the United States, where he became a member of WE Burton's company, for which he wrote several comedies, including Met-a-mora; or, the Last of the Pollywogs, a parody of John A. Stone and Edwin Forrest's Metamora; or The Last of the Wamponoags, and Irish Yankee; or, The Birthday of Freedom.
Later he was the manager of Niblo's Garden, and in 1850 opened Brougham's Lyceum, which, like his next speculation, the lease of the Bowery Theatre, was not a financial success, despite the popularity of such works as Po-ca-hon-tas; or, The Gentle Savage. He was later connected with Wallack's and Daly's theatres, and wrote plays for both.
In 1860 he returned to London, where he adapted or wrote several plays, including The Duke's Motto for Fechter. In November 1864 he appeared at the Theatre Royal in his native Dublin in the first performance of Dion Boucicault's Arrah-na-Pogue with Boucicault, Samuel Johnson and Samuel Anderson Emery in the cast.
After the American Civil War he returned to New York City. Brougham's Theatre was opened in 1869 with his comedies Better Late than Never and Much Ado About a Merchant of Venice, but this managerial experience was also a failure, due to disagreements with his business partner, Jim Fisk, and he took to playing the stock market. His last appearance onstage was in 1879 as "O'Reilly, the detective" in Boucicault's Rescued. He died in Manhattan in 1880.
Marriages
He was twice married, in 1838 to Emma Williams (d. 1865), and, in 1844, to Annette Hawley, daughter of Captain Nelson, R.N., and widow of Mr. Hodges (d. 1870), both actresses.
Plays
Brougham wrote upwards of 120 plays, mostly comedies, earning him the nickname "The American Aristophanes" from critics of the time. One obituary listed the following as his "most conspicuous plays": Life in the Clouds, Love's Livery, Enthusiasm, Thom Thumb the Second, The Demon Gift (with Mark Lemon), Bunsby's Wedding, The Confidence Man, Don Caeser de Bassoon, Vanity Fair, The Irish Yankee, Benjamin Franklin, All's Fair in Love, The Irish Emigrant, Dombey and Son (dramatization), Home, Ambrose Germain, The World's Fair, Faustus, The Spirit of Air, Row at the Lyceum, David Copperfield (dramatization), The Actress of Padua (new version), The Pirates of the Mississippi, The Red Mask, Orion, the Gold-Beater, Tom and Jerry in America, The Miller of New Jersey, The Game of Love, Bleak House (adaptation), My Cousin German, A Decided Case, The Game of Life, Pocahantas, Neptune's Defeat, Love and Murder, Romance and Reality, The Ruling Passion, Playing With Fire, Columbus (burlesque), This House to Be Sold, The Duke's Motto, Bel Demonio, Lady Audley's Secret (adaptation), Only a Clod (adaptation), Better Late than Never, The Emerald Ring, Irish Stew, Much Ado About a Merchant of Venice, The Red Light, Minnie's Luck, John Garth, and The Lily of France. Other works included The Lottery of Life (1867), and Home Rule, his final work.
He was the founder of the Lotus Club in New York, and for a time its president.
In 1852, he edited a comedic paper, The Lantern, and published two collections of miscellaneous writings, A Basket of Chips and The Bunsby Papers. In 1857, he published A Day in New York.
Notes
References
External links
1814 births
1880 deaths
American male dramatists and playwrights
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Irish dramatists and playwrights
Irish male writers
Irish male stage actors
Irish male dramatists and playwrights
Male actors from County Dublin
19th-century American dramatists and playwrights
19th-century male actors
19th-century American male writers | [
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225998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AKP | ISO 3166-2:KP | ISO 3166-2:KP is the entry for North Korea (officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea) in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for North Korea, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 metropolitan city, 1 capital city, 1 special city, and 9 provinces. All of them except the metropolitan city are province-level subdivisions. The three special administrative regions, i.e., the Kaesong Industrial Region, the Mount Kumgang Tourist Region, and the Sinuiju Special Administrative Region, are not listed.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of North Korea. The second part is two digits:
01: capital city
02–10: provinces
13: special city
14: metropolitan city
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Notes
Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
Codes changed in Newsletter II-1
See also
Subdivisions of North Korea
FIPS region codes of North Korea
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: KP
Provinces of North Korea, Statoids.com
2:KP
ISO 3166-2
North Korea geography-related lists | [
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225999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary%20operator | Unitary operator | In functional analysis, a unitary operator is a surjective bounded operator on a Hilbert space that preserves the inner product. Unitary operators are usually taken as operating on a Hilbert space, but the same notion serves to define the concept of isomorphism between Hilbert spaces.
A unitary element is a generalization of a unitary operator. In a unital algebra, an element of the algebra is called a unitary element if ,
where is the identity element.
Definition
Definition 1. A unitary operator is a bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space that satisfies , where is the adjoint of , and is the identity operator.
The weaker condition defines an isometry. The other condition, , defines a coisometry. Thus a unitary operator is a bounded linear operator which is both an isometry and a coisometry, or, equivalently, a surjective isometry.
An equivalent definition is the following:
Definition 2. A unitary operator is a bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space for which the following hold:
is surjective, and
preserves the inner product of the Hilbert space, . In other words, for all vectors and in we have:
The notion of isomorphism in the category of Hilbert spaces is captured if domain and range are allowed to differ in this definition. Isometries preserve Cauchy sequences, hence the completeness property of Hilbert spaces is preserved
The following, seemingly weaker, definition is also equivalent:
Definition 3. A unitary operator is a bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space for which the following hold:
the range of is dense in , and
preserves the inner product of the Hilbert space, . In other words, for all vectors and in we have:
To see that Definitions 1 & 3 are equivalent, notice that preserving the inner product implies is an isometry (thus, a bounded linear operator). The fact that has dense range ensures it has a bounded inverse . It is clear that .
Thus, unitary operators are just automorphisms of Hilbert spaces, i.e., they preserve the structure (in this case, the linear space structure, the inner product, and hence the topology) of the space on which they act. The group of all unitary operators from a given Hilbert space to itself is sometimes referred to as the Hilbert group of , denoted or .
Examples
The identity function is trivially a unitary operator.
Rotations in are the simplest nontrivial example of unitary operators. Rotations do not change the length of a vector or the angle between two vectors. This example can be expanded to .
On the vector space of complex numbers, multiplication by a number of absolute value , that is, a number of the form for , is a unitary operator. is referred to as a phase, and this multiplication is referred to as multiplication by a phase. Notice that the value of modulo does not affect the result of the multiplication, and so the independent unitary operators on are parametrized by a circle. The corresponding group, which, as a set, is the circle, is called .
More generally, unitary matrices are precisely the unitary operators on finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces, so the notion of a unitary operator is a generalization of the notion of a unitary matrix. Orthogonal matrices are the special case of unitary matrices in which all entries are real. They are the unitary operators on .
The bilateral shift on the sequence space indexed by the integers is unitary. In general, any operator in a Hilbert space which acts by permuting an orthonormal basis is unitary. In the finite dimensional case, such operators are the permutation matrices.
The unilateral shift (right shift) is an isometry; its conjugate (left shift) is a coisometry.
The Fourier operator is a unitary operator, i.e. the operator which performs the Fourier transform (with proper normalization). This follows from Parseval's theorem.
Unitary operators are used in unitary representations.
Quantum logic gates are unitary operators. Not all gates are Hermitian.
Linearity
The linearity requirement in the definition of a unitary operator can be dropped without changing the meaning because it can be derived from linearity and positive-definiteness of the scalar product:
Analogously you obtain
Properties
The spectrum of a unitary operator lies on the unit circle. That is, for any complex number in the spectrum, one has . This can be seen as a consequence of the spectral theorem for normal operators. By the theorem, is unitarily equivalent to multiplication by a Borel-measurable on , for some finite measure space . Now implies , -a.e. This shows that the essential range of , therefore the spectrum of , lies on the unit circle.
A linear map is unitary if it is surjective and isometric. (Use Polarization identity to show the only if part.)
See also
Footnotes
References
Operator theory
Unitary operators | [
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226003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Evans%20Burton | William Evans Burton | William Evans Burton (24 September 180410 February 1860) was an English actor, playwright, theatre manager and publisher who relocated to the United States.
Life and work
Early life
Born in London on 24 September 1804, Burton was the son of William George Burton (1774–1825), a printer and the author of Research into the religions of the Eastern nations as illustrative of the scriptures in 1805. Intended for a career in the church, Burton was a pupil at St. Paul's School in London, an institution associated also with the dramatic names of Robert William Elliston and Charles Mathews. At the age of 18, in consequence of the death of his father, the youth was called to take charge of the printing office, and also to be the support of a widowed mother. His first effort was to establish a monthly magazine. The attempt was a failure, but it brought him theatrical acquaintances, and under their influence he presently drifted toward the stage.
The first step in his theatrical career, as usual, was to join an amateur dramatic society, and it is said that about this time he gave a performance of Hamlet somewhere on the Strand. In 1825 he was associated with a provincial company acting at Norwich, and elsewhere in England, and he played low comedy. His aspirations at the start were for the tragic, and it is known that late in life he still at times entertained the fancy that nature had intended him to be a tragedian. Burton was one of the funniest creatures that ever lived, but his interior nature was thoughtful and saturnine. He thought, felt, and understood tragedy, but when he came to act, he was all comedian.
At the outset of his career he led the usual life of an itinerant actor. There is a tradition that in the course of his wanderings he once played before George IV at Windsor. After several years in the provinces, he made his first London appearance in 1831 at the Pavilion Theatre as Wormwood in The Lottery Ticket, in which part he was much admired, and which he then acted there upward of fifty consecutive times. John Liston was then the reigning favourite in London (Joseph Shepherd Munden, who died in 1832, being in decadence), and next to Liston stood John Reeve, upon whom it is thought that the earlier style of Burton was in a measure founded.
In 1832 Burton obtained a chance to show his talents at the Haymarket Theatre—Liston having temporarily withdrawn—and there he played Marall to Edmund Kean as Sir Giles Overreach, and Mrs. Glover as Meg in A New Way to Pay Old Debts, a circumstance which he always remembered, and often mentioned with pride and pleasure. His talents as a writer likewise displayed themselves at an early age. In May 1833, a play from his pen, called Ellen Wareham, was first presented, and it is mentioned that this piece had the somewhat unusual fortune of being acted at five different theatres of London on the same evening. Burton went on to a large number of plays during his career.
Relocation to the United States
On 10 April 1823 Burton had married Elizabeth Loft, by whom in 1824 he had a son. The marriage was not a success, and partly due to this in 1834 Burton relocated to the United States, where he appeared in Philadelphia as Dr. Ollapod in The Poor Gentleman. He took a prominent place, both as actor and manager, in New York City, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the theatre which he leased in New York being renamed Burton's Theatre. He was very successful as Captain Cuttle in John Brougham's dramatisation of Dombey and Son, and in other low comedy parts in plays from Charles Dickens's novels.
Publishing work
In 1837 in Philadelphia he established the Gentlemen's Magazine, of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some time the editor. His magazine was intended for a general audience, incorporating the standard fare of poetry and fiction, but had a focus on sporting life like hunting and sailing. For the September 1837 issue Burton wrote an early example of the detective story, 'The Secret Cell', detailing a London policeman's efforts to trace an abducted girl and arrest her kidnappers. Burton likely served as a literary critic himself for the magazine. To remain competitive, the magazine included better paper, more illustrations, and higher-quality printing, making production costs high. Poe became an editor in 1839, though Burton disliked Poe's harsh style of criticism. Even so, Poe's responsibilities increased whenever Burton left town to perform at other venues. It was under Burton that Poe began what has since been termed the "Longfellow War", with Poe using his role as critic to anonymously accuse the popular poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism. Another critic, Willis Gaylord Clark, blamed Burton for allowing these literary attacks, telling Longfellow that Burton was: "a vagrant from England, who has left a wife and offspring behind him there, and plays the bigamist in this with another wife, and his whore besides; one who cannot write a paragraph in English to save his life".
Poe was fired by Burton in June 1840. Burton and Poe had a tumultuous working relationship. Burton tried selling the magazine without telling Poe, and Poe made plans to launch his own competing Philadelphia-based magazine called The Penn without mentioning it to Burton. Additionally, Burton may have written a particularly scathing negative review of Poe's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket and spread rumours of his drunkenness, which Poe denied. Poe told a friend that Burton was a "blackguard and a villain." Poe's friend Joseph E. Snodgrass thought Burton's rumour-mongering was enough for Poe to sue for slander but Poe noted his own name-calling was enough for a countersuit.
Later life
In late 1840, Burton sold his magazine to George Rex Graham for the price of $3,500 (one dollar for each subscriber), who transformed it into Graham's Magazine. Burton used the money from the sale to renovate his theatre, which eventually failed. Burton went on to become the editor of the Cambridge Quarterly and the Souvenir. He also wrote several books, including a Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour in 1857.
Burton died on 10 February 1860 in New York City. At the time of his death, he had collected a library of over 100,000 volumes, especially rich in books by and relating to William Shakespeare. He left his fortune to charity but his wife Elizabeth, from whom he had separated 26 years earlier, arrived from England to claim dower. Judgment initially went against her but after a series of appeals the Supreme Court upheld her claim, thus establishing the rights of an alien to dower in the United States.
William Evans Burton was the father of the English painter William Shakespeare Burton.
Notes
References
External links
Letters between Burton and Poe at the Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore
Burton in The Dutch Governor/Twould Puzzle a Conjurer
English dramatists and playwrights
English male stage actors
Actor-managers
Edgar Allan Poe
1804 births
1860 deaths
Male actors from London
English emigrants to the United States
19th-century English male actors
English male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century British dramatists and playwrights
19th-century theatre managers | [
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226008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20William%20Wallack | James William Wallack | James William Wallack (c. 1794–1864), commonly referred to as J. W. Wallack, was an Anglo-American actor and manager, born in London, and brother of Henry John Wallack.
Life
Wallack's father was named William Wallack and his sister was named Elizabeth. His parents were comedians, who performed at the London minor playhouses and in the British provinces. His first appearance on the stage was as a child at the Surrey Theatre in London. Soon afterward he performed in juvenile characters at Drury Lane, and at the age of eighteen entered on a permanent career at the same house as Laertes in Hamlet. He also acted in the British provinces and in Ireland, gradually winning his way to popularity as a useful representative of drama and comedy. In 1823 he played Victor Frankenstein in Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein at the English Opera House. In 1824, Wallack became stage manager at Drury Lane, and rose to the performance of secondary roles in tragedy. Later he played at the Haymarket Theatre, and officiated as stage manager at the Princess's Theatre.
On the occasion of his first visit to the United States, in 1818, he played Macbeth at the Park Theatre, New York. He also played Romeo, Shylock, Coriolanus, Hamlet, and Richard III, all without making any favorable impression. But in the principal roles in The Stranger, Pizarro and The Gamester he closely copied the manner of Kemble and attracted favorable consideration. From 1818 until 1845 Wallack performed at intervals in all the principal cities of the United States. Among his roles were the chief characters in The Brigand, The Rent-Day, The Wonder, Don Cassar de Bazan, Wild Oats and the refined comedy parts of Mercutio, Jaques, and Benedick. Love's Ritornello, as sung by him in The Brigand, was hummed from one end of the country to the other.
In 1822 Wallack met with an accident, in which his leg was fractured by the overturning of a stagecoach between New York and Philadelphia. This mishap retired him from active life for about eighteen months, and from its effect he never entirely recovered. From 1837 until its destruction by fire, Wallack conducted the New York National Theatre. There he presented a repertory of the best plays in the English language, rendered by a company such as never before had been seen in this country.
He settled permanently in New York City in 1852. In that year, he assumed management of an 1850 theatre two doors south of Broome Street on the west side of Broadway, called Brougham's Lyceum, renaming it Wallack's Lyceum. In 1861 he built a new Wallack's Theatre at 13th Street and Broadway. His son opened the third Wallack's Theatre in 1882.
Wallack was an actor of the old school. Thackeray praised his performance as Shylock, and Joseph Jefferson his Don Caesar de Bazan. As a performer he was endowed with a fine personality; his voice was highly melodious, set off by flexibility and careful elocution, and his knowledge of stage-effect was unexcelled. In refined and eccentric comedy Wallack had few superiors. Some of his roles in the romantic dramas of his own creation were entirely unequalled, and have died with him.
Family
Wallack married Susan Johnstone, a comic actress and the daughter of John Henry Johnstone, in 1817; she died in 1851. Together, the Wallacks had four sons. The eldest, Lester Wallack, was also a famous actor and theater manager. Wallack's sister, Elizabeth had a daughter, Leonora Pincott, who married Alfred Wigan was a noted actor.
Notes
References
Further reading
Ireland, Joseph N. Records of the New York Stage from 1750 to 1860, volume i. (T. H. Morrell, New York, 1867), pp. 341f and 396f.
"James W. Wallack," Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing Room Companion, Vol. 3 No. 22 (27 November 1852) p. 344
Knight, John Joseph "Wallack, James William" in Lee, Sidney (ed.) Dictionary of National Biography volume lix (London: Smith, Elder, & Co.; 1899) p. 117f. Also online at Internet Archive.
A Sketch of the Life of James William Wallack: (senior,) Late Actor and Manager [compiled by the publisher] (T. H. Morrell, New York, 1865) described in Bibliotheca dramatica et curiosa, p. 362
Wallack, Lester and Hutton, Laurence Memories of Fifty Years. (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1889)
Winter, William, The Wallet of Time, volume i. (Moffat, Yard and Company, New York, 1913)
External links
English male stage actors
American male stage actors
Actor-managers
British emigrants to the United States
1794 births
1864 deaths | [
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226011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester%20Wallack | Lester Wallack | John Johnstone Wallack (January 1, 1820, New York City – September 6, 1888, Stamford, Connecticut), was an American actor-manager and son of James William Wallack and Susan Johnstone. He used the stage name John Lester until October 5, 1858, when he first acted under the name Lester Wallack, which he retained the rest of his career.
Biography
He was born in New York but at an early age he was taken to his parents' home in London where he was reared and educated. His mother was also an actress Susan Johnstone and his father was James William Wallack a theatre producer. He had chosen a military career but became discouraged and went to Dublin where he went upon the stage. He remained for two seasons and then went to Edinburgh. Then in 1846, he appeared in London at the Haymarket Theatre under Benjamin Webster's management. There he was seen by George H. Barrett, who had come to London to engage actors for the Broadway Theatre, in New York.
He made his American debut there in 1847, under the name of John Lester, appearing as Sir Charles Coldstream in Boucicault's adaptation of Used Up. His father's brother, Henry Wallack, the father of James William Wallack Jr. (1818–1873), was also in the Broadway Theatre's company. His second appearance was as Viscount de Ligny in Captain of the Guard by James Planché.
Subsequently, he performed at the Bowery Theatre, Burton's Theatre, Niblo's Garden and the first Wallack's Theatre. His first appearance at the Bowery Theatre was in 1849 as Don Caesar de Bazan by Adolphe d'Ennery and Philippe Dumanoir.
He was manager of the second Wallack's Theatre from 1861 (demolished in 1901), and in 1882 he opened the third at 30th Street and Broadway (demolished in 1915). Among the productions staged at the latter was Margaret Mather's ill-fated production of Cymbeline in 1897. Another Wallack's Theatre, at 254 West 42nd Street in New York, was named for him in 1924. Wallack joined The Lambs in 1875, which frequently met at Wallack's Theater. He served as its Shepherd (president): 1878-1879, 1880-1882. 1884-1888, and was one of the founders of the Actors' Fund of America.
His greatest successes were as Charles Surface, as Benedick, and especially as Elliot Grey in his own play Rosedale, and similar light comedy and romantic parts, for which his fascinating manners and handsome person well fitted him. He married a sister (d. 1909) of Sir John Millais. He wrote his own Memories of Fifty Years.
Notes
References
Attribution:
Further reading
Florence, W. J. (1888-10). “Lester Wallack”. The North American Review, Vol. 147 No. 383, pp. 453–459. Online at JSTOR.
Moses, Montrose J. (1906). Famous Actor-Families in America. Thomas Y. Crowell & Company, New York, pp. 195–224. Online at Internet Archive.
Wallack, Lester and Hutton, Laurence (1889). Memories of Fifty Years. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York
Winter, William (1889). Brief Chronicles, Part I. Publications of the Dunlap Society, No. 7, New York, pp. 313–23
External links
1820 births
1888 deaths
American autobiographers
Male actors from New York City
19th-century American male actors
American male stage actors
The Lambs presidents
Members of The Lambs Club
Actor-managers | [
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226012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AKZ | ISO 3166-2:KZ | ISO 3166-2:KZ is the entry for Kazakhstan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Kazakhstan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 3 cities and 14 regions. The cities Almaty and Nur-Sultan are the former and current capitals of the country respectively and have special status equal to the regions.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Kazakhstan. The second part is three letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(kk): Kazakh
(ru): Russian
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Kazakhstan
FIPS region codes of Kazakhstan
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: KZ
Regions of Kazakhstan, Statoids.com
2:KZ
ISO 3166-2
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226014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ALA | ISO 3166-2:LA | ISO 3166-2:LA is the entry for Laos in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Laos, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 prefecture and 17 provinces.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Laos. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Laos
FIPS region codes of Laos
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: LA
Provinces of Laos, Statoids.com
2:LA
ISO 3166-2
Laos geography-related lists | [
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226016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AMD | ISO 3166-2:MD | ISO 3166-2:MD is the entry for Moldova in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Moldova, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 autonomous territorial unit, 3 cities, 32 districts, and 1 territorial unit. The three cities have special status equal to the districts.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Moldova. The second part is two letters.
Due to limited international recognition, Transnistria is considered part of Moldova and does not have its own ISO 3166-1 code.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Subdivision names are sorted in Romanian alphabetical order: a, ă, â, b-i, î, j-s, ș, t, ț, u-z.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
Codes before Newsletter I-2
Codes before Newsletter II-2
See also
Subdivisions of Moldova
FIPS region codes of Moldova
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: MD
Districts of Moldova, Statoids.com
2:MD
ISO 3166-2
Moldova geography-related lists | [
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226017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AMU | ISO 3166-2:MU | ISO 3166-2:MU is the entry for Mauritius in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Mauritius, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 3 dependencies and 9 districts.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Mauritius. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Mauritius
FIPS region codes of Mauritius
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: MU
Districts of Mauritius, Statoids.com
2:MU
ISO 3166-2
Mauritius geography-related lists | [
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226018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ARO | ISO 3166-2:RO | ISO 3166-2:RO is the entry for Romania in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Romania, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 41 departments and 1 municipality. The municipality Bucharest is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the departments.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Romania. The second part is either of the following:
one letter: municipality
two letters: departments
The letters are currently used in vehicle registration plates.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Subdivision names are sorted in Romanian alphabetical order: a, ă, â, b-i, î, j-s, ș, t, ț, u-z.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Romania
FIPS region codes of Romania
NUTS codes of Romania
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: RO
Counties of Romania, Statoids.com
2:RO
ISO 3166-2
Romania geography-related lists | [
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226019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20James%20Child | Francis James Child | Francis James Child (February 1, 1825 – September 11, 1896) was an American scholar, educator, and folklorist, best known today for his collection of English and Scottish ballads now known as the Child Ballads. Child was Boylston professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard University, where he produced influential editions of English poetry. In 1876 he was named Harvard's first Professor of English, a position which allowed him to focus on academic research. It was during this time that he began work on the Child Ballads.
The Child Ballads were published in five volumes between 1882 and 1898. While Child was primarily a literary scholar with little interest in the music of the ballads, his work became a major contribution to the study of English-language folk music.
Biography
Francis James Child was born in Boston, Massachusetts. His lifelong friend, scholar and social reformer Charles Eliot Norton, described Child's father, a sailmaker, as "one of that class of intelligent and independent mechanics [i.e., skilled craftsmen], which has had a large share of developing the character of our democratic community, as of old the same class had in Athens or in Florence." The family was poor, but thanks to the city of Boston's system of free public schools, the boy was educated at the Boston's grammar schools and The English High School. There his brilliance came to the attention of the principal of the Boston Latin School, Epes Sargent Dixwell, who saw to it that the promising youngster was furnished with a scholarship to attend Harvard University.
At Harvard, "Frank" (nicknamed "Stubby" on account of his short stature) excelled in all classes and also read widely outside his studies for his own pleasure. Although shy and diffident on account of his working-class origins, he was soon recognized as "the best writer, best speaker, best mathematician, the most accomplished person in knowledge of general literature", and he became extremely popular with his classmates. He was graduated in 1846, topping his class in all subjects and was chosen Class Orator by his graduating class (of sixty), who received his valedictory speech with "tumultuous applause". Upon graduation Child was appointed tutor in mathematics at Harvard and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political economy, and English literature.
In 1848, Child published a critically annotated edition (the first of the kind to be produced in America) of Four Old Plays of the early English Renaissance. Though there were no graduate schools in America at the time, a loan from a benefactor, Jonathan I. Bowditch, to whom the book was dedicated, enabled Child to take a leave of absence from his teaching duties to pursue his studies in Germany. There Child studied English drama and Germanic philology at the University of Göttingen, which conferred on him an honorary doctorate, and at Humboldt University, Berlin, where he heard lectures by the linguists Grimm and was much influenced by them.
In 1851, at the age of 26, Child succeeded Edward T. Channing as Harvard's Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory, a position he held until Adams Sherman Hill was appointed to the professorship in 1876. Harvard had at that time an enrollment of 382 undergraduates and a faculty of 14, including the president of the University, who was then James Walker.
As a mathematician, wrote folklore scholar David E. Bynum, Child came to his interest "in what he variously called 'popular', 'primitive', or 'traditional' balladry'" (that is, in oral literature, then deemed "primitive" because its stylistic features antedate the invention of writing) not by accident "but by force of logic":
Child well understood how indispensable good writing and good speaking are to civilization, or as many would now prefer to say, to society. For him, writing and speaking were not only the practical means by which men share useful information, but also the means whereby they formulate and share values, including the higher order of values that give meaning to life and purpose to human activities of all sorts. Concerned as he thus so greatly was with rhetoric, oratory, and the motives of those mental disciplines, Child was inevitably drawn into pondering the essential differences between speech and writing, and to searching for the origins of thoughtful expression in English.
During the twenty-five years Child was Professor of Rhetoric at Harvard he undertook general editorial supervision of the publication of a 130-volume collection of the works of the British poets, many not previously generally available to the reading public, which began appearing 1853. The volumes on the works of Edmund Spenser (five volumes, Boston, 1855) and the English and Scottish Ballads (in eight small volumes, Boston, 1857–1858), Child edited himself. Child planned a critical edition of the works of Chaucer, as well. He soon realized that this could not be done, however, since only one early (and faulty) text was available. He therefore wrote a treatise, blandly titled "Observations on the Language of Chaucer", published in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1863), intended to make such an edition possible.
Child's linguistic researches are largely responsible for how Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation, and scansion are now generally understood.
Child's largest undertaking, however, grew out of the original English and Scottish Ballads volume in his British Poets series. The material for this volume was mostly derived from texts in previously published books. In compiling this work he realized that the folio manuscript of Percy's Reliques, from which most of these texts were drawn, was not available for public inspection, and he set about to remedy this situation. In the 1860s he campaigned energetically for public support to enable the Early English Text Society, founded by philologist Frederick James Furnivall, to obtain a copy of Percy's Folio and publish it, which they did in 1868. Child and Furnivall then went on to found The Ballad Society, with a view to publishing other important early ballad collections, such as that of Samuel Pepys.
In 1876, University of California President Daniel Coit Gilman offered Child a research professorship at the newly established Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, which Gilman was in the process of organizing. Johns Hopkins was the first American university conceived on the German research model initiated by Wilhelm von Humboldt and divided into departments representing "the branches of knowledge", with elective subjects and a graduate school dedicated to advanced studies. In order to retain him, Harvard's president Charles William Eliot created the title of "Professor of English" especially for Child, freeing him from supervising oral recitations and correcting composition papers so that he could have more time for research. Thereafter, Child devoted himself to the comparative study of British vernacular ballads, using methods adopted from historical comparative philology to arrive at the earliest attested versions.
Child considered that folk ballads came from a more democratic time in the past when society was not so rigidly segregated into classes, and the "true voice" of the people could therefore be heard. He conceived "the people" as comprising all the classes of society, rich, middle, and poor, and not only those engaged in manual labor as Marxists sometimes use the word. Although Child concentrated his collections on manuscript texts with a view to determining their chronology, he also gave a sedulous but conservative hearing to popular versions still surviving. Child carried his investigations into the ballads of languages other than English, engaging in extensive international correspondence on the subject with colleagues abroad, primarily with the Danish literary historian and ethnographer Svend Grundtvig, whose monumental twelve-volume compilation of Danish ballads, Danmarks gamle Folkeviser, vols. 1–12 (Copenhagen, 1853), was the model for Child's resulting canonical five-volume edition of some 305 English and Scottish ballads and their numerous variants. Since the ballads were known to have been a pan-European, Turkish, and North African phenomenon, Child and Grundtvig also consulted with numerous scholars in other parts of the world, such as, for example, the Sicilian physician, folklorist, and ethnographer Giuseppe Pitrè. Professor Child served two terms as president, in 1888 and 1889, of the American Folklore Society, which was founded with the mission of collecting and preserving African-American and Native American folklore equally that of European derivation.
Worked and overworked to the last, he died in Boston after completing his task – apart from a planned general introduction and bibliography. A biographical introduction was prefixed to the work by his student, and successor, George Lyman Kittredge.
Child added to the Harvard University Library one of the largest folklore collections in existence. Kittredge succeeded him as Professor of English literature and modern languages at Harvard and considered himself the custodian of Child's scholarly legacy. Kittredge was president of the American Folklore Society in 1904.
All the earlier, printed sources known to Child, ('The Child Ballads'), are subsumed, and progressed upon in number and research by Steve Roud, in the Roud Folk Song Index.
He is buried in the cemetery in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in the "Sedgwick Pie", since (like his good friend Charles Eliot Norton), he had married into the Sedgwick family. (Child's grave is not far from that of Elizabeth Freeman (Mum Bett), the first enslaved African American to sue for her freedom in the courts based on the law of the 1780 constitution of the state of Massachusetts, which held that "all men are born free and equal." The jury agreed and in 1781 she won her freedom. Her lawyer had been Theodore Sedgwick.)
The English and Scottish Popular Ballads
Child's monumental final collection was published as The English and Scottish Popular Ballads in 1882–1898, at first in ten parts (the tenth, posthumously) and then in five quarto volumes, and for a long time was the authoritative treasury of their subject. The "English" and "Scottish" of the title notwithstanding, it was an international piece of research, with references that include thirty different language sources.
A commemorative article in the 2006 edition of the Harvard Magazine states:Child's enthusiasm and erudition shine throughout his systematic attempt to set the British ballad tradition in context with others, whether Danish, Serbian, or Turkish. He made no attempt to conceal or apologize for the sexuality, theatrical violence, and ill-concealed paganism of many ballads, but it is characteristic of the man that in his introduction to "Hugh of Lincoln," an ancient work about the purported murder of a Christian child by a Jew, he wrote, "And these pretended child-murders, with their horrible consequences, are only a part of the persecution which, with all moderation, may be rubricated as the most disgraceful chapter in the history of the human race."
Since Child did not live to complete the planned introduction to his work which was to have explained his methodology, it has sometimes been alleged his selection was arbitrary and based purely on personal taste. The most recent edition of the ballads, however, published in 2002, now includes Child's rediscovered essay, "Ballad Poetry," which he had published anonymously in 1874. Reviewing the new edition, Ian Olson notes that the rediscovered essay:gives considerable insight into Child's thinking after he had published his "first go" of English and Scottish Ballads in 1857-59 and was in the process of researching and reconsidering his last great work. It may not be Child's "final statement" that we all wish he had lived to make, but it comes close in many ways, and nicely complements the original Introduction to 1880s English and Scottish Popular Ballads made by Child's successor, George Lyman Kittredge (retained in this volume).
Owing to the indelicate nature of their theme, certain traditional ballads such as The Crabfish were deliberately excluded from this work. For a listing of all the Child ballad types, and links to more information on each individual type, see List of the Child Ballads.
See also
Il Pesceballo
Notes
References
Atkinson, David. "The English Revival Canon: Child Ballads and the Invention of Tradition". The Journal of American Folklore: 114: 453 (Summer, 2001): 370-80.
_ The English Traditional Ballad: Theory, Method, and Practice. Aldershot, UK and Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2002.
Brown, Mary Ellen. Child's Unfinished Masterpiece: The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. University of Illinois Press, 2011.
_. "Child's Gallant Army of Auxiliaries". Journal of Folklore Research 43: 2 (May–August 2006): 89-108.
Cheeseman, Tom, and Sigrid Rieuwerts, editors. Ballads into Books: The Legacies of Francis James Child. Selected Papers from the 26th International Ballad Conference (SIEF Ballad Commission), Swansea, Wales, 19–24 July 1996. Berlin (etc.): Peter Lang Verlagsgruppe, (Second Revised Edition) 1999.
Graff, Gerald. Professing Literature: An Institutional History. University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Rieuwerts, Sigrid. "'The Genuine Ballads of the People': F. J. Child and the Ballad Cause". Journal of Folklore Research, 31: 1-3 (1994): 1-34.
Rudy, Jill Terry. "Considering Rhetoric's Wayward Child: Ballad Scholarship and Intradisciplinary Conflict." Journal of Folklore Research: 35: 2 (May 1998): 85–98.
_. "Transforming Audiences for Oral Tradition: Child, Kittredge, Thompson, and Connections of Folklore and English Studies." College English: 66: 5 (May 2004).
External links
Biography of Francis James Child at The Contemplator
Burgess, John. "Francis James Child: Brief Life of a Victorian Enthusiast: 1825-1896". Harvard Magazine, May-June, 2006.Olson, Ian. Review of Mark and Laura Heiman's Corrected Second Edition of Francis James Child's English and Scottish Popular Ballads, volume 1, in Musical Traditions internet magazine, May 14, 2002.
"Francis James Child" entry 43 in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). Volume XVIII. Later National Literature, Part III, XXV. Scholars, no. 43. "Francis James Child".
Project Gutenberg free e-texts of The English and Scottish Ballads'' are available in several formats: Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3; Volume 4. [Other volumes in preparation.]
American folklorists
American folk-song collectors
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1825 births
1896 deaths
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Presidents of the American Folklore Society | [
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226020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics%20%28mechanics%29 | Dynamics (mechanics) | Dynamics is the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the study of forces and their effects on motion. Isaac Newton was the first to formulate the fundamental physical laws that govern dynamics in classical non-relativistic physics, especially his second law of motion.
Principles
Generally speaking, researchers involved in dynamics study how a physical system might develop or alter over time and study the causes of those changes. In addition, Newton established the fundamental physical laws which govern dynamics in physics. By studying his system of mechanics, dynamics can be understood. In particular, dynamics is mostly related to Newton's second law of motion. However, all three laws of motion are taken into account because these are interrelated in any given observation or experiment.
Linear and rotational dynamics
The study of dynamics falls under two categories: linear and rotational. Linear dynamics pertains to objects moving in a line and involves such quantities as force, mass/inertia, displacement (in units of distance), velocity (distance per unit time), acceleration (distance per unit of time squared) and momentum (mass times unit of velocity). Rotational dynamics pertains to objects that are rotating or moving in a curved path and involves such quantities as torque, moment of inertia/rotational inertia, angular displacement (in radians or less often, degrees), angular velocity (radians per unit time), angular acceleration (radians per unit of time squared) and angular momentum (moment of inertia times unit of angular velocity). Very often, objects exhibit linear and rotational motion.
For classical electromagnetism, Maxwell's equations describe the kinematics. The dynamics of classical systems involving both mechanics and electromagnetism are described by the combination of Newton's laws, Maxwell's equations, and the Lorentz force.
Force
From Newton, force can be defined as an exertion or pressure which can cause an object to accelerate. The concept of force is used to describe an influence which causes a free body (object) to accelerate. It can be a push or a pull, which causes an object to change direction, have new velocity, or to deform temporarily or permanently. Generally speaking, force causes an object's state of motion to change.
Newton's laws
Newton described force as the ability to cause a mass to accelerate. His three laws can be summarized as follows:
First law: If there is no net force on an object, then its velocity is constant. Either the object is at rest (if its velocity is equal to zero), or it moves with constant speed in a single direction.
Second law: The rate of change of linear momentum P of an object is equal to the net force Fnet, i.e., dP/dt = Fnet.
Third law: When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force F2 = −F1 on the first body. This means that F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Newton's laws of motion are valid only in an inertial frame of reference.
See also
Statics
Multibody dynamics
Rigid body dynamics
Analytical dynamics
References
Further reading | [
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226021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics%20%28music%29 | Dynamics (music) | In music, the dynamics of a piece is the variation in loudness between notes or phrases. Dynamics are indicated by specific musical notation, often in some detail. However, dynamics markings still require interpretation by the performer depending on the musical context: for instance, the forte marking (meaning loud) in one part of a piece might have quite different objective loudness in another piece or even a different section of the same piece. The execution of dynamics also extends beyond loudness to include changes in timbre and sometimes tempo rubato.
Purpose and interpretation
Dynamics are one of the expressive elements of music. Used effectively, dynamics help musicians sustain variety and interest in a musical performance, and communicate a particular emotional state or feeling.
Dynamic markings are always relative. never indicates a precise level of loudness; it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be considerably quieter than . There are many factors affecting the interpretation of a dynamic marking. For instance, the middle of a musical phrase will normally be played louder than the beginning or end, to ensure the phrase is properly shaped, even where a passage is marked throughout. Similarly, in multi-part music, some voices will naturally be played louder than others, for instance, to emphasize the melody and the bass line, even if a whole passage is marked at one dynamic level. Some instruments are naturally louder than others – for instance, a tuba playing piano will likely be louder than a guitar playing fortissimo, while a high-pitched instrument like the piccolo playing in its upper register can usually sound loud even when its actual decibel level is lower than that of other instruments.
Dynamic markings
The two basic dynamic indications in music are:
or piano, meaning "quiet".
or forte, meaning "loud or strong".
More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by:
, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately quiet".
, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".
, standing for più piano and meaning "more quiet".
, standing for più forte and meaning "more loud".
Use of up to three consecutive s or s is also common:
, standing for pianissimo and meaning "very quiet".
, standing for fortissimo and meaning "very loud".
("triple piano"), standing for pianississimo and meaning "very very quiet".
("triple forte"), standing for fortississimo and meaning "very very loud".
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Changes
Three Italian words are used to show gradual changes in volume:
crescendo (abbreviated ) translates as "increasing" (literally "growing")
decrescendo (abbreviated to ) translates as "decreasing".
diminuendo (abbreviated ) translates as "diminishing".
Signs sometimes referred to as "hairpins" are also used to stand for these words (See image). If the angle lines open up (), then the indication is to get louder; if they close gradually (), the indication is to get softer. The following notation indicates music starting moderately strong, then becoming gradually stronger and then gradually quieter:
Hairpins are usually written below the staff (or between the two staves in a grand staff), but are sometimes found above, especially in music for singers or in music with multiple melody lines being played by a single performer. They tend to be used for dynamic changes over a relatively short space of time (at most a few bars), while , and are generally used for changes over a longer period. Word directions can be extended with dashes to indicate over what time the event should occur, which may be as long as multiple pages. The word morendo ("dying") is also sometimes used for a gradual reduction in dynamics (and tempo).
For greater changes in dynamics, and are often used, where the molto means "much". Similarly, for more gradual changes and are used, where "poco" translates as a little, or alternatively with poco a poco meaning "little by little".
Sudden changes in dynamics may be notated by adding the word subito (meaning "suddenly") as a prefix or suffix to the new dynamic notation. Subito piano (abbreviated or ) ("suddenly soft") indicates that the dynamics quickly, almost abruptly, lower the volume to approximately the range. It is often purposefully used to subvert the listener's expectation and will signify an intimate expression. Although it uses the piano dynamic symbol, the performer has slight freedom in their interpretation, causing it to vary based on the preceding loudness or character of the piece. Likewise, subito can be used to mark suddenly louder changes, like subito forte , or subito fortissimo , however in these cases it's usually only used to add a particular amount of accent to one note or chord. If subito is used to note a sudden change to an entire louder passage, something like or should be used to leave out any ambiguity.
Accented notes is typically notated with the accent sign > above or below the note, giving it a general emphasis relative to the current dynamics. A harder and shorter emphasis is usually marked with the marcato mark ^ above the note instead. If a very particular emphasis is needed instead, it can be marked with a variation of subito, forzando/forzato or fortepiano.
forzando/forzato indicates a forceful accent and is abbreviated as . To emphasize the effect, it is most often preceded with subito as (subito forzato/forzando, sforzando/sforzato). How these should be interpreted and played in the music is up to the judgement of the performer, but a rule of thumb is that a forzato/forzando can be considered as a variation on marcato while subito forzando/forzato can be considered a variation on marcato with added tenuto.
The fortepiano notation indicates a forte followed immediately by piano. By contrast, is an abbreviation for poco forte, literally "a little loud" but (according to Brahms) meaning with the character of forte, but the sound of piano, though rarely used because of possible confusion with pianoforte.
Extreme dynamic markings
While the typical range of dynamic markings is from to , some pieces use additional markings of further emphasis. Extreme dynamic markings imply an extreme range of loudness, or, alternatively, imply an extremely subtle distinction between very small differences of loudness within a normal range. This kind of usage is most common in orchestral works from the late 19th century onwards. Generally, these markings are supported by the orchestration of the work, with heavy forte markings brought to life by having many loud instruments like brass and percussion playing at once.
In Holst's The Planets, occurs twice in "Mars" and once in "Uranus", often punctuated by organ.
Tchaikovsky marks a bassoon solo (6 s) in his Pathétique Symphony and uses in passages of his 1812 Overture and his Fifth Symphony.
The baritone passage "Era la notte" from Verdi's opera Otello uses , though the same spot is marked in the full score.
Igor Stravinsky used at the end of the finale of the 1919 Firebird Suite.
Sergei Rachmaninoff uses in his Prelude in C, Op. 3 No. 2.
Gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the celli and basses a marking of (5 s), along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood'.
On the other extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the second movement of his Fifth Symphony, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to (5 s),
The original piano version of F. W. Meacham's American Patrol begins at and ends at .
György Ligeti uses extreme dynamics in his music: the Cello Concerto begins with a passage marked (8 s), in his Piano Études Étude No. 9 (Vertige) ends with a diminuendo to (8 s), while Étude No. 13 (L'Escalier du Diable) contains a passage marked (6 s) that progresses to a (8 s) and his opera Le Grand Macabre has (10 s) on a percussion part.
History
On Music, one of the Moralia attributed to the philosopher Plutarch in the first century AD, suggests that ancient Greek musical performance included dynamic transitions – though dynamics receive far less attention in the text than does rhythm or harmony.
The Renaissance composer Giovanni Gabrieli was one of the first to indicate dynamics in music notation, but dynamics were used sparingly by composers until the late 18th century. J.S. Bach used some dynamic terms, including forte, piano, più piano, and pianissimo (although written out as full words), and in some cases it may be that was considered to mean pianissimo in this period.
The fact that the harpsichord could play only "terraced" dynamics (either loud or soft, but not in between), and the fact that composers of the period did not mark gradations of dynamics in their scores, has led to the "somewhat misleading suggestion that baroque dynamics are 'terraced dynamics'," writes Robert Donington. In fact, baroque musicians constantly varied dynamics: in 1752, Johann Joachim Quantz wrote that "Light and shade must be constantly introduced ... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft." In addition to this, the harpsichord in fact becomes louder or softer depending on the thickness of the musical texture (four notes are louder than two). This allowed composers like J.S. Bach to build dynamics directly into their compositions, without the need for notation.
In the Romantic period, composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic changes in their scores. Where Haydn and Mozart specified six levels ( to ), Beethoven used also and (the latter less frequently), and Brahms used a range of terms to describe the dynamics he wanted. In the slow movement of Brahms's trio for violin, horn and piano (Opus 40), he uses the expressions , molto piano, and quasi niente to express different qualities of quiet. Many Romantic and later composers added and , making for a total of ten levels between and .
Interpretation by notation programs
In some music notation programs, there are default MIDI key velocity values associated with these indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change these as needed. These defaults are listed in the following table for some applications, including Apple's Logic Pro 9 (2009–2013), Avid's Sibelius 5 (2007–2009), musescore.org's MuseScore 3.0 (2019), MakeMusic's Finale 26 (2018-2021), and Musitek's SmartScore X2 Pro (2016) and 64 Pro. (2021). MIDI specifies the range of key velocities as an integer between 0 and 127:
The velocity effect on volume depends on the particular instrument. For instance, a grand piano has a much greater volume range than a recorder.
Relation to audio dynamics
The introduction of modern recording techniques has provided alternative ways to control the dynamics of music. Dynamic range compression is used to control the dynamic range of a recording, or a single instrument. This can affect loudness variations, both at the micro- and macro scale. In many contexts, the meaning of the term dynamics is therefore not immediately clear. To distinguish between the different aspects of dynamics, the term performed dynamics can be used to refer to the aspects of music dynamics that is controlled exclusively by the performer.
See also
Accent (music)
Glossary of musical terminology
Notes
References
Musical notation
Musical terminology
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226023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20the%20Cumberlands | University of the Cumberlands | University of the Cumberlands is a private university in Williamsburg, Kentucky. It was founded by Baptist ministers in 1888 as Cumberland College until it changed its name in 2005. The university also changed its mascot from Indians to a Patriot at that time. About 13,000 students are enrolled at the university.
History
University of the Cumberlands, first called Williamsburg Institute, was founded on January 7, 1889. At the 1887 annual meeting of the Mount Zion Association, representatives from 18 eastern Kentucky Baptist churches discussed plans to provide higher education in the Kentucky mountains. The college was incorporated by the Kentucky state legislature on April 6, 1888. In 1907 the school bought the three buildings of Highland College, and in 1913, Williamsburg Institute's name was changed to Cumberland College. The name reflected the institution's location along the Cumberland River and its proximity to Cumberland Falls and the Cumberland Gap. From its inception, the institution has been affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention and its mission has been to educate and prepare leaders for service to the greater community. On the basis of being controlled by the Kentucky Baptist Convention and being bound by its policies, the university has requested and received exemptions from Title IX in the areas of "admissions, recruitment, education programs or activities, and employment", allowing it to discriminate in those fields based on its views regarding "marriage, sex outside of marriage, sexual orientation, gender identity, pregnancy, and abortion." University of the Cumberlands sought, and received, a dissolution with the Kentucky Baptist Convention during the annual convention on November 12, 2018.
Although founded as a senior college, in 1918 Cumberland College officially became a junior college. The college received its first accreditation from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) in 1931. In 1956 the Board of Trustees began bringing the college back to senior college status. The junior year was added in 1959-60 and the senior year in 1960–1961. SACS granted initial accreditation to the institution as a senior college in December 1964. Since then, SACS has reaffirmed the college's accreditation in 1974, 1985, 1995, and 2006. It is next scheduled for reaffirmation in 2016.
Cumberland College received authority to award its first graduate degree, the Master of Arts in education (MAED) on April 6, 1988. Graduate education has since become an integral part of the institution. In 2005, the institution received authorization from SACS to offer the Master of Arts in Teaching degree (MAT). This action was followed in 2006 with permission from the SACS Commission on Colleges to offer both the MAED and MAT degrees fully online. More recently in 2008, the commission also authorized the granting of the MBA degree, the Ed.S. degree, as well as the institution's first doctoral degree, an Ed.D. in Educational Leadership. Master's programs in Professional Counseling and in Physician Assistant Studies were approved by SACS in 2009, and the Master of Arts in Christian Studies in 2010.
On July 1, 2005, after action by the Board of Trustees, Cumberland College became the University of the Cumberlands. The university is authorized by the Commonwealth of Kentucky to operate as a nonprofit corporation with perpetual duration and is licensed by the Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education (CPE) to grant the degrees currently offered through July 2017. The institution is also recognized by the Commission on Colleges of SACS as a Level V institution and thus accredited to offer up to three doctoral programs. Currently it offers three doctoral degrees: Ed.D. in Educational Leadership, Ed.D. in Counselor Education, and Ph.D. in Psychology.
It was originally known as Williamsburg Institution, then as Cumberland College, and now as University of the Cumberlands.
Ten presidents have led the college including William James Johnson; E. E. Wood; John Newton Prestridge; Gorman Jones, acting president; A. R. Evans, acting president; Charles William Elsey; James Lloyd Creech; J. M. Boswell; James H. Taylor and Larry L. Cockrum.
On October 3, 2014, university President Dr. James Taylor announced that then-Vice President for Academic Affairs Dr. Larry Cockrum would take over day-to-day operations of the university after the board of trustees meeting on October 15, 2014. Taylor also announced his retirement as president effective October 15, 2015 with the recommendation that Cockrum be named university president effective October 16, 2015. On that date, Taylor would assume the honorary title of university chancellor. The board of trustees officially approved the succession plan on October 15, 2014, giving Cockrum a seven-year contract and the title of Chief Executive Officer & President-Elect. The board of trustees, in a unanimous vote, officially named Cockrum university president on October 15, 2015.
Notable alumni include two governors, five military generals, and five college and university presidents.
AAUP censure
In 2005, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) censured the university, finding that then-President James Taylor coerced Professor Robert Day into resigning because he had opposed Taylor's proposed staff layoffs on an off-campus website. The AAUP concluded that "The policies of Cumberland College, including the grievance procedure, do not provide for faculty hearings of any kind. College policies and practices preclude any effective faculty role in academic governance and contribute to an atmosphere that stifles the freedom of faculty to question and criticize administrative decisions and actions." The AAUP noted that current and former faculty members "do not feel free to address topics of college concern in any forum" and "described a climate of fear about what faculty members may say and do, a fear based on what they know or have been told has happened to others." Those interviewed "expressed a particular fear that criticizing the administration and its operation of the college could place a faculty member's appointment in jeopardy."
Beliefs and policies on homosexuality
The university's beliefs about and policies on homosexuality have proven controversial on many occasions. In 2006, the Kentucky state budget included $10 million of state debt to construct a pharmacy building on the university's Whitley County campus. Additionally, $1 million for scholarships for the pharmacy program were included. The $10 million building was to be funded out of a $100 million pool of money titled the "infrastructure for economic development fund for coal-producing counties." Money to repay the bond issuance would come from coal severance taxes. The Kentucky Fairness Alliance asked Governor Ernie Fletcher to veto the $11 million that state lawmakers approved for a planned pharmacy school. A gay Kentucky State Senator, Ernesto Scorsone, has indicated that he would oppose spending the funds already allocated for a new pharmacy school for the university based on the Johnson situation, stating "We should not be budgeting bigotry." "If the University of the Cumberlands does not change its policies and practices, we will have a state benefit that is only available to heterosexuals," Scorsone said. An additional complication was that the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education, the accrediting agency for all American pharmacy schools, explicitly prohibits discrimination against gays. Its guideline stated that approved schools must have a policy on student affairs, including admissions and progression, that assures non-discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, lifestyle, national origin, or disability. As of July 1, 2007, this was be revised to include the phrase "sexual orientation."
That same year, undergraduate student Jason Johnson of Lexington, Kentucky was forced to withdraw from the university after mentioning that he is gay on the social networking site MySpace.com. Then-university president Dr. James H. Taylor said in a written statement, "At University of the Cumberlands, we hold students to a higher standard than does society in general...University of the Cumberlands isn't for everyone. We tell prospective students about our high standards before they come." The student handbook, as revised in 2005, states that students can be removed from campus for participating in pre-marital sex or promoting homosexuality — a policy which Johnson's attorney alleged was added after Johnson decided to go to school at UC. A week and a half after initially withdrawing from the university, Johnson's attorney and the university reached a settlement allowing Johnson to complete his coursework for the semester and restoring his previous grades rather than downgrading them to failing. The university agreed to not report to other universities that Johnson was expelled. In addition, Johnson waived his right to sue the university, although he retained his right to file a grievance with the Department of Education or the Southern Association for Colleges and Schools.
In 2007, the pro-Gay and Lesbian rights group Soulforce brought its 2007 Equality Ride to Cumberlands' campus. According to the group's website, "through dialogue with administrators, faculty and students, the young activists of the 2007 Equality Ride will make clear the harmful effects of the false notion that homosexuality is a 'sickness and a sin.' To make public their case for equality, the young activists on the Equality Ride will hold vigils, Bible studies, class discussions, community forums, and press conferences."
According to the university, an offer was extended to the group to be located in the middle level of the Boswell Campus Center, but Soulforce rejected those terms. However, according to Soulforce, an offer from the university was quickly withdrawn because of a miscommunication and the university later refused to agree to terms in writing. Two University of the Cumberlands students were arrested by Williamsburg police on a charge of failure to disperse, along with a member of the Soulforce group, for trespassing and failure to disperse when they stopped on the sidewalk of Main Street, which runs through the campus.
The college was granted an exception to Title IX in 2015 which allows it to legally discriminate against LGBT students for religious reasons.
Campus
University of the Cumberlands' campus is in the southeastern part of Kentucky, just off Interstate 75, south of Cincinnati, Ohio, and north of Knoxville, Tennessee.
Notable buildings
Roburn Hall: The first building on the campus, Roburn Hall has been used as a classroom building and a women's and men's residence hall. It is now a women's residence hall.
Gillespie Hall: Originally called Johnson Hall, the women's residence was the second building built by Williamsburg Institute.
Mahan Hall: Built in 1907 as Felix Hall, Mahan was the first men's residence.
Clyde V. and Patricia Bennett Building: Formerly known as the Gray Brick Building, the Bennett Building was built in 1906 by Highland College. Highland and Cumberland merged in 1907.
Ruby Gatliff Archer President's Home: Built in 1905 as a replica of the "Kentucky Home" at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis. It is the residence of the president of the university.
Edward L. Hutton School of Business: Built in 2004 as a replica of Independence Hall.
Cumberland Inn and Conference Center: Hotel and conference center run by the school. Primarily employs UC students.
Patriot Steakhouse, formerly the Athenaeum Restaurant: Highly rated restaurant inside the Cumberland Inn. Reviewed in Eating Your Way Across Kentucky: 101 Must Places To Eat (2006).
The Cumberland Inn Museum is operated by the school, located in the Cumberland Inn. It includes the Henkelmann Life Science Collection, the Carl Williams Cross Museum (one of the world's largest collections of crosses) and the University of the Cumberlands Archives.
Ward and Regina Correll Science Complex: In May 2007, $1 million expansion of the Science Complex was started. The new addition is a replica of Thomas Jefferson's Monticello mansion. Classes began in the Correll Science Complex in January 2009.
Lenora Fuson Harth Hall: New women's residence in the former location of Boswell Park, adjacent to Gillespie Hall. Construction began in August 2007. The hall opened in spring 2009.
Plans are also underway for an addition to the Boswell Campus Center and remodeling the current structure. These plans include a student recreation center complete with a rock wall, along with adding a thatched roof in order to blend in with the other buildings on campus. Phase 1 began in May, 2010.
Academics
The current college President, Larry Cockrum, was caught up in an academic scandal because he was awarded a fake degree from Crescent City Christian College. The professor who questioned this degree was fired, while Larry Cockrum was allowed to resign.
The university is divided into four colleges: Cumberland College (the university's undergraduate school), the Hutton School of Business/Management, the Hutton Center for Leadership Studies, and the Graduate/Professional Education program.
University of the Cumberlands is accredited by the Commission of Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award baccalaureate, master's, and doctoral degrees.
Undergraduate programs
Cumberlands offers approximately 45 major undergraduate programs of study, as well as a variety of minor programs. UC recently began offering majors in Journalism and Public Relations, Criminal Justice, and Spanish.
Cumberlands offers 12 academic national honor societies for students in several majors.
Graduate programs
The university offers several master's degrees, including programs in Education (MAEd), Psychology (MAPC), Business Administration (MBA), Physician Assistant Studies (MSPA), and Christian Studies (MACS), as well as an Educational Specialist program. It also offers several PhD programs, as well as an EdD program.
Northern Kentucky Campus
In addition to the main campus in Williamsburg, UC operates a Northern Kentucky facility in Florence, Kentucky, just south of Cincinnati, Ohio. The location was originally secured to offer more clinical rotations in mental healthcare for doctoral psychology students. This satellite campus currently houses the School of Lifelong Learning and the Ph.D. Program in Clinical Psychology. The university has also indicated that this campus may be the eventual home of the Master's program in Physician Assistant Studies.
Athletics
The University of the Cumberlands (UC) teams are known as the Patriots, after switching from their original mascot the Indians. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Mid-South Conference.
Men's sports include archery, baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and wrestling. Women's sports include archery, basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball, and wrestling. Coeducational sports include cheerleading, dance, and esports.
Student life
The university has a low-power radio station, WCCR-LP, a campus newspaper, The Patriot, and a local cable television station, UCTV channel 19. It also has a forensics (debate) team and an academic team.
The university typically has two theatre productions each year, one play (commonly in the spring, though reversed for the 2008 semesters) and one musical (currently in the spring, previously in the fall).
The university has other extracurricular student activities, including Campus Activity Board (CAB), chapters of College Republicans and College Democrats, Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA), Residence Hall Councils, Student Government Association, Baptist Campus Ministries, and many other clubs and organizations.
UC has 12 chapters of national honor societies in fields such as Biology (Beta Beta Beta), First Year Students (Alpha Lambda Delta) Theology and Religion (Theta Alpha Kappa), Business (Sigma Beta Delta and Phi Beta Lambda), and other academic fields.
University of the Cumberlands provides opportunities for campus ministry through Baptist Campus Ministries (BCM), Appalachian Ministries, Mountain Outreach, and Campus Family and Life groups.
All undergraduate students participate in community service before they graduate, developing a 40-hour community service project through their "Lead 101" class. Students who accumulate 200 or more hours of community service during their time at UC are designated "Hutton Scholars" and presented with certificates. Such students are recognized at their commencement ceremonies and can request a "leadership transcript". Many campus organizations provide opportunities for community service, including Student Government Association, the Academic Resource Center (ARC), Campus Activity Board, The Patriot Campus newspaper, and Resident Assistant positions.
Since the college is in Williamsburg, it is away Cumberland Falls State Resort Park in the Daniel Boone National Forest. The park is the home of Cumberland Falls, sometimes called the Little Niagara, the Niagara of the South or the Great Falls and is the only venue in the Western Hemisphere where a moonbow or lunar rainbow is regularly visible on a clear night with a full moon. Because of how close the falls are, many students go there to hike in the surrounding area and to see the moonbow.
Notable alumni
Ergun Caner, former president of Liberty Theological Seminary, part of Liberty University
Bert T. Combs, former Governor of Kentucky
Mike Duncan, former chairman of the Republican National Committee and current governor of the United States Postal Service
Edward Liddie, judoka, 1984 Summer Olympics bronze medalist in judo
Toccara Montgomery, All-American wrestler; 2004 Summer Olympics finishing 7th
Edwin P. Morrow, former Governor of Kentucky
Jean Ritchie, folk musician, singer, and songwriter who played the Appalachian dulcimer
Betty L. Siegel, former president of Kennesaw State University one of the longest serving woman presidents of an American University
Eugene Siler, former U.S. Representative from Kentucky
Rick Stansbury, current men's basketball coach at Western Kentucky University, former men's basketball coach at Mississippi State University, was graduate assistant at Cumberland from 1983 to 1984
Dick Tunney, contemporary Christian artist/songwriter
Leo White, judoka, 1984 and 1992 Summer Olympics
Wendall Williams, NFL wide receiver
Cat Zingano, All-American wrestler; professional mixed martial arts fighter, currently competing in the UFC's bantamweight division
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Educational institutions established in 1889
University of the Cumberlands
Buildings and structures in Whitley County, Kentucky
Education in Whitley County, Kentucky
University of the Cumberlands
1889 establishments in Kentucky | [
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226028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton%2C%20Pennsylvania | Southampton, Pennsylvania | Southampton is an unincorporated community in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, situated in the southeastern tip of Bucks County.
Geography
Southampton is located 18 miles north, from the center of Philadelphia. Its ZIP Codes are: 18966 (Southampton) 18954 (Richboro), 18966 (Churchville & Holland).
The town is within the zone of Council Rock School District, Centennial School District, and is served by William Tennent High School, located in nearby Warminster, Pennsylvania.
History
Southampton, Pennsylvania is a namesake of Southampton, England, from where the followers of William Penn set sail to the Province of Pennsylvania. By 1685, Southampton was recognized by the Provincial Council as a township, and the lands within its borders had been allocated to thirteen original purchasers: John Luff, John Martin, Robert Pressmore, Richard Wood, John Jones, Mark Betres, John Swift, Enoch Flowers, Joseph Jones, Thomas Groom, Robert Marsh, Thomas Hould and John Gilbert, whose tracts were delineated on a Map of the Improved Part of the Province of Pennsylvania, drafted by Thomas Holme, Pennsylvania's Surveyor General.
Southampton's boundaries at that time extended eastward to Bensalem, and it was not until 1929 that the township was divided into "Upper Southampton" and "Lower Southampton". Its immediate bordering towns are now Feasterville, Huntingdon Valley, Warminster, and Churchville.
In order to ensure peaceful coexistence with the Indians residing in this region, Penn purchased the land with wampum and other valuable commodities including items of clothing, fish hooks, axes, knives and other useful tools. The area between the Pennypack and Neshaminy Creeks, encompassing Southampton Township, was conveyed by the Lenni-Lenape Chief Tamanend to William Penn by Deed dated June 23, 1683.
Many of the first English settlers were Quakers who fled religious persecution, and it was a group of dissident Quakers who joined with members of the Pennepek Baptist Church (a.k.a. Lower Dublin) to form the Southampton Baptist Church, which was constituted in 1746. Dutch colonists arrived in Southampton in the 18th century – the Vandikes, Vansandts, Vanartsdalens, Cornells, Krewsons and Hogelands – who migrated south from Long Island, New York and settled in Smoketown, later to be called Churchville after the North and Southampton Reformed Church erected on Bristol Road.
The churchyards adjacent to the Southampton Baptist and North and Southampton Reformed Churches contain graves of patriots who fought in the Revolutionary War.
Farming was the way of life for most Southampton residents throughout the 18th and 19th Centuries, and roads were constructed from farm to mill, to market and to church. Second Street Pike was the thoroughfare used to carry produce by horse and wagon to the markets in Philadelphia. In the mid-19th century the villages of Davisville, Churchville, and Southamptonville (formerly "Fetter's Corner") sprouted at the various crossroads in the township, and Second Street Pike became a toll road.
The railroad arrived in the 1870s and brought with it many changes. "Southamptonville" was shortened to Southampton, and farmers now had a faster and more efficient way to market their milk and produce. Tradesmen and craftsmen opened shops along Second Street Pike, and residents began commuting into Philadelphia.
Changes continued through the 20th Century. Electricity and telephone lines were installed, and Street Road has been widened (1969–1970) and a railroad overpass constructed, necessitating the removal and/or demolition of the toll house, several shops and residences.
Public education began in the mid-19th Century and one-room schoolhouses once stood at Street Road and Gravel Hill, and on County Line Road just west of Buck Road. Southamptonville's former one-room schoolhouse has been enlarged to such an extent that it is no longer recognizable as such, but stands in its original location on the south side of Street Road near the railroad overpass. The Original "Southampton High School" was later converted and expanded into Shelmire Elementary School (now First Children Academy) when the new Centennial School District's William Tennent High School was built in 1953.
The first public school in the village of Davisville, known as the Davisville Seminary, remains on its original site on the South Side of Street Road – next to the Dairy Queen. The Seminary was used in more recent times as an overflow classroom for the "stone school" (C.H.I. Institute).
Upper Southampton Township has embraced industry and development, but retains a certain small-town feeling despite rapid growth in the post-war years, and again in the 1980s and 1990s.
External links
Link to Local Schools
Unincorporated communities in Bucks County, Pennsylvania
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226033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarnath | Sarnath | Sarnath (Hindustani pronunciation: [saːɾnaːtʰ]) is a place located 10 kilometres north-east of Varanasi near the confluence of the Ganges and the Varuna rivers in Uttar Pradesh, India. The Deer Park in Sarnath is where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma, and where the Buddhist Sangha came into existence through the enlightenment of Kondanna ().
Singhpur, a village approximately one kilometre away from the site, was the birthplace of Shreyansanath, the Eleventh Tirthankara of Jainism. A temple dedicated to him is an important pilgrimage site.
Also referred to as Isipatana, this city is mentioned by the Buddha as one of the four places of pilgrimage his devout followers should visit. It was also the site of the Buddha's Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which was his first sermon after attaining enlightenment, in which he explained the four noble truths and the teachings associated with them.
Origin of names
Sarnath has been variously known as Mrigadava, Migadāya, Rishipattana and Isipatana throughout its long history. Mrigadava means "deer-park". "Isipatana" is the name used in the Pali Canon, and means the place where holy men (Pali: isi, Sanskrit: rishi) landed.
The legend says that when the Buddha-to-be was born, some devas came down to announce it to 500 rishis. Another explanation for the name is that Isipatana was so-called because, sages, on their way through the air (from the Himalayas), alight here or start from here on their aerial flight. Pacceka Buddhas, having spent seven days in contemplation in the Gandhamādana, bathe in the Anotatta Lake and come to the habitations of men through the air, in search of alms. They descend to eartPacceka Buddhas come to Isipatana from Nandamūlaka-pabbhāra.
Xuanzang quotes the Nigrodhamiga Jātaka (J.i.145ff) to account for the origin of the Migadāya. According to him, the Deer Park was a forest given by the king of Benares of the Jātaka, where deer might wander unmolested. The Migadāya was so-called because deer were allowed to roam about there unmolested.
Sarnath derives from the Sanskrit Sāranganātha, which means "Lord of the Deer", and relates to another old Buddhist story in which the Bodhisattva is a deer and offers his life to a king instead of the doe the latter is planning to kill. The king is so moved that he creates the park as a sanctuary for deer. The park is active in modern times.
History
Gautama Buddha at Isipatana
Before Gautama (the Buddha-to-be) attained enlightenment, he gave up his austere penances and his friends, the Pañcavaggiya monks. Seven weeks after his enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Buddha left Uruvela and travelled to Isipatana to rejoin them because, using his spiritual powers, he had seen that his five former companions would be able to understand Dharma quickly. While travelling to Sarnath, Gautama Buddha had no money to pay the ferryman to cross the Ganges, so he crossed it through the air. Later when King Bimbisāra heard of this, he abolished the toll for ascetics. Gautama Buddha found his five former companions and enlightened them with the teachings of the Dharma. At that time, the Sangha, the community of the enlightened ones, was founded. The sermon, Buddha gave to the five monks, was his first sermon, called the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. It was given on the full-moon day of Asalha Puja. Buddha subsequently also spent his first rainy season at Sarnath at the Mulagandhakuti. By then, the Sangha had grown to 60 in number (after Yasa and his friends had become monks), and so Buddha sent them out in all directions to travel alone and teach the Dharma. All 60 monks were Arhats.
Several other incidents connected with the Buddha, besides the preaching of the first sermon, are mentioned as having taken place in Isipatana. It was here when one day, at dawn, Yasa came to the Buddha and became an Arhat. It was at Isipatana, too, that the rule was passed, prohibiting the use of sandals made of talipot leaves. On another occasion when the Buddha was staying at Isipatana, having gone there from Rājagaha, he instituted rules forbidding the use of certain kinds of flesh, including human flesh. Twice, while the Buddha was at Isipatana, Māra visited him but had to go away discomfited.
Besides the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta mentioned above, several other suttas were preached by the Buddha while staying at Isipatana, among them
the Saccavibhanga Sutta,
the Pañca Sutta (S.iii.66f), most popularly known by the somewhat misleading title the Anattalakkhana Sutta
the Rathakāra or Pacetana Sutta (A.i.110f),
the two Pāsa Suttas (S.i.105f),
the Samaya Sutta (A.iii.320ff),
the Katuviya Sutta (A.i.279f.),
a discourse on the Metteyyapañha of the Parāyana (A.iii.399f), and
the Dhammadinna Sutta (S.v.406f), preached by the distinguished Bhikkhuni Dhammadinna to her former husband.
Some of the most eminent members of the Sangha seem to have resided at Isipatana from time to time; among recorded conversations at Isipatana are several between Sariputta and Mahakotthita, and one between Mahākotthita and Citta-Hatthisariputta. There is also a mention of a discourse in which several monks staying at Isipatana tried to help Channa in his difficulties.
According to the Udapāna Jātaka, there was a very ancient well near Isipatana which, in the Buddha's time, was used by the monks living there.
Isipatana after the Buddha
According to the Mahavamsa, there was a large community of monks at Isipatana in the second century B.C. for, we are told that at the foundation ceremony of the Mahā Thūpa in Anurādhapura, twelve thousand monks were present from Isipatana led by the Elder Dhammasena.
Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, who travelled to India in the seventh century, found fifteen hundred monks studying the Hīnayāna at the Isipatana.
In the enclosure of the Sanghārāma was a vihāra about 60 m (200 feet) high, strongly built, its roof surmounted by a golden figure of the mango. In the centre of the vihāra was a life-size statue of the Buddha turning the wheel of the Law and to the south-west were the remains of a stone stupa built by King Ashoka. In front of it was a stone pillar to mark the spot where the Buddha preached his first sermon. Nearby was another stupa on the site where the Pañcavaggiyas spent their time in meditation before the Buddha's arrival, and another where five hundred Pacceka Buddhas entered Nibbāna. Close to it was another building where the future Buddha Metteyya received assurance of his becoming a Buddha.
The Divy. (389-94) mentions Ashoka as intimating to Upagupta, his desire to visit the places connected with the Buddha's activities and to erect stupas there. Thus he visited Lumbinī, Bodhimūla, Isipatana, Migadāya and Kusinagara; this is confirmed by Ashoka's lithic records, e.g. Rock Edict, viii.
Buddhism flourished in Sarnath because of kings and wealthy merchants based in Varanasi. By the third century, Sarnath had become an important centre for the arts, which reached its zenith during the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries CE). In the 7th century by the time Xuanzang visited from China, he found 30 monasteries and 3000 monks living at Sarnath.
Sarnath became a major centre of the Sammatiya school of Buddhism, one of the early Buddhist schools. However, the presence of images of Heruka and Tara indicate that Vajrayana Buddhism was (at a later time) also practised here. Also, images of Brahminist gods as Shiva and Brahma were found at the site, and there is still a Jain temple (at Chandrapuri) located very close to the Dhamekh Stupa.
Kumaradevi, the Gahadvala queen, constructed the last structures at Sarnath. In 1193, her grandson, Jaichand of Kannauj was defeated by Qutb al-Din Aibak, a general of Muhammad Ghori. At the end of the 12th century, Sarnath was sacked by Turkish Muslims, and the site was subsequently plundered for building materials.
Discovery of Isipatana
Isipatana is identified with the modern Sarnath, 9.7 km (6 mi.) from Varanasi. Alexander Cunningham found the Migadāya represented by a fine wood, covering an area of about 800 m (half a mile), extending from the great tomb of Dhamekha on the north to the Chaukundi mound on the south.
Legendary characteristics of Isipatana
According to the Buddhist commentarial scriptures, all the Buddhas preach their first sermon at the Migadāya in Isipatana. It is one of the four avijahitatthānāni (unchanging spots), the others being the bodhi-pallanka, the spot at the gate of Sankassa, where the Buddha first touched the earth on his return from Tāvatimsa, and the site of the bed in the Gandhakuti in Jetavana
In past ages, Isipatana sometimes retained its own name, as it did in the time of Phussa Buddha, Dhammadassī Buddha and Kassapa Buddha. Kassapa was born there. But more often Isipatana was known by different names (for these names see under those of the different Buddhas). Thus in the time of Vipassī Buddha, it was known as Khema-uyyāna. It is the custom for all Buddhas to go through the air to Isipatana to preach their first sermon. Gautama Buddha, however, walked all the way, eighteen leagues, because he knew that by so doing he would meet Upaka, the Ajivaka, to whom he could be of service.
Jainism
Sarnath is the birthplace of the 11th Tirthankara Shri Shreyansanatha Bhagwan. It is the place where 4 of the 5 kalyanak (auspicious life events) of Shri Shreyansanatha Bhagwan took place.
Shri Digambar Jain Shreyansnath Mandir, Singhpuri, Sarnath
It is the place of 4 kalyanak of Shri Shreyansnath Bhagwan. A huge ashtakod stoop (octagonal pillar), 31.4 m (103 feet) in height is still present showing its historical establishment. It is considered to be 2200 years old. The main deity of this temple is a blue-coloured idol of Shri Shreyansnath Bhagwan, 75 cm in height, in Padmāsana. The artistic work of this temple is unmatched.
Current features of Isipatana
The major excavated ruins are listed below, generally in north-to-south and west-to-east order.
Most of the ancient buildings and structures at Sarnath were damaged or destroyed by the Turks. However, amongst the ruins can be distinguished:
The Dharma Chakra Jina Vihar built by Kumaradevi, a wife of Gahadavala Govindachandra (c. 1114–1155 CE). An inscription mentions the building of this massive vihara. It mentions that Govindachandra had protected Varanasi from the Turushkas. This was the last construction at Sarnath before it was devastated.
The Ashoka Pillar erected here, originally surmounted by the "Lion Capital of Ashoka" (presently on display at the Sarnath Museum), was broken during Turk invasions but the base still stands at the original location. The Lion Capital now symbolizes the modern state of India. The Lion Capital served as the base of a large 32-spoke stone dharma-chakra, which was found broken into many pieces. The seal of the Supreme court of India displays the Dharma Chakra as it must have originally appeared.
The ruins of the Mulagandhakuti vihara mark the place where the Buddha spent his first rainy season. This was the main temple marked by the presence of the Ashoka Pillar at the front. The famous Sarnath Buddha in dharmachakra pravartana mudra was found in the vicinity.
The Dharmarajika Stupa is one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas remaining, although only the foundations remain. The rest of the Dharmarajika Stupa was removed to Varanasi to be used as building materials in the 18th century. At that time, relics (bone fragments) in a casket, were found in the Dharmarajika Stupa. These relics were subsequently thrown in the Ganges river, but the casket is preserved.
The Dhamek Stupa; it is an impressive structure, 39 m (128 feet) high and 28 m (93 feet) in diameter.
The Chaukhandi Stupa commemorates the spot where the Buddha met his first disciples, dating back to the fifth century or earlier and later enhanced by the addition of an octagonal tower of Islamic origin. In recent years it is undergoing restoration.
Digambar Jain Mandir: while the current structure is from the 19th century, it occupies an ancient spot.
The modern Mulagandhakuti Vihara is a temple built in the 1930s by the Mahabodhi Society, with beautiful wall paintings with a replica of the famous Sarnath Buddha in dharmachakra pravartana mudra. Behind it is the Deer Park (where deer are still to be seen).
The Sarnath Archeological Museum houses the famous Ashokan lion capital, which miraculously survived its 45-foot drop to the ground (from the top of the Ashokan Pillar), and became the National Emblem of India and national symbol on the Indian flag. The museum also houses a famous and refined Buddha-image of the Buddha in Dharmachakra-posture.
There is also a Bodhi tree planted by Anagarika Dharmapala which has grown from a cutting of the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya.
For Buddhists, Sarnath (or Isipatana) is one of four pilgrimage sites designated by Gautama Buddha, the other three being Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, and Lumbini.
Modern-day pilgrimage
Sarnath has been developed as a place of pilgrimage, both for Buddhists from India and abroad. A number of countries in which Buddhism is a major (or the dominant) religion, such as Thailand, Japan, Tibet, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar, have established temples and monasteries in Sarnath in the style that is typical for the respective country. Thus, pilgrims and visitors have the opportunity to experience an overview of Buddhist architecture from various cultures. There is a 24-m-tall (80-foot) statue of Buddha built over 14 years (1997-2011) by joint Indo-Thai efforts. It is said to be inspired by the Buddhas of Bamiyan.
In English literature
The plate on which Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem Sarnat, a Bodh Monument is based shows its then run-down condition, and her words, comparing the religions of the world, pick up on the apparent weakness of Buddhism in the country of its origin at that time (1832).
Sarnath is one of the locations of Rudyard Kipling's Kim. Teshoo Lama stays at the Temple of the Tirthankhars in Sarnath when not on his pilgrimages. Kim meets him there after he leaves Saint Xavier's school.
Gallery
See also
Adi Badri (Haryana)
Pillars of Ashoka
Kanaganahalli and Sannati in North Karnataka
Notes
References
Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni: Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath with a Plan of Excavations and Five Photographic Plates. Archaeological Survey of India, Delhi 1922
Reprint: Antiquarian Book House, Delhi/Varanasi, 1982-1983
Satyarth Nayak: The Emperor's Riddles 2014
External links
Sarnath India Art Architecture Archcelogy History Culture Study Project
Sarnath Temple
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Varanasi district
Gautama Buddha
Early Buddhism
Hindu pilgrimage sites in India
Hindu holy cities
Former populated places in India
Census towns in Varanasi district
Buddhist sites in Uttar Pradesh
2nd-century BC Jain temples
Jain temples in Uttar Pradesh | [
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226034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ASI | ISO 3166-2:SI | ISO 3166-2:SI is the entry for Slovenia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Slovenia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 212 municipalities.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Slovenia. The second part is three digits, which is the municipality code used by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia:
001–147 (except 145): communes as from 1995 to 1998
148–193: communes created in 1998
194: municipality created in 2002
195–206: communes created in March 2006
207–211: communes created in June 2006
212–213: communes created in 2011
The codes for all groups of communes are assigned in Slovenian alphabetical order, except Tišina and Šalovci (whose codes are assigned based on their former names, Cankova-Tišina and Hodoš Šalovci respectively) as well as Rogašovci (of which the former spelling was Rogačovci). Žalec, whose municipality code was 145, uses 190 after splitting into multiple municipalities in 1998. Ankaran was added in 2016.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Subdivision names are sorted in Slovenian alphabetical order: a-c, č, d-s, š, t-z, ž.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
Codes before Newsletter I-4
See also
Subdivisions of Slovenia
FIPS region codes of Slovenia
NUTS codes of Slovenia
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: SI
Regions of Slovenia, Statoids.com
Communes of Slovenia, Statoids.com
2:SI
ISO 3166-2
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226036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ATJ | ISO 3166-2:TJ | ISO 3166-2:TJ is the entry for Tajikistan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Tajikistan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 autonomous region, 2 regions, 1 capital territory, and 1 district under republic administration.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Tajikistan. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Subdivisions of Tajikistan
FIPS region codes of Tajikistan
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: TJ
Regions of Tajikistan, Statoids.com
2:TJ
ISO 3166-2
Tajikistan geography-related lists | [
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226037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ATL | ISO 3166-2:TL | ISO 3166-2:TL is the entry for East Timor in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for East Timor, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 12 municipalities and 1 special administrative region.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of East Timor. The second part is two letters.
Before it became independent from Indonesia in 2002, East Timor was officially assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code . Moreover, it was also assigned the ISO 3166-2 code under the entry for Indonesia.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(pt): Portuguese
(-): Tetum
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Subdivisions of East Timor
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: TL
Districts of Timor-Leste, Statoids.com
2:TL
ISO 3166-2
East Timor geography-related lists | [
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226038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ATM | ISO 3166-2:TM | ISO 3166-2:TM is the entry for Turkmenistan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Turkmenistan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 5 regions and 1 city. The city Ashgabat is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the regions.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Turkmenistan. The second part is a letter.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Turkmenistan
FIPS region codes of Turkmenistan
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: TM
Provinces of Turkmenistan, Statoids.com
2:TM
ISO 3166-2
Turkmenistan geography-related lists | [
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226040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ATW | ISO 3166-2:TW | ISO 3166-2:TW is the entry for Taiwan, "Taiwan, Province of China", or "Taiwan (Province of China)", in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
ISO 3166-2:TW defines codes for the subdivisions of Taiwan located on the islands of Taiwan (Formosa), Penghu (Pescadores), Kinmen, Matsu (Lienchiang), and their subsidiary islands. These areas are de facto under the administration of the government of the Republic of China which resides in Taipei. The government of the People's Republic of China, which resides in Beijing, also claims these islands but considers Kinmen and Matsu to be within its Fujian Province, not its nominal Taiwan Province (ISO 3166-2 code: ).
Currently ISO 3166-2:TW lists 13 counties, 3 cities, and 6 special municipalities. Constitutionally the counties and cities are part of the ROC provinces of Taiwan and Fujian, but since the provincial governments were largely streamlined in 1998 these 22 subdivisions are regarded as the principal subdivisions of Republic of China (Taiwan).
Format
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Taiwan. The second part is three letters.
The divisions in the list are categorized in three types:
Cities: Romanized as shih () and formerly called "municipalities" in ISO 3166-2. The divisions carry City () in their official names.
Counties: Romanized as hsien () and formerly called "districts" in ISO 3166-2. The divisions carry County () in their official names.
Special municipalities: Romanized as chih-hsia-shih (). The divisions also carry City () in their official names.
Taiwan is currently assigned the ISO 3166-2 code under ISO 3166-2:CN, as China solely claims it as a province of China.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Administrative divisions of Taiwan
FIPS region codes of Taiwan
Taiwan, China#Taiwanese reactions
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: TW
Counties of Taiwan, Statoids.com
2:TW
ISO 3166-2
Taiwan geography-related lists | [
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226041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AUZ | ISO 3166-2:UZ | ISO 3166-2:UZ is the entry for Uzbekistan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Uzbekistan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 city, 12 regions, and 1 republic. The city Tashkent is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the regions.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Uzbekistan. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Uzbekistan
FIPS region codes of Uzbekistan
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: UZ
Regions of Uzbekistan, Statoids.com
2:UZ
ISO 3166-2
Uzbekistan geography-related lists | [
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226042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AVE | ISO 3166-2:VE | ISO 3166-2:VE is the entry for Venezuela in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Venezuela, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 capital district, 1 federal dependency, and 23 states. The Venezuelan Capital District contains the central part of the capital of the country Caracas and has special status equal to the states.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Venezuela. The second part is a letter:
A: federal district
B–V (except Q): states as of late 1980s
W: federal dependency
X: state created in 1998
Y–Z: former federal territories given state status in early 1990s
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Venezuela
FIPS region codes of Venezuela
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: VE
States of Venezuela, Statoids.com
2:VE
ISO 3166-2
Venezuela geography-related lists | [
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226043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20O%27Brien%20%28author%29 | Tim O'Brien (author) | William Timothy O'Brien (born October 1, 1946) is an American novelist. He is best known for his book The Things They Carried (1990), a collection of linked semi-autobiographical stories inspired by O'Brien's experiences in the Vietnam War. In 2010, The New York Times described O'Brien's book as a Vietnam classic. In addition, he is known for his war novel, Going After Cacciato (1978), also about wartime Vietnam, and later novels about postwar lives of veterans.
O'Brien held the endowed chair at the MFA program of Texas State University–San Marcos every other academic year from 2003–2004 to 2011-2012 (2003–2004, 2005–2006, 2007–2008, 2009–2010, and 2011–2012).
Life and career
Tim O'Brien was born in Austin, Minnesota. When he was ten, his family, including a younger sister and brother, moved to Worthington, Minnesota. Worthington had a large influence on O’Brien's imagination and his early development as an author. The town is on Lake Okabena in the southwestern part of the state and serves as the setting for some of his stories, especially those in The Things They Carried.
O'Brien earned his BA in 1968 in political science from Macalester College, where he was student body president. That same year he was drafted into the United States Army and was sent to Vietnam, where he served from 1969 to 1970 in 3rd Platoon, Company A, 5th Battalion, 46th Infantry Regiment, part of the 23rd Infantry Division (the Americal Division) that contained the unit that perpetrated the My Lai Massacre the year before his arrival. O'Brien has said that when his unit got to the area around My Lai (referred to as "Pinkville" by the U.S. forces), "we all wondered why the place was so hostile. We did not know there had been a massacre there a year earlier. The news about that only came out later, while we were there, and then we knew."
Upon completing his tour of duty, O'Brien went to graduate school at Harvard University. Afterward he received an internship at the Washington Post. In 1973 he published his first book, a memoir, If I Die in a Combat Zone, Box Me Up and Ship Me Home, about his war experiences. In this memoir, O'Brien writes: "Can the foot soldier teach anything important about war, merely for having been there? I think not. He can tell war stories."
While O'Brien does not consider himself a spokesman about the war, he has occasionally commented on it. Speaking years later about his upbringing and the war, O'Brien described his hometown as "a town that congratulates itself, day after day, on its own ignorance of the world: a town that got us into Vietnam. Uh, the people in that town sent me to that war, you know, couldn't spell the word 'Hanoi' if you spotted them three vowels."
Contrasting the continuing American search for U.S. MIA/POWs in Vietnam with the reality of the high number of Vietnamese war dead, he describes the American perspective as
A perverse and outrageous double standard. What if things were reversed? What if the Vietnamese were to ask us, or to require us, to locate and identify each of their own MIAs? Numbers alone make it impossible: 100,000 is a conservative estimate. Maybe double that. Maybe triple. From my own sliver of experience—one year at war, one set of eyes—I can testify to the lasting anonymity of a great many Vietnamese dead.
One attribute of O'Brien's work is the blur between fiction and reality; labeled "verisimilitude", his work contains details of the events he encountered. His conscious, explicit, and metafictional approach to blurring the distinction between fact and fiction is a unique aspect of his style. In the story "Good Form" in The Things They Carried, O'Brien discusses the distinction between "story-truth" (the truth of fiction) and "happening-truth" (the truth of fact or occurrence), writing that "story-truth is sometimes truer than happening-truth." He suggests that story truth is emotional truth; thus the feeling created by a fictional story is sometimes truer than what results from reading the facts. Certain sets of stories in The Things They Carried seem to contradict each other, and certain stories are designed to "undo" the suspension of disbelief created in previous stories. For example, "Speaking of Courage" is followed by "Notes", which explains in what ways "Speaking of Courage" is fictional.
O'Brien's papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
O’Brien writes and lives in central Texas. He is raising a family and teaches full-time every other year at Texas State University–San Marcos. In alternate years, he teaches several workshops to MFA students in the creative writing program.
O'Brien was interviewed for Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day War as well as Ken Burns's 2017 documentary series The Vietnam War.
Awards and honors
If I Die in a Combat Zone, Box Me Up and Ship Me Home was named Outstanding Book of 1973 by the New York Times.
O'Brien won the 1979 National Book Award for his novel Going After Cacciato.
O'Brien received the Vietnam Veterans of America Excellence in the Arts Award in 1987
His novel In the Lake of the Woods won the James Fenimore Cooper Prize for Best Historical Fiction in 1995.
In August 2012, O'Brien received the Dayton Literary Peace Prize Foundation's Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award. In June 2013, O'Brien was awarded the $100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award.
In 2010, O'Brien received the honorary Doctor of Humane Letters (L.H.D.) from Whittier College.
Works
If I Die in a Combat Zone, Box Me Up and Ship Me Home (1973)
Northern Lights (1975)
"Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy?" (1975)
Going After Cacciato (1978)
The Nuclear Age (1985)
The Things They Carried (1990)
In the Lake of the Woods (1994)
Tomcat in Love (1998)
July, July (2002)
Dad's Maybe Book (2019)
References
External links
A Crisis 'In Country': An Ecocritical Approach to Tim O'Brien's Fiction, Rosalind Poppleton, University of Hertfordshire, British Library (2000)
Website Dedicated to O'Brien's work
"Tim O'Brien video interview" (2010), on Big Think
Online discussion of The Things They Carried, Book Talk
Tim O'Brien Papers at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin
Tim O'Brien, at Writers Reflect, Ransom Center
Participation in Pritzker Military Museum & Library's Military History Symposium
Tim O'Brien at Library of Congress Authorities — with 19 catalog records
1946 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American memoirists
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
Harvard University alumni
James Fenimore Cooper Prize winners
Macalester College alumni
National Book Award winners
People from Austin, Minnesota
People from Worthington, Minnesota
Postmodern writers
Texas State University faculty
United States Army soldiers
Novelists from Minnesota
Novelists from Texas
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers | [
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226044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AYE | ISO 3166-2:YE | ISO 3166-2:YE is the entry for Yemen in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Yemen, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 municipality and 21 governorates. The municipality Sana'a is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the governorates.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Yemen. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
See also
Subdivisions of Yemen
FIPS region codes of Yemen
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: YE
Governorates of Yemen, Statoids.com
2:YE
ISO 3166-2
Yemen geography-related lists | [
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226045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodh%20Gaya | Bodh Gaya | Bodh Gaya is a religious site and place of pilgrimage associated with the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Gaya district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is famous as it is the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have attained Enlightenment () under what became known as the Bodhi Tree. Since antiquity, Bodh Gaya has remained the object of pilgrimage and veneration both for Hindus and Buddhists. In particular, archaeological finds including sculptures show that the site was in use by Buddhists since the Mauryan period.
For Buddhists, Bodh Gaya is the most important of the main four pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha, the other three being Kushinagar, Lumbini, and Sarnath. In 2002, Mahabodhi Temple, located in Bodh Gaya, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
History
Bodh Gaya is considered to be the holiest site in Buddhism. Known as Uruwela in the Buddha's time, it is situated by the bank of Lilajan River. The first temple at the site was built by King Ashoka.
Traditionally, Buddha was born in 563 BC on the following auspicious Baisakhi purnima. As Siddhartha, he renounced his family at the age of 29 in 534 BC, and travelled and meditated in search of truth. After practicing self-mortification for six years at Urubela (Buddhagaya) in Gaya, he gave up that practice because it did not give him Vimukthi. Then he discovered Noble Eight-fold path without help from anyone and practiced it, then he attained Buddhatva or enlightenment. Enlightenment is a state of being completely free from lust (raga), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). By gaining enlightenment, you enter Nirvana, in which the final stage is Parinirvana.
At this place, the Buddha was abandoned by the five men who had been his companions of earlier austerities. All they saw was an ordinary man; they mocked his well-nourished appearance. "Here comes the mendicant Gautama," they said, "who has turned away from asceticism. He is certainly not worth our respect." When they reminded him of his former vows, the Buddha replied, "Austerities only confuse the mind. In the exhaustion and mental stupor to which they lead, one can no longer understand the ordinary things of life, still less the truth that lies beyond the senses. I have given up extremes of either luxury or asceticism. I have discovered the Middle Way." This is the path which is neither easy (a rich prince) nor hard (living in austere conditions practicing self-denial). Hearing this, the five ascetics became the Buddha's first disciples in Deer Park, Sarnath, 13 kms north east of Benares.
The disciples of Gautama Siddhartha began to visit the place during the full moon in the month of Vaisakh (April–May), as per the Hindu calendar. Over time, the place became known as Bodh Gaya, the day of enlightenment as Buddha Purnima, and the tree as the Bodhi Tree.
The history of Bodh Gaya is documented by many inscriptions and pilgrimage accounts. Foremost among these are the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims Faxian in the 5th century and Xuanzang in the 7th century. The area was at the heart of a Buddhist civilization for centuries, until it was conquered by Turkic armies in the 13th century.
The place-name, Bodh Gaya, did not come into use until the 18th century CE. Historically, it was known as Uruvela, Sambodhi (Saṃ+bodhi, "Complete Enlightenment" in Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No.8), Vajrasana (the "Diamond Throne" of the Buddha) or Mahabodhi ("Great Enlightenment"). The main monastery of Bodh Gaya used to be called the Bodhimanda-vihāra (Pali). Now it is called the Mahabodhi Temple.
During the period from the 11th to 13th centuries, Bodh Gaya was under the control of local chieftains known as the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya who were responsible for the management of the region. One of their rulers, Acarya Buddhasena, was noted as making a grant to Sri Lankan monks near the Mahabodhi temple.
Mahabodhi Temple
The complex, located about 110 kilometres from Patna, at ,
contains the Mahabodhi Temple with the Vajrasana or "diamond throne" and the holy Bodhi tree. This tree was originally a sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka, itself grown from a what is claimed to be a sapling of the original Bodhi tree.
In approximately 250 BCE, about 200 years after the Buddha attained Enlightenment, Emperor Asoka visited Bodh Gaya in order to establish a monastery and shrine on the holy site.
Representations of this early temple are found at Sanchi, on the toraṇas of Stūpa I, dating from around 25 BCE, and on a relief carving from the stupa railing at Bhārhut, from the early Shunga period (c. 185–c. 73 BCE).
Other Buddhist temples
Kittisirimegha of Sri Lanka, a contemporary of Samudragupta, erected with the permission of Samudragupta, a Sanghārāma near the Mahabodhi Temple, chiefly for the use of the Singhalese monks who went to worship the Bodhi tree. The circumstances in connection with the Sanghārāma are given by Xuanzang (Beal, op. cit., 133ff) who gives a description of it as seen by himself. It was probably here that Buddhaghosa met the Elder Revata who persuaded him to come to Ceylon.
Several Buddhist temples and monasteries have been built by the people of Bhutan, Mongolia, China, Japan, Korea, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Tibet and Vietnam in a wide area around the Mahabodhi Temple. These buildings reflect the architectural style, exterior and interior decoration of their respective countries. The statue of Buddha in the Chinese temple is 200 years old and was brought from China. Japan's Nippon temple is shaped like a pagoda. The Myanmar (Burmese) temple is also pagoda shaped and is reminiscent of Bagan. The Thai temple has a typical sloping, curved roof covered with golden tiles. Inside, the temple holds a massive bronze statue of Buddha. Next to the Thai temple is 25-metre statue of Buddha located within a garden which has existed there for over 100 years.
Sujata Stupa
Across the Phalgu river is the Sujata Stupa, in the village of Bakraur. The stupa was dedicated to the milkmaid Sujata, who is said to have fed Gautama Buddha milk and rice as he was sitting under a Banyan tree, ending his seven years of fasting and asceticism, and allowing him to attain illumination through the Middle Way. The stupa was built in the 2nd century BCE as confirmed by finds of black polished wares and punch-marked coins in the attending monastery.
The Great Buddha Statue
The Great Buddha Statue also known as 80 feet statue is in Bodhgaya. The unveiling and consecration of the Great Buddha Statue took place on 18 November 1989. The consecration ceremony was attended by the 14th Dalai Lama, who blessed the 25-meter statue, the first great Buddha ever built in the history of India. The Statue is now a symbol of the holy place Bodhgaya, next to Mahabodhi Temple which is a World Heritage site, and enjoys constant visits of pilgrims from all over the world. Among local people, it is nicknamed "the 80-foot (25-meter) Buddha Statue."
Under the slogan "Spread Buddha's rays to the Whole World," Daijokyo spent seven years on construction of the Great Buddha Statue, mobilizing 120,000 masons in total.
Mahabodhi Temple bombings
On 7 July 2013, at around 05:15, a low intensity bomb blast took place in the 2500-year-old Mahabodhi Temple complex. This was followed by a series of nine low intensity blasts which resulted in two monks being injured; one was Tibetan and the other Burmese. These blasts were carried out by an Islamic terrorist organization called Indian Mujahideen. Two other bombs, one under the 80-foot statue of the Buddha and the other near Karmapa Temple were defused by the police.
On 1 June 2018, a special National Investigation Agency (NIA) court of Patna sentenced five suspects in the case to life imprisonment.
Demographics
As per the 2001 census, Bodh Gaya had a population of 30,883. Males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Bodh Gaya has an average literacy rate of 51%, lower than the national average of 59.5%; with male literacy of 63% and female literacy of 38%. 8% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Transportation
Buses have been introduced by the BSTDC between Patna and Bodh Gaya via Rajgir.
A special caravan service called Wonder on Wheel, between Patna and Bodh Gaya, has been introduced by the Bihar Tourism Department.
Gaya Airport is situated from Bodh Gaya and approximately from Gaya Junction railway station.
Bodhgaya has restricted the use of auto rickshaws, cars and buses to make the pilgrimage site more peaceful. A permit is required for the use of cars and buses, and the only taxi available is an electric rickshaw that is mostly noiseless.
See also
Cetiya
Bodhgaya inscription of Mahanaman
Sri Maha Bodhi
Lumbini
Sarnath
Kusinagar
Rajgir
Bakraur
Kurkihar hoard
Magadh University
Indian Institute of Management Bodh Gaya
References
Bibliography
Kinnard, Jacob N. (1998). When Is The Buddha Not the Buddha? The Hindu/Buddhist Battle over Bodhgayā and Its Buddha Image. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 66 (4), 817-839
Geary, David; Sayers, Matthew R; Amar, Abhishek Singh (2012). Cross-disciplinary perspectives on a contested Buddhist site: Bodh Gaya jataka. London, New York: Routledge
External links
Detailed history of Bodhgaya by Ven. S. Dhammika.
Bihar state tourism development corporation (BSTDC)
Places to Visit in Bodh Gaya
Photos of Mahabodhi Temple & Bodhgaya
Bodhgaya Map
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2001
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Tourist attractions in Bihar
Buddhist sites in Bihar
Hindu pilgrimage sites in India
Hindu holy cities
Cities and towns in Gaya district
Religious tourism in India | [
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226047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20pricing | Road pricing | Road pricing (also road user charges) are direct charges levied for the use of roads, including road tolls, distance or time based fees, congestion charges and charges designed to discourage use of certain classes of vehicle, fuel sources or more polluting vehicles. These charges may be used primarily for revenue generation, usually for road infrastructure financing, or as a transportation demand management tool to reduce peak hour travel and the associated traffic congestion or other social and environmental negative externalities associated with road travel such as air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, visual intrusion, noise pollution and road traffic collisions.
In most countries toll roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are often used primarily for revenue generation to repay for long-term debt issued to finance the toll facility, or to finance capacity expansion, operations and maintenance of the facility itself, or simply as general tax funds. Road congestion pricing for entering an urban area, or pollution charges levied on vehicles with higher tailpipe emissions are typical schemes implemented to price externalities. The application of congestion charges is currently limited to a small number of cities and urban roads, and the notable schemes include the Electronic Road Pricing in Singapore, the London congestion charge, the Stockholm congestion tax, the Milan Area C, and high-occupancy toll lanes in the United States. Examples of pollution pricing schemes include the London low emission zone and the discontinued Ecopass in Milan. In some European countries there is a period-based charge for the use of motorways and expressways, based on a vignette or sticker attached to a vehicle, and in a few countries vignettes are required for the use of any road. Mileage based usage fees (MBUF) or distance based charging has been implemented for heavy vehicles based on truck weight and distance traveled in New Zealand (called RUC), Switzerland (LSVA), Germany (LKW-Maut), Austria (Go-Maut), Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and in four US states: Oregon, New York, Kentucky and New Mexico.
Many recent road pricing schemes have proved controversial, with a number of high-profile schemes in the US and the UK being cancelled, delayed or scaled back in response to opposition and protest. The tendency seems to reverse however, when the system is already in place, with popularity of existing systems often increasing while merely discussed systems face an uphill battle in public opinion. A 2006 survey of economic literature on the subject finds that most economists agree that some form of road pricing to reduce congestion is economically viable and overall beneficial, although there is disagreement on what form road pricing should take. Economists disagree over how to set tolls, how to cover common costs, what to do with any "excess" revenues (i.e. Revenues that exceed direct costs of road construction and maintenance, but which may still not cover external costs fully), whether and how "losers" from tolling previously free roads should be compensated, and whether to privatize highways.
Terminology
Road pricing is a general term that may be used for any system where the driver pays directly for use of a particular roadway or road network in a particular city, region or nation. Road pricing also includes congestion charging, which are charges levied on qualifying road users to reduce peak demand, and thereby reduce traffic congestion and also to place a charge on road users for other negative externalities, including traffic accidents, noise, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.
History
The first published reference to 'road pricing' was possibly in 1949 when the RAND Corporation proposed "use of direct road pricing to make freight journeys more expensive on congested routes or to influence the time of day at which freight traffic operates". Nobel-laureate William Vickrey then built on the ideas of the economist Arthur Pigou, outlining a theoretical case for road pricing in a major work on the subject of 1955 proposing in 1959 that drivers should be charged by electronic means for use of busy urban roads. Arthur Pigou had previously developed the concept of economic externalities in a publication of 1920 in which he proposed that what is now referred to as a Pigouvian tax equal to the negative externality should be used to bring the outcome within a market economy back to economic efficiency.
In 1963 Vickery published a paper 'Pricing in urban and suburban transport' in the American Economic Review and Gabriel Joseph Roth, John Michael Thomson of the Department of Applied Economics at the University of Cambridge published a short paper titled "Road pricing, a cure for congestion?" The Smeed Report, 'Road Pricing: The Economic and Technical Possibilities', which had been commissioned in 1962 by the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport, was published in 1964. Road pricing was then developed by Maurice Allais and Gabriel Roth in a paper titled "The Economics of Road User Charges" published by the World Bank in 1968.
The first successful implementation of a congestion charge was with the Singapore Area Licensing Scheme in 1976. The Electronic Road Pricing (Hong Kong) scheme operated as a trial between 1983 and 1985 but was not continued permanently due to public opposition. A number of road tolling schemes were then introduced in Norway between 1986 and 1991 in Bergen, Oslo, and the Trondheim Toll Scheme. It was noticed that the Oslo scheme had the unintended effect of reducing traffic by around 5%. The Singapore scheme was expanded in 1995 and converted to use a new electronic tolling system in 1998 and renamed Electronic Road Pricing. The first use of a road toll for access by low-occupancy vehicles to high-occupancy vehicle lane was introduced in the U.S. on California State Route 91 in 1995. Since 2000, other schemes have been introduced, although the New York congestion pricing proposal and a number of UK proposals were not progressed due to public opposition. In France road pricing came about as an unintended consequence of the way highways are built and financed as most are built by for profit companies which earn back their expense through tolls. Some other European countries also have similar schemes either on parts of their highway network or only on particularly expensive roads such as tunnels, bridges or mountain range crossings.
Impact
A study of congestion pricing in Stockholm between 2006 and 2010 found that in the absence of congestion pricing that Stockholm's "air would have been five to ten percent more polluted between 2006 and 2010, and young children would have suffered 45 percent more asthma attacks".
A 2013 study found that after congestion pricing was implemented in Seattle, drivers reported greater satisfaction with the routes covered by congestion pricing and reported lower stress.
A 2016 study found that more people used public transportation due to the implementation of congestion pricing in Singapore. A 2016 study found that real estate prices dropped by 19% within the cordoned-off areas of Singapore where congestion pricing was in place relative to the areas outside of the area.
Research from 2019 provides a set of tools to enable analysis and measurement of the impacts of toll pricing, toll payment, toll collection technology, and other aspects of toll implementation and rate changes on low-income and minority populations.
Example schemes
Asia-Pacific
Australia
In January 2009, variable tolls were implemented at Sydney Harbour Bridge, two weeks after upgrading to 100% free-flow electronic toll collection. The highest fees are charged during the morning and afternoon peak periods; a toll 25% lower applies for the shoulder periods; and a toll lower than the previously existing is charged at nights, weekends, and public holidays. This is Australia's first road congestion pricing scheme, and has had only a very minor effect on traffic levels, reducing them by 0.19%
China
Main roadways and highways in Shanghai are tolled, and an assessment was completed to evaluate implementation of congestion pricing for vehicles entering the central business district. The city also restrains car use, ownership and there are restrictions on getting a driver's license; since 1998, the number of new car registrations is limited to 50,000 vehicles a year and car registrations are sold by public auction, with prices reaching up to US$5,000 in 2006. Parking is also limited.
Congestion based pricing for Beijing was recommended by the World Bank in 2010 and local officials announced plans to introduce a scheme in September 2011 although no details about the cost or the charge zone have been provided. The city is dealt with traffic congestion and air pollution through a driving restriction scheme implemented since the 2008 Summer Olympics. , another 11 Chinese cities have similar restriction schemes in place.
In early 2010 the city Guangzhou, Guangdong province, opened a public discussion on whether to introduce congestion charges. An online survey conducted by two local news outlets found that 84.4% of respondents opposed the charges. The city of Nanjing is also considering the implementation of congestion pricing.
In December 2015, the Beijing Municipal Commission of Transport announced plans to introduce congestion charges in 2016. According to city's motor vehicle emission control plan 2013–2017, the congestion charge will be a real-time variable pricing scheme based on actual traffic flows and emissions data, and allow the fee to be charged for different vehicles and varying by time of the day and for different districts. The Dongcheng and Xicheng are among the districts that are most likely to firstly implement congestion charge. Vehicle emissions account for 31% of the city's smog sources, according to Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau. The local government has implemented already several policies to address air quality and congestion, such as a driving restriction scheme based upon the last digits on their license plates. Also a vehicle quota system was introduced in 2011, awarding new car licenses through a lottery, with a ceiling of 6 million units set by the city authority for 2017. In May 2016, the Beijing city legislature announced it will consider to start levying traffic congestion charges by 2020 as part of a package of measures to reform the vehicle quota system. , the city's environmental and transport departments are working together on a congestion pricing proposal.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong's Electronic Road Pricing system operated between 1983 and 1985 with positive results. Public opposition stalled its permanent implementation. Proposals were however raised again in 2012.
Singapore
The world's first congestion pricing scheme was introduced in Singapore's core central business district in 1975 as the Singapore Area Licensing Scheme. It was extended in 1995 and converted to the 100% free-flowing Electronic Road Pricing (Singapore) in September 1998. Variable pricing based on congestion levels were introduced during 2007. It is one of a number of elements in their Transportation Demand Management, which also includes high annual road tax, custom duties and vehicle registration fees for new vehicles, a quota system for new vehicles and heavy investment in public transportation. Singapore has one of the highest per capita incomes in Asia, but fewer than 30% of Singaporean households own cars.
Europe
Austria
A distance based charging scheme called Go-Maut was implemented in Austria for all vehicles over 3.5 tonnes on motorways in 2004. In addition, all vehicles under 3.5 tonnes are required to buy a sticker or vignette to access the Austrian motorway network, which is owned and operated by a state owned company called ASFINAG. The vignette enables the vehicle to use almost the entire motorway network in Austria for a specific period of time, with the lower charge set at for 10 days. However, for selected routes, such as long tunnels and expensive routes through the Alps, there is an additional toll charge.
Belarus
See Toll roads in Belarus.
Finland
The only Finnish town to suffer serious road congestion is Helsinki, which is built on a narrow peninsula. In the 1980s and 1990s the City Administration was already proposing tolls on vehicles entering the centre but these were successfully resisted by the Chamber of Commerce. Road pricing was taken up in the central government programme in 2011, when the coalition members committed themselves to examining "the introduction of GPS-based road user charges". Transport minister Merja Kyllönen set up a working group to study "road user charging systems" in October 2012. The Ministry was committed to the architecture of the European Electronic Toll Service.
In March 2013 an independent Finnish policy institute recommended a market-based road pricing architecture for Europe. The roads needed for a journey could be pre-booked, the price of "slots" rising as the roads to be used approached capacity. The price would become payable at the scheduled time of departure unless the slot holder resold the slot before then. Casual motorists without bookings would be charged the current price. The paper proposed that Finland, having no serious road congestion to address, could serve as a testbed for road charging mechanisms.
The Transport Ministry's working group reported in December 2013 that a tax proportional to road use would implement transport and environment policies better than current fixed taxes on motoring, although collection costs would be many times higher. The focus of transport policy should be on solving capacity problems by managing demand rather than by building new infrastructure. However, it argued that buses and lorries should be exempted from road use charges on the grounds that the rise in costs could not be offset by cutting other heavy vehicle road taxes, which were already close to the minimum set in the EU's vignette directive. For private cars the report looked at the implications of fixed and regional kilometre charges but did not consider market or other methods for responding to varying local congestion. Before the adoption of any system, it proposed broad trials to establish the technical viability of taxing road use, its enforceability and the protection of privacy.
Germany
The LKW-MAUT distance based charging scheme large goods vehicles in Germany began operation on 1 January 2005 after a two-year delay with prices varying depending on emission levels and the number of axles. The scheme, which combining satellite technology with other technologies and is operated by Toll Collect, suffered delays before implementation.
Ireland
Toll roads are common in Ireland for motorways and bridges/tunnels, with 11 toll roads in existence as of 2019.
In the 18th and 19th Centuries Turnpike trusts managed the roadways. However, with the onset of railways, the use of roads become far less popular, and tolling was abolished.
The first modern road charging scheme was introduced in 1984 on the East Link, a bascule lift bridge in Dublin's docklands, constructed by National Toll Roads (NTR) under a public-private partnership concession. This was followed by the West-Link bridge in 1990, similarly a concession to NTR. However, despite the opening of a second bridge in 2003, capacity and toll management of the West-Link was woefully inadequate, resulting in massive congestion on the Dublin M50 ring road. In 2007, the government bought-out NTR's concession and introduced barrier-free tolling in order to end the jams.
In order to fund long-distance motorway construction in the mid-2000s, a new PPP model of DBOF (design, build, operate and finance PPP) concessions was adopted. These were primarily backed by international construction companies. The first such toll motorway was the M4/M6 operated by Spanish company Ferrovial, followed by routes such as the Eurolink M3 toll (a joint venture of Ferrovial and Irish company SIAC Construction), the M8 Fermoy bypass (owned by private equity and investment companies such as TIIC Group of Portugal, Aberdeen Standard Investments and 3I) and the M7/M9 Mid Link route owned by the Dutch company BAM and Spanish ACS Group). However, the onset of the Global Financial Crisis towards the end of the decade and the resulting Irish recession saw a large drop off in driving and use of tolls. No new toll routes have been proposed since the economic downturn. However, a model of PPP shadow-tolling has been adopted to build routes such as the M18.
Italy
Rome converted a residents' pass system for the core of the city to a road pricing system in 2001 and Genoa started a trial system in 2003.
The Milan "Ecopass" system began operation in early 2008 with an objective to reduce air pollution from vehicles. It was extended several times before being replaced by Area C, a conventional congestion pricing scheme covering the same geographic area in January 2012. Electric vehicles, public utilities' vehicles, police and emergency vehicles, buses and taxis are exempted from the charge. Hybrid electric and bi-fuel natural gas vehicles (CNG and LPG) will be exempted until 1 January 2013.
The scheme was made permanent in March 2013. All net earnings from Area C are invested to promote sustainable mobility and policies to reduce air pollution, including the redevelopment, protection and development of public transport, "soft mobility" (pedestrians, cycling, Zone 30), and systems to rationalize the distribution of goods.
Malta
The automated 'Controlled Vehicular Access' (CVA) system was launched in Malta's capital city of Valletta on 1 May 2007. The number of vehicles entering the city reduced from 10,000 to 7,900; there has also been a 60% drop in car stays by non-residents of more than eight hours with a marked increase of 34% in non-residential cars visiting the city for an hour or less.
Norway
Norway implemented electronic urban tolling on the main road corridors into Bergen (1986), Oslo (1990) and then the Trondheim Toll Scheme the following year. The Bergen scheme operated as a cordon on all entry points to the central area of the city. The Oslo scheme was initially created as a conventional road toll for revenue generation reasons, but had the unintended effect of reducing traffic by around 5%. Charges vary by time of the day. The legal basis for introducing congestion charging fee was approved by Parliament in 2001 In October 2011 the Norwegian government announced the introduction of rules allowing congestion charging in cities. The measure is intended to cut greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions, and relief traffic congestion. , Norwegian authorities have implemented urban charging schemes that operates both on the motorways and for access into downtown areas in five additional cities or municipalities: Haugesund, Kristiansand, Namsos, Stavanger, and Tønsberg.
Sweden
The Stockholm congestion tax covering Stockholm City Centre was trialed for seven-month trial during 2006 and has been operational on a permanent basis since 1 August 2007; all the entrances and exits of this area have unmanned control points operating with automatic number plate recognition and most vehicles pay a fixed fee during peak hours.
A similar congestion tax was introduced in Gothenburg in 2013, the Gothenburg congestion tax. In opposite to Stockholm, this tax covers also usage of bypass road past the city.
The congestion tax is called tax, not toll or fee, since a principle has been established that road tolls can only exist to pay for the construction of the specific tolled road, during a limited period. The congestion tax charges every road that crosses certain lines, regardless of its age. Three bridges in Sweden have road tolls (as of 2015).
United Kingdom
The Smeed Report recommended the implementation of congestion charging in 1964. Road pricing for London was considered by the Greater London Council in 1973 but was not progressed. The Durham City congestion charge was introduced in 2002 and the London congestion charge in 2003.
In June 2005, Transport Secretary Alistair Darling announced a proposal for a national scheme in which every vehicle would be fitted with a satellite receiver that would calculate charges, with prices (including fuel duty) ranging from 2p per mile on uncongested roads to £1.34 on the most congested roads at peak times. The scheme was dropped after an online petition against proposals gained over 1.8 million signatures. A number of local schemes were then proposed and rejected during 2007–2008, including the Manchester congestion charge. UK wide road pricing for large goods vehicles, which was first proposed in 2000 before being dropped and then revived in 2012.
London
The London congestion charge is a flat-fee daily charge to enter the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ) in central London, introduced in 2003. This was supplemented in 2008 by a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) charge, and in 2017 by a toxicity charge (‘T-Charge’), now an Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) charge. A Western Extension to the Congestion Charge Zone was added in 2007, and then removed in January 2011.
A plan to incorporate an emissions-based supplement into the Congestion Charge was cancelled following the 2008 Mayoral election. Instead, the London low emission zone was introduced in stages between 2008 and 2012 with an aim of reducing the pollution emissions of diesel-powered commercial vehicles in London.
Approved by Mayor Boris Johnson in April 2013, the Ultra Low Emission Discount (ULED) went into effect on 1 July 2013, substituting the Greener Vehicle Discount. The ULED introduced more stringent emission standards that limited the free access to the congestion charge zone to electric cars, some plug-in hybrids, and any car or van that emits 75g/km or less of CO2 and meets the Euro 5 emission standards for air quality. The measure was designed to curb the growing number of diesel vehicles on London's roads. The owners of vehicles registered for the Greener Vehicle Discount were granted a three-year sunset period before they have to pay the full congestion charge. The sunset period ended on 24 June 2016.
A toxicity charge, known as T-Charge, was introduced from 23 October 2017. Older and more polluting cars and vans that did not meet Euro 4 standards had to pay an extra £10 charge on top of the congestion charge to drive in central London, within the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ). The charge typically applied to diesel and petrol vehicles registered before 2006, and the levy was expected to affect up to 10,000 vehicles.
The T-Charge was replaced on 8 April 2019 with an Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) charge. Motor vehicles that do not meet the emissions criteria are charged £12.50 for most vehicle types, or £100 for heavier vehicles, to enter central London for a day. London-licensed taxis are exempted from the ULEZ; temporary exemptions and discounts apply to residents until 24 October 2021, and to disabled drivers until 26 October 2025.
London Mayor Sadiq Khan announced the introduction of the T-Charge on 17 February 2017 after London achieved record air pollution levels in January 2017, and the city was put on very high pollution alert for the first time ever, as cold and stationary weather failed to clear toxic pollutants emitted mainly by diesel vehicles. The Mayor also announced plans to expand the London Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) beyond Central London a year earlier than planned in 2019.
Middle East
Dubai
The Salik (road toll) system in Dubai, United Arab Emirates was introduced by the Roads and Transport Authority in 2007 and extended in 2008.
North America
New York
In March 2001, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey implemented a discount during off-peak hours for those vehicles paying tolls for several tunnels and bridges connecting New York City and New Jersey using the electronic EZ Pass. Since March 2008, qualified low-emission automobiles could get a 50% discount during off-peak hours.
In April 2007 the New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg proposed a contentious congestion charge on cars using most streets in the central business district (southern half of Manhattan) as part of the broader PlaNYC 2030. The plan received broad support from a coalition of civic, business, environmental, labor, community and public health organizations and the City Council voted for the measure but also received significant opposition. The New York Legislature declined to vote on it in April 2008 saying that "... the opposition was so overwhelming,... that he would not hold an open vote of the full Assembly,".
Governor Andrew Cuomo reintroduced a congestion pricing proposal for New York City in 2017 in response to the New York City Subway's state of emergency, a proposal that Mayor Bill de Blasio opposed. A commission to investigate the feasibility of congestion pricing, organized in late 2017, found that a congestion pricing scheme could benefit New York City. If approved, New York City's congestion pricing zone will be the first in North America. Cuomo's administration was set to review these proposals in January 2018, although the details of the congestion zones had not been revealed yet.
San Francisco
In 2006, San Francisco authorities began a feasibility study to evaluate congestion pricing in the city. The initial charging scenarios considered were presented in public meetings held in December 2008 and the final draft proposal were discussed by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors (SFBS) in December 2010, which recommended implementation of a six-month to one-year trial in 2015. Separately, in July 2010 congestion tolls were implemented at the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge.
Other metropolitan areas
In August 2007, the United States Department of Transportation selected five metropolitan areas to initiate congestion pricing demonstration projects under the Urban Partnerships Congestion Initiative, for US$1 billion of federal funding. The five projects under this initiative are; Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, State Route 520 serving downtown Seattle and communities to its east, Interstate 95 between Miami and Ft. Lauderdale, Interstate 35W serving downtown Minneapolis, and a variable rate parking meter system in Chicago, which replaced New York City after it left the program in 2008.
High-occupancy toll (HOT) lanes
High-occupancy toll lanes are lanes where a variable fee based on demand is charged to non-exempt vehicles. Exempt vehicles include high-occupancy vehicles, transit vehicles and often also low-emission vehicles. Users not wanting to pay the fee have the option of using general purpose lanes. HOT lanes were first implemented on California's private toll 91 Express Lanes, in Orange County in 1995, followed in 1996 by Interstate 15 in San Diego.
South America
Brazil
In January 2012, the federal government of Brazil enacted the Urban Mobility Law that authorizes municipalities to implement congestion pricing to reduce traffic flows. The law also seeks to encourage the use of public transportation and reduce air pollution. According to the law, revenues from congestion charges should be destined exclusively to urban infrastructure for public transportation and non-motorized modes of locomotion (such as walking and cycling), and to finance public subsidies for transit fares. The law went into effect in April 2013.
São Paulo city
In April 2012, one of the committees of the São Paulo city council approved a bill to introduce a R$4 (~ ) per day congestion charge within the same area as the existing road space rationing () by the last digit of the license plate, which has been in force since 1996. The bill still needs approval by two other committees before going for a final vote at the city council.
Opinion surveys have shown that the initiative is highly impopular. A survey by Veja magazine found that 80% of drivers are against congestion pricing, and another survey by Exame magazine found that only 1% of São Paulo's residents support the initiative, while 30% find that extending the metro system is a better solution to reduce traffic congestion. São Paulo's strategic urban development plan "SP 2040", approved in November 2012, proposes the implementation of congestion pricing by 2025, when the density of metro and bus corridors is expected to reach 1.25 km/km2. The Plan also requires ample consultation and even a referendum before beginning implementation.
Chile
Congestion pricing has also been implemented in urban freeways. Between 2004 and 2005, Santiago de Chile implemented the first 100% non-stop urban toll for concessioned freeways passing through a downtown area, charging by the distance traveled. Congestion pricing is used since 2007 during rush hours in order to maintain reasonable speeds within the city's core with the aim of keeping a minimum level of service for their customers.
See also
GNSS road pricing
List of toll bridges
List of toll roads
Road space rationing
Sustainable transport
Toll roads around the world
Vehicle miles traveled tax
Vignette
References
Bibliography
(See Chapter 9: Optimizing Traffic Congestion)
(See Chapter 4: Pricing)
External links
Combating Gridlock – Study of Deloitte Research on Congestion Charging
Fuel for Thought – The what, why and how of motoring taxation Institute for Fiscal Studies (2012)
National Alliance Against Tolls (Britain) Road pricing page
Reducing Congestion and Funding Transportation Using Road Pricing in Europe and Singapore published by FHWA, AASHTO and the TRB
Review of Road Pricing to Reduce Congestion, U.S. Government Accountability Office – 2012
Road pricing case studies
Transportation Research Board Committee on Road Pricing
When the Road Price Is Right – Land Use, Tolls, and Congestion Pricing, Urban Land Institute, 2013,
TripSum @ Xeesa.com: Online Fuel/ ERP/ Taxi fare calculator to check and calculate Fuel cost, ERP(Toll pricing) and Taxi Fare needed for a motorist's driving or taxi trip in Singapore
Road traffic management
Transport economics
Transportation planning
Car costs | [
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226048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairness | Fairness | Fairness or being fair can refer to:
Justice
The character in the award-nominated musical comedy A Theory of Justice: The Musical.
Equity (law), a legal principle allowing for the use of discretion and fairness when applying justice
Social justice, equality and solidarity in a society
Distributive justice, the perceived appropriateness of the distribution of goods, benefits, and other outcomes in a society, group, or organization (see also: teleology)
Procedural justice, the perceived appropriateness of rules or procedures used to allocate goods, benefits, and other outcomes (see also: deontology)
Interactional justice, the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
Environmental justice, the perceived appropriateness of the use or treatment of the environment or people via the environment, typically as a function of interpersonal or international relations
Fairness measure, metrics to quantify the fair distribution of resources
Perceptions associated with the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and superior temporal sulcus brain regions, in the case of procedural justice, and the anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, in the case of distributive justice
Fairness, absence of bias in specific realms:
In American broadcasting, presentation of controversies in accord with the Fairness Doctrine.
In computer science, fairness is a property of unbounded nondeterminism.
In computer science, and specifically in machine learning, fairness is a desirable property of algorithms to avoid bias.
In network engineering, access to resources formally rated by a fairness measure
In game theory, abstract principles for achieving fair division
In economics, relation among economic factors where price matches fair value that is (not only bias-free but also) rational
Fairness of human pigmentation, relatively light coloring, especially of skin
Beauty, the original meaning of the word
Being fair, property of motion of a batted baseball that qualifies it as a fair ball
Sportsmanship | [
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226050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabodhi%20Temple | Mahabodhi Temple | The Mahabodhi Temple (literally: "Great Awakening Temple") or the Mahabodhi Mahavihar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is an ancient, but much rebuilt and restored, Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. Bodh Gaya (in Gaya district) is about from Patna, Bihar state, India.
The site contains a descendant of the Bodhi Tree under which Buddha gained enlightenment, and has been a major pilgrimage destination for Hindus and Buddhists for well over two thousand years, and some elements date to the period of Ashoka (died c. 232 BCE). What is now visible on the ground essentially dates from the 5th century CE, or possibly earlier, as well as several major restorations since the 19th century. But the structure now may well incorporate large parts of earlier work, possibly from the 2nd or 3rd century CE. Archaeological finds from the site however, indicate that the place was a site of veneration for Buddhists since at least the Mauryan period. In particular, the Vajrasana, which is located within the temple itself has been dated to the third century BCE.
Many of the oldest sculptural elements have been moved to the museum beside the temple, and some, such as the carved stone railing wall around the main structure, have been replaced by replicas. The main temple's survival is especially impressive, as it was mostly made of brick covered with stucco, materials that are much less durable than stone. However, it is understood that very little of the original sculptural decoration has survived.
The temple complex includes two large straight-sided shikhara towers, the largest over 55 metres (180 feet) high. This is a stylistic feature that has continued in Jain and Hindu temples to the present day, and influenced Buddhist architecture in other countries, in forms like the pagoda.
The Buddha
Traditional accounts say that, around 589 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama, a young prince who saw the suffering of the world and wanted to end it, reached the forested banks of the Phalgu river, near the city of Gaya, India. There he sat in meditation under a peepul tree (Ficus religiosa or Sacred Fig) which later became known as the Bodhi tree. According to Buddhist scriptures, after three days and three nights, Siddharta attained enlightenment and the answers that he had sought. In that location, Mahabodhi Temple was built by Emperor Ashoka in around 260 BCE.
The Buddha then spent the succeeding seven weeks at seven different spots in the vicinity meditating and considering his experience. Several specific places at the current Mahabodhi Temple relate to the traditions surrounding these seven weeks:
The first week was spent under the Bodhi tree.
During the second week, the Buddha remained standing and stared, uninterrupted, at the Bodhi tree. This spot is marked by the Animeshlocha Stupa, that is, the unblinking stupa or shrine, to the north-east of the Mahabodhi Temple complex. There stands a statue of Buddha with his eyes fixed towards the Bodhi tree.
The Buddha is said to have walked back and forth between the location of the Animeshlocha Stupa and the Bodhi tree. According to legend, lotus flowers sprung up along this route; it is now called Ratnachakrama or the jewel walk.
He spent the fourth week near Ratnagar Chaitya, to the north-east side.
He spent the sixth week next to the Lotus pond.
He spent the seventh week under the Rajyatna tree.
Mahabodhi Tree
The Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya is directly connected to the life of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, who attained enlightenment or perfect insight when he was meditating under it. The temple was built directly to the east of the Bodhi tree, supposedly a direct descendant of the original Bodhi Tree.
According to Buddhist mythology, if no Bodhi tree grows at the site, the ground around the Bodhi tree is devoid of all plants for a distance of one royal karīsa. Through the ground around the Bodhi tree no being, not even an elephant, can travel.
According to the Jatakas, the navel of the earth lies at this spot, and no other place can support the weight of the Buddha's attainment. Another Buddhist tradition claims that when the world is destroyed at the end of a kalpa, the Bodhimanda is the last spot to disappear, and will be the first to appear when the world emerges into existence again. Tradition also claims that a lotus will bloom there, and if a Buddha is born during the new kalpa, the lotus flowers in accordance with the number of Buddhas expected to arise. According to legend, in the case of Gautama Buddha, a Bodhi tree sprang up on the day he was born.
Temple construction
Mauryan establishment
In approximately 250 BCE, about 200 years after the Buddha attained Enlightenment, Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire visited Bodh Gaya in order to establish a monastery and shrine on the holy site, which have today disappeared.
There remains however the Diamond throne, which he had established at the foot of the Bodhi tree. The Diamond throne, or Vajrasana, is thought to have been built by Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire between 250 and 233 BCE,. at the location where the Buddha reached enlightenment. It is worshiped today, and is the center of many festivities at the temple.
Representations of the early temple structure meant to protect the Bodhi tree are found at Sanchi, on the toraṇas of Stūpa I, dating from around 25 BCE, and on a relief carving from the stupa railing at Bhārhut, from the early Shunga period (c. 185–c. 73 BCE).
Sunga structures
Columns with pot-shaped bases
Additional structures were brought in by the Sungas. In particular, columns with pot-shaped bases were found around the Diamond throne. These columns are thought to date to the 1st century BCE, towards the end of the Sungas. These columns, which were found through archaeological research at the Buddha's Walk in the Mahabodhi Temple, quite precisely match the columns described on the reliefs found on the gateway pillars.
Railings
The railing also around the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya are quite ancient. These are old sandstone posts dating about 150 BCE, during the Sunga period. There are carved panels as well as medallions, with many scenes similar to those of the contemporary Sunga railings at Bharhut (150 BCE) and Sanchi (115 BCE), although the reliefs at Sanchi Stupa No.2 are often considered as the oldest of all. The railing was extended during the following century, down to the end of Gupta period (7th century), with coarse granite decorated with elaborate foliate ornaments and small figures as well as stupas. Many parts of the initial railing have been dismantled and are now in museums, such as the Indian Museum in Kolkata, and have been replaced by plaster copies.
Current pyramidal temple
While Asoka is considered the Mahabodhi temple's founder, the current pyramidal structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. It's identical to the architectural styles of Hindu temples still being constructed in India.
However this may represent a restoration of earlier work of the 2nd or 3rd century: a plaque from Kumrahar dated 150–200 CE, based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the Mahabodhi Temple in its current shape with a stepped truncated pyramid and a small hemispherical stupa with finals on top. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.
It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid was derived from the design of the stepped stupas which had developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple adapted the Gandharan design of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, and top by a stupa, as seen in the stupas of Jaulian. The structure is crowned by the shape of an hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan stupas.
This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples. The "shikhara" tower with an amalaka near the top is today considered more characteristic of Hindu temples.
The Temple was restored by the British and India post independence.
Decline
Buddhism declined when the dynasties patronizing it declined, following Huna invasions and the early Arab Islamic invasions such as that of Muhammad bin Qasim. A strong revival occurred under the Pala Empire in the northeast of the subcontinent (where the temple is situated). Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas between the 8th and the 12th century. However, after the defeat of the Palas by the Sena dynasty, Buddhism's position again began to erode and became nearly extinct in India. During the 12th century CE, Bodh Gaya and the nearby regions were invaded by Muslim Turk armies, led by Delhi Sultanate's Qutb al-Din Aibak and Bakhtiyar Khilji. During this period, the Mahabodhi Temple fell into disrepair and was largely abandoned. The last abbot of the Mahabodhi temple was Sariputra, who left India and travelled to Nepal in the 15th-century. Over the following centuries, the monastery's abbot or mahant position became occupied by the area's primary landholder, who claimed ownership of the Mahabodhi Temple grounds.
In the 13th century, Burmese Buddhists built a temple with the same name and modelled on the original Mahabodhi Temple.
Mucalinda Lake
It is said that six weeks after the Buddha began meditating under the Bodhi Tree, the heavens darkened for seven days, and a prodigious rain descended. However, the mighty king of serpents, Mucalinda, came from beneath the earth and protected with his hood the one who is the source of all protection. When the great storm had cleared, the serpent king assumed his human form, bowed before the Buddha, and returned in joy to his palace.
The subject of Buddha meditating under the protection of Mucalinda is very common in Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand. One modern rendition is present in Bunleua Sulilat's sculpture park Sala Keoku.
Restoration
During the 13th century and again the 19th century, Burmese rulers undertook restoration of the temple complex and surrounding wall. In the 1880s, the then-British colonial government of India began to restore Mahabodhi Temple under the direction of Sir Alexander Cunningham and Joseph David Beglar. In 1884, a large Buddha image of the Pāla period, likely removed at an earlier stage to the Mahant's residence from the temple sanctum, was reinstated. The plith of the image was reconstructed at the time and parts of the dedicatory inscription inserted in their current position. The inscription records the rededication of the image by Pīṭhīpati Jayasena in the 13th century. In 1886, Sir Edwin Arnold visited the site and under guidance from Ven. Weligama Sri Sumangala published several articles drawing the attention of the Buddhists to the deplorable conditions of Buddhagaya. The sculpture has since been repaired, painted and gilded and is under active worship in the sanctum.
Architectural style
Mahabodhi Temple is constructed of brick and is one of the oldest brick structures to have survived in eastern India. It is considered to be a fine example of Indian brickwork, and was highly influential in the development of later architectural traditions. According to UNESCO, "the present temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely in brick from Gupta period" (300–600 CE). Mahabodhi Temple's central tower rises , and were heavily renovated in the 19th century. The central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers, constructed in the same style.
The Mahabodhi Temple is surrounded on all four sides by stone railings, about two metres high. The railings reveal two distinct types, both in style as well as the materials used. The older ones, made of sandstone, date to about 150 BCE, and the others, constructed from unpolished coarse granite, are believed to be of the Gupta period. The older railings have scenes such as Lakshmi, the Hindu/Buddhist goddess of wealth, being bathed by elephants; and Surya, the Hindu sun god, riding a chariot drawn by four horses. The newer railings have figures of stupas (reliquary shrines) and garudas (eagles). Images of lotus flowers also appear commonly.
Images of the site include Avalokiteśvara (Padmapani, Khasarpana), Vajrapani, Tara, Marichi, Yamantaka, Jambhala and Vajravārāhī. Images of Vishnu, Shiva, Surya and other Vedic deities are also associated with the site.
Control of the site
For centuries before its re-"discovery" by Europeans, the temple was an active place of worship by Shaivite and Vaishnavas who also considered Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu.
In 1891, a campaign was initiated, seeking the return of control of the temple to Buddhists, over the objections of the Hindu mahant. Sir Edwin Arnold, author of The Light of Asia, started advocating for the renovation of the site and its return to Buddhist care. Arnold was directed towards this endeavour by Weligama Sri Sumangala Thera. In 1891, Anagarika Dharmapala was on a pilgrimage to the recently restored Mahabodhi Temple. Here he experienced a shock to find the temple in the hands of a Saivite priest, the Buddha image transformed into a Hindu icon and Buddhists barred from worship. As a result, he began an agitation movement.
The Maha Bodhi Society at Colombo was founded in 1891 but its offices were soon moved to Calcutta the following year in 1892. One of its primary aims was the restoration to Buddhist control of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, the chief of the four ancient Buddhist holy sites. To accomplish this, Dharmapala initiated a lawsuit against the Brahmin priests who had held control of the site for centuries. After a protracted struggle, this was successful only after Indian independence (1947) and sixteen years after Dharmapala's own death (1933), with the partial restoration of the site to the management of the Maha Bodhi Society in 1949. It was then the temple management of Bodh Gaya was entrusted to a committee comprised in equal numbers of Hindus and Buddhists. The campaign was partially successful in 1949, when control passed from the Hindu mahant to the state government of Bihar, which established a Bodh Gaya Temple Management Committee (BTMC) under the Bodh Gaya Temple Act of 1949. The committee has nine members, a majority of whom, including the chairman, must by law be Hindus. Mahabodhi's first head monk under the management committee was Anagarika Munindra, a Bengali man who had been an active member of the Maha Bodhi Society. In 2013, the Bihar government amended the Bodh Gaya Temple Act of 1949, allowing for a non-Hindu to head the temple committee. Also in 2013, one thousand Indian Buddhists protested at the Mahabodhi Temple site to demand that control over it be given to Buddhists. These Buddhists included such leaders as Bhante Anand (president of the Akhil Bharatiya Bhikkhu Mahasangh, an influential body of monks), as well as the president of the Bodh Gaya Mukti Andolan Samiti. Additionally, Japanese-born Surai Sasai emerged as an important Buddhist leader in India as both he and Bhante Anand became two of the most well-known leaders of this campaign to free the temple from Hindu control.
Current status and management
The Bihar state government assumed responsibility for the protection, management, and monitoring of the temple and its properties when India gained its independence. Pursuant to the Bodh Gaya Temple Act of 1949, such responsibilities are shared with the Bodhgaya Temple Management Committee, and an advisory board. The committee, which serves for a
three-year term, must by law consist of four Buddhist and four Hindu representatives, including the head of Sankaracharya Math monastery as an ex-officio Hindu member. A 2013 Amendment to the Bodhgaya Temple Management Act allows the Gaya District Magistrate to be the Chairman of the committee, even if he is not Hindu. The Advisory Board consists of the governor of Bihar and twenty to twenty-five other members, half of them from foreign Buddhist countries.
In June 2002, the Mahabodhi Temple became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. All finds of religious artifacts in the area are legally protected under the Treasure Trove Act of 1878.
The temple's head monk, Bhikkhu Bodhipala, resigned in 2007 after he was charged with cutting the branches of Holy Bodhi Tree on a regular basis and selling them to foreigners for significant amounts of money. A newspaper alleged that wealthy Thai buyers bought a branch with the cooperation of senior members of the temple's management committee. While the temple's spokesman stated that botanists had pruned the tree, the Bihar home secretary ordered the tree examined. A criminal charge was filed against Bodhipala. If convicted, Bodhipala would be subject to at least 10 years' imprisonment.
Following the expiration of the committee's term in September 2007, Bihar's government delayed appointing a new Committee and the district magistrate administered the temple pending such appointment. Eventually, on May 16, 2008 the government announced the appointment of a new Temple Management Committee.
, the Temple's head monk was Bhikkhu Chalinda.
Recent events
In 2013, the upper portion of the temple was covered with 289 kg of gold. The gold was a gift from the King of Thailand and devotees from Thailand, and installed with the approval of the Archaeological Survey of India.
2013 attack
On 7 July 2013, ten low-intensity bombs exploded in the temple complex, injuring 5 people. One bomb was near the statue of Buddha and another was near the Mahabodhi tree. Three unexploded bombs were also found and defused. The blasts took place between 5.30 a.m. and 6.00 a.m. The main temple was undamaged. The Intelligence Bureau of India may have alerted state officials of possible threats around 15 days prior to the bombing. On 4 November 2013, the National Investigation Agency announced that the Islamic terrorist group Indian Mujahideen was responsible for the bombings.
Mahabodhi Temple replicas
Mahabodhi Temple is one of the most replicated Buddhist structures, both as temples and miniature replicas.
Zhenjue Temple, Beijing, China
Mahabodhi Temple, Bagan, Myanmar
Wat Chet Yot, Chiang Mai, Thailand
Thatta Thattaha Maha Bawdi Pagoda, Myanmar
Bodh Gaya Chedi Replica (Chedi Phutthakhaya Chamlong) in Wat Yansangwararam, Chonburi Province, Thailand
Notes
References
Harle J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art,
Michell, George, The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, 1989, Penguin Books,
Further reading
Horner, I.B. (trans.) (1975; reprinted 2000). The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon (Part III): 'Chronicle of Buddhas' (Buddhavamsa) and 'Basket of Conduct' (Cariyapitaka). Oxford: Pali Text Society. .
Kinnard, Jacob N. (1998). When Is The Buddha Not the Buddha? The Hindu/Buddhist Battle over Bodhgayā and Its Buddha Image, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 66 (4), 817–839
Knopf, Rainer (2000). Bodh-Gaya: Ein internationales Zentrum des Buddhismus in nicht-buddhistischer Umgebung, Internationales Asienforum 31 (3–4), 289–314
von Schroeder, Ulrich (2001). Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Vol. One: India & Nepal; Vol. Two: Tibet & China. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd. . Mahãbodhi temple, known to the Tibetans as rDo rje gdan («dorje den») (Skt.: Vajrāsana), pp. 103, 212, 216, 219, 246, 320–351, 356, 360, 369, 395–396, 677, 707–708, 870, 1242; Fig. IV–1. Replicas of the Mahābodhi temple in Tibet, pp. 321–351; Figs. IV–2–5; Pls. 111, 112, 113A–C, 113D–F, 114A–C, 114D–F, 115A–C, 115D–F.
External links
Land Enlightenment of the Buddha
Mahabodhi Temple and attraction around it
Bodhgaya News
UNESCO World Heritage
Bodh Gaya
3rd-century BC establishments in India
Buddhist temples in India
Religious buildings and structures in Bihar
World Heritage Sites in India
Tourist attractions in Bihar
Buddhist sites in Bihar
Gupta art | [
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226054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20of%20God%20%28Cleveland%2C%20Tennessee%29 | Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) | The Church of God, with headquarters in Cleveland, Tennessee, United States, is a Holiness Pentecostal Christian denomination. The Church of God's publishing house is Pathway Press.
History
Origins (1886–1902)
R. G. Spurling (1857–1935), a Missionary Baptist minister, and his father Richard Spurling (1810–91), an ordained elder, rejected some of the views of the Baptists in his area as not being in accord with New Testament Christianity. R. G. Spurling disagreed with Landmarkism, an ecclesiology which held that only churches descending from churches with Baptist doctrine were part of the true Church, and that they should not associate with Christians of other traditions. Spurling felt that there needed to be another reformation of the Church that went beyond the Protestant Reformation so that Christians would be united together by love and not by creeds, which he believed were divisive. As long as something was not contrary to the New Testament, believers should be able to practice their faith in the form they chose.
Even though not intending to form a new church or denomination, their rejection of Landmarkist values placed them in conflict with traditional churches in that area. Within a short period of time it became clear that they would not be allowed to remain as members of their churches. On August 19, 1886, after being barred from his local Baptist church, R.G. Spurling and eight others organized the Christian Union at the Barney Creek Meeting House in Monroe County, Tennessee. They agreed to free themselves from man-made creeds and unite upon the principles of the New Testament. Between 1889 and 1895, Spurling organized three other congregations, all with the name Christian Union, each functioning independently under Baptist polity. While this group would later disband and its members return to their original churches, the Church of God traces its origins to this 1886 meeting.
In 1896, three Tennessee evangelists (William Martin, Joe M. Tipton, and Milton McNabb) with links to Benjamin H. Irwin's Fire-Baptized Holiness Church brought the message of entire sanctification to the western North Carolina countryside when they held a revival in the Shearer Schoolhouse near Camp Creek in Cherokee County. A feature of this revival was that some participants, including children, spoke in tongues when they experienced sanctification (this was later understood to be the baptism of the Holy Ghost, as spoken of in Acts 2). This phenomenon caused great excitement and controversy in the community, and leading Baptist and Methodist leaders soon denounced the revival. Several of the worshiper's homes, as well as a provisional meeting house were burned by mobs opposing the new revival.
The worshipers began to meet in the house of William F. Bryant (1863–1949), a Baptist deacon prior to his joining the holiness movement, who assumed leadership of the group. R.G. Spurling often worshiped with the small fellowship and was the driving force behind its 1902 decision to organize into a church, called the Holiness Church at Camp Creek. Organization was made necessary because Irwin's more fanatical teachings were influencing the movement, and there was a need for authority to discipline erring members.
Tomlinson era (1903–1923)
It would be Ambrose Jessup Tomlinson and his organizational skills, however, that would be responsible for the growth of the Camp Creek Holiness Church into a national denomination. A Quaker and colporteur (the publishing and distribution of religious materials) for the American Bible Society, Tomlinson had received the sanctification experience (but had not spoken in tongues) and had connections with Frank Sandford's Shiloh church in Durham, Maine. While not an ordained minister, churches often invited him to preach. The church at Camp Creek had known Tomlinson for seven years before they asked him to join their church in 1903. After climbing what is now known as Prayer Mountain in Murphy, North Carolina (located within the Fields of the Wood park), and reportedly being divinely assured that this fledgling church was indeed God's reestablishment of the New Testament church, Tomlinson joined the church and was soon elected its pastor. This allowed Spurling and Bryant to pursue evangelism. Fourteen new members were added to the church in the first year of Tomlinson's pastorate, and other churches were soon established in Georgia and Tennessee.
By 1905, there was a desire for greater organization among the churches. Delegates from four churches met at Camp Creek (approximately a mile northwest of Fields of the Wood) in January 1906 to conduct the 1st General Assembly of the "Churches of East Tennessee, North Georgia, and Western North Carolina." Though the intention was still to avoid the creation of a creed and denomination, the members' consensus on certain endeavors and standards laid the groundwork for the future denomination. The Assembly declared, "We hope and trust that no person or body of people will ever use these minutes, or any part of them, as articles of faith upon which to establish a sect or denomination," and that the General Assembly was not "a legislative or executive body, [but] judicial only." The 1st Assembly decided that foot washing was on the same level as the sacrament of communion and, like other holiness groups, condemned the use of tobacco. Tomlinson served as moderator and secretary. The name "Church of God" was adopted in 1907, and Tomlinson was elected general overseer in 1909.
The Church of God was a part of the holiness movement and believed in entire sanctification as a definite experience occurring after salvation. While individuals had spoken in tongues in the 1896 revival, tongues were not yet understood by the Church of God to be the initial evidence of baptism in the Holy Spirit. As news of the Azusa Street Revival began to spread and reach the Southeast, Church of God adherents began to seek and obtain Spirit baptism. Tomlinson was one of these seekers. In June 1907, he traveled to Birmingham, Alabama, to attend a meeting of M. M. Pinson and Gaston B. Cashwell. After being baptized in the Spirit at Azusa Street, Cashwell had returned to the South, spreading the revival and bringing many holiness groups into the Pentecostal fold. Tomlinson invited Cashwell to preach in Cleveland, Tennessee. It was there, under Cashwell's preaching, that Tomlinson received the Pentecostal blessing. After Tomlinson's experience, the Church of God's emphasis changed from being mainly holiness in nature, to being both holiness and Pentecostal, and it has identified that way ever since.
In 1910, the official publication, "The Church of God Evangel," was founded, and it remains the oldest continuous Pentecostal publication. Growth followed in the years after organization. In 1902, there was one church with 20 members. By 1910, there were 1,005 members in 31 churches throughout the Southeastern United States.
Statistics
On the church's website, it reports that in 2020, they had 36,000 churches and 7 million members in 178 countries.
Name
The precise legal name of this body is "Church of God". After a protracted court case involving donations intended for the use of its orphanages being received by other groups using the same name, the Supreme Court of Tennessee determined that it alone was entitled to use the simple name Church of God in 1953. The group however uses Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) in order to distinguish it from other bodies that use "Church of God" in their titles.
Clergy
The Church of God recognizes three ranks of credentialed ministers: Exhorter (initial level), Ordained Minister (intermediate level), and Ordained Bishop (highest level). Exhorters are authorized to preach, serve as evangelists, and serve as pastor of a church. Ordained Ministers are further authorized to baptize converts, receive new church members, administer sacraments or ordinances, solemnize marriages, and establish churches. In addition to the rights and privileges held by Exhorters and Ordained Ministers, Ordained Bishops are authorized to assist in ordination ceremonies. State/regional overseers are designated "Administrative Bishops," International Executive Committee members as "Executive Bishops," and the General Overseer as "Presiding Bishop." Women are eligible to be Exhorters and Ordained Ministers; however, only men can become Ordained Bishops. There are also categories of Licensed Minister of Christian Education and Licensed Minister of Music.
Beliefs
The Church has a Pentecostal confession of faith.
Structure
International
The Church of God is a hierarchical church with an episcopal polity. The Church of God's highest judicial body is the International General Assembly. This body has "full power and authority to designate the teaching, government, principles, and practices" of the Church of God. Meeting every two years, the General Assembly's voting membership includes all lay members, credentialed ministers of the Church of God, and members 16 years of age or older, but to vote one must be present and registered. The General Assembly is responsible for electing the church's executive officers. These are the general overseer, the three assistant general overseers, and the secretary general. In addition, it elects the directors of the church's missionary and Christian education ministries.
Higher education
The Church of God operates Lee University, a Christian Liberal Arts university in Cleveland, Tennessee, established in 1918. In response to the need for a graduate seminary, the Church of God Graduate School of Christian Ministries opened in 1975. Its name was changed to the Church of God Theological Seminary and then again to the Pentecostal Theological Seminary (PTS) with the hopes of appealing to a broader student base.
Related bodies
Church of God (Chattanooga) (org. 1917)
Church of God with Signs Following (org. circa 1922)
Church of God of Prophecy (org. 1923)
Church of God, House of Prayer (org. 1939)
Church of God (Huntsville, Alabama) (org. 1943)
The Church of God (Jerusalem Acres) (org. 1957)
The Church of God for All Nations (org. 1981)
Church of God (Charleston, Tennessee) (org. 1993)
Recent history
During the latter half of the twentieth century, the Church of God gradually relaxed what they call their "Practical Commitments". These are separate from their Declaration of Faith, which are the biblical beliefs of the church. These practical commitments are the social practices of the church, and originally included "That members dress according to the teachings of the New Testament," "That our members conform to the Scripture relative to outward adornment and to the use of cosmetics, etc. that create an unnatural appearance," as well as other admonitions concerning hair, ornamental jewelry, "mixed bathing" (i.e., mixed swimming), television/movies, dances, and "worldly amusements." Many of these practical commitments were modified as the church adapted to ministry outside of its southeastern U.S. roots; however, the Declaration of Faith has not been modified since its adoption in 1948.
In 2007, the denomination had 6 million members worldwide.
Notable ministers
Charles Paul Conn – Chancellor of Lee University
Paul Walker - President of Lee University
Tim Hill - General Overseer
Raymond F. Culpepper – 1st Assistant General Overseer
J. David Stephens - 2'nd Assistant General Overseer
David E. Ramirez - 3'd Assistant General Overseer
John D. Childers - Secretary-General
Mark L. Williams - senior Pastor North Clevel Church of God and former General Overseer
Sean Stewart O’Neal - state overseer, California/Nevada
Stafford Petersen - General Overseer for the Full Gospel Church of God South Africa
Rufus Hollis Gause – Distinguished Educator within the denomination
Steven Jack Land – President of Pentecostal Theological Seminary
G. Dennis McGuire – Former General Overseer
Marcus Lamb - Founder of Daystar Television Network
See also
Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)
Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)
Church of God (Huntsville, Alabama)
The Church of God (Charleston, Tennessee)
Protestantism in the United States
List of the largest Protestant bodies
Christianity in the United States
Notes
References
.
.
Crew, Michael. The Church of God: A Social History. University of Tennessee Press, 1990.
.
.
Bibliography
Conn, Charles W. Where the Saints Have Trod: A History of Church of God Missions. Cleveland: Pathway Press, 1957.
Robins, R.G. Tomlinson. Plainfolk Modernist. Oxford: University Press, 2004.
External links
Official website of the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) in the Philippines
Official website of the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) in Canada
Official website of the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) in Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands
Official website of the Church of God(Cleveland, Tennessee)in India, Kerala State
Cleveland, Tennessee
Religious organizations established in 1886
Pentecostalism in Tennessee
Pentecostalism in the United States
Church of God denominations
Pentecostal denominations in North America
Christian denominations established in the 19th century
1886 establishments in Tennessee
Members of the National Association of Evangelicals
Evangelical denominations in North America
Holiness Pentecostals | [
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