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226062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20IV%20of%20Germany | Louis IV of Germany | Louis IV of Germany may refer to:
Louis the Child, the last Carolingian king of Germany, or rather of East Franks
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor | [
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|
226065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Robichaud | Louis Robichaud | Louis Joseph Robichaud (October 21, 1925 – January 6, 2005), popularly known as "Little Louis" or "P'tit-Louis", was the second (but first elected) Acadian premier of New Brunswick, serving from 1960 to 1970.
With the Equal Opportunity program, the language rights act of 1969 establishing New Brunswick as an officially bilingual province, and for his role in the creation of the Université de Moncton, Robichaud is credited with ushering in major social reform in New Brunswick.
Life and achievements
At the age of 14, Robichaud left home to enter the Juvénat Saint-Jean-Eudes in Bathurst to study for a career in the Church. After his third year at the school, he decided instead to pursue a political career. He attended the Collège du Sacré-Coeur (now part of the Université de Moncton) and graduated in 1947 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He then went on to study economics and political science at Université Laval. He articled with a law firm in Bathurst for three years and, upon being admitted to the bar, practised law for a short period of time in Richibucto.
He was elected to the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick in 1952 as the youngest ever Acadian member of the assembly to that date.
He became provincial Liberal leader in 1958 and led his party to victory in 1960, 1963 and 1967 before being defeated by Richard Hatfield's Conservatives in the 1970 election.
Robichaud was the first Acadian Premier of New Brunswick since Peter J. Veniot and the first to win an election. He modernized the province's hospitals and public schools and introduced a wide range of social reforms. The Liberals also passed the New Brunswick Official Languages Act (1969) making New Brunswick officially bilingual. "Language rights," he said when he introduced the legislation, "are more than legal rights. They are precious cultural rights, going deep into the revered past and touching the historic traditions of all our people."
Robichaud also restructured the municipal tax regime, ending the ability of business to play one municipality against another in order to extract the lowest tax rates. He introduced in 1963 the Municipal Capital Borrowing Act and Board, which is designed to act as a brake for spendthrift municipalities. He also expanded the government and sought to ensure that the quality of health care, education and social services was the same across the province—a programme he called Equal Opportunity, which is still a political buzz phrase in New Brunswick. "When I first realized that there was absolutely no equal opportunity, no equality, in New Brunswick," he recalled in the 1980s, "well, I had to come to the conclusion that something had to be done immediately."
A desk made for Robichaud by the Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company and given to him in 1966, which he used during his last years as premier and which was used by his successor Richard Hatfield was returned to the Premier's Office by Shawn Graham in 2006.
He was instrumental in the creation of the Université de Moncton in 1963, while in 1969, a high school was named in his honour in Shediac, New Brunswick.
In 1971, upon resigning from the legislature, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada and Canadian chairman of the International Joint Commission, a post he held until being called to the Senate of Canada on December 21, 1973. He sat in the Senate until his mandatory retirement from the upper house on October 21, 2000 upon reaching his seventy-fifth birthday.
He was a resident of New Brunswick at the time of his death from cancer at the Stella-Maris-De-Kent Hospital in Sainte-Anne-de-Kent, near his birthplace of Saint-Antoine, New Brunswick. The cancer had been discovered only a few weeks before his death. He died on January 6, 2005.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Province of New Brunswick biography
CBC Digital Archives - The 'Other Revolution': Louis Robichaud's New Brunswick
1925 births
2005 deaths
Lawyers in New Brunswick
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Acadian people
Canadian senators from New Brunswick
Companions of the Order of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Premiers of New Brunswick
Members of the Order of New Brunswick
New Brunswick Liberal Association MLAs
Deaths from cancer in New Brunswick
New Brunswick Liberal Association leaders
People from Kent County, New Brunswick
Université Laval alumni | [
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|
226070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dufferin%20Roblin | Dufferin Roblin | Dufferin "Duff" Roblin, (June 17, 1917 – May 30, 2010) was a Canadian businessman and politician. Known as "Duff," he served as the 14th premier of Manitoba from 1958 to 1967. Roblin was appointed to the Senate of Canada on the advice of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. In the government of Brian Mulroney, he served as Senate Leader. He was the grandson of Sir Rodmond Roblin, who also served as Manitoba Premier. His ancestor John Roblin served in the Upper Canada assembly.
Early life
Roblin was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Charles Dufferin Roblin and Sophie Murdoch, and was educated at the University of Manitoba and the University of Chicago. He was a car dealer before entering politics, and served as a Wing Commander in the Royal Canadian Air Force from 1940 to 1946.
Like his grandfather, Roblin was a member of Manitoba's Conservative Party, which was renamed the Progressive Conservative Party in 1942. During the 1940s, the Manitoba Conservatives were part of a coalition government with the Liberal-Progressives, and Conservative leader Errick Willis was a prominent cabinet minister in the governments of John Bracken, Stuart Garson and Douglas Campbell.
Provincial bankbencher
There were opponents of the coalition in both the Liberal and Conservative ranks. Roblin was a part of the latter group and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba in 1949 as an "Independent Progressive Conservative" opposing the coalition. Running in the multi-member riding of Winnipeg South, he finished well ahead of the official Progressive Conservative candidate and soon emerged as the leading voice for anti-Conservatives in the province.
Willis resigned as a cabinet minister in August 1950, and the Progressive Conservative delegates overwhelmingly voted to leave the coalition at their annual convention that year. Some party members tried to convince Roblin to stand against Willis for the leadership, but Roblin declined.
Roblin was re-elected for Winnipeg South in 1953, but the Progressive Conservative Party, as a whole, fared poorly by winning only 12 seats out of 57. Willis was blamed for the party's loss, and another effort was made to draft Roblin as leader.
Leadership win
When Willis called a leadership convention for 1954, Roblin quickly declared himself a candidate. He built up a strong organization throughout the province and was able to defeat Willis on the second ballot. Somewhat counterintuitively, Roblin's support came mostly from rural delegates. The Progressive Conservatives' grassroots network had atrophied during the coalition years, and for the next four years, Roblin was involved in the arduous task of rebuilding the party organization.
Ideologically, Roblin was a Red Tory. He opposed the cautionary small government ideology of Liberal-Progressive Premier Douglas Campbell and pledged to expand government services if he was elected. He was also fairly liberal on most social issues, which put him well to the "left" of Campbell's Liberals, a point that he later acknowledged in his memoirs.
Premier
Under Roblin's leadership, the Tories became the largest party in the legislature at the 1958 provincial election, winning 26 seats. Roblin himself was elected for the new single-member constituency of Wolseley, located in the centre of Winnipeg. The Manitoba CCF agreed to tolerate a Tory minority government, and Roblin became premier—ending 35 years of Progressive/Liberal-Progressive government in the province.
His government quickly enacted a series of progressive reforms, which were supported by the CCF. Roblin was thereby able to build up a successful legislative record and won the support of many centre-left voters who were previously uncommitted. His government lost a parliamentary vote of confidence in 1959, but was re-elected with a decisive majority in the ensuing election later in the year, taking 36 out of 57 seats.
Roblin's government upgraded highways, created parks, and built the Red River Floodway around Winnipeg, popularly known as "Duff's Ditch." It reintroduced French instruction in schools, modernized hospitals, expanded social spending, and strengthened social welfare programs. It also improved postsecondary education and promoted urban development by consolidating the various municipalities in the Winnipeg area into a single metropolitan entity. For primary education, Roblin's ministry brought Manitoba's system of one-room schoolhouses into the modern era by building consolidated schools.
The Progressive Conservatives were re-elected with landslide mandates in the 1962 and 1966 elections, and Roblin never faced any serious competition in his own riding.
Federal politics
Roblin resigned in 1967 to run for the leadership of the federal Progressive Conservative Party at its 1967 leadership convention. He ran a strong campaign but came second to Nova Scotia Premier Robert Stanfield.
Roblin was a candidate in Winnipeg South Centre for the 1968 federal election but lost to Liberal E.B. Osler by over 10,000 votes. Roblin was hurt by an unpopular provincial sales tax introduced by his government as well as the more general "Trudeaumania" phenomenon. After the election, he was named as vice-president of Canadian Pacific Investments. In 1970, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada.
In the 1974 federal election, Roblin ran for the House of Commons in the Ontario riding of Peterborough. He was soundly defeated by Liberal Hugh Faulkner and later referred to the entire campaign as a lapse in judgement.
In 1978, Roblin was appointed to the Senate by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, officially representing the Manitoba region of Red River. He was the Deputy Leader of the Government in the Senate during Joe Clark's brief tenure as Prime Minister (1979–1980) and served as Deputy Opposition Leader from 1980 to 1984.
After Brian Mulroney's landslide victory in the 1984 election, Roblin was appointed Leader of the Government in the Senate, and served in Mulroney's cabinet until June 29, 1986. In that capacity, he was particularly interested in matters relating to African economic development.
Roblin retired from the Senate on June 17, 1992, having reached the mandatory retirement age of 75. He received the President's Award of the Winnipeg Press Club in 1999, and published his memoirs (entitled Speaking for Myself) in the same year.
Roblin, a veteran of World War II who fought in the Normandy Campaign, represented Manitoba at the 60th Anniversary of D-Day in France. He, along with Prince Charles and the Prime Ministers of Canada and France, commemorated the Canadian Servicemen who were lost that day in 1944.
At the time of his death, he was the oldest living former provincial premier. Roblin died at the age of 92 on the afternoon of May 30, 2010 at the Victoria General Hospital. Upon his death, former provincial NDP leader Ed Schreyer said that "Duff Roblin led a Conservative administration the likes we’ve not seen elsewhere in Canada and not likely to see again. It was positive in every respect. He brought Manitoba into the modern era, with desired changes in education, hospital finance, roads, social assistance and flood protection."
Archives
There are Dufferin Roblin fonds at the Archives of Manitoba and Library and Archives Canada.
Electoral history
References
External links
1917 births
2010 deaths
Businesspeople from Winnipeg
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian people of Dutch descent
Canadian senators from Manitoba
Companions of the Order of Canada
Finance ministers of Manitoba
Members of the Executive Council of Manitoba
Members of the Order of Manitoba
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Politicians from Winnipeg
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada senators
Premiers of Manitoba
University of Manitoba alumni
United Empire Loyalists
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada leadership candidates
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons
Candidates in the 1968 Canadian federal election
Candidates in the 1974 Canadian federal election
Canadian expatriates in the United States | [
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|
226074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o%20LeBlanc | Roméo LeBlanc | Roméo-Adrien LeBlanc (December 18, 1928June 24, 2009) was a Canadian journalist, politician and statesman who served as Governor General of Canada, the 25th since Canadian Confederation.
LeBlanc was born and educated in New Brunswick, and also studied in France prior to becoming a teacher and then a reporter for Radio-Canada. He was subsequently elected to the House of Commons in 1972, whereafter he served as a minister of the Crown until 1984, when he was moved to the Senate and became that chamber's Speaker.
In 1995, he was appointed as governor general by Queen Elizabeth II, on the recommendation of Prime Minister of Canada Jean Chrétien, to replace Ramon John Hnatyshyn as viceroy, and he occupied the post until succeeded by Adrienne Clarkson in 2000, citing his health as the reason for his stepping down. His appointment as the Queen's representative caused some controversy, due to perceptions of political favouritism, though he was praised for raising the stature of Acadians and francophones, and for returning Rideau Hall to the centre of life in Ottawa.
On August 8, 1974, LeBlanc was sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. He died of Alzheimer's disease on June 24, 2009, aged 81.
Youth and political career
Born on December 18, 1928 and raised in Memramcook, New Brunswick, LeBlanc obtained bachelor degrees in arts and education from the Collège St-Joseph before studying French civilization at the Université de Paris. He then moved on to teaching for nine years at Drummond's high school from 1951 to 1953 and the New Brunswick Teachers' College in Fredericton from 1955 to 1959 after which he obtained work between 1960 and 1967 as a journalist with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's French language broadcaster, Radio-Canada, serving in the bureaus in Ottawa, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
His first marriage, to Joslyn "Lyn" Carter, with whom LeBlanc had two children (Genevieve and Dominic), lasted from 1966 to 1981; in 1994, he married Diana Fowler, who also had two children from a previous marriage.
LeBlanc stepped into the realm of politics when he became the press secretary for successive prime ministers Lester B. Pearson and Pierre Trudeau. He then went further, winning in the 1972 federal election a seat in the House of Commons as the Liberal Party representative for Westmorland-Kent, paving the way for his appointment as the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans in the Cabinet chaired by Trudeau.
LeBlanc was a key figure in Canada's imposition of a 200-mile fishing zone; the establishment of a new fisheries licensing system; the widespread use of quotas and zones that protected Canadian fishermen from overexpansion and competition from trawlers owned by large companies; the owner-operator rule, requiring licence holders to operate vessels themselves; the separate-fleet rule, preventing corporations from obtaining licences for an under-65-foot fleet; and for creating an additional system of advisory committees that permitted fishermen a larger voice in fisheries management.
On one occasion, LeBlanc also persuaded Trudeau to advise the Governor General to close Canadian ports to Soviet fishing vessels, a headline-grabbing diplomatic thrust that resulted in better co-operation, and forbade all foreign corporations from holding commercial fishing licences in Canada.
On the Pacific coast, LeBlanc oversaw the creation of the Salmonid Enhancement Program, which aimed at doubling salmon production, and quelled plans by Alcan that were deemed to threaten salmon rivers at the time.
Late in 1982, LeBlanc became Minister of Public Works for two years before being nominated by Trudeau to then Governor General Jeanne Sauvé for appointment to the Senate on June 29, 1984. He was then selected in 1993 by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien as Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn's appointee as that chamber's speaker.
Governor General of Canada
LeBlanc's time as the Queen's viceregal representative was considered to have been low key and largely uneventful, especially in comparison to that of his successor, Adrienne Clarkson. He was, however, the first governor general of Acadian heritage, which earned praise from the Acadian community, and he was also the first from the Canadian maritimes to be appointed as viceroy.
As governor general-designate
It was announced from the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada on November 22, 1994 that Queen Elizabeth II had approved Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's choice of LeBlanc to succeed Ray Hnatyshyn as the Queen's representative.
Thereafter, LeBlanc was invited to an audience with the Queen at Sandringham House, and he was said to have been impressed and inspired by the devotion to duty on the part of both Elizabeth and her mother.
The commission appointing LeBlanc under the royal sign-manual and Great Seal of Canada was issued on January 16, 1995.
The greatest publicity LeBlanc attracted in his career came immediately after the announcement of his appointment as Governor General: although previous honorees had worked as politicians prior to and after serving as viceroy, the recommendation of a prominent Liberal Party politician and organiser was criticised as being little more than a patronage gift from the Prime Minister to a loyal party member.
In the 1993 federal election, LeBlanc had been one of the chief architects of the Liberal Party's election strategy, and was a strong party loyalist. In protest, both Reform Party of Canada leader Preston Manning and Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard refused to attend LeBlanc's installation ceremony.
In office
As with each governor general, LeBlanc took on unofficial and personal mandates, choosing for himself: voluntarism, the teaching of Canadian history, Canada's Aboriginal peoples, and the military. He spoke often about the generosity, tolerance, and compassion of Canadians, and admired the dignity and abilities of the common citizen.
To recognize the "unsung heroes" who volunteer their time and effort to help others, LeBlanc initiated in 1996 the Governor General's Caring Canadian Award, and, on June 21, of the same year, was proud to issue a royal proclamation inaugurating National Aboriginal Day as an annual observance.
As well, in 1996 LeBlanc formed the Governor General's Award for Excellence in Teaching Canadian History, in 1999 partnered with the Canada Council for the Arts to create the Governor General's Awards in Visual and Media Arts, oversaw the issuance of the Governor General's Canadian History Medal for the Millennium, and established the Governor General's Millennium Edition of the Map of Canada, which was taken into space in 1999 by Julie Payette.
LeBlanc travelled to all parts of Canada and had a special affinity for small towns and cities, making himself particularly visible in those parts of Quebec after the province's referendum on secession in 1995. He participated in more than 2,000 events, including the annual New Year's Levée, which he moved to various locations around the country, seeing the party organised at Ottawa, Ontario, in 1996; Quebec City, Quebec, in 1997; Winnipeg, Manitoba, in 1998; and St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1999.
Over the same years, LeBlanc also had public access to Rideau Hall and its grounds expanded and improved including opening a dedicated visitors' centre in 1997 so that the number of visitors increased threefold to approximately 125,000 people per year. In keeping with his respect for the First Peoples of Canada, LeBlanc placed a totem pole and inukshuk prominently on the royal property.
Amongst numerous other official and ceremonial duties, the Governor General granted Royal Assent to amendments to the constitution on three occasions: April 21, 1997, December 19, 1997, and January 8, 1998, and also issued the royal proclamation announcing the creation of the territory of Nunavut on April 1, 1999. LeBlanc welcomed to Rideau Hall the Queen, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, along with a host of foreign dignitaries such as United States president Bill Clinton and his wife, Hillary; King Hussein and Queen Noor of Jordan, and later Hussein's son, King Abdullah II, and his wife Queen Rania; as well as President of South Africa Nelson Mandela; and President of China Jiang Zemin. Further, he undertook eight state visits, becoming the first governor general of Canada to make such trips to the Czech Republic, India, Pakistan, the Ivory Coast, Tanzania, Mali, and Morocco.
Legacy
As governor general, LeBlanc was viewed as having been a role model for Acadians, and was complimented for having drawn the attention of the country to Acadian history and culture. As such, he was seen as a symbol for reconciliation, given the past relations between the Acadians and the Canadian Crown's predecessor. At the same time, LeBlanc was also credited for returning Rideau Hall to a status closer to that which it held a century previous, when it was the centre of life in the national capital.
Although LeBlanc enjoyed all the provinces and territories, his visits touching small towns as well as big cities, he travelled to events in his home province to a degree that some saw as disproportionate. Moreover, LeBlanc never sought media coverage, with the result that many Canadians were unaware of who he was, and his down-to-earth demeanour was thought by some to have been too "folksy" for the post. The accusations of political patronage also failed to evaporate during LeBlanc's governorship; while LeBlanc was viceroy, his son, Dominic, continued to work for the prime minister's office until 1997, when he ran for election to the House of Commons in LeBlanc's old riding, where the Governor General had a series of events planned the very week he dropped the election writs. Further, LeBlanc's daughter maintained employment as a political assistant to Liberal Cabinet ministers, and some of the Governor General's staff had close Liberal Party connections.
Personal touches were also left on the symbol of the Canadian viceregal office, from which LeBlanc removed the claws and tongue of the crowned lion, saying that they were impolite and un-Canadian. Though the change did not gather much attention until near the end of LeBlanc's tenure, the reaction, when it came, was generally unfavourable, and the modifications were undone by his successor.
Post-viceregal life and death
After being released from the Queen's service, LeBlanc returned to New Brunswick. There, after a lengthy battle with Alzheimer's disease, he died on June 24, 2009, in Grande-Digue.
He was, as is protocol for all incumbent and former governors general, accorded a state funeral, which took place on July 3 of the same year, in Memramcook. The casket's path through the community was lined with officers from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, paying homage to LeBlanc's time as minister of the Crown with that portfolio, and the sitting governor general, Michaëlle Jean, her prime minister, Stephen Harper, and LeBlanc's former prime minister, Jean Chrétien, all attended.
Canada Post featured LeBlanc on a postage stamp released on February 8, 2010.
Honours and arms
Honours
Ribbon bars of Roméo LeBlanc
Appointments
January 4, 1973July 9, 1984: Member of Parliament (MP)
August 8, 1974June 24, 2009: Member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (PC)
February 8, 1995October 8, 2000: Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada (CC)
October 8, 1999June 24, 2009: Companion of the Order of Canada (CC)
February 8, 1995October 8, 2000: Chancellor and Commander of the Order of Military Merit (CMM)
October 8, 1999June 24, 2009: Commander of the Order of Military Merit (CMM)
February 8, 1995October 8, 2000: Knight of Justice, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ)
October 8, 1999June 24, 2009: Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ)
February 8, 1995October 8, 2000: Chief Scout of Canada
1995June 24, 2009: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club
August 1, 2005June 24, 2009: Member of the Order of New Brunswick (ONB)
Medals
1992: Commemorative Medal for the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada
February 8, 1995: Canadian Forces Decoration (CD)
2002: Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal
Foreign honours
2002June 24, 2009: Grand-officier du l'Ordre national du Mérite
Honorary military appointments
February 8, 1990October 8, 2000: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards
February 8, 1990October 8, 2000: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards
February 8, 1990October 8, 2000: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards
Honorary degrees
1977: Mount Allison University, Doctor of Civil Law (DCL)
1979: University of Moncton, Doctor of Public Administration (DPA)
1995: Université Sainte-Anne, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
1996: Ryerson University, Doctor of Letters (DLitt)
1996: University of Ottawa, Doctor of the University (DUniv)
1997: St. Thomas University, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
1997: Memorial University of Newfoundland, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
1997: McGill University, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
1999: University of New Brunswick, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
Honorific eponyms
Geographic locations
: LeBlanc Park, Memramcook
: Greater Moncton Roméo LeBlanc International Airport, Dieppe
Arms
See also
List of people from Westmorland County, New Brunswick
Journalism
References
External links
Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Roméo LeBlanc
Roméo LeBlanc fonds at Library and Archives Canada
1928 births
2009 deaths
People from Moncton
Acadian people
Canadian male journalists
Canadian senators from New Brunswick
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Neurological disease deaths in New Brunswick
Governors General of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from New Brunswick
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Speakers of the Senate of Canada
St. Joseph's College alumni
Companions of the Order of Canada
Commanders of the Order of Military Merit (Canada)
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Grand Officers of the National Order of Merit (France)
Members of the Order of New Brunswick
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226080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Song%20of%20Roland | The Song of Roland | The Song of Roland () is an 11th-century epic poem (chanson de geste) based on the Frankish military leader Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, during the reign of Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French literature. It exists in various manuscript versions, which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity from the 12th to 16th centuries.
The epic poem is the first and one of the most outstanding examples of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the 11th and 16th centuries and celebrated legendary deeds. The date of composition is put in the period between 1040 AD and 1115 AD; an early version began around 1040 AD with additions and alterations made up until about 1115. The final text contains about 4,000 lines of poetry.
Manuscripts and dating
Although set in the Carolingian era, The Song of Roland was written much later. There is a single extant manuscript of the Song of Roland in Old French, held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford. This copy dates between 1129 and 1165 and was written in Anglo-Norman. There are also eight further manuscripts, and three fragments, of other poems on the subject of Roland.
Some scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named Turold (Turoldus in the manuscript itself), between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating because it allows one to say that the narrative was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade. Those who prefer a later dating do so based upon what they interpret as brief references made to events of the First Crusade.
In the text, the term d'oltre mer or l'oltremarin comes up three times in reference to named Muslims who came from oltre mer to fight in Spain and France. Oltre mer, modern French Outremer, literally "oversea, beyond sea, other side of the sea", is a native French term from the classical Latin roots ultra = "beyond" and mare = "sea". The name was commonly used by contemporary chroniclers to refer to the Latin Levant.
The occurrence of this term cannot be interpreted as showing influence from the Crusades; on the contrary, the way it is used, refer simply to a Muslim land, indicates that the author was unacquainted with the Crusades, and that the term was in French before the Crusades was held to refer to the far side of the Mediterranean. The bulk of the poem is adjudged to date from before the Crusades (which started in 1098), but there are a few items where questions remain about these items being late additions shortly after the Crusades started.
After two manuscripts were found in 1832 and 1835, the Song of Roland became recognized as France's national epic when an edition was published in 1837.
AOI
Certain lines of the Oxford manuscript end with the letters "AOI". The meaning of this word or annotation is unclear. Many scholars have hypothesized that the marking may have played a role in public performances of the text, such as indicating a place where a jongleur would change the tempo. An alternative hypothesis by Nathan Love is that AOI indicates locations where the scribe or copyist deviated from the primary manuscript.
Critical opinions
Oral performance compared to manuscript versions
Scholarly consensus has long accepted that The Song of Roland differed in its presentation depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions.
Early editors of The Song of Roland, informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes, "[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French epic".
Plot
From a historical perspective, the Song of Roland's account of the Battle of Roncesvalles is impossible. According to Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni, written in the late eighth century, the antagonists are Basques who were incited to attack Charlemagne's army to avenge the looting of Pamplona. The following is what is depicted in the poem itself, not subsequent historical accounts.
Charlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. They have been there for seven years, and the last city standing is Saragossa, held by the Muslim King Marsile. Threatened by the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsile seeks advice from his wise man, Blancandrin, who counsels him to conciliate the Emperor, offering to surrender and giving hostages. Accordingly, Marsile sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsile's conversion to Christianity if the Franks will go back to Francia.
Charlemagne and his men, tired of fighting, accept his peace offer and select a messenger to Marsile's court. The protagonist Roland, Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather Ganelon as messenger. Ganelon, who fears being murdered by the enemy and accuses Roland of intending this, takes revenge by informing the Saracens of a way to ambush the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland, as the Franks re-enter Francia through the mountain passes.
As Ganelon predicted, Roland leads the rear guard, with the wise and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims ambush them at Roncesvalles and the Christians are overwhelmed. Oliver pleads with Roland to blow his horn to call for help, but Roland tells him that blowing his horn in the middle of the battle would be an act of cowardice. If Roland continues to refuse, Oliver will not let Roland see his sister again whom Roland loves the most. However, Archbishop Turpin intervenes and tells them that the battle will be fatal for all of them and so instructs Roland to blow his horn oliphant (the word is an old alternative to "elephant", and was used to refer to a hunting horn made from an elephant tusk) to call for help from the Frankish army. The emperor hears the call on their way to Francia. Charlemagne and his noblemen gallop back even though Count Ganelon tries to trick them.
The Franks fight well, but are outnumbered, until almost all Roland's men are dead and he knows that Charlemagne's army can no longer save them. Despite this, he blows his olifant to summon revenge, until his temples burst and he dies a martyr's death. Angels take his soul to Paradise.
When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find the dead bodies of Roland's men, who have been utterly annihilated. They pursue the Muslims into the river Ebro, where the Muslims drown. Meanwhile, Baligant, the powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived in Spain to help Marsile. His army encounters that of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles, where the Christians are burying and mourning their dead. The Franks fight valiantly. When Charlemagne kills Baligant, the Muslim army scatters and flees, leaving the Franks to conquer Saragossa. With Marsile's wife Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix, their capital in Francia.
The Franks discover Ganelon's betrayal and keep him in chains until his trial, where Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, not treason. While the council of barons assembled to decide the traitor's fate is initially swayed by this claim, partially out of fear of Ganelon's friend Pinabel who threatens to fight anyone who judges Ganelon guilty, one man, Thierry, argues that because Roland was serving Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal.
Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat. By divine intervention, Thierry kills Pinabel. By this the Franks are convinced of Ganelon's treason. Thus, he is torn apart by having four galloping horses tied one to each arm and leg and thirty of his relatives are hanged. Bramimonde converts to Christianity, her name changing to Juliana. While sleeping, Charlemagne is told by Gabriel to ride to help King Vivien and bemoans his life.
Form
The song is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable. The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza.
On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Roland proposes Ganelon for the dangerous mission to Sarrogossa; Ganelon designates Roland to man the rearguard. Charlemagne is contrasted with Baligant. Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature, the poem focuses on action rather than introspection. The characters are presented through what they do, not through what they think or feel.
The narrator gives few explanations for characters' behaviour. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive.
The narrator is openly biased towards the Franks. His moral view is very black-and-white: the Franks are good, and the pagans are bad.
The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot.
Characters
Principal characters
Baligant, emir of Babylon; Marsile enlists his help against Charlemagne.
Blancandrin, wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and then suggests dishonouring a promise to allow Marsile's baptism.
Bramimonde, Queen of Zaragoza, King Marsile's wife; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls.
Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain.
Ganelon, treacherous lord and Roland's stepfather who encourages Marsile to attack the French army.
King Marsile, Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later.
Naimon, Charlemagne's trusted adviser.
Oliver, Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Margarice. He represents wisdom.
Roland, the hero of the Song; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French forces; bursts his temples by blowing his olifant-horn, wounds from which he eventually dies facing the enemy's land.
Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims, represents the force of the Church.
Secondary characters
Aude, the fiancée of Roland and Oliver's sister
Basan, Frankish baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsile.
Bérengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsile's troops; kills Estramarin; killed by Grandoyne.
Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is discovered.
Geboin, guards the Frankish dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column.
Godefroy, standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne's defender against Pinabel.
Grandoyne, fighter on Marsile's side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier, Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland.
Hamon, joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division.
Lorant, Frankish commander of one of the first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant.
Milon, guards the Frankish dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
Ogier, a Dane who leads the third column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces.
Othon, guards the Frankish dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
Pinabel, fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat.
Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat.
Durandal
According to the Song of Roland, the legendary sword called Durandal was first given to Charlemagne by an angel. It contained one tooth of Saint Peter, blood of Saint Basil, hair of Saint Denis, and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and was supposedly the sharpest sword in all existence. In the story of the Song of Roland, the weapon is given to Roland, and he uses it to defend himself single-handedly against thousands of Muslim attackers. According to one 12th-century legend from the French town of Rocamadour, Roland threw the sword into a cliffside. A replication of the legendary sword can be found there, embedded into the cliff-face next to the town's sanctuary.
Historical adaptations
A Latin poem, Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis, was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, Historia Caroli Magni (often known as "The Pseudo-Turpin") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle High German Rolandslied by Konrad der Pfaffe (formerly thought to have been the author of the Kaiserchronik). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century.
It was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th- or 15th-century poem of Ronsasvals, which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. An Old Norse version of the Song of Roland exists as Karlamagnús saga, and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy. In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic Orlando Furioso, which deals largely with characters first described in the Song of Roland.
There is also Faroese adoption of this ballad named "Runtsivalstríðið" (Battle of Roncevaux). The ballad is one of many sung during the Faroese folkdance tradition of chain dancing.
Modern adaptations
Joseph Haydn and Nunziato Porta's opera, Orlando Paladino (1782), the most popular of Haydn's operas during his lifetime, is based loosely on The Song of Roland via Ariosto's version, as are Antonio Vivaldi and Grazio Braccioli's 1727 opera and their earlier 1714 version.
The Chanson de Roland has an important place in the background of Graham Greene's The Confidential Agent, published in 1939. The book's protagonist had been a Medieval scholar specialising in this work, until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War forced him to become a soldier and secret agent. Throughout the book, he repeatedly compares himself and other characters with the characters of "Roland". Particularly, the book includes a full two pages of specific commentary, which is relevant to its 20th-century plot line: "Oliver, when he saw the Saracens coming, urged Roland to blow his horn and fetch back Charlemagne – but Roland wouldn't blow. A big brave fool. In war one always chooses the wrong hero. Oliver should have been the hero of that song, instead of being given second place with the blood-thirsty Bishop Turpin.(...) In the Oxford version Oliver is reconciled in the end, he gives Roland his death-blow by accident, his eyes blinded by wounds. [But] the story had been tidied up. In truth, Oliver strikes his friend down in full knowledge – because of what he has done to his men, all the wasted lives. Oliver dies hating the man he loves – the big boasting courageous fool who was more concerned with his own glory than with the victory of his faith. This makes the story tragedy, not just heroics".
It is also adapted by Stephen King, in the Dark Tower series in which Roland Deschain wishes to save the Dark Tower from the Crimson King.
The Song of Roland is part of the Matter of France (the Continental counterpart to the Arthurian legendarium known as the Matter of Britain), and related to Orlando Furioso. The names Roland and Orlando are cognates.
Emanuele Luzzati's animated short film, I paladini di Francia, together with Giulio Gianini, in 1960, was turned into the children's picture-story book, with verse narrative, I Paladini de Francia ovvero il tradimento di Gano di Maganz, which translates literally as "The Paladins of France or the treachery of Ganelon of Mainz" (Ugo Mursia Editore, 1962). This was then republished, in English, as Ronald and the Wizard Calico (1969). The Picture Lion paperback edition (William Collins, London, 1973) is a paperback imprint of the Hutchinson Junior Books edition (1969), which credits the English translation to Hutchinson Junior Books.
Luzzati's original verse story in Italian is about the plight of a beautiful maiden called Biancofiore – White Flower, or Blanchefleur – and her brave hero, Captain Rinaldo, and Ricardo and his paladins – the term used for Christian knights engaged in Crusades against the Saracens and Moors. Battling with these good people are the wicked Moors – North African Muslims and Arabs – and their Sultan, in Jerusalem. With the assistance of the wicked and treacherous magician, Gano of Maganz, Biancofiore is stolen from her fortress castle, and taken to become the reluctant wife of the Sultan. The catalyst for victory is the good magician, Urlubulu, who lives in a lake, and flies through the air on the back of his magic blue bird. The English translators, using the original illustrations, and the basic rhyme patterns, slightly simplify the plot, changing the Christians-versus-Muslim-Moors conflict into a battle between good and bad magicians and between golden knights and green knights. The French traitor in The Song of Roland, who is actually Roland's cowardly step-father, is Ganelon – very likely the inspiration for Luzzati's traitor and wicked magician, Gano. Orlando Furioso (literally, Furious or Enraged Orlando, or Roland), includes Orlando's cousin, the paladin Rinaldo, who, like Orlando, is also in love with Angelica, a pagan princess. Rinaldo is, of course, the Italian equivalent of Ronald. Flying through the air on the back of a magic bird is equivalent to flying on a magic hippogriff.
It appears in the 1994 video game Marathon, by Bungie, in the 13th level. Durandal is also the name of the main antagonist of the game.
On July 22, 2017, Michael Eging and Steve Arnold released a novel, The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland, inspired by the La Chanson de Roland. This work is more closely based on a screenplay written by Michael Eging in 2008, simply known as "Song of Roland" and first optioned to Alan Kaplan at Cine LA that same year. The book explores the untold story of how Roland finds himself at Ronceveaux, betrayed by Ganelon and facing the expansive Saragossan host. Primary characters in the novel include Charles (Charlemagne), Ganelon, Bishop Turpin, Oliver, Aude, Marsilion, Blancandarin and others recognizable from the poem. Introduced in this tale are additional characters that inject intrigue and danger to the story, including Charles oldest son, Pepin, Marsilion's treacherous son, Saleem, and the scheming Byzantine emissary, Honorius. The cover artwork was hand painted by Jordan Raskin. The authors determined when writing both the screenplay and the novel to remain in the world created by the poem; thus Charles remains an older man near the end of his long reign rather than in 778 when the attack on the rearguard actually occurred. Further, this novel bookends the story with William the Conqueror's use of the poem as a motivator for Norman forces prior to the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
In 2019, German folk rock band dArtagnan released Chanson de Roland, a modern adaptation of the Song of Roland. It has garnered over 1.8 million views on YouTube.
See also
La Brèche de Roland
Matter of France
Herzog Ernst
Lamprecht
Notes
Further reading
Brault, Gerard J. Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary (Penn State Press, 2010).
DiVanna, Isabel N. "Politicizing national literature: the scholarly debate around La chanson de Roland in the nineteenth century." Historical Research 84.223 (2011): 109–134.
Jones, George Fenwick. The ethos of the song of Roland (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963).
Vance, Eugene. Reading the Song of Roland (1970).
External links
(English translation of Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff)
La Chanson de Roland (Old French)
The Romance of the Middle Ages: The Song of Roland, discussion of Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23, audio clip, and discussion of the manuscript's provenance.
MS Digby 23b, Digital facsimile of the earliest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland.
MS Digby 23 Catalogue record in Medieval Manuscripts of Oxford Libraries
Old French Audio clips of a reading of The Song of Roland in Old French
Timeless Myths: Song of Roland
Songs about soldiers
Songs about military officers
Chansons de geste
Matter of France
French folklore
French poems
Epic poems in French
Anglo-Norman literature
Works of unknown authorship
Cultural depictions of Charlemagne | [
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226081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Lougheed | Peter Lougheed | Edgar Peter Lougheed ( ; July 26, 1928 – September 13, 2012) was a Canadian lawyer and Progressive Conservative politician who served as the tenth premier of Alberta from 1971 to 1985, presiding over a period of reform and economic growth.
Born in Calgary, Alberta, Peter was the son of Edgar Donald Lougheed and Edna Alexandria Bauld and grandson of Canadian Senator Sir James Alexander Lougheed, a prominent Alberta businessman. Peter Lougheed attended the University of Alberta where he attained his Bachelor of Laws while playing football at the University of Alberta before joining the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League for two seasons in 1949 and 1950. After graduating, he entered business and practised law in Calgary.
In 1965, he was elected leader of the Alberta Progressive Conservative Party, which at that time had no seats in the legislature. He led the party back into the legislature in the 1967 provincial election as the leader of the Official Opposition, then elected as Premier with 49 of 75 seats in the 1971 election, defeating the Social Credit Party and ending the dynasty which had governed Alberta since 1935. Lougheed established a Tory dynasty in the province that lasted until 2015, when the New Democratic Party won a majority government; it was the longest unbroken run in government for a provincial party in Canadian history. Lougheed led the Tories to victory in 1975, 1979 and 1982, winning landslide majorities each time.
As premier, Lougheed furthered the development of the oil and gas resources, and started the Alberta Heritage Fund to ensure that the exploitation of non-renewable resources would be of long-term benefit to Alberta. He introduced the Alberta Bill of Rights. He quarrelled with Pierre Trudeau's federal Liberal government over its 1980 introduction of the National Energy Program. After hard bargaining, Lougheed and Trudeau eventually reached an agreement for energy revenue sharing in 1982. Calgary's bid to host the 1988 Winter Olympics was developed during Lougheed's terms. Alberta also experienced economic success and went through significant social reform under the Lougheed administration.
From 1996 to 2002, Lougheed served as Chancellor of Queen's University. He sat on the boards of a variety of organizations and corporations. In a 2012 edition of Policy Options, the Institute for Research on Public Policy named Lougheed the best Canadian premier of the last forty years.
Early life
Edgar Peter Lougheed was born in Calgary, Alberta, on July 26, 1928, the second biological son to Edgar Donald Lougheed (1893–1951) a lawyer, and Edna Alexandria Lougheed () (1901–1972) of Halifax. Lougheed's paternal grandfather Sir James Alexander Lougheed (1854–1925) was Senator, federal cabinet minister in the Robert Borden and Arthur Meighen governments, and early pioneer lawyer in Calgary. Lougheed's paternal great-grandfather Richard Hardisty (1831–1889) was Canada's first Métis Senator.
James Lougheed was able to accumulate a sizable fortune much of which was held in real-estate and oil firms prior to his death in 1925. Much of James Lougheed's oil securities were sold following his death to pay the estate tax. James Lougheed's home Beaulieu went into tax recovery proceedings after his death, however the City of Calgary permitted James' widow to continue to reside in the home until her death. The onset of the Great Depression resulted in lower demand for the family's office real-estate leading to financial difficulties for Edgar Lougheed and his family who continued to manage several properties. Many of Peter Lougheed's early years were spent moving from one rented home or apartment to another in Calgary. The family's fortune recovered in the 1940s as Calgary's economy rebounded from the Depression, as demand for occupancy in Lougheed family buildings grew steadier.
Lougheed was educated at the Strathcona School for Boys, Earl Grey School, Rideau Park School, and the Central Collegiate Institute, all in Calgary. At the Central Collegiate Institute Lougheed proposed the formation of a students' union, and became the union's first president.
Upon graduating from the Central Collegiate Institute in 1947, Lougheed enrolled at the University of Alberta from which he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1950 or 1951 and a Bachelor of Laws in 1952. Lougheed was elected president of the Students' Union in 1951, defeating Ivan Head and two other candidates. In an interview for Wood's biography for Lougheed, Head complemented Lougheed's campaign, recognizing his first-rate organizational abilities. Despite his athletic success and popularity, Lougheed was an unsuccessful candidate for the University's Athletic Board, and also served as the editor for the sports section for The Gateway, the University of Alberta student newspaper. While studying at the University of Alberta, he lived for a time in Rutherford House as a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity.
Football career
Lougheed took a strong interest in football in his youth. Prior to attending the University of Alberta, Lougheed played for the junior Calgary Tornadoes as a halfback, with the sports writers of the Calgary Herald describing Lougheed as "speedy and elusive back", and the Edmonton Journal as "gifted with the fine turn of speed" and "an elusive handful".
Lougheed played football for the University of Alberta Golden Bears and, in 1949 and 1950, the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League.
Post football
In 1952, he married Jeanne "Jeannie" Rogers (1928-2020), whom he met while attending the University of Alberta.
After completing law school Lougheed worked at the Calgary law firm of Fenerty, McGillivray and Robertson, however Lougheed set his sights on Harvard University to pursue a Master of Business Administration, which he earned in 1954. While still a student at Harvard, Lougheed had a number of jobs include a brief time at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York City, and a summer with Gulf Oil in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he witnessed an oil boom town after the oil ran out; political scientist and biographer Allan Tupper has suggested that Lougheed saw here a possible future of Alberta.
After Harvard, Lougheed had to make decisions about his career. He believed that people should avoid excessive specialization in favour of maximizing their diversity of experience. He anticipated spending time in business, law, and politics. In pursuit of business, he took a legal assistant role with Mannix Corporation, a Canadian construction firm in June 1956, which progressed to a corporate law and management position. Later in early 1962, Lougheed left Mannix to establish an independent law practice, partnering with John Ballem who brought oil and gas experience, and later adding Marvin McDill. Lougheed also served on a number of boards including the Calgary Stampeders football club, and the Calgary Stampede and Exhibition board in 1963. During the early 1960s, he began to turn his attention towards politics.
Early political career
Lougheed came from a Conservative family, and it was with that party that he decided to pursue his political career. At the time, Alberta was represented almost entirely by Progressive Conservatives in the House of Commons of Canada. While that might have made federal politics appealing to Lougheed, he viewed it as a drawback; he considered the field of federal PC politicians from Alberta to be crowded, and the life of a backbencher held little appeal for him.
Instead, he turned his attention to the provincial Progressive Conservatives. The party had never formed government since Alberta's founding as a province in 1905 and under leader Milt Harradence had captured only 13 per cent of the vote in the 1963 election and failed to capture a single seat in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. The party also lacked a network of constituency associations capable of organizing a capable campaign. Lougheed sought to differentiate his party from the federal Progressive Conservatives, and felt voters should be well aware that the dominant figure for the party was the himself, and not the leader of the federal party.
The Social Credit had formed every government since 1935, led initially by Premier William Aberhart, and following his death in 1943, by Premier Ernest Manning. Manning was popular and his party had received 55 per cent of the vote in the 1963 election to capture 60 of 63 seats in the legislature. Albertans however were reluctant to support the Social Credit party at the federal level, instead electing Progressive Conservative Party of Canada candidates consistently. The provincial Social Credit constituency associations often shared the same members with the federal Progressive Conservatives.
But Lougheed felt that the time was ripe for change, he believed that Albertans were beginning to find Social Credit too rural and insufficiently assertive in intergovernmental relations. In Lougheed's view, Alberta should be a senior partner in Confederation, and Social Credit was out of touch with the province's potential. He resolved to capture the leadership of the provincial Progressive Conservative party and to navigate it into government. In order to build support prior to the leadership convention Lougheed traveled around the province eagerly meeting supporters and constituency members. Lougheed began assembling a team of supports who followed him throughout his career including Roy Deyell, Merv Leitch, and Rod McDaniel who took prominent positions in the Progressive Conservative Party.
At the party's leadership convention in March 1965, Lougheed defeated Duncan McKillop, a fellow Calgary lawyer who had been the party's candidate for Calgary Queens Park in 1963. The only other candidate, Edson town councillor John Scott, had withdrawn on the convention's first day. Lougheed was nominated from the floor by Lou Hyndman and Charles Arthur Clark, father of future Prime Minister Joe Clark. Vote totals were not released, however biographer David G. Wood claimed 91 per cent of the delegates voted for Lougheed.
Lougheed's first challenge as leader was a 1966 by-election in Pincher Creek-Crowsnest following the death of eighteen year Social Credit representative William Kovach. Lougheed and his team campaigned viguorsly for candidate Alexander Wells, however the Conservatives finished third with 18.6 per cent of the vote, behind the successful NDP candidate Garth Turcott and the Social Credit candidate. Lougheed said he viewed it as only a minor setback.
During his time as leader of the Progressive Conservative Association, Lougheed took on the role of Vice-President of the Calgary Olympic Development Association (CODA) for the Banff bid for the 1972 Winter Olympics, which eventually finished second in International Olympic Committee voting to the bid from Sapporo, Japan.
1967 Alberta election
Lougheed focused on building momentum for the next general election. In the May 1967 election, Lougheed and his supporters worked tirelessly to convince candidates to run in all 65 constituencies, however the Progressive Conservatives were only able to nominate 47 candidates, two more than the Liberal Party, but less than a full slate put forward by the Social Credit Party and the New Democratic Party. Lougheed sought candidates who were already public figures, often meeting with editors of local weekly newspapers, mayors and presidents of boards of trade to inquire who the community's leaders were. As the writ came closer Lougheed and the Progressive Conservative realized they could not form government and instead focused on a strategy of capturing Lougheed's seat in Calgary-West and forming opposition. The campaign created red, white and blue promotional materials with the slogan "Alberta Needs an Alternative", while Lougheed's own material added his personal slogan "Let's Start It in Calgary West".
Lougheed sought a public debate amongst the four party leaders, however as a long time incumbent Manning was not willing to risk a debate which could not benefit him. Manning's position on the debate changed when a group of Edmonton church leaders decided to host a leaders debate, Manning a devout Christian and host of "Back to the Bible Hour" radio broadcasts accepted the debate. Lougheed's performance in the debate was lauded by the Edmonton Journal and was credited by biographer George Wood with the growth in the Conservative movement in the Edmonton area, including Don Getty's improbable victory over Social Credit Education Minister Randolph McKinnon in Strathcona West. Other media began to take notice with Maclean's stating the only politician capable of having "an outside chance of challenging Manning" was Lougheed.
Lougheed was subsequently elected to the legislature in Calgary-West capturing 62 per cent of the vote, and the Progressive Conservatives captured 26 per cent of the vote province-wide with five other successful candidates, and subsequently Lougheed became Leader of the Opposition. The group of elected Conservatives known as the "original six" included Calgary MLAs Len Werry, David Russell; Edmonton area MLAs Lou Hyndman and Don Getty, and the party's only rural candidate and former federal Member of Parliament Hugh Horner. The Edmonton Journal positively remarked on Lougheed's success following the 1967 election, stating Albertans had a responsible and credible alternative as opposition.
Leader of the Opposition
The 16th Alberta Legislature convened on February 15, 1968 with Lougheed taking his seat as Leader of the Opposition opposite of Premier Manning.
Ernest Manning who had served as Premier since 1943 was aware of Social Credit's declining support capturing a disappointing 44.6 per cent of the popular vote in the 1967 election, marking the first instance under his leadership with the party failed to secure at least 50 per cent of the popular vote. Manning announced his intention to retire from public office on September 27, 1968, and following a leadership contest was succeeded as Premier by Harry Strom on December 12, 1968. In an ominous sign of the rise of Lougheed's Progressive Conservatives, the Social Credit party was defeated in the February 1969 by-election in Manning's constituency by Conservative candidate William Yurko, who captured 45.7 per cent of the vote compared to the Social Credit candidate's 40.3 per cent.
As Premier, Strom was described by Lougheed biographer Allan Tupper as an "easier opponent" than Manning, and biographers Tupper and Wood considered him earnest and of high integrity, but lacked dynamism, experience and shrewdness. Strom had a challenge to rejuvenate the rural focused Social Credit Party to better reflect the growing urbanization in Alberta, something he was not able to effectively accomplish. Furthermore, the Social Credit government made of generally older members, with the average age in 1969 being 54 years of age with 16 of the 54 members being above the age of 60. In contrast the Progressive Conservative caucus had an average under 40 years of age.
Strom pressed for "a new and more positive relationship with the federal government".
In the Legislature Lougheed oversaw daily caucus strategy meetings to plan and rehearse questions. Each day the Lougheed opposition developed and focused questions for only one government Minister, ignoring all other Ministers, with the target Minister changing each day. The strategy combined with Lougheed's legal training and sophistication was effective at creating suspense and concern in the government caucus.
Other Conservatives in Canada noticed Lougheed's success in Alberta, and he was invited to be the keynote speaker by federal Progressive Conservatives in the 1968 convention in Toronto. During the 1970 spring session, Lougheed moved to position the Progressive Conservatives as a credible alternative to the Social Credit party. His party introduced 21 bills, an unusual number for an opposition party in a Westminster system.
Lougheed's Progressive Conservative caucus further grew from the "Original Six" with the election of Robert Dowling in the October 1969 Edson by-election, Bill Dickie a long time friend of Lougheed crossing the floor from the Liberals to join his caucus in November 1969, and Banff-Cochrane independent representative Clarence Copithorne joining the party in April 1971. This growth saw the popular Lougheed led Progressive Conservatives enter the August 1971 election with 10 incumbents.
1971 general election
The 16th Legislature was prorogued on April 27, 1971 and dissolved three months later on July 22 with an election day set on August 30, 1971. A number of changes to electoral process occurred, electoral constituencies boundaries were redrawn and the number of members was increased from 65 to 75, and the Age of Majority Act lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years.
The Progressive Conservative Party had been preparing for an election to be called since mid-1970. The party developed slogans and branding which was one of the first instances in Alberta where printing and branding was centrally controlled, meaning constituencies were not permitted to develop their own materials. This centralization was intended to reinforce the parties key messages and ensure repetition in the eyes of voters. An advertising budget of $120,000 was set to provide $80,000 for television advertisements and the rest of other materials for constituencies across the province. Lougheed's focus on television contrasted Social Credit's use of radio for the less gregarious Strom. Lougheed's team was careful with messaging, stressing the idea of the Progressive Conservative providing an "alternative" rather than "opposition". Lougheed developed a 40 day schedule that brought him to each constituency to "meet and greet" with potential voters.
On August 30th Albertans went to the polls and supported Peter Lougheed's Progressive Conservative Party. The Conservatives captured 49 of 75 seats in the 17th Alberta Legislature with 46.4 per cent of the popular vote, the victory included a complete sweep of 16 seats in Edmonton and 9 of 13 in Calgary. Lougheed himself captured 55.2 per cent of the vote in Calgary-West, easily retaining his seat.
Many observers argue that the Progressive Conservative victory in 1971 was primarily a result of Lougheed's charisma, combined with growing urbanization and an out-of-touch Social Credit government. Lewis G. Thomas argues that Lougheed provided an image of the traditional elite with his business background which appealed to the province which was undergoing economic growth and prosperity brought on by non-renewable resources, which contrasted well with the old-fashioned image of the Social Credit party. Other similar views include Lougheed as the savior of the urban middle-class that was seeking a revigorated government aligned with the province's new resource age. Edward Bell counters this argument stating that Lougheed's victory in 1971 was in no way guaranteed before the writ was dropped, Bell argues the Social Credit's poor relations with unions and Strom's weak campaign led to a Conservatives narrow victory of 5.3 percentage points. The media heralded Lougheed's victory as an upset, with the Calgary Albertan claiming "PC's Pull Off Socred Upset", and the Calgary Herald headline "It Is 'Now' for Lougheed; Stunning Alberta Upset Puts PC's in Power".
Premier (1971–1985)
Electoral history
On September 10, 1971, Peter Lougheed was sworn in Alberta's 10th Premier by Lieutenant Governor Grant MacEwan. Lougheed was set with a majority government in the legislature and an Social Credit opposition of 25 members, which would be the largest opposition Lougheed would face in his 14 year career as Premier.
In the leadup to the 1975 election Lougheed enjoyed strong support in his own constituency which allowed him to focus his campaign efforts across the province.
The Progressive Conservatives campaigned a platform on administrative competence and promises outlined in a unpassed 1975–76 budget. Leaning on successful negotiations with the federal and Ontario governments and oil companies for the development of oil sands in the Winnipeg Agreement only 11 days before the legislature was dissolved. Other promises included the creation of the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund, reduction of personal income taxes by at least 28 per cent, and increased social program spending, all of which were built on growing non-renewable natural resource revenue resulting from 1970s energy crisis. Lougheed was the centre of the campaign evidenced by the Progressive Conservative slogans "Lougheed Leadership", "43 Months of Progress", and "Vote Today for Alberta". While opposition criticism focused on Lougheed's interference with the free market, which was exemplified with the 1974 purchase of Pacific Western Airlines for $37.5-million and significant government spending authorized through Order-in-Council instead of appropriations through the Legislature, neither were effective for swaying voters. To no one's surprise, the Progressive Conservative Party won a lopsided victory in 1975, capturing 62.7 per cent of the vote and 69 of 75 seats in the Legislature. The Edmonton Report cover featured a caricature of Peter Lougheed following the victory accompanied with the title "Peter The Greatest".
Lougheed and the Progressive Conservative popularity continued to rise and the 1979 election saw Lougheed campaign on the unofficial slogan of "79 in '79", alluding to capturing all 79 seats in the Legislature. Lougheed's Progressive Conservatives lost some of the popular vote compared to 1975, capturing 57.4 per cent, but gained five seats for a total of 74 of 79 seats in the Legislature.
The 1982 election marked Lougheed's final as Premier. Lougheed utilized the constitutional debates and focus on Alberta's complete control over natural resources to gain increased support from the electorates. The Progressive Conservatives improved their popular support to capture 62.3 per cent of the popular vote and 75 of the 79 seats in the Legislature, the second largest majority government in Alberta's history.
Lougheed's electoral success and massive majority governments ensured he could implement his agenda with minimal opposition.
Lougheed spent most of his tenure as premier in a bitter fight with the federal government over control of Alberta's resources. His first term also saw the start of a decade-long development boom, and he later established the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund, which used oil revenues to invest for the long term in such areas as health care and research.
Lougheed retired in 1985. Don Getty, a member of the original PC caucus from 1967 and later a longtime member of the Lougheed cabinet, came out of retirement to succeed him.
Alberta Legislature and governance
Upon his election in 1971, Lougheed sought to increase contact between Albertans and legislators, including addressing accessibility, visibility and accountability of the Assembly. In his first Speech from the Throne for the Progressive Conservative government, Lieutenant Governor Grant MacEwan spoke of the principles of open government. One of his first steps was the implementation of cameras to record and broadcast meetings of the Legislature beginning on March 15, 1972 and beginning of the Hansard series to create a written record of debates on March 8, 1972.
Lougheed's government made significant transformations to policy and finance through the Legislature. Several legislative policy committees were created in 1975 consisting of members of the Progressive Conservative caucus, which did not include members of the opposition. Lougheed also consistently funded programs using special warrants authorized by cabinet and issued by the Lieutenant Governor, these warrants were not included in any budgets provided to the Legislature and were not made public until after the decision to spend was approved. This removed the ability for the opposition, members of caucus or the public to hold the government to account.
Lougheed's popularity resulted in significant majority governments with only a limited number of opposition members. Lougheed became creative to provide additional responsibility to members of his caucus, including mandatory full caucus meetings which he chaired. In 1975 he removed the requirement for caucus to operate by consensus, owing to the large number of members, instead a vote was called on all issues, and Lougheed often required a two-thirds majority for important issues. Furthermore, Cabinet members were required to attend and all members were seated in alphabetical order, and refused to use the term backbencher instead referring to caucus members as "ministers" and "private members". As well, non-political attendance in caucus meetings was limited to only four staff members from the Premier's Office. Lougheed also required legislators to seek caucus approval to miss caucus meetings or publicly dissent with a position of caucus, which required either a reason of conscience or constituency issue. When Progressive Conservative MLA Tom Sindlinger publicly disagreed with matters related to the Heritage Savings Trust Fund, Constitutional patriation, and freedom of information, he was expelled from caucus and the Progressive Conservative Party.
When selecting his Cabinets, Lougheed took the approach that first hand knowledge may be a determent to the success of the Minister, who he wanted to take on the role without any preconceived notions. For instance Hugh Horner a doctor was appointed Minister of Agriculture and Lou Hyndman a lawyer was appointed Minister of Education. Lougheed completely shuffled his Cabinet upon re-election in 1975 and 1979, with no Minister retaining the same position, although after the 1982 election he reappointed several Ministers to the same portfolios. Lougheed also oversaw an expansion of the size of Cabinet, which assisted in providing regional representation.
Based on his experience in opposition Lougheed named an opposition member as the chair of the Standing Committee on Public Accounts. However, political scientist Engelmann called the appointment "window-dressing" as the committee consists of a majority of government caucus members, and prior to changes under Premier Don Getty in 1990, the chair was not permitted to present a report of the committee to the Legislature.
Energy policies
As the leader of the opposition Lougheed charged the Social Credit government failed to ensure Albertans received fair value from the exploitation of public non-renewable natural resources, and as Premier Lougheed implemented a number of policies to increase the value of Alberta's resources, counter federal programs he viewed as threats and expand development in the oil sands.
In 1972 Lougheed announced major changes to the province's oil and gas royalty structures to increase Alberta's share of resource revenue and entrench the provincial government's control over those resources. The Social Credit government had capped the maximum royalty rate at 16.66 per cent, and Lougheed was willing to permit existing leases to continue until they expired and all new leases would be issued at a new higher rate. However, in the wake of 1973 oil crisis Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau implemented an expanded National Oil Policy which included an export tax on oil and created domestic pricing standards below international levels, all of which disproportionally effected Alberta. Lougheed used the export tax to claim force majeure and cancel all existing oil and gas leases to be reissued under the new higher royalty rate. These higher royalty rates became contentious later in 1974 when the federal government revised corporate tax code to no longer permit petroleum companies to deduct provincial royalties from taxable income. Lougheed and Trudeau came to a compromise in early 1975 which allowed the gradual increase in domestic oil prices to near world prices, while creating a buffer to protect manufacturing centres and consumers.
The early 1970s brought the possibility of large scale oil and gas exploration in the Athabasca oil sands through the Syncrude project. The major negotiations between the Government of Alberta and the consortium of Imperial Oil, Gulf Canada, Atlantic Richfield Canada, and Canada-Cities Service occurred in August 1973, and was led by Lougheed and Energy Minister Don Getty. Lougheed's goals with Syncrude were to get the project off the ground with the province receiving a fair royalty, and Albertans having the opportunity to invest in the project. Lougheed negotiated the royalty to take a similar form to profit sharing, and insisted the connecting pipeline be 80 per cent owned by the province, the site powerplant 50 per cent owned by the province, and an option to acquire a 20 per cent ownership stake in the Syncrude project at a later date. The negotiations between the consortium were tense, with Don Getty staging a walk-out following an ultimatum letter sent to the Province from the consortium. While an agreement was reached in late-August 1973 which met Lougheed's intended goals, the project began to unraveled one year later when in December 1974 Atlantic Richfield backed out of the project when cost estimates doubled. The project was not feasible without a federal government commitment for petroleum price assurances and financial backing. Lougheed and Getty met with other firms to fill Atlantic Richfield's place, and in February 1975 the consortium met with the governments of Alberta, Ontario and Canada in the neutral site of Winnipeg with negotiations include federal Ministers Jean Chretien and Donald Macdonald, Ontario contingent led by Premier Bill Davis, and the Alberta contingent led by Lougheed, Getty, Leitch and Dickie. The Winnipeg Agreement resulted in Ontario purchasing 5 per cent of the project, Alberta 10 per cent, and the federal government 15 per cent. Alberta also took full cost and ownership of the pipeline and powerplant through the Alberta Energy Company, and provided a $200 million loan. A legacy of the Syncrude deal was the growth of Fort McMurray, a small community of 6,847 in 1971 grew to 31,000 by 1981. Future developments in the Athabasca oil sands were not as successful for Lougheed, with the $13.5 billion Alsands project falling apart in 1982.
Lougheed sought greater control over provincial oil and gas resources, to reduce federal incursions in resources, and quite successfully leveraged public investment to achieve his goal. The province took administrative control over natural gas pricing with the Natural Gas Pricing Agreement Act, and incorporated the Alberta Energy Company in 1974 to focus on petroleum, pipeline, and petrochemical processing. The establishment of the Alberta Petroleum Marketing Commission further expanded the government's authority in the sale of non-renewable natural resources, as well as construction, purchasing and leases related to petroleum facilities.
In 1980, the Trudeau government implemented the National Energy Program which argued that Canadian ownership and control of natural resources was paramount to energy security, while also arguing that energy policy had become divisive and must achieve greater fairness in revenue sharing. While the program increased domestic price controls, the emphasis on revenue sharing and incentives for oil exploration on federally owned lands was viewed critically by Lougheed. Lougheed fought the program vigorously in the courts and in public, where he actively stoked Alberta nationalism in a television address claiming the program would bring more "Ottawa" to the province. Prior to the announcement of the National Energy Program, Lougheed had threatened to reduce Alberta's production of oil and gas to counter any federal program to increase taxes. If Alberta reduced production, Central Canada refineries and other businesses would need to purchase foreign oil which would be heavily subsidized by the federal government which could not afford to with a $13.7 billion deficit in 1980. Lougheed finally decided to exercise the authority to force Trudeau to concede some measures of the Program, and Lougheed announced on television a 60,000 barrel reduction to Alberta's production of crude oil to take place over nine months beginning in April 1981, and the suspension of two oil sands projects. Lougheed however pledged that he would not allow a national shortage occur, and would suspend the cuts if a shortage occurred. The threat was successful as negotiations between the federal and provincial governments to amend the National Energy Program proceeded in 1981 to remove certain unpalatable aspects. Lougheed's success in the simply named Oil Accord was marked with a widely published photograph of a celebratory toast with himself and Trudeau. Lougheed later admitted to regretting the toast. Lougheed's battle with the National Energy Program corresponded with the 1980s oil glut which energy prices drop dramatically due to falling demand. Lougheed was forced to lower royalty rates through the Oil and Gas Activity Program and focused the government's efforts on natural gas diversification to stem falling revenues and declining economy. Finally in March 1985, only months before his retirement Lougheed, British Columbia Premier Bill Bennett, Saskatchewan Premier Grant Devine, and federal Progressive Conservative Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources Patricia Carney agreed to the Western Accord which removed the remaining aspects of the National Energy Program and returned the energy industry to market driven prices.
Critics have argued that Lougheed undertook a hostile and polarizing campaign towards federal oil and gas policy which forced Albertans to choose between provincial and national citizenship. The growing hostility fueled Alberta separatism which most visibly manifested itself in the election of separatist Gordon Kesler to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in 1982. Furthermore, when Alberta Conservative Joe Clark became Prime Minister for a short period in 1979–1980, very little was done in the way of aligning domestic oil prices with the higher international prices, in part due to the significant hardship the prices would have other provinces and Canadian consumers.
Federal-provincial relations
Lougheed's provincial-dominated view of Canadian federalism remains one of his most visible and longstanding impacts on Albertan and Canadian history. Historian Michael D. Behiels compares Lougheed's role in the repatriation of the Canadian Constitution to that of 19th century Ontario Premier Oliver Mowat who helped transform John A. Macdonald's vision of Canadian government to one of co-ordinate sovereign powers. Amongst his most significant accomplishments in the 1970–1980s constitutional debates was the inclusion of the amending formula based on Alberta's proposal, which requires an amendment to the constitution to take place with agreement of the federal government and at least seven provinces representing 50 per cent of the Canadian population. The amending formula also included an opt-out provision which requires the consent of the province if amendments affecting existing provincial rights were considered. Lougheed's vision for the amending formula highlighted the rights of individual provinces rather than regions to ensure equity, and there would be no effective veto for a single province, which represented a major deviation from amending formulas proposed in prior constitutional talks. Along with the amending formula, Lougheed's Constitutional legacy includes the inclusion of the notwithstanding clause which provides Legislatures the authority to supersede certain provisions the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Lougheed's constitutional influence began following his election in 1971 through two actions, first by rejecting the basis of the proposed Victoria Charter, and second by creating the Ministry of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs. The Ministry was tasked with overseeing all intergovernmental matters and grew into the center of the political battles between the provincial and federal government. The Ministry proved effective helped usher the transition of Alberta as a junior province into one viewed with the reputation as a leader amongst provinces.
Prime Minister Trudeau's failure to gain support for the Victoria Charter did not deter the Prime Minister from continuing to push for major constitutional reform. Trudeau sought at minimum the patriation of the Canadian constitution, and above patriation targeted reforms such as a palatable amending formula, a Charter of Rights, and further enhancement of federal powers. Trudeau's goals were in contrast with those of the provincial governments which were primarily led by Lougheed and Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa, and later René Lévesque. Lougheed sought greater authorities over resources, Senate reform and reforms to the Supreme Court, while Bourassa and Lévesque sought greater recognition of Quebec's culture and language.
Intergovernmental tensions were further inflamed in late 1973 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis after Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government implemented an export tax on Alberta oil, which Lougheed described as the most discriminatory action in Canadian history. Trudeau's actions further reinforced Lougheed's position that Alberta would only support Constitutional changes on the condition that provincial jurisdiction over resources was maintained. In the 1975 First Minister's conference Trudeau discussed reopening constitutional discussions which were limited to patriation exclusively. While all Premiers agreed patriation was desirable, Lougheed led the Premiers in demanding a general review of distribution of powers, control of resources, and duplication of programs. Trudeau followed up the 1975 conference by submitting to each province a draft proclamation which provided three options, simple patriation, patriation with the Victoria amending formula, and patriation with an updated Victoria Charter. Lougheed rejected the proposal and found an ally with Bourassa who created his own list of constitutional demands which expanded provincial jurisdiction.
Lougheed's government released the position paper Harmony in Diversity: A New Federalism for Canada in 1978 which formally outlined the province's position including the requirement for federal-provincial division of power to be protected by an amending formula which requires consent of the province's whose rights are subject to change.
Following an unsuccessful First Ministers Conference in September 1981, Trudeau began the process of unilateral constitutional repatriation which would be led by the federal government alone. Ontario and New Brunswick were supportive of the federal government while the remaining province's formed the "Gang of Eight", whose positions Lougheed became the principal architect. Reference questions were submitted to the Court of Appeals in Quebec, Manitoba and Newfoundland by their respective governments on the question of unilateral patriation, while Lougheed brought forward a resolution in the Legislature stating Alberta would only support patriation if there were safeguards for provincial rights, there was no amendments diminishing provincial rights, and the federal government did not proceed unilaterally. Lougheed then boycotted parliamentary hearings on patriation and joined the other Premiers in warning Trudeau against patriation before the Supreme Court ruled on whether unilateral patriation was constitutional.
Foreign affairs
At the national level, Lougheed led the provincial call for a new initiative on bilateral trade, culminating in the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement. Lougheed championed the concept in a televised 1985 First Ministers' Conference in Regina, arguing the opportunity for Canadian entrepreneurs to compete in the North American market. As with all aspects of his Premiership, Lougheed’s trips to Washington would be planned meticulously, “mastering every last tiny detail” and Canadian ambassador to the United States Allan Gotlieb (1981–1989) described Lougheed as "one of the most effective Canadian politicians to walk the corridors of Congress". Lougheed used his friendship with Washington Senator Henry M. Jackson to gain access to elected officials in congress throughout in his early trips to the U.S. Capital.
Lougheed established a full time Minister of Foreign Trade in 1979 appointing Horst Schmid to the role. Lougheed undertook a number of official international trips during his tenure, and in almost every trip he brought his wife Jeanne. Lougheed felt by being accompanied by Jeanne, foreign dignitaries would also require their spouse to be in attendance, which had the effect of changing the atmosphere of the visit. Lougheed's official visits included Japan in 1972, Europe in 1975, United States in 1976, China and Japan in 1983. As well Lougheed took an ambitious official visit in 1977 through the Middle East, Soviet Union and Switzerland, with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin making a public acknowledgement of Lougheed's contribution to Canadian public life.
Environment policy
Lougheed's tenure as Premier saw major environmental changes in the province. The government evaluated a number of ways to improve environmental and recreational access for Albertans. In 1975 Fish Creek Park was created in Calgary, purchasing land from Lougheed's former boss Frederick Charles Mannix, and later in 1977 created Kananaskis Provincial Park, which would eventually be renamed Peter Lougheed Provincial Park. Lougheed credited Calgary architect Bill Milne and Highways and Transport Minister Clarence Copithorne with the idea for the park. Other efforts were taken to create urban parks in Edmonton, Grande Prairie and Medicine Hat funded through the Heritage Savings Trust Fund.
Economic development
Peter Lougheed sought to use the province's natural resource revenues to incite economic development and diversification in Alberta. In 1984 Lougheed's government released a White Paper on industrial and science strategy that acknowledged the oil-led boom was over. The report described oil and gas as the "engine of growth", and described financial institutions quite positively despite the government knowing the dire financial status of several Alberta-based businesses such as the Principal Group, Canadian Commercial Bank, and Northland Bank.
Late in his Premiership Lougheed oversaw the early stages of the collapse of Principal Group, a group of Canadian financial companies headquartered in Edmonton. The operating licences for two of the Principal Group's subsidiaries were cancelled by Alberta Treasurer Dick Johnston on June 30, 1987, and six weeks later the Principal Group declared bankruptcy owing more than 67,000 investors approximately $468 million. While the collapse occurred under Don Getty's premiership, Lougheed created a special cabinet task force that met weekly in 1985 to discuss the impending collapse, and financial regulators had pressed for action a year earlier. The inquiry found the Progressive Conservative government went to considerable lengths to prevent enforcement actions against certain companies to preserve public confidence. While Lougheed was not directly named, the actions by Ministers aligned with Lougheed's "province-building" policy.
In 1974, the Lougheed government purchased Pacific Western Airlines in part to assure the development of the North and Western Canada, and position Alberta as the gateway to the north. The province purchased the airline for $37.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ) during a secret takeover bid. The Alberta government moved quickly out of worries British Columbia NDP Premier Dave Barrett had a similar plan to purchase the airline. The decision was highly controversial in Alberta and drew criticism from the business community and fiscal conservatives in the Progressive Conservative caucus. Following the acquisition, the headquarters for the airline were moved to Calgary, and Calgary International Airport became the new hub. In 1983 the Peter Lougheed government sold the airline for $37.7 million (equivalent to $ million in ) after promising to do so during the 1982 Alberta general election.
Relationship with federal Progressive Conservatives
Lougheed transformed the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta from a marginal party into a dynasty that governed Alberta for over 40 years. Prior to his leadership the provincial party was unable to attract significant attention or high quality candidates, despite the success of the federal Progressive Conservatives in Alberta. In fact many of the active members and volunteers for the federal Progressive Conservatives were members and volunteers for the provincial Social Credit party. Under Lougheed this dramatically changed, he was able to build a party from scratch bringing political and apolitical people under the Progressive Conservative tent that would not only bring himself into power, but support the federal party as well. Lougheed thought it was important that the public perceive the dominant figure in any provincial party be the leader, and not the leader of the federal equivalent.
Starting in 1965, future Prime Minister Joe Clark took a significant role in Lougheed's Progressive Conservatives, moving from volunteer to paid full-time field worker assisting Lougheed in finding candidates for the 1967 election. Clark became a candidate himself in the 1967 election in Calgary South, losing a close bid to Arthur J. Dixon. Robert Dinkel served as a campaign manager for the 1967 Progressive Conservatives, and later served as the Alberta manager for Joe Clark's successful 1979 federal bid.
Later during his Premiership, Lougheed was viewed as a potential leader for the federal Progressive Conservatives, and biographer David Wood describes several instances where federal organizers attempted to woo Lougheed into leading the party. Wood describes a meeting in Halifax in 1975 where Lougheed attended the Nova Scotia provincial Progressive Conservative meeting which occurred simultaneously with a federal meeting. Federal leader Robert Stanfield allegedly asked if Lougheed was interested in taking over the leadership from him, and later "twenty or more" federal party members visited his hotel room urging him to run. Later Hal Jackman and other Ontario Conservatives led a movement to gain support in Ontario for a Lougheed federal run, going so far as to send a five foot Christmas card with 800 signatures on it, and holding rallies in support, however Lougheed rejected the offer from Jackman on several occasions. Lougheed described his reason for not making the move federally in 1976 as a responsibility to Albertans after the recent election win in 1975, although Lougheed did remark "the timing wasn't right. It might have been right in 1977 or 1978". Lougheed was also rumored to make the move to the federal party in the 1983 Progressive Conservative leadership election, and there was growing party and media attention on Lougheed. Even his wife Jeanne and son Joe urged Lougheed to make the jump to federal politics. However, Lougheed once again declined to make the jump to federal politics, admitting his age (54), inability to speak French fluently, and that he did not have the energy to campaign and learn French at the same time. Lougheed did not see his inability to speak French as a significant issue in the mid-1970s, but acknowledged the growing Quebec nationalist movement had made fluency a prerequisite for any federal candidate. To put the issue to rest, Lougheed who was on vacation in Hawaii at the time returned to Edmonton early and held a news conference to take himself out of the race.
Ontario Premier Bill Davis sought the federal Progressive Conservative leadership in 1983, and asked for Lougheed's endorsement. Lougheed emphatically declined, owning to Davis' refusal to join other Premiers in 1981 on a united energy policy for Canada. Furthermore Lougheed could not support Joe Clark in retaining his position, and while Lougheed pledged to remain neutral, he did encourage Albertans to "take a good look" at the eventual winner Brian Mulroney for leader.
Later life
Lougheed official resigned his seat in the Alberta Legislature on February 27, 1986 and returned to private life at the age of 57. After his retirement from politics Lougheed remained active in government, legal and business affairs, joining Calgary based law firm Bennett Jones as a partner in 1985, sitting on the Canadian Alliance for Trade and Job Opportunities to promote the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in 1987 and serving as the co-chair of the Canada-Japan Forum in 1991. Lougheed served as an honorary chair of the Calgary Olympic Winter Games Organizing Committee.
Lougheed was named to the board of directors of a number of Canadian businesses, and at one time holding a seat on 17 different boards. These corporations included ATCO, Royal Bank of Canada, Princeton Developments, Nortel, CFCN Communications, Bombardier, Canadian Pacific Railway, Keyera, Carlson Construction and a number of other businesses. Lougheed continued to support the development of Alberta's natural gas industry, becoming the chair of the Alberta Northeast Gas project which promoted the construction of the Iroquois Pipeline. Lougheed was named a member of the Trilateral Commission.
In 1996 Lougheed was appointed Chancellor of Queen's University, succeeding Agnes Benidickson, a title he held until 2002. Lougheed made the decision on the advice of his two sons who attended Queen's.
In 2002 Lougheed was appointed to the inaugural board of directors for the Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation.
Political involvement
Lougheed rarely commented on Alberta's public policy or the Progressive Conservative Party following his resignation as Premier. Lougheed did not endorse any candidate as his successor, nor did he endorse a candidate in the 1992 Progressive Conservative leadership race. This changed after the resignation of Premier Klein in 2006, where Lougheed began to make occasional political statements and take interviews. Late in the 2006 Progressive Conservative leadership election Lougheed endorsed the eventually runner-up Jim Dinning and in the 2011 leadership race Lougheed's endorsement of the eventually winner Alison Redford was seen by observers as a difference maker.
Lougheed did make occasional statements in support or opposition of successor Progressive Conservative Premiers. In a 1995 interview, Lougheed was critical of Conservative government cuts to social services following the early 1990s recession, both targeting Ontario Premier Mike Harris and Ralph Klein. In June 2006 Lougheed granted an interview to Edmonton Journal reporter Gordon Jaremko where he criticized the province's royalty structure and called for a review of non-renewable resource royalties, which had been significantly reduced in the 1990s to spur development. The interview came months after Klein announced his retirement and created a significant policy issue in the 2006 Progressive Conservative leadership race. Shortly after his election, Ed Stelmach called a for the Alberta Royalty Review.
Lougheed was a staunch supporter of the Charlottetown Accord and saw it as an opportunity for Quebec to sign onto the Constitution as a full partner. In an essay for Maclean's in 1992, Lougheed supported the elected Senate with equal representation from each province, agreed it was fair for Quebec to guarantee 25 per cent representation in the House of Commons, a majority of Quebec Senators approve legislation affecting French language or culture, and three members of the Supreme Court of Canada from Quebec and trained in Quebec's civil code. Lougheed did not support additional engrained rights for Aboriginal persons which he claimed would create a new order of government, but accepted the consensus to include the provisions in the Accord. Lougheed also advocated for a "citizen assembly" composed of elected representatives from each province to negotiate Constitutional reforms as a fallback measure if Charlottetown failed. Under his plan, no current MPs or MLAs would have been eligible, and no member could run for a seat in federal or provincial parliament for six years.
Illness and death
Lougheed had long been suffering from a heart condition and high blood pressure which required a triple bypass surgery in 1995. In early September 2012, his health severely deteriorated and he was taken to hospital, where he died of natural causes at the hospital named after him in Calgary. His body lay in state from September 17 to 18 inside the main rotunda of the Alberta Legislature Building. The national and provincial flags were flown at half-mast throughout the province. After lying in state, Lougheed's body travelled back to Calgary in a motorcade from Edmonton that followed a procession through the city, passing places of significance to Lougheed. A state memorial was held on September 21, 2012, at the Southern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium in Calgary.
In response to his death, Prime Minister Stephen Harper described Lougheed as "one of the most remarkable Canadians of his generation." Alberta Premier Alison Redford cut short her trip to Asia in order to attend his funeral. Alberta's opposition leader Danielle Smith, former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien (who was the Minister of Justice during negotiations to patriate the Canadian constitution), federal opposition leader Thomas Mulcair and Calgary mayor Naheed Nenshi issued statements condoling his death. Former Prime Minister Joe Clark wrote a special commentary in The Globe and Mail praising Lougheed.
Legacy
In Alberta's Camelot: Culture and the Arts in the Lougheed Years, Fil Fraser explores how Lougheed government programs created a period of unprecedented growth for provincial arts sector, from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s.
The Tories were in office without interruption from 1971 until 2015, usually with large majorities but nowhere near as large as the ones Lougheed enjoyed.
In 2012, Policy Options a magazine published by the public policy think tank Institute for Research on Public Policy brought together a jury of 30 prominent Canadians which named Peter Lougheed the best Canadian Premier in the last 40 years (1972–2012). Lougheed was ranked first amongst 21 of the 30 jurors.
Honours
In 1971 Lougheed was named honorary chief "Thunderbird" by the Cree Nation, and later was named honorary chief "Crop Eared Wolf" by the Blood Nation.
Lougheed was styled "The Honourable" for the duration of his membership in the Executive Council of Alberta from 1971 to 1986. When he was appointed a privy councillor (postnominal: "PC") on April 17, 1982, the style "The Honourable" was extended for life. In 1986, he was named a Companion of the Order of Canada (postnominal: "CC"), and in 1989 he was named to the Alberta Order of Excellence (postnominal: "AOE").
In 1986 the University of Alberta established the Peter Lougheed Scholarship, and later established other scholarships in health sciences, law and arts in his name. In 2001 he was inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame which established the Peter Lougheed/CIHR Scholarship. Harvard University awarded Lougheed the University's Distinguished Alumni Award in 1986.
The Kananaskis Provincial Park was renamed Peter Lougheed Provincial Park in 1986 after Lougheed's retirement as Premier. The new Calgary General Hospital constructed in 1988 was named the Peter Lougheed Centre, Lougheed received his end of life care and died in the hospital. Other sites named in honour of Lougheed include Edmonton's Peter Lougheed Multicultural Village, the Jeanne and Peter Lougheed Building at Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity, a residence hall at the University of Alberta, and Lougheed Avenue in Heisler, Alberta. After his death proposals were made to rename Calgary International Airport in his honour.
Electoral record
As party leader
As MLA
References
Bibliography
Biographies of Lougheed
Books
External links
1928 births
2012 deaths
Premiers of Alberta
Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs
Sportspeople from Calgary
Canadian Anglicans
Lawyers in Alberta
Canadian people of Anglo-Irish descent
Chancellors of Queen's University at Kingston
Edmonton Elks players
Harvard Business School alumni
Companions of the Order of Canada
Members of the Alberta Order of Excellence
Members of the Executive Council of Alberta
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Politicians from Calgary
Alberta Golden Bears football players
University of Alberta Faculty of Law alumni | [
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|
226084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niatross | Niatross | Niatross (1977–1999) was an American champion standardbred race horse that many believe was the greatest harness horse of all time.
Background
The son of Albatross out of the mare Niagara Dream, Niatross was foaled on March 30, 1977. He was trained and driven by co-owner Clint Galbraith.
Racing career
In September 1979, after Niatross won his first six races, a half interest in him was sold to Stockbroker Lou Guida and the Niatross syndicate for $2.5 million. He was unbeaten in 13 starts in his 2-year-old season, when he was named Harness Horse of the Year. His earnings of $604,900 were a two-year-old record for either the Standardbred or Thoroughbred breed.
In 1980, Niatross won The Meadowlands Pace, which was the first million dollar race in either standardbred or thoroughbred racing history.
He also won the Triple Crown. In a time trial at The Red Mile in Lexington, Kentucky he beat the world record by three seconds, setting a mark of 1:49.1. In addition to his time trial he paced the fastest race miles on one mile (1.52.1) and half mile (1.54.4) tracks. The 1980 season brought Niatross 24 wins from 26 starts.
Early in the 1980 season Niatross won the Cane Pace before racing at the Saratoga Standardbred track in Saratoga, NY, where he spooked and fell over the inside hubrail and was defeated for the first time.
In an elimination for the Meadowlands Pace, he broke stride, lost valuable ground, regained his gait and, in what Stanley Dancer described as the greatest performance he had seen, recovered and finished 4th, qualifying for the final. In the Meadowlands Pace final, Niatross went right to the front and never looked back, winning by 4 1/2 lengths from Storm Damage in 1.53.1 as the 2-5 favourite. He set a world record for his age and was only 1/5 of a second outside of the overall world record. Trainer Clint Galbraith described the race as being more important than any race in Niatross' career.
Niatross went on to beat all of his competition easily in future starts, frequently setting track records, including a new race, track and Canadian record during the prestigious Prix d'Été at Blue Bonnets racetrack in Montreal, Quebec. He also won the Gaines Memorial at Vernon Downs, the Oliver Wendell Holmes Pace at the Meadowlands, the Dancer Memorial at Freehold and the American Classic at Hollywood Park. In the Little Brown Jug Niatross recorded wins in straight heats of 1.55 and 1.54.4 setting six world records before a record Jug crowd of 45,621. He then won the Messenger Stakes to complete the Triple Crown. A December appearance at Pompano Park, his last career race, brought a crowd of more than 23,000.
Time Trial
Until 1980 the fastest mile recorded in harness racing was 1.52.0 by Steady Star. On October 1, 1980 Niatross time trialled at The Red Mile in Lexington, Kentucky with a previous best of 1.52.4 recorded at Syracuse earlier in the year. At The Red Mile Niatross reached the quarter mile in 27.3 almost one second faster than Steady Star's record and the half mile in 54.3 equal with Steady Star. Reaching the three quarter mile in 1.21.4, a 27.2 last quarter resulted in a mile of 1.49.1, the fastest ever by 2 4/5 seconds.
Stud career
By the time Niatross retired to stud at Castleton Farm, Kentucky, in 1981, he had earned more prize money than any other standardbred horse in history. He had been named Harness Horse of the Year in 1979 and 1980, the New York Post Athlete of the Year in 1980, and Harness Horse of the Decade for the 1980s. At stud, he commanded a top price for his services. Among his progeny were winners of the Little Brown Jug. One son, Nihilator, won Horse of the Year honors and his first two crops earned $8.6 million. Niatross was relocated to Pine Hollow Farm in New York in 1983 and to Saratoga Standardbred Farm in 1986 however he was not as successful in New York as he had been in Kentucky.
In 1996, when he was 19 years old, Niatross made a 20-city tour for his fans in Canada and the United States. In 1997, he was inducted as a member of the Living Horse Hall of Fame. In May 1999, he took ill and was transported to the University of Pennsylvania's New Bolton Center where he was diagnosed with a large cancerous mass in his abdomen. On June 7, 1999, Niatross was humanely euthanized. He was cremated with his remains interred at the Hall Of Fame Museum in Goshen, New York.
Pedigree
References
See also
Niatross wins the Little Brown Jug - YouTube
1977 racehorse births
1999 racehorse deaths
American Standardbred racehorses
American Champion harness horses
Harness Horse of the Year winners
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Little Brown Jug winners
Cane Pace winners
Messenger Stakes winners
Triple Crown of Harness Racing winners
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226085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad%20Black | Conrad Black | Conrad Moffat Black, Baron Black of Crossharbour (born 25 August 1944), is a Canadian-born British former newspaper publisher, businessperson, writer and convicted fraudster.
His father was businessman George Montegu Black II, who had significant holdings in Canadian manufacturing, retail and media businesses through part-ownership of the holding company Ravelston Corporation. In 1978, two years after their father's death, Conrad and his older brother Montegu took majority control of Ravelston. Over the next seven years, Conrad Black sold off most of their non-media holdings in order to focus on newspaper publishing. Black controlled Hollinger International, once the world's third-largest English-language newspaper empire, which published The Daily Telegraph (UK), Chicago Sun-Times (U.S.), The Jerusalem Post (Israel), National Post (Canada), and hundreds of community newspapers in North America, before controversy erupted over the sale of some of the company's assets.
He was granted a peerage in 2001 and because of the Nickle Resolution, which bans British honours for Canadian citizens, gave up his Canadian citizenship in order to accept the title.
In 2007, he was convicted on four counts of fraud in U.S. District Court in Chicago. While two of the criminal fraud charges were overturned on appeal, a conviction for felony fraud and obstruction of justice was upheld in 2010 and he was re-sentenced to 42 months in prison and a fine of $125,000. In 2018, Black wrote a flattering biography of U.S. President Donald Trump. In 2019, Trump granted him a presidential pardon.
Black is a longtime columnist and author, including having written a column for the National Post since he founded it in 1998. He has written over ten books, mostly in the fields of Canadian and American history, including biographies of Quebec premier Maurice Duplessis and U.S. presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon and Trump, as well as two memoirs. He has also hosted two interview shows on the Canadian cable network VisionTV. He is a political conservative, and belonged to the UK's Conservative Party, but also has some idiosyncratic views, including his support for Roosevelt's New Deal.
Early life and family
Black was born in Montreal, Quebec, to a family originally from Winnipeg, Manitoba. His father, George Montegu Black, Jr., a chartered accountant, was the president of Canadian Breweries Limited, a brewing conglomerate that had earlier absorbed Winnipeg Breweries, which he had inherited from his father George Montegu Black Sr. Conrad Black's mother was the former Jean Elizabeth Riley, a daughter of Conrad Stephenson Riley, whose father founded The Great-West Life Assurance Company, and a great-granddaughter of an early co-owner of The Daily Telegraph. His father was a shareholder in The Daily Telegraph.
Biographer George Tombs said of Black's motivations: "He was born into a very large family of athletic, handsome people. He wasn't particularly athletic or handsome like they were, so he developed a different skill — wordplay, which he practised a lot with his father." Black has written that his father was "cultured [and] humorous" and that his mother was a "natural, convivial, and altogether virtuous person". Of his older brother George Montegu Black III (Monte), Black has written that he was "one of the greatest natural athletes I have known", and that though "generally more sociable than I was, he was never a cad or even inconstant, or ever an ungenerous friend or less than a gentleman". The Black family maintains a family plot at Mt. Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto where Black's parents and brother are buried along with his good friend and his wife's former husband, journalist, poet and broadcaster, George Jonas.
Education
Black was first educated at Upper Canada College (UCC), during which time, at age eight, he invested his life savings of $60 in one share of General Motors. Six years later, he was expelled from UCC for selling stolen exam papers. He then attended Trinity College School in Port Hope, where he lasted less than a year, being expelled for insubordinate behaviour. Successfully completing the year as an extramural student, Black transferred to Thornton Hall, a private school in Toronto.
Black continued his post-secondary education at Carleton University. He attended Toronto's Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, but his studies ended after he failed his first year exams. In 1970, he completed a law degree at Université Laval, and in 1973 completed a Master of Arts degree in History at McGill University.
Black's thesis at McGill would become the first half of his first book on Quebec premier Maurice Duplessis. Black had been granted access to Duplessis' papers, housed in Duplessis' former residence in Trois-Rivières, which included "figures from the famous Union Nationale Caisse Electorale (the party war chest), a copy of the Leader of the Opposition's tax returns, [and] gossip from bishops", as well as
Black subsequently had the principal items from the papers copied and microfilmed, and he donated copies to McGill, York, and Windsor universities.
Marriages
Black's first marriage was in 1978 to Joanna Hishon of Montreal, who worked as a secretary in his and his brother Montegu's brokerage office. The couple had two sons and a daughter. They separated in 1991. Their divorce was finalized in 1992; that same year Black married British-born journalist Barbara Amiel. Black described Amiel, in the first volume of his autobiography as "beautiful, brilliant, ideologically a robust spirit" and "chic, humorous and preternaturally sexy". Courtroom evidence revealed that the couple exchanged over 11,000 emails.
Religion
"My family", Black wrote in 2009, "was divided between atheism and agnosticism, and I followed rather unthinkingly and inactively in those paths into my twenties." By his early thirties he "no longer had any confidence in the non-existence of God". Thereafter, he "approached Rome at a snail's pace", and began to study the writings of Roman Catholic thinkers such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Cardinal Newman, and Jacques Maritain. Having accepted the possibility of miracles and thus of the Resurrection of Christ, Black was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 18 June 1986 by Gerald Emmett Cardinal Carter, Archbishop of Toronto, at the Cardinal's official residence. He had a dispensation to receive the sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church, from Cardinals Léger and Carter, starting in 1974.
Black developed a close friendship with Cardinal Carter and relied on him as a spiritual advisor. On Carter's death, Black wrote:
In 2001, Black was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great, a Papal order of chivalry awarded by Pope John Paul II and delivered by Cardinals Carter and Aloysius Ambrozic. He has written that his faith helped him endure his imprisonment in the United States. Black is also a major shareholder in The Catholic Herald, and was the vice-president of Léger's charity from 1972 to 1990.
Career
Early business ventures
Black became involved in a number of businesses, mainly publishing newspapers, starting when he was still in university. In 1966, Black bought his first newspaper, the Eastern Townships Advertiser in Quebec. Following the foundation as an investment vehicle of the Ravelston Corporation by the Black family in 1969, Black, together with friends David Radler and Peter G. White, purchased and operated the Sherbrooke Record, the small English language daily in Sherbrooke, Quebec. In 1971, the three formed Sterling Newspapers Limited, a holding company that acquired several other small Canadian regional daily and weekly newspapers, including the Prince Rupert Daily News and the Summerside, Prince Edward Island, Journal Pioneer.
Corporate ownership through holding companies
George Black died in June 1976, ten days after his wife, leaving Conrad Black and his older brother, Montegu, a 22.4% stake in Ravelston Corporation, which by then owned 61% voting control of Argus Corporation, an influential holding company in Canada. Argus controlled large stakes in five Canadian corporations: Hollinger Mines, Standard Broadcasting, Dominion Stores, Domtar and Massey Ferguson. Hollinger controlled Labrador Mining and Exploration and had a large stake in Noranda Mines. Black succeeded his father as a director of Dominion Stores and Standard Broadcasting, owner of radio stations CFRB (Toronto) and CJAD (Montreal), and television station CJOH (Ottawa). Conrad Black became a director of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce in 1977.
Through his father's position at Canadian Breweries, and his status as a co-founder of Ravelston, Black gained early association with two of Canada's most prominent businessmen: John A. "Bud" McDougald and E. P. Taylor, the first two presidents of Argus. Following McDougald's death in 1978, Black paid $18 million to McDougald's widow and her sister for control of Ravelston and thereby, control of Toronto-based Argus. Interviews with the two sisters in their retirement homes in Florida were aired 21 September 1980 in the episode of the CBC's The Canadian Establishment, entitled "Ten Toronto Street". This episode covered the period during which Conrad Black became president of Argus Corporation following the death of McDougald. Black's new associate, Nelson M. Davis became chairman. Patrick Watson, the host and narrator of series interviewed the two widows in their Florida retirement homes. Black recorded that the widows "understood and approved every letter of every word of the agreement". Other observers admired Black for marshaling enough investor support to win control without committing a large block of personal assets. He brought in new partners to replace Mrs. McDougal and her sister Mrs. W. Eric Philips.
Some of the Argus assets were already troubled, and others did not fit Black's long-term vision. Black resigned as Chairman of Massey Ferguson company on 23 May 1980, after which Argus donated its shares to the employees' pension funds, both salaried and union. Hollinger Mines was then turned into a holding company that initially focused on resource-based businesses.
In 1981 Norcen Energy, one of his companies, acquired a minority position in Ohio-based Hanna Mining Co. In a filing with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a disclosure was made to the effect that Norcen took "an investment position" in Hanna. The filing did not include a disclosure that Norcen's board planned to seek majority control. Black subsequently was charged by the SEC with filing misleading public statements. These charges were later withdrawn.
Dominion pension dispute
In 1984, the Dominion Stores Board of which Montegu Black was the chairman, with the prior consent of the Ontario Pension Commission, withdrew over $56 million from the Dominion workers' pension plan surplus which the management had generated. The company said it considered the surplus the rightful property of the employer (Dominion Stores Ltd.), as the shareholders would have to pay for any shortfall if the assets had been less successfully invested. The Dominion employees' union the United Food and Commercial Workers protested, a public outcry ensued, and the case went to court. The Supreme Court of Ontario ruled against the company, and ordered the company to return the money to the pension fund, claiming that though the most recent language in the plan suggested the employer had ownership of the surplus, the original intention was to keep the surplus in the plan to increase members' benefits. Eventually, the pension dispute was settled in equal shares between the shareholders and the plan members.
Industrial holdings shifted to publishing
Over time, Black focused the formerly diverse activities of his companies on newspaper publishing. Argus Corporation was one of Canada's most important conglomerates, though apart from Standard Broadcasting, it had less than 25% of the stock of the companies in which it was invested, and four-fifths of its own stock did not vote. Black had negotiated the acquisition of that stock from Power Corporation chairman Paul G. Desmarais in 1979 to become, as he put it, a 'real proprietor'. Black supervised the divesting of interests in manufacturing, retailing, broadcasting and ultimately oil, gas and mining. Canadian writer John Ralston Saul argued in 2008, "Lord Black was never a real 'capitalist' because he never created wealth, only dismantled wealth. His career has been largely about stripping corporations. Destroying them." Journalist and writer George Jonas, the former husband of Black's wife, Barbara Amiel, contended that Hollinger made its "investors ... billions [of dollars]".
Black bought Quebec City's Le Soleil, Le Droit of Ottawa, and Le Quotidien of Chicoutimi from Jacques G. Francoeur.
Growth and divestment of press holdings
In 1986, Andrew Knight, then editor of The Economist, advised Black an investment could be made in the ailing Telegraph Group (London, U.K.), and Black was able to gain control of the Group for £30 million. By this investment, Black made his first entry into British press ownership. Five years later, he bought The Jerusalem Post, and by 1990, his companies ran over 400 newspaper titles in North America, the majority of them small community papers. For a time from this date he headed the third-largest newspaper group in the Western World. In 1991, the Telegraph Group acquired a 25 percent stake in John Fairfax Holdings, an Australian media company which published the Sydney Morning Herald, The Age and The Australian Financial Review. Foreign-ownership laws prevented Black from acquiring a majority stake, but he had effective control of the company. He sold his share to a New Zealand investment firm in 1996 for $513 million, a reported $300 million profit. He subsequently complained about Australia's "capricious and politicized foreign ownership rules".
Hollinger had bought a 23% stake in the Southam newspaper chain in 1992 from TORSTAR, publisher of the Toronto Star. Black and Radler acquired the Chicago Sun-Times in 1994. Hollinger International shares were listed on New York Stock Exchange in 1996, at which time the company boosted its stake in Southam to a control position. Becoming a public company trading in the U.S. has been called "a fateful move, exposing Black's empire to America's more rigorous regulatory regime and its more aggressive institutional shareholders".
Under Black, Hollinger launched the National Post in Toronto in 1998. This newspaper was sold throughout the country in direct competition with The Globe and Mail. From 1999 to 2000, Hollinger International sold several newspapers in five deals worth a total of CA$3 billion, a total that included millions of dollars in "non-compete agreements" for Hollinger insiders.
Fate of Hollinger
Institutional investor Tweedy, Browne opposed the payment of non-compete fees to Hollinger management in connection with the sales and requested on the day before the annual meeting in May 2003 that a special committee be appointed to look into the compensation of management. Black agreed that citing such fees was standard procedure in the newspaper industry, had been requested by buyers and had been properly disclosed. The special committee and its counsel, former Chairman of the SEC Richard C. Breeden, discovered that David Radler had misled the Hollinger directors, including Black, about the extent of his own participation in some of the related party transactions to sell otherwise unclaimed community newspapers in the US and also that two of the smaller transactions involving non-compete payments had not been signed by the vendors. Breeden involved the US Attorney in Chicago, and Radler, after about 18 months, would promise to plead guilty to one count of fraud and to provide evidence against Black and others in exchange for a light sentence in Canada.
Black made an agreement with Breeden, shortly after the unsigned status of the two non-compete agreements came to light, by which he would remain as Chairman, but temporarily vacate the position of Chief Executive, pending verification that he, Black, had known nothing of these problems, which were handled by the company's counsel, and occurred in Radler's American Publishing division. Black and Breeden were in negotiations, sponsored by Henry A. Kissinger, who was a Director of Hollinger, when the special committee, without warning, sued Black and others. Black counter-sued, and included a libel suit in Canada. The libel settlement was by far the largest in Canadian history.
The Hollinger group of companies was effectively dismantled as a result of the cascade of criminal and civil lawsuits that followed in relation to sales of papers and intellectual property to third parties, most alleging misrepresentation and some alleging false or deliberately misleading accounts having been presented. The costs incurred by Hollinger International through the investigation of Black and his associates climbed to US$200 million. Black claims a significant portion of the sums paid by Hollinger International went to Richard C. Breeden. Black himself incurred large legal fees.
Black resigned from the board of Hollinger in 2005, and many of Hollinger International's assets ended up being sold at prices significantly lower than those contemplated in uncompleted negotiations while Black was with the company. By the early 2000s, it was clear that Black had accurately anticipated the decline in profitability of print media assets and sought to divest those types of assets held by Hollinger before their value was irrevocably diminished. The criminal sanctions on Black not overturned were for removing 13 boxes of paper from his office a few days before he had to move offices, and under the gaze of security cameras he had installed, and for receiving US$285,000 as a non-compete payment that was approved by the independent director and publicly disclosed, but where the company secretary had neglected, in what the trial judge considered to be a clerical oversight, to have signed by the parties.
Media host and commentator
Black co-hosted a weekly talk show, The Zoomer, which premiered 7 October 2013 on VisionTV in Canada, and ran for two years. He interviewed Donald Trump, Boris Johnson, and Justin Trudeau who went on respectively to be President of the United States, British Prime Minister, and Prime Minister of Canada; and also interviewed Nigel Farage, leader of the UK Independence Party. From January 2015 through 2016, Black hosted Conversations with Conrad, a series on VisionTV in which Black conducted long-form one-on-one interviews with notable figures such as Margaret Atwood, Brian Mulroney, Rick Mercer, Barry Humphries and Michael Coren.
As of June 2020, Black is a commentator on two weekly national radio segments in the United States, and writes columns on online sites including National Review, RealClearPolitics, The Epoch Times, and American Greatness in addition to his weekly column in the National Post.
Lifestyle
Born to a wealthy family, Black acquired the family home and of land in Toronto's exclusive Bridle Path neighbourhood after his parents' deaths in 1976. Black and first wife Joanna Hishon maintained homes in Palm Beach, Toronto and London. After he married Barbara Amiel, he acquired a luxury Park Avenue apartment in New York. When the latter was sold in 2005, the U.S. Department of Justice seized net proceeds of $8.5 million, pending resolution of court actions. His London townhouse in Kensington sold in 2005 for about US$25 million. His Palm Beach mansion was listed for sale in 2004 at $36 million. In late April 2011, this Florida property was also sold by Black for about US$30 million. The Black family estate was sold in March 2016, for a reported price of CA$16.5 million, but on a sale-lease-back of up to nine years, with an option to buy back, and the Blacks continue to live there. Black has disclosed his intention to remain and perhaps reacquire. He has returned to the UK part-time.
According to biographer Tom Bower, "They flaunted their wealth." Black's critics suggested that it was Black's second wife, Amiel, who pushed him towards a life of opulence. Black has always denied that he spent more than his income and position justified. He has called claims that his wife charged personal expenses to a corporate account, including US$2,463 (£1,272) for handbags, $2,785 for opera tickets, and $140 for Amiel's "jogging attire" fiction and has pointed out that they were never alleged at trial.
Black was ranked 238th wealthiest in Britain by the Sunday Times Rich List (2003), with an estimated wealth of £136m. Having departed the country, he was dropped from the 2004 list.
Black is a former Steering Committee member of the Bilderberg Group.
Fraud conviction
Black was convicted on three counts of fraud and one count of obstruction of justice in U.S. District Court in Chicago on 13 July 2007. He was sentenced to serve 6½ years in federal prison and to pay Hollinger $6.1 million, in addition to a fine of US$125,000. Appeals resulted in two of Black's three criminal fraud charges being vacated, and his conviction for obstruction of justice was upheld. Black was initially found guilty of diverting funds for personal benefit from money due to Hollinger International, and of other irregularities. The alleged embezzlement occurred when the company sold certain publishing assets. He was also found guilty of one charge of obstruction of justice.
In the initial verdict, Black was fined $125,000 and sentenced to 6½ years in prison, serving a total of 37 months after two fraud charges were overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, leaving one fraud charge and one obstruction of justice charge, and the improper receipt of $285,000, which was disclosed and approved but incompletely documented, and civil penalties from the SEC. The 6½ year sentence was reduced to 3½ years. The $6.1 million fine to the SEC was reduced to $4.1 million in 2013.
Supreme Court review
The Supreme Court of the United States heard an appeal of his case on 8 December 2009 and rendered a decision in June 2010. Black's application for bail was rejected by both the Supreme Court and the U.S. District Court judge who sentenced him.
On 24 June 2010, the US Supreme Court ruled 8–0 with one recusal, instructing the 7th Circuit to review all four of Black's convictions including the obstruction of justice charge, finding that the definition of honest services fraud used in Judge St. Eve's (the trial judge) charge to the jury in Black's case was too broad, "unconstitutionally vague", ruling the law could apply only to cases where bribes and kickbacks had changed hands and ordered the US 7th Circuit Court of Appeals in Chicago to review three fraud convictions against Black in light of the Supreme Court's new definition. The Court reviewed Black's case and determined whether his fraud convictions stood or if there should be a new trial. The Supreme Court of the United States upheld the jailed former media baron's obstruction-of-justice conviction, for which he was serving a concurrent 6½-year sentence.
Later developments
Black's lawyers filed an application for bail pending the appeals court's review. Prosecutors contested Black's bail request, saying in court papers that Black's trial jury had proof that Black committed fraud. The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals granted bail on 19 July 2010 under which Black was released pending retrial on a $2 million unsecured bond put up by conservative philanthropist Roger Hertog and ordered to remain on bail in the continental United States until at least 16 August, when his bail hearing was to resume, and the date by which Black and the prosecution were ordered by the Court of Appeals to submit written arguments for that court's review of his case. Black's bail, initially, pending trial, had been $38 million.
Black was to appear once again in a Chicago court on 16 August to provide full and detailed financial information to the judge, who would then consider his request to be allowed to return to Canada while on bail.
Black's legal representatives, led by Miguel Estrada, advised the court they would not provide the requisite accounting and would thus not be interested in petitioning the court further on the matter. Black was under no compulsion to make this disclosure as he had initiated the appeal for a bail variation of his own volition. His next court appearance, where he might reapply for permission to return to Canada, was set for 20 September 2010.
On 28 October 2010, the US 7th Circuit Court of Appeals confirmed the dismissal of two of the three vacated fraud accounts and retained one and the obstruction count. The court ruled that he must be re-sentenced.
On 17 December 2010, Black lost an appeal as to fact and law on his remaining convictions for fraud and obstruction of justice. The three judge panel did not explain its reasoning. On 31 May 2011, the Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear an appeal from the circuit court's decision, also without comment. The re-sentencing on the two remaining counts by the original trial judge occurred on 24 June 2011. Black's lawyers recommended he be sentenced to the 29 months he had already served while the prosecution argued for Black to complete his original 6½ year sentence. The probation officer's report recommended a sentence of between 33 and 41 months. At the hearing, Judge St. Eve re-sentenced Black to a reduced term of 42 months and a fine of $125,000, returning him to prison on 6 September 2011 to serve the remaining seven months of his sentence, allowing for a reduction for good conduct, for which the trial judge commended him.
On 30 June 2011, Black published an article for the National Review Online that provided his scathing view of the legal case, detailing it as a miscarriage of justice and an "unaccountable and often lawless prosecution".
Black's motion that the last remaining counts of conviction be vacated due to prosecutorial misconduct and his claim that he had been denied the right to have the defense counsel of his choice were denied in February 2013, along with his request for an evidentiary hearing. Black continues to maintain his innocence, and has likened the United States justice system to that of North Korea. Black has publicly stated that he is proud to have been "sent to prison for crimes I would never dream of committing, for having fought it out as well as anyone could, and for making the best I could of a bad situation".
Incarceration
Until 21 July 2010, Black was incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution (Low Security) in Sumter County, Florida, a part of Federal Correctional Complex, Coleman.
Following his release, Black wrote a column for Canada's National Post on his time in prison. Black described U.S. inmates as an "ostracized, voiceless legion of the walking dead".
Black did not return to the Federal Correctional Institution in Coleman, Florida. On 6 September 2011, he was sent to a different Florida federal correction facility, this one in Miami. He was released from prison on 4 May 2012. Although he became a citizen of the United Kingdom in 2001 and became a British peer, he chose to live in his native Canada after his prison term was completed. Black, who had renounced his Canadian citizenship in 2001 as a result of Black v Chrétien, was granted a one-year temporary resident permit to live in Canada in March 2012 when he was still serving his sentence.
Upon his release from prison, Black was deported to Canada.
Removal from the Order of Canada and Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Black was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1990. In 2011, after Black returned to prison due to the failure of his appeal, Rideau Hall, the seat of the Chancellery of Honours, confirmed that the honour accorded to Black was under review by the order's Advisory Council, which has the power to recommend "the termination of a person's appointment to the Order of Canada if the person has been convicted of a criminal offence".
Once the review process started, Black submitted a written application in defence of keeping his place in the Order of Canada, but failed in his efforts to persuade the Advisory Council he should appear before them to defend his case orally. Black took the matter to the Federal Court of Canada, which ruled that the council had no obligation to change its regular review process (which allows for written submissions only) simply to accommodate Black. Black attempted to appeal the court's decision without success.
In an October 2012 interview, Black intimated that he would rather resign from the order than be removed: "I would not wait for giving these junior officials the evidently almost aphrodisiacal pleasure of throwing me out. I would withdraw", he told CBC's Susan Ormiston. "In fact, I wouldn't be interested in serving."
The Governor General of Canada, David Johnston, announced Black's removal from the Order of Canada and his expulsion from the Queen's Privy Council for Canada in January 2014. Johnston had been recommended to do so by the Advisory Council of the Order of Canada and the Canadian Prime Minister. As a result, Black may also no longer employ the post-nominal initials OC and PC.
Pardon
On 15 May 2019, U.S. President Donald Trump granted Black a full pardon. Trump noted "broad support from many high-profile individuals who have vigorously vouched for his exceptional character". Black is a friend of Trump and has written flatteringly about him in opinion articles and in the 2018 book Donald J. Trump: A President Like No Other. Many news sources linked Black's recent book and his long friendship with Trump to the pardon. The Washington Post noted, "In addition to his book, Black frequently writes columns praising Trump and considers the president a friend". Upon his release from prison, Black had been deported to Canada and barred from entering the U.S. for 30 years; however, the pardon allows him to travel in the U.S.
Investigations by the Ontario Securities Commission and Canada Revenue Agency
In July 2013, the Ontario Securities Commission restarted its case against Black and two other former Hollinger executives, John Boultbee and Peter Atkinson. The regulator sought to have them banned from trading in the province's capital markets or sitting on a public board of directors. The case alleged violations of the Securities Act (Ontario). The case had been postponed pending the exhaustion of Black's appeals of his U.S. fraud convictions. The securities case alleges that Black and his two fellow directors created a scheme was to use the sale of several Hollinger newspapers in order to "divert certain proceeds from Hollinger Inc. to themselves through contrived 'non-compete' payments".
Black applied to have the proceedings dismissed on the grounds that he was already voluntarily refraining from being an officer or director of an Ontario corporation and undertaken to ask the approval of the OSC if he ever desired to become a director or officer of an Ontario public company. In February 2015 the OSC placed a permanent ban on Black being a director or officer of a publicly traded company in Ontario, but declined to restrict his right to trade. Black referred to the case in his column in the National Post on 8 March 2015, stating that the OSC did not come to the subject with clean hands, having "vaporized" hundreds of millions of dollars of shareholder's equity in 2005 when it blocked Black's bid to privatize Hollinger Inc., pushing that company into bankruptcy and a total loss for the shareholders.
In early 2014, the Tax Court of Canada ruled that Black owed the Canadian government taxes on $5.1 million of income accrued in 2002.
In mid-May 2016, it was revealed that the CRA had intervened to prevent the sale and lease-back, with a buy-back option, of Black's home on Park Lane Circle. After discussion, the sale-lease back proceeded and Black provided other assets as security pending the settlement or adjudication of the CRA claim.
On 14 June 2019, the Tax Court of Canada ruled that Black is entitled to deduct interest expenses on a $32.3 million loan he used to satisfy judgments against himself and Hollinger International.
Peerage controversy and citizenship
In 2001, British Prime Minister Tony Blair advised Queen Elizabeth II to confer on Black a life peerage in the Peerage of the United Kingdom with the title of The Baron Black of Crossharbour. He would sit as a Conservative peer, and his name had been put forward by the then-Conservative leader William Hague. Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien advised the Queen not to appoint Black a peer, citing the Nickle Resolution of 1919 and a long history since then of objections to Canadian citizens accepting British peerages. Black at the time held both Canadian and British citizenship. Black pointed out that the Nickle Resolution referred to Canadian resident citizens, not dual citizens living in the UK, and was not binding; but when Blair said the Queen would prefer not to choose between the conflicting recommendations of two prime ministers of countries of which she was the monarch, Black asked that the matter be deferred. He litigated in Canada, claiming that Chrétien had no jurisdiction to create a class of citizen in another country, consisting of one person (as there were other dual citizens in the House of Lords), ineligible to receive an honour in that country for services deemed to have been rendered in that country, because of the objections of the Canadian Prime Minister of the day. Later in 2001, after the Ontario Superior Court and Court of Appeal had ruled that they had no jurisdiction in this area, Black renounced his Canadian citizenship, remaining a United Kingdom citizen, which allowed him to accept the peerage without further controversy.
Black sat as a life peer on the Conservative benches until 2007, when he withdrew from the Conservative group of peers following his conviction in the United States. He is currently a non-affiliated peer. In an interview with BBC reporter Jeremy Paxman in 2012, Black stated that he could return to the House of Lords as a voting member. Comparing himself to Nelson Mandela, Black said a criminal conviction does not prohibit him from sitting, since the House of Lords has no restriction on such a case. He was on leave of absence from the House of Lords from June 2012 until 2019.
In an interview with Peter Mansbridge in May 2012, Black said he would consider applying for Canadian citizenship "within a few years", when he hoped the matter would no longer be controversial and he could "make an application like any other person who has been a temporary resident". It is not clear when or if he would be accepted, but he has been a temporary resident for over five years with a full work permit.
Books and other publications
Biographies
Duplessis (1977) Condensed, updated and republished in 1998 as 'Render Unto Caesar: The Life and Legacy of Maurice Duplessis'.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom (2003)
Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full (2007)
Donald J. Trump: A President Like No Other (2018)
Autobiography
A Life in Progress (1993)
A Matter of Principle (2011)
History
Flight of the Eagle: A Strategic History of the United States (2013). With an introductory note by Henry Kissinger.
Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present (2014)
Speculative history/opinion
What Might Have Been (2004). An essay of speculative history depicting the latter half of the 20th century as it might have unfolded had Japan not bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941, edited by Andrew Roberts.
The Canadian Manifesto (2019) Black aims at solving how Canada's place in the world can be improved through new solutions to the ongoing problems besetting welfare, education, health care, foreign policy, and other governmental sectors.
Collected essays
Backward Glances: People and Events from Inside and Out (2016) A selection of Black's columns, articles, reviews and essays from 1970 to 2015.
Selected columns/articles in newspapers and magazines
Black continues to contribute regular features to the National Post, the newspaper he founded in 1998 and sold in 2001
In the November 2008 issue of Spear's magazine, Black wrote a diary piece from prison detailing "the putrification of the US justice system" and how "the bloom is off my long-notorious affection for America".
On 5 March 2009, Black contributed a piece to the online version of the conservative magazine National Review (NRO). Called Roosevelt and the Revisionists and based on his earlier biography of Roosevelt, it argued that FDR's New Deal was intended to save capitalism, and deserved conservative support. In her 9 March critique of this piece on NRO, author Amity Shlaes observed, "I will be co-hosting, with Dean Thomas Cooley of NYU/Stern, a Second Look conference on 30 March to permit scholars to present the multiple studies that suggest the New Deal and Great Depression are worth taking a look at from every angle. The great shame here is that Conrad would have added much to this event, and yet he cannot attend."
Biographies and portrayal in popular culture
The book "The Establishment Man", sub-titled "A Portrait of Power", by Peter C.Newman, detailing Black's early career, was published in 1982 by McClelland and Stewart;
The documentary film Citizen Black, which premiered at the 2004 Montreal and Cambridge film festivals, traces Black's life and filmmaker Debbie Melnyk's attempts in 2003 to interview Black, and her eventual interview. US prosecutors subpoenaed unused footage of a 2003 shareholders meeting for use in Black's trial.
Canadian actor Albert Schultz portrayed Black in the 2006 CTV movie Shades of Black.
Tom Bower's biography Conrad and Lady Black: Dancing on the Edge () was published in 2006 by HarperCollins. It was republished in August 2007 with an additional chapter reporting on the trial and its outcomes.
A book, Robber Baron: Lord Black of Crossharbour, was published in 2007 by ECW press and written by George Tombs;
Canadian artist George Walker published the wordless novel The Life and Times of Conrad Black in 2013.
See also
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
Notes
References
Further reading
Bower, Tom: Conrad & Lady Black – Dancing on the Edge (London: HarperPress, 2006)
Edge, Marc Asper Nation: Canada's Most Dangerous Media Company (2007), pp 70–97;
Siklos, Richard. Shades of Black: Conrad Black — His Rise and Fall (McClelland & Stewart Ltd, 2004);
Skurka, Steven. Tilted: The Trials of Conrad Black, 2nd ed. (Dundurn, 2011);
External links
SEC – Breeden Report Complete 512-page copy of the Report of Investigation by the Special Committee of the board of directors of Hollinger International Inc.
The United States vs. Conrad Black collected coverage in Macleans.ca
Lord Black of Crossharbour: The Life and Times of Conrad Black, CBC.ca, documentary originally aired 24 March 2005
"Conrad Black's apologia for Richard Nixon": a review in the TLS by Anthony Holden, 8 August 2007
Conrad Black's full-length jail diary
An interview with Conrad Black from Coleman Federal Correction Complex, May 2010
1944 births
Living people
20th-century biographers
20th-century British criminals
20th-century British newspaper publishers (people)
20th-century British politicians
20th-century Canadian male writers
20th-century Canadian newspaper publishers (people)
20th-century Canadian non-fiction writers
21st-century British criminals
21st-century Canadian non-fiction writers
Anglophone Quebec people
British biographers
British columnists
British historians
British newspaper chain founders
British people imprisoned abroad
British politicians convicted of fraud
British Roman Catholics
Businesspeople from Montreal
Businesspeople from Toronto
Canadian autobiographers
Canadian biographers
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Canadian chairpersons of corporations
Canadian columnists
Canadian emigrants to England
Canadian expatriate writers
Canadian historians
Canadian monarchists
Canadian socialites
Canadian newspaper chain founders
Black of Crossharbour
Canadian television talk show hosts
Canadian white-collar criminals
Carleton University alumni
Chicago Sun-Times people
Black of Crossharbour
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Criminals from Montreal
Directors of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce
Historians of the United States
Knights Commander of the Order of St Gregory the Great
Mail and wire fraud
Male biographers
McGill University alumni
Members of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group
National Post people
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Ottawa Citizen people
People convicted of obstruction of justice
People expelled from the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
People stripped of a British Commonwealth honour
People removed from the Order of Canada
Politicians convicted of honest services fraud
Recipients of American presidential pardons
Université Laval alumni
Université Laval Faculté de droit alumni
Upper Canada College alumni
Writers from Montreal
Writers from Toronto
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|
226089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvalee%20Dickinson | Velvalee Dickinson | Velvalee Dickinson (October 12, 1893 – ca 1980), was convicted of espionage against the United States on behalf of Japan during World War II. Known as the "Doll Woman", she used her business in New York City to send information on the United States Navy to contacts in Argentina via steganographic messages. She was finally caught when one of her contacts in Buenos Aires moved and her messages were returned.
Early life and career
Born as Velvalee Malvena Blucher in Sacramento, California to Otto and Elizabeth Blucher (or Blueher). She graduated from Stanford University in 1918 but did not receive her Bachelor of Arts degree until January 1937, allegedly because she had not returned books owned by the university.
In the late 1920s to the mid-1930s, Dickinson was employed in a brokerage company in San Francisco, California, owned by her future husband, Lee T. Dickinson. Shortly after her marriage, Dickinson worked as a social worker in the area until 1937. The firm did business with Japanese people and the Dickinsons' interest in Japan grew so much that they joined the Japanese-American Society, where they began to rub shoulders with members of the Japanese consulate. The FBI later also determined that she had made frequent visits to the consulate, attended important social gatherings at which Japanese Navy members and other high Japanese government officials were present, and entertained many Japanese people in her home. When the brokerage firm's success suffered a downturn, so too did the Dickinsons' role as proponents of good Japanese-American relations.
In 1937, the Dickinsons moved to New York City, where she worked for a short time as a department store employee. On December 31, 1937, she began operating her own doll shop, first at her residence at 680 Madison Ave and later at a separate store at 714 Madison Avenue, where she operated for several years until she moved the store down the block, to 718 Madison Avenue in October 1941. The Dickinson doll shop catered to affluent collectors throughout the United States and overseas interested in obtaining foreign, regional, and antique dolls. Lee Dickinson assisted his wife's business by handling the accounting until his death, on March 29, 1943.
Case
In February 1942, a letter was brought to the attention of the FBI, intercepted by wartime censors. The letter, supposedly from a woman in Portland, Oregon to a correspondent in Buenos Aires, discussed a "wonderful doll hospital" and noted that the writer had sent the correspondent "three Old English dolls" for repairs. The letter also mentioned "fish nets" and "balloons". Elizebeth Friedman's cryptanalysis unit at US Coast Guard Headquarters in Washington examined the letter and broke the code, concluding that the "dolls" were actually three warships and that the "doll hospital" was a West Coast-based shipyard where repairs were made, while the "fishing nets" and "balloons" disclosed information about coastal defenses and other critical information on the West Coast.
Based on the above letter, the FBI initiated an espionage investigation. During that time, four more letters were sent to the same Buenos Aires address, a Señora Inés López de Molinali at 2563 O'Higgins Street. However, the letters were returned to sender, due to "address unknown"; these letters were delivered to postal authorities and in turn handed over to the FBI. The people whose names had appeared on the envelope as senders stated that while the letters contained information that was correct to their personal lives and hobbies, and that the signatures on stated letters resembled theirs, all four vehemently denied that they had sent any of the letters to the Argentine address.
One of the letters, supposedly sent by a Mary Wallace of Springfield, Ohio, did indicate her home address – 1808 E High Street – but had been postmarked in New York, a place she had never been. The letter, primarily discussing dolls, contained references to a "Mr. Shaw, who had been ill but would be back to work soon." The letter corresponded to information that the destroyer USS Shaw, which had been damaged in the Pearl Harbor attack, completed repairs on the West Coast and was soon to rejoin the Pacific Fleet.
Another letter, given to the FBI in August of that year and said to have been written by a woman in Colorado Springs, Colorado, was postmarked from Oakland, California. That letter, written in February, made reference to seven small dolls which the writer stated would be altered to look as though they were "seven real Chinese dolls", designed to mimic a family of parents, grandparents and three children. The FBI determined that the letter was written shortly after a convoy of ships had arrived at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, California. The letter contained certain details about the ships, that if made public, would have been detrimental to the war effort.
The same woman also gave the FBI a letter returned to her by the Post Office earlier that month. The second letter, from May, and postmarked from Portland, Oregon, discussed the acquisition of a "Siamese Temple Dancer" doll. A portion of the letter read:
[I]t had been damaged, that is tore in the middle. But it is now repaired and I like it very much. I could not get a mate for this Siam dancer, so I am redressing just a small plain ordinary doll into a second Siam doll.
Cryptographers determined this to translate as, "I just secured information on an aircraft carrier warship, it had been damaged, that is torpedoed in the middle. But it is now repaired ... [t]hey could not get a mate for this so a plain ordinary warship is being converted into a second aircraft carrier ..." The information matched damage done to the aircraft carrier , which had seen repairs in the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard before being transferred to the Naval Base at San Diego, California.
A third letter, handed to the FBI by a woman in Spokane, Washington and bearing a postmark from Seattle made reference to a "German bisque doll, dressed in a hula grass skirt", sent to Seattle for repairs that would be completed sometime around the first week of February. Naval authorities confirmed to the FBI that a ship damaged at Pearl Harbor was in Puget Sound for repairs and would be completed around the time stated in the letter.
A forensics examination of all letters concerned confirmed that the signatures were forgeries, based on copies of the original signatures. The examination also indicated that while different typewriters were used to compose the letters, the typing characteristics indicated that the letters were composed by a single individual. The conclusion reached by the examiners was that the letters contained codetext conveying information on the US Navy's ships and their location, condition, repair and status, with emphasis on ships damaged at Pearl Harbor.
Investigation
The Colorado Springs woman pointed the FBI in the direction of Dickinson, the New York doll shop owner. She believed that Dickinson had forged her signature on one of the letters in vengeance, because the woman had been late in paying for some dolls that she had purchased from the Dickinson shop. Based on investigations with Wallace and the other woman involved, all agreed in their suspicion that Dickinson was the suspect; additionally, all four women had at one time corresponded with Dickinson regarding doll collecting. Typewritten letters between Dickinson and the women involved were identified by the FBI as having been used in the "Springfield" letter.
An investigation into Dickinson's background indicated her involvement with Japanese organizations while living in San Francisco, as well as that after moving to New York, she had visited the Nippon Club and the Japanese Institute in New York, become a friend of the Japanese Consul General and was an acquaintance of Ichiro Yokoyama, the Japanese Naval Attaché in Washington, D.C. Further investigation of the Dickinsons' activities from January to June 1942 (the time frame in which the letters were sent) revealed that the couple had visited those areas, staying in hotels near the cities in question. The FBI was also able to determine that typewriters owned and made available to guests were used to compose the letters sent to Argentina. Continuing investigations disclosed that Dickinson had borrowed money from banks and business associates in New York up until 1941; however, in 1943, she was reported to have had in her possession a large number of $100 bills, four of which were traced to Japanese official sources that had received the money prior to the war.
Based on the results of the investigation, FBI agents arrested Dickinson on January 21, 1944, in the bank vault where she kept her safe deposit box. The box contained $13,000, eventually traced to Japanese sources. A portion of the money had been in the hands of a Captain Yuzo Ishikawa of the Japanese Naval Inspector's Office in New York before being transferred to Dickinson.
Dickinson told the agents that the money in the safe deposit box had come from insurance companies, a savings account and her doll business, but in a subsequent interview, she claimed that she had found the money hidden in her husband's bed at the time of his death. She claimed that her husband had not told her the source of the money, but she believed that it could have come from the Japanese consulate in New York City.
Trial and conviction
On February 11, 1944, she was indicted by a Federal Grand Jury in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York for violation of the censorship statutes, conviction of which could result in a maximum penalty of ten years in prison and a $10,000 fine. She pleaded not guilty and was held in lieu of $25,000 bail. A continuing investigation by the FBI resulted in a second indictment on May 5, this time on charges of violating espionage statutes, the Trading with the Enemy Act, and the censorship statutes, conviction of which carried the death penalty. She pleaded not guilty and was released on the same bail.
On July 28, 1944, a plea bargain was made between the U.S. Attorney's Office and Dickinson in which the espionage and Trade Act indictments were dismissed and she pleaded guilty to the censorship violation and agreed to furnish information in her possession concerning Japanese intelligence activities.
After pleading guilty, she admitted that she had typed the five forged letters addressed to Argentina, using correspondence with her customers to forge their signatures.
She claimed the information compiled in her letters was from asking innocent and unsuspecting citizens in Seattle and San Francisco near the location of the Navy yards there, as well as some details from personal observation. She stated that the letters transmitted information about ships damaged at Pearl Harbor and that the names of the dolls corresponded to a list that explained the type of ships involved. She furthermore stated that the code to be used in the letters, instructions for use of the code, and $25,000 in $100 bills had been passed to her husband by Yokoyama around November 26, 1941, in her doll store at 718 Madison Avenue for the purpose of supplying information to the Japanese. She repeated her claims that the money had been hidden in her husband's bed until his death.
However, an investigation by the FBI refuted those claims, disclosing that while Dickinson had been a friend of Yokoyama, her husband had never met him. It was also learned that a physical examination done on him at the time indicated that his mental faculties were impaired at the time of the supposed payment. Both a nurse and a maid employed by the Dickinsons at the time emphatically stated that no money had ever been concealed there.
Velvalee Dickinson appeared in court for sentencing on August 14, 1944. Upon sentencing, the court commented:
It is hard to believe that some people do not realize that our country is engaged in a life and death struggle. Any help given to the enemy means the death of American boys who are fighting for our national security. You, as a natural-born citizen, having a University education, and selling out to the Japanese, were certainly engaged in espionage. I think that you have been given every consideration by the Government. The indictment to which you have pleaded guilty is a serious matter. It borders close to treason. I, therefore, sentence you to the maximum penalty provided by the law, which is ten years and $10,000 fine.
Still maintaining her innocence and claiming that her husband had been the Japanese spy, Dickinson was imprisoned at the Federal Correctional Institution for Women (now the Alderson Federal Prison Camp) in Alderson, West Virginia. She was released with conditions on April 23, 1951.
After her release, she changed her name to Catherine Dickerson and maintained a friendship and secretarial relationship with Eunice Kennedy, attending her wedding in 1953.
See also
Elizebeth Smith Friedman
References
External links
FBI History – Velvalee Dickinson, the "Doll Woman"
La signora delle bambole – da "Le più grandi spie del mondo" Document is in Italian; Google translation is available here
The Spy in the Doll Shop in Smithsonian Magazine
50 Years Ago – July 1944 from Usenet
1893 births
American people convicted of spying for Japan
American women civilians in World War II
Female wartime spies
Businesspeople from New York City
People from Sacramento, California
People convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917
Stanford University alumni
World War II spies for Japan
Year of death missing | [
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226090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutlass | Cutlass | A cutlass is a short, broad sabre or slashing sword, with a straight or slightly curved blade sharpened on the cutting edge, and a hilt often featuring a solid cupped or basket-shaped guard. It was a common naval weapon during the early Age of Sail.
Etymology
The word "cutlass" developed from the 17th-century English use of "coutelas", a 16th-century French word for a machete-like mid-length single-edged blade (the modern French for "knife", in general, is "couteau"; in 17th- and 18th-century English the word was often spelled "cuttoe"). The French word "coutelas" may be a convergent development from a Latin root, along with the Italian "coltellaccio" or "cortelazo"; meaning "large knife".
In Italy, the "cortelazo" was a similar short, broad-bladed sabre popular during the 16th century.
The root "coltello", for "knife", derived ultimately from the Latin "cultellus" meaning "smaller knife"; which is the common Latin root for both the Italian and French words.
In the English-speaking Caribbean, the word "cutlass" is also used as a word for machete.<ref>John Klein, "What Is a Machete, Anyway?", "The Atlantic, Oct 21, 2013 (accessed Jan 25 2015)</ref>
History and use
Origin
The cutlass is a 17th-century descendant of the edged short sword exemplified by the medieval falchion.
Woodsmen and soldiers in the 17th and 18th centuries used a similar short and broad backsword called a hanger, or in German a messer, meaning "knife". Often occurring with the full tang (i.e. slab tang) more typical of daggers than swords in Europe, these blades may ultimately derive through the falchion (facon, falcon) from the seax.
In England about 1685 the rather long straight-bladed sword formerly in use began to be superseded by the "hanger". This weapon had a short and more or less curved single-edged blade with a brass hilt of a rather flat double-shell and knuckle-bow. The grip was generally of wood, bound with wire, but some specimens show a brass grip with spiral grooves. These are probably early models. The length of the blade is usually about 24 inches.
History
Although also used on land, the cutlass is best known as the sailor's weapon of choice. A naval side-arm, its popularity was likely because it was not only robust enough to hack through heavy ropes, canvas, and wood, but short enough to use in relatively close quarters, such as during boarding actions, in the rigging, or below decks. Another advantage to the cutlass was its simplicity of use. Employing it effectively required less training than that required to master a rapier or small sword, and it was more effective as a close-combat weapon than a full-sized sword would be on a cramped ship.
Cutlasses are famous for being used by pirates, although there is no reason to believe that Caribbean buccaneers invented them, as has occasionally been claimed. However, the subsequent use of cutlasses by pirates is well documented in contemporary sources, notably by the pirate crews of William Fly, William Kidd, and Stede Bonnet. French historian Alexandre Exquemelin reports the buccaneer François l'Ollonais using a cutlass as early as 1667. Pirates used these weapons for intimidation as much as for combat, often needing no more than to grip their hilts to induce a crew to surrender, or beating captives with the flat of the blade to force their compliance or responsiveness to interrogation.
Owing to its versatility, the cutlass was as often an agricultural implement and tool as it was as a weapon (cf. machete, to which the same comment applies) that was used commonly in rain forest and sugarcane areas, such as the Caribbean and Central America. In their most simplified form they are held to have become the machete of the Caribbean.
Modern history
In 1936 the British Royal Navy announced that from then on cutlasses would be carried only for ceremonial duties and not used in landing parties. The last recorded use of cutlasses by the Royal Navy is often said to be on 16 February 1940 during the boarding action known as the Altmark Incident. However, this is disbelieved by the majority of the HMS Cossack Association (Cossack was the ship that boarded Altmark) and the authors of British Naval Swords and Swordsmanship''. The authors point to another claim, a boarding by HMS Armada in 1952, but disbelieve this one too. In their view, the last use of cutlasses by the Royal Navy was by a shore party in China in 1900. Cutlasses continue to be worn in the Royal Navy by a Chief Petty Officer escorting the White Ensign and by Senior or Leading Ratings in an escort at a court martial.
The cutlass remained an official weapon in United States Navy stores until 1949, though seldom used in training after the early 1930s. The last new model of cutlass adopted by the U.S. Navy was the Model 1917; although cutlasses made during World War II were called the Model 1941, they were only a slightly modified variant of the Model 1917. A United States Marine Corps engineer NCO is reported to have killed an enemy with a Model 1941 cutlass at Inchon during the Korean War. A cutlass is still carried by the recruit designated as the Recruit Chief Petty Officer for each recruit division while at the US Navy Recruit Training Command. In a message released 31 March 2010, the US Navy approved optional wear of a ceremonial cutlass as part of the Chief Petty Officer dress uniform, pending final design approval. That approval came in January 2011, and the cutlass was made available for ceremonial wear by Chief Petty Officers in August of that year.
See also
Elgin pistol
Chinese butterfly sword
Leadcutter sword
Sources and references
References
Single-edged swords
Early Modern European swords
American Civil War weapons
Piracy
18th-century weapons
19th-century weapons
Victorian-era weapons of the United Kingdom | [
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|
226091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Brener | Alexander Brener | Alexander Davidovich Brener () (born 1957, in Alma-Ata, Kazak ASSR, Soviet Union), is a Russian performance artist and a self-described political activist. He is considered one of the main figures of Moscow Actionism along with Oleg Kulik.
Work
Brener's performances of note include defecating in front of a painting by Vincent van Gogh at the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow, having sex in front of the Monument to Alexander Pushkin (Rostov-on-Don), and vandalizing art works by other artists.
He was jailed in 1997 for painting a green dollar sign on Kazimir Malevich's painting Suprematisme. In the court case Brener said in his defense:
The cross is a symbol of suffering, the dollar sign a symbol of trade and merchandise. On humanitarian grounds are the ideas of Jesus Christ of higher significance than those of the money. What I did was not against the painting. I view my act as a dialogue with Malevich.
Giancarlo Politi, the editor of Flash Art, resolutely defended Brener from the pages of his magazine, stirring controversy and campaigning for his acquittal. Brener was sentenced to five months in prison, where he wrote the essay Obossani Pistolet. In the text he explains his beliefs and summarizes his actions. In 2000 Brener disrupted the press conference of Manifesta 3 in Ljubljana by spraying slogans on the presentation screen and handing out leaflets stating: "Demolish neo-liberalist multicultural art system now!" Bodyguards came and dragged Brener out of the hall. He was later arrested by Slovenian secret police in the streets. In 2003 Brener vandalized the work of Swiss-Italian artist Gianni Motti during the opening of Motti's exhibition "Turnover" at Artra Gallery in Milan.
Brener co-wrote a number of books together with Austrian artist and critic Barbara Schurz, including Bukaka spat Here, Tattoos auf Gefängnissen, Anti Technologies of Resistance and The Art of Destruction.
Brener is mentioned in passing in Stewart Home's 2007 novel Memphis Underground.
An artwork by the art collective IOCOSE is dedicated to Brener.
Books
Furzende Völker: Ein Dokumental-Roman (2000, Austria, Edition Selene. )
Demolish Serious Culture! (2000, Austria, Edition Selene. )
Tattoos auf Gefängnissen (2001, Austria, Edition Selene. )
Bukaka Spat Here (2001, Austria, Edition Selene. ; 2002, UK, )
The Art of Destruction (2005, Austria)
See also
Neoism
References
External links
Article:
Article: 'Violence to Endurance: Extreme Curating' at the ICA
Letter of support for Brener: https://web.archive.org/web/20070116125615/http://www.ljudmila.org/embassy/brener.htm
Review: Josephine Berry, Bukaka Spat Here, Mute, Vol 1. no 24 Beach or Border?
1957 births
Living people
Russian performance artists
Russian contemporary artists
Russian Jews | [
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|
226092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Schurz | Barbara Schurz | Barbara Schurz (Russian transliteration: Барбара Шурц) (born 1973) is an Austrian artist and self-described "revolutionary activist".
Life and work
At Vienna University she pursued Slavic Studies and Women's Studies. Subsequently, she studied conceptual art at the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. She began traveling around the world, living as an artist and author in Moscow and Berlin, in addition to Vienna.
Schurz is best known for her books, co-written with Alexander Brener, that address the boundary between art and politics from an activist perspective. These are heavily influenced by poststructuralism, particularly the writings of Michel Foucault, and focus their attacks largely on capitalism and imperialism. Schurz accompanied Brener to the 'Violence to Endurance: Extreme Curating' art lecture at the ICA to both protest and involve themselves in the lecture. While there Brener defecated in front of the audience while Schurz threw peanuts at the lecturers.
Books
Was tun? (1999, )
Furzende Völker (2000, )
Tattoos auf Gefängnissen (2001, )
Bukaka Spat Here (2001, Austria, ; 2002, UK, )
References
1973 births
Living people
21st-century Austrian women artists
Austrian contemporary artists
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna alumni | [
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|
226096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20aircraft%20by%20date%20and%20usage%20category | List of aircraft by date and usage category | This is a list of aircraft by date and usage. The date shown is the introduction of the first model of a line but not the current model. For instance, while "the most popular" aircraft, such as Boeing 737 and 747 were introduced in 1960x, their recent models were revealed in the 21st century.
Civil aircraft
Civil air transport
Civil – general aviation
Military aircraft
Fighters
Bombers
Reconnaissance, electronic warfare and Airborne Early Warning
Carrier-based aircraft
Air support/attack aircraft
Training aircraft
Transport
Helicopters and Autogyros
Racing aircraft
Experimental aircraft
Seaplanes and Amphibians
References
Citations
Bibliography
Date and usage category
Aircraft | [
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226101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Tobin | Brian Tobin | Brian Vincent Tobin (born October 21, 1954) is a Canadian businessman and former politician. Tobin served as the sixth premier of Newfoundland from 1996 to 2000. Tobin was also a prominent Member of Parliament and served as a cabinet minister in Jean Chrétien's Liberal government.
Early life, education, and family
Tobin was born in Stephenville, Newfoundland. He studied political science at Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John's, but did not complete his degree. He worked a brief stint as a TV news announcer with NBC (now NTV) before joining the Liberal Party of Newfoundland and Labrador as a political aide to former federal Member of Parliament (MP) and federal cabinet minister Don Jamieson.
Tobin is married to Jodean (Smith) and they have three children: Heather, Adam, and Jack.
Political career
Tobin was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal in the 1980 election. He was re-elected in the 1984 election even though Brian Mulroney's, Progressive Conservative Party (PC) won the largest majority government in Canadian history. It was at this time however that Tobin gained prominence as a member of the "Rat Pack", which was the nickname given to a group of young, high-profile Canadian Liberal opposition MPs during Mulroney's government.
In government
Following the 1993 election in which the Liberals regained power from the Progressive Conservatives after almost a decade in opposition, Tobin was appointed Minister of Fisheries and Oceans.
In the ministry, Tobin distinguished himself from his colleagues with speeches rife with rhetoric and his youthful exuberance. Throughout 1994 he mounted a fierce campaign against foreign over-fishing of waters on the nose and tail of the Grand Banks, located just outside Canada's declared 200 nautical mile (370 km) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). People across Canada took notice of this new and aggressive posture, a position that had not been taken by a federal minister—Liberal or Conservative—since the EEZ was declared in 1977.
Critics note that Tobin was likely doing this to preserve his political life in his home province. At this point, Newfoundland and Labrador was wracked by rapidly rising unemployment and social unrest over the fiscal situation which many believed had been caused by federal mismanagement of foreign and domestic overfishing. This had resulted in the 1990 "Northern Cod Moratorium." In April 1995, Tobin's department was embroiled in the Turbot War (known in Spain as Guerra del Fletán). He received full backing of the United Kingdom and Ireland in the pursuit. Later that month, Tobin conducted an international news conference from a barge on the East River outside the United Nations headquarters and dramatically displayed an illegal, under Canadian Law, trawl net that had allegedly been cut from a Spanish trawler which was arrested outside the Canadian EEZ, on international waters. The net was over 16 stories high and was hung from a crane causing a media sensation. Tobin was accused by the arrested shipmen of ill-intentionally orchestrating a media-oriented frame-up to mislead attention from economic and public image problems Canada was facing.
Tobin helped organize a pro-Canada rally in Montreal before the October 1995 Quebec referendum—busing in thousands of university students and other residents from English Canada. For his roles as Fisheries Minister and in the referendum, he earned the nickname "Captain Canada".
Premier of Newfoundland
In 1996, Tobin resigned from federal politics to succeed Clyde Wells as leader of the governing Liberal Party of Newfoundland and premier. The Liberal Party won a large majority government later that year. During his time as premier Tobin pursued tough negotiations with out-of-province companies seeking to export resources for refining and smelting elsewhere. He insisted that the resources will never be mined unless Newfoundlanders received secondary manufacturing and tertiary service spin-offs. A similar tough stance was taken in seeking to develop the Lower Churchill River, keeping in mind the contract his predecessor Joey Smallwood had negotiated. His Liberals won re-election in 1999.
It was also during this time in the lead-up to the millennium that Newfoundland undertook an aggressive tourism marketing campaign which focused on important anniversaries such as the 500th year since John Cabot's voyage of discovery (1997), as well as the 1000th year since Vikings, such as Leif Ericson, made landfall on the province's shores (2000).
Return to federal politics
In October 2000, Tobin suddenly resigned to join the federal Cabinet and run for re-election to the House of Commons in a snap election called by Governor General Adrienne Clarkson on the advice of her prime minister, Jean Chrétien. Chrétien advised that his friend be appointed as Minister of Industry before the election, replacing John Manley, and Tobin was easily elected in the riding of Bonavista—Trinity—Conception. His departure from the premiership caused speculation among Newfoundlanders and Canadians about his aspirations for the leadership of the federal Liberals following what was assumed would be Chrétien's final term as prime minister. Tobin's position in Industry would allow him to develop a relationship with the nation's business leaders who would ultimately be financing any potential leadership campaign. In January 2002, Tobin abruptly resigned both his cabinet portfolio and parliament seat. Observers interpreted that his departure of federal politics was due to his frustration at the stranglehold on the future leadership of the Liberal party by the then Minister of Finance, Paul Martin, and possibly because Chrétien had promoted Manley to Deputy Prime Minister, which designated Manley as a preferred successor.
Post-political career
In retirement from politics, Tobin has served on the board of several Canadian corporations. He became CEO of Magna International Developments (MID), controller of Magna's vast real estate and horse track holdings, the latter through Magna Entertainment Corporation. After only a few months in the position, he left after disagreements with Magna chairman and controlling shareholder Frank Stronach. The dispute was supposedly over the propriety of a share buyback program, while others suggested that it was because Stronach would not give Tobin autonomy to operate. Tobin has since joined the libertarian think-tank the Fraser Institute. In the past, Tobin had referred to the Fraser Institute and its fellows as "Loony-Tunes". It is there that Tobin began his association with the ideas and political plans of Preston Manning and Mike Harris. Tobin is also a Senior Business Advisor with Fraser Milner Casgrain LLP in Toronto and is a member of the firm's Public Policy Group.Through his involvement in policy decisions first entered as ideals at the Fraser Institute, Tobin has influenced the sale of energy interests in Alberta including the sale of two billion dollars worth of Alberta oil and gas interests to Abu Dhabi a Middle Eastern company through their Houston affiliate as shown on the Fraser Milner Casgrain website.
In 2003 Tobin authored his biography titled "All In Good Time".
With the defeat of the Liberals in the 2006 Canadian federal election to Stephen Harper's Conservatives, Prime Minister Martin resigned from the leadership of the party. There were frequent rumors that Tobin, and other former cabinet colleagues Allan Rock and John Manley would run to succeed Martin. On January 31, 2006, Tobin officially announced that he would not be running for the federal Liberal leadership.
On December 25, 2010, Tobin's son Jack was charged with impaired driving causing death over an incident in which his best friend, Alex Zolpis, was killed. His son later pleaded guilty and was granted full parole just over a year into a three-year sentence.
He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada on 19 November 2012. His citation reads:
Brian Tobin is highly regarded for his strong and principled leadership. As a federal cabinet minister, he was instrumental in leading the implementation of the Oceans Act, which provides a unique framework for modern ocean management. He also took a strong stance against offshore over-fishing by foreign fleets. His term as premier of Newfoundland and Labrador was marked by important economic reforms to traditional industries, the modernization of the educational system, and the development of the offshore oil and gas industry. In the corporate sector, he is known for his commitment to sound governance and corporate social responsibility.
In April 2013, BMO Capital Markets, the investment & corporate banking arm of BMO Financial Group, announced that it hired Tobin as Vice-Chair.
References
External links
1954 births
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Living people
Members of the 26th Canadian Ministry
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Newfoundland and Labrador
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Liberal Party of Newfoundland and Labrador MHAs
Premiers of Newfoundland and Labrador
People from Stephenville, Newfoundland and Labrador
Memorial University of Newfoundland alumni
Officers of the Order of Canada | [
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|
226105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Drummond | Bill Drummond | William Ernest Drummond (born 29 April 1953) is a Scottish artist, musician, writer and record producer. He was the co-founder of late 1980s avant-garde pop group The KLF and its 1990s media-manipulating successor, the K Foundation, with which he famously burned £1 million in 1994. More recent art activities, carried out under Drummond's chosen banner of the Penkiln Burn, include making and distributing cakes, soup, flowers, beds and shoe-shines. More recent music projects include No Music Day, and the international tour of a choir called The17. Drummond is the author of several books about art and music.
Background
William Ernest Drummond was born in Butterworth, South Africa, where his father was a minister for the Church of Scotland. His family moved back to Scotland when he was 18 months old, and his early years were spent in the town of Newton Stewart. He moved to Corby, Northamptonshire at the age of 11. It was here that he first became involved in performing as a musician, initially working with school friends such as Gary Carson and Chris Ward. He attended the University of Northampton and the Art and Design Academy from 1970 to 1973. He later decided that "art should use everything, be everywhere" and that, as an artist, he would "use whatever medium is to hand". He spent two years working as a milkman, gardener, steel worker, nursing assistant, theatre carpenter, and scene painter. Drummond also worked on a trawler.
Career
1970s: Illuminatus, Big in Japan, and Zoo
In 1975 Drummond began working at the Everyman Theatre, Liverpool as a carpenter and scene painter. In 1976 he was the set designer for the first stage production of The Illuminatus Trilogy, a 12-hour performance which opened on 23 November 1976, and which was staged by Ken Campbell's "Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool". The production transferred to the National Theatre, and then the Roundhouse, in London. According to Campbell, Drummond became known as "the man who went for Araldite": "In the middle of a tour, Drummond announced he was popping out to get some glue – and never returned." Drummond later wrote that none of his career would have happened as it did if not for what he learnt from Campbell, starting with the advice "Bill, don’t bother doing anything unless it is heroic!"
After absconding from the Illuminatus! production in London, Drummond returned to Liverpool and co-founded the band Big in Japan. Other members included Holly Johnson (Frankie Goes to Hollywood), Budgie (Siouxsie and the Banshees), Jayne Casey (Pink Military/Pink Industry) and Ian Broudie (The Lightning Seeds). After the band's demise, Drummond and another member, his best friend David Balfe, founded Zoo Records. Zoo's first release was Big in Japan's posthumous EP, From Y To Z and Never Again. They went on to act as producers of the debut albums by Echo & the Bunnymen and The Teardrop Explodes, both of which Drummond would later manage somewhat idiosyncratically. With Zoo Music Ltd, Drummond and Balfe were also music publishers for Zodiac Mindwarp and The Love Reaction and The Proclaimers. The production team of Drummond and Balfe was christened The Chameleons, who recorded the single "Touch" together with singer Lori Lartey as Lori and the Chameleons and were involved with the production on Echo & the Bunnymen's debut album, released on the Korova label.
1980s: A&R man & solo recording artist
Drummond later took a job in the mainstream music business as an A&R consultant for the label WEA working with, amongst others, Strawberry Switchblade and Brilliant. In July 1986, on his 33 and a third birthday, Drummond repented his corporate involvement and resigned his job by way of a "ringingly quixotic press release": "I will be 33.5 (sic) years old in September, a time for a revolution in my life. There is a mountain to climb the hard way, and I want to see the world from the top..." (In an interview in December 1990, Drummond recalled spending half a million pounds at WEA on the band Brilliant – for whom he envisioned massive worldwide success – only for them to completely flop. "At that point I thought 'What am I doing this for?' and I got out.")
Drummond was "obviously very sharp," said WEA chairman Rob Dickens, "and he knew the business. But he was too radical to be happy inside a corporate structure. He was better off working as an outsider."
Later in the year, Drummond issued a solo album, The Man, a country/folk music recording, backed by Australian rock group The Triffids. The album was released on Creation Records and included the sardonic "Julian Cope Is Dead", where he outlined his fantasy of shooting the Teardrop Explodes frontman in the head, to ensure the band's early demise and subsequent legendary status. The song has commonly been seen as a reply to the Cope song "Bill Drummond Said". Drummond wrote and performed "The Manager", filmed by Bill Butt in which he lamented the state of the music industry and offered his services at £100 a time to help fix it; one of his complaints was about remixes: "songs have to be written, not layered". The spoken-word recording also appeared as a B-side, and on some compilations as "The Manager's Speech".
The Man received positive reviews – including 4 stars from Q Magazine; and 5 from Sounds Magazine who called the album a "touching if idiosyncratic biographical statement". Drummond intended to focus on writing books once The Man had been issued but, as he recalled in 1990, "That only lasted three months, until I had an[other] idea for a record and got dragged back into it all".
1987–1992: The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu, The Timelords and The KLF
While out walking on New Year's Day 1987, Drummond formulated a plan to make a hip-hop record. However, "I wasn't brave enough to go and do it myself", he said. "...although I can play the guitar, and I can knock out a few things on the piano, I knew nothing, personally, about the technology. And, I thought, I knew Jimmy [Cauty], I knew he was a like spirit, we share similar tastes and backgrounds in music and things. So I phoned him up that day and said 'Let's form a band called The Justified Ancients of Mu-Mu'. And he knew exactly, to coin a phrase, 'where I was coming from'".
Drummond and Cauty (who Drummond had signed to Food/WEA as a member of Brilliant) released their first single, The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu's "All You Need Is Love", in March 1987. This was followed by an album – 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) – in June of the same year, and a high-profile copyright dispute with ABBA and the Mechanical-Copyright Protection Society. A second album – Who Killed The JAMs?, also the last album under the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (The JAMs) name, was released in February 1988.
Later in 1988, Drummond and Cauty released a 'novelty' pop single, "Doctorin' the Tardis" as The Timelords. The song reached number one in the UK Singles Chart on 12 June, and charted highly in Australia and New Zealand. On the back of this success, the duo self-published a book, The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way).
In late 1988, the duo and released their first singles under the moniker The KLF, "Burn the Bastards" and "Burn the Beat" (both taken from the JAMs' last album). (From late 1987, Drummond and Cauty's independent record label had been named "KLF Communications".) As The KLF, Drummond and Cauty would amass fame and fortune. "What Time Is Love?" – a signature song which they would revisit and revitalise several times in the coming years – saw its first release in July 1988, and its success spawned an album, The "What Time Is Love?" Story, in September 1989.
Chill Out, an ambient house album which had its roots in Cauty's chill-out sessions with The Orb's Alex Paterson, was released in February 1990. Described by The Times as "The KLF's comedown classic", Chill Out was named the fifth best dance album of all time in a 1996 Mixmag feature.
The KLF's commercial success peaked in 1991, with The White Room album and the accompanying "Stadium House" singles, remixes of 1988's "What Time Is Love?", 1989's "3 a.m. Eternal", 1990's "Last Train to Trancentral"; and "Justified and Ancient", a new song based on a sample from 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?)
In 1992, The KLF were awarded the "Best British group" BRIT Award. With grindcore group Extreme Noise Terror, The KLF performed a live "violently antagonistic performance" of "3 a.m. Eternal" at the BRIT Awards ceremony in front of "a stunned music-business audience".
Later in the evening Drummond and Cauty dumped a dead sheep at the entrance to one of the post-ceremony parties. NME listed this appearance at number 4 in their "top 100 rock moments", and, in 2003, The Observer named it the fifth greatest "publicity stunt" in the history of popular music.
On 14 May 1992, The KLF announced their immediate retirement from the music industry and the deletion of their entire back catalogue, an act which associate Scott Piering described as "[throwing] away a fortune".
When he left WEA, Drummond issued an enigmatic press release, this time talking of a "wild and wounded, glum and glorious, shit but shining path" he and Cauty had been following "...these past five years. The last two of which has led us up onto the commercial high ground—we are at a point where the path is about to take a sharp turn from these sunny uplands down into a netherworld of we know not what." There have been numerous suggestions that in 1992 Drummond was at the edge of a nervous breakdown. Vox Magazine wrote, for example, that 1992 was "the year of Bill's 'breakdown', when The KLF, perched on the peak of greater-than-ever success, quit the music business, ... [and] machine gunned the tuxedo'd twats in the front row of that year's BRIT Awards ceremony." Drummond himself said that he was on the edge of the "abyss".
1993–1997: K Foundation, burning one million pounds, and other activities with Jimmy Cauty
Despite The KLF's retirement from the music business, Drummond's involvement with Jimmy Cauty was far from over. In 1993, the pair regrouped as the K Foundation, ostensibly a foundation for the arts. They established the K Foundation art award for the "worst artist of the year". The award, worth £40,000, was presented to Rachel Whiteread on 23 November 1993 outside London's Tate Gallery. Ms Whiteread had just accepted the £20,000 1993 Turner Prize award for best British Contemporary artist inside the gallery. The K Foundation award attracted huge interest from the British broadsheet newspapers.
Infamy followed when, on 23 August 1994, the K Foundation burnt what remained of The KLF's earnings, one million pounds, at a boathouse on the Scottish island of Jura. A film of the event – Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid – was taken on tour, with Drummond and Cauty discussing the incineration with members of the public after each screening. In 2004 Drummond admitted to the BBC that he now regretted burning the money. "It's a hard one to explain to your kids and it doesn't get any easier. I wish I could explain why I did it so people would understand."
On 4 September 1995 the duo recorded "The Magnificent" for The Help Album. In 1997, Drummond and Cauty briefly re-emerged as 2K and K2 Plant Hire Ltd. with various plans to "Fuck the Millennium". K2 Plant Hire's published aim was to "build a massive pyramid containing one brick for every person born in the UK during the 20th century" Members of the public were urged to donate bricks, with 1.5 bricks per Briton being needed to complete the project. Drummond also contributed a short story titled "Let’s Grind, or How K2 Plant Hire Ltd Went to Work" to the book "Disco 2000".
Music post-KLF
In 1996-1997 Bill Drummond did a music project in Finland, with Mark Manning and a selection of Finnish artists.
Drummond's involvement in the music industry has been minimal since his final collaboration with Jimmy Cauty as 2K in 1997.
In 1998, the Scottish Football Association invited Drummond to write and record a theme song for the Scotland national football team's 1998 FIFA World Cup campaign. Drummond decided against doing it (Del Amitri got the job) but he wondered if he had twisted fate by declining, because the other major football songs of that year were made by associates of his: Keith Allen ("Vindaloo") and Ian Broudie ("Three Lions"), two men he had met on the same day when working on Illuminatus! in 1976, and former protege Ian McCulloch.
In 2000, Drummond released 45, a book consisting of a "series of loosely related vignettes forming the rambling diary of one year." 45 also explored Drummond's KLF legacy, and was well received by the press.
Drummond featured on Seeming's 2020 album The Birdwatcher's Guide to Atrocity, performing the spoken-word portion of "Learn to Vanish". It was his first appearance on record in 20 years.
Art activities and the Penkiln Burn
Drummond studied painting at Liverpool School of Art from 1972 to 1973. Following that, he decided that instead of limiting his practice to paint and canvas, as an artist he would use any medium that came to hand. He has said that much of his work since – including the pop-music, book-writing, and The17 choir – has been done as art.
From 1998, Drummond's art activities have been carried out using the brand-name of the Penkiln Burn. This is the name of the river in Scotland upon the banks of which he played and fished as a boy.
In 1995, Drummond bought A Smell of Sulphur in the Wind by Richard Long, for $20,000. In Drummond’s own words, he 'fell in love with Richard Long’s work because' "it was art by walking and doing things on his walks." Five years later, Drummond felt that he was no longer "getting his money's worth" from the photograph. He decided to try to sell it by placing a series of placards around the country. When this failed to result in its sale, in 2001 he cut the photograph and mounting card into 20,000 pieces to sell for $1 each. His plan, upon retrieving the $20,000 in cash, is to walk with it to the remote place in Iceland where Richard Long had made the photograph and bury it in a box beneath the stone circle. He will then take his own photograph of the site, bring it home, frame it, hang it in the same place in his bedroom where the Richard Long hung, and call the new work The Smell of Money Underground. Drummond's books How to be an Artist and a later soft-bound edition titled $20,000 recounts this story.
In 2002, Drummond was involved in a controversial exhibition at the deconsecrated St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church, Liverpool. Drummond contributed a guestbook which asked visitors "Is God a Cunt?". It was later reported that the artwork had been stolen and a £1000 reward offered for its return. Drummond himself said that he would answer "no" to his own question: "God is responsible for all the things I love, the speckles on a brown trout; the sound of Angus Young's guitar, the nape of my girlfriend's neck, the song of the blackcap when he returns in Spring. I never blame God for all the shit, for the baby Rwandan slaughtered in a casual genocide, the ever-present wars, drudgery and misery that fills most of our lives."
Several Penkiln Burn projects involve making things and then distributing them. Drummond has created a Soup Line drawn across a map going through Belfast and Nottingham to the edges of the British Isles. Anyone living on the Soup Line may contact Drummond to come to their house and make soup for them, their family and friends. Drummond has also constructed – and encourages others to construct – Cake Circles drawn on maps. Cakes are then made and delivered to people who live within the circle with the words "I have baked you a cake, here it is". Other projects involve Drummond building beds from timber in public places which are then raffled off. In 2011, for the Venice Biennale, Drummond took up shoe-shining on the streets of Venice. Each spring, Drummond gives away 40 bunches of daffodils to strangers on the street in different cities.
Drummond's web-based projects include MyDeath.net, where people can plan their own funeral. Another site, youwhores.com, was meant for anyone to advertise any kind of service at their own set price. Due to misuse though, youwhores.com has become archival only. Still open for contributions is Drummond's website www.openmanifesto.com which "exists to define what art is and art is not." The Open Manifesto site invites definitions of art in 100 words or less.
Drummond was a Director of The Foundry, an arts centre in Shoreditch, London which closed in 2010. He is also owner of The Curfew Tower in Cushendall, Northern Ireland. Via an arts trust called in You We Trust, the Curfew Tower acts as an artists' residency.
No Music Day
In 2005, Drummond announced an annual No Music Day on 21 November. The 22 November is Saint Cecilia day – the Patron Saint of Music – so No Music Day represents a fast before the feast. No Music Day was held between 2005 and 2010. In this time, BBC Radio Scotland observed it by broadcasting no music, including jingles, for 24 hours. Radio Resonance FM also acknowledged it. In 2009 the entire city of Linz, Austria observed No Music Day with the backing of the city mayor; music was not played on local radio stations or in shops, and the cinemas only showed films without music soundtracks. No Music Day is documented at www.nomusicday.com
There is evidence on their last TOTP performance in the subtext printed by TOTP from December 1991 that No Music Day was already a thing in Bill Drummonds mindscape. Unfortunately the link is blocked but a simple search will pull it up. look for Top of the Pops KLF December 1991
The17
Drummond's most recent music project is a choir called The17. His first formal performance of The17 was staged with 16 other men in a studio in Leicester in 2004. It followed thoughts about music that Drummond had been having for many years. With the advent of recorded music via the internet, iPods and MP3 players etc. Drummond proclaims that "all recorded music has run its course." The17 creates music that follows no musical history, or necessarily has words, melodies or rhythms. It may be made up of many human voices or none. Performances may only be recorded and played back once and then deleted. The17 can be made up of as many people who want to be a part of it at the time of a performance; they are all then lifetime members.
After the first 17 Scores for The17 Drummond opened the writing process to collaborations with The17 members. The17 now has several thousand members who have carried out performances on Drummond's Coast-to-Coast tour across the UK, and a World Tour which has included Jerusalem, Beijing, Port-au-Prince and Gothenburg. 100 performances REPEAT in the town of Derby as a residency for the new Quad arts centre titled Slice Through Derby, were photographed as an ongoing exhibit at the gallery and published as a 100 piece photoset. Performances and actions in Port-au-Prince for the Ghetto Biennale at the end of 2009 preceded the January Haitian earthquake, and the habitual graffito "Imagine Waking Up Tomorrow And All Music Has Disappeared" took on a new resonance in a city with no electricity or infrastructure, rendered suddenly -relatively - musicless. Local artist Claudel Casseus wrote an account of this for Drummond during the reconstruction published as a book Imajine (Penkiln Burn 14, 2011), and Drummond's own feelings on the residency and the17 actions, Haiti and the earthquake form four of the interview questions in Drummond's 100 project originally posed by Radio 4.
The17 is the subject of the 2008 book 17 published by Beautiful Books/PB (Penkiln Burn 12, 2008). This was preceded by a small book SCORES 18-76 (Penkiln Burn 11, 2006) featuring the second batch of works by The17, developed in actions in schools in the North East of England, in May 2006, Performances, scores, tours and Drummond's related graffiti are documented on a website: the17.org.
In 2012 Drummond had a residency in Sheffield at Site Gallery, and the17 were convened at sites around the city, the actions performed here are recounted in the book Ragworts (Penkiln Burn 18, 2012) and led to the instigation of the annual Ragwort Week. The book was published in an edition of 1000 copies, and 100 copies are made available each year and sold only during Ragwort Week.
A performance of The17's SURROUND, originally planned to take place in Damascus, Syria, took place in London on 18 March 2012. Drummond explains in his essay for Treuchet Magazine: 'it would best for all concerned if the Syrian leg of the tri-nation festival was postponed for a few weeks or maybe months, when things would have undoubtedly settled down'.
The Atlantic Archipelago
Between 8-19 April 2012 saw a series of Drummond actions and invocations of The17 in a performance titled The Atlantic Archipelago. This was to mark the conclusion of the 17 project, or at least its curation by Drummond. It began with a performance of Man Bangs a Drum - which would become a staple of his later 25 Paintings tour - on Skegness beach, before heading west along a straight line drawn across a map crossing Matthew St in Liverpool, and ending in Inshmore in Ireland. The17 were summoned at various locations along this line and the preparations for these performances were filmed by director Stefan Schwietert for a film Coast to Coast, and documented by photographer Tracey Moberly for a book of the same name.
On 28 April 2013, the day before his 60th birthday, Drummond took part in what has been billed as the last performance of The17. A seventeen-hour version of Score 1: IMAGINE was performed while standing on a manhole cover at the bottom of Mathew Street in Liverpool.
Between 3 and 8 July - Drummond screened a film of his Atlantic Archipelago project, Imagine Waking Up Tomorrow And All Music Has Disappeared along the same 53.1256 degree line of latitude the original performances had been undertaken. Beginning at the home of film and gender theorist Ellen Wright, in Louth, Lincolnshire, with a version of The17 which include musicians Robert Wyatt, Hell Uberend and Dave Formula. before moving on to a dawn screening on Skegness beach, through the various locations featured in the film, taking in The Galway Film Fleadh (the only paid ticketed event on the tour), culminating in a sunset screening at Dún Aonghasa on the west coast of Ireland.
Between dawn on Monday the 4th of July to sunset on Friday 8 July, Bill Drummond will be screening the film at numerous locations along the latitude ofs North.
The 25 Paintings World Tour: 2014–2025
In February 2014, Drummond announced plans for a world tour, beginning under Spaghetti Junction in Birmingham on 13 March 2014 and ending at the same place on 28 April 2025. Taking in twelve cities in twelve different countries, each leg of the tour will last three months, during which he will produce 25 paintings whilst working on other art projects.
A book The 25 Paintings (Penkiln Burn 19; 2014) featured the paintings themselves in their initial states - to be repainted in different cities of the tour, each describing the different art actions that would for his practice during the following years - some new, some well established - and which would replace the 17 in his repertoire. Other paintings and actions are expected to evolve as the tour progresses and the canvasses are reworked.
So far the 25 Paintings Tour has travelled to:
2014: Birmingham, UK
2015: Belgrade, Serbia
2016: Kolkata, India
2018: Lexington, North Carolina, USA
and will conclude in
2027: Damascus, Syria
Best Before Death / White Saviour Complex
A film Best Before Death covering the actions (jobs) Bang Drum, Man Made Bed, Make Soup and Man Shines Shoes during the 2016 Kolkata, India and 2018 Lexington, North Carolina legs of the world tour was made by Paul Duane, Robbie Ryan (Kolkata) and Patrick Jordan (Lexington). The finished film had difficulties gaining distribution and festival screenings as it was criticised as being an example of White Saviour Complex.
Drummond wrote a play in his Tenzig Scott Brown persona called White Saviour Complex consisting of three acts, two of which formed a dialogue between Drummond as Brown, and the actor Tam Dean Burn playing Drummond, Duane's film formed the second act, and this toured the UK and its script became a book (Penkiln Burn 22, 2019).
The DVD Release of Best Before Death (Anti-Worlds, 2019) featured a booklet with a piece written by Drummond called Best Before death and featuring the script for an imaginary film by Tenzing Scott Brown called Bad Wisdom.
Return of The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu
Drummond reunited with Jimmy Cauty in 2017. They returned as The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu, with a novel - 2023: A Trilogy - and a 3-day festival, "Welcome to the Dark Ages". Cauty confirmed that the duo's work is an ongoing project.
Reviews, accolades and criticism
In 1993, Select magazine published a list of the 100 Coolest People in Pop. Drummond was number one on the list. "What has this giant of coolness not achieved?", they asked: "Like the Monolith in 2001: A Space Odyssey, Drummond has always been a step ahead of human evolution, guiding us on. Manager of The Teardrop Explodes, co-inventor of ambient and trance house, number one pop star, situationist pagan, folk troubadour, pan-dimensional zenarchist gentleman of leisure...and then, ladies and gentlemen, he THROWS IT ALL AWAY, machine-guns the audience and dumps a dead sheep on the doorstep of the Brit Awards and vanishes to build dry-stone walls. His new 'band' The K Foundation make records but say they won't release them at all until world peace is established. Deranged, inspired, intensely cool."
Also in 1993, an NME piece about the K Foundation found much to praise in Drummond's career, from Zoo Records through to the K Foundation art award: "Bill Drummond's career is like no other... there's been cynicism... and there's been care (no one who didn't love pop music could have made a record so commercial and so Pet Shop Boys-lovely as 'Kylie Said to Jason', or the madly wonderful 'Last Train to Trancentral', or the Tammy Wynette version of 'Justified and Ancient'). There's been mysticism... But most of all there's been a belief that, both in music and life, there's something more."
Charles Shaar Murray wrote in The Independent that "[Bill] Drummond is many things, and one of those things is a magician. Many of his schemes... involve symbolically-weighted acts conducted away from the public gaze and documented only by Drummond himself and his participating comrades. Nevertheless, they are intended to have an effect on a worldful of people unaware that the act in question has taken place. That is magical thinking. Art is magic, and so is pop. Bill Drummond is a cultural magician..."
In 2001, NME readers voted "the KLF's Art Terrorism" at the Brit Awards in 1992 at number 4 in the "top 100 Rock moments of all time." NME also ranked Drummond as number 17 in its 20 "Greatest Cult Heroes" in 2010.
Art Review's artworld "Power 100" listed Drummond as number 98 in 2003.
Trouser Press has referred to Drummond as a "high-concept joker".
In 2006, Drummond's book 45 was ranked 21 in the Observer's list of "The 50 greatest music books ever". Kitty Empire of the Guardian included 45 in her list of "10 best music memoirs". in 2010. 45 also featured in a 2010 book list compiled by Belle & Sebastian.
BBC Radio 1 in 2006 included Drummond in a survey of "Most Punk Persons". Virgin Media ranked Drummond at number 8 in a list of "Most Eccentric Musicians".
Julian Cope said in 2000, "I have no relationship with this guy. He burned a million pounds which was not all his, and some of it was mine. People should pay off their creditors before they pull intellectual dry-wank stunts like that."
Drummond's 1986 solo album The Man is among Uncut Magazine's 2010 list of "Greatest Lost Albums".
Artistic output
Discography (solo)
The Man (Creation Records, 1986)
The King of Joy (Creation Records, 1986)
Exhibitions
How to be an Artist (OUTPOST, Norwich, 2004)
Ragworts (Site Gallery, Sheffield, 2012)
The 25 Paintings (Eastside Projects, Birmingham, 2014)
Bibliography
The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way), with Jimmy Cauty as The Timelords (KLF Publications, 1988)
A Bible of Dreams, with Mark Manning (Curfew Press, 1994)
Bad Wisdom, with Mark Manning (Penguin Books, 1996; Creation Books, 2003)
From the Shores of Lake Placid and other stories (Ellipsis, 1998)
Annual Report to The Mavericks, Writers And Film Festival (Penkiln Burn, 1998)
45 (Penkiln Burn, 2000)
How To Be An Artist (Penkiln Burn, 2002)
Wild Highway, with Mark Manning (Creation Books, 2005)
Scores 18–76 (Penkiln Burn, 2006)
17 (Beautiful Books, 2008). .
$20,000 (Penkiln Burn, 2010 – second edition of How To Be An Artist) (Beautiful Books Limited (UK), 2010) .
Man Makes Bed (Penkiln Burn 2011)
Imajine by Claudel Casseus with Introduction by Bill Drummond (Penkiln Burn, 2011)
Man Shines Shoes (Penkiln Burn, 2011)
Ragworts (Penkiln Burn, 2012)
100 (Penkiln Burn, 2012)
The 25 Paintings (Penkiln Burn, 2014)
Bill Drummond-Lecture at Spoiler, Vienna 2002. (Robert Jelinek, Ed.) Der Konterfei 011, 2015,
Missionary Or Cannibal? (Penkiln Burn/Blurb, Inc., 2015)
2023: A Trilogy, with Jimmy Cauty as The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (Faber and Faber, 2017)
As Tenzing Scott Brown: White Saviour Complex, a play (Penkiln Burn, 2019)
Projects
The17
No Music Day
Football
Bill Drummond is a fan of Scottish football club Queen of the South, which he says is due to their proximity to his home town of Newton Stewart. "Queen of the South" is also the title of the sixth track on his 1986 album, The Man.
Notes
References
1953 births
Living people
People from Mnquma Local Municipality
South African people of Scottish descent
The KLF members
British conceptual artists
Creation Records artists
Scottish record producers
Scottish artists
Scottish rock musicians
Scottish music managers
Scottish writers
People from Newton Stewart
Scouse culture of the early 1980s
Alumni of the University of Northampton
Big in Japan (band) members | [
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|
226109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single%20parent | Single parent | A single parent is a person who lives with a child or children and who does not have a spouse or live-in partner. Reasons for becoming a single parent include divorce, break-up, abandonment, domestic violence, rape, death of the other parent, childbirth by a single person or single-person adoption. A single parent family is a family with children that is headed by a single parent.
History
Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental mortality rate due to disease, wars, homicide, work accidents and maternal mortality. Historical estimates indicate that in French, English, or Spanish villages in the 17th and 18th centuries at least one-third of children lost one of their parents during childhood; in 19th-century Milan, about half of all children lost at least one parent by age 20; in 19th-century China, almost one-third of boys had lost one parent or both by the age of 15. Such single parenthood was often short in duration, since remarriage rates were high.
Divorce was generally rare historically (although this depends by culture and era), and divorce especially became very difficult to obtain after the fall of the Roman Empire, in Medieval Europe, due to strong involvement of ecclesiastical courts in family life (though annulment and other forms of separation were more common).
Demographics
Households
Among all households in OECD countries in 2011, the proportion of single-parent households was in 3-11% the range, with an average of 7.5%. It was highest in Australia (10%), Canada (10%), Mexico (10%), United States (10%), Lithuania (10%), Costa Rica (11%), Latvia (11%) and New Zealand (11%), while it was lowest in Japan (3%), Greece (4%), Switzerland (4%), Bulgaria (5), Croatia (5%), Germany (5%), Italy (5%) and Cyprus (5%). The proportion was 9% in both Ireland and the United Kingdom.
Among households with children in 2005/09, the proportion of single-parent households was 10% in Japan, 16% in the Netherlands, 19% in Sweden, 20% in France, 22% in Denmark, 22% in Germany, 23% in Ireland, 25% in Canada, 25% in the United Kingdom, and 30% in the United States. The U.S. proportion increased from 20% in 1980 to 30% in 2008.
In all OECD countries, most single-parent households were headed by a mother. The proportion headed by a father varied between 9% and 25%. It was lowest in Estonia (9%), Costa Rica (10%), Cyprus (10%), Japan (10%), Ireland (10%) and the United Kingdom (12%), while it was highest in Norway (22%), Spain (23%), Sweden (24%), Romania (25%) and the United States (25%). These numbers were not provided for Canada, Australia or New Zealand.
Children
In 2016/17, the proportion of children living in a single-parent household varied between 6% and 28% in the different OECD countries, with an OECD country average of 17%. It was lowest in Turkey (2015, 6%), Greece (8%), Croatia (8%) and Poland (10%), while it was highest in France (23%), United Kingdom (23%), Belgium (25%), Lithuania (25%), United States (27%) and Latvia (28%). It was 19% in Ireland and Canada.
Among children living in a single-parent household, most live primarily with their mother, others primarily with their father, while other children have a shared parenting arrangement where they spend an approximately equal amount of time with their two parents. Among those living primarily with one single parent, most live with their mother. In 2016 (or latest year available), the proportion of 6-12 year olds living primarily with their single father ranged between 5% and 36% among the different OECD countries. It was highest in Belgium (17%), Iceland (19%), Slovenia (20%), France (22%), Norway (23%) and Sweden (36%), while it was lowest in Lithuania (4%), Ireland (5%), Poland (5%), Estonia (7%), Austria (7%) and the United Kingdom (8%). It was 15% in the United States.
In 2005/06, the proportion of 11- to 15-year-old children living in a shared parenting arrangement versus with only one of their parents varied between 1% and 17%, being the highest in Sweden. It was 5% in Ireland and the United States, and 7% in Canada and the United Kingdom. By 2016/17, the percentage in Sweden had increased to 28%.
Impact on parents
Single mothers
Over 9.5 million American families are run by one woman. Single mothers are likely to have mental health issues, financial hardships, live in a low income area, and receive low levels of social support. All of these factors are taken into consideration when evaluating the mental health of single mothers. The occurrence of moderate to severe mental disability was more pronounced among single mothers at 28.7% compared to partnered mothers at 15.7%. These mental disabilities include but are not limited to anxiety and depression. Financial hardships also affect the mental health of single mothers. Women, ages 15–24, were more likely to live in a low socio-economic area, have one child, and not to have completed their senior year of high school. These women reported to be in the two lowest income areas, and their mental health was much poorer than those in higher income areas.
A similar study on the mental health of single mothers attempted to answer the question, "Are there differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, between married, never-married, and separated/divorced mothers?" Statistically, never married, and separated/divorced mothers had the highest regularities of drug abuse, personality disorder and PTSD. The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.
Studies from the 1970s showed that single mothers who are not financially stable are more likely to experience depression. In a more current study it was proven that financial strain was directly correlated with sky rocket levels of depression. Among low-income, single mothers, depressive symptoms may be as high as 60%.
Inadequate access to mental health care services is prevalent amongst impoverished women. Low-income women are less likely to receive mental health care for numerous reasons. Mental health services remain inequitable for low-income, more so, low-income single women are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and other poor mental health outcomes. Researchers Copeland and Snyder (2011) addressed the barriers low-income single mothers have on receiving mental health care, "Visible barriers often include the lack of community resources, transportation, child care, convenient hours, and financial resources." Meanwhile, low-income single mothers are more likely to bring their children in for mental health treatment than themselves. Researchers Copeland and Snyder analyzed sixty-four African American mothers who brought their children in for mental health treatment. These mothers were then screened for mild, moderate, and severe depression and/or anxiety. After three months the researchers used an ethnographic interview to address whether or not the participants used mental health services that were referred to them. Results indicated that the majority of the participants did not use the referred mental health care services for reasons that included: fear of losing their children, being hospitalized and/or stigmatized by their community counterparts.
Impact on children
According to David Blankenhorn, Patrick Fagan, Mitch Pearlstein David Popenoe and Barbara Dafoe Whitehead, living in a single parent family is strongly correlated with school failure and problems of delinquency, drug use, teenage pregnancies, poverty, and welfare dependency in the United States. Using multilevel modelling, Suet-Ling Pong has shown that a high proportion of American children from single parent families perform poorly on mathematics and reading achievement tests.
In Sweden, Emma Fransson et al. have shown that children living with one single parent have worse well-being in terms of physical health behavior, mental health, peer friendships, bullying, cultural activities, sports, and family relationships, compared to children from intact families. As a contrast, children in a shared parenting arrangement that live approximately equal amount of time with their divorced mother and father have about the same well-being as children from intact families and better outcomes than children with only one custodial parent.
The United Kingdom Office for National Statistics has reported that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems, including being twice as likely to suffer from mental illness. Both British and American researchers show that children with no fathers are three times more likely to be unhappy, and are also more likely to engage in anti-social behavior, abuse substances and engage in juvenile deliquency.
Impact on American society
In 2017, the U.S Census Bureau published a report breaking down the number of children living in single parent households by the race of the family. The report found dramatic disparities in the rates of single parent families among the races examined.
Cultural norms and attitudes
There is some debate among experts as to what the important component of the family structure is, particularly in the US, centring on whether or not a complete family or the love and affection of the children's parents is more important. There are even some that argue that a single-parent family is not even really a family. In the United States, where living standards are generally high, single-parent households are on average much poorer, a pattern largely explained by the lack of a second source of income in the home itself. With respect to this, recent public policy debates have centered on whether or not government should give aid to single parent households, which some believe will reduce poverty and improve their situation, or instead focus on wider issues like protecting employment. In addition, there is a debate on the behavioral effects of children with incarcerated parents, and how losing one or both parents to incarceration affects their academic performance and social well-being with others.
It is encouraged that each parent respects the other, at least in the child's presence, and provide child support for the primary caregiver, when parents are not married or separated. The civil behaviour among separated parents has a direct effect on how the child copes with their situation; this is especially seen in younger children who do not yet understand their familial separation, requiring both parents to establish a limited friendship to support the upbringing of their child.
Causes of single-parenthood
Widowed parents
Historically, death of a partner was a common cause of single parenting. Diseases and maternal death not infrequently resulted in a widower or widow responsible for children. At certain times wars might also deprive significant numbers of families of a parent. Improvements in sanitation and maternal care have decreased mortality for those of reproductive age, making death a less common cause of single parenting.
Divorced parents
Divorce statistics
In 2009, the overall divorce rate was around 9/1000 in the United States. It was also found that more influence came from the south, with the rates there being about 10.5/1000, as opposed to the north where it was around 7/1000. This resulted in about 1.5% (around 1 million) children living in the house of a recently divorced parent in the same year. Along with this, it has been shown that for the past 10 years or so, first marriages have a 40% chance of ending in divorce. And, for other marriages after a first divorce, the chance of another divorce increases. In 2003, a study showed that about 69% of children in American living in a household that was a different structure than the typical nuclear family. This was broken down into about 30% living with a stepparent, 23% living with a biological mother, 6% with grandparents as caregivers, 4% with a biological father, 4% with someone who was not a direct relative, and a small 1% living with a foster family.
Around the mid-1990s, there was a significant amount of single parents raising children, with 1.3 million single fathers and 7.6 million single mothers in the United States alone. However, many parents desire, or attempt, to get sole custody, which would make them a single parent, but are unsuccessful in the court process. There are many parents who may single parent, but do so without official custody, further biasing statistics.
Children and divorce
Child custody in reference to divorce refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. Physical custody refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child's life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long-term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.
Children are affected by divorce in many different ways, varying by the circumstances and age of the child. Young children ages two to six are generally the most fearful of parental separation, and often feel abandoned or confused. Both boys and girls have the same amount of trouble coping, but often show this in different ways. Nonetheless this age group adapts best to their situations, as they are often too young to remember their non-custodial parent vividly. Children ages seven to twelve are much better at expressing emotions and accepting parentage breakage, but often distrust their parents, rely on outside help and support for encouragement, and may manifest social and academic problems. Adolescents cope the worst with divorce; they often struggle most with the change, and may even turn away from their family entirely, dealing with their situation on their own. They often have problems expressing feelings, similar to far younger children, and may have adjustment issues with long-term relationships due to these feelings. Keeping in touch with both parents and having a healthy relationship with both mother and father appears to have the most effect on a child's behavior; which leads to an easier time coping with the divorce as well as development through the child's life. Children will do better with their parents divorce if they have a smooth adjustment period. One way to make this adjustment easier on children is to let them "remain in the same neighborhoods and schools following divorce."
Single woman births
Unintended pregnancy
Some out-of-wedlock births are intended, but many are unintentional. Out-of-wedlock births are frequently not acceptable to society, and they often result in single parenting. A partner may also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. This also may harm the child. Where they are not acceptable, they sometimes result in forced marriage, however such marriages fail more often than others.
In the United States, the rate of unintended pregnancy is higher among unmarried couples than among married ones. In 1990, 73% of births to unmarried women were unintended at the time of conception, compared to about 44% of births overall.
Mothers with unintended pregnancies, and their children, are subject to numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of violence and death, and the children are less likely to succeed in school and are more likely to live in poverty and be involved in crime.
"Fragile Families" are usually caused by an unintended pregnancy out of wedlock. Usually in this situation the father is not completely in the picture and the relationship between the mother, father, and child is consistently unstable. As well as instability "fragile families" are often limited in resources such as human capital and financial resources, the kids that come from these families are more likely to be hindered within school and don't succeed as well as kids who have strictly single parents or two parent homes. Usually within these families the father plans to stick around and help raise the child but once the child is born the fathers do not stay for much longer and only one third stay after five years of the child's birth. Most of these fragile families come from low economic status to begin with and the cycle appears to continue; once the child grows up they are just as likely to still be poor and live in poverty as well. Most fragile families end with the mother becoming a single parent, leaving it even more difficult to come out of the poverty cycle. The gender of the baby seems to have no effect if the father is not living with the mother at the time of the birth, meaning they are still likely to leave after one year of the child's birth. Yet there is some evidence that suggests that if the father is living with the mother at the time of the birth he is more likely to stay after one year if the child is a son rather than a daughter.
Choice
Some individuals choose to become pregnant and parent on their own. Others choose to adopt. Typically referred to in the West as "Single Mothers by Choice" or "Choice Moms" though, fathers also (less commonly) may choose to become single parents through adoption or surrogacy. Many turn to single parenthood by choice after not finding the right person to raise children with, and for women, it often comes out of a desire to have biological children before it is too late to do so.
Single-parent adoption
History of single parent adoptions
Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for "normal" families with married men and women. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the Child Welfare League of America stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.
Not much has changed with the adoption process since the 1960s. However, today, many countries only allow women to adopt as a single parent, and many others only allow men to adopt boys.
Considerations
Single parent adoptions are controversial. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child. In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent. A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them. Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.
By country
Australia
In 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families. In Australia 2011, out of all families 15.9% were single parent families. Out of these families 17.6% of the single parents were males, whilst 82.4% were females.
Single people are eligible to apply for adoption in all states of Australia, except for Queensland and South Australia. They are able to apply for adoption both to Australian born and international born children, although not many other countries allow single parent adoptions.
Single parents in Australia are eligible for support payments from the government, but only if they are caring for at least one child under the age of eight.
New Zealand
At the 2013 census, 17.8% of New Zealand families were single-parent, of which five-sixths were headed by a female. Single-parent families in New Zealand have fewer children than two-parent families; 56% of single-parent families have only one child and 29% have two children, compared to 38% and 40% respectively for two-parent families.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families, 8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent. UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line (after housing costs). Single parents in the UK are almost twice as likely to be in low-paid jobs as other workers (39% of working single parents compared with 21% of working people nationally). This is highlighted in a report published by Gingerbread, funded by Trust for London and Barrow Cadbury Trust.
United States
In the United States, since the 1960s, there has been a marked increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The jump was caused by an increase in births to unmarried women and by the increasing prevalence of divorces among couples. In 2010, 40.7% of births in the US were to unmarried women. In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never been married, 15.6% of children lived with a divorced parent, and 1.2% lived with a parent who was widowed. The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the emerging trend noted in 2000. The most recent data of December 2011 shows approximately 13.7 million single parents in the U.S.
Mississippi
leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by Louisiana, New Mexico, Florida and South Carolina.
In 2020, 10.7 million families in the US were headed by a single parent with children under the age of 18, 80% of which were headed by a female.
The newest census bureau reports that between 1960 and 2016, the percentage of children living in families with two parents decreased from 88 to 69. Of those 50.7 million children living in families with two parents, 47.7 million live with two married parents and 3.0 million live with two unmarried parents.
The percentage of children living with single parents increased substantially in the United States during the second half of the 20th century. According to a 2013 Child Trends study, only 9% of children lived with single parents in the 1960s—a figure that increased to 28% in 2012.
The main cause of single parent families are high rates of divorce and non-marital childbearing.
India
The Supreme Court of India and various High Courts of India have recognized the rights of single mothers to give birth and raise children. The High Court of Kerala, has declared in a case argued by Advocate Aruna A. that, the birth registration authorities cannot insist on the details of the father for registration of birth of a child born to a single mother, conceived through IVF.
See also
Cost of raising a child
Family
Family planning
Marriage gap
Shared parenting
Single (relationship)
Sole custody
Teenage pregnancy
References
Further reading
Lavie, Smadar (2014). Wrapped in the Flag of Israel: Mizrahi Single Mothers and Bureaucratic Torture. Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books. hardback; 978-1-78238-223-2 ebook.
https://www.academia.edu/6799750/Wrapped_in_the_Flag_of_Israel_Mizrahi_Single_Mothers_and_Bureaucratic_Torture
Parenting
Living arrangements | [
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|
226113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed%20VI%20of%20Morocco | Mohammed VI of Morocco | Mohammed VI () is the King of Morocco. He belongs to the 'Alawi dynasty and acceded to the throne on 23 July 1999, upon the death of his father, King Hassan II.
Upon ascending to the throne, Mohammed initially introduced a number of reforms and changed the family code, Mudawana, which granted women more power. Leaked diplomatic cables from WikiLeaks in 2010 led to allegations of corruption in the court of Mohammed, implicating him and his closest advisors. Widespread disturbances in 2011, a Moroccan element of the Arab Spring, protested against corruption and urged political reform. In response, Mohammed promulgated a program of reforms and introduced a new constitution. These reforms were passed by a public referendum on 1 July 2011.
Mohammed has vast business holdings across several economic sectors in Morocco. His net worth has been estimated at between and over US$8.2 billion, and, according to the American business magazine Forbes, he was the richest king in Africa and the fifth-richest king in the world. He is the fifth wealthiest monarch in the world.
Early life and education
Mohammed VI was born on 21 August 1963 and was the second child and oldest son of Hassan II and his second wife, Lalla Latifa Hammou. On the day of his birth, Mohammed was appointed Heir Apparent and Crown Prince. His father was keen on giving him a religious and political education from an early age; at the age of four, he started attending the Quranic school at the Royal Palace.
Mohammed VI completed his first primary and secondary studies at Collège Royal and attained his Baccalaureate in 1981, before gaining a bachelor's degree in law at the Mohammed V University at Agdal in 1985. His research paper dealt with "the Arab-African Union and the Strategy of the Kingdom of Morocco in matters of International Relations". He has also frequented the Imperial College and University of Rabat. He was furthermore appointed president of the Pan Arab Games, and was commissioned a Colonel Major of the Royal Moroccan Army on 26 November 1985. He served as the Coordinator of the Offices and Services of the Royal Armed Forces until 1994.
In 1987, Mohammed VI obtained his first Certificat d'Études Supérieures (CES) in political sciences, and in July 1988 he obtained a Diplôme d'Études Approfondies (DEA) in public law. In November 1988, he trained in Brussels with Jacques Delors, then-President of the European Commission.
Mohammed VI obtained his PhD in law with distinction on 29 October 1993 from the French University of Nice Sophia Antipolis for his thesis on "EEC-Maghreb Relations". On 12 July 1994, he was promoted to the military rank of Major General, and that same year he became president of the High Council of Culture and Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Moroccan Army.
The New York Times reported that prior to ascending to the throne, Mohammed VI "gained a reputation as a playboy during the years he spent waiting in the wings, showing a fondness for fast cars and nightclubs."
King of Morocco
On 23 July 1999, Mohammed VI succeeded his father as king and was enthroned in Rabat on 30 July.
Social reforms and liberalization
Shortly after he ascended to the throne, Mohammed VI addressed his nation via television, promising to take on poverty and corruption, while creating jobs and improving Morocco's human rights record. His reformist rhetoric was opposed by Islamist conservatives, and some of his reforms angered fundamentalists. In February 2004, he enacted a new family code, or Mudawana, which granted women more power.
In December 2020, Mohammed VI agreed to normalize relations with Israel on the condition that the United States will recognize Western Sahara as under Moroccan sovereignty. The deal will include direct flights between the two nations.
Mohammed VI also created the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER), which was tasked with researching human rights violations under Hassan II. This move was welcomed by many as promoting democracy, but was also criticized because the commission's reports could not name the perpetrators. According to human rights organisations, human rights violations are still common in Morocco. The 2011 Moroccan protests were motivated by corruption and general political discontentment, as well as by the hardships of the global economic crisis.
In a speech delivered on 9 March 2011, he said that parliament would receive "new powers that enable it to discharge its representative, legislative, and regulatory mission". In addition, the powers of the judiciary were granted greater independence from the king, who announced that he was impaneling a committee of legal scholars to produce a draft constitution by June 2011. On 1 July, voters approved a set of political reforms proposed by Mohammed VI.
The reforms consisted of the following:
The Berber language is an official national language, along with standard Arabic.
The state preserves and protects the Hassānīya language and all the linguistic components of the Moroccan culture as a heritage of the nation.
Mohammed VI now has the obligation to appoint the prime minister from the party that wins the most seats in the parliamentary elections, but it can be any member of the winning party and not necessarily the party's leader. Previously, the king could nominate anybody he wanted for this position regardless of the election results. That was usually the case when no party had a big advantage over the other parties, in terms of the number of seats in the parliament.
The king is no longer "sacred or holy" but the "integrity of his person" is "inviolable".
High administrative and diplomatic posts (including ambassadors, CEOs of state-owned companies, provincial and regional governors), are now appointed by the prime minister and the ministerial council which is presided by the king; previously the latter exclusively held this power.
The prime minister is the head of government and president of the council of government, he has the power to dissolve the parliament.
The prime minister will preside over the Council of Government, which prepares the general policy of the state. Previously the king held this position.
The parliament has the power of granting amnesty. Previously this was exclusively held by the king.
The judiciary system is independent from the legislative and executive branches, the king guarantees this independence.
Women are guaranteed "civic and social" equality with men. Previously, only "political equality" was guaranteed, though the 1996 constitution grants all citizens equality in terms of rights before the law.
The king retains complete control over the armed forces and the judiciary as well as matters pertaining to religion and foreign policy; the king also retains the authority to appoint and dismiss prime ministers.
All citizens have the freedom of thought, ideas, artistic expression and creation. Previously only free speech and the freedom of circulation and association were guaranteed. However, criticizing or directly opposing the king is still punishable with prison.
In January 2017, Morocco banned the manufacturing, marketing and sale of the burqa.
20 February Movement
The 20 February movement called for and resulted in partial reforms.
Foreign policy
Under his reign, Morocco increasingly prioritized African relations in its foreign policy, rejoining the African Union (AU) in 2017, while diversifying trade links and foreign investments by partnering with China and Russia.
Mohammed congratulated Naftali Bennett on his election as Israeli prime minister. Israel and Morocco restored diplomatic relations on December 10, 2020, as part of the Israel–Morocco normalization agreement involving the United States, which at the same time recognized Morocco's sovereignty over Western Sahara. On the International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People in November 2021, Mohammed announced that Morocco would continue to push for a restart of Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. He called on both sides "to refrain from actions that obstruct the peace process".
Royal pardon scandals
Protests broke out in Rabat, the capital of Morocco, on 2 August 2013, after Mohammed pardoned 48 jailed Spaniards, including a pedophile who had been serving a 30-year sentence for raping 11 children aged between 4 and 15.
It was also revealed that amongst the pardoned was a drug trafficking suspect, who was released before standing trial. The detainee, Antonio Garcia, a recidivist drug trafficker, had been arrested in possession of 9 tons of hashish in Tangier and was sentenced to 10 years. He had resisted arrest using a firearm. Some media claimed that his release embarrassed Spain.
Allegations of corruption
Royal involvement in business is a major topic in Morocco, but public discussion of it is sensitive. The US embassy in Rabat reported to Washington in a leaked cable that "corruption is prevalent at all levels of Moroccan society". Corruption allegedly reaches the highest levels in Morocco, where the business interests of Mohammed VI and some of his advisors influence "every large housing project," according to WikiLeaks documents published in December 2010 and quoted in The Guardian newspaper. The documents released by the whistleblower website also quote the case of a businessman working for a US consortium, whose plans in Morocco were paralysed for months after he refused to join forces with a company linked with the royal palace. Decisions on big investments in the kingdom were taken by only three people, the documents quote a company executive linked to the royal family as saying. The three are the king, his secretary Mounir Majidi, and the monarch's close friend, adviser and former classmate Fouad Ali Himma, the executive said at a meeting with potential investors in a Gulf country. This corruption especially affects the housing sector, the WikiLeaks documents show.
In April 2016, Mounir Majidi, the personal secretary of Mohammed VI, was named in the Panama Papers.
Business and wealth
Mohammed is Morocco's leading businessman and banker. In 2015, he was estimated by Forbes magazine to be worth US$5.7bn although in 2019 Business Insider quoted a figure of just US$2.1 billion. The Moroccan Royal Family, meanwhile, has one of the largest fortunes in the world. Together, they hold the majority stakes in the Société Nationale d'Investissement (SNI), which was originally state-owned but was merged in 2013 with Omnium Nord Africain (ONA Group), to form a single holding company that was taken off the Casablanca Stock Exchange—resulting in the scrapping of an equivalent of 50 billion Dirhams Marketcap (~US$6 billion). SNI has a diverse portfolio consisting of many important businesses in Morocco and operating in various sectors such as; Attijariwafa Bank (banking), Managem (mining), Onapar, SOMED (tourism/real-estate and exclusive distributor of Maserati), Wafa Assurance (insurance), Marjane (hypermarket chain), Wana-Inwi (telecommunications), SONASID (Siderurgy), Lafarge Maroc (Sopriam (exclusive distributor of Peugeot-Citroën in Morocco), Renault Maroc (exclusive distributor of Renault in Morocco) and Nareva (energy). SNI also owns many food-processing companies and is currently in the process of disengaging from this sector. Between mid-2012 and 2013 SNI sold; Lessieur, Centrale Laitière, Bimo and Cosumar to foreign groups for a total amount of ~$1.37 billion (11.4 billion Dirhams including 9.7 billion in 2013 and 1.7 in 2012).
SNI and ONA both owned stakes in Brasseries du Maroc, the largest alcoholic beverages manufacturer and distributor of brands such as Heineken in the country.
Mohammed is also a leading agricultural producer and land owner in Morocco, where agriculture is exempted from taxes. His holding company "Siger" has shares in the large agricultural group "Les domaines agricoles" (originally called "Les domaines royaux", now commonly known as "Les domaines"), which was founded by Hassan II. In 2008, Telquel estimated that "Les domaines" had a revenue of $157 million (1.5 billion Dirhams), with 170,000 tons of citrus exported in that year. According to the same magazine, the company officially owns 12,000 hectares of agricultural lands. "Chergui", a manufacturer of dairy products, is the most recognizable brand of the group. Between 1994 and 2004, the group has been managed by Mohammed VI's brother-in-law Khalid Benharbit, the husband of Princess Lalla Hasna. "Les domaines" also owns the "Royal Golf de Marrakech", which originally belonged to Thami El Glaoui.
His palace's daily operating budget is reported by Forbes to be $960,000—which is paid by the Moroccan state as part of a 2.576 billion Dirhams/year budget as of 2014—with much of it accounted for by the expense of personnel, clothes, and car repairs.
Family
Mohammed has one brother, Prince Moulay Rachid, and three sisters: Princess Lalla Meryem, Princess Lalla Asma, and Princess Lalla Hasna. The New York Times noted "conflicting reports about whether the new monarch had been married on Friday night, within hours of his father's death [in 1999]... to heed a Moroccan tradition that a King be married before he ascends the throne." A palace official subsequently denied that a marriage had taken place.
On 21 March 2002, Mohammed married Salma Bennani (now Princess Lalla Salma) in Rabat. Bennani was granted the personal title of Princess with the title of Her Royal Highness on her marriage. They have two children: Crown Prince Moulay Hassan, who was born on 8 May 2003, and Princess Lalla Khadija, who was born on 28 February 2007.
Mohammed's birthday on 21 August is a public holiday, although festivities were cancelled upon the death of his aunt in 2014.
In 2020, Mohammed reportedly purchased an €80 million mansion in Paris from the Saudi royal family.
Children
Honours
National orders:
Grand Master of the Order of Muhammad, (23 July 1999)
Grand Master of the Order of the Throne, (23 July 1999)
Grand Master of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite, (23 July 1999)
Grand Master of the Order of the Independence Combat, (23 July 1999)
Grand Master of the Order of Fidelity, (23 July 1999)
Grand Master of the Order of Military Merit, (23 July 1999)
Mohammed has received numerous honours and decorations from various countries, some of which are listed below.
Foreign orders:
Grand Officer of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (7 July 1977)
Collar of the Order of Civil Merit of Spain (2 June 1979)
Honorary Knight of the Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (27 October 1980)
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III of Spain (23 June 1986)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic of Tunisia (August 1987)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic of Italy (18 March 1997)
Grand Cross of the Order of Aviz of Portugal (13 August 1998)
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France (19 March 2000)
Collar of the Order of al-Hussein bin Ali of Jordan (1 March 2000)
Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic of Italy (11 April 2000)
Grand Cordon of the National Order of Merit of Mauritania (26 April 2000)
Grand Collar of the Order of the Seventh of November of Tunisia (31 May 2014, previously Grand Cross on 24 May 2000)
Grand Cordon of the National Order of Mali of Mali with Collar (14 June 2000)
Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain (16 September 2000)
Wissam of the Order of the Umayyads of Syria (9 April 2001)
Wissam of the Order of Merit of Lebanon Special Class (13 June 2001)
First Class Medal of the Order of Abu Bakar Siddiq of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (29 June 2001)
Grand Collar of the Order of al-Khalifa of Bahrain (28 July 2001)
Silver Star of United States (21 January 2002)
Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great of Kuwait (22 October 2002)
Cordon of the Order of the Independence of Qatar (25 October 2002)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Nile of Egypt (28 October 2002)
Grand Cross of the Order of Pakistan First Class (Nishan-e-Pakistan) of Pakistan (19 July 2003)
Grand Cross of the Order of Valour of Cameroon (17 June 2004)
Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (21 June 2004)
Grand Cross of the National Order of the Niger of the Niger (24 June 2004)
Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold of Belgium (5 October 2004)
Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross of Brazil (26 November 2004)
Medal of Honour of the Congress of Peru (1 December 2004)
Collar of the Order of Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile (3 December 2004)
Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin of Argentina (7 December 2004)
Collar of the Order of Charles III of Spain (14 January 2005)
Grand Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle of Mexico (11 February 2005)
Grand Cross of the Order of Burkinabé of Burkina Faso (1 March 2005)
Supreme Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (28 November 2005)
Grand Commander of the Order of the Republic of the Gambia (20 February 2006)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Congo of the Republic of Congo (22 February 2006)
Grand Cross of the Order of the National Hero of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of Congo-Kinshasa (28 February 2006)
Commander Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of the Three Stars of Latvia (14 May 2007)
Collar of the Order of Abdulaziz Al Saud of Saudi Arabia (18 May 2007)
Grand Collar of the Order of Independence of Equatorial Guinea (17 April 2009)
Collar of the Order of the Republic of Tunisia (31 May 2014)
Grand Cross of the National Order of the Ivory Coast (2015)
Collar of the Order of Zayed (4 May 2015)
Grand Cross of the National Order of Madagascar (2016)
Grand Collar of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword of Portugal (28 June 2016)
Companion of the Order of the Star of Ghana (17 February 2017)
Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (24 May 2017)
Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit of the United States (16 January 2021)
On 22 June 2000, Mohammed received an honorary doctorate from George Washington University.
Ancestry
See also
'Alawi dynasty
Société Nationale d'Investissement
Hassan II
References
External links
Morocco Alaoui dynasty
King Mohammed VI Grants Exclusive First-ever Interview to Time
Laurenson, John. The most powerful man in Morocco. BBC News. 11 March 2006.
Constitutional Reform in Morocco: I Am the Reform!
1963 births
Living people
Moroccan Muslims
Muslim monarchs
20th-century monarchs in Africa
21st-century monarchs in Africa
Alaouite dynasty
Mohammed V University alumni
Alumni of the Collège Royal (Rabat)
Kings of Morocco
20th-century Arabs
21st-century Arabs
Moroccan people of Arab descent
Moroccan royalty
Moroccan politicians
Moroccan businesspeople
Moroccan bankers
Moroccan Army officers
Moroccan billionaires
People from Rabat
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Grand Cordons of the Order of Valour
Grand Crosses of the Order of Aviz
Extraordinary Grades of the Order of Merit (Lebanon)
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Grand Crosses of the National Order of Mali
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Collars of the Order of Civil Merit
Grand Collars of the Order of Saint James of the Sword | [
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|
226115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Psychogeographical%20Association | London Psychogeographical Association | The London Psychogeographical Association (LPA), sometimes referred to as the London Psychogeographical Committee, is an organisation devoted to psychogeography. The LPA is perhaps best understood in the context of psychogeographical praxis.
London Psychogeographical Institute
The LPA was first mentioned in 1957 by the British artist Ralph Rumney, as one of the organisers of the "First Exhibition of Psychogeography" in Brussels, which included his work. According to many accounts the group eventually merged into the Situationist International. Rumney was in fact the only member of the 'Association'.
LPA East London Section
In the 1990s, the LPA was reinvoked as the LPA East London Section by Fabian Tompsett, using the pseudonym Richard Essex, who published a series of newsletters and pamphlets under its name, as well as the writers grouped around the multiple user name Luther Blissett, including Stewart Home. Activities of the ELS also included trips to destinations of psychogeographical interest and the organisation of three sided football matches.
This version of the LPA has been described by the writer Iain Sinclair, whose work is often described as psychogeographical, as useful in "branding" that kind of practice.
In 1994 Barry Hugill wrote an article for The Observer covering the LPA. He depicted their ideas as "so cranky that to mention Mr Ackroyd's name in the same breath is to invite a writ." However he also states that "the psychogeographers fear that in 2000 there may be an attempt to perpetuate patriarchy through the ritual murder of a top member of royalty."
The work of Luther Blissett, Stewart Home and other psychogeographical groups is said to involve the issuing of numerous leaflets and letters under a series of aliases, both personal and organisational, and the description of interactions, including collaborations and feuds, between both these and other, real people and groups (for example between Luther Blissett and the parapolitical researcher Larry O'Hara).
The last LPA Newsletter was issued around the year 2000.
See also
Neoist Alliance
Association of Autonomous Astronauts
Class Wargames
References
External links
The Great Conjunction: The Symbols of a College, the Death of a King and the Maze on the Hill, (Unpopular Books, 1992) - a booklet authored jointly by the LPA and the Archaeogeodetic Association
LPA Newsletter no. 1 - February 1993
LPA Newsletter no. 2 - May 1993
LPA Newsletter no. 3 - August 1993
LPA Newsletter no. 12 - May 1995
LPA Newsletter no. 18 - May 1997
Situationist International
Psychogeography | [
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|
226116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquess%20of%20Queensberry | Marquess of Queensberry | Marquess of Queensberry is a title in the Peerage of Scotland. The title has been held since its creation in 1682 by a member of the Douglas family. The Marquesses also held the title of Duke of Queensberry from 1684 to 1810, when it was inherited by the Duke of Buccleuch.
History
The feudal barony of Drumlanrig was held by Sir William Douglas, illegitimate son of The 2nd Earl of Douglas and Mar, some time before 1427, when he died. His descendant William Douglas, 9th of Drumlanrig, was created the 1st Earl of Queensberry in 1633.
The subsidiary titles of Lord Queensberry are: Earl of Queensberry (created 1633), Viscount Drumlanrig (1628) and Lord Douglas of Hawick and Tibbers (1628), all in the peerage of Scotland. He is also a Scottish baronet, styled "of Kelhead", created 26 February 1668, so the 6th Marquess was the 5th Baronet. The courtesy title used by Lord Queensberry's eldest son and heir is Viscount Drumlanrig. There is no special courtesy title for Lord Drumlanrig's eldest son and heir.
The family seat of the Marquesses of Queensberry was Kinmount House in the parish of Cummertrees, south Scotland, which was sold by the 9th Marquess in 1896. The traditional burial place of the Marquesses of Queensberry is the Douglas family mausoleum at Cummertrees Parish Church.
The 9th Marquess is particularly well known because of the rules of boxing that were named after him (the Marquess of Queensberry rules), and for his litigious interaction with Oscar Wilde.
On 22 June 1893, Queen Victoria raised Francis Archibald, Viscount Drumlanrig, the heir of the 9th Marquess, to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Kelhead. Francis, Lord Drumlanrig, died without descendants the following year and the title "Baron Kelhead" became extinct.
Lairds of Drumlanrig
William Douglas, 1st of Drumlanrig (died 1427)
William Douglas, 2nd of Drumlanrig (died 1458)
William Douglas, 3rd of Drumlanrig (died 1464)
William Douglas, 4th of Drumlanrig (died 1484)
James Douglas, 5th of Drumlanrig (died 1498)
William Douglas, 6th of Drumlanrig (died 1513)
James Douglas, 7th of Drumlanrig (died 1578)
James Douglas, 8th of Drumlanrig (died 1615)
William Douglas, 9th of Drumlanrig, 1st Earl of Queensberry (died 1640) (became Earl of Queensberry in 1633)
Earls of Queensberry (1633)
William Douglas, 1st Earl of Queensberry (died 8 March 1639/40)
James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Queensberry (died 1671)
William Douglas, 3rd Earl of Queensberry (1637–1695) (became Marquess of Queensberry in 1682, and Duke of Queensberry in 1684)
Marquesses (1682) and Dukes of Queensberry (1684)
William Douglas, 1st Duke of Queensberry (1637–1695)
James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry (1672–1711) (became Duke of Dover in 1708)
James Douglas, 3rd Marquess of Queensberry, (1697–1715)
Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke of Queensberry, 4th Marquess of Queensberry (1698–1778) (Dukedom of Dover extinct in 1778)
William Douglas, 4th Duke of Queensberry, 5th Marquess of Queensberry (1725–1810)
The 2nd Duke of Queensberry surrendered all of his titles except the Marquessate and its subsidiary titles to the Crown and obtained a new grant under the same precedence (1684) with remainder to the Dukedom and those subsidiary titles bypassing his second son to his third son and further to the heirs male and female of the 1st Earl of Queensberry. Upon his death the Marquessate passed to James Douglas, 3rd Marquess and a homicidal maniac known as "the Cannibalistic Idiot." He was excluded from his father's titles after the duke's death, which instead passed to Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke. The 3rd Duke also succeeded as Marquess upon the latter's death at age 17.
The Dukedom of Queensberry passed by special remainder to the heirs male or female of the 1st Earl of Queensberry who was Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch, son of Francis Scott, Earl of Dalkeith through Lady Jean Douglas (married to Francis Scott, 2nd Duke of Buccleuch) who was eldest daughter surviving infancy of the 2nd Duke of Queensberry.
Marquesses of Queensberry from 1810 (cont. 1682)
Charles Douglas, 6th Marquess of Queensberry (1777–1837)
John Douglas, 7th Marquess of Queensberry (1779–1856)
Archibald William Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry (1818–1858)
John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry (1844–1900)
Percy Sholto Douglas, 10th Marquess of Queensberry (1868–1920)
Francis Archibald Kelhead Douglas, 11th Marquess of Queensberry (1896–1954)
David Harrington Angus Douglas, 12th Marquess of Queensberry (born 1929)
The heir apparent is the present holder's son Sholto Francis Guy Douglas, Viscount Drumlanrig (born 1967).
The heir apparent's heir presumptive is his brother Lord Torquil Oberon Tobias Douglas (born 1978).
Baronets, of Kelhead (26 February 1668)
See Douglas baronets
Sir James Douglas, 1st Baronet (1639–1708)
Sir William Douglas, 2nd Baronet (died 1733)
Sir John Douglas, 3rd Baronet (died 1778)
Sir William Douglas, 4th Baronet (died 1783)
Charles Douglas, 6th Marquess of Queensberry (1777–1837)
See above for further succession
Family tree
References
External links
Marquessates in the Peerage of Scotland
Queensberry
Noble titles created in 1682 | [
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|
226119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Havilland%20Hornet | De Havilland Hornet | The de Havilland DH.103 Hornet, developed by de Havilland, was a fighter aircraft driven by two piston engines. It further exploited the wooden construction techniques that had been pioneered by the de Havilland Mosquito. Development of the Hornet had started during the Second World War as a private venture. The aircraft was to conduct long range fighter operations in the Pacific Theatre against the Empire of Japan but the war ended before the Hornet reached operational squadron status.
The Hornet entered service with RAF Fighter Command where it equipped several day fighter units and was commonly stationed in the British mainland. It saw combat in the Far East, being used as a strike fighter as part of the British military action taken during the Malayan Emergency. A naval carrier-capable version, the Sea Hornet, had been envisioned early on and was procured by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy.
Development
Origins
In the autumn of 1941, de Havilland found that it had the spare design capacity to work on a new project. At this point, the Mosquito had entered full-rate production and preliminary work on a jet-propelled fighter aircraft, which became the Vampire, was waiting for the production of prototype engines. The company promptly recognised a need for a high-speed, unarmed, night bomber powered by a pair of large Napier Sabre piston engines and a design for such an aircraft was first proposed under the designation D.H. 101 in October 1941. A design team led by R. E. Bishop with C. T. Wilkins assisting, was assembled with the aim of developing the D.H. 101, which was initially pursued as a private venture.
The Sabre engine was suffering from availability problems at that point and the DH. 101 was soon replaced by a lower-powered design, with the internal designation D.H. 102. This proposal was intended to be powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce Griffon or Rolls-Royce Merlin engines but either engine would have meant that the aircraft would be somewhat slower and less attractive than the Mosquito.
By November 1942, de Havilland had elected to shelve the night bomber project and concentrate on producing a long-range fighter, the D.H. 103, that would make the maximum possible use of the Merlin engine. The D.H. 103 resembled a small Mosquito, with a single seat; it was intended to take on other single-seat fighter aircraft, particularly those operated by Japan, while still being capable of conducting very long range missions to be of use in the Pacific Theatre. The long range requirement led to the fuselage being highly streamlined. An independently developed version of the Merlin engine which possessed a low frontal area was selected for use on the D.H. 103.
By the end of 1942, a mock-up of the D.H. 103 had been completed at de Havilland's Hatfield facility and was soon afterwards demonstrated to officials of the Ministry of Aircraft Production. Due to the war, the ministry did not immediately issue permission to construct the D.H. 103. In June 1943, the project stopped being a private venture when the Ministry released Specification F.12/43, which had been written around the D.H. 103 proposal; soon after, the D.H. 103 project received the name Hornet.
It was envisaged that the Hornet could be adapted for naval use and operated from the flight decks of aircraft carriers. Priority was given early on to ensuring that such adaptation could be readily done: measures for ease of control, especially when flown at low speeds, were incorporated and attention paid to providing the pilot with a high level of visibility. The two propellers were driven in opposite directions to improve take-off and landing characteristics and high-drag flaps were integrated to provide for greater power during approaches.
Prototypes and refinement
By January 1944, the fuselage shell for the first prototype D.H. 103, RR915, was under construction on production jigs at Hatfield; RR915 was rolled out for engine runs on 20 July 1944. On 28 July 1944, only thirteen months after the official sanction to proceed with development, RR915 conducted its maiden flight, piloted by Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., the company's chief test pilot. Flight tests of RR915 led to it achieving a recorded speed of 485 mph (780 km/h) in level flight. Within two months, over fifty flight hours were accumulated by RR915. The second prototype, RR919, was more representative of production aircraft, having provision for a pair of 200-gallon drop tanks and a pair of 1,000 lbs bombs on hard points underneath the wings.
Towards the end of 1944, the assembly line for the Hornet F.1, the initial production model, was being established at Hatfield and orders had already been received for the Royal Air Force (RAF). On 28 February 1945, PX210, the first of 60 production F.1 aircraft was delivered to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at RAF Boscombe Down. On 29 October 1945, a production Hornet F.1, PX237, was used for the type's first public appearance at an open day at RAE Farnborough.
Additional prototypes were used for the development of improved variants of the Hornet. PX312, participated in the development of an improved fighter model to succeed the F.1, the Hornet F.3. PX212, PX214, and PX219, were converted by the Heston Aircraft Company from Hornet F.1 standard aircraft to represent and test aspects of the initial naval version, later named Sea Hornet F.20. PX212 and PX214 were only partially naval, being outfitted with arrestor hooks but lacking the wing-folding mechanisms of subsequent production aircraft; PX219 was the full naval version and later conducted carrier deck trials on board the aircraft carrier .
PX230 and PX239, were completed for an all-weather night fighter, the Hornet NF.21. PX239, originally built as a Hornet F.20, was outfitted with power-operated folding wings and a large dorsal fillet, which was later fitted to all production aircraft to comply with a new requirement to provide "feet off" directional stability with one engine stopped. On 25 October 1948, the first deck trials commenced on board ; these were so successful that testing rapidly proceeded to the night trials phase. On 16 May 1947, PX230 was lost during service trials when the aircraft disintegrated in mid flight; the pilot bailed out following the breakup of the aircraft.
Hornet F.3, PR.2 and FR.4
The wings of the Hornet F.3 were stressed to carry external weapons; two to four 60 lb (27 kg) RP-3 rockets could be carried under each wing; it was also possible to carry a combination of four rockets with one bomb of up to 1,000 lb (454 kg), or an additional drop tank on each wing, ranging in capacity up to 200 Imp gal (909 l). Internally, the fuel tanks were enlarged from a total capacity of 360 Imp gal (1,636 l) to 432 Imp gal (1,964 l) and additional equipment was added. Larger horizontal tail surfaces were adopted, with larger elevator horn balances. With the evolution of longer-range, jet-powered fighters such as the de Havilland Vampire, de Havilland Venom and Gloster Meteor, the Hornet became obsolete fairly quickly. The F.3 was the last Hornet derivative to see operational RAF service.
The Hornet PR.2 was intended to operate as a long-range photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The Hispano cannon were removed and cameras were mounted in the rear fuselage. Total internal fuel capacity was increased to 528 gal (2,400 l). PX216, PX220 and PX249, were converted from standard Hornet F.1 aircraft, later followed by five more. The requirement for these aircraft lapsed with the end of the Second World War in the Pacific; all were used in arrester barrier trials at Boscombe Down and scrapped before entering RAF service. Twelve Hornet FR.4s were modified from F.3s in much the same way, except that the cannon were retained and the internal fuel capacity slightly reduced from that of the fighter. These FR.4 derivatives saw service with the RAF in Malaya and Hong Kong in the early 1950s.
Sea Hornet F.20, NF.21 and PR.22
The Hornet was designed with the possibility of naval service on carriers firmly in mind. To this end good low-speed handling was required, along with good all-round visibility for the pilot. The basic Hornet design excelled at meeting these requirements. Shortly after the first Hornet prototype flew, Specification N.5/44 was issued to de Havilland, covering the modification of the Hornet for naval service. The Heston Aircraft Company was contracted to carry out the conversion work on three early production F.1s. The work entailed altering the wings to incorporate folding mechanisms so that each outer wing panel, from the aileron/flap line outboard could be folded upwards and inwards at an angle. The hinges were part of the upper wing skin structure while the lower wing skins incorporated securing latches, and Lockheed hydraulic jacks were used to move the wing panels. Slotted flaps were introduced to improve low speed "flaps down" control.
The lower rear fuselage was reinforced with two additional spruce longerons designed to take the stresses imposed by the external "vee" framed arrestor hook, which was flush-mounted below the fuselage. The frame was made up of steel tubing with a forged-steel hook and was held against the fuselage by a "snap gear". Because the Hornet used the American "3-point" system of catapult-assisted takeoff, two forged steel catapult bridle hooks were fitted, one below each wing, close to the fuselage. The de Havilland rubber-in-compression undercarriage legs could not absorb the rebound energies imposed by carrier landings. They were replaced by more conventional hydraulic oleos which embodied torque links.
Merlin 133/134s (derated from to ) were fitted to all Sea Hornets. Other specialised naval equipment (mainly different radio gear) was fitted and provision was made for three camera ports, one on each side of the rear fuselage and one pointing down. Sea Hornet F.20s also incorporated the modifications of the Hornet F.3, although the internal fuel capacity was 347 Imp gal (1,557 l), slightly reduced from that of the F.1. The modifications added some 550 lb (249 kg) to the weight of the aircraft. Maximum speed was decreased by 11 mph (18 km/h).
The Hornet NF.21 was designed to fill a need for a naval night fighter. Special flame-dampening exhausts were installed, and a second basic cockpit was added to the rear fuselage, just above the wing trailing edges. ASH radar equipment was placed in the rear of this cockpit, with the radar operator/navigator seated facing aft. To gain access, a small trapdoor was provided in the lower fuselage; a fixed, teardrop-shaped bubble canopy, which could be jettisoned in an emergency, provided a good field of view. At the front of the aircraft, the nose underwent a transformation with the small rotating ASH radar dish being housed under an elongated "thimble" radome. The horizontal tail units were increased in span. The effect of these modifications on performance was minimal; about 4 mph (6 km/h).
The Sea Hornet PR.22 was a dedicated photo reconnaissance aircraft version of the F.20. The cannon were removed and the apertures faired over. Three cameras were installed in the rear fuselage: two F.52s for night use and one K.19B for day. A total of 23 PR.22s were built, interspersed with F.20s being built at Hatfield.
Civilian Hornet
The lone civilian Hornet, and the only one to be owned by a non-British operator, was a Sea Hornet F.20 TT193. It had originally been dispatched to Edmonton, Alberta, Canada to conduct winter trials; following these tests, TT193 was sold rather than be transported back to England. Registered CF-GUO, the aircraft was operated by Spartan Air Services and Kenting Aviation until 11 July 1952 when an engine failure caused a forced landing at Terrace, British Columbia. After being reduced to components TT193 is to be restored to fly by Pioneer Aero Ltd at Ardmore, New Zealand.
Flying the Sea Hornet
Captain Eric "Winkle" Brown, former fighter pilot and officer of the Fleet Air Arm, was one of the world's most accomplished test pilots and he held the record for flying the greatest number of aircraft types.
Just after VE Day the first semi-naval Sea Hornet PX 212 arrived at the RAE, Farnborough. Eric Brown initiated "work-up to deck-landing" trials. 37 years later, he was still impressed:
"...the next two months of handling and deck landing assessment trials were to be an absolute joy; from the outset the Sea Hornet was a winner!"
"The view from the cockpit, positioned right forward in the nose beneath a one-piece aft-sliding canopy was truly magnificent. The Sea Hornet was easy to taxi, with powerful brakes... the takeoff using 25 lb (2,053 mm Hg, 51" Hg) boost and flaps at one-third extension was remarkable! The Merlin 130/131 engines fitted to the prototypes were to be derated to 18 lb (1,691 Hg, 37" Hg) boost and as Merlin 133/134s in production Sea Hornets, but takeoff performance was to remain fantastic. Climb with 18 lb boost exceeded "...
"In level flight the Sea Hornet's stability about all axes was just satisfactory, characteristic, of course, of a good day interceptor fighter. Its stalling characteristics were innocuous, with a fair amount of elevator buffeting and aileron twitching preceding the actual stall"...
"For aerobatics the Sea Hornet was absolute bliss. The excess of power was such that manoeuvres in the vertical plane can only be described as rocket-like. Even with one propeller feathered the Hornet could loop with the best single-engine fighter, and its aerodynamic cleanliness was such that I delighted in its demonstration by diving with both engines at full bore and feathering both propellers before pulling up into a loop!"
During this series of tests Captain Brown found that the ailerons were too heavy and ineffectual for deck landing and there were some problems with throttle movement, brakes and the rubber-in-compression undercarriage legs were still fitted. De Havilland were quick to modify the aircraft. Eric Brown:
"Landings aboard had been made without any crash barrier... Yet, in the case of the Sea Hornet, I had felt such absolute confidence that I was mentally relaxed... Indeed, there was something about the Sea Hornet that made me feel that I had total mastery of it; I revelled in its sleek form and the immense surge of power always to hand..."
"Circumstances had conspired against the Sea Hornet in obtaining the recognition that it justly deserved as a truly outstanding warplane...in my book the Sea Hornet ranks second to none for harmony of control, performance characteristics and, perhaps most important, in inspiring confidence in its pilot. For sheer exhilarating flying enjoyment, no aircraft has ever made a deeper impression on me than did this outstanding filly from the de Havilland stable."
Design
The de Havilland Hornet bore a family resemblance to the larger Mosquito, but it was an entirely fresh design albeit one that drew extensively upon experiences from, and the design of, the Mosquito. It was powered by a pair of highly developed Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, producing each, which drove de Havilland Propellers four-bladed propellers. According to aviation author P.J. Birtles, the efficiency and power of this configuration gave the Hornet "a higher performance than any other propeller driven aircraft". The Hornet's principal armament was four short-barrelled 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano V cannons, while other typical weapon loads included various rockets and bombs.
Fuselage construction was identical to the earlier Mosquito: a balsa wood "pith" sandwiched between plywood sheets which were laid in diagonal panels. Aerolite formaldehyde cement was the bonding agent. The fuselage halves were built on large concrete or wood patterns and equipment was fitted in each half; they were then joined along the top and bottom centre lines using wooden reinforcing strips. The entire fuselage was then tightly wrapped in fine aviation fabric which was doped in place. The tailfin which had the trademark gracefully-curved de Havilland shape, was an integral part of the rear fuselage. On late F.1s and further models of production aircraft, a fin fillet was added to the base of the unit. The horizontal tail unit was an all-metal structure, again featuring the distinctive de Havilland shape, which was later repeated on the Chipmunk and Beaver.
Construction was of mixed balsa/plywood similar to the Mosquito but the Hornet differed in incorporating stressed Alclad lower-wing skins bonded to the wooden upper wing structure using the new adhesive Redux. The two wing spars were redesigned to withstand a higher load factor of 10 versus 8. Apart from the revised structure, the Hornet's wings were a synthesis of aerodynamic knowledge that had been gathered since the design of the Mosquito, being much thinner in cross-section, and with a laminar flow profile similar to the P-51 Mustang and Hawker Tempest. The control surfaces consisted of hydraulically-operated split flaps extending from the wing root to outboard of the engine nacelles; as on the Mosquito, the rear of the nacelle was part of the flap structure. Outboard, the Alclad-covered ailerons extended close to the clipped wing tips and gave excellent roll control.
The Hornet used "slimline" Merlin engines of types 130 and 131, which had engine ancillaries repositioned to minimise frontal area and drag. It was unusual for a British design in having propellers that rotated in opposite directions; the two engine crankshafts rotated in the same direction but the Merlin 131 added an idler gear to reverse its propeller's rotation (to clockwise, viewed from the front). This cancelled the torque effect of two propellers turning in the same direction that had affected earlier designs (such as the Mosquito). It also reduced adverse yaw caused by aileron trim corrections and generally provided more stable and predictable behaviour in flight. De Havilland tried propellers that rotated outward at the tops of their arcs (as in the P-38 Lightning), but this configuration blanketed the fin and reduced rudder effectiveness at low speeds, compromising ground handling. On production Hornets the conventionally rotating Merlin 130 was on the port wing with the Merlin 131 on the starboard.
Because of the revised induction arrangements of the Merlin 130 series, the supercharger and carburettor air intakes could be placed in the leading edges of the wings, outboard of the nacelles. (Other versions of the Merlin, which used "updraft" induction arrangements, required that the intakes be placed in a duct below the main engine cowling). The main radiators were also mounted in the inboard leading edges of the wings. Internal fuel, to a maximum capacity of 432 Imp gal (1,964 l) (F.3) was stored in four self-sealing wing tanks, which were reached through detachable panels forming part of the lower wing surfaces. To assist airflow over the wing, the engine nacelles were mounted low, which meant that the undercarriage legs were reasonably short and the pilot's field of view was improved. The single-legged undercarriage units were simpler and cleaner than those of the Mosquito, using the same de Havilland-developed, rubber-in-compression energy absorption system. The main wheels were also smaller and lighter.
To further aid the pilot's field of view, the unpressurised cockpit was mounted well forward in the fuselage and was housed under an aft-sliding perspex blister canopy. The three-panel windscreen was designed so that refraction through the panels meant that there were no obvious blind spots caused by the corner tie-rods; all three panels were bullet-proof laminated glass. An armour-plated bulkhead (hinged near the top to provide access to the back of the instrument panel and the rudder pedals), was part of the nose structure, with the pilot's back and head being protected by another armoured bulkhead built into the cockpit. Below and behind the cockpit floor was a bay housing the aircraft's principal armament of four 20 mm cannon, which had a maximum of 190 rounds per cannon which fired through short blast tubes. The Sea Hornet had a similar armament to its land-based counterparts.
Operational history
Hornet
In mid-1946, the Hornet entered squadron service with 64 Squadron, based at RAF Horsham St Faith. Next to convert to the Hornet was 19 Squadron at RAF Wittering, followed by 41 Squadron and 65 Squadron, both based at RAF Church Fenton. No. 65 Sqn participated in one of the first official overseas visits by an RAF unit when they visited Sweden in May 1948. Pilot conversion to the Hornet was provided by No. 226 Operational Conversion Unit (O.C.U.) which was based at RAF Molesworth.
During their relatively short operational service, Hornets participated in several record attempts and air races; for example, on 15 September 1949 Flight Lieutenant H. Peebles flew from RAF Bovingdon to Gibraltar (1,100+ mi or 1,800+ km) at an average speed of 357.565 mph (574.445 km/h), setting a new British point-to-point record. Peebles' record stood for only three days, being broken when the same Hornet, flown by Group Captain A.P.C. Carver, returned to Bovingdon, averaging 435.871 mph (701.466 km/h). On 31 August 1946, Geoffrey Pike attained third place in PX224 in the Lympne High Speed Handicap race, having flown a recorded average speed of . On 30 July 1949, PX286 participated in the National Air Races (GB) at Elmdon; when flown by Geoffrey Pike, it clocked the fastest lap at and attained second place overall.
Operationally, the Hornet I (later re-designated as the F.1) lasted only a short time before being superseded by the improved F.3 version. The first Hornet F.3 was PX 366, which flew at the Farnborough Air Show in June 1946. New units to convert to this mark were 33 Squadron, 45 Squadron (based at RAF Tengah, Singapore where, in early 1952, the unit converted to the Hornet from the unreliable Bristol Brigand) and 80 Squadron.
In 1951, considerable numbers of Hornets were redeployed from Fighter Command to the squadrons of the Far East Air Force (FEAF). Along with 45 Sqn, 33 and 80 squadrons participated in combat operations during the Malayan Emergency. Upon arrival, the Hornets were promptly used to replace Bristol Beaufighters and Supermarine Spitfires that were being operated in support of ground security forces against Communist guerrillas fighting in the region. Armed with rockets and/or 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs, the Hornets, with their long range and good endurance, were able to spend up to two hours loitering over a given target area, which was particularly useful because target identification often proved to be challenging and time consuming.
The Hornets were often sortied in conjunction with strikes from Avro Lincoln bombers. Other activities included the aerial escorting of ground convoys. The Hornet proved to be very reliable; 45 Sqn Hornets, based in Singapore, achieved a total of 4,500 operational sorties over five years, more than any other squadron in the FEAF.
On 23 July 1954, two Hornets from RAF Kai Tak in Hong Kong were the first to arrive on the scene of a shootdown of a Cathay Pacific Skymaster off the coast of Hainan Island. On 21 May 1955, the last operational Hornet sortie was flown; by mid-1956, all Hornets had been recorded as having been withdrawn from operational service. No complete examples of the Hornet remain in existence today.
Sea Hornet
On 1 June 1947, 801 Squadron was reformed to become the first squadron to operate the Sea Hornet, based at RNAS Ford. After relocating to Arbroath, the squadron participated in numerous trials for the type prior to the Sea Hornet's first seaborne deployment, having embarked upon in 1949. In 1951, a further transfer was made to : during their time on board the Sea Hornets contributed to a multinational maritime exercises as long-range fighter escort and strike aircraft; however, in June 1951, they were replaced by single-engined Hawker Sea Furies.
Further Sea Hornet deliveries were attached to various Naval Squadrons, including three which were attached to 806 Squadron in 1948 which, along with a Vampire and two Sea Furies, were embarked on HMCS Magnificent for a tour of North America in 1948. During the North American tour, multiple Sea Hornets performed several spectacular flying displays at the International Air Exposition in New York City between 31 July and 8 August. In mid-1948, one Sea Hornet, PX219, was adapted to carry a pair of Highball bouncing bombs in an installation that was developed, but not applied to the fleet. The equipment was removed during January 1949 and it is currently unknown if the Hornet ever dropped a Highball during flight.
On 20 January 1949, 809 Squadron became the first squadron to be equipped with the Sea Hornet NF 21, having been reformed specifically to operate the type, based at RNAS Culdrose. 809 Squadron was the only front-line unit to use this variant; following an initial workup period, the squadron briefly transferred to for deck landing practice. In May 1951, the NF.21s of 809 Squadron relocated to to form a portion of the FAA's first all-weather air group.
On 16 October 1951, a formation of four NF.21 aircraft flew non-stop from Gibraltar to Lee-on-the-Solent, Hampshire, England, in 3 hours 10 minutes at an average speed of just under 330 mph; on 24 November 1951, a single Sea Hornet flew the same route in 2 hours 45 minutes at an average speed of 378 mph. During a brief deployment in 1952, it was quickly determined that the Sea Hornet was not suitable for use on board the Navy's light fleet carriers. 809 Squadron was briefly seconded to the RAF at Coltishall prior to being deployed to Hal Far, Malta; it was on Malta that the Squadron was disbanded in 1954 to be reequipped with the jet-powered de Havilland Sea Venom.
The NF.21 later equipped the Fleet Requirements Units at Hal Far, Malta, and St Davids, West Wales. One Sea Hornet F.20, TT 213, was acquired by the RAAF from the Ministry of Supply in the United Kingdom. The aircraft was used by the Aircraft Research and Development Unit (ARDU), at Laverton, Victoria, Australia from 1948 to 1950. It was mainly used for evaluation and tropical trials. Through 1956 and 1957, the majority of the retired Hornets were scrapped, having deteriorated badly due to the weather during storage.
Surviving aircraft
As of 2017, Sea Hornet F.20 TT193 was under restoration to flying condition by Pioneer Aero Ltd at Ardmore, New Zealand.
Variants
Hornet F.1
Fighter version, 60 built.
Hornet PR.2
Photo-reconnaissance version, five built.
Hornet F.3
Fighter version, 132 built.
Hornet FR.4
Fighter-reconnaissance version, 12 built.
Sea Hornet F.20
A navalised version for service on British aircraft carriers, 79 built.
Sea Hornet NF.21
Fleet Air Arm night fighter powered by Merlin 133/134 engines, 72 built.
Sea Hornet PR.22
Photo-reconnaissance version, 23 built.
Operators
Royal Australian Air Force used one Sea Hornet F.20 for evaluation and tropical trials.
Royal Canadian Air Force operated briefly one former Royal Navy Sea Hornet F.20 (TT193) in 1948 for test purposes. It was operated by CEPE Canadian Experimental and Proving Establishment, at RCAF Namao, Edmonton, Alberta, in company with a Hawker Sea Fury. When surplused, it was purchased by Spartan Air Services and operated until one of the engines failed. It was scrapped sometime in the 1950s.
Royal Air Force
No. 19 Squadron RAF (1946–1951)
No. 33 Squadron RAF (1951–1955)
No. 41 Squadron RAF (1948–1951)
No. 45 Squadron RAF (1952–1955)
No. 64 Squadron RAF (1946–1951)
No. 65 Squadron RAF (1946–1951)
No. 80 Squadron RAF (1951–1955)
No. 226 Operational Conversion Unit RAF
Royal Navy: Fleet Air Arm
703 Naval Air Squadron
728 Naval Air Squadron
736 Naval Air Squadron
738 Naval Air Squadron
739 Naval Air Squadron
759 Naval Air Squadron
771 Naval Air Squadron
778 Naval Air Squadron
787 Naval Air Squadron
792 Naval Air Squadron
801 Naval Air Squadron
806 Naval Air Squadron
809 Naval Air Squadron
1833 Naval Air Squadron
Specifications (Hornet F.1)
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Birtles, Philip J. The De Havilland Hornet (Profile Publications No. 174). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1967.
Bowman, Martin W. Sting of the Hornet. Air Classics, Vol. 33, No. 6, June 1997.
Bridgman, Leonard, ed. "The D.H. 103 Hornet" Jane’s Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. .
Brown, Eric (Captain, CBE DSC AFC RN). "Viewed from the Cockpit: Sea Hornet Supreme". Air International, Vol. 23, No. 4, October 1982, pp. 192–199.
Buttler, Tony. de Havilland Hornet and Sea Hornet (Warpaint Series no. 19). Newcastle, UK: Hall Park Books, 2000.
Buttler, Tony. de Havilland Hornet & Sea Hornet. Aeroplane Monthly, Vol. 10, Autumn/Fall 2003.
Buttler, Tony. Type Analysis: de Havilland Hornet and Sea Hornet. International Air Power Review Monthly, Vol. 33, No. 6, June 2005.
Buttler, Tony, David Collins and Martin Derry. Hornet and Sea Hornet. Stamford, UK: Dalrymple and Verdun Publishing, 2010. .
Caruana, Richard. The De Havilland Hornet Scale Aviation Modeller International, October 2002, pp. 943–951.
Clark, J. H. Forties Favorites 5 - de Havilland D.H 103. Aeroplane Monthly (Article first appeared in The Aeroplane, 25 January 1946), Vol. 15, No. 9, September 1987.
Cooper, Lewis G. The Hornet File. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Publications, 1992. .
Hall, Alan W. Aircraft In Detail: de Havilland DH.103 Hornet. Scale Aircraft Modelling, Vol. 12, No. 8, 8 May 1990.
Jackson, A.J. De Havilland Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, Third edition 1987. .
Malayney, Norman, Canada's Only Sea Hornet, Canadian Aviation Historical Society Journal, Fall, 1994, pages 86–89.
Milberry, Larry. Sixty Years: The RCAF and Air Command 1924-1984. Toronto: Canav Books, 1984. .
Mondey, David. British Aircraft of World War II (Hamlyn Concise Guide). London: Bounty Books, 1982. .
Moss, Charles J. "Aeronautical Engineering: Bonding with Redux." The Aeroplane No. 329, 20 September 1946.
White, Ian. End of the Line: DH Hornet - Last of the Fleet Air Arm's Piston Night-fighters. Air Enthusiast 111, May/June 2004, pp. 50–55.
Wixey, Ken. Ahhhh! Hornet! FlyPast, No. 156, July 1994.
External links
Hornet and Sea Hornet
the de Havilland Hornet & Sea Hornet
Hornet & Sea Hornet / Variant Summary
Hornet 50th Anniversary Last Flight Celebration
The DH Hornet - Flight archive - 1946
"Rolls-Royce Merlin 130 Series" a 1946 Flight article on the Hornet's Merlin 130 engines
Warbird News article about TT193
Article about the engine failure on TT193
1940s British fighter aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Hornet
Low-wing aircraft
De Havilland Mosquito
Aircraft first flown in 1944
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft with counter-rotating propellers | [
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|
226121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20War | Secretary of State for War | The Secretary of State for War, commonly called War Secretary, was a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, which existed from 1794 to 1801 and from 1854 to 1964. The Secretary of State for War headed the War Office and was assisted by a Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for War, a Parliamentary Private Secretary who was also a Member of Parliament (MP), and a Military Secretary, who was a general.
In the nineteenth century the post was twice held by future prime minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman. At the outset of the First World War, prime minister H. H. Asquith was filling the role, but he quickly appointed Lord Kitchener, who became famous while in this position for Lord Kitchener Wants You. He was replaced by David Lloyd George, who went on to become prime minister. Between the World Wars, the post was held by future prime minister Winston Churchill for two years. In the 1960s, John Profumo was filling this post at the time of the Profumo affair.
History
The position of Secretary of State for War was first held by Henry Dundas who was appointed in 1794. In 1801 the post became that of Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The position of Secretary of State for War was re-instated in 1854 when the Secretary of State for the Colonies was created as a separate position.
In 1946, the three posts of Secretary of State for War, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Secretary of State for Air became formally subordinated to that of Minister of Defence, which had itself been created in 1940 for the co-ordination of defence and security issues.
On 1 April 1964, with the creation of a new united Ministry of Defence headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the three service ministries as well as the post of Minister of Defence as created in 1940 were abolished.
Secretaries of State for War, 1794–1801
For 1801–1854 see Secretary of State for War and the Colonies.
Secretaries of State for War, 1854–1964
See also
Secretary at War
References
External links
War
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
History of the British Army
1794 establishments in Great Britain
1964 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
War Office
War Office in World War II | [
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226125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism%20%28Chinese%20philosophy%29 | Legalism (Chinese philosophy) | Legalism or Fajia is one of the six classical schools of thought in Chinese philosophy. Literally meaning "house of (administrative) methods / standards (法, Fa)", the Fa "school" represents several branches of "men of methods", in the west often termed "realist" statesmen,who played foundational roles in the construction of the bureaucratic Chinese empire. The earliest persona of the Fajia may be considered Guan Zhong (720–645 BC), but following the precedent of the Han Feizi (c. 240 BC), Warring States Period figures Shen Buhai (400–337 BC) and Shang Yang (390–338 BC) have commonly been taken as its "founders."
Commonly thought of as the greatest of all "Legalist" texts, the Han Feizi is believed to contain the first commentaries on the Dao De Jing in history. Sun Tzu's The Art of War incorporates both a Daoist philosophy of inaction and impartiality, and a "Legalist" system of punishment and rewards, recalling the political philosopher Han Fei's concepts of power (勢, shì) and tactics (術, shù). Temporarily coming to overt power as an ideology with the ascension of the Qin Dynasty, the First Emperor of Qin and succeeding emperors often followed the template set by Han Fei.
Though the origins of the Chinese administrative system cannot be traced to any one person, the administrator Shen Buhai may have had more influence than any other on the construction of the merit system, and might be considered its founder, if not valuable as a rare pre-modern example of abstract theory of administration. Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel sees in Shen Buhai the "seeds of the civil service examination", and perhaps the first political scientist.
Concerned largely with administrative and sociopolitical innovation, Shang Yang was a leading reformer of his time. His numerous reforms transformed the peripheral Qin state into a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom. Much of "Legalism" was "the development of certain ideas" that lay behind his reforms, which would help lead to Qin's ultimate conquest of the other states of China in 221 BC.
Calling them the "theorists of the state", sinologist Jacques Gernet considered the Fajia to be the most important intellectual tradition of the fourth and third centuries BC. The Fajia pioneered the centralizing measures and the economic organization of the population by the state that characterized the entire period from the Qin to the Tang dynasty; the Han dynasty took over the governmental institutions of the Qin dynasty almost unchanged. Legalism rose to prominence again in the twentieth century, when reformers regarded it as a precedent for their opposition to conservative Confucian forces. As a student, Mao Zedong championed Shang Yang, and towards the end of his life, he brought back the anti-Confucian legalist policies of the Qin dynasty.
Historical background
The Zhou dynasty was divided between the masses and the hereditary noblemen. The latter were placed to obtain office and political power, owing allegiance to the local prince, who owed allegiance to the Son of Heaven. The dynasty operated according to the principles of Li and punishment. The former was applied only to aristocrats, the latter only to commoners.
The earliest Zhou kings kept a firm personal hand on the government, depending on their personal capacities, personal relations between ruler and minister, and upon military might. The technique of centralized government being so little developed, they deputed authority to feudal lords. When the Zhou kings could no longer grant new fiefs, their power began to decline, vassals began to identify with their own regions, and schismatic hostility occurred between the Chinese states. Aristocratic families became very important, by virtue of their ancestral prestige wielding great power and proving a divisive force.
In the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC), rulers began to directly appoint state officials to provide advice and management, leading to the decline of inherited privileges and bringing fundamental structural transformations as a result of what may be termed "social engineering from above". Most Warring States period thinkers tried to accommodate a "changing with the times" paradigm, and each of the schools of thought sought to provide an answer for the attainment of sociopolitical stability.
Confucianism, commonly considered to be China's ruling ethos, was articulated in opposition to the establishment of legal codes, the earliest of which were inscribed on bronze vessels in the sixth century BC. For the Confucians, the Classics provided the preconditions for knowledge. Orthodox Confucians tended to consider organizational details beneath both minister and ruler, leaving such matters to underlings, and furthermore wanted ministers to control the ruler.
Concerned with "goodness", the Confucians became the most prominent, followed by the proto-Taoists and the administrative thought that Sima Tan termed the Fajia. But the Taoists focused on the development of inner powers, and both the Taoists and Confucians held a regressive view of history, the age being a decline from the era of the Zhou kings.
Introduction
In the four centuries preceding the first empire, a new type of ruler emerged intent on breaking the power of the aristocrats and reforming their state's bureaucracies. As disenfranchised or opportunist aristocrats were increasingly attracted by the reform-oriented rulers, they brought with them philosophy concerned foremost with organizational methodology. Successful reforms made the so-called "Fajia" significant, promoting the rapid growth of the Qin state that applied reforms most thoroughly.
The goal of the "Legalist" ruler was conquest and unification of all under heaven (or in the case of Shen Buhai at least defense), and the writings of Han Fei and other Fajia are almost purely practical, eschewing ethics in favour of strategy teaching the ruler techniques (shu) to survive in a competitive world through administrative reform: strengthening the central government, increasing food production, enforcing military training, or replacing the aristocracy with a bureaucracy. Han Fei's prince must make use of Fa (administrative methods and standards), surround himself with an aura of wei (majesty) and shi (authority, power, influence), and make use of the art (shu) of statecraft. The ruler who follows Tao moves away from benevolence and righteousness, and discards reason and ability, subduing the people through Fa (statutes or administrative methods but implying objective measurements). Only an absolute ruler can restore the world.
Though Han Fei espoused that his model state would increase the quality of life, he did not consider this a legitimizing factor (rather, a side-effect of good order). He focused on the functioning of the state, the ruler's role as guarantor within it, and aimed in particular at making the state strong and the ruler the strongest person within it. To this end, Shen Buhai and successor Han Fei are concerned in particular with "the role of the ruler and the means by which he may control a bureaucracy."
Though the syncretic Han Feizi speaks on what may be termed law, what western scholarship termed the "Legalists" amongst other earlier terms, were concerned not mainly with law, but with administration. It has implications for the work of judges, but "contains no explicit judicial theory", and is motivated "almost totally from the ruler's point of view". Even the more "Legalistic" Book of Lord Shang still engages statutes more from an administrative standpoint, as well as addressing many other administrative questions.
Anti-ministerialism and human nature
The authority to make policy is a basic difference between Confucianism and the Fajia. Proposing a return to feudal ideals, albeit his nobleman being anyone who possessed virtue, Confucians granted authority to "wise and virtuous ministers", allowed to "govern as they saw fit". In contrast, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang monopolized policy in the hands of the ruler, and Qin administrative documents focused on rigorous control of local officials, and the keeping of written records. Distinguished by their anti-ministerial stance, the Fajia rejected their Confucian contemporaries' espousal of a regime based solely on the charisma of the aristocrats, and much of Fajia's doctrines seek self-regulating and mechanically reliable, if not foolproof means to control or otherwise dispense with officials administering the state. Reducing the human element, the first of these is the universally applicable Fa (administrative methods and standards).
Shen Buhai and his philosophical successor Han Fei considered the ruler to be in a situation of constant danger from his aides, and the target of Han Fei's standards, in particular, are the scholarly bureaucracy and ambitious advisers – the Confucians. Saying that "superior and inferior fight a hundred battles a day", long sections of the Han Feizi provide example of how ministers undermined various rules, and focus on how the ruler can protect himself against treacherous ministers, emphatically emphasizing their mutually different interests.
Though not exceptional, Sinologist Yuri Pines considers this selfish view of human nature to be a pillar of the Fajia, and a number of chapters of the Book of Lord Shang consider men naturally evil. The Fajia are therefore distinct from the Confucians (apart from their emphasis on Fa) in dismissing the possibility of reforming the elite, that being the ruler and ministers, or driving them by moral commitment. Every member of the elite pursues his own interests. Preserving and strengthening the ruler's authority against these may be considered the Fajia's "singularly pronounced political commitment". On rare occasions, Han Fei lauds such qualities as benevolence and proper social norms; with due consideration for the times they were living in however, the Fajia did not believe that the moral influence or virtue of the ruler was powerful enough to create order.
Considering the power struggle between ruler and minister irreconcilable, and focusing on the prevention of evil rather than the promotion of good, the Fajia largely rejected the utility of both virtue and the Confucian rule of man, insisting on impersonal norms and regulations in their relations. Their approach was therefore primarily at the institutional level, aiming for a clear power structure, consistently enforced rules and regulations, and in the Han Feizi, engaging in sophisticated manipulation tactics to enhance power bases.
Rather than aristocratic fiefs, Qin territory came under the direct control of the Qin rulers, directly appointing officials on the basis of their qualifications. With the state of Qin conquering all the Warring States and founding the "first" Chinese empire in 221 BC, the Fajia had succeeded in propelling state centralization and laying the foundations of Chinese bureaucracy, establishing "efficient and effective" codes that "became the pattern for Chinese politics for the next two millennia". The philosophies of the reformers fell with the Qin, but tendencies remained in the supposedly Confucian imperial government, and the Han Feizi would be studied by rulers in every dynasty. Hui even asserts that Confucianism's role in Chinese history is "[no] more than cosmetic", and Legalism is a more accurate description of the Chinese governmental tradition.
Antecedents: Guan Zhong and Mozi
Robert Eno of Indiana University writes that "If one were to trace the origins of Legalism as far back as possible, it might be appropriate to date its beginnings to the prime ministership of Guan Zhong (720–645 BC)", who "may be seen as the source of the notion that good government involved skilled systems design". The reforms of Guan Zhong applied levies and economic specializations at the village level instead of the aristocracy, and shifted administrative responsibility to professional bureaucrats. He valued education.
Guan Zhong and later Mozi (470-391BC) recommended objective, reliable, easily used, publicly accessible standards, or models, opposing what Sinologist Chad Hansen terms the "cultivated intuition of self-admiration societies", expert at chanting old texts. For Guan Zhong, Fa could complement any traditional scheme, and he uses Fa alongside the Confucian Li (the unique principles or standards of things, being their determinant and differentiating them), which he still valued. What Fa made possible was the accurate following of instructions. With minimal training, anyone can use Fa to perform a task or check results. In principle, if their roots in Guan Zhong and Mozi are considered, the Legalists might all be said to use Fa in the same (administrative) fashion.
The Mohists advocated a unified, utilitarian ethical and political order, posting some of its first theories and initiating a philosophical debate in China. To unify moral standards, they supported a "centralized, authoritarian state led by a virtuous, benevolent sovereign managed by a hierarchical, merit-based bureaucracy". That social order is paramount seems to be implicit, recognized by all. They argued against nepotism, and, as with the later Fa "philosophers", for universal standards (or meritocracy) as represented by the centralized state, saying "If one has ability, then he is promoted. If he has no ability, then he is demoted. Promoting public justice and casting away private resentments – this is the meaning of such statements."
Compared by Sinologist Chris Fraser with Plato, the hermeneutics of the Mohists contained the philosophical germs of what Sima-Tan would term the "Fa-School" ("Legalists"), contributing to the political thought of contemporary reformers. The Mohists and the Guanzi text attributed to Guan Zhong are of particular importance to understanding Fa, meaning "to model on" or "to emulate". Dan Robins of the University of Hong Kong considers Fa to have become "important in early Chinese philosophy largely because of the Mohists".
Of particular concern for the Fajia and the Mohists, the fourth century witnessed the emergence of discussions polarizing the concepts of self and private, commonly used in conjunction with profit and associated with fragmentation, division, partiality, and one-sidelines, with that of the state and "public", represented by the duke and referring to what is official or royal, that is, the ruler himself, associated with unity, wholeness, objectivity, and universality. The latter denotes the "Universal Way". Legalism and Mohism are distinguished by this effort to obtain objectivity.
Mohist Hermeneutics
Mohist and Legalist thought is not based on entities, transcendentals or universals, but parts or roles ("names"), and are therefore relatable to the Confucian rectification of names, which arguably originates in Mozi's development of Fa. For the most part Confucianism does not elaborate on Fa (though Han Confucians embraced Fa as an essential element in administration), though the idea of norms themselves being older, Fa is theoretically derived from the Confucian Li.
Rejecting the Confucian idea of parents as a moral model as particular and unreliable, the driving idea of the Mohists was the use of hermeneutics to find objective models/standards (Fa) for ethics and politics, as was done in any practical field, to order or govern society. These were primarily practical rather than principles or rules, as in the square and plumb-line. The Mohists used Fa as "objective, particularly operational or measurement-like standards for fixing the referents of names", hoping that analysis of language standards (Fa) would yield some objective way (dao) of moral reform. For Mozi, if language is made objective, then language itself could serve as a source of information and argued that in any dispute of distinctions, one party must be right and one wrong.
While other terms might denote mere command, in comparison to the Western concept of law, the essential characteristic of Fa is measurement. Mozi considered the elucidation of different "types" or "classes" to be the basis of both cognitive thinking and sociopolitical practice. Referring to an easily projectable standard of utility, the Guanzi Mohists explain "Fa" as compasses or circles, and may be prototypes, exemplars, or (specific) analogies.
Fa is never merely arbitrary or the ruler's desire, nor does it aim at an intellectual grasp of a definition or principle, but the practical ability to perform a task (dao) successfully, or to "do something correctly in practice" — and in particular, to be able to distinguish various kinds of things from one another. Measuring to determine whether distinctions have been drawn properly, Fa compares something against itself, and judges whether the two are similar, just as with the use of the compass or the L-square. What matches the standard is then the particular object, and thus correct. This constituted the basic conception of Mohist's practical reasoning and knowledge.
Mozi said,
"Legalist" administration
Despite the framing of Han historians, the Fajia did not seem to think they were using Fa differently than anyone else, and the influence of the Mohists is likely strong. All of the Fajia would adopt its usage. Though Masayuki Sato translates Fa as law, he explains the concept as more like an objective measuring device. Sinologist Mark Edward Lewis writes: language, such as that of a legal code, is linked to social control. If words are not correct, they do not correspond to reality, and regulation fails. "Law" is "purified", rectified, or technically regulated language. For Shen Buhai, correct or perverse words will order or ruin the state. Han Fei may also have borrowed his views on human nature from the Mohists.
Han Fei credits Shang Yang with the practice of Fa in statecraft, to which Shang Yang and Han Fei intended their "legal codes" (Fa) be as "self-interpreting" (Hansen). Shang Yang's systematic application of penalties increase the tendency to see it as penal, but arguably does not change meaning from that of the Mohists. Shang Yang's innovation was not penal law. Rather, Shang Yang's idea was that penal codes should be reformed to have the same kind of objectivity, clarity and accessibility as the craft-linked instruments. Contrasting Fa with private distortions and behavior, theoretically, their Fa exactly follows Mozi. Shang Yang was supposedly taught by a Confucian syncretist, Shi Jiao, who, stressing the importance of "name" (rectification of names), connected it with reward and punishment.
Applied to economy and institution, Shang Yang's Fa is total and anti-bureaucratic, calculating rank mathematically from the adherence to standards (Fa) in the performance of roles (models), namely that of soldiers and (to a lesser extent) farmers. Han Fei shows no revolutionary insight into rules; objectively-determined "models" (Fa) or "names" (titles/roles), being measured against, replace intuitive guidance, especially that of the ruler. It is these that enable control of a bureaucracy. Carine Defoort of New York University explains:
Because Fa is necessary for articulating administrative terms, it is presupposed in any application of punishment, and Han Fei stressed measurement-like links between rewards and punishments and performance. Applied through incentives and disincentives, Fa provided guidance for behaviour, the performance of civil and military roles, and advancement.
An excavated Qin text consists of twenty-five abstract model patterns guiding procedure based on actual situations.
Branches of the Fajia
Feng Youlan and Liang Qichao describe the elements of the Fajia as Fa (often translated as law, but closer to "standards" or "method"), authority or power (Shi), and "technique" (Shu), that is, statecraft or "the art of conducting affairs and handling men". Less well defined compared to Confucianism and Mohism, it is unclear when the Fajia came to be regarded as an intellectual faction, only forming a complex of ideas around the time of Li Si (280–208 BC), elder advisor to the First Emperor. While the earliest Legalistic act can be traced to Zichan (and with him Deng Xi), Chinese scholar K. C. Hsiao and Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel considered the Fajia to have stemmed from two disparate contemporary thinkers, as described by Han Fei:
In contrast to the old feudalism and Shen Buhai, Shang or Gongsun Yang considered there to be no single model of rule in the past, and everything changeable as a product of changing conditions; holding decline to have resulted from a scarcity of resources, he prescribed statecraft. Questioning traditional rule and the relevance of the past to the present, the first chapter of the Book of Lord Shang cites Gongsun as saying: "Orderly generations did not [follow] a single way; to benefit the state, one need not imitate antiquity." Distinguished by his heavy emphasis on penalty and mutual responsibility (among both minister and population), he instituted severe punishment for the Qin (later reduced).
Gongsun ultimately did not believe that the method of rule really mattered as long as the state was rich, and tried to dispense with the selection of exceptional men through insurance mechanisms while attacking moral discussion as empowering ministers. His anti-bureaucracy may be seen as a precursor to that of Han Fei, and together with their predecessor Mozi may be characterized as following a philosophical tradition of "objective, public, accessible standards" (Fa). The Shang Yang school was favored, though not exclusively, by Emperor Wu of Han.
In contrast to Shang Yang, though seeking at the motivation of his subjects, Han Fei is much more skeptical of self-interest. His other predecessor, Shen Buhai and with it his branch, sometimes even opposed punishments. Han Fei combined the branches. This combination is commonly known as the Fajia. Because, historically, the branches did not endorse each other's views, Creel often called the Shen Buhai group "administrators", "methodists" or "technocrats". The Cambridge History of China nominally accepts this division, but Shen Buhai is still not widely precluded from the use of the term "Legalist". Han Fei calling both the "instruments of Kings and Emperors" and Li Si praising them equally, finding no contradiction between them.
Sinologist Chad Hansen describes their difference as such: "Shen Buhai's shu ('techniques') limit the ministers' influence on the ruler; Shang Yang's fa controls their power over the people."
The scholar Shen Dao (350 – c. 275 BC) covered a "remarkable" quantity of Legalist and Taoistic themes. Incorporated into the Han Feizi and The Art of War, he nonetheless lacked a recognizable group of followers.
Shang Yang (390–338 BC)
Hailing from Wei, as Prime Minister of the State of Qin Shang Yang or Gongsun Yang engaged in a "comprehensive plan to eliminate the hereditary aristocracy". Drawing boundaries between private factions and the central, royal state, he took up the cause of meritocratic appointment, stating "Favoring one's relatives is tantamount to using self-interest as one's way, whereas that which is equal and just prevents selfishness from proceeding."
As the first of his accomplishments, historiographer Sima Qian accounts Gongsun as having divided the populace into groups of five and ten, instituting a system of mutual responsibility tying status entirely to service to the state. It rewarded office and rank for martial exploits, going to far as to organize women's militias for siege defense. The second accomplishment listed is forcing the populace to attend solely to agriculture (or women cloth production, including a possible sewing draft) and recruiting labour from other states. He abolished the old fixed landholding system (Fengjian) and direct primogeniture, making it possible for the people to buy and sell (usufruct) farmland, thereby encouraging the peasants of other states to come to Qin. The recommendation that farmers be allowed to buy office with grain was apparently only implemented much later, the first clear-cut instance in 243 BC. Infanticide was prohibited.
Gongsun deliberately produced equality of conditions amongst the ruled, a tight control of the economy, and encouraged total loyalty to the state, including censorship and reward for denunciation. Law was what the sovereign commanded, and this meant absolutism, but it was an absolutism of law as impartial and impersonal. Gongsun discouraged arbitrary tyranny or terror as destroying the law. Emphasizing knowledge of the Fa among the people, he proposed an elaborate system for its distribution to allow them to hold ministers to it. He considered it the most important device for upholding the power of the state. Insisting that it be made known and applied equally to all, he posted it on pillars erected in the new capital. In 350, along with the creation of the new capital, a portion of Qin was divided into thirty-one counties, each "administered by a (presumably centrally appointed) magistrate". This was a "significant move toward centralizing Ch'in administrative power" and correspondingly reduced the power of hereditary landholders.
Gongsun considered the sovereign to be a culmination in historical evolution, representing the interests of state, subject and stability. Objectivity was a primary goal for him, wanting to be rid as much as possible of the subjective element in public affairs. The greatest good was order. History meant that feeling was now replaced by rational thought, and private considerations by public, accompanied by properties, prohibitions and restraints. In order to have prohibitions, it is necessary to have executioners, hence officials, and a supreme ruler. Virtuous men are replaced by qualified officials, objectively measured by Fa. The ruler should rely neither on his nor his officials' deliberations, but on the clarification of Fa. Everything should be done by Fa, whose transparent system of standards will prevent any opportunities for corruption or abuse. Shang Yang also corrected measures and weights.
Anti-Confucianism
While Shen Buhai and Shen Dao's current may not have been hostile to Confucius, Shang Yang and Han Fei emphasize their rejection of past models as unverifiable if not useless ("what was appropriate for the early kings is not appropriate for modern rulers"). In the west, past scholars have argued that Shang Yang sought to establish the supremacy of what some have termed positive law at the expense of customary or "natural" law. Han Fei argued that the age of Li had given way to the age of Fa, with natural order giving way to social order and finally political order. Together with that of Xun Kuang, their sense of human progress and reason guided the Qin dynasty.
Intending his Dao (way of government) to be both objective and publicly projectable, Han Fei argued that disastrous results would occur if the ruler acted on arbitrary, ad-hoc decision making, such as that based on relationships or morality which, as a product of reason, are "particular and fallible". Li, or Confucian customs, and rule by example are also simply too ineffective. The ruler cannot act on a case-by-case basis, and so must establish an overarching system, acting through Fa (administrative methods or standards). Fa is not partial to the noble, does not exclude ministers, and does not discriminate against the common people.
Linking the "public" sphere with justice and objective standards, for Han Fei, the private and public had always opposed each other. Taking after Shang Yang he lists the Confucians among his "five vermin", and calls the Confucian teaching on love and compassion for the people the "stupid teaching" and "muddle-headed chatter", the emphasis on benevolence an "aristocratic and elitist ideal" demanding that "all ordinary people of the time be like Confucius' disciples". Moreover, he dismisses it as impracticable, saying that "In their settled knowledge, the literati are removed from the affairs of the state ... What can the ruler gain from their settled knowledge?", and points out that "Confucianism" is not a unified body of thought.
Assessments
Keeping in mind the information of the time (1955) and the era of which he is speaking, A. F. P. Hulsewé goes as far as to call Shang Yang the "founder of the school of law", and considers his unification of punishments one of his most important contributions; that is, giving the penalty of death to any grade of person disobeying the king's orders. Shang Yang even expected the king, though the source of law (authorizing it), to follow it. This treatment is in contrast to ideas more typical of archaic society, more closely represented in the Rites of Zhou as giving different punishments to different strata of society.
Hulsewe points out that Sima Tan considered equal treatment the "school of law's" most salient point: "They do not distinguish between close and far relatives, nor do they disriminate between noble and humble, but in an uniform manner they decide on them in law." Though himself deriving them from elsewhere, the Han dynasty adopted essentially the same denominations of crimes, if not equality, as Shang Yang set down for Qin, without collective punishment of the three sets of relatives.
Shang Yang appeared to act according to his own teachings, and translator Duvendak references him as being considered "like a bamboo‑frame which keeps a bow straight, and one could not get him out of his straightness", even if spoken of by some pre-modern Chinese in ill regard with the fall of Qin. Though writing in 1928, Duvendak believed that Shang Yang should be of interest not just to Sinologists, but Western Jurists as well.
Shen Buhai (400 – c. 337 BC)
The basic structure and operation of the traditional Chinese state was not "legalistic" as the term is commonly understood. Though persisting, pre-modern mainstream Chinese thinking never really accepted the role of law and jurisprudence or the Shang Yang wing of the Fajia. The Fajia's most important contribution lies in the organization and regulation of centralized, bureaucratic government. Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel called its philosophy administrative for lack of a better term, considering it to have been founded by Shen Buhai (400–337 BC), who likely played an "outstanding role in the creation of the traditional Chinese system of government".
Shen was chancellor of Han for fifteen years (354–337 BC). The Huainanzi says that when Shen lived the officials of the state of Han were at cross-purposes and did not know what practices to follow; the legal system of Han was apparently confused, prohibiting uniform reward and punishment. It is not surprising then that no text identifies Shen Buhai with penal law. We have no basis to suppose that Shen advocated the doctrine of rewards and punishment (of Shang Yang, as Han Fei did), and Han Fei criticizes him for not unifying the laws.
A teacher of Legalist Li Kui, the Confucian Bu Shang is cited for the principle of favouring talents over favouritism, becoming under the Mohists the principle of "elevating the worthy and employing ability". Adhering thereto, Shen utilized the same category of method (Fa) as others of the Fajia, but emphasized its use in secrecy for purposes of investigation and personnel control, concerning himself with methods (Fa) of (impersonal bureaucratic) administration (namely methods of appointment and performance measurement) or the ruler's role in the control thereof. He is famous for the dictum "The Sage ruler relies on standards/method (Fa) and does not rely on wisdom; he relies on technique, not on persuasions."
What Shen appears to have realized is that the "methods for the control of a bureaucracy" could not be mixed with the survivals of feudal government, or staffed merely by "getting together a group of 'good men, but rather must be men qualified in their jobs. He therefore emphasizes the importance of selecting able officials as much as Confucius did, but insists on "constant vigilance over their performance", never mentioning virtue. Well aware of the possibility of the loss of the ruler's position, and thus state or life, from said officials, Shen says:
Compared with Shang Yang, Shen Buhai refers to the ruler in abstract terms: he is simply the head of a bureaucracy. In comparison with Han Fei though his system still required a strong ruler at the centre, emphasizing that he trust no one minister. Ideally, Shen Buhai's ruler had the widest possible sovereignty, was intelligent (if not a sage), had to make all crucial decisions himself, and had unlimited control of the bureaucracy. Shen largely recommended that rulers investigate their ministers' performance, checking his ministers' reports while remaining calm and secretive (Wu wei). The ruler promotes and demotes according to the match between 'performance' and proposal (Xing Ming).
Shen Buhai insisted that the ruler must be fully informed on the state of his realm, but could not afford to get caught up in details and in an ideal situation need listen to no one. Listening to his courtiers might interfere with promotions, and he does not, as Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel says, have the time to do so. The way to see and hear independently is the grouping together of particulars into categories using mechanical or operational method (Fa). On the contrary the ruler's eyes and hears will make him "deaf and blind" (unable to obtain accurate information). Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.
Shu or "Technique"
Apart from Shang Yang's doctrine of penalties and mutual spying and denouncement among ministers, Han Fei recommends the ruler should protect himself through careful employment of doctrines that had earlier been recommended by Shen Buhai. Because Fa has diverse meaning, for clarification Shen Buhai's successors often used the term Shu (technique) for his administrative method (Fa) and other techniques (such as "Wu-wei"), and thus 20th century philosopher Feng Youlan called Shen the leader of the group [in the Legalist school] emphasizing Shu, or techniques of government.
Liu Xiang wrote that Shen Buhai advised the ruler of men use technique (shu) rather than punishment, relying on persuasion to supervise and hold responsible, though very strictly. Shen's doctrines are described as concerned almost exclusively with the "ruler's role and the methods by which he may control a bureaucracy"; that is, its management and personnel control: the selection of capable ministers, their performance, the monopolization of power, and the control of and power relations between ruler and minister which he characterized as Wu Wei. The emphasis, however, is on "scrutinizing achievement and on that ground alone to give rewards, and to bestow office solely on the basis of ability". Sinologist John Makeham characterizes Shu as "the agency of several checking systems that together constituted Method (Fa)", whose central principle is accountability.
Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel believed the term originally had the sense of numbers, with implicit roots in statistical or categorizing methods, using record-keeping in financial management as a numerical measure of accomplishment. He notes that command of finance was generally held by the head of government from the beginning of the Zhou dynasty; an example of auditing dates to 800 BC, and the practice of annual accounting solidified by the Warring States period and budgeting by the first century BC. In the Guanzi the artisan's Shu is explicitly compared to that of the good ruler. The History of the Han (Han Shu) lists texts for Shu as devoted to "calculation techniques" and "techniques of the mind", and describes the Warring States period as a time when the shu arose because the complete tao had disappeared. Hsu Kai (920–974 AD) calls Shu a branch in, or components of, the great Tao, likening it to the spokes on a wheel. He defines it as "that by which one regulates the world of things; the algorithms of movement and stillness". Mastery of techniques was a necessary element of sagehood.
Another example of Shu is Chuan-shu, or "political maneuvering". The concept of Ch'uan, or "weighing" figures in Legalist writings from very early times. It also figures in Confucian writings as at the heart of moral action, including in the Mencius and the Doctrine of the Mean. Weighing is contrasted with "the standard". Life and history often necessitate adjustments in human behavior, which must suit what is called for at a particular time. It always involves human judgement. A judge that has to rely on his subjective wisdom, in the form of judicious weighing, relies on Ch'uan. The Confucian Zhu Xi, who was notably not a restorationist, emphasized expedients as making up for incomplete standards or methods.
Name and reality (Ming-shi)
A contemporary of Confucius, the logician Deng Xi (died 501 BC) was cited by Liu Xiang for the origin of the principle of Xing-Ming. Serving as a minor official in the state of Zheng, he is reported to have drawn up a code of penal laws. Associated with litigation, he is said to have argued for the permissibility of contradictory propositions, likely engaging in hair-splitting debates on the interpretation of laws, legal principles and definitions. Shen Buhai solves this through Wu wei, or not getting involved, making an official's words his own responsibility. Shen Buhai says, "The ruler controls the policy, the ministers manage affairs. To speak ten times and ten times be right, to act a hundred times and a hundred times succeed – this is the business of one who serves another as minister; it is the not the way to rule." The correlation between Wu-wei and ming-shi () likely informed the Taoist conception of the formless Tao that "gives rise to the ten thousand things".
In the Han Dynasty secretaries of government who had charge of the records of decisions in criminal matters were called Xing-Ming, which Sima Qian (145 or 135 – 86 BC) and Liu Xiang (77–6 BC) attributed to the doctrine of Shen Buhai (400 – c. 337 BC). Liu Xiang goes as far as to define Shen Buhai's doctrine as Xing-Ming. Shen actually used an older, more philosophically common equivalent, ming-shi, linking the "Legalist doctrine of names" with the name and reality (ming shi) debates of the school of names – another school evolving out of the Mohists. Such discussions are also prominent in the Han Feizi, and the earliest literary occurrence for Xing-Ming, in the Zhan Guo Ce, is also in reference to the school of names.
Ming ("name") sometimes has the sense of speech – so as to compare the statements of an aspiring officer with the reality of his actions – or reputation, again compared with real conduct (xing "form" or shi "reality"). Two anecdotes by Han Fei provide examples: The Logician Ni Yue argued that a white horse is not a horse, and defeated all debaters, but was still tolled at the gate. In another, the chief minister of Yan pretended to see a white horse dash out the gate. All of his subordinates denied having seen anything, save one, who ran out after it and returned claiming to have seen it, and was thereby identified as a flatterer.
Shen Buhai's personnel control, or rectification of names (such as titles) worked thereby for "strict performance control" (Hansen) correlating claims, performances and posts. It would become a central tenant of both Legalist statecraft and its Huang-Lao derivatives. Rather than having to look for "good" men, ming-shi or xing-ming can seek the right man for a particular post, though doing so implies a total organizational knowledge of the regime. More simply though, it can allow ministers to "name" themselves through accounts of specific cost and time frame, leaving their definition to competing ministers. Claims or utterances "bind the speaker to the realization a job (Makeham)." This was the doctrine, with subtle differences, favoured by Han Fei. Favoring exactness, it combats the tendency to promise too much. The correct articulation of Ming is considered crucial to the realization of projects.
In Chinese Thought: An Introduction, S. Y. Hsieh suggests a set of assumptions underlying the concept of (xing-ming).
That when a large group of people are living together, it is necessary to have some form of government.
The government has to be responsible for a wide range of things, to allow them to live together peacefully.
The government does not consist of one person only, but a group.
One is a leader that issues orders to other members, namely officials, and assigns responsibilities to them.
To do this, the leader must know the exact nature of the responsibilities, as well as the capabilities of the officials.
Responsibilities, symbolized by a title, should correspond closely with capabilities, demonstrated by performance.
Correspondence measures success in solving problems and also controls the officials. When there is a match, the leader should award the officials.
It is necessary to recruit from the whole population. Bureaucratic government marks the end of feudal government.
Wu wei (inaction)
Playing a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity", what is termed Wu wei (or inaction) would become the political theory of the Fajia (or "Chinese Legalists"), if not becoming their general term for political strategy. The (qualified) non-action of the ruler ensures his power and the stability of the polity, and can therefore be considered his foremost technique. The "conception of the ruler's role as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, would have a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy". Following Shen Buhai strongly advocated by Han Fei, during the Han dynasty up until the reign of Han Wudi rulers confined their activity "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials", a plainly "Legalist" practice inherited from the Qin dynasty.
Lacking any metaphysical connotation, Shen used the term Wu wei to mean that the ruler, though vigilant, should not interfere with the duties of his ministers, acting through administrative method. Shen says:
Though not a conclusive argument against proto-Taoist influence, Shen's Buhai's Taoist terms do not show evidence of explicit Taoist usage (Confucianism also uses terms like "Tao", or Wu wei), lacking any metaphysical connotation. The Han Feizi has a commentary on the Tao Te Ching, but references Shen Buhai rather than Laozi for Wu wei. Since the bulk of both the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzhi appear to have been composed later, Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel argued that it may therefore be assumed that Shen Buhai influenced them.
Shen Buhai argued that if the government were organized and supervised relying on proper method (Fa), the ruler need do little – and must do little. Unlike Legalists Shang Yang and Han Fei, Shen did not consider the relationship between ruler and minister antagonistic necessarily. Apparently paraphrasing the Analects, Shen Buhai's statement that those near him will feel affection, while the far will yearn for him, stands in contrast to Han Fei, who considered the relationship between the ruler and ministers irreconcilable.
However, Shen still believed that the ruler's most able ministers are his greatest danger, and is convinced that it is impossible to make them loyal without techniques. Creel explains: "The ruler's subjects are so numerous, and so on alert to discover his weaknesses and get the better of him, that it is hopeless for him alone as one man to try to learn their characteristics and control them by his knowledge ... the ruler must refrain from taking the initiative, and from making himself conspicuous – and therefore vulnerable – by taking any overt action."
Shen Buhai portrays the ruler as putting up a front to hide his dependence on his advisers. Aside from hiding the ruler's weaknesses, Shen's ruler, therefore, makes use of method (Fa) in secrecy. Even more than with Han Fei, Shen Buhai's ruler's strategies are a closely guarded secret, aiming for a complete independence that challenges "one of the oldest and most sacred tenets of [Confucianism]", that of respectfully receiving and following ministerial advice.
Though espousing an ultimate inactive end, the term does not appear in the Book of Lord Shang, ignoring it as an idea for control of the administration.
Yin (passive mindfulness)
Shen's ruler plays no active role in governmental functions. He should not use his talent even if he has it. Not using his own skills, he is better able to secure the services of capable functionaries. However, Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel also argues that not getting involved in details allowed Shen's ruler to "truly rule", because it leaves him free to supervise the government without interfering, maintaining his perspective.
Adherence to the use of technique in governing requires the ruler not engage in any interference or subjective consideration. Sinologist John Makeham explains: "assessing words and deeds requires the ruler's dispassionate attention; (yin is) the skill or technique of making one's mind a tabula rasa, non-committaly taking note of all the details of a man's claims and then objectively comparing his achievements of the original claims."
A commentary to the Shiji cites a now-lost book as quoting Shen Buhai saying: "By employing (yin), 'passive mindfulness', in overseeing and keeping account of his vassals, accountability is deeply engraved." The Guanzi similarly says: "Yin is the way of non-action. Yin is neither to add to nor to detract from anything. To give something a name strictly on the basis of its form – this is the Method of yin."
Yin also aimed at concealing the ruler's intentions, likes and opinions. Shen advises the ruler to keep his own counsel, hide his motivations and conceal his tracks in inaction, availing himself of an appearance of stupidity and insufficiency.
Said obscuration was to be achieved together with the use of Method (Fa). Not acting himself, he can avoid being manipulated.
Despite such injunctions, it is clear that the ruler's assignments would still be completely up to him.
Shen Dao (350 – c. 275 BC)
Shen Dao argued for Wu wei in a similar manner to Shen Buhai, saying
Shen Dao also espouses an impersonal administration in much the same sense as Shen Buhai, and in contrast with Shang Yang emphasizes the use of talent and the promotion of ministers, saying that order and chaos are "not the product of one man's efforts". Along this line, however, he challenges the Confucian and Mohist esteem and appointment of worthies as a basis of order, pointing out that talented ministers existed in every age.
Taking it upon himself to attempt a new, analytical solution, Shen advocated fairness as a new virtue, eschewing appointment by interview in favour of a mechanical distribution ("the basis of fairness") with the invariable Fa apportioning every person according to their achievement. Scholar Sugamoto Hirotsugu attributes the concept of Fen, or social resources, also used by the Guanzi and Xunzi, to Shen, given a "dimensional" difference through Fa, social relationships ("yin") and division.
The greatest function of Fa ("the principle of objective judgement") is the prevention of selfish deeds and argument. However, doubting its long-term viability Shen did not exclude moral values and accepted (qualified) Confucian Li's supplementation of Fa and social relationships, though he frames Li in terms of (impersonal) rules.
For this reason he is said to "laugh at men of worth" and "reject sages", his order relying not on them but on the Fa.
Linking Fa to the notion of impartial objectivity associated with universal interest, and reframing the language of the old ritual order to fit a universal, imperial and highly bureaucratized state, Shen cautions the ruler against relying on his own personal judgment, contrasting personal opinions with the merit of the objective standard, or fa, as preventing personal judgements or opinions from being exercised. Personal opinions destroy Fa, and Shen Dao's ruler therefore "does not show favouritism toward a single person".
Doctrine of position (shi)
Generally speaking, the "Fajia" understood that the power of the state resides in social and political institutions, and are innovative in their aim to subject the state to them. Like Shen Buhai, Shen Dao largely focused on statecraft (Fa), and Confucian Xun Kuang discusses him in this capacity, never referencing Shen Dao in relation to power. Shen Dao is remembered for his theories on shi (lit. "situational advantage", but also "power" or "charisma") because Han Fei references him in this capacity.
In the words of Han Fei,
Used in many areas of Chinese thought, shi probably originated in the military field. Diplomats relied on concepts of situational advantage and opportunity, as well as secrecy (shu) long before the ascendancy of such concepts as sovereignty or law, and were used by kings wishing to free themselves from the aristocrats. Sun Tzu would go on to incorporate Taoist philosophy of inaction and impartiality, and Legalist punishment and rewards as systematic measures of organization, recalling Han Fei's concepts of power (shi) and tactics (shu).
Henry Kissinger's On China says: "Chinese statesmanship exhibits a tendency to view the entire strategic landscape as part of a single whole ... Strategy and statecraft become means of 'combative coexistence' with opponents. The goal is to manoeuvre them into weakness while building up one's own shi, or strategic position." Kissinger considers the "manoeuvring" approach an ideal, but one that ran in contrast to the conflicts of the Qin dynasty.
Shen Dao on shi
Searching out the causes of disorder, Shen Dao observed splits in the ruler's authority. Shen Dao's theory on power echoes Shen Buhai, referenced by Xun Kuang as its originator, who says "He who (can become) singular decision-maker can become the sovereign of All under Heaven." Shen Dao's theory may otherwise have been borrowed from the Book of Lord Shang.
For Shen Dao, "Power" ( shi) refers to the ability to compel compliance; it requires no support from the subjects, though it does not preclude this. (shi's) merit is that it prevents people from fighting each other; political authority is justified and essential on this basis. Shen Dao says: "When All under Heaven lacks the single esteemed [person], then there is no way to carry out the principles [of orderly government, li ]. ... Hence the Son of Heaven is established for the sake of All under Heaven ... All under Heaven is not established for the sake of the Son of Heaven ..."
Talent cannot be displayed without power. Shen Dao says: "The flying dragon rides on the clouds and the rising serpent wanders in the mists. But when the clouds disperse and the mists clear up, the dragon and the serpent become the same as the earthworm and the large winged black ant because they have lost what they ride." Leadership is not a function of ability or merit, but is given by some process, such as giving a leader to a group. "The ruler of a state is enthroned for the sake of the state; the state is not established for the sake of the prince. Officials are installed for the sake of their offices; offices are not established for the sake of officials ..."
While moral capability is usually disregarded by the Fajia, Shen Dao considers it useful in terms of authority. If the ruler is inferior but his command is practiced, it is because he is able to get support from people. But his ideas otherwise constitute a "direct challenge" to Confucian virtue. Virtue is unreliable because people have different capacities. Both morality together with intellectual capability are insufficient to rule, while position of authority is enough to attain influence and subdue the worthy, making virtue "not worth going after".
Han Fei on Shi
Like Shen Dao, Han Fei seems to admit that virtue or charisma can have persuasive power even in his own time. However, he considers virtue instrumental, and Wu-wei, or nonaction, as its essence. Furthermore, he criticizes virtue as insufficient; power should be amassed through "laws" (fa), and unlike Shen considers government by moral persuasion and government by power (shi) mutually incompatible. The ruler's authority (shi) should depend neither on his own personal qualities or cultivation, or even upon Shen Dao's position or power, but on Fa (law or checks and balances), a more vital source for his authority. Shang Yang and Han Fei's rejection of charisma (shi) as ineffective underwrite their rejection of the Confucian ruler. Han Fei does stress that the leader has to occupy a position of substantial power before he is able to use these or command followers. Competence or moral standing do not allow command.
For Han Fei, in order to actually influence, manipulate or control others in an organization and attain organizational goals it is necessary to utilize tactics (shu), regulation (fa), and rewards and punishment – the "two handles". Reward and punishment determine social positions – the right to appoint and dismiss. In line with Shi, these should never be relegated. The ruler must be the sole dispenser of honors and penalties. If these are delegated to the smallest degree, and people are appointed on the basis of reputation or worldly knowledge, then rivals will emerge and the ruler's power will fall to opinion and cliques (the ministers). Allowing him to prevent collapse by combating or resolving ministerial disagreements and ambitions, the rule's exclusive authority outweighs all other considerations, and Han Fei requires that the ruler punish disobedient ministers even if the results of their actions were successful. Goods may not be considered meaningful outside of his control.
Han Fei (280–233 BC)
Han Fei's theory is more interested in self-preservation than formulating any general theory of the state. Sinologist Daniel Bell considers Han Fei's work a "political handbook for power-hungry rulers... (arguing that) political leaders should act like rational sociopaths" with "total-state control" strengthened by rewards and punishments.
Han Fei nonetheless inheres to the tradition of Fa, considering coherent discourse essential for the functioning of the state. Han Fei's analysis of the problem of rulership is that "people naturally incline to private interpretation" (Chad Hansen). Differentiating his theory from that of the Confucians through the objectivity and accessibility of Fa, he considers measurement (Fa) the only justification for adopting an explicit code, rather than leaving matters to tradition. As with Shen Buhai and most of the School of Names he takes the congruence between name and reality as a primary goal.
Public, measurement-like standards for applying names (administrative standards or job contracts) can "plausibly make it hard for clever ministers to lie, (or) for glib talkers to take people (or the ruler) in with sophistries ... [They make it possible to] correct the faults of superiors, expose error, check excess, and unify standards ... Laws, by themselves, cannot prevent the ruler from being fooled or deceived. The ruler needs Fa." Han Fei's arguments for "rule by law" (Fa) would not have as much persuasive power as they do if not for Fa, without which its objectives cannot be achieved. He rejects Confucian Li, scholarly interpretation and opinion, worldly knowledge, and reputation: models must be measured, dissolving behaviour and disputes of distinction into practical application.
Considering politics the only means of preserving the power of the state, he emphasizes standards (Fa), preventing disputes in language or knowledge, as the ruler's only protection. Providing reward and penalty automatically, Fa strictly defines state functions through binding, general rules, removing from discussion what would otherwise only be opinion, and preventing conflicts of competencies, undue powers or profits. To this end, Han Fei's high officials focus solely on definition through calculation and the construction of objective models, judged solely by effectiveness.
Wu wei
Devoting the entirety of Chapter 14, "How to Love the Ministers", to "persuading the ruler to be ruthless to his ministers", Han Fei's enlightened ruler strikes terror into his ministers by doing nothing (wu wei). The qualities of a ruler, his "mental power, moral excellence and physical prowess" are irrelevant. He discards his private reason and morality, and shows no personal feelings. What is important is his method of government. Fa (administrative standards) require no perfection on the part of the ruler.
Han Fei's use of Wu-Wei may have been derivative of Taoism, but its Tao emphasizes autocracy ("Tao does not identify with anything but itself, the ruler does not identify with the ministers"). Sinologists like Randall P. Peerenboom argue that Han Fei's Shu (technique) is arguably more of a "practical principle of political control" than any state of mind. Han Fei nonetheless begins by advising the ruler to remain "empty and still".
Han Fei's commentary on the Tao Te Ching asserts that perspectiveless knowledge – an absolute point of view – is possible, though the chapter may have been one of his earlier writings.
Performance and title (Xing-Ming)
Han Fei was notoriously focused on what he termed Xing-Ming (), which Sima Qian and Liu Xiang define as "holding actual outcome accountable to Ming (speech)". In line with both the Confucian and Mohist rectification of names, it is relatable to the Confucian tradition in which a promise or undertaking, especially in relation to a government aim, entails punishment or reward, though the tight, centralized control emphasized by both his philosophy and that of his predecessor Shen Buhai's conflicts with the Confucian idea of the autonomous minister.
Possibly referring to the drafting and imposition of laws and standardized legal terms, Xing-Ming may originally have meant "punishments and names", but with the emphasis on the latter. It functions through binding declarations (Ming), like a legal contract. Verbally committing oneself, a candidate is allotted a job, indebting him to the ruler. "Naming" people to (objectively determined) positions, it rewards or punished according to the proposed job description and whether the results fit the task entrusted by their word, which a real minister fulfils.
Han Fei insists on the perfect congruence between words and deeds. Fitting the name is more important than results. The completion, achievement, or result of a job is its assumption of a fixed form (xing), which can then be used as a standard against the original claim (ming). A large claim but a small achievement is inappropriate to the original verbal undertaking, while a larger achievement takes credit by overstepping the bounds of office.
Han Fei's "brilliant ruler" "orders names to name themselves and affairs to settle themselves".
Assessing the accountability of his words to his deeds, the ruler attempts to "determine rewards and punishments in accordance with a subject's true merit" (using Fa). It is said that using names (ming) to demand realities (shi) exalts superiors and curbs inferiors, provides a check on the discharge of duties, and naturally results in emphasizing the high position of superiors, compelling subordinates to act in the manner of the latter.
Han Fei considers Xing-Ming an essential element of autocracy, saying that "In the way of assuming Oneness names are of first importance. When names are put in order, things become settled down; when they go awry, things become unfixed." He emphasizes that through this system, initially developed by Shen Buhai, uniformity of language could be developed, functions could be strictly defined to prevent conflict and corruption, and objective rules (Fa) impervious to divergent interpretation could be established, judged solely by their effectiveness. By narrowing down the options to exactly one, discussions on the "right way of government" could be eliminated. Whatever the situation (shi) brings is the correct Dao.
Though recommending use of Shen Buhai's techniques, Han Fei's Xing-Ming is both considerably narrower and more specific. The functional dichotomy implied in Han Fei's mechanistic accountability is not readily implied in Shen's, and might be said to be more in line with the later thought of the Han dynasty linguist Xu Gan than that of either Shen Buhai or his supposed teacher Xun Kuang.
The "Two Handles"
Though not entirely accurately, most Han works identify Shang Yang with penal law. Its discussion of bureaucratic control is simplistic, chiefly advocating punishment and reward. Shang Yang was largely unconcerned with the organization of the bureaucracy apart from this. The use of these "two handles" (punishment and reward) nonetheless forms a primary premise of Han Fei's administrative theory. However, he includes it under his theory of Shu in connection with Xing-Ming.
As a matter of illustration, if the "keeper of the hat" lays a robe on the sleeping Emperor, he has to be put to death for overstepping his office, while the "keeper of the robe" has to be put to death for failing to do his duty. The philosophy of the "Two Handles" likens the ruler to the tiger or leopard, which "overpowers other animals by its sharp teeth and claws"(rewards and punishments). Without them he is like any other man; his existence depends upon them. To "avoid any possibility of usurpation by his ministers", power and the "handles of the law" must "not be shared or divided", concentrating them in the ruler exclusively.
In practice, this means that the ruler must be isolated from his ministers. The elevation of ministers endangers the ruler, with which he must be kept strictly apart. Punishment confirms his sovereignty; law eliminates anyone who oversteps his boundary, regardless of intention. Law "aims at abolishing the selfish element in man and the maintenance of public order", making the people responsible for their actions.
Han Fei's rare appeal (among Legalists) to the use of scholars (law and method specialists) makes him comparable to the Confucians, in that sense. The ruler cannot inspect all officials himself, and must rely on the decentralized (but faithful) application of laws and methods (fa). Contrary to Shen Buhai and his own rhetoric, Han Fei insists that loyal ministers (like Guan Zhong, Shang Yang, and Wu Qi) exist, and upon their elevation with maximum authority. Though Fajia sought to enhance the power of the ruler, this scheme effectively neutralizes him, reducing his role to the maintenance of the system of reward and punishments, determined according to impartial methods and enacted by specialists expected to protect him through their usage thereof. Combining Shen Buhai's methods with Shang Yang's insurance mechanisms, Han Fei's ruler simply employs anyone offering their services.
Enlightened absolutism
Even if the Fajia were not ardent absolutists (and Han Fei believed that most rulers would be average), they would never dream of openly challenging absolutism, and its methods are presented as empowering the ruler. Han Fei's doctrine, however, challenges its absolutist premise out of its own mouth. In order for its administration to function, the ruler must act as a cog in its operation, and that alone. The operation of Fa implies non-interference not only in its application, but also in its development, determined through method.
Sinologist Xuezhi Guo contrasts the Confucian "Humane ruler" with the Legalists as "intending to create a truly 'enlightened ruler. He quotes Benjamin I. Schwartz as describing the features of a truly Legalist "enlightened ruler":
As easily as mediocre carpenters can draw circles by employing a compass, anyone can employ the system Han Fei envisions. The enlightened ruler restricts his desires and refrains from displays of personal ability or input in policy. Capability is not dismissed, but the ability to use talent will allow the ruler greater power if he can utilize others with the given expertise. Laws and regulations allow him to utilize his power to the utmost. Adhering unwaveringly to legal and institutional arrangements, the average monarch is numinous. A.C. Graham writes:
Resting empty, the ruler simply checks "shapes" against "names" and dispenses rewards and punishments accordingly, concretizing the Tao ("path") of Laozi into standards for right and wrong. Submerged by the system he supposedly runs, the alleged despot disappears from the scene.
Later history
Fall
Guided by Legalist thought, the First Qin Emperor Qin Shi Huang conquered and unified the China's warring states into thirty-six administrative provinces, under what is commonly thought of as the first Chinese empire, the Qin dynasty. The Qin document "On the Way of Being an Official" proclaims the ideal official as a responsive conduit, transmitting the facts of his locale to the court, and its orders, without interposing his own will or ideas. It charges the official to obey his superiors, limit his desires, and to build roads to smooth the transmitting of directives from the center without modification. It praises loyalty, absence of bias, deference, and the appraisal of facts.
The intrastate realpolitik would end up devouring the philosophers themselves. Holding that if punishments were heavy and the law equally applied, neither the powerful nor the weak would be able to escape consequences, Shang Yang advocated the state's right to punish even the ruler's tutor, and ran afoul of the future King Huiwen of Qin (–311 BC). Whereas at one point, Shang Yang had the power to exile his opponents (and, thus, eviscerate individual criticism) to border regions of the state, he was captured by a law he had introduced and died being torn into pieces by chariots. Similarly, Han Fei would end up being poisoned by his envious former classmate Li Si, who in turn would be killed (under the law he had introduced) by the aggressive and violent Second Qin Emperor that he had helped to take the throne.
As recorded in the Shiji and Book of Han, the Han dynasty took over the governmental institutions of the Qin dynasty almost unchanged, but in its early decades it was not a centralized state, parcelling out the country to a number of relatives, who as vassal kings who ruled with full authority. The reputation of Legalism suffered from its association with the former Qin dynasty. Sima Tan, though hailing the Fa "school" for "honouring rulers and derogating subjects, and clearly distinguishing offices so that no one can overstep [his responsibilities]", criticized the Legalist approach as "a one-time policy that could not be constantly applied". Though different philosophically, the pairing of figures like Shen Buhai and Shang Yang along with Han Fei became common in the early Han dynasty, Sima Tan glossing the three as Fa Jia and his son as adherents of "xing ming" ("performance and title").
The syncretic Han Dynasty text, the Huainanzi writes that
Usually referring to Warring States period philosophers, during the Han Fajia would be used for others disliked by the Confucian orthodoxy, like the otherwise Confucianistic reformers Guan Zhong and Xunzi, and the Huang-Lao Taoists.
Later influences (Xing-Ming)
The Shiji records Li Si as repeatedly recommending "supervising and holding responsible", which he attributed to Shen Buhai. A stele set up by Qin Shi Huang memorializes him as a sage that, taking charge of the government, established Xing-Ming.
In the early Han dynasty, Sima Tan's Taoist syncretism almost unmistakably uses the same sort of technique as Shen Buhai, saying:
The Huang–Lao text Jing fa says
The Shiji states that Emperor Wen of Han was "basically fond of Xing-Ming". Jia Yi advised Wen to teach his heir to use Shen Buhai's method, so as to be able to "supervise the functions of the many officials and understand the usages of government". Pressure groups saw Jia Yi's dismissal, but was brought back to criticize the government. Two advisors to Wen's heir, Emperor Jing of Han were students of Xing-Ming, one passing the highest grade of examination, and admonished Jing for not using it on the feudal lords.
By the time of the civil service examination was put into place, Confucian influence saw outright discussion of Shen Buhai banned. Xing-Ming is not discussed by Imperial University's promoter, the famous Confucian Dong Zhongshu. However, the Emperor under which it was founded, Emperor Wu of Han, was both familiar with and favorable to Legalist ideas, and the civil service examination did not come into existence until its support by Gongsun Hong, who did write a book on Xing-Ming. The Emperor Xuan of Han was still said by Liu Xiang to have been fond of reading Shen Buhai, using Xing-Ming to control his subordinates and devoting much time to legal cases.
Regarded as being in opposition to Confucians, as early as the Eastern Han its full and original meaning would be forgotten. Yet the writings of Dong Zhongshu discuss personnel testing and control in a manner sometimes hardly distinguishable from the Han Feizi. Like Shen Buhai, he dissuades against reliance upon punishments. As Confucianism ascended the term disappeared, but appears again in later dynasties.
The Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty was said by to "xunming zishe", or "demand performance in accordance with title", a near-verbatim usage of the Han Feizi.
Imperial China
Han dynasty
The administration and political theory developed during the formative Warring States period would still influence every dynasty thereafter, as well as the Confucian philosophy that underlay Chinese political and juridical institutions. The influence of the Fajia on Han Confucianism is very apparent, adopting Han Fei's emphasis of a supreme ruler and authoritarian system rather than Mencius's devaluation thereof, or Xun Kuang's emphasis on the Tao.
Shen Buhai's book appears to have been widely studied at the beginning of the Han era. As protégé of a Han Dynasty Commandant of Justice that had studied under Li Si, Jia Yi was a student of Shen Buhai through them. Jia describes Shen Buhai's Shu as a particular method of applying the Tao, or virtue, bringing together Confucian and Taoist discourses. He uses the imagery of the Zhuangzi of the knife and hatchet as examples of skillful technique in both virtue and force, saying "benevolence, righteousness, kindness and generosity are the ruler's sharp knife. Power, purchase, law and regulation are his axe and hatchet." His writings blame the fall of the Qin dynasty simply on the education of the second emperor. He would draw up elaborate plans for reorganizing the bureaucracy, which Emperor Wen of Han put into effect.
Shen Buhai never attempts to articulate natural or ethical foundations for his Fa (administrative method), nor does he provide any metaphysical grounds for his method of appointment (later termed "xing-ming"), but later texts do. The Huang-Lao work Boshu grounds fa and xing-ming in the Taoist Dao.
The Discourses on Salt and Irons Lord Grand Secretary uses Shang Yang in his argument against the dispersion of the people, stating that "a Sage cannot order things as he wishes in an age of anarchy". He recalls Lord Shang's chancellery as firm in establishing laws and creating orderly government and education, resulting in profit and victory in every battle. Although Confucianism was promoted by the new emperors, the government continued to be run by Legalists. Emperor Wu of Han (140–87 BC) barred Legalist scholars from official positions and established a university for the study of the Confucian classics, but his policies and his most trusted advisers were Legalist. Michael Loewe called the reign of Emperor Wu the "high point" of Modernist (classically justified Legalist) policies, looking back to "adapt ideas from the pre-Han period". An official ideology cloaking Legalist practice with Confucian rhetoric would endure throughout the imperial period, a tradition commonly described as wàirú nèifǎ ().
It became commonplace to adapt Legalist theories to the Han state by justifying them using the classics, or combining them with the notion of the "way" or "pattern of the cosmos" ("The Way gave birth to law" Huangdi Sijing). Some scholars "mourn" the lack of pure examples of Taoism, Confucianism and Legalism in the Han dynasty more generally. Han sources would nonetheless come to "treat Legalism as an alternative to the methods of the Classicists". During the decay of the Han Dynasty, many scholars again took up an interest in Legalism, Taoism and even Mohism, and a number of Confucians took up "Legalist" methods to combat the growing disregard for law.
Post-Han
The Records of the Three Kingdoms describes Cao Cao as a hero who "devised and implemented strategies, lorded the world over, wielded skillfully the law and political technique of Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, and unified the ingenious strategies of Han Fei". Zhuge Liang also attached great importance to the works of Shen Buhai and Han Fei. The tendency toward Legalism is apparent in intellectual circles toward the end of the Han dynasty, and would be reinforced by Cao Wei. Dispossessed peasants were organized into paramilitary agricultural colonies to increase food production for the army, and penal legislation increased. These policies would be followed by the Northern Wei.
Emperor Wen of Sui is recorded as having withdrawn his favour from the Confucians, giving it to "the group advocating Xing-Ming and authoritarian government". But Wen might be said to have already been steeped in a Legalist tradition followed by the aristocratic institutions of the northern dynasties, who concerned themselves with functional organization and social hierarchy. The Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty were largely based upon the Western Wei and Northern Zhou, refining pre-existing institutions and taking measures against the aristocracy.
Quoting Arthur Wright, Author Hengy Chye Kiang calls the Sui dynasty a "strong autocratic power with a penchant for Legalist philosophy", and its prime minister Gao Jiong "a man of practical statecraft" recalling the great Legalist statesmen. His influence saw the replacement of Confucians with officials of "Legalist" outlook favoring centralization.
Under Legalist influence, Li Gou and Wang Anshi emphasised seeking profit for the people. Deng Guangming argued that Wang Anshi was influenced by Warring States-era Legalism, with his emphasis on "enriching the state and strengthening the army" and Legalist ideas of law. His baojia system which survived until the end of Imperial China has been described as a Legalist device.
Ming dynasty
Li Shanchang (1314–1390), a founding Prime Minister of the Ming dynasty, studied Chinese Legalism. It is said that Li was the Emperor Hongwu's closest comrade during the war, and greatest contributor to his ultimate victory and thus establishment of the Ming Dynasty. Deeply trusted by the Emperor, Hongwu consulted Li on institutional matters. Li planned the organization of the "six ministries" and shared in the drafting of a new law code. He established salt and tea monopolies based on Yuan institutions, eliminated corruption, restored minted currency, opened iron foundries, and instituted fish taxes. It is said that revenues were sufficient, yet the people were not oppressed. Most of his other activities seem to have supported Hongwu Emperor's firm control of his regime. Mainly responsible for ferreting out disloyalty and factionalism among military officers, he used a reward and punishment system reminiscent of the Han Feizi, and may have had a kind of secret police in his service. At times he had charge of all civil and military officials in Nanking.
In 1572 Zhang Juzheng, a legalistic, prime-minister like figure of the Ming Dynasty, had the young emperor of the time issue a warning edict against China's bureaucracy with the reference that they had abandoned the public interest for their own private interests. It reads: "From now on, you will be pure in your hearts and scrupulous in your work. You will not harbor private designs and deceive your sovereign ... You will not complicate debates and disconcert the government." It suggests that good government will prevail as long as top ministers were resolute in administration of the empire and minor officials were selflessly devoted to the public good. It is said that the officials became "very guarded and circumspect" following its release. His "On Equalizing Taxes and Succoring the People" postulated that the partiality of local officials toward powerful local interests was responsible for abuses in tax collection, hurting both the common people and the Ming state.
Zhang Juzheng wrote that "it is not difficult to erect laws, but it is difficult to see they are enforced". His Regulation for Evaluating Achievements (kao cheng fa) assigned time limits for following government directives and made officials responsible for any lapses, enabling Zhang to monitor bureaucratic efficiency and direct a more centralized administration. That the rules were not ignored are a testament to his basic success.
Modern
In the nineteenth century, Shang Yang's slogan of "rich country, strong army" was reinvoked in Japan as a "formal ideological foundation of industrial and technological development". In the midst of the decline of the Qing dynasty in the late-19th century, understanding of Confucianism was transformed, turning towards practicality (the School of Practical Statecraft, substantial learning). For some reformist scholars the focus on Confucianism was eroded in favour of Legalist principles of bian-fa (state reform), fu-qiang (state wealth and power) and even shang-zhan (economic warfare). Albert Feuerwerker argues that this Legalist raison d'etat ultimately was connected to the reform proposals of the 1890s, such as the Hundred Days Reform, and thence the New Policies of the early twentieth century. Western science was integrated into the Confucian worldview as an interpretation and application of Confucian principles.
Legalism was partly rehabilitated in the twentieth century by new generations of intellectuals. One, Mai Menghua (1874–1915), promulgated interest in Shang Yang's thought, comparing Shang Yang's view of history with the evolutionary ideas of western theorists. The New Culture Movement leader, Hu Shi (1891–1962), hailed Han Fei and Li Si for their "brave spirit of opposing those who 'do not make the present into their teacher but learn from the past. Kuomintang leader Hu Hanmin (1879–1936) wrote the preface to a new edition of the Book of Lord Shang.
Because Fajia ignored differences among subjects, early twentieth century Chinese scholarship often viewed it within the context of Western "rule of law". One 1922 article, "The Antiquity of Chinese Law", attributes three legal theories to Han Fei, and referred to him as a "jurist". From the 1920s on it was viewed as being in a historical struggle with the Confucian "rule of men".
The early Mao Zedong has been described as a "dyed-in-the-wool" Legalist or "Lord Shang-style 'sage ruler', who defined the law according to revolutionary needs". Communist intellectuals used the Fajia in their criticism of Confucianism, describing the conflict between the two as class struggle. In 1950, the PRC combined law with campaigns against political enemies, and appeals to the Fajia for solutions became common after the Great Leap Forward. Fazhi, another historical term for "Legalism", would be used to refer to both socialist legality and Western rule of law. Still contrasted with renzhi (or rule of persons), most Chinese wanted to see it implemented in China.
Two decades of reform, Russia's collapse and a financial crisis in the 1990s only served to increase its importance, and the 1999 constitution was amended to "provide for the establishment of a socialist rule-of-law state", aimed at increasing professionalism in the justice system. Signs and flyers urged citizens to uphold the rule of law. In the following years, figures like Pan Wei, a prominent Beijing political scientist, would advocate for a consultative rule of law with a redefined role for the party and limited freedoms for speech, press, assembly and association.
Xingzhong Yu, Professor at Cornell University, describes the PRC through a framework of "State Legalism".
Legalist discourse is seeing a resurgence during the leadership of Xi Jinping, who is the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, with journalists reporting on his fondness for the Chinese classics, alongside Confucianism including Legalist writers and in particular Han Fei, both of which Xi sees as relevant. Han Fei gained new prominence with favourable citations. One sentence of Han Fei's that Xi quoted appeared thousands of times in official Chinese media at the local, provincial, and national levels. A key phrase of Xi's reforms is "govern the state according to law" (), focusing on enforcing discipline on party and government officials first.
As Realists
In 1982 Arthur Waley termed the Fajia as "Realists", contrasting them in this way with the other schools: the Realists, he says, largely ignored the individual, holding that the object of any society is to dominate other societies. In this vein, in his 1989 book "Disputers of the Tao" Angus Charles Graham titled his "Legalist" chapter "Legalism: an Amoral Science of Statecraft", sketching the fundamentals of an "amoral science" in Chinese thought largely based on the Han Feizi, consisting of "adapting institutions to changing situations and overruling precedent where necessary; concentrating power in the hands of the ruler; and, above all, maintaining control of the factious bureaucracy".
In 2003, Ross Terrill writes that "Chinese Legalism is as Western as Thomas Hobbes, as modern as Hu Jintao. It speaks the universal and timeless language of law and order. The past does not matter, state power is to be maximized, politics has nothing to do with morality, intellectual endeavour is suspect, violence is indispensable, and little is to be expected from the rank and file except an appreciation of force." He calls Legalism the "iron scaffolding of the Chinese Empire", but emphasizes the marriage between Legalism and Confucianism.
In 2005, Chinese law expert Randall Peerenboom compares Han Fei with the accepted standards of legal positivism, and concludes that he is a legal positivist. Establishing the ruler as the ultimate authority over the law, he also "shares the belief that morality and the law need not coincide".
In China the same year, Liang Zhiping theorized that law initially emerged in China as an instrument by which a single clan exercised control over rival clans. In the earlier Spring and Autumn period, a Qin king is recorded as having memorialized on punishment as a ritual function benefiting the people, saying, "I am the little son: respectfully, respectfully I obey and adhere to the shining virtuous power, brightly spread the clear punishments, gravely and reverentially perform my sacrifices to receive manifold blessings. I regulate and harmonize myriad people, gravely from early morning to evening, valorous, valorous, awesome, awesome – the myriad clans are truly disciplined! I completely shield the hundred nobles and the hereditary officers. Staunch, staunch in my civilizing and martial [power], I calm and silence those who do not come to the court [audience]. I mollify and order the hundred states to have them strictly serve the Qin."
The Fajia are often still compared in the west to Machiavellianism. The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy paints the Legalists as Realists, stating that "What linked these men is that all were theorists or practitioners of a realistic amoral brand of statecraft aimed at consolidating and strengthening the power and wealth of the state and its autocratic ruler. Their thought was realistic in being premised on what they took to be brute facts about how people actually behave ... It was amoral in that they were utterly unconcerned with whether the institutions and methods they advocated were morally justified." Yuri Pines (2014) terms them as "political realists who sought to attain a 'rich state and a powerful army'(Shang Yang) and to ensure domestic stability."
References
Sources and further reading
Barbieri-Low, Anthony, trans. The Standard Measure of Shang Yang (344 B.C.) (2006)
Duyvendak, J.J.L., trans. The Book of Lord Shang: A Classic of the Chinese School of Law. London: Probsthain, 1928.
See also
Graham, A.C., Disputers of the TAO: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court 1993).
Harris, Eirik Lang, Legalism {Oxford Bibliographies Online) (Oxford University Press, 2018).
Pu-hai, Shen. "Appendix C: The Shen Pu-hai Fragments." Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C. Translated by Herrlee G. Creel. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974.
Qian, Sima. Records of the Grand Historian, Qin Dynasty. Translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
Watson, Burton, trans. Han Fei Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964.
Xinzhong, Yao, Introduction to Confucianism (2000).
Potter, Pittman, From Leninist Discipline to Socialist Legalism : Peng Zhen on Law and Political Authority in the PRC2 (2003).
External links
Legalism in Chinese Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, by Yuri Pines.
"Chinese Legalism (In Our Time, 10/12/15)"
"Chinese Legalism: Documentary Materials and Ancient Totalitarianism"
Legalist texts – Chinese Text Project (Chinese and English)
The Han Feizi
Book of Lord Shang
The Shenzi
Chinese law
Classical Chinese philosophy
Theories of law
Politics of China
Political theories
Movements in ancient Chinese philosophy | [
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|
226126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism%20%28theology%29 | Legalism (theology) | In Christian theology, legalism (or nomism) is a pejorative term referring to putting law above gospel. The Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States defines legalism as a pejorative descriptor for "the direct or indirect attachment of behaviors, disciplines, and practices to the belief in order to achieve salvation and right standing before God", emphasizing a need "to perform certain deeds in order to gain salvation" (works) as opposed to the doctrine of justification by faith – the belief in salvation through the grace of God, "bestowed upon the individual through faith in Jesus Christ." Additionally, legalism pejoratively refers to the view, held by some fundamentalist Christians, that Christians should not engage in social practices perceived as contrary to Christian witness, such as gambling, dancing, consuming alcohol, enjoying secular entertainment, or wearing immodest clothing.
The Pharisees and Sadducees, as described in the Gospels, are often regarded by Christians as legalists. Historically, many Christian New Testament scholars attacked Judaism for supposedly being "legalistic"; this accusation has been rebutted by other scholars, such as E. P. Sanders, who identify this criticism as inaccurate and ahistorical.
Antinomianism is often regarded as the opposite of legalism, with situational ethics as a third possible position.
In 1921, Ernest De Witt Burton stated that in , the Greek word was "evidently used ... in its legalistic sense, denoting divine law viewed as a purely legalistic system made up of statutes, on the basis of obedience or disobedience to which individuals are approved or condemned as a matter of debt without grace. This is divine law as the legalist defined it."
See also
Free grace theology
Antinomian Controversy
References
Ethical theories
Christian ethics
Theories of law
Judaism in the New Testament
Christian terminology
Christian law
Christian theology
Pejorative terms | [
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|
226127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20War%20and%20the%20Colonies | Secretary of State for War and the Colonies | The Secretary of State for War and the Colonies was a British cabinet-level position responsible for the army and the British colonies (other than India).
The Secretary was supported by an Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies.
History
The Department was created in 1801. In 1854 it was split into the separate offices of Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for the Colonies.
List of Secretaries of State for War and the Colonies (1801–1854)
Notes
War and the Colonies
1801 establishments in the United Kingdom
1854 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom | [
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|
226128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Air | Secretary of State for Air | The Secretary of State for Air was a secretary of state position in the British government, which existed from 1919 to 1964. The person holding this position was in charge of the Air Ministry. The Secretary of State for Air was supported by the Under-Secretary of State for Air.
History
The position was created on 10 January 1919 to manage the Royal Air Force. In 1946, the three posts of Secretary of State for War, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Secretary of State for Air became formally subordinated to that of Minister of Defence, which had itself been created in 1940 for the co-ordination of defence and security issues. On 1 April 1964, the Air Ministry was incorporated into the newly-created united Ministry of Defence, and the position of Secretary of State for Air was abolished.
Chairmen of the Joint War Air Committee, 1916
Presidents of the Air Board, 1916–1917
Presidents of the Air Council, 1917–1919
Secretaries of State for Air, 1919–1964
Notes
External links
Hansard – Secretary of State for Air
Air
20th-century history of the Royal Air Force
1919 establishments in the United Kingdom
1964 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom | [
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|
226134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20J.%20Peter | Laurence J. Peter | Laurence Johnston Peter (September 16, 1919 – January 12, 1990) was a Canadian educator and "hierarchiologist" who is best known to the general public for the formulation of the Peter principle.
Biography
Peter was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, the grandson of William Herbert Steves, the founder of Steveston, British Columbia. Peter began his career as a teacher in Vancouver in 1941. He received the degree of Doctor of Education from Washington State University in 1963.
In 1966, Peter moved to California, where he became an Associate Professor of Education, Director of the Evelyn Frieden Centre for Prescriptive Teaching, and Coordinator of Programs for Emotionally Disturbed Children at the University of Southern California.
He became widely known in 1969 upon the publication of The Peter Principle, in which he states: "In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence... [I]n time every post tends to be occupied by an employee who is incompetent to carry out its duties... Work is accomplished by those employees who have not yet reached their level of incompetence." The Peter principle became one of the most profound principles of management from the University of Southern California (USC). It is a heavily quoted principle at the USC Marshall School of Business.
Another notable quotation of his is that the "noblest of all dogs is the hot-dog; it feeds the hand that bites it."
From 1985 to his death in 1990, Peter attended and was involved in management of the Kinetic Sculpture Race in Humboldt County, California. He proposed an award for the race titled "The Golden Dinosaur Award," which has been handed out every year since to the first sculptural machine to utterly break down immediately after the start.
Peter died of complications from a stroke at his home in Palos Verdes Estates, California, at the age of 70.
Bibliography
References
External links
1919 births
1990 deaths
People from Vancouver
20th-century American educators
Canadian emigrants to the United States | [
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|
226138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20Rockwell%20OV-10%20Bronco | North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco | The North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco is an American twin-turboprop light attack and observation aircraft. It was developed in the 1960s as a special aircraft for counter-insurgency (COIN) combat, and one of its primary missions was as a forward air control (FAC) aircraft. It can carry up to 3,200 lb (1,450 kg) of external munitions, internal loads such as paratroopers or stretchers, and loiter for three or more hours.
Development
Background
The aircraft was initially conceived in the early 1960s through an informal collaboration between W.H. Beckett and Colonel K.P. Rice, U.S. Marine Corps, who met at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, California, and who also happened to live near each other. The original concept was for a rugged, simple, close air support aircraft integrated with forward ground operations. At the time, the U.S. Army was still experimenting with armed helicopters, and the U.S. Air Force was not interested in close air support.
The concept aircraft was to operate from expedient forward air bases using roads as runways. Speed was to be from very slow to medium subsonic, with much longer loiter times than a pure jet. Efficient turboprop engines would give better performance than piston engines. Weapons were to be mounted on the centerline to get efficient unranged aiming. The inventors favored strafing weapons such as self-loading recoilless rifles, which could deliver aimed explosive shells with less recoil than cannons, and a lower per-round weight than rockets. The airframe was to be designed to avoid the back blast.
Beckett and Rice developed a basic platform meeting these requirements, then attempted to build a fiberglass prototype in a garage. The effort produced enthusiastic supporters and an informal pamphlet describing the concept. W.H. Beckett, who had retired from the Marine Corps, went to work at North American Aviation to sell the aircraft.
Rice states:
Light Armed Reconnaissance Aircraft
A "tri-service" specification for the Light Armed Reconnaissance Aircraft (LARA) was approved by the U.S. Navy, Air Force, and Army and was issued in late 1963. The LARA requirement was based on a perceived need for a new type of "jungle fighting" versatile light attack and observation aircraft. Existing military aircraft in the observation role, such as the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog and Cessna O-2 Skymaster, were perceived as obsolescent, with too slow a speed and too small a load capacity for this flexible role.
The specification called for a twin-engine, two-man aircraft that could carry at least of cargo, six paratroopers or stretchers, and be stressed for +8 and −3 g (basic aerobatic ability). It also had to be able to operate from an aircraft carrier, fly at least , take off in and convert to an amphibian. Various armaments had to be carried, including four machine guns with 2,000 rounds, and external weapons including a gun pod with M197 electric cannon, and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles.
Eleven proposals were submitted, including: the Grumman Model 134R tandem-seat version of the already-fielded U.S. Army's OV-1 Mohawk (the U.S. Marine Corps dropped out of the Mohawk program in 1958), Goodyear GA 39, Beechcraft PD-183, Douglas D-855, Convair Model 48 Charger, Helio 1320, Lockheed CL-760, a Martin design, and the North American Aviation/Rockwell NA-300.
In August 1964, the NA-300 was selected. A contract for seven prototype aircraft was issued in October 1964. Convair protested the decision and built a small-wing prototype of the Model 48 Charger anyway, which first flew on 29 November 1964. This was also a twin-boom aircraft that had a broadly similar layout to the OV-10. The Charger, while capable of outperforming the OV-10 in some respects, crashed on 19 October 1965 after 196 test flights. Convair subsequently dropped out of contention.
The Bronco started flying midway through the Charger's test program on 16 July 1965, and became one of the premier counter-insurgency (COIN) aircraft of the next 30 years. It did not achieve Rice's L2 VMA concept, because the DoD insisted on long wings, which made it depend on airbases. Rice concludes:
The Bronco performed observation, forward air control, helicopter escort, armed reconnaissance, utility light air transport and limited ground attack. The Bronco has also performed aerial radiological reconnaissance, tactical air observation, artillery and naval gunfire spotting, airborne control of tactical air support operations and front-line, low-level aerial photography. A prototype in Vietnam designed to lay smoke was extremely successful, kept in service by evaluators for several months, and only reluctantly released, was not purchased due to a perceived lack of mission.
Design
The OV-10 has a central nacelle containing pilots and cargo, and twin booms containing twin turboprop engines. The visually distinctive feature of the aircraft is the combination of the twin booms, with the horizontal stabilizer that connects them.
The aircraft's design supported effective operations from forward bases. The OV-10 can perform short takeoffs and landings, including on aircraft carriers and large-deck amphibious assault ships without using catapults or arresting wires. Further, the OV-10 was designed to take off and land on unimproved sites. Repairs could be made with ordinary tools. No ground equipment was required to start the engines. If necessary, the engines could operate on high-octane automobile fuel with only a slight loss of power.
The aircraft had responsive handling and could fly for 5 1/2 hours with external fuel tanks. The cockpit had extremely good visibility for a tandem pilot and co-pilot, provided by a wrap-around "greenhouse" that was wider than the fuselage. North American Rockwell custom ejection seats were standard, with many successful ejections during service. With the second seat removed, it can carry of cargo, five paratroopers, or two litter patients and an attendant. Empty weight was . Normal operating fueled weight with two crew was . Maximum takeoff weight was .
The bottom of the fuselage bore sponsons or "stub wings" that improved flight performance by decreasing aerodynamic drag underneath the fuselage. The sponsons were mounted horizontally on the prototype. Testing caused them to be redesigned for production aircraft; the downward angle of the sponsons on production models ensured that stores carried on the sponsons jettisoned cleanly. Normally, four 7.62 mm (.308 in) M60C machine guns were carried on the sponsons with the M60Cs accessed through a large forward-opening hatch on the top of each sponson. The sponsons also had four racks to carry bombs, pods, or fuel. The wings outboard of the engines contain two additional racks, one per side.
Racked armament in the Vietnam War was usually seven-shot rocket pods with white phosphorus marker rounds or high-explosive rockets, or 5 in (127 mm) four-shot Zuni rocket pods. Bombs, ADSIDS air-delivered/para-dropped unattended seismic sensors, Mk-6 battlefield illumination flares, and other stores were also carried.
Operational experience showed some weaknesses in the OV-10's design. It was significantly underpowered, which contributed to crashes in Vietnam in sloping terrain because the pilots could not climb fast enough. While specifications state that the aircraft could reach , in Vietnam the aircraft could reach only . Also, no OV-10 pilot survived ditching the aircraft.
Operational history
The OV-10 served in the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Navy, as well as in the service of a number of other countries. A total of 81 OV-10 Broncos were ultimately lost to all causes during the course of the Vietnam War, with the Air Force losing 64, the Navy 7, and the Marines 10.
U.S. Marine Corps
The OV-10 was first acquired by the U.S. Marine Corps. Each of the Marine Corps's two observation squadrons (designated VMO) had 18 aircraft – nine OV-10As and nine OV-10Ds night observation aircraft. A Marine Air Reserve observation squadron was also established. The OV-10 operated as a forward air controller and was finally phased out of the Marine Corps in 1995 following its employment during Operation Desert Storm, which also saw the final combat losses of OV-10s by U.S. forces. Among these losses were two USMC OV-10s being shot down due to a lack of effective infrared countermeasures. It was also thought that the slow speed made it more vulnerable to anti-aircraft weapons. Forward air control passed mostly to ground units with laser designators and digital radios (GFACs) and the twin-seat F/A-18D Hornet (FAC(A)s). Most operational Broncos were reassigned to civil government agencies in the U.S., while some were sold to other countries.
The U.S. Marine Corps YOV-10D Night Observation Gunship System (NOGS) program modified two OV-10As (BuNo 155395 and BuNo 155396) to include a turreted forward looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, laser target designator and turreted 20 mm (.79 in) XM197 gun slaved to the FLIR aimpoint. NOGS succeeded in Vietnam, but funds to convert more aircraft were not approved. NOGS evolved into the NOS OV-10D, which included a laser designator, but no gun.
U.S. Air Force
The USAF acquired the Bronco primarily as an FAC aircraft. The first combat USAF OV-10As arrived in Vietnam on 31 July 1968 as part of "Operation Combat Bronco", an operational testing and evaluation of the aircraft. These test aircraft were attached to the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron, 504th Tactical Air Support Group at Bien Hoa Air Base in South Vietnam. The test roles included the full range of missions then assigned to FAC aircraft, including day and night strike direction, gunship direction, bomb damage assessment, visual reconnaissance, aerial artillery direction, and as escorts for aircraft engaged in Operation Ranch Hand. The aircraft's ability to generate smoke internally was utilized for strike direction and "in four specific instances under conditions of reduced visibility, the smoke was seen by strike aircrews before the [OV-10A] [was] detected." Operation Combat Bronco ended on 30 October 1968.
After the end of Combat Bronco, the USAF began to deploy larger numbers to the 19th TASS (Bien Hoa), 20th TASS (Da Nang Air Base), and for out-of-country missions to the 23d TASS (Nakhom Phanom in Thailand). The 23d TASS conducted Operation Igloo White, Operation Prairie Fire/Daniel Boone, and other special operations missions.
Between 1968 and 1971, 26 pilots from the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) and Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) flew the OV-10A on FAC sorties, while attached to USAF squadrons. The 19th TASS hosted 13 RAAF pilots and three from the RNZAF; another seven RAAF pilots and three from the RNZAF were assigned to the 20th TASS. (Consequently, the Australian War Memorial has acquired an OV-10A 67-14639, which was flown by some of these pilots.)
From April to June 1969 the USAF conducted an operational exercise called Misty Bronco in South Vietnam's III Corps Tactical Zone to evaluate the OV-10A's performance as a light strike aircraft. The results were positive and as of October 1969 all USAF OV-10As were to be armed with their internal .308 in (7.62 mm) M60C machine guns, which had generally been left out during the Combat Bronco evaluations and subsequent deployment. High explosive 2.75 in (70 mm) rockets were also authorized for use against ground targets.
In 1971, the 23d TASS's OV-10A Broncos received modifications under project Pave Nail. Carried out by LTV Electrosystems during 1970, these modifications primarily included the addition of the Pave Spot target laser designator pod, as well as a specialized night periscope (replacing the initial starlight scopes that had been used for night time operations) and LORAN equipment. The call sign Nail was the radio handle of this squadron. These aircraft supported interdiction of troops and supplies on the Ho Chi Minh Trail by illuminating targets for laser-guided bombs dropped by McDonnell F-4 Phantom IIs. After 1974, these aircraft were converted back to an unmodified OV-10A standard.
At least 157 OV-10As were delivered to the USAF before production ended in April 1969. The USAF lost 64 OV-10 Broncos during the war, to all causes. In the late 1980s, the USAF started to replace their OV-10s with OA-37B and OA-10A aircraft. Unlike the Marine Corps, the USAF did not deploy the Bronco to the Middle East in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, as it believed that the OV-10 was too vulnerable. The final two USAF squadrons equipped with the Bronco, the 19th and 21st Tactical Air Support Squadron (TASS) retired the OV-10 on 1 September 1991.
In 2012, $20 million was allocated to activate an experimental unit of two OV-10s, acquired from NASA and the State Department. Starting in May 2015, these aircraft were deployed to support Operation Inherent Resolve flying combat missions over Iraq and Syria, flying more than 120 combat sorties over 82 days. It is speculated they provided close air support for Special Forces missions. The experiment ended satisfactorily, but an Air Force spokesman stated it remains unlikely they will invest in reactivating the OV-10 on a regular basis because of the overhead cost of operating an additional aircraft type.
U.S. Navy
The U.S. Navy formed Light Attack Squadron Four (VAL-4), the "Black Ponies", on 3 January 1969, and operated in Vietnam from April 1969 to April 1972. The Navy used the Bronco OV-10A as a light ground attack aircraft, for interdiction of enemy logistics, and fire-support of Marines, SEALs and naval riverine force vessels. It succeeded in this role, although the U.S. Navy did lose seven OV-10s during the Vietnam War to various causes. Other than OV-10 Fleet replacement training done in cooperation with Air Antisubmarine Squadron Forty-One (VS-41) at NAS North Island, California, VAL-4 was the only squadron in the U.S. Navy to ever employ the OV-10 and it was decommissioned shortly following the end of the Vietnam War. VAL-4's surviving OV-10s were subsequently transferred to the Marine Corps.
At least two Broncos were used as test beds in the 1970s at the Naval Air Test Center (NATC) at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland.
Two OV-10s were evaluated for special operations, and the USMC lent 18 aircraft for operation by VAL-4 in Vietnam.
In 2015, two OV-10Gs were assigned for light attack operations in Iraq under the "Combat Dragon II" program and completed 120 missions.
In 2019, the first of two former VAL-4 aircraft returned to flight by the OV-10 Squadron, Chino, California. Bureau numbers 155493 “Holy Terror” and 155474 “White Lightning”. Extensive restoration work of more than 18 months performed by California Aerofab went into 493's return to flight and 474 expected to fly by 2020.
Colombia
In 1991, the USAF provided the Colombian Air Force with 12 OV-10As. Later, three ex-USMC A-models were also acquired to provide parts support. Colombia operates the aircraft in a COIN role against an active insurgency. At least one aircraft has been lost in combat. The remaining OV-10As were upgraded to OV-10D standard. In November 2015, and after 24 years of service, the Colombian Air Force retired all of its remaining OV-10 aircraft.
Germany
The OV-10B variant was produced for Germany to use as target tug. Eighteen aircraft were delivered in the late 1960s and they were equipped with target towing equipment inside the fuselage. A transparent plastic dome replaced the rear cargo door and a rear seat was installed in the cargo bay to look backwards out of the dome. After a long career the Bronco was replaced by the Pilatus PC-9 in 1990 and all aircraft were retired and sent to various museums, technical schools and used as ABDR (Aircraft Battle Damage Repair).
Indonesia
The Indonesian Air Force purchased 12 OV-10F aircraft and operated them in COIN operations similar to the U.S. Navy's Vietnam missions with their Broncos, but retrofitted .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning heavy machine guns in place of the .308 in (7.62 mm) machine guns. These aircraft were based in Lanud Abdulrachman Saleh Air Force Base in Malang, East Java and were vital in the invasion of East Timor and ensuing COIN operations. In 1977, they were also used during the aerial bombardments of Amungme villages near Freeport-McMoRan area of operations, West Papua, in response to OPM attacks on the mining company facilities, and of Dani villages in Baliem Valley, also in West Papua, in response to rebellion against enforced participation in the Indonesian general election. Due to the lack of U.S. bombs, the Indonesian Air Force modified the bomb racks to carry Russian bombs. The Indonesian Air Force plans to replace their OV-10Fs with EMBRAER Super Tucanos following a fatal accident on 23 July 2013. The Indonesian Air Force retired the OV-10F from service in 2007.
Morocco
The Royal Moroccan Air Force acquired six former-U.S. Marine Corps OV-10As in 1981. Based in Marrakesh Menara Airport, these were employed in counter-insurgency operations against Polisario forces in the Western Sahara War using rocket pods and gun pods. One was shot down in 1985. A 15-man USMC inspection team from VMO-2 was deployed to evaluate the aforementioned crashed OV-10 155397.
Philippines
The Philippine Air Force (PAF) received 24 OV-10As from U.S. stocks in 1991, later followed by a further nine from the United States, and eight ex-Thai Air Force OV-10Cs in 2003–2004. The OV-10s are operated by the 16th Attack Squadron and 25th Composite Attack Squadron of the 15th Strike Wing, based in Sangley Point, Cavite. The PAF flies Broncos on search-and-rescue and COIN operations in various parts of the Philippines. The first two women combat pilots in the PAF flew OV-10s with the 16th. This squadron flew anti-terrorist operations in the Jolo island.
PAF OV-10 Broncos were repeatedly used in air strikes against Moro Islamic Liberation Front positions during ongoing fighting in 2011, and two were used in an air strike in February 2012 which resulted in the death of three Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiyah commanders, among others. Philippine Air Force OV-10s have been reportedly modified in order to employ modern smart bombs.
On 1 June 2017, the PAF OV-10s dropped bombs on Maute group positions during the Battle of Marawi.
The PAF announced that its remaining OV-10s will be replaced by the Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano by 2024. This is to meet requirements set by the AFP Modernization Act to replace the aging aircraft.
Thailand
The Royal Thai Air Force purchased 32 new OV-10C aircraft in the early 1970s for COIN usage. Reportedly Broncos won most Thai bombing competitions until F-5Es became operational. At one time, the RTAF flew OV-10s as air-defense aircraft. In 2004, RTAF donated most of the OV-10s to the Philippines. Three OV-10 survivors are displayed, one at the Tango Squadron Wing 41 Museum in Chiang Mai, the RTAF Museum in Bangkok, and a static display at the main gate of Wing 5 in Prachuap Khiri Khan. The remaining OV-10s will be donated to the PAF in 2011.
Venezuela
The Venezuelan Air Force has operated a number of new build OV-10Es and ex-USAF OV-10As over the years. On 27 November 1992, the aircraft were widely used by mutinous officers who staged an attempted coup d'état against former President Carlos Andrés Pérez. The rebels dropped bombs and launched rockets against police and government buildings in Caracas. Four Broncos were lost during the uprising, including two shot down by a loyalist General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.
Venezuela's OV-10s are to be retired in the coming years. Originally Venezuela attempted to procure Embraer Super Tucano aircraft to replace the OV-10, but no deal was achieved which President Chavez claimed was due to the result of pressure from the U.S. government. The Venezuelan government has decided not to replace them with new fixed wing aircraft. Rather, the Venezuelan Air Force is replacing them with the Russian made Mil Mi-28 attack helicopter.
Other U.S. usage
NASA
NASA has used a number of Broncos for various research programs, including studies of low speed flight carried out with the third prototype in the 1970s, and studies on noise and wake turbulence. One OV-10 remained in use at NASA's Langley base in 2009 with three additional aircraft obtained from the Department of State formerly used in drug eradication efforts.
U.S. Department of State Air Wing
The Department of State (DoS) aircraft are former Air Force OV-10A and Marine Corps OV-10D aircraft operated under contract by DynCorp International in support of U.S. drug interdiction and eradication efforts in South America. The aircraft carry civilian U.S. aircraft registration numbers and, when not forward deployed, are home based at a DoS/DynCorp facility at Patrick Space Force Base, Florida.
The Broncos had sponsons removed and Kevlar external armor panels installed around the cockpits. On the belly was a wind driven pump adapted from Agriculture Aircraft (crop dusters) with more than a 500 gal (1,900 L) hopper tank installed in the cargo bay. A spray bar extended out to a V from the cargo bay to the tailbooms. A surviving aircraft in this configuration is on display in Tennessee.
Bureau of Land Management
The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) acquired seven OV-10As for use as fire-fighting aircraft, including the YOV-10A prototype. In this role, they lead firefighting air tankers through their intended flight paths over their target areas. The aircraft were operated in their basic military configurations, but with their ejection seats disabled. The aircraft's existing smoke system was used to mark the path for the following air tankers. Given the age of the aircraft, spare parts were difficult to obtain, and the BLM retired their fleet in 1999.
California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection
The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CALFIRE) has acquired a number of OV-10As, including the six surviving aircraft from the BLM and 13 former U.S. Marine Corps aircraft in 1993 to replace their existing Cessna O-2 Skymasters as air attack aircraft. The CAL FIRE Broncos fly with a crew of two, a contract pilot and the CAL FIRE ATGS or Air Tactical Group Supervisor, whose job it is to coordinate all aerial assets on a fire with the Incident Commander on the ground. Thus, besides serving as a tanker lead-in aircraft, the OV-10A is also the aerial platform from which the entire air operation is coordinated.
Variants
YOV-10A
Seven prototype NA-300s with two 600 shp T76-G-6/8 engines, last one was flown with YT74-P-1 engines.
OV-10A
Original production version with enlarged wing and 715 shp T76-G-10/12 engines. Distinguished by a long-wire high frequency (HF) antenna between the center rear stabilizer and the central nacelle, 114 for the United States Marine Corps and 157 for the United States Air Force.
OV-10B
Target towing variant for Germany, with a target towing pod mounted beneath the fuselage. A clear dome replaced the rear cargo door. The rear seat was moved to the cargo bay to look backwards out the dome, 18 built; known as the OV-10B(Z) when fitted with an additional J85-GE-4 turbojet.
OV-10B(Z)
A variation of the German target tug, with one J85-GE-4 turbojet mounted in a nacelle above the fuselage. A total of 18 aircraft were supplied to the Germans.
OV-10C
Export version for Thailand; based on the OV-10A, 32 built.
YOV-10D (NOGS)
The prototype Night Observation Gunship System variant developed as the YOV-10D, two OV-10A conversions, 155395,155396.
OV-10D
Second generation Bronco developed under the NOGS program. The D-model was an extensively modified OV-10A airframe, adding a forward-looking infrared night-vision system with a turret-mounted camera under an extended nose, visually distinct from the short rounded nose of the A-model. The D also has bigger engines and larger fiberglass propellers. Other noticeable external differences are the chaff dispensers installed midway down the booms and infrared-suppressive exhaust stacks (which mix the exhaust with colder air to reduce the aircraft's heat signature). 17 modified from OV-10A.
OV-10D+
The next USMC upgrade, consisting of A and D aircraft being extensively reworked at MCAS Cherry Point Naval Air Rework Facility with new wiring and strengthened wings. Engine instrumentation was changed from round dials to tape readouts.
OV-10E
Export version for Venezuela; based on the OV-10A, 16 built.
OV-10F
Export version for Indonesia; based on the OV-10A, 16 built.
OV-10G+
Designation given to OV-10s loaned from NASA to the United States Special Operations Command for evaluation under the Combat Dragon II as a counter-insurgency aircraft, featuring new Hartzell four-bladed props and an off-the-shelf sensor suite. 3 modified from OV-10D+.
OV-10M (modified)
A four-bladed version of OV-10A; modified to accommodate bigger engines with larger fiberglass props. Equipped with square chaff dispensers midway down the booms and with new wiring and strengthened wings. Engine instrumentation was changed from round dials to tape readouts by Marsh Aviation for the Philippine Air Force.
OV-10T
Proposed cargo version of the OV-10, capable of carrying 8–12 troops or of cargo, studied during the Vietnam War but not developed.
OV-10X
Proposed version for the USAF's Light Attack/Armed Reconnaissance contract. In 2009 Boeing put together plans internally to build a modernized, improved version of the Bronco, called the OV-10X, to satisfy a possible Air Force requirement for a light attack plane. According to Pentagon and industry officials, while the aircraft would maintain much of its 1960s-vintage rugged external design, modernizations would include a computerized glass cockpit, intelligence sensors and smart bomb-dropping capabilities. Boeing indicated in 2009 that international interest in restarting production is growing, to compete with other light attack aircraft such as the T-6B Texan II, A-67 Dragon and EMB 314 Super Tucano.
Operators
Philippine Air Force - 41 units with 7 in service.
NASA
Civil operators
Blue Air Training acquired seven OV-10D+ and G aircraft in March 2020, for use in Joint terminal attack controller training.
OV-10 Squadron: an organization restoring seven OV-10D Broncos at Chino Airport, California. Their first restored Bronco 493 took flight in July 2019.
CAL FIRE
Beaufort County Mosquito Control, Beaufort County, South Carolina.
Retired
Colombian Air Force
Indonesian Air Force
Royal Moroccan Air Force
Royal Thai Air Force
United States Air Force
United States Marine Corps
Venezuelan Air Force
German Air Force
Aircraft on display
Australia
67-14639 – OV-10A at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.
Belgium
158294/99+18 – OV-10B at Wevelgem, Belgium. Operated by the Bronco Demo Team as G-ONAA. Previously on display at the Internationales Luftfahrtmuseum Pflumm.
France
158300/99+24 – OV-10B at the Musee Europeen de l'Aviation de Chasse. Registered as F-AZKM.
158303/99+27 – OV-10B on display at the Musee Europeen de l'Aviation de Chasse.
Germany
158292/99+16 – OV-10B on display at Flugausstellung Hermeskeil in Hermeskeil, Rhineland-Palatinate.
158297/99+21 – There is an ex-Bundeswehr OV-10B on outdoor display at the Militärhistorisches Museum der Bundeswehr in Dresden, Germany.
158309/99+33 – OV-10B on display at the Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin-Gatow.
Indonesia
TT-1004 – OV-10F at Karjono Park, Banjarnegara Regency, Central Java
TT-1006 – OV-10F on display next to the major intersection at Jombang Regency, East Java
TT-1008 – OV-10F at Soesilo Soedarman Museum, Cilacap Regency, Central Java
TT-1010 – OV-10F at Museum Bhakti TNI, Cilangkap, East Jakarta, Jakarta
TT-1012 – OV-10F on display near Trunojoyo Airport, Sumenep, Madura Island, East Java
TT-1013 – OV-10F on display at Abdul Rachman Saleh AFB, Malang, East Java
TT-1015 – OV-10F at the Dirgantara Mandala Museum, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta
TT-1016 – OV-10F on display at Abdul Rachman Saleh AFB, Malang, East Java
Thailand
158405 – OV-10C with Royal Thai Air Force markings is on display at the Royal Thai Air Force Museum in Bangkok.
An OV-10C is on static display next to the main gate at Wing 5 in the town of Prachuap Khiri Khan about four hours South of Bangkok. It is open to the public every day.
158138 – Unidentified variant OV-10 on static display at Kasetsart University in Sakon Nakhon province.
United Kingdom
158302/99+26 – OV-10B under restoration to airworthiness at Duxford, England. Owned by the Bronco Demo Team.
158308/99+32 – OV-10B at Duxford, England. Operated by the Bronco Demo Team as G-BZGK. This aircraft crashed at Cotswold Airport on 10 July 2012.
United States
The production mockup of the OV-10A, c/n NAA-001, made in Columbus, Ohio, is on display at the Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, along with two other OV-10s.
67-14623 – An OV-10A is on display at the Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB, Georgia.
67-14626 – An OV-10A is on display at the Hurlburt Field Air Park at Hurlburt Field, Florida
68-03787 – An OV-10A is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio
68-03825 – An OV-10A is on display at the Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.
152880 – OV-10D on display outdoors at Mid America Air Museum, Liberal, Kansas. This aircraft was originally a YOV-10A.
152881 – One of the original prototype YOV-10As was on display at the Yankee Air Museum at Willow Run Airport near Ypsilanti, Michigan. It had been fully restored by a former OV-10 crew chief. The aircraft was destroyed along with several other museum aircraft in a fire on 9 October 2004.
155409 – An OV-10D is on display at the Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum at Space Coast Regional Airport in Titusville, FL. This aircraft previously served with Marine Observation Squadron TWO (VMO-2) and was later transferred to the U.S. Department of State Air Wing at nearby Patrick Space Force Base, Florida.
155426 – An OV-10A in Marine Corps markings is on display at the Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.
155472 – An OV-10D in Navy markings is on display at the National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Pensacola, Florida. This OV-10 was received by the NNAM on 21 Oct 2004 when it was transferred from the National Museum of the Marine Corps at MCB Quantico, Virginia. BuNo 155472 was originally an OV-10A which flew with VAL-4 during the Vietnam War, but was later transferred to the Marine Corps and upgraded to OV-10D standard in 1991. Bureau Number 155472 is currently repainted and displayed in the scheme of VAL-4. Formerly on display at the Carolinas Aviation Museum.
155494 – An OV-10D in Marine Corps markings is on display at the Flying Leathernecks Museum at MCAS Miramar, California.
155499 – An OV-10D with Marine Observation Squadron 1 (VMO-1) markings is on display at the Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona. It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum and the National Museum of the Marine Corps.
158301/99+25 – OV-10B flying for the Cactus Air Force museum. This aircraft has been reconfigured as an OV-10A.
158304/99+28 – OV-10B flying for Stallion 51 at Kissimmee Gateway Airport in Kissimmee, Florida. This aircraft has been reconfigured as an OV-10A.
Specifications (OV-10D)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Burrows, William E. "Legends of Vietnam: Bronco’s Tale." Air & Space, Volume 24, Issue 7, March 2010, pp. 60–67.
Donald, David. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. London: Brown Packaging Books Ltd., 1997. .
Dorr, Robert F. and Robert J Mills. "Rockwell's Coin Machine". Air International, Vol. 42, No. 6, June 1992, pp. 321–330. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634.
Harrison, Marshall. A Lonely Kind of War: A Forward Air Controller (Vietnam). New York: Presidio Press, 1997. .
Macknight, Nigel. "NASA's Quiet Side: Part Two, The OV-10 Bronco". Air International, Vol. 42, No 6, June 1992, pp. 331–333. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634.
Mesko, Jim. OV-10 Bronco in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1995. .
Myrsky, Peter. "The 'Black Ponies' of VAL-4". Air Enthusiast, Thirty-two, December 1986 – April 1987, pp. 76–78. Bromley, UK: Pilot Press, 1987. ISSN 0143-5450.
Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide To The Ships And Aircraft Of The U.S. Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2004. .
Potter, Joseph V. OV-10 Operation in SEAsia. Headquarters, Pacific Air Force, Directorate, Tactical Evaluation, CHECO Division, 1969.
Willis, David. "Database: North American Bronco". Aeroplane, Vol. 38 No. 1, Issue 441, January 2010, pp. 59–76. ISSN 0143-7240.
Wood, Richard H. Flying the Rustic Way: OV-10 Bronco Missions Over Cambodia. Air Enthusiast 115, January–February 2005, pp. 20–25
Further reading
Harrison, Marshall. A Lonely Kind of War: A Forward Air Controller (Vietnam). New York: Presidio Press, 1997. .
Lavell, Kit. Flying Black Ponies: The Navy's Close Air Support Squadron in Vietnam. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2009. .
External links
The OV-10 Bronco Association site
Historical documentation by the inventor, Col. K.P. Rice, USMC retired
NTSB report LAX97GA205 detailing a BLM OV-10A fatal crash, archived on Landings.com
Company brochure on proposed modernized OV-10D (OV-10X)
Excerpt from the film One Tough Ride, The Story of the OV-10 Bronco
Tough Little Jungle Fighter, Popular Science, December 196
OV-10 Bronco
Twin-boom aircraft
V-10O Bronco
V-10O Bronco
High-wing aircraft
OV-10X
Twin-turboprop tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1965
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|
226139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Dominion%20Affairs | Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs | The position of Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs was a British cabinet-level position created in 1925 responsible for British relations with the Dominions — Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Newfoundland, and the Irish Free State — and the self-governing Crown colony of Southern Rhodesia. When initially created, the office was held in tandem with that of Secretary of State for the Colonies; this arrangement persisted until June 1930. On two subsequent occasions the offices were briefly held by the same person.
The Secretary was supported by an Under-Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs. In 1947, the name of the office was changed to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations.
Secretaries of State for Dominion Affairs, 1925–1947
The Viscount Addison took up the new post of Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations on 7 July 1947.
Notes
External links
Dominion Affairs
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
History of the Commonwealth of Nations
1925 establishments in the United Kingdom
1947 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Foreign Office during World War II | [
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|
226140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Commonwealth%20Relations | Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations | The Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations was a British Cabinet minister responsible for dealing with the United Kingdom's relations with members of the Commonwealth of Nations (its former colonies). The minister's department was the Commonwealth Relations Office (CRO).
The position was created in 1947 out of the old positions of Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs and Secretary of State for India. In 1966, the position was merged with that of the Secretary of State for the Colonies to form that of Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, which was in turn merged with the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1968 to create the new position of Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, the equivalent position today being the Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs.
Secretaries of State for Commonwealth Relations, 1947–1966
References
Foreign and Commonwealth Office website
Commonwealth Relations
History of the Commonwealth of Nations
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
1947 establishments in the United Kingdom
1966 disestablishments in the United Kingdom | [
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|
226141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Commonwealth%20Affairs | Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs | The Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs was a British Cabinet minister responsible for dealing with the United Kingdom's relations with members of the Commonwealth of Nations (its former colonies). The minister's department was the Commonwealth Office.
The position was created on 1 August 1966 by the merger of the old positions of Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations and Secretary of State for the Colonies. In 1968 the position was merged with that of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to create the new position of Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs.
Secretaries of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 1966–1968
Commonwealth Affairs
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
1966 establishments in the United Kingdom
1968 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1960s in the United Kingdom
Ministries established in 1966 | [
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|
226142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Freed | Arthur Freed | Arthur Freed (September 9, 1894 – April 12, 1973) was an American lyricist and Hollywood film producer. He won the Academy Award for Best Picture twice, in 1951 for An American in Paris and in 1958 for Gigi. Both films were musicals. In addition, he produced and was also a co-lyricist for the now-iconic film Singin' in the Rain.
Early life
Freed was born to a Jewish family in Charleston, South Carolina, and began his career as a song-plugger and pianist in Chicago. After meeting Minnie Marx, he sang as part of the act of her sons, the Marx Brothers, on the vaudeville circuit, and also wrote material for the brothers. He soon began to write songs, and was eventually hired by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. For years, he wrote lyrics for numerous films, many set to music by Nacio Herb Brown.
Career
In 1939, after working (uncredited) in the role of associate producer on The Wizard of Oz, he was promoted to being the head of his own unit within MGM, and helped elevate the studio to the leading creator of film musicals. His first solo credit as producer was the film version of Rodgers and Hart's smash Broadway musical Babes in Arms (also 1939), released only a few months after The Wizard of Oz. It starred Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland, and it was so successful that it ushered in a long series of "let's put on a show" "backyard" musicals, all starring Rooney and Garland.
Freed brought talent from the Broadway theaters to the MGM soundstages including Vincente Minnelli, Betty Comden, Adolph Green, Roger Edens, Kay Thompson, Zero Mostel, June Allyson, Nancy Walker, Charles Walters, orchestrators Conrad Salinger, Johnny Green, Lennie Hayton, and others including Shirley Temple. Shirley was signed by MGM for her comeback; the studio made plans to team her with Judy Garland and Mickey Rooney for the Andy Hardy series. However, upon meeting with Arthur Freed for a preliminary interview, the MGM producer exposed his genitals to her, telling Temple "I have something made just for you." When this elicited nervous giggles in response, Freed threw her out and ended their contract before any films were produced.
He also helped shape the careers of stars including Gene Kelly, Frank Sinatra, Red Skelton, Lena Horne, Jane Powell, Esther Williams, Kathryn Grayson, Howard Keel, Cyd Charisse, Ann Miller, Vera-Ellen, and others. He brought Fred Astaire to MGM after Astaire's tenure at RKO and coaxed him out of semi-retirement to star with Garland in Easter Parade. His team of writers, directors, composers and stars produced a steady stream of popular, critically acclaimed musicals until the late 1950s.
He allowed his directors and choreographers free rein, something unheard of in those days of committee-produced film musicals, and is credited for furthering the boundaries of film musicals by allowing such moments in films as the fifteen-minute ballet at the end of An American in Paris (1951), after which the film concludes moments later with no further dialogue or singing, and he allowed the musical team of Lerner and Loewe complete control in their writing of Gigi (1958).
According to Hugh Fordin's book The World of Entertainment, however, Freed did have a hand in the stage-to-screen adaptation of at least one of MGM's musicals, the 1951 Technicolor remake of Kern and Hammerstein's stage classic, Show Boat. It was Freed who disagreed with the original structure of the show's second act, in which more than twenty years pass between most of the act and the final three scenes of the musical. He felt that it made for a lack of drama in the story, and so, together with screenwriter John Lee Mahin, Freed hit upon the idea of having the gambler Gaylord Ravenal leave his wife Magnolia while both are still young and Magnolia is expecting a baby, and then having Julie, the half-black actress who is forced to leave the boat because of her mixed-race background, be the person who brings Ravenal and Magnolia back together again after a separation of only a few years rather than twenty. Also, Freed cast Ava Gardner in the role of Julie.
Two of his films won the Academy Award for Best Picture: An American in Paris and Gigi. On the night that An American in Paris won Best Picture, Freed received an Honorary Oscar, and his version of Show Boat was also up for two Oscars that year, though it lost both to An American in Paris. It is important to note that the year 1951, in which Freed won the Academy Award for Best Picture for Paris was the first year that the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences nominated producers by name rather than by studio. He was the only person nominated for An American in Paris, thus being the first person in the history of the award to win by name rather than by studio. Singin' in the Rain (1952), now his most highly regarded film, won no Oscars. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1972.
Allegations of child sexual abuse
Shirley Temple Black wrote in her 1988 autobiography that when aged twelve she was interviewed by Freed with a view to transferring her career to MGM. She wrote that during the interview, Freed unzipped his trousers and exposed himself to her. "Being innocent of male anatomy, she responded by giggling, and he threw her out of his office", said the actress's obituary. She also reported this on Larry King Live when interviewed on October 25, 1988, citing it as the reason she left MGM after only one film and returned to Fox.
Retirement and later years
Freed left MGM in 1961. He served as president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences until leaving in 1966. He died of a heart attack on April 3, 1973.
Hit songs
With Nacio Herb Brown
With others
"I Cried for You" (with Gus Arnheim and Abe Lyman)
"Our Love Affair" (with Roger Edens)
"This Heart of Mine" (with Harry Warren)
"There's Beauty Everywhere" (with Harry Warren)
"Here's to the Girls" (with Roger Edens)
Producing credits
The Wizard of Oz (1939) (associate producer)
Babes in Arms (1939)
Strike Up the Band (1940)
Little Nellie Kelly (1940)
Lady Be Good (1941)
Babes on Broadway (1941)
Panama Hattie (1942)
For Me and My Gal (1942)
Cabin in the Sky (1943)
Best Foot Forward (1943)
Du Barry Was a Lady (1943)
Girl Crazy (1943)
Meet the People (1944) (executive producer)
Meet Me in St. Louis (1944)
The Clock (1945)
Yolanda and the Thief (1945)
The Harvey Girls (1946)
Ziegfeld Follies (1946)
Till the Clouds Roll By (1946)
Good News (1947)
Summer Holiday (1948)
The Pirate (1948)
Easter Parade (1948)
Words and Music (1948)
Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949)
The Barkleys of Broadway (1949)
Any Number Can Play (1949)
On the Town (1949)
Annie Get Your Gun (1950)
Crisis (1950)
Pagan Love Song (1950)
Royal Wedding (1951)
Show Boat (1951)
An American in Paris (1951)
The Belle of New York (1952)
Singin' in the Rain (1952)
The Band Wagon (1953)
Brigadoon (1954)
It's Always Fair Weather (1955)
Kismet (1955)
Invitation to the Dance (1956)
Silk Stockings (1957)
Gigi (1958)
Bells Are Ringing (1960)
The Subterraneans (1960)
The Light in the Piazza (1962)
References
External links
SHoF page on Arthur Freed
Full list of Freed's songs on SHoF site
Arthur Freed – Filmography – The New York Times
Arthur Freed recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings
1894 births
1973 deaths
Musicians from Charleston, South Carolina
Jewish American songwriters
Songwriters from South Carolina
Presidents of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
American film producers
American musical theatre lyricists
Broadway composers and lyricists
Vaudeville performers
Academy Honorary Award recipients
Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery
Businesspeople from Charleston, South Carolina
Producers who won the Best Picture Academy Award
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American Jews | [
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|
226144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20the%20Northern%20Department | Secretary of State for the Northern Department | The Secretary of State for the Northern Department was a position in the Cabinet of the government of Great Britain up to 1782, when the Northern Department became the Foreign Office.
History
Before the Act of Union, 1707, the Secretary of State's responsibilities were in relation to the English government, not the British. Even after the Union, there was still a separate Secretary of State for Scotland until 1746, though the post was sometimes vacant. This continued the previous Scottish government post of Secretary of State.
Before 1782, the responsibilities of the two Secretaries of State for the Northern and the Southern Departments were not divided up in terms of area of authority, but rather geographically. The Secretary of State for the Northern Department was responsible for relations with the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Poland, Russia, and the Holy Roman Empire. The Secretary of State for the Southern Department was responsible for Ireland, the Channel Islands, France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, the states of Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. He was also responsible for the American colonies until 1768, when the charge was given to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Domestic responsibilities in England and Wales were shared between the two Secretaries. After the union with Scotland in 1707, the two secretaries also took responsibility for Scotland when there was no Secretary of State for Scotland in office.
Until 1706, the practice was generally for the senior official to lead the Southern Department, and the junior the Northern Department, with the Northern Secretary being transferred to the Southern Department when a vacancy arose at the latter. During the reigns of George I and George II, however, the Northern Department began to be seen as the more important, since its responsibilities included the monarchs' ancestral home of Hanover. During the reign of George III, the two departments were of approximately equal importance.
In 1782, the two Secretaries of State were reformed as the Secretary of State for the Home Department and the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
During the 18th century, Secretaries of State for the Northern Department, if peers, were often Leaders of the House of Lords as well.
Secretaries of State for the Northern Department, 1660–1782
Included:
See also
Secretary of State England
Secretary of State for the Southern Department
Home Secretary
References
Sources
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Lists of English politicians
Lists of government ministers of the United Kingdom
Great Britain politics-related lists
.
Kingdom of Great Britain
Northern Department 02, Secretary of State
Northern Department 02, Secretary of State
Northern Department 02, Secretary of State
Northern Department 02, Secretary of State
Northern Department 02, Secretary of State
Northern Department 02, Secretary of State
1660 establishments in England
1782 disestablishments in Great Britain
1660 establishments in the British Empire
1782 disestablishments in the British Empire | [
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|
226146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20the%20Southern%20Department | Secretary of State for the Southern Department | The Secretary of State for the Southern Department was a position in the cabinet of the government of the Kingdom of Great Britain up to 1782, when the Southern Department became the Home Office.
History
Before 1782, the responsibilities of the two British Secretaries of State for the Northern and the Southern departments were divided not based on the principles of modern ministerial divisions, but geographically. The Secretary of State for the Southern Department was responsible for Ireland, the Channel Islands, France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, the states of Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. He was also responsible for the American colonies until 1768, when the charge was given to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. The Secretary of State for the Northern Department was responsible for relations with the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Poland, Russia, and the Holy Roman Empire. Domestic responsibilities in England and Wales were shared between the two Secretaries. After the union with Scotland in 1707, the two secretaries also took responsibility for Scotland when there was no Secretary of State for Scotland in office.
Until 1706, the practice was generally for the senior official to lead the Southern Department, and the junior the Northern Department, with the Northern Secretary being transferred to the Southern Department when a vacancy arose at the latter. During the reigns of George I and George II, however, the Northern Department began to be seen as the more important, since its responsibilities included the monarchs' ancestral home of Hanover. During the reign of George III, the two departments were of approximately equal importance.
In 1782, the two Secretaries of State were reformed as the Secretary of State for the Home Department and the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
List of Southern Secretaries
See also
Secretary of State (England)
Notes
Citations
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Lists of English politicians
Lists of government ministers of the United Kingdom
Great Britain politics-related lists
.
Kingdom of Great Britain
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
Southern Department 02, Secretary of State
1660 establishments in England
1782 disestablishments in Great Britain
1660 establishments in the British Empire
1782 disestablishments in the British Empire
Foreign relations of Great Britain | [
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|
226147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell%20Inspiron | Dell Inspiron | The Inspiron ( , formerly stylized as inspiron) is a line of consumer-oriented laptop computers, desktop computers and all-in-one computers sold by Dell. The Inspiron range mainly competes against computers such as Acer's Aspire, Asus' Transformer Book Flip, VivoBook and Zenbook, HP's Pavilion, Stream and ENVY, Lenovo's IdeaPad, Samsung's Sens and Toshiba's Satellite.
Types
The Dell Inspiron lineup consists of laptops, desktops and all in ones.
Dell Inspiron laptop computers
Dell Inspiron desktop computers
Dell Inspiron All-in-One
Discontinued:
Dell Inspiron Mini Series netbooks (2008-2010)
See also
Dell's Home Office/Consumer class product lines:
Studio (mainstream desktop and laptop computers)
XPS (high-end desktop and notebook computers)
Studio XPS (high-end design-focus of XPS systems and extreme multimedia capability)
Alienware (high-performance gaming systems)
Adamo (high-end luxury subnotebook)
Dell Business/Corporate class product lines:
Vostro (office/small business desktop and notebook systems)
n Series (desktop and notebook computers shipped with Linux or FreeDOS installed)
Latitude (business-focused notebooks)
Optiplex (business-focused workstations)
Precision (high performance workstations)
References
External links
Dell Inspiron Drivers
Dell laptops
Dell personal computers
Convertible laptops
Consumer electronics brands
Computer-related introductions in 1990 | [
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|
226150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moaning%20Lisa%20%28The%20Simpsons%29 | Moaning Lisa (The Simpsons) | "Moaning Lisa" is the sixth episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11, 1990. The episode was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss, and was directed by Wes Archer. Ron Taylor guest stars in the episode as Bleeding Gums Murphy. The episode deals with Lisa's depression and her attempts to sublimate it by playing her saxophone.
Plot
Lisa wakes up one morning saddened. At school, she gets in trouble with her music teacher for improvising and becomes reluctant to play dodgeball in gym. At home, Homer and Bart pummel each other at video boxing, but despite Homer's attempts, he is unable to defeat Bart. Homer and Marge try to cheer Lisa up, but she is consumed with existentialism and worry over all the suffering in the world. In her room, Lisa hears music coming from outside her window. She follows the music through town and meets Bleeding Gums Murphy, a soulful saxophonist playing the blues. Lisa learns about expressing herself through her music from him, only to be discovered and whisked away by Marge.
Homer goes to the arcade and enlists the help of an arcade boxing expert, while Marge takes Lisa to band practice. She tells Lisa to smile no matter how she feels inside, to suppress her emotions to be popular, and that happiness will follow. But when she sees Lisa hiding her true feelings and being taken advantage of by her classmates and her music teacher, Marge changes her tune and tells Lisa to be herself and her support helps Lisa to feel genuinely happy. When Homer returns home, he is about to defeat Bart in a rematch but Marge unplugs the game console to announce Lisa's recovery, while Bart declares his retirement as an undefeated video boxing champ. Later, the Simpsons visit a jazz club to hear Bleeding Gums Murphy sing a blues number written by Lisa. The song Lisa sings is based on Third Degree by Eric Clapton.
Production
"Moaning Lisa" was the first episode of the series to focus on Lisa. The idea for it was suggested by The Simpsons producer James L. Brooks, who wanted to do an episode where Lisa was sad but she did not know why. The writers also felt they had done several "jokey" episodes on the show and wanted to try something new that was "really emotional and sweet".
While writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss were initially thrilled to write an episode pitched by their hero Brooks, they were unsure that the depression-themed episode would work. Matt Groening taunted the pair for having been assigned the episode, while Sam Simon told them that Brooks had been trying to get such an episode made since Taxi. According to Reiss, the episode establishes Lisa as a character, as in his and Jean's previous episode "There's No Disgrace Like Home", she is as badly behaved as Bart.
The song Lisa sings in this episode later reappeared in expanded form on The Simpsons Sing the Blues CD. Mr. Largo, Lisa's music teacher, was partly inspired by a music teacher Groening had as a child. The designs of the boxers in the video game Homer and Bart play were loosely based on Homer and Bart, and the referee in the game was based on a character from Matt Groening's Life in Hell comic strip. Bleeding Gums Murphy was loosely based on the famous blues musician Blind Lemon Jefferson. Ralph Wiggum, Bleeding Gums Murphy, and Jacqueline Bouvier (during Marge's childhood flashback) all make their first (going by production order rather than airdate) appearances on The Simpsons in this episode.
Reception
In its original American broadcast, "Moaning Lisa" finished 34th place in the weekly ratings for the week of February 5–11, 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 13.8. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week.
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said: "Certain scenes of this, the most syrupy of Simpsons episodes, sent viewers raised on the later seasons scurrying to the bathroom. Yes, the final moments may give you goosepimples, and are a world away from the anti-schmaltz normally associated with the series, but there is still much to recommend here. in fact, the Homer–Bart subplot is more successful than the main storyline; Homer's nightmare about their relationship is genuinely disturbing."
In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode a (of 5) and added: "Lisa develops much of her future personality in this episode. The family dynamic is starting to fall into place, as is the relationship between Homer and Lisa."
Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that "overall, this was a pretty drab episode" and added that "it had some moments, such as the videogame boxing matches between Homer and Bart, but Lisa lacked the strength at this point to carry an entire show".
Yeardley Smith, the voice actress of Lisa, has cited the episode as one of her favorite Simpsons episodes of all time.
In his 2018 memoir Springfield Confidential, Mike Reiss named the episode as one of four that broke new ground, alongside "Like Father, Like Clown", "Homer at the Bat" and the original "Treehouse of Horror".
Home release
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "Homer's Odyssey". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 2 (1997), paired with "Bart the General". In the United States, it was later re released in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections.
In the United Kingdom, it was re released as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season, released in November 1999. The episode's début on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Reiss, Archer, and Jean participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season was published December 20, 2010 in the United States containing the episode, through Amazon Video and iTunes.
References
Sources
External links
The Simpsons (season 1) episodes
1990 American television episodes
Works about melancholia
Television episodes about video games | [
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|
226155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories%20of%20rallies | Categories of rallies | Rallying makes up the majority of the "grassroots" of amateur motorsport, especially in the United Kingdom. Motor Clubs will usually run one or more rallies each year. Rallies fall into many categories each with different rules and aimed at different skill levels. The two basic categories are special stage rallies and road rallies.
Special stage rallies
In a stage rally, competitive driving takes place on closed roads or off the public highway. Stage rallies are the basis for WRC and professional rallying. The emphasis of stage rallies is on speed and driving ability. Navigation of such events is based heavily on pacenotes.
Many Stage rallies also include super special stages where two cars compete head to head on mirrored courses with a crossover. Although the cars are on separate courses, the crossover allows them to drive each side of the course once and travel the same distance. Such stages are usually held in stadiums so both spectators and press can see the entire stage unfold and emulate the excitement of wheel to wheel racing.
Stage rallies evolved from Road Rallies - motor rallies in the early days were all road rallies, but gradually they started to incorporate the idea of a "special stage", which would consist of a competitive section off the public road or with some other unique quality. More and more of these special stages were added to get around the increasing number of restrictions about what could be allowed on the public road, and eventually the entire sport evolved into the two separate forms that exist today.
Road rallies
In a road rally, competitive driving takes place (in part or whole) on the open public highway. Road rallies were historically the basis of all rallies, and stage rallying evolved from them. However, these days they are strictly reserved for the amateur, due to the obvious danger that could arise to the public. The emphasis of road rallies is on navigational accuracy and teamwork. Indeed, the navigator is often seen as someone playing a minor role when in fact he or she is actually the key member of the crew.
Other types of rallies
There are other types of rally which are popular at club level:
Regularity rallies
Navigational exercises
12-car rallies
Treasure hunts
Gimmick rallies
Rallying
Rallies | [
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|
226156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Federal | Washington Federal | Washington Federal, Inc. is a bank based in Seattle, Washington, in the United States. It is the primary subsidiary of Washington Federal, Inc., a bank holding company. It operates 235 branches in eight western states.
History
The bank was founded on April 24, 1917, as Ballard Savings and Loan.
In 1958, it merged with and took the name of Washington Federal Savings and Loan.
The bank demutualized in 1982.
The present holding company structure was adopted in 1995.
In 2019, the bank was rebranded as WaFd Bank.
Mergers and acquisitions
Seattle Federal Savings and Loan, 1971
First Federal Savings and Loan Association, Mount Vernon, Washington, 1978
United First Federal, Boise, Idaho, 1987
Provident Federal Savings and Loan, Boise, 1987
Northwest Federal Savings and Loan, Boise, 1988
Freedom Federal Savings and Loan, Corvallis, Oregon, 1988
Family Federal Savings and Loan Association, Dallas, Oregon, 1990
First Federal Savings and Loan Association, Idaho Falls, Idaho, 1991
Metropolitan Savings Association, Portland and Eugene, Oregon, 1991
First Federal Savings Bank, Salt Lake City, 1993
West Coast Mutual Savings Bank, Centralia, Washington, 1996
Metropolitan Bancorp, Seattle, November 29, 1996
United Savings and Loan Bank (4 branches, based in Seattle) for $65 million in 2003. Founded on July 6, 1960, it was the first savings and loan owned by Asian Americans.
First Mutual Bank, Bellevue, Washington, 2008
Horizon Bank (18 branches), seized by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation after bank failure, Bellingham, Washington, 2010
South Valley Bancorp Inc., Klamath Falls, Oregon, 2012
51 branches from Bank of America in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and New Mexico, 2013
23 branches from Bank of America in Arizona and Nevada, 2014
References
External links
Companies based in Seattle
Banks based in Washington (state)
Economy of the Western United States
American companies established in 1917
Banks established in 1917
Companies listed on the Nasdaq | [
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|
226158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir | Sir | Sir is a formal honorific address in English for men, derived from Sire in the High Middle Ages. Both are derived from the old French "Sieur" (Lord), brought to England in 1066 by the French-speaking Normans, and which now exist in French only as part of "Monsieur", with the equivalent "My Lord" in English. Traditionally, as governed by law and custom, Sir is used for men titled as knights, often as members of orders of chivalry, as well as later applied to baronets and other offices. As the female equivalent for knighthood is damehood, the female equivalent term is typically Dame. The wife of a knight or baronet tends to be addressed as Lady, although a few exceptions and interchanges of these uses exist.
Additionally, since the late modern period, Sir has been used as a respectful way to address a man of superior social status or military rank. Equivalent terms of address for women are Madam (shortened to Ma'am), in addition to social honorifics such as Mrs, Ms or Miss.
Etymology
Sir derives from the honorific title sire; sire developed alongside the word seigneur, also used to refer to a feudal lord. Both derived from the Vulgar Latin , sire comes from the nominative case declension and seigneur, the accusative case declension .
The form 'Sir' is first documented in English in 1297, as the title of honour of a knight, and latterly a baronet, being a variant of sire, which was already used in English since at least c.1205 (after 139 years of Norman rule) as a title placed before a name and denoting knighthood, and to address the (male) Sovereign since c.1225, with additional general senses of 'father, male parent' is from c.1250, and 'important elderly man' from 1362.
Entitlement to formal honorific address by region
Commonwealth of Nations
The prefix is used with the holder's given name or full name, but never with the surname alone. For example, whilst Sir Alexander and Sir Alexander Fleming would be correct, Sir Fleming would not.
Today, in the UK and in certain Commonwealth realms, a number of men are entitled to the prefix of 'Sir', including knights bachelor, knights of the orders of chivalry and baronets; although foreign nationals can be awarded honorary knighthoods. Honorary knights do not bear the prefix "Sir" nor do they receive an accolade; instead they use the associated post-nominal letters.
Church of England clergy who receive knighthoods do also not receive an accolade and therefore do not use the title 'Sir', but instead refer to their knighthood using post-nominal letters. For example, the Reverend John Polkinghorne, KBE would never be referred to as Sir John Polkinghorne. Clergy of other denominations may use different conventions.
Only citizens of Commonwealth realms may receive substantive knighthoods and have the privilege of the accompanying style. In general, only knighthoods in dynastic orders – those orders in the personal gift of the Sovereign and Head of the Commonwealth (the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle and the knighthoods in the Royal Victorian Order) – are recognised across the Commonwealth realms, along with their accompanying styles.
British knighthoods (in the Orders of the Bath, St. Michael and St. George and in the Order of the British Empire, along with Knights Bachelor) were known as imperial honours during the existence of the British Empire. Those honours continued to be conferred as substantive, not honorary, awards by most Commonwealth realms into the 1990s. Since then, though former imperial honours are still awarded by certain Commonwealth realms, many of them have discontinued grants of British honours as they have developed their own honours systems, some of which include knighthoods. Today, British honours are only substantive for British nationals so recognised, including dual nationals, and for nationals of those realms which have retained them as part of their honours systems.
Dual national recipients of British knighthoods who hold British citizenship, such as academic and immunologist Sir John Bell, are entitled to the style of Sir as their knighthoods are substantive. This may not necessarily be the case for dual nationals who are not British citizens and who instead hold citizenship of another Commonwealth realm. In 1974, Lynden Pindling, the Prime Minister of the Bahamas, recommended dual Bahamian-American citizen Sidney Poitier for an honorary knighthood as an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), an imperial honour, as the Bahamas did not have its own honours system at the time. Although Poitier, as a Bahamian citizen by descent, was eligible for a substantive ('ordinary') award of the KBE, the Bahamian government preferred the knighthood to be honorary as Poitier was permanently residing in the United States. Knighthoods in the gift of the government of a Commonwealth realm only permit the bearer to use his style within that country or as its official representative, provided he is a national of that country; knighthoods granted by other realms may be considered foreign honours. For instance, Anthony Bailey was reprimanded by Buckingham Palace and the British government in 2016 for asserting that an honorary Antiguan knighthood (which was revoked in 2017) allowed him the style of 'Sir' in the UK.
The equivalent for a female who holds a knighthood or baronetcy in her own right is 'Dame', and follows the same usage customs as 'Sir'. Although this form was previously also used for the wives of knights and baronets, it is now customary to refer to them as 'Lady', followed by their surname; they are never addressed using their full names. For example, while Lady Fiennes is correct, Lady Virginia and Lady Virginia Fiennes are not. The widows of knights retain the style of wives of knights, however widows of baronets are either referred to as 'dowager', or use their forename before their courtesy style. For example, the widow of Sir Thomas Herbert Cochrane Troubridge, 4th Baronet, would either be known as Dowager Lady Troubridge or Laura, Lady Troubridge.
Barbados
Prior to becoming a republic in November 2021, Barbados awarded the title Knight or Dame of St. Andrew within the Order of Barbados. This practice has now been discontinued, though individuals who received a knighthood or damehood when the country was still a Commonwealth realm may continue to use the titles "Sir" and "Dame" within their lifetimes.
Commonwealth realms
Knight Commander or Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO/GCVO)
United Kingdom
Baronet (Bt.)
Knight of the Order of the Garter (KG)
Knight of the Order of the Thistle (KT)
Knight Commander or Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (KCB/GCB)
Knight Commander or Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG/GCMG)
Knight Commander or Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (KBE/GBE)
Knight Bachelor
Antigua and Barbuda
Knight of the Order of the National Hero (KNH)
Knight Commander, Knight Grand Cross, or Knight Grand Collar of the Order of the Nation (KCN/KGCN/KGN)
Australia
Knight of the Order of Australia (AK; for male Australian subjects only; discontinued 1986–2014, reintroduced briefly in 2014, again discontinued in 2015)
Grenada
Knight Commander, Knight Grand Cross, or Knight Grand Collar of the Order of the Nation in the Order of Grenada (KCNG/GCNG/KN)
New Zealand
Knight Companion or Knight Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit (KNZM/GNZM)
Saint Lucia
Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Lucia (KCSL)
India
As part of the consolidation of the crown colony of India, the Order of the Star of India was established in 1861 to reward prominent British and Indian civil servants, military officers and prominent Indians associated with the Indian Empire. The Order of the Indian Empire was established in 1878 as a junior-level order to accompany the Order of the Star of India, and to recognise long service.
From 1861 to 1866, the Order of the Star of India had a single class of Knights (KSI), who were entitled to the style of 'Sir'. In 1866, the order was reclassified into three divisions: Knights Grand Commander (GCSI), Knights Commander (KCSI) and Companions (CSI); holders of the upper two degrees could use the title 'Sir'. From its creation in 1878 until 1887, the Order of the Indian Empire had a single class, Companion (CIE), which did not entitle the recipient to a style of knighthood.
In 1887, two higher divisions, Knight Grand Commander (GCIE) and Knight Commander (KCIE) were created, which entitled holders of those ranks to the style of 'Sir'. The last creations of knights of either order were made on 15 August 1947 upon Indian independence. All British honours and their accompanying styles were officially made obsolete in India when the Dominion of India became a modern republic in the Commonwealth of Nations in 1950, followed by Islamic Republic of Pakistan in 1956.
The Order of the Star of India became dormant in the Commonwealth realms from February 2009, and the Order of the Indian Empire after August 2010, when the last knights of the orders died.
Nigeria
In Nigeria, holders of religious honours like the Knighthood of St. Gregory make use of the word as a pre-nominal honorific in much the same way as it is used for secular purposes in Britain and the Philippines. Wives of such individuals also typically assume the title of Lady.
Non-Commonwealth Countries
Holy See
Knights and Dames of papal orders may elect the "Sir" or "Dame" prefix with post-nominal letters, subject to the laws and conventions of the country they are in. The Pope, the sovereign of the Catholic Church and Vatican City, delegates the awarding orders of knighthood to bishops and Grand Masters. Their precedence is as follows:
Supreme Order of Christ (Vacant)
Order of the Golden Spur (Vacant)
Order of Pope Pius IX
Order of St. Gregory the Great
Order of St. Sylvester
Order of the Holy Sepulchre
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
For Example, Sir Burton P. C. Hall, KSS, KHS would be the correct style for lay knights.
Lieutenants of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, are styled as "Your Excellency", such as H.E. Dame Trudy Comeau, DC*HS.
Catholic clergy who are invested as Knight Chaplains may use post-nominal letters, but must retain their clerical titles, like Rev. Robert Skeris, KCHS.
Knights and Dames of papal orders are not allowed to use the prefix "Sir" or "Dame" in the United Kingdom, although they may use post-nominal letters. Not allowing the prefix is because the use of foreign titles is not permitted by the British Crown without a Royal Licence, and as a matter of policy (currently based on a Royal Warrant of 27 April 1932), a Royal Licence to bear any foreign title is never granted. On the other hand, allowing the post-nominal letters would be explained by the highest and lowest dignities being universal, a king was recognized as king everywhere, and also a knight: "though a Knight receive his Dignity of a Foreign Prince, he is so to be stiled in all Legal Proceedings within England .. and Knights in all Foreign Countries have ever place and precedency according to their Seniority of being Knighted"
Ireland
Established in 1783 and primarily awarded to men associated with the Kingdom of Ireland, Knights of the Order of St. Patrick were entitled to the style of 'Sir'. Regular creation of new knights of the order ended in 1921 upon the formation of the Irish Free State. With the death of the last knight in 1974, the Order became dormant.
Philippines
As a privilege of the members of the Order of the Knights of Rizal, the prefix "Sir" is attached to their forenames while wives of Knights add the prefix "Lady" to their first names. These apply to both spoken and written forms of address. The Knights of Rizal is the sole order of knighthood in the Philippines and a constituted Order of Merit recognized by the Orders, decorations, and medals of the Philippines. The prefix is appended with the relevant post-nominal according to their rank at the end of their names: Knight of Rizal (KR), Knight Officer of Rizal (KOR), Knight Commander of Rizal (KCR), Knight Grand Officer of Rizal (KGOR) and Knight Grand Cross of Rizal (KGCR). Among the notable members of the Knights of Rizal include King Juan Carlos I of Spain who was conferred a Knight Grand Cross of Rizal on 11 February 1998.
Combinations with other titles and styles
Military
In the case of a military officer who is also a knight, the appropriate form of address puts the professional military rank first, then the correct manner of address for the individual, then his name. Examples include:
Admiral of the Fleet Sir Bruce Fraser, GCB, KBE (after 1941)
Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey, GBE, KCB, CMG, DSO, ED (after 1941)
Academic
This is also the case with academic ranks and titles, such as 'Professor'. For example, Patrick Bateson was both a professor and a knight bachelor; his correct title would be Professor Sir Patrick Bateson. However, the title of 'Doctor' (Dr.) is not used in combination with 'Sir', with the knighthood taking precedence. Knighted doctors are addressed as knights, though they may still use any post-nominal letters associated with their degrees.
Peers and nobility
Peers who have been knighted are neither styled as 'Sir' nor addressed as such in the formal sense of the style, as their titles of nobility take precedence. If the male heir apparent to a dukedom, marquessate or earldom holds a courtesy title and has been knighted, the same principle applies to him, as well as to the legitimate male issue of a duke or a marquess, who are styled 'Lord' followed by their first name. For instance, diplomat Lord Nicholas Gordon-Lennox, KCMG, KCVO, who was a younger son of the Duke of Richmond, continued to be styled as 'Lord Nicholas' following his knighthood in 1986, not 'Lord Sir Nicholas'. Other male heirs of an earl who lack courtesy titles, and the male heirs of a viscount or baron, do however use the style of 'Sir' if knighted, the style following that of 'The Hon'.
Educational, military and other usage
Education system
'Sir', along with 'Miss' for women, is commonly used in the British school system to address teachers and other members of staff. Usage of these terms is considered a mark of respect, and can be dated back to the 16th century. The practice may have been an attempt to reinforce the authority of teachers from lower social classes among classes of largely upper class students. Jennifer Coates, emeritus professor of English language and linguistics at Roehampton University has criticised the use of the title for male teachers, saying that "'Sir' is a knight. There weren't women knights, but 'Miss' is ridiculous: it doesn't match 'Sir' at all. It's just one of the names you can call an unmarried woman", and that "It's a depressing example of how women are given low status and men, no matter how young or new in the job they are, are given high status". This view is not unchallenged, however. The chief executive of the Brook Learning Trust, Debbie Coslett, said "... they call me 'Miss', I'm fine with that. They're showing respect by giving me a title rather than 'hey' or 'oi, you' or whatever", and dismissed the male/female issue as "just the way the English language works".
In the Southern United States, the term 'sir' is often used to address someone in a position of authority or respect, and is commonly used in schools and universities by students to address their teachers and professors. Whereas the British and Commonwealth female equivalent is Miss, students will often refer to female teachers as Ma'am.
In the Northeast United States, particularly New England, there remains influence of both the British and French traditions as noted above; in general parlance, teachers, authority-figures, and so forth, are referred to by a title of respect such as 'Sir' for males and 'Miss, Ms, or Mrs' for females: 'Miss' for unmarried, younger females; 'Ms' for senior, elder, or ranking females that may or may not be married (see article Ms/Mrs/Miss); and 'Mrs' for married or widowed females. The predominant form of address remains "Sir/Ma'am", though in some sectors – such as service, hospitality, or politics – "Sir/Madam(e)" prevails, while in Northern Maine – Aroostock County and St John's Valley – most female teachers or public officials, regardless of marital status, are addressed "Miss" in English or "Madame" in French, though the two are not interchangeable. As noted in Coslett's statement above citing her personal acceptance of 'Miss', generally teachers or other public officials may specify to which form they prefer, while in other cases social and cultural norms dictate the appropriate form.
Military and police
If not specifically using their rank or title, 'sir' is used in the United States Armed Forces to address a male, senior commissioned officer or civilian. Privates and non-commissioned officers, such as corporals and sergeants, are addressed using their ranks.
In the British Armed Forces, male commissioned officers and warrant officers are addressed as 'sir' by all ranks junior to them, male warrant officers are addressed as Mr by commissioned officers.
In the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), only commissioned officers are addressed as 'sir'; NCOs and constables are addressed by their rank. Male British police officers of the rank of Inspector or above are addressed as 'Sir' (women of inspecting rank are called Ma'am).
In the Hong Kong Police Force, male superiors are respectfully known by their surname followed by 'sir'. For example, Inspector Wong would be addressed or referred to as 'Wong-sir'. Male police officers are sometimes known colloquially as "Ah-sir" (阿Sir) to the wider public.
Service industry
The term 'Sir' is also used frequently in the customer service industry, by employees to refer to customers, and sometimes vice versa. In the United States, it is much more common in certain areas (even when addressing male peers or men considerably younger). For example, a 1980 study showed that 80% of service interactions in the South were accompanied by 'Sir' or Ma'am, in comparison to the Northern United States, where 'Sir' was only used 25% of the time.
'Sir', in conjunction with 'Ma'am' or 'Madam', is also commonly used in the Philippines and South Asia, not only to address customers and vice versa, but also to address people of a higher social rank or age.
See also
Honorific
Style (manner of address)
Knight
Order of chivalry
Knight Bachelor
Salutation
Canadian titles debate
Notes
References
External links
EtymologyOnLine.com
Styles (forms of address)
Men's social titles
Noble titles
Knights
Chivalry
British honours system | [
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|
226159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Cheris | Las Cheris | Las Cheris was a Puerto Rican girl group of the early 1980s and 1990s. It was composed of four girls aged 16 to 25.
After Menudo's worldwide success, many other bands in Latin America, and particularly in Puerto Rico, tried to emulate Menudo's success, including girl bands. Las Cheris was one of these bands and Fresitas and Monedas were other ones. Las Cheris and Monedas, for example, pointed out in such magazines as Vea and others, that they wanted to be the "female version of Menudo".
Las Cheris enjoyed popularity on Puerto Rican radio and TV from 1983 to 1990. After that period, they faded away. However, one of them, Melina León, is now enjoying success as an international merengue singer. Mariadony Class, another member of the group, is the daughter of another Puerto Rican singer, José Miguel Class.
References
External links
Information about Melina Leon
American pop girl groups
Puerto Rican musical groups | [
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|
226160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title | Title | A title is one or more words used before or after a person's name, in certain contexts. It may signify either generation, an official position, or a professional or academic qualification. In some languages, titles may be inserted between the first and last name (for example, Gomi in German, Cardinal in Catholic usage (Richard Cardinal Cushing) or clerical titles such as Archbishop). Some titles are hereditary.
Types
Titles include:
Honorific titles or styles of address, a phrase used to convey respect to the recipient of a communication, or to recognize an attribute such as:
Imperial, royal and noble ranks
Academic degree
Social titles, prevalent among certain sections of society due to historic or other reasons.
Other accomplishment, as with a title of honor
Title of authority, an identifier that specifies the office or position held by an official
Titles in English-speaking areas
The following titles are the default titles:
Mr. – Adult man (regardless of marital status)
Mrs. – Adult woman (usually just for married women, widows, and divorcées)
Ms. – Adult woman (regardless of marital status)
Mx. - Adult person (regardless of marital status), can be used to refer to non-binary people
Miss – Formal title for unmarried women and for female children
Master – For male children: Young boys were formerly addressed as "Master [first name]." This was the standard form for servants to use in addressing their employer's minor sons.
Maid – Archaic: When used as a title before a name (and not as a general term for a young domestic worker housemaid girl), this was a way to denote an unmarried woman, such as the character Maid Marian.
Madam (also madame) –Adult woman
Aunt, Auntie, or Uncle may be used as titles by nieces and nephews, or by children to adults whom they know.
Other titles are used for various reasons, such as to show aristocratic status or one's role in government, in a religious organization, or in a branch of the military.
Legislative and executive titles
Hon. (Honourable) (for younger sons and daughters of barons) and. Rt. Hon. (Right Honourable) (for Privy Councillors), used in the United Kingdom
Some job titles of members of the legislature and executive are used as titles.
MP, for members of the Parliament
MYP, for members of the UK Youth Parliament
Representative
Senator
Speaker
President (from which comes such titles as Deputy President, Executive Vice President, Lord President of the Council, and Vice President)
Councillor
Youth Councillor (YC)
Alderman/Selectman
Delegate
Mayor and related terms such as Lady Mayoress and Lord Mayor
Governor and Lieutenant Governor
Prefect
Prelate
Premier
Burgess
Ambassador
Envoy
Secretary, Cardinal Secretary of State, Foreign Secretary, General Secretary, Secretary of State, and other titles in the form "Secretary of..." in which Secretary means the same thing as Minister
Attaché
Chargé d'affaires
Provost
Aristocratic titles
Prince/Princess – From the Latin princeps, meaning "first person" or "first citizen." The title was originally used by Augustus at the establishment of the Roman Empire to avoid the political risk of assuming the title Rex ("King") in what was technically still a republic. In modern times, the title is often given to the sons and daughters of ruling monarchs. Also a title of certain ruling monarchs under the Holy Roman Empire and its subsidiary territories until 1918 (still survives in Liechtenstein, and also in Monaco although that is elsewhere), and in Imperial Russia before 1917. The German title is Fürst ("first"), a translation of the Latin term; the equivalent Russian term is князь (knyaz).
Archduke/Archduchess – A title derived from the Greek Archon ("ruler; higher") and the Latin Dux("leader"). It was used most notably by the Habsburg Dynasty that ruled Austria and Hungary until 1918.
Grand Duke/Grand Duchess - "Big; large" + Latin Dux (leader). A variant of "Archduke," used particularly in English translations Romanov Dynasty Russian titles. Also used in various Germanic territories until World War I. Still survives in Luxembourg.
Duke/Duchess - From the Latin Dux, a military title used in the Roman Empire, especially in its early Byzantine period when it designated the military commander for a specific zone.
Marquis or Marquess (the feminine equivalent is Marquise or Marchioness) from the French marchis, literally "ruler of a border area," (from Old French marche meaning "border"); exact English translation is "March Lord," or "Lord of the March."
Count/Countess - From the Latin comes meaning "companion." The word was used by the Roman Empire in its Byzantine period as an honorific with a meaning roughly equivalent to modern English "peer." It became the title of those who commanded field armies in the Empire, as opposed to "Dux" which commanded locally based forces.
Earl (used in the United Kingdom instead of Count, but the feminine equivalent is Countess) From the Germanic jarl, meaning "chieftain," the title was brought to the British Isles by the Anglo-Saxons and survives in use only there, having been superseded in Scandinavia and on the European continent.
Viscount/Viscountess - From the Latin vicarius (Deputy; substitute. Hence "vicar" and prefix "vice-") appended to Latin comes. Literally: "Deputy Count".
Baron/Baroness - From the Late Latin Baro, meaning "man, servant, soldier" the title originally designated the chief feudal tenant of a place, who was in vassalage to a greater lord.
In the United Kingdom, "Lord" and "Lady" are used as titles for members of the nobility. Unlike titles such as "Mr" and "Mrs", they are not used before first names except in certain circumstances, for example as courtesy titles for younger sons, etc., of peers. In Scotland "Lord of Parliament" and "Lady of Parliament" are the equivalents of Baron and Baroness in England.
Lord from Old English hlāford, hlāfweard, meaning, literally, "bread-keeper," from hlāf ("bread") + weard ("guardian, keeper") and by extension husband, father, or chief. (From which comes modified titles such as First Sea Lord and Lord of the Manor.) The feminine equivalent is Lady from the related Old English hlǣfdīġe meaning, literally, "bread-kneader", from hlāf ("bread") + dīġe ("maid"), and by extension wife, daughter, or mistress of the house. (From which comes First Lady, the anachronistic Second Lady, etc.)
Emperor/Empress – From the Latin Imperator, meaning he/she who holds the authority to command (imperium).
King/Queen – Derived from Old Norse/Germanic words. The original meaning of the root of "king" apparently meant "leader of the family" or "descendant of the leader of the family," and the original meaning of "queen," "wife." By the time the words came into English they already meant "ruler."
Tsar/Tsarina (Tsaritsa) – Slavonic loan-word from Latin.
Caesar: the name of Julius Caesar taken by his heir Augustus and thereafter by Augustus' successors as Roman Emperor through the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Germanic loan-word for Caesar is Kaiser.
Leader – From Old English lædan, meaning "to guide", derived from Old Norse and Germanic. The head of state of North Korea is titled Great Leader. The de facto head of state of Iran is titled Supreme Leader.
Chief - A variation of the English "Prince", used as the short form of the word "Chieftain" (except for in Scotland, where "Chieftain" is a title held by a titleholder subordinate to a chief). Generally used to refer to a recognised leader within a chieftaincy system. From this come the variations paramount chief, clan chief and village chief. The feminine equivalent is Chieftess.
PopessThe title of a character found in Tarot cards based upon the Pope on the Roman Catholic Church. As the Bishop of Rome is an office always forbidden to women there is no formal feminine of Pope, which comes from the Latin word papa (an affectionate form of the Latin for father). The mythical Pope Joan, who was reportedly a woman, is always referred to with the masculine title Pope, even when her female identity is known. Further, even if a woman were to become Bishop of Rome it is unclear if she would take the title Popess. A parallel might be drawn with the Anglican Communion, whose female clergy use the masculine titles of priest and bishop as opposed to priestess or bishopess.Nonetheless some European languages, along with English, have formed a feminine form of the word pope, such as the Italian papessa, the French papesse, the Portuguese papisa, and the German Päpstin.
Titles used by knights, dames, baronets and baronetesses
These do not confer nobility.
Sir – Used by knights and baronets
Dame – Used by dames and baronetesses
"Sir" and "Dame" differ from titles such as "Mr" and "Mrs" in that they can only be used before a person's first name, and not immediately before their surname.
Chevalier (French)
Cavaliere (Italian)
Judicial titles
Advocate
Advocate General AG
Attorney
Bailiff
Barrister
Chancellor C (of the High Court)
Judge and Admiralty Judge
Justice J
Lord Chief Justice CJ (of the judiciary)
Lord Justice Clerk
Lord Justice of Appeal LJ (of the Court of Appeal)
Justice of the Peace
Magistrate and Promagistrate
Master of the Rolls MR (of the Court of Appeal)
Member and Chairman, for members of quasi-judicial boards
Mufti and Grand Mufti
President P (of the Queen's/King's Bench Division) or President P (of the Family Division)
Lord President of the Court of Session
Privy Counsellor (or Privy Councillor) PC (of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council)
Queen's Counsel QC (King's Counsel KC when monarch is male)
Solicitor
Historical
Lictor
Reeve
Seneschal
Tribune
Ecclesiastical titles (Christian)
Titles are used to show somebody's ordination as a priest or their membership in a religious order. Use of titles differs between denominations.
Religious
Abbess
Abbot
Caliph
Brother
Friar
Mother, Mother Superior, and Reverend Mother
Reverend
Sister
Priests
Christian priests often have their names prefixed with a title similar to The Reverend.
Bishop (from which come Archbishop, Boy Bishop, Lord Archbishop, Metropolitan Bishop, and Prince Bishop)
Presbyter
Priest (from which comes High Priest. The feminine equivalent is Priestess.)
Father (Fr.)
Patriarch
Pope
Catholicos
Vicar
Chaplain
Canon
Pastor
Prelate
Primate
Dom – (from , "Lord") Used for Benedictine monks in solemn religious vows, but reserved for abbots among the Trappists. In Brazil, it is used for bishops.
Cardinal
Ter (title) – Used by Armenian priests.
Used for deceased persons only
Servant of God
Venerable
Blessed
Saint (abbreviated S. or St.)
Other
Christ – Greek translation of Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (or Messiah), commonly used to refer to Jesus of Nazareth
Deacon and Archdeacon
Acolyte
Dean
Elder
Minister
Monsignor
President (in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)
Reader
Almoner and Lord High Almoner (Christian)
Apostle
Prophet
Teacher
Seventy
Evangelist
High Priest
GREAT (Lord) Father of all churches
Academic titles
Dr. – Short for doctor, a title used by those with doctoral degrees, such as DPhil, MD, DO, DDS, PhD, EdD, DCN, DBA, DNP, PharmD, DVM, and LLD. Those with JD degrees, although technically allowed, do not use this as a title by convention.
Prof. – Professor
Doc. - Docent
Eur Ing - Short for European Engineer, an international professional qualification and title for highly qualified engineers used in over 32 European countries.
Military titles
Military ranks are used before names.
Admiral (from which come Grand Admiral, Fleet Admiral, Lord High Admiral, Rear Admiral, and Vice Admiral)
Brigadier
Captain (from which comes Group Captain)
Colonel (from which comes Lieutenant Colonel)
Commander (from which come Commander-in-Chief, Lieutenant Commander, and Wing Commander)
Commodore (from which comes Air Commodore)
Corporal (from which come Lance Corporal and Staff Corporal)
General is usually used as a sort of shorthand for "general military commander". The term's far-reaching connotation has provoked its use in a very broad range of titles, including Adjutant General, Attorney General, Captain General, Colonel General, Director General, Generalissimo, General of the Army, Governor General, Lieutenant General, Lord Justice General, Major General, Resident General, Secretary General, Solicitor General, Surgeon General and Vicar General
Lieutenant (from which come First Lieutenant, Flight Lieutenant and Lord Lieutenant)
Major
Marshal (from which comes Air Chief Marshal, Air Marshal, Air Vice Marshal and Field Marshal)
Mate, more often titled as Chief Mate or First Mate
Officer, a generic sort of title whose use has spread in recent years into a wide array of mostly corporate and military titles. These include Air Officer, Chief Academic Officer, Chief analytics officer, Chief Business Development Officer, Chief Credit Officer, Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer, Chief Information Officer, Chief Information Security Officer, Chief Knowledge Officer, Chief Marketing Officer, Chief Operating Officer, Chief Petty Officer, Chief Risk Officer, Chief Security Officer, Chief Strategy Officer, Chief Technical Officer, Chief Warrant Officer, Corporate officer, Customs officer, Field officer, First Officer, Flag Officer, Flying Officer, General Officer, Intelligence Officer, Junior Warrant Officer, Master Chief Petty Officer, Master Warrant Officer, Officer of State, Petty Officer, Pilot Officer, Police Officer, Political Officer, Revenue Officer, Senior Officer, Ship's Officer, Staff Officer, and Warrant Officer.
Private, and many equivalent ranks depending on regiment.
Sergeant (from which come Sergeant at Mace and Sergeant of Arms).
Maritime and seafarer's professions and ranks
The names of shipboard officers, certain shipping line employees and Maritime Academy faculty/staff are preceded by their title when acting in performance of their duties.
Captain (nautical) ship's highest responsible officer acting on behalf of the ship's owner (Master) or a person who is responsible for the maintenance of the vessels of a shipping line, for their docking, the handling of cargo and for the hiring of personnel for deck departments (Port Captain).
Chief- a licensed mariner in charge of the engineering (Chief Engineer) or deck (Chief Mate or Officer) department
Mate- licensed member of the deck department of a merchant ship (see Second Mate & Third Mate)
Cadet unlicensed trainee mate/officer or engineer under training
Law enforcement
The names of police officers may be preceded by a title such as "Officer" or by their rank.
Constable (from which come Lord High Constable and Senior Constable)
Agent
Protected professional titles
In North America, several jurisdictions restrict the use of some professional titles to those individuals holding a valid and recognised license to practice. Individuals not authorised to use these reserved titles may be fined or jailed. Protected titles are often reserved to those professions that require a bachelor's degree or higher and a state, provincial, or national license.
Professional Engineer, Registered Engineer
Professional Nurse, Registered Nurse, Nurse
Other organizations
Some titles are used to show one's role or position in a society or organization.
Principal
Nanny
Coach may be used before a name
Wizard, such as the Grand Wizard and Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan
Brother or Sister
Chief Scout (The Scout Association), the head of The Scout Association,
Queen's Scout title conferred upon a scout upon achieving highest attainable award achievable in the Scouting movement
Queen's Guide title conferred upon a guide upon highest attainable award for members of the Girl Guiding movement
Scout, Eagle Scout
Some titles are used in English to refer to the position of people in foreign political systems
Citizen, First Citizen
Comrade
Social titles
Titles used in Rajasthan and other neighbourhood states of India in honour of Rajputs (only):
Hukum – used in general to address any Rajput. Also used as suffix after following titles.
Daata – used for highset man member of a Rajput family.
Banna – used for Rajput boys.
Baisa – used for Rajput girls.
Babosa - used for eldest man of family.
Bhabha - used for eldest woman of family.
Non-English speaking areas
Default titles in other languages
Note: Titles are seldom used in Sweden; people are usually referred to by their first name
Academic
Docent
Doctorandus, abbreviated as drs.Religious
Ayatollah
Bodhisattva
Druid and Archdruid
Hakham
Buddha
Hajji
Imam
Kohen
Lama and the related Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama
Mahatma
Mahdi
Mullah
Nath
Pastor
Rabbi
Rebbe
Reverend
Rosh HaYeshiva
Saoshyant
Sardar
Sardarni
Tirthankar
Vardapet
Honorary titles
Mahatma
Oknha
Pandit
Sant
Sheikh
Swami
Ustad
Rulers
Chancellor (from which come Lord Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor)
"Dear Leader" and "Supreme Leader" referred to Kim Jong-il as chief of North Korea. The title now refers to his son and successor Kim Jong-un. (친애하는 지도자, ch'inaehanŭn jidoja)
Elder
Emir/Emira – Arabic Prince/Princess
Eze
Maharajah
Rajah
Rai
Dato
Mwami
Nizam
Oba
Obi
Sultan/Sultana (title) – Arabic for "powerful ruler"
Tor Tiv of Tiv
Chief – origin of Chief of Staff, Chieftain, Clan Chief, Hereditary Chief, and War Chief. The present head of Samoa is titled a Paramount Chief
Vizier and Grand Vizier
Stadtholder
Historical titles for heads of state
The following are no longer officially in use, though some may be claimed by former regnal dynasties.
Appointed
Caesar (an honorific family name passed through Roman emperors by adoption)
Legate
Satrap
Tetrarch
Elected or popularly declared
Archon
Augustus (title)
Caudillo
Consul
Decemvir
Doge
Duce
Führer
Imperator
Lord Protector
Roman dictator
Triumvir
Hereditary
Basileus
Caliph
Khagan
Khan
King-Emperor (The feminine equivalent is Queen-Empress)
Malik
Maharajah
Rajah
Rai
Mikado
Mirza
Nawab
Negus
Patil
Pharaoh
Regina (the masculine form is Rex)
Saopha
Sapa Inca
Shah
Tsar
When a difference exists below, male titles are placed to the left and female titles are placed to the right of the slash.
Africa
Almamy – Fulani people of west Africa
Asantehene – Ashanti, title of the King of the Ashanti People in Ghana
Eze – Igbo people of Nigeria
Kabaka – Baganda people of Buganda in Uganda
Mwami – Kings of Rwanda and Burundi
Negus – Ethiopia
Oba – Yoruba people of Nigeria
Omukama – Bunyoro, title of some Emperors/kings in Uganda
Pharaoh – ancient Egypt
Asia
Arasan/Arasi – Tamil Nadu (India), Sri Lanka
Arqa/Thagavor – King of Armenia
Bayin – The title given to the king of pre colonial Burma
Maharajah/ Rajah/ Rai/ Chakarwarti Raja – India Sri Lanka
Chogyal—"Divine Ruler"—ruled Sikkim until 1975
Datu – pre-colonial Philippines
Druk Gyalpo—hereditary title given to the king of Bhutan
Engku or Ungku – Malaysia, to denote particular family lineage akin to royalty
Hari – Filipino title for king
Hoang De – Self-styled Vietnamese "emperor"; unified Vietnam
Huángdì – Imperial China (Emperor)
Hwangje – Self-styled Korean "emperor"; states that unified Korea
Maha raja/feminine form is Maharani – Emperor, Empress India, Sri Lanka
Meurah – Aceh before Islam
Mirza, Persian/Iranian, Indian and Afghanistan and Tajikistan King
Beg (Begzada or Begzadi, son-daughter of Beg), Baig or Bey in Under Mirza & using King or Military title.
Patil – meaning "head" or "chief" is an Indian title. The Patil is in effect the ruler of this territory as he was entitled to the revenues collected therefrom.
Phrabat Somdej Phrachaoyuhua – King of Thailand (Siam), the title literally means "The feet of the Greatest Lord who is on the heads (of his subjects)" (This royal title does not refer directly to the king himself but to his feet, according to traditions.)
Racha – Thailand, same meaning as Raja
Raja – pre-colonial Philippines
Raja – Malaysia, Raja denotes royalty in Perak and certain Selangor royal family lineages, is roughly equivalent to Prince or Princess
Raja/Rani – Nepal King
Rani – Nepali Queen
Patabenda – Sub- king Sri Lanka
Preah Karuna Preah Bat Sâmdech Preah Bâromneath – King of Cambodia Khmer, the title literally means "The feet of the Greatest Lord who is on the heads (of his subjects)" (This royal title doesn't refer directly to the king himself but to his feet, according to traditions.)
Qaghan – Central Asian Tribes
Saopha – Shan, king of Shan, today as a part of Myanmar
Shahinshah or Padshah or Badshah- Persian/Iranian "King of Kings" or Persian rulers in Hindustan(India)
Shah – Persian/Iranian and Afghanistan and Tajikistan King
Sheikh – Arabic traditional regional leader, principalities of (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, UAE)
Sultan/Sultana – Arabic King (present Oman and former Ottoman Empire)
Aceh, Brunei, Java, Oman, Malaysia, Sultan is the title of seven (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor, and Terengganu) of the nine rulers of the Malay states.
Susuhanan – the Indonesian princely state of Surakarta until its abolition
Syed – Islamic World, descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
Tennō or Mikado – Japan
Shōgun – Japanese military dictator
Sumeramikoto, Okimi – Japan, king
Tengku – Malaysia, Indonesia, Tengku (also spelled Tunku in Johor, Negeri Sembilan, Kedah and Deli Sultanate of Indonesia is roughly equivalent to Prince or Princess
Veyndhan, ko/Arasi – Tamil Nadu(India)
Wang (King) – pre-Imperial China. In China, "king" is the usual translation for the term wang 王.
Wang – States of Korea that did not have control over the entire peninsula.
Vuong – States in Vietnam that did not control the entire realm.
Yang di-Pertuan Agong – Monarch of Malaysia, elected each five years among the reigning Sultan of each Malaysian state
Europe
Autocrator Greek term for the Byzantine Emperor
Basileus – Greek ruler
Despot, a Byzantine court title, also granted in the states under Byzantine influence, such as the Latin Empire, Bulgaria, Serbia, and the Empire of Trebizond.
Domn (in Romanian) /Gospodar (in Old Slavonian) – Medieval Romania (Moldova, Wallachia)
Fejedelem – Ancient/Medieval Hungarian
Germanic king
Großbürger/Großbürgerin (English: Grand Burgher) – historical German title acquired or inherited by persons and family descendants of the ruling class in autonomous German-speaking cities and towns of Central Europe, origin under the Holy Roman Empire, ceased after 1919 along with all titles of German nobility.
Kaiser/Kaiserin – Imperial rulers of Germany and of Austria-Hungary
Kniaz'/Knyaginya/Knez/Knjeginja (generally translated as "prince") – Kievan Rus'/Serbia
Kunigaikshtis (Kunigaikštis) – Lithuanian, duke as in Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Rí, Rí túaithe, Ruiri, Rí ruireach, and Ard Rí – King, local king, regional overking, (provincial) king of overkings, and High King in Gaelic Ireland, also Scotland
Tsar/Tsarina – the ruler of Imperial Russia
Tsar/Tsaritsa – Bulgaria, pre-imperial Russia, Serbia
Vezér – Ancient Hungarian
Vojvoda (Serbian)/Vajda (Hungarian) – Serbian/Hungarian/Romany Title
Župan sometimes Veliki Župan (Grand Župan) – Serbia, Croatia
Oceania
Chieftain – Leader of a tribe or clan.
houeiki, matai, alii, tūlafale, tavana, ariki – usually translated as "chief" in various Polynesian countries.
"Mo'i", normally translated as King, is a title used by Hawaiian monarchs since unification in 1810. The last person to hold that title was Queen Lili'uokalani.
Tui or tui – there were/are also kings in Oceania (i.e. Samoa, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, Nauru)
Aristocratic
Historical
Russian:
Boyarin
Dyak
Knyaz (and Veliky Knyaz)
Namestnik
Okolnichy
Posadnik
Voyevoda
German:
Burggraf
Graf
Freigraf
Landgraf
Markgraf
Pfalzgraf
Reichsgraf
Spanish:
Don
Hidalgo
others
Augusta (Feminine equivalent of Augustus)
Bitwoded (translates as Beloved)
Comes
Concubine (The Chinese imperial system, for instance, had a vastly complex hierarchy of titled concubines and wives to the emperor)
Dejazmach (translates as Commander of the Gate)
Fitawrari (translates as Leader of the Vanguard)
Gentleman (used as a title is such forms as Gentleman at Arms, Gentleman of the Bedchamber, and Gentleman Usher. The feminine equivalent is Gentlewoman, or, in some circumstances, Lady.)
Gerazmach (translates as Commander of the Left)
Kenyazmach (translates as Commander of the Right)
Ras (which translates as Head)
Sahib
Other
Commissioner (from which come First Church Estates Commissioner and High Commissioner)
Comptroller (from which Comptroller General and Comptroller of the Household)
Courtier
Curator
Doyen
Edohen
Ekegbian
Elerunwon
Forester or Master Forester
Headman
Intendant (and the related Superintendent)
Lamido
Marcher or Lady Marcher
Matriarch or Patriarch
Prior, Lord Prior
Pursuivant
Rangatira
Ranger
Registrar (in a variant spelling in the title Lord Clerk Register)
Seigneur (from which come Monsignor and the French common polite term Monsieur, equivalent to Mister)
Sharif
Shehu
Sheikh
Sheriff (from which comes High Sheriff)
Subaltern
Subedar
Sysselmann
Timi
Treasurer, Master Treasurer and Secretary Treasurer
Verderer
Warden, Hereditary Warden, Lord Warden
Woodman
Bearer, such as Hereditary Banner Bearer, Standard Bearer, or Swordbearer
Sayyid
Apprentice
Journeyman
Adept
Akhoond
Arhat
Bwana
Goodman and Goodwife
Grand Bard
Mullah
Sri
Baba
Effendi
Giani or Gyani
Guru
Siddha
Pir, Murshid
Historical
Abuna
Aedile
Ali'i
Aqabe sa'at (translates as Guardian of the Church Hours)
Balambaras (translates as Fortress Commander)
Bán
Baig
Bey
Boyar
Castellan
Cellarer
Censor
Centurion
Circuitor
Commissar, often as People's Commissar
Conquistador
Daimyō Dey
Dux
Elector
Gauleiter
Guardian
Ichege
Infirmerer
Inquisitor and Grand Inquisitor
Jemadar
Kitchener
Mage
Magister Militum
Majordomo
Margrave
Naib
Officium
Pasha
Palatine (Ancient Rome, the Roman Catholic Church, Hungary (nádor), etc.)
Pontiff and Pontifex Maximus
Praetor
Prebendary
Quaestor
Sacrist
Samurai
Shōgun Stadtholder
Steward
Thakore
Voivode
Viceroy (the feminine equivalent is Vicereine)
Post-nominal letters
Members of legislatures often have post-nominal letters expressing this:
Member of Congress MC
Member of Parliament MP
Member of Youth Parliament MYP
Member of the European Parliament MEP
Member of the Scottish Parliament MSP
Member of the Scottish Youth Parliament MSYP
Member of Provincial Parliament MPP
Member of the National Assembly MNA
Member of the House of Keys MHK
Speaker of the House of Keys SHK
Member of the Legislative Council MLC
Member of the Legislative Assembly MLA
Member of the House of Representatives Rep.
Member of the House of Assembly MHA
University degrees
Associate
AA – Associate of Arts
AAS – Associate of Applied Science
AS – Associate of Science
Bachelor
BA – Bachelor of Arts
BArch – Bachelor of Architecture
BBA – Bachelor of Business Administration
BSBA – Bachelor of Science of Business Administration
BBiotech – Bachelor of Biotechnology
BDS / BChD – Bachelor of Dental Surgery
BDentTech – Bachelor of Dental Technology
BDes – Bachelor of Design
BD / BDiv – Bachelor of Divinity
BEd – Bachelor of Education
BEng – Bachelor of Engineering
BEnvd – Bachelor of Environmental Design
BFA – Bachelor of Fine Arts
LLB – Bachelor of Laws
BMath – Bachelor of Mathematics
MB, ChB / MB, BS / BM, BCh / MB, BChir – Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
BMus – Bachelor of Music
BN – Bachelor of Nursing
BPhil – Bachelor of Philosophy
STB – Bachelor of Sacred Theology
BSc – Bachelor of Science
BSN – Bachelor of Science in Nursing
BSW-Bachelor of Social Work
BTh / ThB – Bachelor of Theology
BVSc – Bachelor of Veterinary Science
Designer [Dz]
Doctor
DA – Doctor of Arts
DBA – Doctor of Business Administration
D.D. – Doctor of Divinity
Ed.D. – Doctor of Education
EngD or DEng – Doctor of Engineering
DFA – Doctor of Fine Arts
DMA – Doctor of Musical Arts
D.Min. – Doctor of Ministry
D.Mus. – Doctor of Music
D.Prof – Doctor of Professional Studies
DPA – Doctor of Public Administration
D.Sc. – Doctor of Science
JD – Doctor of Jurisprudence
LL.D. – Doctor of Laws
MD – Doctor of Medicine
DO – Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
Pharm.D. – Doctor of Pharmacy
Ph.D. / D.Phil. – Doctor of Philosophy
PsyD – Doctor of Psychology
Th.D. – Doctor of Theology
Doctorates within the field of medicine:
DC
DDS – Doctor of Dental Surgery
DMD – Doctor of Dental Medicine
O.D.
DPT
DPM
DVM
Master
MArch – Master of Architecture
MA – Master of Arts
MAL – Master of Liberal Arts
MBA – Master of Business Administration
MPA – Master of Public Administration
MPS – Master of Public Service
MPl – Master of Planning
MChem – Master in Chemistry
MC – Master of Counselling
M. Des – Master of Design
M.Div. – Master of Divinity
MDrama – Master of Drama
MDS – Master of Dental Surgery
MEd – Master of Education
MET – Master of Educational Technology
MEng – Master of Engineering
MFA – Master of Fine Arts
MHA – Master of Healthcare Administration
MHist – Master of History
MLitt - Master of Letters
LL.M. – Master of Law
MLA – Master of Landscape Architecture
MMath – Master of Mathematics
MPhil – Master of Philosophy
MRes – Master of Research
MSc – Master of Science
MScBMC – Master of Biomedical Communications
MPhys – Master of Physics
MPharm – Master of Pharmacy
MPH – Master of Public Health
MSBA - Master of Science in Business Analytics
MSE – Master of Science in Engineering
MSRE – Master of Science in Real Estate
MSW – Master of Social Work
Magister – Magister
S.T.M. – Master of Sacred Theology
MTh/Th.M. – Master of Theology
MURP – Master of Urban and Regional Planning
See also
Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy
Corporate title
Ethiopian aristocratic and religious titles
False titles of nobility
Hereditary title
Honorific
Index of religious honorifics and titles
List of titles
Military rank
Nobility
Peerage
Political institutions of Rome
Post-nominal letters
Pre-nominal letters
Royal and noble ranks
Royal and noble styles
Suffix (name)
Style (manner of address)
Title of honor
Titles held only by one person
Notes
References
Sources
African Kings by Daniel Lainé
Keepers of the Kingdom by Alastair Bruce, Julian Calder, and Mark Cator
Master and Commander'', film directed by Peter Weir
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|
226163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Bremer | Paul Bremer | Lewis Paul Bremer III (born September 30, 1941) is an American diplomat. He led the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States, from May 2003 until June 2004.
Early life and education
Born on September 30, 1941 in Hartford, Connecticut, Bremer was educated at New Canaan Country School, Kent School, and Phillips Academy Andover. Bremer's father was president of the Christian Dior Perfumes Corporation in New York and his mother was a lecturer in art history at the University of Bridgeport.
Bremer graduated from Yale University in 1963 and went on to earn an MBA from Harvard University in 1966. He later continued his education at the Institut d'études politiques de Paris, where he earned a Certificate of Political Studies (CEP).
Early career
Foreign Service
That same year he joined the Foreign Service, which sent him first to Kabul, Afghanistan, as a general services officer. He was assigned to Blantyre, Malawi, as economic and commercial officer from 1968 to 1971.
During the 1970s, Bremer held various domestic posts with the U.S. State Department, including posts as an assistant to Henry Kissinger from 1972 to 1976. He accompanied Kissinger on shuttle diplomacy missions to Israel, Syria, and Egypt to resolve the Yom Kippur War in 1973. He was Deputy Chief of Mission in Oslo, Norway, from 1976 to 1979, returning to the United States to take a post of Deputy Executive Secretary of the Department of State, where he remained from 1979 until 1981. In 1981, he was promoted to Executive Secretary and Special Assistant to Alexander Haig.
Ronald Reagan appointed Bremer as Ambassador to the Netherlands in 1983, despite the fact that he did not know any Dutch, and Ambassador-at-Large for Counterterrorism and Coordinator for Counterterrorism in 1986.
Private sector
Bremer retired from the Foreign Service in 1989 and became managing director at Kissinger and Associates, a worldwide consulting firm founded by Henry Kissinger. A Career Member of the Senior Foreign Service, Class of Career Minister, Bremer received the State Department Superior Honor Award, two Presidential Meritorious Service Awards, and the Distinguished Honor Award from the Secretary of State. Before rejoining government in 2003, he was chairman and CEO of Marsh Crisis Consulting, a risk and insurance services firm which is a subsidiary of Marsh & McLennan Companies.
He also served as a trustee on the Economic Club of New York, and a board member of Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Akzo Nobel NV, the Harvard Business School Club of New York and the Netherland-America Foundation. He served on the International Advisory Boards of Komatsu Corporation and Chugai Pharmaceuticals.
Bremer and 1,700 of the employees of Marsh & McLennan had offices in the World Trade Center. Bremer's office was in the North Tower. In an interview with CNN after the September 11 attacks, he stated that their office was located "above where the second aircraft hit". On September 11, he was interviewed in Washington on WRC-TV at 12:30pm in-studio.
Bremer and his wife were the founders of the Lincoln/Douglass Scholarship Foundation, a Washington-based nonprofit that provides high school scholarships to inner-city youths.
National Commission on Terrorism
Bremer was appointed Chairman of the National Commission on Terrorism by House Speaker Dennis Hastert in 1999. The report, "Countering The Changing Threat of International Terrorism", was published in June 2000. He also served on the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Science and Technology for Countering Terrorism, which authored a 2002 report called "Making the Nation Safer: The Role of Science and Technology in Countering Terrorism".
Provisional Coalition Administrator of Iraq
Bremer was appointed by President Bush as Presidential Envoy to Iraq on May 9, 2003. His appointment declared him subject to the "authority, direction and control" of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld.
Bremer arrived in Iraq in May 2003. On May 11 he replaced Lt. General Jay Garner as Director of the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance. In June, the Office was transformed into the Coalition Provisional Authority, and Bremer became the country's chief executive authority. As the holder of the "most powerful foreign post held by any American since Gen. Douglas MacArthur in Japan", he compared himself to MacArthur as well as General Lucius Clay, who was in charge of the American zone in Germany following its defeat in World War II.
As the top civilian administrator of the Coalition Provisional Authority, Bremer was permitted to rule by decree. Among his first and most notable decrees were Coalition Provisional Authority Order 1, which banned the Ba'ath party in all forms and Coalition Provisional Authority Order 2, which dismantled the Iraqi Army.
On July 13, 2003, Bremer approved the creation of an Iraqi Interim Governing Council with the stated mission of "ensuring that the Iraqi people's interests are represented." The council members were chosen by Bremer from among groups and individuals which had supported the American invasion of Iraq. Bremer retained veto power over the council's proposals. The council was authorized to select a limited number of delegates to key Coalition Provisional Authority committees, like the Program Review Board.
Bremer also empowered the CPA to develop and implement the Iraqi constitution. The constitution became controversial when the first draft submitted by the CPA suggested banning political parties opposed to the U.S. occupation from participating in elections; privatizing much of Iraq's industries and natural resources; and allowing the unelected Iraqi Interim Governing Council to sign a binding Status of Forces Agreement between Iraq and the United States. On March 1, 2004, after several hours of negotiations, the Iraqi Interim Governing Council resolved the council members' disagreements with clauses in the constitution. A formal signing ceremony was scheduled for March 5, 2004. As the guests waited and the orchestra played, the signing was canceled due to mass demonstrations. Finally, on March 8, 2004, an interim constitution was signed. It was to be revised or replaced by a second constitution after Iraqi elections.
On June 28, 2004, at 10:26 am local time, the U.S.-led Coalition Provisional Authority formally transferred limited sovereignty of Iraqi territory to the Iraqi Interim Government, two days ahead of schedule. Bremer departed from the country on the same day. In his farewell speech, broadcast on Iraqi television, he said, "I leave Iraq gladdened by what has been accomplished and confident that your future is full of hope. A piece of my heart will always remain here in the beautiful land between the two rivers, with its fertile valleys, its majestic mountains and its wonderful people".
Bremer's office was a division of the U.S. Department of Defense, and as Administrator he reported directly to the United States Secretary of Defense and the President of the United States. His senior adviser Dan Senor served as coalition spokesman, working with military spokesman Mark Kimmitt.
Bremer's role as the head of the CPA is notable for being the subject of much criticism. Large sums of money have been reported to have gone missing under Bremer's leadership. Bremer's attempts at privatizing much of Iraq's infrastructure and mineral wealth were also highly criticized and the decision, apparently formulated in the office of the Secretary of Defense, to disband the Iraqi Army is widely blamed for fueling the Iraqi insurgency against the American occupation.
John Negroponte replaced Bremer as the highest-ranking American civilian in Iraq.
After Iraq
Public speaking
After his return from Iraq, Bremer engaged in a few speaking tours. On December 14, 2004, Bremer was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bush, America's highest civil award for "especially meritorious contributions to the security or national interests of the United States, to world peace, or to cultural or other significant public or private endeavors". "He was also presented with the Department of Defense award for Distinguished Public Service and the Nixon Library honored him with the "Victory of Freedom Award" for "demonstrating leadership and working towards peace and freedom".
Bremer's April 18, 2005 visit to Clark University as a guest speaker led to protests against his role in the Iraq War. Dissatisfied with Bremer's speech and answers, several students also voiced disappointment at the university for having paid him $40,000. Another appearance, scheduled for the public library of his hometown, New Canaan, Connecticut, on January 18, 2006, was moved to the private St. Luke's School in the same town for fear for protests. During a February 27, 2006 public appearance at Lynchburg College, where his sister-in-law is an assistant dean, Bremer insisted that his decision to disband the Iraqi Armed Forces was the correct one.
Among other things, Bremer repeatedly asserted that when he came to Iraq, the Iraqi army had abandoned its barracks, and therefore "there was no army to disband". He also repeatedly defended his decision to expel Ba'ath Party members from government posts by comparing Saddam Hussein to Adolf Hitler.
On February 6, 2007, Bremer appeared before a congressional committee investigating fraud and abuse and was questioned about missing funds during his tenure as head of the CPA and a January 2005 audit that found $8.8 billion in unaccounted for funds.
Memoir
In 2006 Bremer published a memoir called My Year in Iraq: The Struggle to Build a Future of Hope, which has been described as "an almost day-by-day narrative that sticks to what Bremer was doing and with whom he was interacting, without providing much analysis or introspection". Michiko Kakutani of The New York Times characterized it as "an amalgam of spin and sincerity, is partly an explanation (or rationalization) of actions Mr. Bremer took as America's man in Baghdad, partly an effort to issue some 'I told you so's' to administration colleagues, and partly an attempt to spread (or reassign) responsibility (or blame) by tracing just who in the White House, Pentagon and State Department signed off on or ordered critical decisions made during his tenure".
His media commentary is generally critical of the Obama administration for not devoting more effort to promoting democracy overseas. He is also a consistent advocate for continued U.S. presence in Iraq. On the other hand, while many other conservatives began advocating for a withdrawal from Afghanistan, Bremer endorsed the administration's new strategy in 2010, describing it as "reasonable" and giving Obama "credit for deciding to replicate President Bush's Iraq strategy by sending more troops to the fight in Afghanistan". He has also endorsed Samuel P. Huntington's "clash of civilizations" thesis, stating: "It is a fact of history that Europe is based on Judeo-Christian values. But Europe seems unwilling, or perhaps afraid, to acknowledge this reality."
Painting and writing
After taking art lessons at a school in Glen Echo, Maryland, in 2007, Bremer began doing oil paintings of New England country landscapes, which he sells through his company Bremer Enterprises. What he sells proceeds to the historical societies of Chester and Grafton in Vermont, where he moved after his public retirement. He has self-mockingly described his style of painting as "evolving American primitive".
The Bremer Enterprises website also provides links to books by Bremer and his wife Frances Winfield Bremer. In addition to his 2006 memoir, in September 2011 Bremer published From Sea to Shining Sea: Biking Across America with Wounded Warriors, on Amazon.com's Kindle platform via Bremer Enterprises.
Ski instructor
During his time in Afghanistan, he opened the country's first ski resort. Bremer has worked for several seasons as a ski instructor at Okemo Mountain Resort in Vermont.
Board activities
He also engages in consulting work and serves on a number of boards. Bremer currently serves as Chairman of the Advisory Board for GlobalSecure Corporation, a company whose focus is "on securing the homeland with integrated products and services for the critical incident response community worldwide" and on the board of directors of BlastGard International, a Florida-based company that manufactures materials to mitigate the impact of explosions.
In November 2010, Bremer joined World T.E.A.M. Sports, a Holbrook, New York-based nonprofit, as CEO and President. Bremer also served as a member of the organization's board of directors. He retired from the organization in March 2012 and as of 2015 was listed as a 'Special Advisor'.
Bremer formerly served as a member of the board of directors of the International Republican Institute.
He received the America Award of the Italy-USA Foundation in 2013.
Internet meme
Bremer appears in a viral internet meme, where his phrase "Ladies and gentlemen, we got him" following the capture of Saddam Hussein is used to accompany someone getting 'busted' or exposed, often with Breakbot's "Baby I'm Yours" playing in the background. After his granddaughter informed him of the trend, he was fascinated by it and hoped it would increase people's interest in Iraq's recent events.
Criticism and controversies
Disbanding the Iraqi Army
On May 23, 2003, Bremer issued Order Number 2, in effect dissolving the entire former Iraqi army and putting 400,000 former Iraqi soldiers out of work.
The move was widely criticized for creating a large pool of armed and disgruntled youths for the insurgency. Former soldiers took to the streets in mass protests to demand back pay. Many of them threatened violence if their demands were not met.
It was widely asserted within the White House and the CPA that the order to disband the Iraqi Army had little to no practical effect since it had "self-demobilized" in the face of the oncoming invasion force.
Bremer was later heavily criticized for officially disbanding the former Iraqi Army. Bremer, however, contends that there were no armies to disband, despite the fact that American commanders at that time were negotiating with senior Iraqi army officers on how to use the Iraqi army for security purposes. He claimed that many soldiers simply left after the fall of Baghdad; some to protect their own families from the rampant looting. Critics claimed his extreme measures, including the firing of thousands of school teachers and removing Ba'ath party members from top government positions, helped create and worsen an atmosphere of discontent. As the insurgency grew stronger, so did the criticisms. Bremer was also in personal danger because of Iraqi perceptions of him and was henceforth heavily guarded. Attempts to assassinate him took place on numerous occasions—one of the more publicized events occurred on December 6, 2003, when his convoy was driving on the dangerous Baghdad Airport Road while returning to the fortified Green Zone. The convoy was hit by a bomb and gunfire, with the rear window of his official car blown away and as bullets flew, Bremer and his deputies ducked below their seats. No injuries or casualties were reported and news of the attack on Bremer was not released until December 19, 2003, during his visit to Basra.
During Bremer's stay in Iraq, Osama bin Laden allegedly placed a bounty of 10,000 grams of gold on Bremer, the equivalent of US$125,000 at the time.
Despite the messages the CIA reportedly communicated to the Iraqi army, the argument was still ventured that by the time Baghdad fell on April 9, 2003, the previous Army had demobilized, or as Bremer puts it, "had simply dissolved". However, as Mark Danner reports in an essay in The New York Review of Books entitled "Iraq: The War of Imagination" and dated September 21, 2006, American agents—including one colonel and a number of CIA operatives—had already begun meeting regularly with Iraqi officers in order to reconstitute the army as a working force. Implied in this is the notion that the army, temporarily "demobilized" or not, did in fact continue to exist as a coherent entity, indeed coherent enough that it could be consulted and negotiated with. This seems to concur with the position of the first Director of the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA), retired U.S. Army Lieutenant General Jay Garner, who Bremer had replaced. As Bob Woodward reports in State of Denial, Garner, upon hearing of the order to disband the army, attempted to convince Bremer to rethink the dissolution. Bremer was reported as saying: "The plans have changed. The thought is we don't want the residuals of the old army. We want a new and fresh army." To this, Garner replied: "Jerry, you can get rid of an army in a day, but it takes years to build one."
The issue of disbanding the old Iraqi Army found itself, once again, the center of media attention with two articles explaining why Bremer ostensibly did not make the decision on his own. The first press release by The New York Times included a letter written by Bremer to President Bush dated May 20, 2003, describing the progress made so far since Bremer's arrival in Baghdad, including one sentence that reads "I will parallel this step with an even more robust measure dissolving Saddam's military and intelligence structures to emphasize that we mean business."
The second press release dated September 6, 2007, was submitted by Bremer as a New York Times op-ed. Titled "How I Didn't Dismantle Iraq's Army", Bremer says he did not make the decision on his own, and that the decision was reviewed by "top civilian and military members of the American government" including the then-USCENTCOM Commander, General John Abizaid, who briefed officials in Washington that there were no more "organized Iraqi military units".
Bremer's article goes into further detail about how the Coalition Provisional Authority considered two alternatives: To recall the old army or to rebuild a new army with "both vetted members of the old army and new recruits". According to Bremer, Abizaid preferred the second.
Bremer also details the situation he and the major decision makers faced; especially when the large Shiite majority in the new army could have had problems with the thought of having a former Sunni officer issuing orders.
Furthermore, a memo from U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld on May 8, 2003, that said "the coalition 'will actively oppose Saddam Hussein's old enforcers—the Baath Party, Fedayeen Saddam, etc ... 'we will make clear that the coalition will eliminate the remnants of Saddam's regime'" was sent to both National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice and Secretary of State Colin Powell.
After two protesters were killed by U.S. troops, the CPA agreed to pay up to 250,000 former soldiers a stipend of $50 to $150 a month. Conscripts were given a single severance payment. Many of the former soldiers found this to be grossly inadequate.
Charles H. Ferguson, director of critically acclaimed No End in Sight, created a video response to Bremer's op-ed on September 6, 2007. (This was the very first New York Times video op-ed in history.)
"De-Ba'athification" of the Iraqi civil service
Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party counted among its members a majority of Iraq's governmental employees, including educational officials and some teachers, though as of 2003 members of the Ba'ath Party had constituted only around 10% of the Iraqi population. By order of the CPA, the top 1% of Iraqi Ba'ath Party members were forbidden from holding government positions, but were still permitted to open businesses and work at newspapers, and all public sector employees affiliated with the Ba'ath Party were to be removed from their positions and be banned from any future employment in the public sector. When the CPA turned over enforcement of de-Ba'athification to Iraqi politicians, however, these rules were broadly expanded and used to punish political opponents, including nearly 11,000 teachers who were dismissed from the party and removed from government—a phenomenon which Bremer worked with the then-Education Minister to fix. Critics claim these measures helped to create and worsen an atmosphere of discontent among Iraqis and that de-Ba'athification, coupled with the disbandment of the Iraqi military, if not created then at least fueled the insurgency against Coalition Forces. This policy of "de-Ba'athification" was reversed in January 2008.
Bremer was once again warned of the harm his actions would have. According to Woodward, when Garner asserted that none of the ministries would be able to function after this order, Bremer asked the Baghdad station chief for his thoughts. "If you put this out ... you will put 50,000 people on the street, underground, and mad at Americans", he replied. Woodward: "And these 50,000 were the most powerful, well-connected elites from all walks of life".
Iraq's oil revenue
Bremer was accountable to the Secretary of Defense for the actions he took. But, since his authority spent Iraq's oil revenue derived from United Nations Resolution 1483, he was also accountable to the United Nations. The authority he derived from the UN to spend Iraq's oil revenue bound him to show that:
Expenditures were intended to benefit the Iraqi people.
The programs that were funded were decided upon, and supervised in an open, transparent manner.
Iraqis were invited to give meaningful input into how funds were spent.
The administrator of Iraq was cooperating with the International Advisory and Monitoring Board (IAMB)
That proper fiscal controls were in place, so that it could be demonstrated that none of the funds were diverted, or misspent.
One of the concerns the IAMB raised repeatedly was that the CPA had repaired the well-heads and pipelines for transporting Iraq's oil, but they had stalled on repairing the meters that were necessary to document the shipment of Iraqi oil, so it could be demonstrated that none of it was being smuggled.
On June 22, 2004, in a final press release before the CPA's authority expired, the IAMB stated:
The CPA has acknowledged that the failure to meter the oil shipments resulted in some oil smuggling—an avoidable loss of Iraq's oil that was Bremer's responsibility. Neither Bremer nor any of his staff has offered an explanation for their failure to repair the meters.
Financial
Failure to perform month-end cash reconciliations
Under Bremer's stewardship the CPA requested $12 billion in cash from the U.S. Treasury. Under Bremer's stewardship the CPA paid out $12 billion in cash. The external auditors management notes point out that the CPA didn't perform a cash reconciliation until April 2004, eleven months into Bremer's mandate, when they started their work. See Congressional hearing when Ambassador Paul Bremer and Stuart Bowen, the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, testified on management of U.S. funds in Iraq.
Failure to employ qualified internal auditors
In his second regulation, Bremer committed the Coalition Provisional Authority to hire a reputable firm of certified chartered accountants, to serve as internal auditors, to help make sure the Coalition's finances were administered according to modern accounting principles. These internal auditors would be separate and distinct from the external auditors who would report to the International Advisory and Monitoring Board. Bremer did not make sure the CPA hired internal auditors, however.
When the external auditors arrived, they learned that Bremer had not made sure the CPA lived up to the commitment to hire internal auditors to help set up a reliable accounting system. On the contrary they learned that a single contracted consultant kept track of the CPA's expenditures in a series of spreadsheets.
The external auditors reported that rather than use a modern double entry accounting system the CPA used what they described as "a single-entry, cash-based transaction list".
Unaccounted-for funds
On January 30, 2005, an official report by Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction Stuart Bowen cited by Time stated that $9 billion for the reconstruction of Iraq might have disappeared in fraud, corruption, and other misbehavior. On one particular salary register, only 602 names among 8,206 could be verified. As another cited example, the Coalition Authority authorized Iraqi officials to postpone declaring the reception of $2.5 billion, which the provisional government had received in spring through the Oil for Food program.
Bremer wrote an eight-page reply to deny the accusations and stated that, during the IG's inquiry, Bowen's people refused to interview Bremer's deputies, and the IG's report failed to mention that Bremer and his people worked under extraordinary conditions, faced a high turnover rate, and had insufficient number of personnel to carry out their rebuilding and humanitarian relief efforts.
Bremer's claim that Bowen's staff made no attempt to interview his staff is at odds with the detailed account of the external auditors, of their attempts to meet with Bremer and his staff. In their management notes they describe how some of the CPA's senior staff, including Bremer himself, just would not make themselves available to meet with the auditors. Others, like George Wolfe, the CPA's de facto treasurer, showed a total lack of cooperation.
This issue also became a topic of discussion during some of Bremer's Q&A sessions with students who attended Bremer's presentations during Bremer's campus speaking tours. Some questioned Bremer if he could have done things differently in Iraq, but were notably disappointed when he avoided the question. Bremer allegedly responded to one such question with, "I will tell you what I told them, I'm saving that for my book ... I need more time to reflect".
Progress of reconstruction
One of the CPA's most important tasks was the reconstruction of Iraq's infrastructure. Compared to the rapid repair of Iraq's oil infrastructure – with the notable exception of the meters—the progress of reconstruction on Iraq's potable water, sewage, and electricity systems was extremely slow. Defenders argued that this was due to the unanticipated volume and fierceness of those resisting the Coalition's occupation. Critics blame the CPA's preference for contracts with connected US firms; only 2% of the reconstruction contracts in 2003 were awarded to Iraqi firms.
Shutting down the newspaper Al-Hawza
On March 28, 2004, Bremer ordered the 759th Military Police Battalion to shut down controversial Iraqi newspaper al-Hawza for two months. This move was widely criticized as running directly counter to the Bush administration's announced goal of helping transform Iraq into a modern, democratic state. This move was even criticized by members of Bremer's own appointees on the Iraqi Governing Council.
Al-Hawza started after the removal of Saddam Hussein and was considered a mouthpiece for Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr. It was shut down by the United States-led administration headed by Bremer on March 28, 2004, after being accused of encouraging violence against Coalition troops. There was discussion with Sir Jeremy Greenstock (UK's Special Representative for Iraq), about preparations to arrest al-Sadr, who by early March 2004 had increased his militia following, the Mahdi army, from about 200 followers to some 6,000, in seven months. Bremer wrote in his book that "Greenstock said that this would be a difficult time to go after him ... I first urged [his] arrest last August".
Iyad Allawi, leader of the interim government, explicitly gave al-Hawza permission to re-open on July 18, 2004.
Granting foreign contractors immunity from Iraqi law
Two days before he left Iraq, Bremer signed Coalition Provisional Authority Order 17, which gave everyone associated with the CPA and the American government immunity from Iraqi law. One of his former top aides is quoted as saying that Bremer "wanted to make sure our military, civilians and contractors were protected from Iraqi law." This stipulation was later incorporated into Iraqi law.
Since then, violent events in Iraq involving American security companies such as Blackwater have triggered great resentment among Iraqi citizens, who view them as private armies acting with impunity.
Early departure
Bremer's early departure was a complete surprise. But the turnover of political power a couple of days earlier was suggested by members of the Bush Administration to thwart any plans the insurgency may have had for June 30.
U.S. intelligence sources had monitored chatter that suggested resistance elements were planning demonstrations, or outright attacks, to coincide with the time of the official handover. An early handover would preempt the plans of resistance elements.
His early departure was disruptive to the smooth transition of authority, as the KPMG audit of the Development Fund for Iraq made clear. In their management notes the external auditors describe trying to meet with Bremer, and being very surprised by his early departure.
Many of Bremer's senior staff left when he did, meaning that important documents required for the completion of the audit could not be signed by the appropriate staff members.
Former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich called Bremer "the largest single disaster in American foreign policy in modern times", stating that he should have been relieved of his duties "no later than" September 2003.
References
Citations
General references
Hendrickson, D., and Tucker, R. "Revisions in Need of Revising: What Went Wrong in the Iraq War". Strategic Studies Institute: Carlisle, PA, December 2005.
Further reading
L. Paul Bremer & Malcolm McConnell: My Year In Iraq: The Struggle to Build a Future of Hope, 1st ed. (Canada: Simon & Schuster, January 2006.) and .
External links
"Baghdad year zero: Pillaging Iraq in pursuit of a neocon utopia", Naomi Klein, September 2004
Paul Bremer timeline at the History Commons
CPA Bios
Bremer's Tale: The Top American in Iraq, NPR Fresh Air from WHYY (Audio), January 10, 2006
CPA Reunion Party January 14, 2006
"Frontline: the lost year in iraq |PBS" 2006
What has happened to Iraq's missing $1bn?, The Independent, September 19, 2005
My sadness at the privatisation of Iraq, Times Online, August 12, 2005
Former Bush aide turns critic as Iraq inspector, Wall Street Journal, July 26, 2005 – Contains another perspective on the conflict between Bremer and Inspector General Bowen
Iraq reconstruction riddled with waste, audits find The Seattle Times, July 4, 2005
Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations
Ave Maria University Commencement Address, June 19, 2005
Bremer Speaks at Clark University Worcester IMC April 19, 2005
Bremer, students spar The Bowdoin Orient, April 15, 2005
Bremer explains, defends Iraq war Brunswick Times Record, April 11, 2005
Oversight of Funds Provided to the Iraqi Ministries through the National Budget Process report from the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction that documents the unaccounted for $9 billion
TD Waterhouse Keynote Address @ IA Conference American Rhetoric February 4, 2005
Transcript: Paul Bremer, Former U.S. Administrator in Iraq Fox News July 6, 2004
Paul Bremer's Rough Ride TIMES Archive June 28, 2004
Bremer Answers QuestionsUSAToday June 17, 2004
"In Iraq, the Job Opportunity of a Lifetime", The Washington Post, May 22, 2004 (about young volunteers hired by the Pentagon to handle financial tasks in Iraq)
Racing the Clock in IraqNewsweek February 9, 2004
Letter From Baghdad, War After the War The New Yorker November 2003
PBS NewsHour Interview, September 24, 2003
Frontline Interview with L. Paul Bremer August 1, 2003
Faith Gives Him Strength, June 19, 2003
How Should America Address Terrorist Aggression, CNN television interview September 14, 2001
Countering the Changing Threat of International Terrorism A Presentation by Ambassador L. Paul Bremer The Nixon Center July 19, 2000
Global Threat, PBS NewsHour interview of L. Paul Bremer III and former CIA official Larry Johnson, June 6, 2000
Terrorism: its evolving nature – by L. Paul Bremer, III US Dept. of State Bulletin May 1989
|-
|-
1941 births
Living people
Ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands
United States government people of the Iraq War
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Harvard Business School alumni
International Republican Institute
Kent School alumni
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
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Political office-holders in Iraq
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United States Foreign Service personnel | [
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|
226166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apidae | Apidae | Apidae is the largest family within the superfamily Apoidea, containing at least 5700 species of bees. The family includes some of the most commonly seen bees, including bumblebees and honey bees, but also includes stingless bees (also used for honey production), carpenter bees, orchid bees, cuckoo bees, and a number of other less widely known groups. Many are valuable pollinators in natural habitats and for agricultural crops.
Taxonomy
In addition to its historical classification (honey bees, bumble bees, stingless bees and orchid bees), the family Apidae presently includes all the genera formerly placed in the families Anthophoridae and Ctenoplectridae. Although the most visible members of Apidae are social, the vast majority of apid bees are solitary, including a number of cleptoparasitic species.
The old family Apidae contained four tribes (Apinae: Apini, Euglossini and Bombinae: Bombini, Meliponini) which have been reclassified as tribes of the subfamily Apinae, along with all of the former tribes and subfamilies of Anthophoridae and the former family Ctenoplectridae, which was demoted to tribe status. The trend to move groups down in taxonomic rank has been taken further by a 2005 Brazilian classification that places all existing bee families together under the name "Apidae", but it has not been widely accepted in the literature since that time.
Subfamilies
Apinae
The subfamily Apinae contains honey bees, bumblebees, stingless bees, orchid bees, and digger bees, among others. The bees of most tribes placed in Apinae are solitary with nests that are simple burrows in the soil. However, honey bees, stingless bees, and bumblebees are eusocial or colonial. These are sometimes believed to have each developed this trait independently, and show notable differences in such characteristics as communication between workers and methods of nest construction.
Tribes include:
Ancylaini
Anthophorini
Apini
Bombini
Centridini
Emphorini—(Subtribe Ancyloscelidina; Subtribe Emphorina)
Ericrocidini
Eucerini
Euglossini
Exomalopsini
Melectini
Meliponini
Osirini
Protepeolini
Rhathymini
Tarsaliini
Nomadinae
The subfamily Nomadinae, or cuckoo bees, has 31 genera in 10 tribes which are all cleptoparasites in the nests of other bees.
Tribes include:
Ammobatini
Ammobatoidini
Biastini
Brachynomadini
Epeolini—(Subtribe Epeolina; Subtribe Odyneropsina; Subtribe Thalestriina)
Hexepeolini
Neolarrini
Nomadini
Townsendiellini
Xylocopinae
The subfamily Xylocopinae, which includes carpenter bees, are mostly solitary, though they tend to be gregarious. Some tribe lineages, such as the Allodapini, contain eusocial species.
Most members of this subfamily make nests in plant stems or wood.
Tribes include:
Allodapini
Ceratinini
Manueliini
Xylocopini
See also
Bee (mythology)
List of crop plants pollinated by bees
References
External links
BugGuide.Net: Family Apidae—Cuckoo, Carpenter, Digger, Bumble, and Honey Bees; and other bees .
BugGuide.net: Native Bees of North America
Bee families | [
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|
226167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoidea | Apoidea | The superfamily Apoidea is a major group within the Hymenoptera, which includes two traditionally recognized lineages, the "sphecoid" wasps, and the bees. Molecular phylogeny demonstrates that the bees arose from within the traditional "Crabronidae", so that grouping is paraphyletic, and this has led to a reclassification to produce monophyletic families.
Nomenclature
Bees appear in recent classifications to be a specialized lineage of "crabronid" wasps that switched to the use of pollen and nectar as larval food, rather than insect prey; this makes the traditional "Crabronidae" a paraphyletic group. Accordingly, bees and sphecoids are now all grouped together in a single superfamily, and the older available name is "Apoidea" rather than "Sphecoidea" (which, like Spheciformes, has been used in the past, but also defined a paraphyletic group and has been abandoned).
As bees (not including their wasp ancestors) are still considered a monophyletic group, they are given a grouping between superfamily and family to unify all bees, Anthophila.
Phylogeny
This phylogenetic tree is based on Sann et al., 2018, which used phylogenomics to demonstrate that both the bees (Anthophila) and the Sphecidae arose from within the former "Crabronidae," which is therefore paraphyletic, and which they suggested should be split into several families; the former family Heterogynaidae nests within the Bembicidae, as defined by these authors. These findings differ in several details from studies published by two other sets of authors in 2017, though all three studies demonstrate a paraphyletic "Crabronidae."
References
Further reading
Michener, C.D. (2000). The Bees of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press.
External links
All Living Things Images, identification guides, and maps of Apoidea.
Solitary Bees Popular introduction to the Hymenoptera Apoidea.
Fiori e Api d'Albore and Intoppa Flower visiting bees in Europe pdf. In Italian but excellent table with Latin names.
Native Bees of North America
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226168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander | Commander | Commander (commonly abbreviated as Cmdr.) is a common naval officer rank. Commander is also used as a rank or title in other formal organizations, including several police forces. In several countries this naval rank is termed frigate captain.
Commander is also a generic term for an officer commanding any armed forces unit, for example "platoon commander", "brigade commander" and "squadron commander". In the police, terms such as "borough commander" and "incident commander" are used.
Commander as a naval and air force rank
Commander is a rank used in navies but is very rarely used as a rank in armies. The title, originally "master and commander", originated in the 18th century to describe naval officers who commanded ships of war too large to be commanded by a lieutenant but too small to warrant the assignment of a post-captain and (before about 1770) a sailing-master; the commanding officer served as his own Master. In practice, these were usually unrated sloops-of-war of no more than 20 guns. The Royal Navy shortened "master and commander" to "commander" in 1794; however, the term "master and commander" remained (unofficially) in common parlance for several years. The equivalent American rank master commandant remained in use until changed to commander in 1838. A corresponding rank in some navies is frigate captain. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the rank has been assigned the NATO rank code of OF-4.
Various functions of commanding officers were also styled commander. In the navy of the Dutch Republic, anyone who commanded a ship or a fleet without having an appropriate rank to do so could be called a . This included ad hoc fleet commanders and acting captains (). In the fleet of the Admiralty of Zealand however, was a formal rank, the equivalent of (rear-admiral) in the other Dutch admiralties. The Dutch use of the title as a rank lives on in the Royal Netherlands Navy, as the equivalent of commodore. In the Royal Netherlands Air Force, however, this rank is known by the English spelling of which is the Dutch equivalent of the British air commodore.
Australia
The rank of commander in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) is identical in description to that of a commander in the British Royal Navy. RAN chaplains who are in divisions 1, 2 or 3 (of five divisions) have the equivalent rank standing of commanders. This means that to officers and NCOs below the rank of commander, lieutenant colonel, or wing commander, the chaplain is a superior.
To those officers ranked higher than commander, the chaplain is subordinate. Although this equivalency exists, RAN chaplains who are in divisions 1, 2 or 3 do not actually wear the rank of commander, and they hold no command privilege.
Canada
Poland
The corresponding rank in the Polish Navy is .
Scandinavia
Commander is a naval rank in Scandinavia ( in Danish and Norwegian, in Swedish) equivalent to the Anglo-American naval rank of captain. The Scandinavian rank of commander is immediately above "commander-captain" (, , ), which is equivalent to the Anglo-American naval rank of commander.
Denmark
In Denmark, the rank of commander exists as (commander captain or commanding captain), which is senior to (captain) and (commander), which is senior to .
United Kingdom
Royal Navy
A commander in the Royal Navy is above the rank of lieutenant commander, below the rank of captain, and is equivalent in rank to a lieutenant colonel in the army. A commander may command a frigate, destroyer, submarine, aviation squadron or shore installation, or may serve on a staff.
Royal Air Force
Since the British Royal Air Force's mid-rank officers' ranks are modelled on those of the Royal Navy, the term wing commander is used as a rank, and this is the equivalent of a lieutenant colonel in the army or a commander in the navy. The rank of wing commander is above that of squadron leader and below that of group captain.
In the former Royal Naval Air Service, which was merged with the Royal Flying Corps to form the Royal Air Force in 1918, the pilots held appointments as well as their normal ranks in the Royal Navy, and they wore insignia appropriate to the appointment instead of the rank. A flight commander wore a star above a lieutenant's two rank stripes, squadron commander wore two stars above two rank stripes (less than eight years' seniority) or two-and-a-half rank stripes (over eight years seniority), and wing commander wore three rank stripes. The rank stripes had the usual Royal Navy curl, and they were surmounted by an eagle.
United States
In the Navy, the Coast Guard, the NOAA Corps, and the Public Health Service Corps, commander (abbreviated "CDR") is a senior-grade officer rank, with the pay grade of O-5. Commander ranks above lieutenant commander (O-4) and below captain (O-6). Commander is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the other uniformed services.
Notably, it is the first rank at which the holder wears an embellished cap whereas officers of the other military services are entitled to embellishment of similar headgear at O-4 rank. Promotion to commander in the Navy is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA) of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA). DOPMA/ROPMA guidelines suggest that 70% of lieutenant commanders should be promoted to commander after serving a minimum of three years at their present rank and after attaining 15–17 years of cumulative commissioned service, although this percentage may vary and be appreciably less for certain officer designators (i.e., primary "specialties") dependent on defense budgets, force structure and needs of the service.
Gallery
Commander as a military appointment
For instance, as in various small colonial settlements (such as various Caribbean islands) commanding the garrison was the crux of the top job, the military title Commandeur could be used instead of a civilian gubernatorial style, not unlike the Portuguese captain-major.
British Army
In the British Army, the term "commander" is officially applied to the non-commissioned officer in charge of a section (section commander), vehicle (vehicle commander) or gun (gun commander), to the subaltern or captain commanding a platoon (platoon commander), or to the brigadier commanding a brigade (brigade commander). Other officers commanding units are usually referred to as the officer commanding (OC), commanding officer (CO), general officer commanding (GOC), or general officer commanding-in-chief (GOC-C), depending on rank and position, although the term "commander" may be applied to them informally.
In the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry commander is a rank equivalent to major.
Netherlands
Commandeur as title of colonial office was the case on the island of Tobago in the Dutch colony of Nieuw Walcheren.
New Zealand Army
The usage is similar/identical to the British Army, with the term "commander" having been applied to the colonel who was Commander, 2 Land Force Group, Linton Camp, and now to Commander, 1 Brigade.
Spanish Armed Forces and Guardia Civil
In the Spanish Army, the Spanish Air Force and the marine infantry, the term commander is the literal translation of comandante, the Spanish equivalent of a Commonwealth major. The Guardia Civil shares the army ranks, and the officer commanding a house-garrison (usually an NCO or a lieutenant, depending on the size) is addressed as the comandante de puesto (post commander).
United States Army
In the United States Army, the term "commander" is officially applied to the commanding officer of army units; hence, there are company commanders, battalion commanders, brigade commanders, and so forth. At the highest levels of U.S. military command structure, "commander" also refers to what used to be called commander-in-chief, or CINC, until October 24, 2002, although the term CINC is still used in casual speech.
United States Air Force
In the United States Air Force, the term "commander" (abbreviated "CC" in office symbols, i.e. "OG/CC" for "operations group commander") is officially applied to the commanding officer of an air force unit; hence, there are flight commanders, squadron commanders, group commanders, wing commanders, and so forth. In rank, a flight commander is typically a lieutenant or captain, a squadron commander is typically a major or lieutenant colonel, a group commander is typically a colonel, and a wing commander is typically a senior colonel or a brigadier general.
Commander as a non-military rank or title
NASA rank
In NASA spacecraft missions since the beginning of Project Gemini, one crew member on each spacecraft is designated as mission commander. The commander is the captain of the ship, and makes all real-time critical decisions on behalf of the crew and in coordination with the Mission Control Center (MCC).
Use in aviation
The title of aircraft commander is used in civil aviation to refer to the pilot in command (commonly referred to as "captain", which is technically an airline rank and not related to the commander's role on board the aircraft).
British police rank
Within the British police, Commander is a chief officer rank in the two police forces responsible for law enforcement within London, the Metropolitan Police and City of London Police. In both forces, the rank is senior to chief superintendent; in the Metropolitan Police it is junior to deputy assistant commissioner and in the City of London Police it is junior to assistant commissioner. In forces outside London, the rank equates to assistant chief constable which bears the same insignia.
The Metropolitan Police introduced the rank in 1946, after the rank of deputy assistant commissioner was split in two, with senior DACs keeping that rank and title and junior DACs being regraded as commanders. The Metropolitan Police also used the rank of deputy commander, ranking just below that of commander, between 1946 and 1968.
Officers in charge of the twelve geographical Basic Command Units are referred to as "BCU commander". However, the officers do not hold the rank of commander but instead hold the rank of chief superintendent. Prior to organisational change merging boroughs in to BCUs, officers in charge of policing each of the London's boroughs were given the title "borough commander". A previous exception to this was the borough commander of Westminster, who held the rank of commander due to the size, complexity, and high-profile nature of the borough.
The Metropolitan Police Service announced that by summer 2018 the rank would be phased out, along with that of chief inspector. However, in August 2017 it was announced that the new Commissioner Cressida Dick had cancelled the plan to phase them out.
The rank badge worn by a commander or an assistant chief constable consists of crossed tipstaves within a wreath. Within the Metropolitan Police Service, the tips of the tipstaves are blue and not red, unlike other forces. Until the abolition of the rank of deputy commander in 1968, however, a commander wore the same badge of rank as a deputy assistant commissioner.
Australian police rank
In Australia, commander is a rank used by the Victorian, Tasmanian, Western Australian, South Australian, and Australian Federal police forces. The insignia consists of a crown over three bath stars in a triangular formation, equivalent to a brigadier in the army. In all four forces, it is junior to the rank of assistant commissioner, and senior to the rank of chief superintendent, with the exception of Western Australia and Victoria where it is senior to the rank of superintendent.
In New South Wales the position of commander is instated to officers (usually superintendents) in charge of a command or unit.
American police rank
Some large police departments and sheriff's offices in the US have a commander rank. Most commonly, this is the next rank above captain. Examples of this include the Chicago Police Department, Los Angeles Police Department, San Francisco Police Department, Hawai'i County Police Department, Portland Police Bureau and Rochester Police Department. In others, such as the Phoenix Police Department and Saint Paul Police Department, a commander rank is the next rank above lieutenant, and is equivalent to captain.
A commander in the LAPD is equivalent to an inspector in other large US departments (such as the NYPD); the LAPD rank was originally called inspector as well, but was changed in 1974 to commander. The Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia also uses the rank of commander, which is a grade above inspector and two grades above captain.
The insignia worn is usually a gold oak leaf (equivalent to an army major). It may alternatively be a silver oak leaf (equivalent to an army lieutenant colonel) or one or more stars.
Commander is also used as a title in certain circumstances, such as the commander of a squad of detectives, who would usually be of the rank of lieutenant.
Canadian police rank
The Montreal police force, Service de police de la Ville de Montréal, uses the rank of commander.
Incident Command System
In the Incident Command System the incident commander is in charge of the response to an emergency. The title may pass from person to person as the incident develops.
Chivalric orders
The title of commander is used in chivalric orders such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta for a member senior to a knight. The title of knight commander is often used to denote an even higher rank. These conventions are also used by most of the continental orders of chivalry. The United Kingdom uses different classifications.
In most of the British orders of knighthood, the grade of knight (or dame) commander is the lowest grade of knighthood, but is above the grade of companion (which does not carry a knighthood). In the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of the British Empire, the grade of commander is senior to the grade of lieutenant or officer, but junior to that of knight or dame commander. In the British Venerable Order of Saint John, a commander ranks below a knight.
See also
Comparative military ranks
Notes
References
Gubernatorial titles
Military ranks
Military ranks of Australia
Military ranks of the Netherlands
Police ranks
Police ranks in the United Kingdom | [
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|
226169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Army | New Army | The New Armies (Traditional Chinese: 新軍, Simplified Chinese: 新军; Pinyin: Xīnjūn, Manchu: Ice cooha), more fully called the Newly Created Army ( Xinjian Lujun), was the modernised army corps formed under the Qing dynasty in December 1895, following its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War. It was envisioned as militia fully trained and equipped according to Western standards. In 1903 an imperial edict expanded it to 36 divisions of 12,500 men each, or total of 450,000. It was known as the Beiyang Army, and was under the command of Yuan Shikai.
Formation and expansion
There was a forerunner to the effort of modernising the Chinese army, created before the end of the Sino-Japanese War: in February 1895, the Qing court assembled its Dingwu or the Pacification Army ( Dingwu jun), consisting of 10 battalions or ying (), totaling 4,750 men. This was initially organized by aided by German advisor Constantin von Hanneken
The command of this Pacification Army was turned over to Yuan Shikai by mid-December 1895, and within a few months was renamed the Newly Created Army ( Xinjian Lujun) and expanded to 7,000 men. (Yuan's Newly Created Army was later to become the Guards Army's Right Division (Wuwei Youjun).)
The Newly Created Army (or simply the New Army) that was 7,000 men strong then became the most formidable of the three army groups stationed near Beijing and proved effective against the Boxers in Shandong province. Yuan refused to obey the Imperial Court's orders to halt his suppression of the Boxers when the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China during the rebellion and refused to obey orders to fight the alliance.
The New Army was gradually expanded and upgraded in the following years. Yuan became increasingly disrespectful of the dynasty and only loyal to the party from which he benefited; his defection to Cixi against the Guangxu Emperor was a major blow to the Hundred Days' Reform. After 1900, Yuan's troops were the only militia that the Qing court could rely on amidst revolutionary uprisings throughout China.
Renaming and revolution
The Chien Men gate refers to the Zhengyangmen.
The successful example of the new army was followed in other provinces. The New Army of Yuan was renamed the Beiyang Army on June 25, 1902 after Yuan was officially promoted to the "Minister of Beiyang". By the end of the dynasty in 1911, most provinces had established sizable new armies; however, Yuan's army was still most powerful, comprising six groups and numbering more than 75,000 men. The Qing unified all of China's armies into one force, the "Chinese Army", which was commonly still called the New Army. Two-thirds of the Chinese Army was Yuan's Beiyang Army.
During the Xinhai Revolution, most of the non-Beiyang forces as well as some Beiyang units in the Chinese Army revolted against the Qing. Yuan led the Beiyang Army into opposing the revolution while also negotiating for the Qing's surrender and his ascendency to the presidency of the new republic.
Politics and modernisation
Yuan kept a tight grip on the command of the army after its establishment by installing officials only loyal to him; however, after his death in 1916, the army groups were quickly fragmented into four major forces of combative warlords, according to the locations of garrisons. These army groups and generals played different roles in the politics of the Republic of China until the establishment of the People's Republic of China following the Communist Party of China's victory in the Chinese Civil War.
One of the most important legacies of the New Army was the professionalisation of the military and perhaps introduction of militarism to China. Previously, almost any male could join and soldiers were mostly poor, landless and illiterate peasants. The New Armies moved beyond the personalised recruitment and patronage of Zeng Guofan and Zuo Zongtang, which had been successful in the mid-century uprisings, but seemed discredited in the face of modern armies in Japan and the West. The New Army began screening volunteers and created modern military academies to train officers. The modernisation and professionalisation of the New Army impressed many in the gentry class to join. The young Chiang Kai-shek, for instance, briefly attended Yuan's Baoding Military Academy, which thus influenced him in forming his Whampoa Academy, which trained a succeeding generation of soldiers. Yuan and his successors equated military dominance of the political sphere with national survival. The political army would become a dominant force in China for much of the twentieth century.
Notable figures of Beiyang
Yuan Shikai (袁世凱)
Duan Qirui (段祺瑞)
Wang Yingkai (王英楷)
Wu Peifu (吳佩孚)
Feng Guozhang (馮國璋)
Sun Chuanfang (孫傳芳)
Xu Shichang (徐世昌)
Wang Shizhen (王士珍)
Cao Kun (曹錕)
Zhang Xun (張勳)
Feng Yuxiang (馮玉祥)
Lu Yongxiang (盧永祥)
Xu Shuzheng (徐樹錚)
Zhang Zhizhong (張治中)
Song Zheyuan (宋哲元)
Tang Shengzhi (唐生智)
Qin Dechun (秦德純)
Qi Xieyuan (齊燮元)
See also
Military of the Qing dynasty
Military history of China before 1911
Beiyang Army
Ever Victorious Army
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
Sources
(originally published: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1955)
abstract
Reprinted in:
Yoshihiro, Hatano, "The New Armies." in Mary Wright, ed. (Yale UP, 1968) pp 365–382.
Military units and formations of the Qing Dynasty
Military units and formations of the Boxer Rebellion
Military history of the Qing dynasty
1911 Revolution
Military units and formations established in 1895
1895 establishments in China | [
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|
226171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Louisiana | List of people from Louisiana | The following are notable people who were either born, raised, or have lived for a significant period of time in the American state of Louisiana.
A
Mark Abraham (born 1953) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish, effective 2016; incoming state senator, 2020; Lake Charles businessman
Bo Ackal (1934–1999) – state representative for Iberia Parish (1972–96)
Danneel Ackles (born 1979) – actress, model, One Life to Live, One Tree Hill, Friends with Benefits, Supernatural
Bert A. Adams (1916–2003) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Vernon Parish (1956–68)
Bryan Adams (born 1963) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Jefferson Parish
Jamar Adcock (1917–1991) – politician and banker
Joe Adcock (1927–1999) – major league baseball player from Coushatta
Trace Adkins (born 1962) – singer-songwriter originally from Sarepta
Joe W. Aguillard (born 1956) – president of Louisiana College (2005–14)
Kermit Alexander (born 1941) – NFL player; president of NFL Players Association (1971–72)
Robert Alford (born 1988) – cornerback for the Atlanta Falcons
Bret Allain (born c. 1958) – politician
David Allen (born 1945) – productivity consultant, author of Getting Things Done
Louise Alley (1927–2015) – KWKH radio personality and Shreveport advertising agency owner
August Alsina (born 1992) – singer
William Alston (1921–2009) – philosopher
Jacques Amans (1801–1888) – neoclassical portrait artist
Andy Anders (born 1956) – state representative from Concordia Parish
Charles Anding (1928–2004) – state representative from Ouachita Parish (1988–96)
David Andrews (born 1952) – actor, Gordon Cresswell on JAG
J. Burton Angelle (1924–1997) – politician from Breaux Bridge
Scott Angelle (born 1961) – member of the Louisiana Public Service Commission, son of J. Burton Angelle
Phil Anselmo (born 1968) – singer-songwriter, Pantera
George Arceneaux (1928–1993) – judge
James Armes (born 1951) – state representative for Beauregard and Vernon parishes (since 2008)
Louis Armstrong (1901–1971) – musician and entertainer
Jeff Arnold (born 1967) – politician
Daniel F. Ashford (1879–1929) – politician and planter
Evelyn Ashford (born 1957) – Olympic sprint champion
Elizabeth Ashley (born 1939) – actress, films and television's Evening Shade
Nnamdi Asomugha (born 1981) – cornerback for the Philadelphia Eagles
James Benjamin Aswell (1869–1931) – US Representative and college president
William B. Atkins (born 1947) – member of both houses of the state legislature from Concordia Parish
Douglas F. Attaway (1910–1994) – newspaper publisher and television station owner in Shreveport; advocate of Red River navigation
D. J. Augustin (born 1987) – point guard for the Chicago Bulls
Lisa Aukland (born 1957) – professional bodybuilder and powerlifter
Lonnie O. Aulds (1925–1984) – politician
Ray Authement (1928–2020) – longest-serving public university president in the United States; president of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette (1974–2008)
The Axeman (fl. 1918–1919) – serial killer
Clarence C. "Taddy" Aycock (1915–1987) – speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1952–56) and lieutenant governor (1960–72)
B
Keith Babb (born 1944) – Monroe television personality; auctioneer of American Quarter Horses
J. S. Bacon (1858–1939) – former state representative from Webster Parish
Odon Bacqué (born 1944) – former state representative from Lafayette
Algernon Sidney Badger (1839–1905) – politician
Austin Badon (born 1964) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Orleans Parish (since 2004)
Larry Bagley (born 1949) – state representative for DeSoto Parish
Diana Bajoie (born 1948) – Democratic politician
Richard Baker (born 1948) – former U.S. Representative from Louisiana's 6th congressional district
Scott Baker (born 1981) – starting pitcher for the Minnesota Twins
George Ballas (1925–2011) – inventor of the string trimmer
Larry S. Bankston (born 1951) – politician; son of Jesse Bankston
Charles C. Barham (1934–2010) – state senator from Ruston; son of C. E. Barham
Edwards Barham (1937–2014) – first Republican elected to Louisiana state senate since Reconstruction (1976–80)
Mack Barham (1924–2006) – Judge of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Robert J. Barham (born 1949) – Secretary of the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; Republican former state senator
Danny Barker (1909–1994) – singer-songwriter, musician, writer
Taylor Barras (born 1957) – Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives, effective January 11, 2016
Amy Coney Barrett (born 1972) – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
Regina Barrow (born 1966) – state representative for East and West Baton Rouge parishes (since 2005)
Dave Bartholomew (1918–2019) – musician, composer, promoter
Robert E. "Bob" Barton (born 1948) – state representative from Bossier Parish (1996–2000)
Brandon Bass (born 1985) – power forward for the Boston Celtics
Robert W. Bates (born 1941) – former agent of the United States Secret Service
J. D. Batton (1911–1981) – sheriff of Webster Parish (1952–64)
Carl W. Bauer (1933–2013) – politician
Ralph Norman Bauer (1899–1963) – politician
Bryan Batt (born 1963) – actor, Sal Romano on Mad Men
Arnaz Battle (born 1980) – wide receiver for the Pittsburgh Steelers
Hazel Beard (born 1930) – mayor of Shreveport (1990–94)
P. G. T. Beauregard (1818–1893) – general, inventor
Odell Beckham Jr. (born 1992) – wide receiver for the New York Giants
Lottie Beebe (born 1953) – politician and educator
Geoffrey Beene (1927–2004) – fashion designer
Sidney Bechet (1897–1959) – musician
Clyde F. Bel Jr. (c. 1932–2014) – businessman and stare representative for Orleans Parish
Demetress Bell (born 1984) – offensive tackle for the Philadelphia Eagles
V.J. Bella (born 1927) – state legislator and fire marshal
E. J. Bellocq (1873–1949) – photographer
Judah P. Benjamin (1811–1884) – U.S. Senator, Confederate cabinet member, lawyer in Great Britain
Michael Bennett (born 1985) – defensive end for the Seattle Seahawks
Sherman A. Bernard (1925–2012) – politician
Louis Berry (1914–1998) – civil rights attorney from Alexandria
Johnny Berthelot (born 1951) – politician
Henry Bethard (born 1924) – attorney and former state representative from Red River Parish
B.G. (born 1980) – rapper, musician
Joseph A. Biedenharn (1866–1952) – entrepreneur, first to bottle Coca-Cola; settled in Monroe in 1913
Rene J. Bienvenu (1923–1983) – university president
Bienville (Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne) (1680–1767) – French colonial governor, founder of New Orleans
Robert Billiot (born 1953) – state representative for Jefferson Parish (since 2008)
Stuart Bishop (born 1975) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Lafayette
Wesley T. Bishop (born 1967) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Orleans Parish
Evelyn Blackmon (1924–2014) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from West Monroe (1984–88)
Morton Blackwell (born 1939) – Louisiana Republican political activist, since relocated to Virginia
Brian Blade (born 1970) – award-winning, Grammy-nominated, jazz musician, bandleader, conductor
Newton C. Blanchard (1849–1922) – governor of Louisiana (1904–08); U.S. senator (1894–97)
Terrence Blanchard (born 1962) – musician, composer
Kathleen Blanco (1942–2019) – Governor of Louisiana (2004–08)
Alexander Boarman (1839–1916) – politician
Walter Boasso (born 1960) – politician, businessman
Hale Boggs (1914–1972) – U.S. representative for Louisiana's 2nd congressional district
Lindy Boggs (1916–2013) – wife of Hale Boggs and his successor in Congress, Ambassador to the Vatican
Thomas Hale Boggs Jr. (1940–2014) – lawyer and lobbyist, son of Hale and Lindy Boggs
William Benton Boggs (1854–1922) – first mayor of Plain Dealing (1890); state senator for Bossier and Webster parishes (1908–16)
Brandon Bolden (born 1990) – running back for the New England Patriots
Buddy Bolden (1877–1930) – musician, "inventor of jazz"(?)
Skip Bolen – photographer
James E. Bolin (1914–2002) – former state representative; former district court judge; retired appeal court judge
Donald G. Bollinger (1915–2000) – shipbuilder and Republican state chairman
George Washington Bolton (1841–1931) – state representative and Speaker of the Louisiana House from Alexandria
James C. Bolton (1899–1974) – Alexandria banker and civic figure
James W. Bolton (1869–1936) – Alexandria banker and politician
Peggy Bolton (1917–1987) – Alexandria civic and community leader
George W. Bond (1891–1974) – president of Louisiana Tech University (1928–36)
James Booker (1939–1983) – musician
Curtis Boozman (1898–1979) – state representative from Natchitoches Parish
Edward S. Bopp (1930–2015) – state representative for Orleans and St. Bernard parishes (1977–84)
Calvin Borel (born 1966) – jockey, winner of 2007, 2009 and 2010 Kentucky Derby
Pierre Bossier (1797–1844) – first U.S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district (1843–44)
Savannah Smith Boucher (born 1943) – actress
Sherry Boucher (born 1945) – actress
Gerald Boudreaux – African-American state senator for Lafayette, St. Landry, and St. Martin parishes, effective 2016
Joseph Bouie Jr. (born 1946) – African-American educator and politician
MacKenzie Bourg (born 1992) – singer-songwriter and contestant on American Idol season 15
Charles Boustany (born 1956) – US Representative
Denise Boutte (born 1982) – model, actress, Meet the Browns
John Boutté (born 1958) – jazz singer
Shirley D. Bowler (born 1949) – state representative
Jimmy Boyd – state representative for Bossier Parish from 1944 to 1952
Thomas Duckett Boyd (1854–1932) – president of Northwestern State University (1888–96) and LSU (1896–1926)
Betsy Vogel Boze (born 1953) – University President at Kent State University Stark Campus
Harley Bozeman (1891–1971) – politician, journalist, and historian
Henry Braden (1944–2013) – African-American politician
Terry Bradshaw (born 1948) – Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback, Fox television commentator
Mike Branch (born 1968) – politician and commercial pilot
Allen Bradley (born 1951) – former state representative from DeRidder
Tim Brando (born 1956) CBS Sports – announcer
Elward Thomas Brady Jr. (c. 1926–2007) – politician
Thomas "Bud" Brady (1938–2011) – politician
Parey Branton (1918–2011) – politician
Wellman Braud (1891–1966) – musician
Donna Brazile (born 1959) – author, professor, political analyst for the Democratic Party
Delvin Breaux (born 1989) – cornerback for the New Orleans Saints
John Breaux (born 1944) – U.S. Senator
Phanor Breazeale (1858–1934) – U.S. Representative
Owen Brennan (1910–1954) – restaurateur, Brennan's in New Orleans
Richard Brennan Sr. – restaurateur, Commander's Palace in New Orleans
Rick Brewer (born 1956) – president of Louisiana College in Pineville since 2015
Reid Brignac (born 1986) – shortstop for the Tampa Bay Rays
Armand Brinkhaus (1935–2017) – former member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature from St. Landry Parish
Pat Brister (1946–2020) – Republican politician
T. C. Brister (1907–1976) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1940–44, 1948–52 and 1968–72)
Poppy Z. Brite (born 1967) – writer
Chris Broadwater (born 1972) – politician
Clifford Cleveland Brooks (1886–1944) – politician
Overton Brooks (1897–1961) – politician; planter
Jared Brossett (born 1982) – New Orleans politician
Edwin S. Broussard (1870–1934) – U.S. senator, 1921–1933
Marc Broussard (born 1982) – singer-songwriter
Robert F. Broussard – U.S. representative for Louisiana's 3rd congressional district 1897–1915 and U.S. senator 1915–1918
Campbell Brown (born 1968) – journalist
Chad M. Brown (born 1970) – state representative for Iberville and Assumption parishes, effective January 2016
Dee Brown (1908–2002) – novelist, historian, author of Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee
Markel Brown (born 1992) – basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
H. Rap Brown (born 1943) – black activist imprisoned in Georgia
Henry Newton Brown Jr. (born 1941) – state appeals court chief judge
J. Marshall Brown (1924–1995) – politician
Sharon Brown – 1961 Miss USA
Terry R. Brown – state representative from Grant Parish since 2012
Tom Brown (1888–1958) – musician
Troy E. Brown (born 1971) – former member of the Louisiana State Senate from Assumption Parish
W. K. Brown (1923–2011) – state representative
Roy Brun (born 1953) – state representative and judge from Caddo Parish
Stanley Brundy (born 1967) – basketball player
Peppi Bruneau (born 1942) – state representative from Orléans Parish
George Brunies (1902–1974) – musician
C.L. Bryant (born 1956) – African-American Baptist minister and conservative talk show host over KEEL radio in Shreveport
Sherri Smith Buffington (born 1966) – politician
George E. Burch (1910–1986) – cardiologist and Tulane Medical School professor
Dewey E. Burchett Jr. (1939–2009) – state court judge for Bossier and Webster parishes (1988–2008)
James Lee Burke (born 1936) – crime novelist, born in Texas, raised in Louisiana
Paul Burke (1926–2009) – actor: Naked City, Twelve O'Clock High, The Thomas Crown Affair
James Burton (born 1939) – guitarist
C.E. Byrd (1859–1926) – educator, founder of C.E. Byrd High School
C
George Washington Cable (1844–1925) – writer
Burl Cain (born 1942) – warden of the Louisiana State Penitentiary (since 1995)
Etienne J. Caire (1868–1955) – Republican candidate for governor of Louisiana in 1928 against Huey P. Long
Riemer Calhoun (1909–1994) – state senator from DeSoto and Caddo parishes (1944–52)
Bill Callegari (born 1941) – member of the Texas House of Representatives from Harris County; native of Avoyelles Parish
Jefferson Caffery (1886–1974) – US ambassador; cousin of Patrick T. Caffery and Donelson Caffery
Patrick T. Caffery (1932–2013) – US Representative; cousin of Jefferson Caffery and grandson of Donelson Caffery
Donelson Caffery (1835–1906) – US Senator; grandfather of Patrick T. Caffery
Chris Cagle (born 1968) – country music artist
George A. Caldwell (1892–1966) – building contractor; designed twenty-six public buildings in Louisiana
Jorrick Calvin (born 1987) – cornerback for the Philadelphia Eagles
Foster Campbell (born 1947) – politician
William Derwood Cann Jr. (1919–2010) – World War II lieutenant colonel; mayor of Monroe (1978–79)
Billy Cannon (1937–2018) – football player for LSU, Heisman Trophy winner
Joseph Cao (born 1968) – former U.S. representative; lawyer
Tom Capella (born 1965) – assessor of Jefferson Parish and former state representative and Jefferson Parish Council member
Truman Capote (1924–1984) – writer, author of In Cold Blood and Breakfast at Tiffany's
Lindsey Cardinale (born 1985) – American Idol finalist, country singer
Harvey Locke Carey (1915–1984) – lawyer and United States District Attorney
Kitty Carlisle (1910–2007) – entertainer and television personality; married to playwright Moss Hart
W. W. Carloss (1833–1900) – first state representative from Webster Parish (1874–78); fought in the Siege of Port Hudson
Thomas G. Carmody (born 1961) – state representative
Edward M. Carmouche (1921–1990) – politician
Liz Carmouche (born 1984) – mixed martial arts fighter
Paul Carr (1934–2006) – actor
Lane Carson (born 1947) – first Vietnam War veteran to serve in Louisiana House of Representatives
Gary Carter Jr. (born 1974) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from the Algiers neighborhood in New Orleans, effective 2016
J. J. Carter (1832–1907) – politician from Webster Parish
Robby Carter (born 1960) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for East Feliciana, St. Helena, and Tangipahoa parishes, 1996–2008 and since 2016
James Carville (born 1944) – political consultant and television commentator
Tommy Casanova (born 1950) – football player, ophthalmologist, politician
Edgar Cason (born 1952) – businessman and philanthropist
Bill Cassidy (born 1957) – U.S. representative, physician
Don Cazayoux (born 1964) – politician
Leonard J. Chabert (c. 1932–1991) – politician
Marty J. Chabert (born c. 1956) – politician
Norby Chabert (born 1976) – politician
Tina Chandler (born 1974) – IFBB professional bodybuilder
Pokey Chatman (born 1969) – basketball player, WNBA head coach
Clifton Chenier (1925–1987) – Zydeco musician
Claire Chennault (1893–1958) – aviator, general
Jimmy Childress (1932–2015) – state and national championship high school football coach
Jay Chevalier (1936–2019) – singer
Monnie T. Cheves (1902–1988) – educator and state legislator
Kate Chopin (1851–1904) – author
Benny Gay Christian (1925–1982) – state representative for Richland, Caldwell, and Madison parishes, 1964–74
Philip Ciaccio (1927–2015) – state representative, New Orleans City Council member, state circuit judge from 1982 to 1998
Ben Claassen III (born 1978) – illustrator and comics artist, DIRTFARM
Morris Claiborne (born 1990) – cornerback for the Dallas Cowboys
William C. C. Claiborne (1775–1817) – first US Governor of Louisiana
Ryan Clark (born 1979) – safety for the Pittsburgh Steelers
Clem S. Clarke (1897–1967) – oilman and politician from Shreveport
Patricia Clarkson (born 1959) – Emmy Award-winning and Academy Award-nominated actress
Sally Clausen (born 1945) – university president and commissioner of higher education
Thomas G. Clausen (1939–2002) – last elected Louisiana state superintendent of education
Michael Clayton (born 1982) – wide receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers
A.C. "Ace" Clemons Jr. (1921–1992) – first Republican state senator since Reconstruction; switched parties in 1970
Bill Cleveland (1902–1974) – Crowley real estate developer and member of both houses of Louisiana state legislature (1944–64); defeated for third term in state Senate in 1964 by Edwin Edwards
Van Cliburn (1934–2013) – classical pianist
George Henry Clinton – politician
Carl B. Close (1907–1980) – politician
James E. Cofer (born 1949) – president of University of Louisiana at Monroe, 2002–2010
J. Frank Colbert (1882–1949) – politician
Luther F. Cole (1925–2013) – state representative and associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Elliot D. Coleman (1881–1963) – sheriff and bodyguard at the assassination of Huey P. Long Jr.
Hamilton D. Coleman (1845–1926) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 2nd congressional district (1889–1991)
Vincent Coleman (1901–1971) – actor
Ashton B. Collier (1910–1973) – state representative from Winn Parish
La'el Collins (born 1993) – offensive tackle for the Dallas Cowboys
Landon Collins (born 1994) – safety for the New York Giants
Tazzie Colomb (born 1966) – IFBB professional female bodybuilder and powerlifter
Marshall Colt (born 1948) – actor
Amie Comeaux (1976–1997) – country singer
Ward Connerly (born 1939) – political activist, businessman, and former University of California Regent
Harry Connick Jr. (born 1967) – musician, entertainer, actor
Harry Connick Sr. (born 1926) – district attorney, singer
Patrick Connick (born 1961) – politician
John R. Conniff (1874–1957) – educator
Charlie Cook (born 1953) – political analyst
John Cooksey (born 1941) – US Representative
Donnie Copeland (born 1961) – Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives; Pentecostal pastor in North Little Rock, native of Monroe, Louisiana
Charles C. Cordill (1845–1916) – politician
Daniel Cormier (born 1979) – UFC fighter and Olympic freestyle wrestler
Lance Cormier (born 1980) – relief pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays
Jeff Cox (born 1962) – judge
Kenny Ray Cox (born 1957) – state representative for Natchitoches, Red River and Desoto parishes (since 2012); former United States Army lieutenant colonel
Robert Crais (born 1953) – crime novelist
Clifford Ann Creed (born 1938) – pro golfer
Scott Crichton (born 1954) – state district court judge in Shreveport
Greg Cromer (born 1958) – state representative from St. Tammany Parish
Brenham C. Crothers (1905–1984) – politician
John David Crow (1935–2015) – football player and coach, born in Union Parish
Marvin T. Culpepper (1908–1970) – politician
Robert C. Culpepper (1873–1950) – state senator for Jackson and Ouachita parishes and judge from Alexandria
William A. Culpepper (1916–2015) – judge based in Alexandria, son of Robert C. Culpepper
Charles Milton Cunningham (1877–1936) – educator, lawyer, newspaperman, politician
Milton Joseph Cunningham (1842–1916) – state representative and state senator; state attorney general (1884–88 and 1892–1900)
William Tharp Cunningham (1871–1952) – planter, attorney, state representative, and judge from Natchitoches Parish
W. Peyton Cunningham (1901–1971) – newspaper publisher and member of the Louisiana House from Natchitoches Parish (1932–40)
Cupid (born 1982) – R&B singer
Currensy (born 1981) – rapper
Robert Houston Curry (1842–1992) – state representative for Bossier Parish; wounded Confederate Army soldier
Joseph T. Curry (1895–1961) – politician; planter
Israel "Bo" Curtis (1932–2012) – African-American politician from Alexandria
Jacob Cutrera (born 1988) – middle linebacker for the Jacksonville Jaguars
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Casey Daigle (born 1981) – former MLB pitcher
Mike Danahay (born 1957) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish (since 2008)
William Daniel (born 1955) – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish (1996–2008)
Stormy Daniels (born 1979) – porn actress, stripper
Jay Dardenne (born 1954) – former state senator, Louisiana secretary of state, and lieutenant governor (since 2010); candidate for governor (2015)
George W. D'Artois (1925–1977) – Shreveport public safety commissioner (1962–76)
Buster Davis (born 1985) – wide receiver for the San Diego Chargers
Edwin Adams Davis (1904–1994) – historian
Glen Davis (born 1986) – power forward and center for LSU and the Los Angeles Clippers
Jackson B. Davis (1918–2016) – attorney and former state senator
Jimmie Davis (1899–2000) – singer, Governor of Louisiana
Willie Davis (1934–2020) – Hall of Fame defensive end for the Cleveland Browns and Green Bay Packers
Keyunta Dawson (born 1985) – defensive end for the Indianapolis Colts
Jay Dean (born 1953) – mayor of Longview, Texas, 2005–15; incoming Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, effective 2017; reared in Opelousas
Cleveland Dear (1888–1950) – politician
Michael E. DeBakey (1908–2008) – pioneering cardiovascular surgeon
Edmond Dede (1827–1903) – musician, composer
Jesse C. Deen (1922–2015) – state representative for Bossier and Webster parishes, 1972–88
Larry Deen (born 1948) – sheriff of Bossier Parish, 1988–2012
Ellen DeGeneres (born 1958) – comedian, actress, television personality
Kitty DeGree (1922–2012) – Monroe real estate developer and philanthropist
Joe Delaney (1958–1983) – running back for Northwestern State University and for the Kansas City Chiefs; died saving children from swimming hole
Jake Delhomme (born 1975) – quarterback for University of Louisiana at Lafayette and for Carolina Panthers in Super Bowl XXXVIII
David Dellucci (born 1973) – MLB outfielder, played primarily with the Arizona Diamondbacks
Numa T. Delouche (1888–1965) – state representative from Natchitoches Parish (1944–48)
George Dement (1922–2014) – politician
Tim Dement (born 1958) – amateur boxer who competed at the 1972 Summer Olympics
James L. Dennis (born 1936) – judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit; former judge of the Louisiana Supreme Court; former state representative
Catherine Dent (born 1965) – actress, Danni Sofer on The Shield
Natalie Desselle-Reid (born 1967) – actress
Henry C. Dethloff (1934–2019) – historian
Charles W. DeWitt Jr. (born 1947) – politician and rancher
F.O. "Potch" Didier (1919–2007) – sheriff
Juba Diez (born 1944) – state representative from Ascension Parish (1976–2004)
Herbert B. Dixon (born 1949) – former state representative and school board member from Rapides Parish
Lurita Doan (born 1958) – Administrator of the General Services Administration under President George W. Bush
James Dobson (born 1936) – evangelical Christian author, psychologist, founder of Focus on the Family
William Joseph "Bill" Dodd (1909–1991) – politician
John J. Doles Jr. (1922–2004) – banker
John J. Doles Sr. (1895–1970) – Plain Dealing banker and state senator (1952–56)
James R. Domengeaux (1907–1988) – U.S. representative; French language cultural activist
Ronald Dominique (born 1964) serial killer
Fats Domino (1928–2017) – musician
Vol Dooley (1927–2014) – sheriff of Bossier Parish (1976–88)
Caroline Dormon (1888–1971) – naturalist, horticulturist, promoter of Kisatchie National Forest
Glenn Dorsey (born 1985) – defensive end for the San Francisco 49ers
E. S. Dortch (1841–1943) – planter and politician from Bossier Parish
Lorenzo Doss (born 1994) – cornerback for the Denver Broncos
Cat Doucet (1899–1975) – sheriff
Early Doucet (born 1985) – wide receiver for the Arizona Cardinals
Eddie Doucet (1924–2008) – state representative for Jefferson Parish (1972–88); businessman
Donna Douglas (born 1933–2015) – actress, "The Beverly Hillbillies Hunt Downer (born 1946) – politician; National Guard officer
C. H. "Sammy" Downs (1911–1985) – member of both houses of the Louisiana legislature from Rapides Parish
James Crawford "Jam" Downs (born 1940) – former district attorney for Rapides Parish
James U. Downs (born 1941) – retired superior court judge in western North Carolina, born and reared in Shreveport
Gil Dozier (1934–2013) – Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry (1976–80)
Dee D. Drell (born 1947) – U.S. district judge in Alexandria
R. Harmon Drew Sr. (1916–1995) – city judge, state representative
Richard Maxwell Drew (1822–1850) – judge and state representative
Clyde Drexler (born 1962) – basketball player, University of Houston, NBA and U.S. Olympic team, member of Basketball Hall of Fame
Francis Dugas (1919–2008) – politician
John Malcolm Duhé Jr. (born 1933) – retired state court, U.S. district, and appellate court judge from New Iberia and Lafayette
Chris Duhon (born 1982) – NBA point guard
David Duke (born 1950) – former state representative, former Ku Klux Klansman
Lance Dunbar (born 1990) – running back for the Dallas Cowboys
Ken Duncan (born 1945) – state treasurer from 1996 to 2000; Baton Rouge lawyer and businessman
Warrick Dunn (born 1975) – NFL running back
Mark Duper (born 1959) – Miami Dolphins wide receiver
Adrian G. Duplantier (1929–2007) – U.S. District Judge and former state senator from Orleans Parish
Jay Duplass (born 1973) – film director
Gilbert L. Dupré (1858–1946) – politician from St. Landry Parish
H. Garland Dupré (1873–1924) – politician
Champion Jack Dupree (–1992) – boxer, musician
Chad Durbin (born 1977) – MLB pitcher
Joey Durel (born 1953) – mayor of Lafayette (since 2004)
Stanwood Duval (born 1942) – federal judge in New Orleans
Stephen Dwight (born 1977) – member of the Louisiana House for Calcasieu and Beauregard parishes
Wilbur Dyer (1907–1985) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Rapides Parish (1974–80)
W.E. "Bill" Dykes (1925–2015) – politician
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Richard Eastham (1916–2005) – actor
William C. Edenborn (1848–1926) – railroad magnate, steel industrialist, inventor
Rick Edmonds (born 1956) – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish; Baptist minister
Mike Edmonson (born 1958) – superintendent of the Louisiana State Police (since 2008)
Edwin Edwards (1927–2021) – Governor of Louisiana
Lavar Edwards (born 1990) – defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys
Ronnie Edwards (c. 1952 – 2016) – Baton Rouge politician
Troy Edwards (born 1977) – football player
Charles Wheaton Elam (1866–1917) – politician
Joseph Barton Elam Sr. (1821–1885) – politician
Allen J. Ellender (1890–1972) – Member of Congress, United States Senator and President Pro Tem of the Senate
Frank Burton Ellis (1907–1969) – politician
Faye Emerson (1917–1983) – actress
Julie Emerson (born 1988) – state representative for Lafayette and St. Landry parishes
E. D. Estilette (1833–1919) – politician from St. Landry Parish
Albert Estopinal (1845–1919) – politician
James R. Eubank (1914–1952) – lawyer and member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Rapides Parish
John D. Ewing (1892–1952) – newspaper executive
Robert Wilson Ewing III (1935–2007) – newspaper executive; photographer
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Jamie Fair (born 1946) – former state representative
Jimmy Faircloth (born 1964) – former executive counsel to Governor Bobby Jindal; attorney in Alexandria-Pineville
Reid Falconer (born 1956) – state representative for St. Tammany Parish, effective 2016
Ralph Falsetta (1914–1999) – politician from Ascension Parish
Rick L. Farrar – state representative from Rapides Parish
Dillon Farrell (born 1990) – center for the San Francisco 49ers
Chris Faser Jr. (1917–2004) – politician
Robert Faucheux (born 1950) – state representative for St. John the Baptist and St. James parishes, 1996–2004; attorney in LaPlace
Ron Faucheux (born 1950) – state representative for Orleans Parish, 1976–84; political pundit
Clarence Faulk (1909–2010) – publisher, broadcaster, businessman from Ruston
Kevin Faulk (born 1976) – New England Patriots running back, LSU Hall of Famer
Marshall Faulk (born 1973) – Hall of Fame running back, television commentator
Trev Faulk (born 1981) – St. Louis Rams linebacker
William C. Feazel (1895–1965) – interim U.S. Senator in 1948; former state representative from Ouachita Parish
Lionel Ferbos (1911–2014) – jazz musician from New Orleans
Jimmy Field (born 1940) – Louisiana Public Service Commissioner (1996–2012)
T. T. Fields (1912–1994) – politician
David Filo (born 1966) – co-founder of Yahoo!
Olaf Fink (1914–1973) – educator and state senator for Orleans Parish from 1956 to 1972
Valerie Fitzenreiter (born 1955) – author, unschooling advocate
Jimmy Fitzmorris (1921–2021) – politician, lieutenant governor
Sean Patrick Flanery (born 1965) – actor
John C. Fleming (born 1952) – U.S. representative; medical doctor
Dan Flores (born 1948) – historian of the American West
D. J. Fluker (born 1991) – offensive tackle for the San Diego Chargers
Cheston Folkes (1863–1941) – politician
Warren Davis Folkes (1898–1997) – politician
Jerry Fontenot (born 1966) – assistant coach for the Green Bay Packers
Mary Alice Fontenot (1910–2003) – author
Mike Fontenot (born 1980) – second baseman for the San Francisco Giants
Elizabeth Erny Foote (born 1953) – judge
Faith Ford (born 1964) – actress
Frankie Ford (1939–2015) – singer
C. B. Forgotston (1945–2016) – state government watchdog
Barbara Forrest (born 20th century) – philosopher and prominent critic of the intelligent design movement
Matt Forte (born 1985) – running back for the Chicago Bears
Ezola B. Foster (1938–2018) – conservative political activist, writer, and politician
Mike Foster (1930–2020) – Governor of Louisiana
Murphy J. Foster (1849–1921) – Governor of Louisiana
Pete Fountain (1930–2016) – musician
Mike Francis (born 1946) – businessman, Republican former state party chairman
A. B. Franklin (born 1948) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish (since 2008)
Tillman Franks (1920–2006) – country musician and manager
Anthony Freeman (1988-2018) – Catholic religious and author
Mannie Fresh (born 1974) – record producer, musician
J. Isaac Friedman (1877–1949) – state representative and state senator from Natchitoches Parish
Leon Friedman (1886–1948) – state representative from Natchitoches Parish (1932–40)
W. C. Friley (1845–1911) – educator and Baptist clergyman
Lawrence T. Fuglaar (1895–1972) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1948–52); drowning victim
Hoffman Franklin Fuller (born 1932) – professor emeritus at Tulane University Law School, authority on tax law
Samuel B. Fuller (1905–1988) – founder and president of the Fuller Products Company, publisher of the New York Age and Pittsburgh Courier Henry L. Fuqua (1865–1926) – Governor of Louisiana (1924–26, his death)
J. B. Fuselier (1901–1975) – Cajun musician from Oberlin, Louisiana
Mike Futrell (born 1960) – politician
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Ernest Gaines (1933–2019) – author
Randal Gaines (born 1955) – African American; lawyer; educator; state representative for St. Charles and St. John the Baptist parishes (since 2012)
Gerald J. Gallinghouse (1920–2007) – U.S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana
Daniel F. Galouye (1920–1976) – science fiction writer
Count Bernardo de Gálvez (1746–1786) – Spanish governor; viceroy of New Spain
John Sidney Garrett (1921–2005) – former Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Claiborne Parish
Jim Garrison (1921–1992) – former New Orleans district attorney; later a state judge
Robert T. Garrity Jr. (born 1949) – former member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Jefferson Parish
James Garvey Jr. (born 1964) – member since 2012 of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education for District 1; a Metairie lawyer
Chad Gaudin (born 1983) – MLB pitcher
Randall Gay (born 1982) – cornerback for the New Orleans Saints
Terry W. Gee (1940–2014) – state representative and businessman
Johnny Giavotella (born 1987) – second baseman for the Los Angeles Angels
Philip H. Gilbert (1870–1932) – politician; former lieutenant governor
Mickey Gilley (born 1936) – musician; singer; nightclub owner
David 'Bo' Ginn (1951–2006) – state senator or Morehouse Parish (1980–88)
George Girard (1930–1957) – musician
Leslie Glasgow (1914–1980) – professor; conservationist; government administrator
Hap Glaudi (1912–1989) – New Orleans sports journalist
Mary Smith Gleason (1899–1967) – state representative
Edgar Godbold (1879–1952) – president of Louisiana College (1942–51)
H. N. Goff (1910–1978) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1952–56)
Victor Gold (1928–2017) – journalist and political consultant
John Goodman (born 1952) – actor
Alfred Goodwill (1830–1905) – businessman from Minden; owned largest general store in Louisiana in the 1880s in Minden
Cletis Gordon (born 1982) – cornerback for the United Football League's Florida Tuskers
James M. Goslin (1915–2001) – sheriff of Caddo Parish (1966–76)
Stephen Gostkowski (born 1984) – placekicker for the New England Patriots
Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869) – pianist; composer
Lucille May Grace (1900–1957) – first woman in statewide elected office as register of state lands
R. W. "Buzzy" Graham (1937–2014) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1968–72)
Shirley Ann Grau (1929–2020) – writer
Webster "Webbie" Gradney Jr. (born 1985) – rapper
Danny Granger (born 1983) – small forward for the Philadelphia 76ers
Veleka Gray (born 1951) – actress; writer; producer
Douglas D. "Doug" Green (born c. 1950) – politician
Howard Green (born 1979) – nose tackle for the Green Bay Packers
BenJarvus Green-Ellis (born 1985) – running back for the New England Patriots
Thomas A. "Tom" Greene (born 1948) – former state senator
John Grenier (1930–2007) – Republican politician in Alabama; born in New Orleans
Grits Gresham (1922–2008) – sportsman; journalist
J. D. Grey (1906–1985) – clergyman
Bob Griffin (born 1934) – broadcast journalist; from Shreveport
Robert Groves (born 1948) – sociologist; Director of the United States Census Bureau under U.S. President Barack Obama
Anthony Guarisco Jr. (born 1938) – politician
Dudley A. Guglielmo (1909–2005) – insurance commissioner
Dick Guidry (1929–2014) – politician; businessman from Lafourche Parish
Greg G. Guidry (born 1960) – member of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Jesse J. Guidry (c. 1921–1987) – state representative and secretary of the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; from St. Martin Parish
John Michael Guidry (born 1962) – circuit court judge; former member of both houses of the state legislature from Baton Rouge
Richard Guidry (1949–2008) – advocate of French language in Louisiana
Ron Guidry (born 1950) – Cy Young Award-winning pitcher for the New York Yankees
Brandon Guillory (born 1985) – businessman
Elbert Guillory (born 1944) – politician
Mickey Guillory (born 1940) – retired state police officer; state representative for Acadia, Evangeline, and St. Landry parishes (since 2004)
G. Earl Guinn (1912–2004) – president of Louisiana College (1951–75)
Bryant Gumbel (born 1948) – television journalist
Greg Gumbel (born 1946) – sportscaster
Buddy Guy (born 1936) – blues musician
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Billy Hagan (1932–2007) – NASCAR owner and racer, businessman
Richard T. Haik (born 1950) – United States District Judge for the Western District of Louisiana
Ted Haik (born 1945) – politician
Jeff Hall (born 1951) – state representative for Rapides Parish (since 2015)
Pike Hall Jr. (1931–1999) – judge from Shreveport
William Pike Hall Sr. (1896–1945) – lawyer and politician in Shreveport
Jan Hamer (1927–2008) – organic chemist
Rusty Hamer (1947–1990) – child actor
John Martin Hamley (1883–1942) – politician
Paul Jude Hardy (born 1942) – state senator, secretary of state, lieutenant governor
Henry E. Hardtner (1870–1935) – lumberman, conservationist, politician, founder of Urania
George W. Hardy Jr. (1900–1967) – mayor of Shreveport and judge of the state circuit court of appeal
John Spencer Hardy (1913–2012) – lieutenant general in the United States Air Force
Robert Harling (born 1951) – playwright, screenwriter and film director, wrote Steel Magnolias Winsor Harmon (born 1963) – actor, The Bold and the Beautiful Lance Harris (born 1961) – state representative
Mary Johnson Harris (born 1963) – educator from Shreveport
Will Harris (born 1984) – relief pitcher for the Houston Astros
Damon Harrison (born 1988) – nose tackle for the New York Giants
Joe Harrison (born c. 1952) – state representative
Ryan Harrison (born 1992) – professional tennis player
Leonard R. "Pop" Hataway (born 1939) – former sheriff of Grant Parish
Torrence "Lil Boosie" Hatch (born 1982) – rapper
Jason Hatcher (born 1982) – defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys
Don Hathaway (born 1928) – Shreveport public works commissioner (1970–78); Caddo Parish sheriff (1980–2000)
Richmond C. Hathorn (1893–1941) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1936–40)
Kenny Havard (born 1971) – politician
Elvin Hayes (born 1945) – Hall of Fame basketball player
Hunter Hayes (born 1991) – country singer
Rufus D. Hayes (1913–2002) – first state insurance commissioner, East Baton Rouge Parish district attorney and judge, Democratic state chairman
O. H. Haynes Jr. (1920–1996) – Webster Parish sheriff (1964–80)
William Wright Heard (1853–1926) – governor of Louisiana (1900–04)
Bobby Hebert (born 1960) – New Orleans Saints quarterback known as "Cajun Cannon"
Dennis Paul Hebert (1926–2015) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Tangipahoa Parish, 1972–96
Felix Edward Hébert (1901–1979) – journalist, politician
Paul M. Hebert (1907–1977) – judge, Louisiana State University Law Center dean
Troy Hebert (born 1966) – politician
Lee Hedges (born 1929) – champion football coach in Shreveport
Fred Heebe (born 1952) – New Orleans real estate developer
Jennifer Sneed Heebe (born 1966) – politician
Talmadge L. Heflin (born 1940) – former member of the Texas House of Representatives
Marie Alice Heine (1858–1925) – first American Princess of Monaco
Betty Heitman (1929–1994) – Republican politician
David Heitmeier (born 1961) – state senator for Orleans Parish (since 2008); optometrist
Francis C. Heitmeier (born 1950) – former state senator for Orleans Parish; lawyer and lobbyist
Knute Heldner (1875–1952) – impressionist artist
Lillian Hellman (1905–1984) – playwright and screenwriter
Devery Henderson (born 1982) – wide receiver for the New Orleans Saints
Lloyd Hendrick (1908–1951) – Shreveport lawyer and state senator for DeSoto and Caddo parishes (1940–48)
Ellis Henican (born 1958) – journalist, commentator, talk show host
Jeff Hennessy – trampoline coach
Leigh Hennessy – world champion gymnast and movie stuntwoman
Shelley Hennig (born 1987) – actress, Days of Our Lives Charlie Hennigan (1935–2017) – football player
Gilbert Franklin Hennigan (1883–1960) – politician
Cameron Henry (born 1974) – politician
Clarence "Frogman" Henry (born 1937) – singer, musician
Gloria Henry (1923–2021) – actress, CBS's Dennis the Menace Bob Hensgens (born 1955) – state representative
George Herriman (1880–1944) – Krazy Kat cartoonist
Charles R. Herring (born 1945) – chiropractor; served in the Louisiana House of Representatives from Rapides Parish (1988–92)
Louis Herthum (born 1956) – actor, Murder, She Wrote Jacob Hester (born 1985) – fullback for the San Diego Chargers
Theodore M. Hickey (1910–1993) – New Orleans City Council member and state senator; introduced bill establishing the University of New Orleans
W. W. Hicks (1843–1925) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Webster Parish (1900–04)
Andrew Higgins (1886–1952) – shipbuilder, industrialist
Clay Higgins (born 1961) – U.S. representative for Louisiana's 3rd congressional district, beginning 2017
Stephanie Hilferty (born 1985) – state representative for Orleans and Jefferson parishes since 2016
Dorothy Sue Hill (born 1939) – state representative for Allen, Beauregard, and Calcasieu parishes since 2008
Herman Ray Hill (born 1937) – state representative for Allen, Beauregard, and Calcasieu parishes (1996–2008)
Kenny Hill (born 1958) – NFL defensive back
Corey Hilliard (born 1985) – offensive tackle for the Detroit Lions
Quin Hillyer (born 1964) – columnist and editor
Donald E. Hines (1933–2019) – politician and physician
Walker Hines (born 1984) – state representative from Orleans Parish
Al Hirt (1922–1999) – musician
Valarie Hodges (born 1955) – politician
Melvin L. Holden (born 1952) – first African-American mayor of Baton Rouge
Cheryl Holdridge (1944–2009) – actor
Trindon Holliday (born 1986) – wide receiver and return specialist for the New York Giants
Earl Holliman (born 1928) – actor
Harry Hollins (1932–1989) – state representative for Calcasieu Parish from 1964 to 1980
Ken Hollis (1942–2010) – state senator from Jefferson Parish (1982–2008)
Paul Hollis (born 1972) – state representative from St. Tammany Parish
Clyde C. Holloway (1943–2016) – former US Representative; member of the Louisiana Public Service Commission
Ben F. Holt (1925–1995) – politician
Jay F. Honeycutt (born 1937) – former director of the Kennedy Space Center
Dalton W. Honoré (born 1943) – politician
Russel L. Honoré (born 1947) – general during Hurricane Katrina relief
Taylor Horn (born 1992) – singer and actress
Dodie Horton – state representative for Bossier Parish, effective 2016
Son House (1902–1988) – blues singer and guitarist
TJ House (born 1989) – pitcher for the Cleveland Indians
Alton Hardy Howard (1925–2006) – co-founder of Howard Brothers Discount Stores; gospel songwriter
Jaye Howard (born 1988) – nose tackle for the Kansas City Chiefs
V. E. Howard (1911–2000) – Church of Christ clergyman, founder of radio International Gospel Hour W. L. "Jack" Howard (1921–2004) – mayor of Monroe and partner of Howard Brothers Discount Stores
Arlene Howell (born 1939) – Miss USA 1958 and actress: Bourbon Street Beat Jerry Huckaby (born 1941) – US Representative
Thomas H. Hudson (born 1946) – Baton Rouge attorney and former state senator
Jefferson D. Hughes III (born 1952) – associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court since 2013
William Clark Hughes (1868–1930) – Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1926–28); Bossier Parish farmer
Guy E. Humphries Jr. (1923–2010) – state court judge in Alexandria
Melvin Hunt (born 1969) – assistant coach of the Dallas Mavericks
Clementine Hunter (c. 1886–1988) – folk artist
Jeffrey Hunter (1926–1969) actor – The Searchers, King of Kings; born in New Orleans; reared in Wisconsin
Marcus Hunter (born 1979) – politician
Carolyn Huntoon (born 1940) – scientist
John Brennan Hussey (born 1934) – mayor of Shreveport from 1982 to 1990
Mike "Pete" Huval (born c. 1956) – politician
I
Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville (1661–1706) – founder of the French colony of Louisiana of New France
Iron Eyes Cody (1904–1999) – actor; native of Kaplan
Melvin Irvin (1942–2014) – state representative from Gonzales in Ascension Parish (1984–92)
Walter Isaacson (born 1952) – author; journalist; president and chief executive officer, Aspen Institute
Barry Ivey (born 1979) – politician
J
George W. Jack (1875–1924) – federal judge
Wellborn Jack (1907–1991) – state representative from Caddo Parish (1940–64)
Whitfield Jack (1906–1989) – Shreveport attorney and United States Army colonel in World War II and United States Army Reserve major general
Alphonse J. Jackson (1927–2014) – educator, civil rights activist, and member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from Caddo Parish (1972–92)
Girod Jackson III (born 1972) – former state representative for Jefferson Parish
John E. Jackson (1892–1989) – chairman of the Louisiana Republican Party, 1929–34; Republican national committeeman, 1934–52; practice law in New Orleans
John M. Jackson (born 1950) – actor, JAG Lisa Jackson (born 1962) – administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency under Barack Obama
Mahalia Jackson (1911–1972) – gospel singer
Randy Jackson (born 1956) – musician, entrepreneur, television personality
Randy Jackson (born 1955) – guitarist and lead singer of rock band Zebra
Tyson Jackson (born 1986) – defensive tackle for the Atlanta Falcons
Brandon Jacobs (born 1982) – running back for the New York Giants
Angie Jakusz (1980–2021) – Contestant on Survivor: Palau
Bradie James (born 1981) – linebacker for the Houston Texans
Edward C. James – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish (since 2012)
Antawn Jamison (born 1976) – NBA player for the Los Angeles Lakers
Rajarsi Janakananda (1892–1955) – former president of the Self-Realization Fellowship
Lemuel Jeanpierre (born 1987) – center for the Seattle Seahawks
Patrick O. Jefferson (born 1968) – state representative for Bienville, Claiborne, and Lincoln parishes (since 2012); lawyer in Arcadia
Eddie Jemison (born 1963) – actor, Hung, Bruce Almighty, and Ocean's Eleven and its sequels
Faith Jenkins (born 20th century) – attorney, legal commentator, Miss Louisiana 2000
Mykel Shannon Jenkins (born 1969) – actor, The Bold and the Beautiful Woody Jenkins (born 1947) – politician, newspaper publisher
J. Thomas Jewell (1909–1993) – politician from New Roads
Bobby Jindal (born 1971) – Governor of Louisiana
Ronnie Johns (born 1949) – politician
Andrew R. Johnson (1856–1933) – state senator and mayor of Homer; named Ashland, Louisiana
Avery Johnson (born 1965) – NBA player and coach
Bernette Joshua Johnson (born 1943) – Chief Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court since 2013; associate justice, 1994–2013
Bill Johnson (1872–1972) – jazz musician
Damaris Johnson (born 1989) – wide receiver and punt returner for the Philadelphia Eagles
Mike Johnson (born 1972) – U.S. Representative for Louisiana's 4th congressional district since 2017; former state representative and constitutional attorney from Bossier Parish
Quinn Johnson (born 1986) – fullback for the Green Bay Packers
John Bennett Johnston Jr. (born 1932) – U.S. Senator (1972–97); lobbyist (since 1997); state senator (1968–72); state representative (1964–68)
Bert Jones (born 1951) – football quarterback, LSU and NFL's Baltimore Colts
Chad Jones (born 1988) – safety for the New York Giants
Deion Jones (born 1994) – linebacker for the Atlanta Falcons
Donald Edward Jones (born 1949) – mayor of Bossier City (1984–89)
Donnie Jones (born 1980) – punter for the Philadelphia Eagles
Dub Jones (born 1924) – NFL and AAFC running back
Edgar Jones (born 1984) – linebacker for the Kansas City Chiefs
E. Holman Jones (1926–2014) – state representative
Fred W. Jones Jr. (1924–2000) – city, district and state circuit court judge from Ruston
Gary Lee Jones (born 1946) – Republican member of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education
Jacoby Jones (born 1984) – wide receiver for the Baltimore Ravens
Perry Jones III (born 1991) – player for the Oklahoma City Thunder
Ralph Waldo Emerson Jones (1905–1982) – president and baseball coach at Grambling State University (1936–77)
Sam Houston Jones (1897–1978) – Governor of Louisiana
Sam S. Jones (born 1953) – politician, businessman
Henderson Jordan (1896–1958) – Bienville Parish sheriff, in posse that ambushed Bonnie and Clyde
Michael I. Jordan (born 1956) – Professor at University of California, Berkeley, researcher in machine learning and artificial intelligence
J. E. Jumonville Jr. (born 1942) – state senator and horse breeder from Pointe Coupee Parish
J. E. Jumonville Sr. (1919–1983) – state senator and natural gas developer from Pointe Coupee Parish
Juvenile (born 1975) – rapper
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Harnett Kane (1910–1984) – New Orleans-based author of southern history, geography, culture, and fiction
Kelly Keeling (born 1966) – singer-songwriter from Houma
Perry Keith (1847–1935) – politician
William P. Kellogg (1830–1918) – Member of Congress; Governor; United States Senator
Iris Kelso (1926–2003) – New Orleans journalist
Bolivar E. Kemp (1871–1933) – U.S. representative (1925–33)
Bolivar Edwards Kemp Jr. (1904–1965) – Louisiana Attorney General (1948–52)
John Neely Kennedy (born 1951) – Louisiana State Treasurer
Robert F. Kennon (1902–1988) – Governor of Louisiana (1952–56)
James Peter Kent (1866–1937) – newspaper publisher; politician from Minden in Webster Parish
Doug Kershaw (born 1936) – musician, singer
Sammy Kershaw (born 1958) – musician; singer; candidate for Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana
Ernie K-Doe (1936–2001) – singer; billed himself as the "Emperor of the Universe"
DJ Khaled (born 1975) – record producer; radio personality; DJ; record label executive
Nat G. Kiefer (1939–1985) – state senator from New Orleans
John Sidney Killen (1826–1903) – farmer; state representative from Claiborne and Webster parishes
Catherine D. Kimball (born 1945) – retired chief justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Clyde Kimball (born 1942) – state representative for Pointe Coupee and West Baton Rouge parishes (1976–92)
Claude King (1923–2013) – country singer-songwriter; known for "Wolverton Mountain"
Earl King (1934–2003) – musician
Ralph E. King (1902–1974) – physician; state senator from Franklin Parish
Edith Killgore Kirkpatrick (1918–2014) – music educator; former member of Louisiana Board of Regents
Mark Klein (born 1993) – singer
Neil Haven Klock (1896–1978) – sugar planter; politician from Rapides Parish
Jeannette Knoll (born 1943) – associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Jesse Monroe Knowles (1919–2006) – politician; survivor of the Bataan Death March during World War II
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John LaBruzzo (born 1970) – politician
Eddie Lacy (born 1990) – running back for the Green Bay Packers
Adolphe Lafargue (1855–1917) – newspaper publisher; state legislator; judge; from Marksville
Malcolm Lafargue (1908–1963) – U.S. attorney in Shreveport (1940s)
Ed Lafitte (1886–1971) – baseball player
Jean Lafitte (c. 1780 – c. 1826) – blacksmith; pirate
Juan LaFonta (born 1972) – former state representative for Orleans Parish and New Orleans lawyer
Papa Jack Laine (1873–1966) – bandleader
Maxie Lambright (1924–1980) – football coach
Dorothy Lamour (1914–1996) – actress
Edgar H. Lancaster Jr. (1918–2009) – former state representative and interim judge
Katherine LaNasa (born 1966) – actress, Judging Amy Mary Landrieu (born 1955) – US Senator
Mitch Landrieu (born 1960) – politician
Moon Landrieu (born 1930) – judge, politician
Ali Landry (born 1973) – actress; model; Miss USA (1996)
Jarvis Landry (born 1992) – wide receiver for the Miami Dolphins
Jeff Landry (born 1970) – politician
Lisa Landry (born 1977) – comedian
Nancy Landry (born 1962) – politician
Terry Landry – state representative for Lafayette, Iberia, and St. Martin parishes since 2012; former superintendent of the Louisiana State Police
Eric Laneuville (born 1952) – actor; television director, St. Elsewhere, Room 222 Nick LaRocca (1889–1961) – self-proclaimed "inventor of jazz"
John Larroquette (born 1947) – actor
Hank Lauricella (1930–2014) – football player; state senator
Marie Laveau (c 1794 – c. 1881) – Voodoo priestess
Theodore K. Lawless (1892–1971) – dermatologist, medical researcher, and philanthropist
Rollo C. Lawrence (1894–1968) – mayor of Pineville, 1930–46; first superintendent of Louisiana State Penitentiary, 1948–51
Claude "Buddy" Leach (born 1934) – politician; businessman
Lead Belly (1885–1949) – musician
Alexander McIntyre Leary (1873–1937) – mayor of Minden (1903–05); director of the Home Owners Loan Corporation in Shreveport (1935–37)
Ronald Leary (born 1989) – guard for the Dallas Cowboys
Bernard LeBas (born 1943) – pharmacist; state representative for Evangeline and St. Landry parishes (since 2008)
Dudley J. LeBlanc (1894–1971) – politician; businessman; made a fortune in the patent medicine Hadacol
Fred S. LeBlanc – politician
Jerry Luke LeBlanc (born 1956) – politician
Samuel A. LeBlanc I (1886–1955) – lawyer; state representative; state court judge; grandfather of Sam A. LeBlanc III
Conway LeBleu (1918–2007) – state representative for Calcasieu and Cameron parishes, 1964–88
Richard Leche (1898–1965) – Governor of Louisiana
Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) – neuroscientist
David Lee (born 1943) – football player
Harry Lee (1932–2007) – Jefferson Parish sheriff
Rory Lee (born 1949) – president of Louisiana College (1997–2004)
Swords Lee (1859–1929) – businessman and politician in Grant Parish and Alexandria
Walter C. Lee (born 1934) – member of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (1991–2014); retired educator in Shreveport
Walter L. Lee (1921–2015) – Clerk of Court in Evangeline Parish (1956–2012)
W. Burch Lee (1883–1939) – state representative for Webster Parish (1914–16); clerk of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana (1918–33)
Keith Lehr (born 1963) – two-time World Series of Poker bracelet winner, born and resides in Bossier City
John A. Lejeune (1867–1942) – Marine Corps general
Don Lemon (born 1966) – journalist and television anchor; host of CNN Newsroom Countess Leon (1798–1881) – founder of Germantown Colony in Webster Parish
Elmore Leonard (1925–2013) – crime and western novelist; born in New Orleans
Joe LeSage (1928–2015) – former state senator for Caddo Parish; LSU supervisor and Shreveport attorney
Jim Leslie (1937–1976) – journalist; advertising executive; assassinated in Baton Rouge
Jared Leto (born 1971) – actor; lead singer and guitarist of the alternative rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars
Shannon Leto (born 1970) – drummer of the alternative rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars, occasional actor
Zachary Levi (born 1980) – actor, Less than Perfect, Chuck Jerry Lee Lewis (born 1935) – musician
Keenan Lewis (born 1986) – cornerback for the New Orleans Saints
Michael Lewis (born 1960) – author; financial journalist; Moneyball, The Blind Side Patrick Lewis (born 1991) – center for the Seattle Seahawks
Rashard Lewis (born 1979) – forward for the Orlando Magic
Lil Wayne (born Dwayne Michael Carter Jr.) – rapper
Coleman Lindsey (1892–1968) – politician
Meghan Linsey (born 1985) – musician, singer/songwriter, and contestant on The Voice season 8
F. A. Little Jr. (born 1936) – judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana
Little Walter (1930–1968) – blues harmonica player
Lloyd Harlin Polite (born 1986) – R&B singer
Nate Livings (born 1982) – guard for the Dallas Cowboys
Bob Livingston (born 1943) – Member of Congress (1977–99)
Edward Livingston (1764–1836) – Member of Congress; United States Secretary of State
Lloyd (born 1986) – contemporary R&B and hip hop artist
Bennie Logan (born 1989) – nose tackle for the Philadelphia Eagles
Earl Kemp Long (1895–1960) – Governor of Louisiana (1939–40, 1948–52 and 1956–60)
George S. Long (1883–1958) – US Representative
Gerald Long (born 1944) – Republican state senator from Natchitoches; only elected Republican official of the Long family
Huey Pierce Long Jr. (1893–1935) – Governor of Louisiana; US Senator
Jimmy D. Long (1931–2016) – politician
Russell Long (1918–2003) – US Senator
Speedy O. Long (1928–2006) – US Representative; district attorney from La Salle Parish
Professor Longhair (1918–1980) – musician
John L. Loos (1918–2011) – historian
Joseph Lopinto (born c. 1976) – state representative from Jefferson Parish
Morris Lottinger Jr. (born c. 1938) – politician
Morris Lottinger Sr. (1902–1978) – politician
Lance Louis (born 1985) – offensive guard for the Indianapolis Colts
Aaron Loup (born 1987) – relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays
Margaret Lowenthal (1929–2003) – first woman state representative for Calcasieu Parish, service from 1980 to 1988
Fred L. Lowery (born 1943) – clergyman; author
J. A. W. Lowry (1848–1899) – politician in Bossier Parish
Bobby Lowther (1923–2015) – only two-sport (basketball and track and field) All-American at Louisiana State University (1946)
Cornelius Lucas (born 1991) – offensive tackle for the Detroit Lions
Jay Luneau (born 1962) – state senator and lawyer from Alexandria, effective 2016
Robert L. Lynn (1931–2020) – president of Louisiana College from 1975 to 1997
Hall Lyons (1923–1998) – oilman; politician
Ted Lyons (1900–1986) – Hall of Fame baseball player
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Sherman Q. Mack (born 1972) – politician
Anthony Mackie (born 1979) – actor, Million Dollar Baby, The Hurt Locker, Captain America Magic Sam (1937–1969) – blues music pioneer
John Maginnis (1948–2014) – journalist; author
Mikie Mahtook (born 1989) – outfielder for the Tampa Bay Rays
Karl Malone (born 1963) – Hall of Fame basketball player, mainly with the Utah Jazz
Jeff Mangum (born 1970) – musician; founder of Neutral Milk Hotel
Robert "Bob" Mann (born 1958) – journalist, historian
Archie Manning (born 1949) – former New Orleans Saints quarterback; father of Eli, Cooper and Peyton
Cooper Manning (born 1974) – television personality; brother of Eli and Peyton
Eli Manning (born 1981) – New York Giants quarterback; son of Archie Manning; brother of Peyton and Cooper
Peyton Manning (born 1976) – retired Denver Broncos quarterback; son of Archie Manning; brother of Eli and Cooper
Tommy Manzella (born 1983) – shortstop for the Colorado Rockies
"Pistol" Pete Maravich (1947–1988) – basketball player, LSU and NBA Hall of Famer
Paul Mares (1900–1949) – musician
Anna Margaret (born 1996) – singer
Angélica María (born 1944) – Mexican actress and singer
Robert M. Marionneaux (born 1968) – politician
Branford Marsalis (born 1960) – musician
Ellis Marsalis Jr. (1934–2020) – musician; educator
Ellis Marsalis Sr. (1908–2004) – poultry farmer; jazz musician; hotelier; civil rights activist
Wynton Marsalis (born 1961) – musician
Leonard Marshall (born 1961) – former defensive end, primarily for the New York Giants
Samuel W. Martien (1854–1946) – planter; politician
Wade O. Martin Jr. (1911–1990) – secretary of state
Danny Martiny (born 1951) – politician
Charles A. Marvin (1929–2003) – district attorney; judge
Rod Masterson (1945–2013) – actor
Tyrann Mathieu (born 1992) – free safety and cornerback for the Arizona Cardinals
Frank H. Mayer (1850–1954) – American frontiersman born in New Orleans; most associated with Park County, Colorado
Vance McAllister (born 1974) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 5th congressional district
W. T. McCain (1913–1993) – politician from Grant Parish
Jay McCallum (born 1960) – state district court judge since 2003; former state representative for Lincoln and Union parishes
James T. McCalman (1914–1977) – state senator from Claiborne and Bienville parishes (1960–64)
Todd McClure (born 1977) – center for the Atlanta Falcons
John McConathy (1930–2016) – professional basketball player and educator
Mike McConathy (born 1955) – basketball coach at Northwestern State University since 1999; son of John McConathy
Billy McCormack (1928–2012) – Southern Baptist clergyman; national director of the Christian Coalition of America
C. L. McCrary (1905–1989) – state representative for Bienville Parish (1960–64)
Jim McCrery (born 1949) – US Representative
Sidney McCrory (1911–1985) – Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry (1956–60)
Charles R. McDonald (born 1938) – former state representative from Morehouse and Ouachita parishes
Jack McFarland (born 1969) – state representative from Winn Parish, effective 2016
Eugene McGehee (1928–2014) – state legislator; judge; from East Baton Rouge Parish
Tim McGraw (born 1967) – country musician; actor
John McKeithen (1918–1999) – Governor of Louisiana (1964–72)
W. Fox McKeithen (1946–2005) – Louisiana secretary of state (1988–2005)
Charles E. McKenzie (1896–1956) – U.S. representative
Baylus Benjamin McKinney (1886–1952) – Christian singer-songwriter
Joe McKnight (born 1988) – tailback for the New York Jets
James M. McLemore (1907–1997) – politician; businessman
A. J. McNamara (1936–2014) – state representative; U.S. District Judge from Jefferson Parish
Gil Meche (born 1978) – MLB pitcher
Leon C. Megginson (1921–2010), LSU professor noted for his clarifying statements about Darwinism
D. L. Menard (1932–2017) – Cajun musician from Erath
Adah Isaacs Menken (1835–1868) – actress
Mildred Methvin (born 1952) – judge
Emile Meyer (1910–1987) – actor
Jerome Meyinsse (born 1988) – basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Quintin Mikell (born 1980) – safety for the St. Louis Rams
Lizzie Miles (1895–1963) – singer
Wade Miley (born 1986) – relief pitcher for the Houston Astros
Gregory A. Miller (born 1962) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from St. Charles Parish
Roderick Miller (1924–2005) – politician; lawyer
Percy "Master P" Miller (born 1967) – musician; actor; record producer; athlete
Fred H. Mills Jr. (born 1955) – politician, pharmacist, banker
Jordan Mills (born 1990) – offensive tackle for the Chicago Bears
Newt V. Mills (1899–1996) – U.S. representative
Paul Millsap (born 1985) – power forward for the Utah Jazz
Alexander Milne (1742–1838) – businessman; slave trader; philanthropist
Barkevious Mingo (born 1990) – outside linebacker for the New England Patriots
H. Lane Mitchell (1895–1978) – Shreveport commissioner of public works (1934–68)
RJ Mitte (born 1992) – actor, Walt Jr. on Breaking Bad Beth Mizell (born 1952) – state senator for St. Tammany, Tangipahoa, and Washington parishes since 2016
Randy Moffett (born 1947) – educator
Bill Monroe (1920–2011) – journalist, host of Meet the Press (1975–84)
Greg Monroe (born 1990) – center for the Detroit Pistons
Billy Montgomery (born 1937) – politician; former educator
Little Brother Montgomery (c. 1906–1985) – musician
Chris Mooney (born 1977) – journalist and author
A. Brown Moore (1911–1987) – businessman; politician
Cleo Moore (1923–1973) – actress (1950s)
Danny Roy Moore (1925–c. 2020) – state senator from Claiborne Parish (1964–68)
Ellen Bryan Moore (1912–1999) – Register of State Lands; captain in Women's Army Corps during World War II
Mewelde Moore (born 1982) – running back for the Indianapolis Colts
W. Henson Moore (born 1939) – US Representative
T. J. Moran (1930–2015) – businessman; restaurateur; philanthropist; from Baton Rouge
Jackie Moreland (1938–1971) – professional basketball player
Aaron Morgan (born 1988) – outside linebacker and defensive end for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Cecil Morgan (1898–1999) – state legislator; led the impeachment forces against Huey Pierce Long Jr.; executive with Standard Oil Company; dean of Tulane University Law School
Elemore Morgan Jr. (1931–2008) – landscape painter and photographer
Lewis L. Morgan (1876–1950) – U.S. representative; gubernatorial runoff candidate (1944)
S. M. Morgan Jr. (1922–1982) – state representative from Red River Parish (1964–68)
Dutch Morial (1929–1989) – judge; mayor of New Orleans
Arthur A. Morrell (born 1943) – New Orleans clerk of the criminal court (since 2006); state representative (1984–2006)
Cynthia Hedge-Morrell (born 1947) – member of the New Orleans City Council
Jean-Paul Morrell (born 1978) – New Orleans lawyer and member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature
Jay Morris (born 1958) – state representative from Ouachita and Morehouse parishes
deLesseps Morrison Jr. (1944–1996) – state representative from Orleans Parish
deLesseps S. "Chep" Morrison (1912–1964) – mayor of New Orleans; ambassador to the Organization of American States; three-time gubernatorial candidate
Logan Morrison (born 1987) – outfielder and first baseman for the Seattle Mariners
Morgus the Magnificent – fictional horror host (1950s–1980s)
Paul Morphy (1837–1884) – world chess champion
Garrett Morris (born 1937) – actor and comedian, Saturday Night Live Isaac Edward Morse (1809–1866) – Attorney General of Louisiana; US Member of Congress
Jelly Roll Morton (1890–1941) – musician; composer; self-proclaimed "inventor of jazz"
Alicia Morton (born 1987) – actress
Alexander Mouton (1804–1885) – Governor; United States Senator
Jonas Mouton (born 1988) – linebacker for the San Diego Chargers
Bernhard Müller (1788–1834) – colonizer of Grand Ecore in Natchitoches Parish
Robert J. Munson (1912–1996) – state representatives from Rapides Parish (1956–73)
W. Spencer Myrick (1913–2001) – state legislator from West Carroll Parish
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Ray Nagin (born 1956) – mayor of New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina; convicted felon
George Nattin (1918–2002) – mayor of Bossier City (1961–73)
Edward F. Neild (1884–1955) – architect; from Shreveport
Ed Nelson (1928–2014) – actor, Peyton Place Sydney B. Nelson (1935-2022) – state senator
Aaron Neville (born 1941) – singer
Arthel Neville (born 1962) – anchor for Fox News
Drake Nevis (born 1989) – defensive tackle for the Dallas Cowboys
Josephine Louise Newcomb (1816–1901) – philanthropist (Newcomb College)
Malik Newman (born 1997), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Randy Newman (born 1943) – singer-songwriter; pianist
Francis T. Nicholls (1834–1912) – Governor of Louisiana
Lance E. Nichols (born 1955) – actor, Treme Elwyn Nicholson (1923–2014) – state senator from Jefferson Parish (1972–88)
J. Kelly Nix (born 1934) – politician; businessman
Taurean Nixon (born 1991) – cornerback for the Denver Broncos
James A. Noe (1890–1976) – Governor of Louisiana (for five months in 1936); oil driller; broadcaster
Rico Noel (born 1989) – outfielder for the New York Yankees
Aaron Nola (born 1993) – MLB All Star baseball pitcher
Dave Norris (born 1942) – mayor of West Monroe (1978–2018)
William Wiley Norris III (1936–2016) – city, district, and circuit court judge from West Monroe
Solomon Northrup (1807–1863) – abolitionist
Barbara Norton (born 1946) – state representative for Caddo Parish (since 2008)
Alcide Nunez (1884–1934) – musician
Samuel B. Nunez Jr. (1930–2012) – politician
William Harold "Billy" Nungesser (born 1959) – Republican politician
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Prentiss Oakley (1905–1957) – Bienville Parish sheriff (1940–52); in posse that ambushed Bonnie and Clyde in 1934
Frank Ocean (born 1987) – Grammy Award-nominated R&B singer
Alton Ochsner (1896–1981) – surgeon; medical researcher
Kenneth L. Odinet Sr. (born 1930) – state representative for Orleans and St. Bernard parishes (1988–2008)
Bob Odom (1935–2014) – state agriculture commissioner (1980–2008); longest-serving individual in that office
Ethma Odum (1931–2009) – pioneer woman television personality at KALB-TV in Alexandria
Arthur J. O'Keefe Sr. (1876–1943) – mayor of New Orleans (1926–29)
Michael H. O'Keefe (1931–2021) – politician; convicted felon
Henry Warren Ogden (1842–1905) – politician
Taylor W. O'Hearn (1907–1997) – politician
Shaquille O'Neal – former LSU and NBA player, Basketball Hall of Famer
Joe "King" Oliver (1885–1938) – jazz musician
Virgil Orr (1923–2021) – state representative; vice president, Louisiana Tech University
Joe Osborn (1937–2018) – musician
Kenneth Osterberger (1930–2016) – state senator from East Baton Rouge Parish, 1972 to 1992; former opponent of David Duke
Lee Harvey Oswald (1939–1963) – presumed assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy
Lionel Ott (1894–1987) – politician; businessman
George T. Oubre (1918–1998) – politician; from St. James Parish
Darrell Ourso (born 1964) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from East Baton Rouge Parish (since 2015)
Jessel Ourso (1932–1978) – sheriff of Iberville Parish
John H. Overton (1875–1948) – US Senator
Mel Ott (1909–1958) – Hall of Fame baseball player
Don Owen (1930–2012) – news anchor; politician
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Robert Pack (born 1969) – NBA player and coach
Frank Page (1925–2013) – radio broadcaster, KWKH in Shreveport
James George Palmer (1875–1952) – Mayor of Shreveport (1930–32); Judge, Louisiana Circuit Court of Appeals (1932–33)
Jonathan Papelbon (born 1980) – closer for the Philadelphia Phillies
Robert Parish (born 1953) – Hall of Fame basketball player
Hugh G. Parker Jr. (1934–2007) – architect
Larry Parker (1922–1996) – businessman; state representative from Rapides Parish
John M. Parker (1863–1939) – Governor of Louisiana (1920–24)
John Victor Parker (1928–2014) – federal judge (1979–2014)
Mel Parnell (1922–2012) – pitcher for the Boston Red Sox
Edward Grady Partin (1924–1990) – Teamsters Union business agent in Baton Rouge
Otto Passman (1900–1988) – U.S. Representative
Paul Pastorek (born 1954) – politician, lawyer, educational specialist
William S. Patout III (1932–2017) – sugar grower in Iberia Parish
David I. Patten (1920–1998) – politician
Carly Patterson (born 1988) – Olympic gold medalist in gymnastics
B. R. Patton (1920–1999) – state senator from Lincoln and Union parishes (1956–64)
Felix Octave Pavy (1879–1962) – physician and politician from St. Landry Parish
James E. Paxton (born 1963) – district attorney of Louisiana 6th Judicial District
E. N. Payne (1873–1951) – state representative for Webster Parish (1932–36)
Elfrid Payton (born 1994) – Point guard for the Orlando Magic of the National Basketball Association
Nicholas Payton (born 1973) – musician
Joe Raymond Peace (born 1945) – football coach
Dave L. Pearce (1904–1984) – politician
Kevin Pearson (born 1959) – politician
Jesse Pearson (1930–1979) – actor and screenwriter
Charles B. Peatross (1940–2015) – circuit court judge in Shreveport
William S. Peck Jr. (1916–1987) – politician
William S. Peck Sr. (1873–1946) – politician
Harvey Peltier Jr. (1923–1980) – politician
Harvey Peltier Sr. (1899–1977) – politician
Leander Perez (1891–1969) – District judge; political boss of St. Bernard and Plaquemine parishes (1919–69)
Tony Perkins (born 1963) – conservative politician; head of the Family Research Council
Ralph Perlman (1917–2013) – state budget director (1967–88)
Pauley Perrette (born 1969) – singer and actress (NCIS)
Ryan Perrilloux (born 1987) – quarterback
Jonathan W. Perry (born 1973) – politician
Tyler Perry (born 1969) – television and film producer, writer, actor, director
Jace Peterson (born 1990) – second baseman for the Atlanta Braves
Bob Pettit (born 1932) – Hall of Fame basketball player (1954–65)
Andy Pettitte (born 1972) – former starting pitcher for the New York Yankees and Houston Astros
Marguerite Piazza (1921–2012) – operatic soprano
John S. Pickett Jr. (1920–2014) – state representative; state court judge; from Sabine Parish
Abe E. Pierce III (1934–2021) – politician; educator
Webb Pierce (1921–1991) – singer
Wendell Pierce (born 1962) – actor, Bunk Moreland on The Wire Juan Pierre (born 1977) – outfielder for the Miami Marlins
Vincent Pierre (born 1964) – state representative for Lafayette Parish (since 2012)
P.B.S. Pinchback (1837–1921) – politician, Governor of Louisiana
Glen Pitre (born 1955) – filmmaker
Loulan Pitre Jr. (born 1961) – lawyer in New Orleans; former state representative for Lafourche Parish
Montgomery Pittman (1917–1962) – actor, screenwriter, producer, known for 77 Sunset Strip Vance Plauché (1897-1976) - U.S. Representative, 1941 to 1943
Dustin Poirier (born 1989) – UFC fighter
Leonidas Polk (1806–1864) – Confederate general; Episcopal bishop; founder of Sewanee: The University of the South
Tracy Porter (born 1986) – cornerback for the Oakland Raiders
Dante Powell, stand-up comedian
Henry "Tank" Powell (born 1945) – politician
Mike Powell (born 1961) – Shreveport politician
Robert E. Powell (1923–1997) – mayor of Monroe from 1979 to 1996
Julien de Lallande Poydras (1740–1824) – poet, politician
Steve Prator (born 1951) – Caddo Parish sheriff
Phil Preis (born 1950) – politician
Sister Helen Prejean (born 1938) – activist
Arthur T. Prescott (1863–1942) – educator and founding president of Louisiana Tech University
Dak Prescott (born 1993) – quarterback for the Dallas Cowboys
Edward J. Price (born 1953) – state representative for Ascension, Iberville, and St. James parishes (since 2012)
Louis Prima (1910–1978) – musician, entertainer
Professor Longhair (1918–1980) – musician
Albin Provosty (1865–1932) – politician from New Roads
Paul Prudhomme (1940–2015) – chef
Keith M. Pyburn (1910–1967) – state representative for Caddo Parish (1948–52)
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Chris Quinn (born 1983) – point guard for the New Jersey Nets
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Paul Rae (born 1968) – actor
Max Rafferty (1917–1982) – author ;educator; California politician
Henry Ragas (1897–1919) – early jazz pianist
Kevin Rahm (born 1971) – actor
Tanner Rainey (born 1992) – relief pitcher for the Washington Nationals
Melvin Rambin (1941–2001) – politician; banker
Rueben Randle (born 1991) – wide receiver for the New York Giants
Kevin Rankin (born 1976) – actor, Friday Night Lights, Trauma, Unforgettable Ed Rand (1920–1999) – state representative from Rapides Parish (1960–64)
Joseph E. Ransdell (1858–1954) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 5th congressional district; U.S. senator (1913–31)
John Rarick (1924–2009) – US Representative; state court judge
Clyde V. Ratcliff (1879–1952) – politician; planter
Eddy Raven (born 1944) – singer-songwriter
Donald Rawson (1925–2014) – historian
Shawn Reaves (born 1978) – actor
Mac "Dr John" Rebbenack (born 1940) – pianist, singer-songwriter
Ed Reed (born 1978) – NFL free safety
Willis Reed (1941–2019) – Hall of Fame basketball player with the New York Knicks; NBA head coach
Pee Wee Reese (1918–1999) – Hall of Fame shortstop for the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers
Terry Reeves (1946–2005) – district attorney for Winn Parish (1991–2005, his death)
Godfrey Reggio (born 1940) – filmmaker
Eric Reid (born 1991) – safety for the San Francisco 49ers
Sean Reilly (born 1961) – state representative; chief operating officer of Lamar Advertising Company
Ed Renwick (1938–2020) – political scientist
Darius Reynaud (born 1985) – wide receiver and running back for the Tennessee Titans
Gene Reynolds (born 1950) – state representative
Slater Rhea (Shuai De, ) – American singer and TV personality famous in China; born in Alexandria
Doris Lindsey Holland Rhodes (1909–1997) – politician
Anne Rice (1941–2021) – author
Jerome "Dee" Richard (born 1955) – politician
Teddy Riley (1924–1992) – jazz trumpeter
Norbert Rilleaux (1806–1894) – inventor; engineer
Edward Ripoll (1924–2006) – state representative; bar owner in New Orleans
Neil Riser (born 1962) – state senator, 2008 to 2020; state representative since 2020
Randy Roach (born 1951) – mayor of Lake Charles since 2000
Joel Robideaux (born 1962) – politician
Cokie Roberts (1943–2019) – television journalist; author; daughter of Hale Boggs and Lindy Boggs
Robert Roberts Jr. (1872 – date of death missing) – politician from Union and Webster parishes
Kay Robertson (born 1950) – television personality
Phil Robertson (born 1946) – television personality
Si Robertson (born 1948) – television personality
Scotty Robertson (1930–2011) – basketball coach
Greg Robinson (born 1992) – offensive tackle for the St. Louis Rams
W. C. Robinson (1861–1914) – educator
George Rodrigue (1944–2013) – "Blue Dog" artist
Buddy Roemer (1943–2021) – governor of Louisiana (1988–92)
Charles E. Roemer II (1923–2012) – state commissioner of administration (1972–80)
Chas Roemer (born 1970) – president of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (since 2012)
Ned Romero (1925–2017) – actor; originally from Franklin
Ralph L. Ropp (1897–1982) – president of Louisiana Tech University (1949–62)
Leon Roppolo (1902–1943) – musician
Jacques Roy (born 1970) – mayor of Alexandria (since 2006)
Alvin Benjamin Rubin (1920–1991) – federal judge
Barry Rubin (born 1957) – Head Strength and Conditioning Coach of the Kansas City Chiefs in the NFL
Robert Edwin Russ (1830–1902) – founder of Ruston, Louisiana
Bill Russell (born 1934) – Hall of Fame center for the Boston Celtics; NBA coach
Weldon Russell (born 1946) – politician; businessman
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Jeffrey D. Sadow (born 1962) – political scientist; columnist; educator
Larry Sale (1893–1977) – sheriff of Claiborne Parish
Joe R. Salter (born 1943) – politician, educator
A. T. "Apple" Sanders Jr. (1926–1989) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from East Baton Rouge Parish (1956–64)
Roy Sanders (1904–1976) – educator; state legislator from Natchitoches Parish
John N. Sandlin (1872–1957) – U. S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district (1921–37)
McIntyre H. Sandlin (c. 1870–1955) – politician in Minden
Nicholas J. Sandlin (1832–1896) – politician in Webster Parish
Jean Oliver Sartor (1918–2007) – artist
Kurtis Scaletta – writer
Clay Schexnayder (born 1969) – state representative; businessman
John Schroder (born 1961) – former state representative from Covington; businessman
Mike Scifres (born 1980) – punter for the San Diego Chargers
Ashley Scott (born 1977) – actress, model, Jericho, Dark Angel, Birds of Prey Nauman Scott (1916–2001) – U.S. District Court judge
Pat Screen (1943–1994) – mayor-president of East Baton Rouge Parish (1981–88)
Alan Seabaugh (born 1967) – state representative
J.C. Seaman (1898–1964) – state representative from Tensas Parish (1944–64)
Sam Seamans (born 1967) – Anglican Church bishop in Mountain Home, Arkansas; born in Morgan City
Aaron Selber Jr. (1927–2013) – businessman and philanthropist
Joe Sevario (born 1944) – state senator from Ascension Parish, 1976–94
Henry Clay Sevier (1896–1974) – politician
V. C. Shannon (1910–1989) – politician
Amanda Shaw (born 1990) – actress; singer; fiddler
B. L. Shaw (1933-2018) - former state senator, educator
Rhonda Shear (born 1954) – beauty queen; television host
Ben Sheets (born 1978) – MLB pitcher
Virginia Shehee (1923-2015) -first woman elected to Louisiana Senate
Clarence Shelmon (born 1952) – NFL offensive coordinator
Kenny Wayne Shepherd (born 1977) – musician
Alana Shipp (born 1982) – American-Israeli IFBB professional bodybuilder
Chris Shivers (born 1978) – professional bull rider
Henry Miller Shreve (1785–1854) – inventor; steamboat captain
Phil Short (born 1947) – state senator; relocated to Virginia
Rockin' Sidney (1938–1998) – Zydeco musician
Richard Simmons (born 1948) – fitness authority; television personality
Scott M. Simon (born 1961) – state representative
Tharold Simon (born 1991) – cornerback for the Seattle Seahawks
Frank P. Simoneaux (born 1933) – state representative from East Baton Rouge Parish (1972–82)
C. O. Simpkins Sr. (1925–2019) – state representative from Shreveport; civil rights activist, and dentist
Cuthbert Ormond Simpkins Jr. (born 1947) – physician and historian, reared in Shreveport
Oramel H. Simpson (1870–1932) – Governor of Louisiana (1926–28)
Fulwar Skipwith (1765–1839) – diplomat; politician
Eric Skrmetta (born 1958) – politician
John Slidell (1793–1871) – U.S. Senator; Confederate diplomat
Soulja Slim (1977–2003) – musician
Donald Sloan (born 1988) – guard for the Atlanta Hawks
LeRoy Smallenberger (1912–2002) – Republican lawyer; politician
Argile Smith (born 1955) – interim president of Louisiana College (2014–15)
Dorothy Garrett Smith (c. 1932–1990) – first woman president of the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education
George Luke Smith (1837–1884) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district
Howard K. Smith (1914–2002) – television journalist; reporter
James Peyton Smith (1925–2006) – politician
Jasper K. Smith (1905–1992) – politician
John R. Smith (born 1945) – politician
Otis Smith (born 1965) – New England Patriots cornerback; Kansas City Chiefs assistant coach
Patricia Haynes Smith (born 1946) – state representative from Baton Rouge
Ada Jack Carver Snell (1890–1972) – short story writer
Jefferson B. Snyder (1859–1951) – politician
Robert H. Snyder (1855–1905) – politician
Guy Sockrider (1921–2011) – politician
Steven Soderbergh (born 1963) – film producer; screenwriter; cinematographer; director
Floyd Soileau (born 1938) – record producer
Ian Somerhalder (born 1978) – actor; model
Art Sour (1924–2000) – State Representative from Shreveport (1972–92)
James Z. Spearing (1864–1942) – politician
Britney Spears (born 1981) – singer; actress
Bryan Spears (born 1977) – film and television producer
Jamie Lynn Spears (born 1991) – actress; singer
Lynne Spears (born 1955) – author
Marcus Spears (born 1983) – defensive end for the Dallas Cowboys
Freddie Spencer (born 1961) – world motorcycle champion
Mason Spencer (1892–1962) – politician
Tommy Spinks (1948–2007) – football player
Tam Spiva (1932–2017) – screenwriter
Frank Spooner (born 1937) – businessman and politician
David Theophilus Stafford (1849–1926) – sheriff of Rapides Parish, 1888–1904
Grove Stafford (1897–1975) – state senator for Rapides Parish, 1940–48
Leroy Augustus Stafford (1822–1864) – Confederate brigadier general
Tom Stagg (1923–2015) – Judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana
Richard Stalder (born 1951) – secretary of the Louisiana Department of Public Safety & Corrections
Rusty Staub (1944–2018) – MLB right fielder, designated hitter, and first baseman
Edward J. Steimel (1922–2016) – lobbyist and founder of Louisiana Association of Business and Industry
Craig Steltz (born 1986) – safety for the Chicago Bears
Alton Sterling (1979–2016) – black man fatally shot by a police officer in Baton Rouge
E. L. Stewart (1872–1956) – Minden lawyer and state representative for Webster Parish from 1904 to 1908
Kordell Stewart (born 1972) – NFL quarterback and wide receiver
Karen St. Germain (born c. 1957) – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Iberville and Assumption parishes (since 2004)
Dennis Stine (born 1952) – businessman and politician from Lake Charles
Tim Stine (born 1956) – businessman and politician from Sulphur in Calcasieu Parish
Ford E. Stinson (1914–1989) – lawyer and state legislator from Bossier Parish
Julie Stokes (born 1969) – state representative from Jefferson Parish
Brandon Stokley (born 1976) – wide receiver for the Denver Broncos
Johnathan Stove (born 1995), basketball player for Hapoel Galil Elyon of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Jimmy Strain (1926–1973) – politician and pediatrician
Michael G. Strain (born 1959) – veterinarian; state representative; Commissioner of the Louisiana Departmentof Agriculture and Forestry
Izzy Stradlin (born 1962) – singer, guitarist and backing vocal at Guns N' Roses
James St. Raymond (born c. 1957) – state representative for Orleans Parish (1988–92); businessman
Roy C. Strickland (1942–2010) – businessman, politician
Raymond Strother (born 1940) – political consultant
James Sudduth (1917–1995) – mayor of Lake Charles, 1965–73; 1989–93
Patrick Surtain (born 1976) – NFL cornerback
James Sutterfield (born 1942) – lawyer; Republican member of the Louisiana House from Orleans Parish (1970–72)
Hal Sutton (born 1958) – PGA Tour golfer
Jimmy Swaggart (born 1935) – evangelist
Marc Swayze (1913–2012) – comic book writer and illustrator
Stromile Swift (born 1979) – NBA player
Harold Sylvester (born 1949) – actor, Married... with Children, Today's F.B.I., Shaky GroundT
Joseph Talamo (born 1990) – jockey
Kirk Talbot (born 1969) – state representative from Jefferson Parish
Irvin Talton – member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for Webster Parish (1880–84)
Elmer R. Tapper (1929–2011) – politician
Gregory Tarver (born 1946) – civil rights activist, state senator from Caddo Parish
Ray Tarver (1921–1972) – dentist; represented Natchitoches Parish in state House of Representatives (1964–68)
John Adam Tassin Jr, MD (1944–2020) – doctor; represented Avoyelles, Evangeline and Allen Parishes in State Senate (1972-1976)
Albert Tate (1920–1986) – state and federal judge
Billy Tauzin (born 1943) – US Representative; lobbyist
Dorothy Mae Taylor (1928–2000) – first African-American woman in the Louisiana House of Representatives (1971–80)
Ike Taylor (born 1980) – cornerback for the Pittsburgh Steelers
Jim Taylor (1935–2018) – Hall of Fame fullback, primarily with the Green Bay Packers
Joe Gray Taylor (1920–1987) – historian
Richard Taylor (1826–1879) – Confederate general
Zachary Taylor (1784–1850) – 12th President of the United States; US Army general
Lloyd George Teekell (1922–1996) – politician
Benjamin Milam Teekell (1867–1942) – state representative from Red River Parish (1920–28)
Garrett Temple (born 1986) – point guard for the San Antonio Spurs
Suzanne Haik Terrell (born 1954) – politician
Byron Thames (born 1969) – actor and musician, Father Murphy Sam H. Theriot (born 1954) – politician
Ryan Theriot (born 1979) – infielder for the San Francisco Giants
Major Thibaut (born 1977) – politician
Keith Thibodeaux (born 1950) – actor
Ledricka Thierry (born 1978) – politician
Dallas Thomas (born 1989) – offensive tackle for the Miami Dolphins
Mike Thomas (born 1987) – wide receiver for the Jacksonville Jaguars
Tyrus Thomas (born 1986) – power forward for the Charlotte Bobcats
Addison Roswell Thompson (1911–1976) – segregationist politician
Jeff R. Thompson (born 1965) – politician
Ken Thompson (born 1943) – pioneer of computer science
Lizzie P. Thompson (1894–1973) – state representative
Richard S. Thompson (1916–1997) – state representative from Grant Parish
Sandra Thompson (born 1946) – politician; environmentalist
Steve D. Thompson (born 1935) – member of the Louisiana State Senate from Franklin Parish (1988–96)
T. Ashton Thompson (1916–1965) – U.S. representative
Dale Thorn (1943–2014) – journalist; Louisiana State University professor; press secretary to Governor Edwin Edwards
Marcus Thornton (born 1987) – shooting guard for the New Orleans Hornets
George H. Tichenor (1837–1923) – surgeon; pioneer in antiseptics
E. M. Toler (1874–1954) – physician; coroner; state senator for East and West Feliciana parishes (1944–54)
Tommy Tomlinson (1930–1982) – guitarist; inducted into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame
David Toms (born 1967) – PGA Tour golfer
Charles Emery Tooke Jr. (1912–1986) – lawyer; state senator
John Kennedy Toole (1937–1969) – author of Pulitzer Prize-winning A Confederacy of Dunces Reggie Torbor (born 1981) – former NFL linebacker
Ned Touchstone (1926–1988) – politician; publisher
Wayne Toups (born 1958) – musician
Allen Toussaint (1938–2015) – New Orleans musician; composer; record producer
Donald Trahan (born 1959) – state representative for Lafayette and Vermilion parishes (2004–08)
John D. Travis (1940–2016) – state representative from East Feliciana Parish, 1984 to 2000
David C. Treen (1928–2009) – US Representative (1973–80); Governor of Louisiana (1980–84)
Risley C. Triche (1927–2012) – attorney; state representative
Ralph T. Troy (1935–2014) – mayor of Monroe (1972–76)
Simon W. Tudor (1887–1956) – businessman; educator
Paul Tulane (1801–1887) – businessman; philanthropist
Ben Turpin (1869–1940) – silent film comedian
Odessa Turner (born 1964) – NFL wide receiver
Trai Turner (born 1993) – guard for the Carolina Panthers
Marshall H. Twitchell (1840–1905) – politician; planter; diplomat
Ollie Tyler (born 1945) – educator; politician
U
Chris Ullo (1928–2014) – member of both houses of the state legislature from Jefferson Parish (1972–2008)
V
Steve Van Buren (1920–2012) – Hall of Fame halfback for the Philadelphia Eagles
Rose Van Thyn (1921–2010) – Holocaust survivor in Shreveport
William Washington Vance (1849–1900) – politician
Andrew Varona – race car driver
Troy Verges (born 20th century) – country music songwriter
Lester Vetter (1910–1960) – politician; from Red River Parish
Jeffrey P. Victory (born 1946) – associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Jacques Villeré (1760–1830) – Creole; Governor of Louisiana; general
Pruitt Taylor Vince (born 1960) – film and television character actor
David Vitter (born 1961) – U.S. Senator
Jeffrey Vitter (born 1955) – computer science professor and researcher; 17th chancellor of the University of Mississippi
David Voelker (1953–2013) – entrepreneur
Frank Voelker Jr. (1921–2002) – lawyer; politician
John Volz (1936–2011) – U.S. attorney; prosecuted high-profile corruption cases in the 1980s
Cole Vosbury (born 1991) – singer-songwriter, musician, and contestant on The Voice season 5
W
David Wade (1911–1990) – general
Thomas M. Wade (1860–1929) – politician; educator
Von Wafer (born 1985) – shooting guard for the Orlando Magic
Joseph David Waggonner Jr. (1918–2007) – U.S. representative from Louisiana's 4th congressional district
W. E. "Willie" Waggonner (1905–1976) – sheriff of Bossier Parish (1948–76)
Bryan Wagner (1943–2018) – Republican politician; former member of the New Orleans City Council
Madam C. J. Walker (1867–1919) – business tycoon
Joseph Marshall Walker (1786–1856) – Governor of Louisiana
Lillian W. Walker (1923–2016) – politician
Taijuan Walker (born 1992) – starting pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks
Mike Wallace (born 1986) – wide receiver for the Pittsburgh Steelers
Dayton Waller (1925–2015) – former state representative from Caddo Parish
Ray Walston (1914–2001) actor – My Favorite Martian Mike Walsworth (born 1956) – state senator from Ouachita Parish
Donald Ellsworth Walter (born 1936) – former U.S. attorney; U.S. district judge in Shreveport
Rick Ward III (born 1982) – state senator from Iberville Parish
Jack Wardlaw (1937–2012) – journalist
Henry C. Warmoth (1842–1931) – Governor of Louisiana during Reconstruction
Ron Washington (born 1952) – manager for the Texas Rangers
J. Louis Watkins Jr. (1929–1997) – judge; politician
John D. Watkins (1828–1895) – state senator and judge in Webster Parish
John T. Watkins (1854–1925) – state court judge; U.S. representative for Louisiana's 4th congressional district (1905–21)
Muse Watson (born 1948) – actor, Prison Break, NCIS Reggie Wayne (born 1978) – wide receiver for the Indianapolis Colts
Carl Weathers (born 1948) – NFL player; actor, Apollo Creed in the Rocky films
Blayne Weaver (born 1976) – actor
Corey Webster (born 1982) – cornerback for the New York Giants
Gus Weill (1933–2018) – political consultant and author
Carl Weiss (1906–1935) – physician; purported assassin of Huey Pierce Long Jr.
Fred Weller (born 1966) – actor, In Plain Sight, Missing Persons''
Rebecca Wells (born 20th century) – actress; playwright; author
Vernon Wells (born 1978) – outfielder for the New York Yankees
Charcandrick West (born 1991) – running back for the Kansas City Chiefs
Shane West (born 1978) – actor
Lloyd F. Wheat (born 1923) – state senator from Natchitoches and Red River parishes (1948–52)
Bodi White (born 1956) – politician
Edward Douglass White (1845–1921) – Chief Justice of the United States
John C. White (born 1975) – Louisiana state superintendent of education (since 2012)
Malinda Brumfield White (born 1967) – state representative from Bogalusa, effective 2016
Tony Joe White (1943–2018) – singer-songwriter; musician
Wally Whitehurst (born 1964) – former MLB pitcher
Lynn Whitfield (born 1953) – actress
Lenar Whitney (born 1959) – politician
Jonathan Wilhite (born 1984) – cornerback for the Denver Broncos
Robert L. Wilkie (born 1962) – Assistant Secretary of Defense
Aeneas Williams (born 1968) – Hall of Fame defensive back in the NFL
Alfred C. Williams (1951–2015) – state representative for East Baton Rouge Parish (since 2015)
A. L. Williams (born 1934) – retired football coach
Brian "Baby" Williams (born 1969) – record executive; record producer; entrepreneur; musician
Chris Williams (born 1985) – offensive guard for the Chicago Bears
Doug Williams (born 1955) – NFL quarterback, led Washington Redskins to Super Bowl XXII championship
Duke Williams (born 1990) – safety for the Buffalo Bills
Gerald Williams (born 1966) – former Major League Baseball outfielder
Hank Williams Jr. (born 1949) – singer
Kyle Williams (born 1983) – defensive tackle for the Buffalo Bills
Lucinda Williams (born 1963) – singer-songwriter; musician
Patrick C. Williams (born 1963) – state representative for Caddo Parish
T. Harry Williams (1909–1979) – historian
Tramon Williams (born 1983) – cornerback for the Green Bay Packers
Norris C. Williamson (1874–1949) – politician
Edwin E. Willis (1904–1972) – US Representative (1949–69)
Tom Willmott (born 1960) – state representative from Jefferson Parish (since 2008)
Harry D. Wilson (1869–1948) – Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry (1916–48)
Justin E. Wilson (1914–2001) – Cajun; raconteur; chef; humorist; politician
Peggy Wilson (born 1937) – Republican politician; former member of the New Orleans City Council
Riley J. Wilson (1871–1946) – U.S. representative
Rush Wimberly (1873–1943) – politician
Stephen J. Windhorst (born 1957) – judge; state representative
John D. Winters (1917–1998) – historian
Tommy Wiseau (born 1968) – screenwriter; director; producer; executive producer; actor
Reese Witherspoon (born 1976) – Academy Award-winning actress
A. Baldwin Wood (1879–1956) – inventor; engineer
Susan Ward (born 1976) – actress; model
Ebony Woodruff (born 1980) – state representative for Jefferson Parish from 2013 to 2016
Xavier Woods (born 1995) – safety for the Dallas Cowboys
J. Robert Wooley (born 1953) – politician
Orlando Woolridge (1959–2012) – NBA power forward for several teams
G. L. P. Wren (1836–1901) – member of both houses of the Louisiana legislature; farmer in Webster Parish
Zelma Wyche (1918–1999) – politician; civil rights activist
Y
Andrew Young (born 1932) – politician and civil rights advocate
Lester Young (1909–1959) – musician
Thaddeus Young (born 1988) – small forward for the Philadelphia 76ers
Peter Youree (1843–1914) – Shreveport businessman
Z
Samuel Zemurray (1877–1961) – businessman; philanthropist
Jerome Zeringue (born 1962) – state representative for Lafourche and Terrebonne parishes, effective 2016
Buckwheat Zydeco (1947–2016) – musician
See also
Lists of Americans
List of people from New Orleans, Louisiana
Notes | [
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|
226179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title%20%28property%29 | Title (property) | In property law, title is an intangible construct representing a bundle of rights in (to) a piece of property in which a party may own either a legal interest or equitable interest. The rights in the bundle may be separated and held by different parties. It may also refer to a formal document, such as a deed, that serves as evidence of ownership. Conveyance of the document (transfer of title to the property) may be required in order to transfer ownership in the property to another person. Title is distinct from possession, a right that often accompanies ownership but is not necessarily sufficient to prove it (for example squatting). In many cases, possession and title may each be transferred independently of the other. For real property, land registration and recording provide public notice of ownership information.
In United States law, evidence of title is typically established through title reports written up by title insurance companies, which show the history of title (property abstract and chain of title) as determined by the recorded public record deeds; the title report will also show applicable encumbrances such as easements, liens, or covenants. In exchange for insurance premiums, the title insurance company conducts a title search through public records and provides assurance of good title, reimbursing the insured if a dispute over the title arises. In the case of vehicle ownership, a simple vehicle title document may be issued by a governmental agency.
The main rights in the title bundle are usually:
Exclusive possession
Exclusive use and enclosure
Acquisition
Conveyance, including by bequest
Access easement
Hypothecation
Partition
The rights in real property may be separated further, examples including:
Water rights, including riparian rights and runoff rights
In some U.S. states, water rights are completely separate from land—see prior appropriation water rights
Mineral rights
Easement to neighboring property, for utility lines, etc.
Tenancy or tenure in improvements
Timber rights
Farming rights
Grazing rights
Hunting rights
Air rights
Development rights to erect improvements under various restrictions
Appearance rights, often subjected to local zoning ordinances and deed restrictions
Possession is the actual holding of a thing, whether or not one has any right to do so. The right of possession is the legitimacy of possession (with or without actual possession), evidence for which is such that the law will uphold it unless a better claim is proven. The right of property is that right which, if all relevant facts are known (and allowed), defeats all other claims. Each of these may be in a different person.
For example, suppose A steals from B something that B had previously bought in good faith from C and that C had earlier stolen from D and that had been an heirloom of D's family for generations but had originally been stolen centuries earlier (though this fact is now forgotten by all) from E. Here A has the possession, B has an apparent right of possession (as evidenced by the purchase), D has the absolute right of possession (being the best claim that can be proven), and the heirs of E, if they knew it, would have the right of property, which they however could not prove. A good title consists of the combination of these three (possession, right of possession, and right of property) in the same person(s).
The extinguishing of ancient, forgotten, or unasserted claims, such as E's in the example above, was the original purpose of statutes of limitations. Otherwise, title to property would always be uncertain.
Equitable versus legal title
At common law equitable title is the right to obtain full ownership of property, where another maintains legal title to the property.
When a contract for the sale of land is executed, equitable [interest/title] passes to the buyer. When the conditions on the sale contract have been met, legal title passes to the buyer in what is known as closing. Some companies, such as Econohomes/Visio Financial, use this term to describe a "trailing deed". This is not the case. Properties that are sold on the basis of equitable title have a legal chain of title intact, and a recorded transfer with the local municipality.
Legal title is actual ownership of the property as when the property has been bought, the seller paid in full and a deed or title is properly recorded. Equitable title separates from legal title upon the death of the legal title holder (owner). For example: When a person having legal title to property dies, heirs at law or beneficiaries per the last will, automatically receive equitable interest in the property. When an executor or administrator qualifies, that person acquires the legal title, subject to divestment when the estate has been administered so as to allow for the lawful passing of the legal title to those having an equitable interest. The resulting merger of the legal and equitable gives rise to the "perfect title," often referred to as marketable title.
Legal and equitable title also arises in trust. In a trust, one person may own the legal title, such as the trustees. Another person may own the equitable title such as the beneficiary.
Applications
In countries with a sophisticated private property system, documents of title are commonly used for real estate, motor vehicles, and some types of intangible property. When such documents are used, they are often part of a registration system whereby ownership of such property can be verified. In some cases, a title can also serve as a permanent legal record of condemnation of property, such as in the case of an automobile junk or salvage title. In the case of real estate, the legal instrument used to transfer title from one person or entity to another is via the deed. A famous rule is that a thief cannot convey good title, so title searches are routine (or highly recommended) for purchases of many types of expensive property (especially real estate). In several counties and municipalities in the US a standard title search (generally accompanied by title insurance) is required under the law as a part of ownership transfer.
Paramount title is the best title in Fee simple available for the true owner. The person who is owner of real property with paramount title has the higher (or better, or "superior") right in an action to Quiet title. This concept is inherently a relative one. Paramount title is not always the best (or highest) title, since it is necessarily based on some other person's title.
A quiet title action is a lawsuit to resolve with any cloud on title, such as competing claims or rights to real property, for example, missing heirs, tenants, reverters, remainders and lien holders all competing to get ownership to the house or land. Technical problems with title include misspellings, outstanding debt, unrecorded transactions, and any irregularity that might indicate a break in the chain of ownership. Each of the United States have different procedures for a quiet title action.
However, most personal property items do not have a formal document of title. For such items, possession is the simplest indication of title, unless the circumstances give rise to suspicion about the possessor's ownership of the item. Proof of legal acquisition, such as a bill of sale or purchase receipt, is contributory. The transfer of possession to a good faith purchaser will normally convey title if no document is required.
Political issues
California prevented aliens (mainly Asians) from holding title to land until the law was declared unconstitutional in 1952. Currently there are no restrictions on foreign ownership of land in the United States, although sales of real estate by non-resident aliens are subject to certain special taxation rules.
Aboriginal title
Prior to the establishment of the United States, title to Indian lands in lands controlled by Britain in North America was governed by The Royal Proclamation of October 7, 1763. This proclamation by King George III reserved title in land to the Indians, subject to alienation only by the Crown. This continued to be the law of Canada following the American Revolution.
In the United States Indian title is the subservient title held by Native Americans in the United States to the land they customarily claimed and occupied. It was first recognized in .It very early became accepted doctrine in this Court that although fee title to lands occupied by Indians when the colonists arrived became vested in the sovereign – first the discovering European nation and later the original states and the United States – a right of occupancy in the Indian tribes was nevertheless recognized. That right, sometimes called Indian Title and good against all but the sovereign, could be terminated only by sovereign act. Once the United States was organized and the Constitution adopted, these tribal rights to Indian lands became the exclusive province of the federal law. Indian title, recognized to be only a right of occupancy, was extinguishable only by the United States.
Oneida Indian Nation v. County of Oneida , 414 U.S. 661, 667 (1974).
The usual method of extinguishing Indian title was by treaty.
See also
Fee
Feu
Land tenure
Phase I Environmental Site Assessment
Manufacturer statement of origin
References
Property law
Legal terminology | [
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|
226186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential%20sash | Presidential sash | A presidential sash is a cloth sash worn by presidents of many nations in the world. Such sashes are worn by presidents in Africa, Asia, Europe and, most notably, in Latin America.
The sash is an important symbol of the continuity of the presidency, and is only worn by the president. Its value as a symbol of the office of the head of state can be compared to that of a crown in monarchies. When the president leaves office, he or she formally presents the sash to his or her successor as part of the official inauguration ceremony.
Presidential sashes are usually very colorful and very large and designed to resemble the nation's flag, especially those of Latin American presidents. They are usually worn over the right shoulder to the left side of the hip. The national coat of arms is also usually placed on the sash. A national order's star or chain of office can also be worn.
George Washington, who served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and later served as the first President of the United States, was noted for wearing a blue ribbed sash, similar to that of the British Order of the Garter, early in the war, as he had in 1775 prescribed the use of green, pink, and blue sashes to identify aides de camp, brigade-majors, brigadiers general, majors general, and the commander in chief in the absence of formal uniforms. He later gave up the sash as "unrepublican" and "pretentious for all but the highest-ranking aristocracy," according to historians. Washington is seen wearing the sash in Charles Wilson Peale's 1779 painting Washington at Princeton.
Gallery
Current national leaders
Former national leaders
See also
Livery collar
References
External links
Ceremonial clothing
Fashion accessories
Formal insignia
Sashes
Presidents | [
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|
226187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prandtl%E2%80%93Glauert%20singularity | Prandtl–Glauert singularity | The Prandtl–Glauert singularity is a theoretical construct in flow physics, often incorrectly used to explain vapor cones in transonic flows.
It is the prediction by the Prandtl–Glauert transformation that infinite pressures would be experienced by an aircraft as it approaches the speed of sound. Because it is invalid to apply the transformation at these speeds, the predicted singularity does not emerge. The incorrect association is related to the early-20th-century misconception of the impenetrability of the sound barrier.
Reasons of invalidity around Mach 1
The Prandtl–Glauert transformation assumes linearity (i.e. a small change will have a small effect that is proportional to its size). This assumption becomes inaccurate toward Mach 1 and is entirely invalid in places where the flow reaches supersonic speeds, since sonic shock waves are instantaneous (and thus manifestly non-linear) changes in the flow. Indeed, one assumption in the Prandtl–Glauert transformation is approximately constant Mach number throughout the flow, and the increasing slope in the transformation indicates that very small changes will have a very strong effect at higher Mach numbers, thus violating the assumption, which breaks down entirely at the speed of sound.
This means that the singularity featured by the transformation near the sonic speed (M=1) is not within the area of validity. The aerodynamic forces are calculated to approach infinity at the so-called Prandtl–Glauert singularity; in reality, the aerodynamic and thermodynamic perturbations do get amplified strongly near the sonic speed, but they remain finite and a singularity does not occur. The Prandtl–Glauert transformation is a linearized approximation of compressible, inviscid potential flow. As the flow approaches sonic speed, the nonlinear phenomena dominate within the flow, which this transformation completely ignores for the sake of simplicity.
Prandtl–Glauert transformation
The Prandtl–Glauert transformation is found by linearizing the potential equations associated with compressible, inviscid flow. For two-dimensional flow, the linearized pressures in such a flow are equal to those found from incompressible flow theory multiplied by a correction factor. This correction factor is given below:
where
cp is the compressible pressure coefficient
cp0 is the incompressible pressure coefficient
M∞ is the freestream Mach number.
This formula is known as "Prandtl's rule", and works well up to low-transonic Mach numbers (M < ~0.7). However, note the limit:
This obviously nonphysical result (of an infinite pressure) is known as the Prandtl–Glauert singularity.
Reason for condensation clouds
The reason that observable clouds sometimes form around high speed aircraft is that humid air is entering low-pressure regions, which also reduces local density and temperature sufficiently to cause water to supersaturate around the aircraft and to condense in the air, thus creating clouds. The clouds vanish as soon as the pressure increases again to ambient levels.
In the case of objects at transonic speeds, the local pressure increase happens at the shock wave location.
Condensation in free flow does not require supersonic flow. Given sufficiently high humidity, condensation clouds can be produced in purely subsonic flow over wings, or in the cores of wing tips, and even within, or around vortices themselves. This can often be observed during humid days on aircraft approaching or departing airports.
See also
Prandtl–Glauert transformation
Compressible flow
Vapor cone
Sonic boom
References
Aerodynamics
Physical phenomena
Shock waves
Obsolete theories in physics | [
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|
226188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauguration | Inauguration | In government and politics, inauguration is the process of swearing a person into office and thus making that person the incumbent. Such an inauguration commonly occurs through a formal ceremony or special event, which may also include an inaugural address by the new official.
The word inauguration stems from the Latin augur, which refers to the rituals of ancient Roman priests seeking to interpret if it was the will of the gods for a public official to be deemed worthy to assume office.
Public office
The inaugurations of public figures, especially those of political leaders, often feature lavish ceremonies in which the figure publicly takes their oath of office (sometimes called "swearing in"), often in front of a large crowd of spectators. A monarchical inauguration may take on different forms depending on the nation: they may undergo a coronation rite or may simply be required to take an oath in the presence of a country's legislature.
The "inaugural address" is a speech given during this ceremony which informs the people of their intentions as a leader. A famous inauguration speech is John F. Kennedy's.
Presidential inaugurations
Brazilian Presidential inauguration
Croatian Presidential inauguration
Irish Presidential inauguration
Philippine Presidential inauguration
Russian presidential inauguration
United States presidential inauguration
See also
Coronation
Enthronement
Opening (disambiguation)
References
External links
Gaelic Inauguration | [
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|
226189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Black%20Watch | The Black Watch | The Black Watch is a 1929 American Pre-Code adventure epic film directed by John Ford and starring Victor McLaglen, Myrna Loy, and David Torrence. Written by James Kevin McGuinness based on the 1916 novel King of the Khyber Rifles by Talbot Mundy, the film is about a captain in the British Army's Black Watch regiment assigned to a secret mission in India just as his company is called to France at the outbreak of war. His covert assignment results in his being considered a coward by his fellows, a suspicion confirmed when he becomes involved in a drunken brawl in India that results in the death of another officer. The film features an uncredited 21-year-old John Wayne working as an extra; he also worked in the arts and costume department for the film. This was director John Ford's first sound film.
Cast
Victor McLaglen as Capt. Donald Gordon King
Myrna Loy as Yasmani
David Torrence as Field Marshal
David Rollins as Lt. Malcolm King
Cyril Chadwick as Maj. Twynes
Lumsden Hare as Colonel of the Black Watch
Roy D'Arcy as Rewa Ghunga
David Percy as Soloist, Black Watch Officer
Mitchell Lewis as Mohammed Khan
Claude King as General in India
Walter Long as Harrim Bey
Francis Ford as Maj. MacGregor
Frederick Sullivan as General's Aide
Richard Travers as Adjutant
Pat Somerset as O'Connor, Black Watch Officer
Joseph Diskay as Muezzin
Joyzelle Joyner as Dancer
Gregory Gaye as a 42nd Highlander (uncredited)
Mary Gordon as Sandy's Wife (uncredited)
Bob Kortman as a 42nd Highlander (uncredited)
Tom London as a 42nd Highlander (uncredited)
Jack Pennick as a 42nd Highlander (uncredited)
Randolph Scott as a 42nd Highlander (uncredited)
Phillips Smalley as the Doctor (uncredited)
Lupita Tovar in a Bit Part (uncredited)
John Wayne as a 42nd Highlander (uncredited)
See also
List of American films of 1929
References
External links
American war films
American films
American black-and-white films
1929 films
1920s adventure drama films
Films set in India
Films set in the British Raj
Films set in the 1910s
English-language films
Films directed by John Ford
Fox Film films
Films based on British novels
American adventure drama films
1929 drama films | [
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|
226190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative%20divisions%20of%20Venezuela | Administrative divisions of Venezuela | Venezuela is divided into 23 states (estados), 1 Capital District (Distrito Capital) and the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales de Ultramar) that consist of numerous Venezuelan islands. These administrative divisions are grouped into regions.
Historical subdivisions
Prior to the Federal War (1859–1863), Venezuela was divided into provinces rather than states. The victorious forces were supposed to grant more autonomy to the individual states, but this was not implemented.
Between 1863 and the early 1900s, there were numerous territorial changes, including the merger and splitting of states. Thereafter, until the late 1990s, the states were left unchanged. Recent years have seen the creation of three new states: Delta Amacuro, Amazonas, and Vargas (in that order).
States
Areas with special status
Capital District
Federal Dependencies
Municipal organization
Venezuelan states are subdivided into "municipalities" (Spanish municipios), which may correspond to either or both of county and city in English-speaking countries. Municipios are the fundamental unit of local government in Venezuela.
See also
Federal Territories of Venezuela
External links
Feature at CityMayors.com | [
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226191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation | Coronation | A coronation is the act of placement or bestowal of a crown upon a monarch's head. The term also generally refers not only to the physical crowning but to the whole ceremony wherein the act of crowning occurs, along with the presentation of other items of regalia, marking the formal investiture of a monarch with regal power. Aside from the crowning, a coronation ceremony may comprise many other rituals such as the taking of special vows by the monarch, the investing and presentation of regalia to the monarch, and acts of homage by the new ruler's subjects and the performance of other ritual deeds of special significance to the particular nation. Western-style coronations have often included anointing the monarch with holy oil, or chrism as it is often called; the anointing ritual's religious significance follows examples found in the Bible. The monarch's consort may also be crowned, either simultaneously with the monarch or as a separate event.
Once a vital ritual among the world's monarchies, coronations have changed over time for a variety of socio-political and religious factors; most modern monarchies have dispensed with them altogether, preferring simpler ceremonies to mark a monarch's accession to the throne. In the past, concepts of royalty, coronation and deity were often inexorably linked. In some ancient cultures, rulers were considered to be divine or partially divine: the Egyptian pharaoh was believed to be the son of Ra, the sun god, while in Japan, the emperor was believed to be a descendant of Amaterasu, the sun goddess. Rome promulgated the practice of emperor worship; in Medieval Europe, monarchs claimed to have a divine right to rule (analogous to the Mandate of Heaven in dynastic China). Coronations were once a direct visual expression of these alleged connections, but recent centuries have seen the lessening of such beliefs.
Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom, Tonga, and several Asian and African countries. In Europe, most monarchs are required to take a simple oath in the presence of the country's legislature. Besides a coronation, a monarch's accession may be marked in many ways: some nations may retain a religious dimension to their accession rituals while others have adopted simpler inauguration ceremonies, or even no ceremony at all. Some cultures use bathing or cleansing rites, the drinking of a sacred beverage, or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect. Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual-religious paradigm of the country.
Coronation in common parlance today may also, in a broader sense, refer to any formal ceremony in relation to the accession of a monarch, whether or not an actual crown is bestowed, such ceremonies may otherwise be referred to as investitures, inaugurations, or enthronements. The date of the act of ascession, however, usually precedes the date of the ceremony of coronation. For example, the Coronation of Elizabeth II took place on 2 June 1953, almost sixteen months after her accession to the throne on 6 February 1952 on the death of her father George VI.
History and development
The coronation ceremonies in medieval Christendom, both Western and Eastern, are influenced by the practice of the Roman Emperors as it developed during Late Antiquity, indirectly influenced by Biblical accounts of kings being crowned and anointed. The European coronation ceremonies, perhaps best known in the form they have taken in Great Britain (the most recent of which occurred in 1953), descend from rites initially created in Byzantium, Visigothic Spain, Carolingian France and the Holy Roman Empire and brought to their apogee during the Medieval era.
In non-Christian states, coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources, often related to the religious beliefs of that particular nation. Buddhism, for instance, influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand, Cambodia and Bhutan, while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites. The ceremonies used in modern Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam, while Tonga's ritual combines ancient Polynesian influences with more modern Anglican ones.
Antiquity
Coronations, in one form or another, have existed since ancient times. Egyptian records show coronation scenes, such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC.
Judeo-Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship, the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11:12 and II Chronicles 23:11.
The corona radiata, the "radiant crown" known best on the Statue of Liberty, and perhaps worn by the Helios that was the Colossus of Rhodes, was worn by Roman emperors as part of the cult of Sol Invictus, part of the imperial cult as it developed during the 3rd century. The origin of the crown is thus religious, comparable to the significance of a halo, marking the sacral nature of kingship, expressing that either the king is himself divine, or ruling by divine right.
The precursor to the crown was the browband called the diadem, which had been worn by the Achaemenid rulers, was adopted by Constantine I, and was worn by all subsequent rulers of the later Roman Empire.
Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine, Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the supreme symbol of their authority. Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first, one gradually evolved over the following century. Emperor Julian the Apostate was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard-bearers; he later wore a jewel-studded diadem. Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a similar manner, until the momentous decision was taken to permit the patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperor's head.
Historians debate when exactly this first took place, but the precedent was clearly established by the reign of Leo II, who was crowned by Acacius in 473. This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown, a further—and extremely vital—development in the liturgical ordo of crowning. After this event, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop[ed]".
In some European Celtic or Germanic countries prior to the adoption of Christianity, the ruler upon his election was raised on a shield and, while standing upon it, was borne on the shoulders of several chief men of the nation (or tribe) in a procession around his assembled subjects. This was usually performed three times. Following this, the king was given a spear, and a diadem wrought of silk or linen (not to be confused with a crown) was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority.
Middle Ages
According to Adomnan of Iona, the king of Dal Riata, Áedán mac Gabráin, came to the monastery at Iona in 574 to be crowned by St Columba. In 610, Heraclius arranged a ceremony in Constantinople where he was crowned and acclaimed emperor. In Spain, the Visigothic king Sisenand was crowned in 631, and in 672, Wamba was the first occidental king to be anointed as well, by the archbishop of Toledo. In England, the Anglo-Saxon king Eardwulf of Northumbria was "consecrated and enthroned" in 796, and Æthelstan was crowned and anointed in 925. These practices were nevertheless irregularly used or occurred some considerable time after the rulers had become kings, until their regular adoption by the Carolingian dynasty in France. To legitimate his deposition of the last of the Merovingian kings, Pepin the Short was twice crowned and anointed, at the beginning of his reign in 752, and for the first time by a pope in 754 in Saint-Denis. The anointing served as a reminder of the baptism of Clovis I in Reims in 496, where the ceremony was finally transferred in 816. His son Charlemagne, who was crowned emperor in Rome in 800, passed as well the ceremony to the Holy Roman Empire, and this tradition acquired a newly constitutive function in England too, with the kings Harold Godwinson and William the Conqueror immediately crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1066.
The European coronation ceremonies of the Middle Ages were essentially a combination of the Christian rite of anointing with additional elements. Following Europe's conversion to Christianity, crowning ceremonies became more and more ornate, depending on the country in question, and their Christian elements—especially anointing—became the paramount concern. Crowns and sceptres, used in coronations since ancient times, took on a Christian significance together with the orb as symbols of the purported divine order of things, with the monarch as the divinely ordained overlord and protector of his dominion. During the Middle Ages, this rite was considered so vital in some European kingdoms that it was sometimes referred to as an "eighth sacrament". The anointed ruler was viewed as a mixta persona, part priest and part layman, but never wholly either. This notion persisted into the twentieth century in Imperial Russia, where the Tsar was considered to be "wedded" to his subjects through the Orthodox coronation service. Coronation stones marked the site of some medieval ceremonies, though some alleged stones are later inventions.
As reported by the jurisconsult Tancredus, initially only four monarchs were crowned and anointed, they were the Kings of Jerusalem, France, England and Sicily:
Crowning ceremonies arose from a worldview in which monarchs were seen as ordained by God to serve not merely as political or military leaders, nor as figureheads, but rather to occupy a vital spiritual place in their dominions as well. Coronations were created to reflect and enable these alleged connections; however, the belief systems that gave birth to them have been radically altered in recent centuries by secularism, egalitarianism and the rise of constitutionalism and democracy. During the Protestant Reformation, the idea of divinely ordained monarchs began to be challenged.
Modern history
The Age of Enlightenment and various revolutions of the last three centuries all helped to further this trend. Hence, many monarchies—especially in Europe—have dispensed with coronations altogether, or transformed them into simpler inauguration or benediction rites. Majority of contemporary European monarchies today have either long abandoned coronations ceremonies (e.g. Spain, last practiced in 1494) or have never practiced coronations (e.g. Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg). Of all European monarchies today, only the United Kingdom still retains its coronation rite. Other nations still crowning their rulers include Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Thailand, and Tonga, as well as several subnational entities such as the Toro Kingdom. The Papacy retains the option of a coronation, but no pope has used it since 1963 after Pope John Paul I opted for an Inauguration in 1978.
Canonical Coronation
A Canonical Coronation (Latin: coronatio canonica) is a pious institutional act of the Pope, on behalf of a devotion. This tradition still stands in 2015, in 2014 Pope Francis crowned Our Lady of Immaculate Conception of Juquila. Since 1989, the act has been carried out through the authorised decree by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments.
Coronations and monarchical power
In most kingdoms, a monarch succeeding hereditarily does not have to undergo a coronation to ascend the throne or exercise the prerogatives of their office. King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, for example, did not reign long enough to be crowned before he abdicated, yet he was unquestionably the King of the United Kingdom and Emperor of India during his brief reign. This is because in Britain, the law stipulates that in the moment one monarch dies, the new one assumes automatically and immediately the throne; thus, there is no interregnum.
France likewise followed automatic succession, though by tradition the new king ascended the throne when the coffin of the previous monarch descended into the vault at Saint Denis Basilica, and the Duke of Uzès proclaimed "Le Roi est mort, vive le Roi"! In Hungary, on the other hand, no ruler was regarded as being truly legitimate until he was physically crowned with St. Stephen's Crown performed by the archbishop of Esztergom in Székesfehérvár Cathedral (during the Ottoman Empire's invasion of Hungary in Pozsony, then Budapest), while monarchs of Albania were not allowed to succeed or exercise any of their prerogatives until swearing a formal constitutional oath before their respective nations' parliaments. The same still applies in Belgium. Following their election, the kings of Poland were permitted to perform a variety of political acts prior to their coronation, but were not allowed to exercise any of their judicial powers prior to being crowned.
In the Holy Roman Empire an individual became King of the Romans, thus gained governance of the Empire unless he was elected during his predecessor's lifetime, upon his acceptance of the election capitulation, not his coronation. However, prior to Maximilian I he could not style himself "Emperor" until his coronation by the Pope, resulting in many individuals being "Kings of the Romans" or "Kings of Germany," but not "Emperor." Maximilian received Papal permission to call himself "Elected Emperor of the Romans" when he was unable to travel for his coronation. His successors likewise adopted the title with the last Emperor crowned by the Pope being Maxmilian's grandson Charles V.
Official and personal coronation Gifts
The official coronation gifts Royal or Imperial commencing in the 19th century were commissioned by the coronation commission,
intended for the incoming monarch, as personal mementomom of the coronation event. Personal coronation gifts presented at the coronation festivities directly by the newly crowned monarch to the official coronation guest were similar or identical to the official coronation gift all according to the Royal or Imperial protocol and Court status of the recipient. Presentation of coronation gifts was major anticipated reviling function of the incoming monarch.
Coronation of heirs apparent
During the Middle Ages, Capetian Kings of France chose to have their heirs apparent crowned during their own lifetime to avoid succession disputes. This practice was later adopted by Angevin Kings of England, Kings of Hungary and other European monarchs. From the moment of their coronation, the heirs were regarded as junior kings (rex iunior), but they exercised little power and historically were not included in the numbering of monarchs if they predeceased their fathers. The nobility disliked this custom, as it reduced their chances to benefit from a possible succession dispute.
The last heir apparent to the French throne to be crowned during his father's lifetime was the future Philip II, while the only crowned heir apparent to the English throne was Henry the Young King, who was first crowned alone and then with his wife, Margaret of France. It is worth noting that King Stephen attempted to have his son Eustace IV of Boulogne crowned King in his lifetime but faced serious Papal opposition as the Church did not want to be seen as intervening in the ongoing Norman Anarchy. The practice was eventually abandoned by all kingdoms that had adopted it, as the rules of primogeniture became stronger. The last coronation of an heir apparent was the coronation of the future Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria as junior King of Hungary in 1830.
In the modern era
Specific coronation rituals by country, arranged by continent or region, are described in the following articles:
Coronations in Africa
Coronations in the Americas
Coronations in Asia
Coronations in Europe
Coronations in Oceania
Image gallery
See also
Accession day
Coronation of the British monarch
Coronation of the Virgin
Coronation anthem
Inauguration
Anointing
Enthronement
Bibliography
Coronations: Medieval and Early Modern Monarchic Ritual. ed. Janos M. Bak. University of California Press 1990. .
Bernhard A. Macek: Die Kroenung Josephs II. in Frankfurt am Main. Logistisches Meisterwerk, zeremonielle Glanzleistung und Kulturgueter fuer die Ewigkeit. Peter Lang 2010. .
Zupka, Dušan: Power of rituals and rituals of power: Religious and secular rituals in the political culture
of medieval Kingdom of Hungary. IN: Historiography in Motion. Bratislava – Banská Bystrica, 2010, pp. 29–42. .
Notes
This section contains expansions on the main text of the article, as well as links provided for context that may not meet Wikipedia standards for reliable sources, due largely to being self-published.
References
Monarchy
Royalty | [
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226197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Chancellor | Lord Chancellor | The lord chancellor, formally the lord high chancellor of Great Britain, is the highest-ranking among the Great Officers of State in England in the United Kingdom, nominally outranking the prime minister. The lord chancellor is appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister. Prior to their Union into the Kingdom of Great Britain, there were separate lord chancellors for the Kingdom of England (including the Principality of Wales) and the Kingdom of Scotland; there were lord chancellors of Ireland until 1922.
The lord chancellor is a member of the Cabinet and, by law, is responsible for the efficient functioning and independence of the courts. In 2005, there were a number of changes to the legal system and to the office of the lord chancellor. Formerly, the lord chancellor was also the presiding officer of the House of Lords, the head of the judiciary in England and Wales and the presiding judge of the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice, but the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 transferred these roles to the Lord Speaker, the lord chief justice and the Chancellor of the High Court respectively. The current lord chancellor, as of September 2021, is Dominic Raab, who is also the Secretary of State for Justice.
One of the lord chancellor's responsibilities is to act as the custodian of the Great Seal of the Realm, kept historically in the Lord Chancellor's Purse. A lord keeper of the Great Seal may be appointed instead of a lord chancellor. The two offices entail exactly the same duties; the only distinction is in the mode of appointment. Furthermore, the office of lord chancellor may be exercised by a committee of individuals known as lords commissioners of the Great Seal, usually when there is a delay between an outgoing chancellor and their replacement. The office is then said to be "in commission". Since the 19th century, however, only lord chancellors have been appointed, the other offices having fallen into disuse.
History
The office of lord chancellor may trace its origins to the Carolingian monarchy, in which a chancellor acted as the keeper of the royal seal. In England, the office dates at least as far back as the Norman Conquest (1066), and possibly earlier. Some give the first chancellor of England as Angmendus, in 605. Other sources suggest that the first to appoint a chancellor was Edward the Confessor, who is said to have adopted the practice of sealing documents instead of personally signing them. A clerk of Edward's, Regenbald, was named "chancellor" in some documents from Edward's reign. In any event, the office has been continuously occupied since the Norman Conquest. The staff of the growing office became separate from the king's household under Henry III and in the 14th century located in Chancery Lane. The chancellor headed the writing office or chancery.
Formerly, the lord chancellor was almost always a member of the clergy, as during the Middle Ages the clergy were amongst the few literate men of the realm. The lord chancellor performed multiple functions—he was the Keeper of the Great Seal, the chief royal chaplain, and adviser in both spiritual and temporal matters. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government. He was only outranked in government by the Justiciar (now obsolete).
As one of the King's ministers, the lord chancellor attended the curia regis or Royal Court. If a bishop, the lord chancellor received a writ of summons; if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree or, if a layman, he attended without any summons. The curia regis would later evolve into Parliament, the lord chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, the House of Lords. As was confirmed by a statute passed during the reign of Henry VIII, a lord chancellor could preside over the House of Lords even if not a lord himself.
The lord chancellor's judicial duties also evolved through his role in the curia regis. Petitions for justice were normally addressed to the king and the curia, but in 1280, Edward I instructed his justices to examine and deal with petitions themselves as the Court of King's Bench. Important petitions were to be sent to the lord chancellor for his decision; the more significant of these were also to be brought to the king's attention. By the reign of Edward III, this chancellery function developed into a separate tribunal for the lord chancellor. In this body, which became known as the High Court of Chancery, the lord chancellor would determine cases according to fairness (or "equity") instead of according to the strict principles of common law. The lord chancellor also became known as the "keeper of the king's conscience". Churchmen continued to dominate the chancellorship until the 16th century. In 1529, after Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, who was lord chancellor and archbishop of York, was dismissed for failing to procure the annulment of Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, laymen tended to be more favoured for appointment to the office. Ecclesiastics made a brief return during the reign of Mary I, but thereafter, almost all lord chancellors have been laymen. Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury (1672–73) was the last lord chancellor who was not a lawyer, until the appointment of Chris Grayling in 2012. The three subsequent holders of the position, Michael Gove (2015–16), Elizabeth Truss (2016–2017) and David Lidington (2017–2018) are also not lawyers. However, the appointment of David Gauke in January 2018 meant that once again the lord chancellor was a lawyer.
At the Union of England and Scotland, the lord keeper of the Great Seal of England became the first lord high chancellor of Great Britain, but Lord Seafield continued as lord chancellor of Scotland until 1708; was re-appointed in 1713; and sat as an extraordinary lord of session in that capacity until his death in 1730, since which time the office of lord chancellor of Scotland has been in abeyance.
The office
Formerly, when the office was held by ecclesiastics, a "Keeper of the Great Seal" acted in the lord chancellor's absence. Keepers were also appointed when the office of lord chancellor fell vacant, and discharged the duties of the office until an appropriate replacement could be found. When Elizabeth I became queen, Parliament passed an Act providing that a lord keeper of the Great Seal would be entitled to "like place, pre-eminence, jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all other customs, commodities, and advantages" as a lord chancellor. The only difference between the two offices is the mode of appointment—a lord chancellor is appointed by formal letters patent, but a Lord Keeper is appointed by the delivery of the Great Seal into their custody.
Formerly, it was customary to appoint commoners to the office of Lord Keeper, and peers to the office of lord chancellor. A Lord Keeper who acquired a peerage dignity would subsequently be appointed lord chancellor. The last Lord Keeper was Robert Henley, who was created a Baron in 1760 and was appointed lord chancellor in 1761. Since then, commoners as well as peers have been appointed to the post of lord chancellor; however, until the 21st-century changes to the office, a commoner would normally have been created a peer shortly after appointment.
It is also possible to put the office of lord chancellor into commission (that is to say, to entrust the office to a group of individuals rather than a single person). The individuals who exercise the office become known as "Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal." Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal have not been appointed since 1850.
Formerly, there were separate chancellors of England, Scotland and Ireland. When the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the Act of Union 1707 the offices of the chancellor of England and the lord chancellor of Scotland were combined to form a single office of lord chancellor for the new state. Similar provision was not made when Great Britain and Ireland merged into the United Kingdom under the Act of Union 1800. Thus, the separate office of lord chancellor of Ireland continued to exist until the formation of the Irish Free State in 1922. The office of lord chancellor of Ireland was abolished, and its duties transferred to the governor of Northern Ireland, and later the secretary of state for Northern Ireland. Thus, the lord chancellor remains "Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain" and not "Lord High Chancellor of the United Kingdom".
Functions
Legislative functions
The lord chancellor used to be the presiding officer of the House of Lords by right of prescription. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 removed this function, leaving the choice of a presiding officer to the House of Lords itself. Ultimately, the Lords chose to elect a lord speaker, which title was already used in the Standing Orders.
Whenever the sovereign appoints lords commissioners to perform certain actions on his or her behalf (for example, to formally declare in Parliament that the royal assent has been granted, or to prorogue or dissolve Parliament), the lord chancellor usually serves as the principal or senior lord commissioner. The other lords commissioners, by convention, are members of the House of Lords who are privy counsellors (generally the leaders of the three main parties and the convenor of the crossbenches). In this role the lord chancellor wears parliamentary robes—a full-length scarlet wool gown decorated with miniver fur. The lord chancellor wears a tricorne hat, but the other lords commissioners wear bicorne hats. During the period that Jack Straw, an MP, was lord chancellor, he was officially named as one of the lords commissioners, but did not take part in the formal ceremonies of granting royal assent and proroguing Parliament. The Lord Speaker has been appointed a lord commissioner and does take part in the ceremonies. The role of principal lord commissioner during this period has been taken by the leader of the House of Lords. There is an exception: when John Bercow was presented for royal approbation for the office of speaker of the House of Commons in 2009, and again when Bercow's successor Sir Lindsay Hoyle was presented for approbation in 2019, the lord chancellor (Straw and Buckland, respectively) were the principal lord commissioner, and the lord speaker was not in the commission. This precedent has continued since then. It is unclear how these arrangements would change if a future lord chancellor were appointed from the House of Lords.
Executive functions
The lord chancellor is a member of the Privy Council and of the Cabinet. The office the lord chancellor heads was known as the Lord Chancellor's Office between 1885 and 1971 and the Lord Chancellor's Department between 1971 and 2003. In 2003 the department was renamed the Department for Constitutional Affairs and the lord chancellor was appointed secretary of state for constitutional affairs. In 2007 this post was renamed secretary of state for justice and the department became the Ministry of Justice.
The department headed by the lord chancellor has many responsibilities, such as the administration of the courts. Furthermore, the lord chancellor has a role in appointing many judges in the courts of England and Wales. Senior judges (Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, Lords Justices of Appeal and the heads of the Divisions of the High Court) are officially appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the lord chancellor, but since 2005 the lord chancellor has been advised by an independent Judicial Appointments Commission and can only choose whether to accept or reject its recommendations. Similarly the lord chancellor no longer determines which barristers are to be raised to the rank of Queen's Counsel but merely supervises the process of selection by an independent panel.
Custody of the Great Seal of the Realm is entrusted to the lord chancellor. Documents to which the Great Seal is affixed include letters patent, writs and royal proclamations. The sealing is actually performed under the supervision of the clerk of the Crown in Chancery (who holds the additional office of Permanent Secretary to the lord chancellor). The lord chancellor does not maintain custody of the Great Seal of Scotland (which is kept by the first minister of Scotland) or of the Great Seal of Northern Ireland (which is kept by the secretary of State for Northern Ireland).
Former judicial functions
The judicial functions of the lord chancellor (as opposed to his role in the administration of the court system) were removed by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005.
The lord chancellor performed several different judicial roles. He sat as a judge in the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords (the highest domestic Court in the United Kingdom), and was a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (the senior tribunal of the British Empire (except for the United Kingdom) and, latterly, parts of the Commonwealth). He was the president of the Supreme Court of England and Wales, and therefore supervised the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, the High Court of Justice of England and Wales and the Crown Court of England and Wales. He was also, ex officio, a judge in the Court of Appeal and the president of the Chancery Division. In modern times, these judicial functions were exercised very sparingly. The functions in relation to the House of Lords and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were usually delegated to the senior lord of appeal in ordinary. The task of presiding over the Chancery Division was delegated to the vice-chancellor, a senior judge (now known as the chancellor of the High Court). Most lord chancellors by the end of the twentieth century gave judgments only in cases reaching the House of Lords. The last lord chancellor to preside as a judge was Lord Irvine of Lairg (in office 1997–2003), who did so as a member of the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. However, concerns were already being expressed, including by the judiciary, at the propriety of a cabinet minister sitting as a professional judge, and his successor, Lord Falconer, never performed such a role, even before his right to do so was abolished.
When peers had the right to be tried for felonies or for high treason by other peers in the House of Lords (instead of commoners on juries), the lord high steward, instead of the lord chancellor, would preside. This also occurred in impeachment trials. The office of lord high steward has generally remained vacant since 1421. Whenever a peer was to be tried in the House of Lords, a lord high steward would be appointed pro hac vice [for this occasion]. In many cases, the lord chancellor would merely be elevated to the office of lord high steward temporarily. Trials of peers in the House of Lords were abolished in 1948, and impeachment is considered obsolete, so this is unlikely to occur again.
At the beginning of the legal year, the lord chancellor officiates at a ceremony in Westminster Abbey in front of all the judges. The ceremony is followed by a reception known as the lord chancellor's breakfast which is held in Westminster Hall.
Ecclesiastical functions
Lord chancellors perform various functions relating to the established Church of England. They appoint clergy in such of the ecclesiastical livings under the patronage of the Crown as are officially listed as being worth less than £20 per annum. Furthermore, they exercise the same prerogative in regard to the less valuable livings in the Duchy of Cornwall when there is no duke of Cornwall, or when the duke of Cornwall is a minor. (The heir-apparent to the Crown, if he is the sovereign's eldest son, is automatically duke of Cornwall.) Finally, the lord chancellor is in some cases the patron of an ecclesiastical living in his own right. In total, the lord chancellor appoints clergymen in over four hundred parishes and twelve cathedral canonries.
By law, the lord chancellor must be consulted before appointments may be made to certain ecclesiastical courts. Judges of Consistory Courts, the Arches Court of Canterbury, the Chancery Court of York and the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved are appointed only after consultation with the lord chancellor.
The lord chancellor is, ex officio, one of the thirty-three Church Commissioners, who manage the assets of the Church of England.
Formerly, Roman Catholics were thought to be ineligible for the office of lord chancellor, as the office entailed functions relating to the Church of England. Most legal restrictions on Roman Catholics were lifted by the Catholic Relief Act 1829, which, however, provides: "nothing herein contained shall [...] enable any Person, otherwise than as he is now by Law enabled, to hold or enjoy the Office of Lord High Chancellor, Lord Keeper or Lord Commissioner of the Great Seal". The words "as he is now by Law enabled", however, caused considerable doubt, as it was unclear if Roman Catholics were disqualified from holding the office in the first place. For the removal of all doubt, Parliament passed the Lord Chancellor (Tenure of Office and Discharge of Ecclesiastical Functions) Act 1974, declaring that there was never any impediment to the appointment of a Roman Catholic. The Act nevertheless provides that, if a Roman Catholic were to be appointed to the office, then the sovereign may temporarily transfer the lord chancellor's ecclesiastical functions to the prime minister or another minister.
Other functions
Under the Regency Act 1937, the lord chancellor is one of the five persons who participate in determining the capacity of the sovereign to discharge his or her functions—the other individuals so empowered are the sovereign's spouse, the speaker of the House of Commons, the lord chief justice of England and Wales and the master of the rolls. If any three or more of these individuals, based on evidence that, as required by statute, shall include evidence provided by physicians, determine and declare by an instrument in writing, lodged with the Privy Council, that the sovereign suffers from a mental or physical infirmity that prevents him or her from personally discharging the duties of head of state, the royal functions are transferred to a regent, who discharges them in the name and on behalf of the monarch.
The lord chancellor is also the Keeper of the Queen's Conscience. As such, the lord chancellor was once also the chief judge of the Court of Chancery in London, dispensing equity to soften the harshness of the law.
The lord chancellor acts as the visitor of many universities, colleges, schools, hospitals and other charitable organisations throughout the United Kingdom. When the rules of the organisation do not designate a visitor or, when a vacancy in the office arises, the sovereign serves as visitor, but delegates the functions to the lord chancellor. Furthermore, some organisations explicitly provide that the lord chancellor is to act as visitor; these bodies include St. George's Chapel, Windsor, the Royal Institution, Newcastle University and three colleges of the University of Oxford (namely St. Antony's College, Worcester College, and University College).
The power to appoint members of certain organisations is vested in the lord chancellor. These organisations include the governing bodies of Harrow School, Rugby School and Charterhouse School.
Precedence and privileges
The lord high chancellor outranks all other great officers of state with the exception of the lord high steward, which has generally been vacant since the 15th century. Under modern conventions, the office of lord high steward is only filled on the day of a new monarch's coronation; thus, at all other times, the lord chancellor remains the highest ranking great officer. The importance of the office is reflected by the Treason Act 1351, which makes it high treason to slay the lord chancellor. A lord high treasurer would be entitled to the same protection—but the office is now held in commission—as would a judge whilst actually in court, determining a case.
The lord chancellor's position in the modern order of precedence is an extremely high one; generally being outranked only by the royal family and high ecclesiastics. In England, the lord chancellor precedes all non-royal individuals except the archbishop of Canterbury. In Scotland, they precede all non-royal individuals except the lord high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Although lord chancellor "of Great Britain", they maintain a position in the order of precedence in Northern Ireland; there, they outrank all non-royal individuals with the exception of the Anglican and Roman Catholic archbishops of Armagh, the Anglican and Roman Catholic archbishops of Dublin and the moderator of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland. Throughout the United Kingdom, the lord chancellor technically outranks the prime minister, although the latter generally possesses more power. The precedence of a lord keeper of the Great Seal is equivalent to that of a lord chancellor. The precedence of lords commissioners of the Great Seal is much lower (see United Kingdom order of precedence).
The lord chancellor is entitled to an annual emolument of £227,736 and to an annual pension of £106,868. The lord chancellor's salary is higher than that of any other public official, including even the prime minister, although sometimes the officeholder may voluntarily decide to receive a reduced salary (recent holders have taken the salary of a secretary of state).
Official dress
The lord chancellor, on formal state occasions such as the State Opening of Parliament, wears legal court dress consisting of a black silk velvet cutaway tailcoat with cloth covered buttons, waistcoat and breeches worn with white shirt, lace stock and cuffs, black silk stockings and cut-steel buckled patent court shoes. Over this is worn a black silk damask robe of state with a long train trimmed with gold lace and frogging, with a black silk 'wig bag' attached to the flap collar at the back. A full-bottomed wig is worn and, in the past, a black tricorne hat.
When the lord chancellor sat in the Lords, they wore an undress version of court dress, consisting of the court dress but made of black superfine cloth rather than silk velvet, and over that a black silk robe with a train with the wig bag attached. The wig and tricorne was also worn.
Now that the lord chancellor is appointed from the Commons rather than the Lords, they wear a normal business suit and only wear full ceremonial dress for state occasions. There is an unofficial precedent that lord chancellors that do not have a legal background do not get to wear a wig. Jack Straw (a qualified barrister) initially did not wear one but did so afterwards, as did his immediate successor, Kenneth Clarke (a barrister and Queen's Counsel); Chris Grayling, Michael Gove, and Liz Truss (none of whom have legal backgrounds) have not done so. Robert Buckland QC MP, continued the tradition of wearing the full court dress along with the full bottomed wig, as he is a barrister. In 2019 at the Approbation of the new speaker of the Commons, Sir Lindsay Hoyle, he wore full court dress along with the full bottomed wig and a tricorne.
Insignia
The historic insignia of the lord chancellor is a purse containing the Great Seal and a mace or staff of office. The Elizabethan play Sir Thomas More opens Scene II as follows: "Chelsea. A Room in More's House. A table being covered with a green carpet, a state cushion on it, and the Purse and Mace lying thereon, enter Sir Thomas More".
Reform
In the early 21st century, the New Labour government viewed it as untenable that all three political functions (executive, legislative and judicial) should be continued in the historical office of Lord Chancellor. In the Government's view, this infringed Montesquieu's principle of separation of powers which declared that no person should have access to all of the three political functions. The lord chancellor could exercise all three powers, and some, such as Quintin, Lord Hailsham, often did so. The Labour Government also took the view that these powers were inconsistent with the European Convention on Human Rights.
However, proposals by the Blair government simply to abolish the office met with opposition from those who felt that such an official was necessary to speak on the judiciary's behalf in Cabinet, as well as from many who opposed the sudden abolition of such an ancient office. In 2003, Tony Blair chose his close friend and former flatmate Lord Falconer to be Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. At the same time, he announced his intention to abolish the office of lord chancellor and to make many other constitutional reforms. After much surprise and confusion, it became clear that the ancient office of lord chancellor could not be abolished without an Act of Parliament. Thus Lord Falconer duly appeared the following day in the House of Lords to carry out his duties from the Woolsack. The Lord Chancellor's Department was, however, renamed the Department for Constitutional Affairs.
In January 2004, the Department of Constitutional Affairs published a concordat, outlining the division of authority between lord chancellor and lord chief justice and which was intended as the basis of reform. The Government introduced the Constitutional Reform Bill in the House of Lords in February 2004. The bill sought to abolish the office of lord chancellor, and to transfer its functions to other officials: legislative functions to a speaker of the House of Lords, executive functions to the secretary of state for constitutional affairs and judicial functions to the lord chief justice. The bill also made other constitutional reforms, such as transferring the judicial duties of the House of Lords to a supreme court. However, unlike the responsibilities of other secretaries of state, which can be transferred from one department to another by an order-in-council, several functions of the lord chancellor are linked to the office of lord chancellor as a matter of statute law. Those "protected functions" of the lord chancellor can only be transferred to other ministers by Act of Parliament. As a consequence, it became clear that it was extremely difficult to simply "abolish" the office of lord chancellor.
In March 2004, however, the Lords upset the Government's plans by sending the bill to a Select committee. Although initially seen as a move to kill the bill, the Government and HM Opposition agreed to permit the bill to proceed through the parliamentary process, subject to any amendments made by the committee. On 13 July 2004, the House amended the Constitutional Reform Bill such that the title of lord chancellor would be retained, although the Government's other proposed reforms were left intact. Then, in November 2004, the Government introduced an amendment in the Lords which wholly removed references to the secretary of state for constitutional affairs, changing them to ones about the lord chancellor, with the positions of secretary of state and lord chancellor envisaged as being held by the same person. The final Constitutional Reform Act received royal assent on 24 March 2005 and the major transfers of the historical functions of the lord chancellor to others (such as the lord chief justice and lord speaker) were complete by mid-2006. However the lord chancellor and secretary of state for constitutional affairs remained a member of the Prime Minister's Cabinet, retaining most of the office's original statutory functions.
In May 2007, the Department of Constitutional Affairs was abolished and its functions were transferred to a newly created Ministry of Justice which also took charge of certain responsibilities transferred from the Home Office. Lord Falconer retained the title, salary and office of lord chancellor, as well as being created the inaugural Secretary of State for Justice.
Prior to Tony Blair's premiership, were a person not a peer to be appointed to the office of lord chancellor, they would be raised to the peerage upon appointment, though provision was made in 1539 for non-peers who are great officers of state to sit in between the benches in the House. With enactment of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and the subsequent separation of the roles of lord chancellor and speaker of the House of Lords, it is no longer necessary for the lord chancellor to be a peer or to have a legal background. In June 2007, Jack Straw MP was appointed lord chancellor and secretary of state for justice, thus becoming the first lord chancellor to be a member of the Commons, rather than the House of Lords or its predecessor, the Curia Regis, since Christopher Hatton in 1578; however, both Straw and his immediate successor, Ken Clarke, were barristers: the first justice secretary without a legal background was Chris Grayling in 2012; in 2016, Liz Truss became the first woman to serve as lord chancellor.
Fictional depictions
A fictional depiction of a lord chancellor occurs in Iolanthe, the frequently-revived comic opera by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan. The lord chancellor is the central character in the work but is identified only by his title.
William Rehnquist, late Chief Justice of the United States, was inspired to add four golden stripes to the sleeves of his judicial robes after seeing the costume of the lord chancellor in a production of Iolanthe. The current chief justice, John Roberts, has not continued the practice.
A fictional lord chancellor also appears in Charles Dickens' novel Bleak House (also identified only by title), presiding over the interminable chancery case of Jarndyce and Jarndyce.
Anthony Trollope's Palliser novels feature a number of references to fictitious lord chancellors. The Liberal Lord Weazeling holds the office in the Liberal governments of Mildmay and Gresham in Phineas Finn and Phineas Redux; the Conservative Lord Ramsden holds the position in the Duke of Omnium's coalition government in The Prime Minister. In Gresham's final government at the end of The Prime Minister, the former Liberal Attorney General, Sir Gregory Grogram, is finally given the position, which he had desired for some time.
King Hilary and the Beggarman, a children's poem by A. A. Milne, relates the story of a fictional lord high chancellor, "Proud Lord Willoughby", who is dismissed for refusing to obey his king.
In David Gurr's thriller A Woman Called Scylla, set in 1977, the main villain is an utterly ruthless and unscrupulous lord chancellor, who grossly abuses his many functions and powers in order to cover up his treason during the Second World War and as a stepping stone towards becoming prime minister. As the writer clearly states, this was not intended to refer to the actual holder of the office at the time of writing or at any other time.
List of Lord Chancellors
See also
Alienation Office
List of Lord Chancellors and Lord Keepers
List of Lord Chancellors of Scotland
List of peerages created for Lord Chancellors and Lord Keepers
Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal
References
Bibliography
Watson, Steven. "Figures on a Woolsack" History Today (Feb 1955) 5#2 pp 75–83.
Watson, Steven. "Figures on a Woolsack part 2" History Today (Apr 1955) 55#4 pp 228–235
Department for Constitutional Affairs. (2003). "Constitutional Reform: Reforming the Office of the Lord Chancellor"
House of Lords. (2003–2004). Bill 30 (Constitutional Reform Bill).
1707 establishments in Great Britain
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Government of the United Kingdom
House of Lords
Judiciary of England and Wales
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom | [
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|
226198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleepless%20in%20Seattle | Sleepless in Seattle | Sleepless in Seattle is a 1993 American romantic comedy film directed and co-written by Nora Ephron, based on a story by Jeff Arch. It stars Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan, alongside a supporting cast featuring Bill Pullman, Ross Malinger, Rob Reiner, Rosie O'Donnell, Gaby Hoffmann, Victor Garber, and Rita Wilson. Released on June 25, 1993, the film was released to critical acclaim and was a commercial success, grossing over $227 million worldwide.
Plot
After Chicago architect Sam Baldwin loses his wife Maggie to cancer, he and their seven-year-old son Jonah start a new life in Seattle, but they continue to grieve.
A year and a half later on Christmas Eve, Jonah calls in to a radio talk show, and persuades a reluctant Sam to go on the air to talk about how much he misses Maggie.
Thousands of women from around the country hear the program and are touched by the story and write to Sam. One of the listeners is Annie Reed, a Baltimore Sun reporter who is engaged to Walter, but feels there is something missing from their relationship.
After watching the film An Affair to Remember, Annie writes a letter suggesting that Sam meet her on top of the Empire State Building on Valentine's Day. She decides not to mail it, but her friend and editor Becky does it for her and later agrees to send Annie to Seattle.
Sam begins dating a co-worker, Victoria, whom Jonah dislikes. When Jonah reads Annie's letter addressed to both of them, he instinctively feels that she could 'be the one,' (it mentions the Baltimore Orioles), but he fails to convince his father to go to NYC on Valentine's Day to meet Annie. With the urging of his friend Jessica, Jonah replies to her, agreeing to the New York meeting.
While dropping Victoria off at the airport for a flight, Sam sees Annie exiting from her plane and is mesmerized by her, although he has no idea who she is. She later secretly watches Sam and Jonah playing on the beach together. The next day she goes again to Sam's houseboat but when she sees Sam's sister Suzy with him, she mistakenly assumes Suzy is his girlfriend. Sam recognizes Annie from the airport and says "hello" but Annie only responds with "hello" before leaving. She returns to Baltimore and then goes to New York to meet Walter for Valentine's Day.
With Jessica's help, Jonah flies to New York and goes to the Empire State Building to find Annie. When Sam discovers this, he grabs a later flight, following him, whom he finds on the observation deck. Meanwhile, Annie sees the skyscraper from the Rainbow Room where she is dining with Walter and confesses her doubts to him, amicably ending their engagement. She rushes to the Empire State Building and arrives on the observation deck just moments after the doors to the other elevator close with Sam and Jonah inside.
The observation deck is empty, but Annie discovers Jonah's backpack. As she pulls out his teddy bear from the bag, Sam and Jonah emerge from the elevator to retrieve it, and the three meet. After Sam and Annie stare at each other in recognition, Sam prepares to leave and offers his hand to Annie. The three then enter the elevator together and the doors close, with Jonah smiling.
Cast
Soundtrack
The film was originally to have been scored by John Barry, but when given a list of twenty songs he had to put in the film, he quit. The film was ultimately scored by Marc Shaiman.
"As Time Goes By" by Jimmy Durante – 2:28
"A Kiss to Build a Dream On" by Louis Armstrong – 3:01
"Stardust" by Nat King Cole – 3:15
"Makin' Whoopee" by Dr. John featuring Rickie Lee Jones – 4:09
"In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning" by Carly Simon – 3:16
"Back in the Saddle Again" by Gene Autry – 2:36
"Bye Bye Blackbird" by Joe Cocker – 3:30
"A Wink and a Smile" by Harry Connick, Jr. – 4:08
"Stand by Your Man" by Tammy Wynette – 2:41
"An Affair to Remember" by Marc Shaiman – 2:31
"Make Someone Happy" by Jimmy Durante – 1:52
"When I Fall in Love" by Celine Dion and Clive Griffin – 4:21
Charts
Certifications
Reception
Box office
Sleepless in Seattle opened theatrically on June 25, 1993, in 1,579 venues, earning $17,253,733 in its opening weekend, ranking second in the North American box office behind the third weekend of Jurassic Park. At the end of its run, the film grossed $126,680,884 in the United States and Canada, as well as $101,119,000 internationally, for a worldwide total of $227,799,884.
Critical response
The film received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 75% out of 60 professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.70/10. The consensus states, "Sleepless in Seattle is a cute classic with a very light touch and real chemistry between the two leads – even when spending an entire movie apart." On Metacritic, the film has a 72 out of 100 rating, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally positive reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said the film was "as ephemeral as a talk show, as contrived as the late show, and yet so warm and gentle I smiled the whole way through." He added:
Vincent Canby of The New York Times called it "a feather-light romantic comedy" and wrote, "It's a stunt, but it's a stunt that works far more effectively than anybody in his right mind has reason to expect. Not since Love Story has there been a movie that so shrewdly and predictably manipulated the emotions for such entertaining effect."
John Simon of the National Review wrote that the "entire picture is a collection of nauseating quotations and references to An Affair to Remember, both visual and verbal".
Awards
The film received two nominations for awards in the 66th Academy Awards (held in 1994). It lost the award to The Piano for Best Original Screenplay while the song "A Wink and a Smile" lost out to "Streets of Philadelphia" (from Philadelphia, another Tom Hanks movie) for Best Original Song. The film was nominated for three Golden Globe Awards: one for Best Actor – Musical or Comedy (Tom Hanks) another for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Meg Ryan) and a third for Best Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.
The film won four awards at different ceremonies. Ryan won the award for Funniest Actress in a Leading Role at the American Comedy Awards. At the 1994 Young Artist Awards, Malinger won the award for Best Actor Under Ten in a Motion Picture and the film itself won Outstanding Family Motion Picture for Comedy.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in AFI's 10 Top 10 as #10 in Romantic Comedy Film category and in AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions at number 45.
Musical adaptation
In 2009, development began on a musical version of Sleepless in Seattle. David Shor was announced as the musical's producer, with a book being written by Jeff Arch, Shor's longtime partner and original story writer for the motion picture. Leslie Bricusse was initially attached to the project, but withdrew due to "creative differences with the show's producer and director". Michelle Citrin, Michael Garin and Josh Nelson were announced to be working on the music and lyrics, with Shor discovering Citrin via YouTube. The musical was initially set to release in 2010, with the premiere date later being moved to 2011 and June 2012. In February 2012, Shor announced that the musical would not premiere until the 2012–13 season and that the show would "undergo a top-to-bottom overhaul" and would have a new creative team. With a new score by composer Ben Toth and lyricist Sam Forman, the musical version premiered at the Pasadena Playhouse in May 2013.
After being postponed for several years, the musical was due to open in London's Troubadour Wembley Park Theatre on March 24, 2020, under the name Sleepless: A Musical Romance for an initial run of 7 weeks until May 3. It will star Jay McGuiness, Kimberley Walsh and Daniel Casey as Sam, Annie and Walter respectively.
A further delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic meant the show would not open until August 25, 2020, and run to September 27. The show had a socially distanced audience and used several measures as a result of the epidemic.
References
External links
1993 films
1993 romantic comedy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
Empire State Building in fiction
English-language films
Films about journalists
Films about widowhood
Films directed by Nora Ephron
Films scored by Marc Shaiman
Films set in Baltimore
Films set in Chicago
Films set in New York City
Films set in Seattle
Films set in Washington (state)
Films shot in Chicago
Films shot in New York (state)
Films shot in Washington (state)
Films with screenplays by David S. Ward
Films with screenplays by Nora Ephron
TriStar Pictures films | [
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226199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nora%20Ephron | Nora Ephron | Nora Ephron ( ; May 19, 1941 – June 26, 2012) was an American journalist, writer, and filmmaker. She is best known for her romantic comedy films and was nominated three times for both the Writer’s Guild of America Award and the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for Silkwood (1983), When Harry Met Sally... (1989), and Sleepless in Seattle (1993). She won the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay for When Harry Met Sally..., which the Writers Guild of America ranked as having the 40th greatest screenplay of all time.
Ephron's first produced play, Imaginary Friends (2002), was honored as one of the 10 best plays of the 2002–03 New York theatre season. She also co-authored the Drama Desk Award–winning theatrical production Love, Loss, and What I Wore. In 2013, Ephron received a posthumous Tony Award nomination for Best Play for Lucky Guy.
Ephron also directed films, usually from her own screenplays, including Sleepless in Seattle (1993) and You've Got Mail (1998), both starring Meg Ryan and Tom Hanks.
Early life and education
Ephron was born in New York City to a Jewish family. She was the eldest of four daughters, and grew up in Beverly Hills, California. Her parents, Phoebe (née Wolkind) and Henry Ephron, were both East Coast-born and were noted playwrights and screenwriters. She was named Nora after the protagonist in the play A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen. Nora's younger sisters, Delia and Amy, are also screenwriters. Her sister Hallie Ephron is a journalist, book reviewer, and novelist who writes crime fiction. Ephron's parents based the ingenue character in the play and film version of Take Her, She's Mine on the 22-year-old Nora and her letters from college; Sandra Dee played the character based on Nora in the film version, with James Stewart portraying her father. Both her parents became alcoholics during their declining years.
As a high school student, Ephron dreamed of going to New York City to become another Dorothy Parker, an American poet, writer, satirist, and critic. Ephron has cited her high school journalism teacher, Charles Simms, as the inspiration for her pursuit of a career in journalism. She graduated from Beverly Hills High School in 1958, and from Wellesley College in Massachusetts, in 1962 with a degree in political science.
Career
Early work
After graduating from Wellesley College in 1962, Ephron worked briefly as an intern in the White House of President John F. Kennedy. She also applied to be a writer at Newsweek. After she was told they did not hire women writers, she accepted a position as a mail girl.
After eventually quitting Newsweek because she was not allowed to write, Ephron participated in a class action lawsuit against the magazine for sexual discrimination, described in the book The Good Girls Revolt: How the Women of Newsweek Sued Their Bosses and Changed the Workplace by Lynn Povich, and both the lawsuit and Ephron's role were fictionalized in a 2016 Amazon series by the similar main title Good Girls Revolt.
After a satire in Monocle she wrote lampooning the New York Post caught the editor's eye, Ephron accepted a job at the Post, where she worked as a reporter for five years. In 1966, she broke the news in the Post that Bob Dylan had married Sara Lownds in a private ceremony. Upon becoming a successful writer, she wrote a column on women's issues for Esquire. In this position, Ephron made a name for herself by writing "A Few Words About Breasts," a humorous essay about body image that "established her as the enfant terrible of the New Journalism." While at Esquire, she took on subjects as wide-ranging as Dorothy Schiff, her former boss and owner of the Post; Betty Friedan, whom she chastised for pursuing a feud with Gloria Steinem; and her alma mater Wellesley, which she said had turned out "a generation of docile and unadventurous women." A 1968 send-up of Women's Wear Daily in Cosmopolitan resulted in threats of a lawsuit from WWD.
Ephron rewrote a script for All the President's Men in the mid-1970s, along with her then husband Carl Bernstein. While the script was not used, it was seen by someone who offered Ephron her first screenwriting job, for a television movie, which began her screenwriting career.
1980s
In 1983, Ephron coscripted the film Silkwood with Alice Arlen. The film, directed by Mike Nichols, stars Meryl Streep as Karen Silkwood, a whistleblower at the Kerr McGee Cimarron nuclear facility who dies under suspicious circumstances. Ephron and Arlen were nominated for Best Original Screenplay in 1984 for Silkwood.
Ephron's novel Heartburn was published in 1983. The novel is a semi-autobiographical account of her marriage with Carl Bernstein. The film adaptation was released in 1986, directed by Mike Nichols starring Meryl Streep and Jack Nicholson. Ephron adapted her own novel into the screenplay for the film. In the film, Ephron's fictionalized portrayal of herself, played by Streep, is a pregnant food writer when she learns about her husband's affair.
Ephron wrote the script for the romantic comedy When Harry Met Sally... in 1986. The film, released in 1989, was directed by Rob Reiner, starred Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan. The film depicts the decade-long relationship between Harry (Crystal) and Sally (Ryan) as they navigate their own romantic relationships. Ephron has claimed that she wrote this screenplay with Reiner in mind as the character of Harry, and herself as the character of Sally. The film has become iconic in the romantic comedy genre, most notably for the scene in which Sally pretends to have an orgasm in the middle of Katz's Deli during lunch. Ephron said she wrote the part of Sally simulating an orgasm into the script per Meg Ryan's suggestions. Additionally, the comment “I’ll have what she’s having” said by a deli patron (played by Rob Reiner's real-life mother Estelle Reiner) watching the scene unfold nearby, was an idea from Billy Crystal. Ephron's script was nominated for the 1990 Oscar in Best Writing, Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen.
1990s
Ephron's directorial debut was the 1992 film This Is My Life. Ephron and her sister Delia Ephron wrote the script based on Meg Wolitzer’s novel This is Your Life. The film is about a woman who decides to pursue a career in stand up comedy after inheriting a substantial sum of money from a relative. In a conversation released by Criterion Channel between Lena Dunham, and Ephron, she stated "That movie I made completely for Woody Allen." She later stated in the conversation that he saw it and liked it.
In 1993, Ephron directed and wrote the script for the romantic comedy Sleepless in Seattle. The film stars Tom Hanks as Sam Baldwin, a recently widowed father whose son calls into a Chicago-based radio talk show in an attempt to find his father a new partner. After hearing this call, Baltimore resident Annie Reed, played by Meg Ryan, becomes infatuated with Sam, and sets up a rendezvous for the two to meet in New York City.
In 1994, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award.
In 1998, Ephron released the film You’ve Got Mail, which she wrote the script for and directed. The story is a loose adaptation of the Ernst Lubitsch film from 1940 The Shop Around the Corner. You’ve Got Mail stars Meg Ryan as Kathleen Kelly, an owner of a small, independent children's bookstore in New York City. Her quiet life is then threatened by Fox Books, a Barnes & Noble-esque book selling chain, which opens near her shop. Fox Books is run by Joe Fox, played by Tom Hanks. Joe and Kathleen navigate a tumultuous business rivalry, while unknowingly forming an intimate connection with each other via email.
2000s
In 2007, Ephron received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member George Lucas.
In 2009, Ephron directed and co-wrote the screenplay for Julie & Julia. The film is based on Julie Powell’s blog and memoir of the same title. The film is about Julia Child, the famous American chef played by Meryl Streep, and Julie Powell, a New Yorker attempting to cook her way through Child’s cookbook, played by Amy Adams. As Powell blogs her experience, the film flashes back to the story of Child’s first stages of her career as she trains in a French culinary school. The film was a commercial success.
Ephron's 2002 play Imaginary Friends explores the rivalry between writers Lillian Hellman and Mary McCarthy. She co-authored the play Love, Loss, and What I Wore (based on the book by Ilene Beckerman) with her sister Delia, and it has played to sold out audiences in Canada, New York City and Los Angeles.
Personal life
Ephron was married three times. Her first marriage, to writer Dan Greenburg, ended in divorce after nine years. In 1976, she married journalist Carl Bernstein. In 1979, Ephron had a toddler son, Jacob, and was pregnant with her second son Max when she discovered Bernstein's affair with their mutual friend, married British journalist Margaret Jay, daughter of former British prime minister James Callaghan. Ephron was inspired by this to write the 1983 novel Heartburn, which was then made into a 1986 Mike Nichols film starring Jack Nicholson and Meryl Streep. In the book, Ephron wrote of a husband named Mark, who was "capable of having sex with a Venetian blind." She also wrote that the character Thelma (based on Margaret Jay) looked like a giraffe with "big feet". Bernstein threatened to sue over the book and film but never did.
Ephron was married for more than 20 years to screenwriter Nicholas Pileggi, from 1987 until her death in 2012. The couple lived in the Hollywood Hills in Los Angeles, and in New York City.
Ephron's friend Richard Cohen said of her, "She was very Jewish, culturally and emotionally. She identified fully as a Jewish woman." However, Ephron was not religious. "You can never have too much butter – that is my belief. If I have a religion, that's it", she quipped in an NPR interview about her 2009 movie Julie & Julia.
Ephron's son, Jacob Bernstein, directed an HBO movie on her life titled Everything Is Copy. As of 2021 he is a reporter for The New York Times.
For many years, Ephron was one of the few people who knew the identity of Deep Throat, the anonymous informer for articles written by her ex-husband Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward uncovering the Watergate scandal. Ephron read Bernstein's notes, which referred to Deep Throat as "MF"; Bernstein said it stood for "My Friend," but Ephron correctly guessed it stood for Mark Felt, the former associate director of the FBI.
After Ephron's marriage with Bernstein ended, Ephron revealed Deep Throat's identity to her son Jacob and anyone else who asked. She once said "I would give speeches to 500 people and someone would say, 'Do you know who Deep Throat is?' And I would say, 'It's Mark Felt.'" Classmates of Jacob Bernstein at the Dalton School and Vassar College recall Jacob's revealing to numerous people that Felt was Deep Throat. This revelation attracted little media attention during the many years that the identity of Deep Throat was a mystery. Ephron said, "No one, apart from my sons, believed me." Ephron was invited by Arianna Huffington to write about the experience in the Huffington Post, for which she was a regular blogger and part-time editor.
Death
In 2006, Ephron was diagnosed with myelodysplasia. She chose not to disclose her diagnosis to friends or colleagues, fearing that the knowledge that she was ill would have impeded her career, and would make it impossible to get projects financed or insured. On June 26, 2012, Ephron died in Manhattan from pneumonia, as a complication of leukemia, at the age of 71.
Ephron's memorial service at Alice Tully Hall at Lincoln Center in New York City was attended by Meryl Streep, Tom Hanks, Billy Crystal, Meg Ryan, Rob Reiner, Barbara Walters, Diane Sawyer, Steven Spielberg, Martin Scorsese, Woody Allen, Alan Alda, Steve Martin, Martin Short, Lorne Michaels, Larry David, Joy Behar, Rosie O'Donnell, Annette Bening, Matthew Broderick, Nicole Kidman, Michael Bloomberg, Charlie Rose, Ron Howard, and Gayle King, among others.
At that year's Karlovy Vary Film Festival, actresses Helen Mirren and Susan Sarandon, who were honored with lifetime achievement awards, paid tribute to Ephron during their acceptance speeches.
Lena Dunham's 2014 memoir Not That Kind of Girl is dedicated to Ephron as is Steven Spielberg's film The Post (2017).
Legacy
The Nora Ephron Prize is a $25,000 award by the Tribeca Film Festival for a female writer or filmmaker "with a distinctive voice". The first Nora Ephron Prize was awarded in 2013 to Meera Menon for her film Farah Goes Bang.
Filmography
Feature films
As an actress, Nora Ephron appeared in two films, both made by her friend Woody Allen. She is credited as being a wedding guest in Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989), as a Dinner Party Guest in Husbands and Wives (1992).
Plays
Essay collections
Wallflower at the Orgy (1970)
Crazy Salad: Some Things About Women (1975),
The Boston Photographs (1975)
Scribble, Scribble: Notes on the Media (1978),
Heartburn (1983, a novel)
I Feel Bad About My Neck: And Other Thoughts on Being a Woman (2006)
I Remember Nothing: And Other Reflections (2010)
The Most of Nora Ephron (2013),
Awards and nominations
Other Awards
References
External links
WNED Public Television (November 17, 1975), Interview with Nora Ephron for WNED's series "Woman"
Neri Livneh (July 5, 2012), "Neri Livneh salutes her heroine, Nora Ephron"
"Plays by Nora Ephron". Doollee.
Nora Ephron Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
Movie clips: , compilation, 5 min.
1941 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women writers
American bloggers
American women bloggers
American women essayists
American women film directors
American women film producers
American women journalists
American women novelists
American women screenwriters
Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award winners
Beverly Hills High School alumni
Comedy film directors
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from pneumonia in New York (state)
Ephron family
Film directors from Los Angeles
Film directors from New York City
Film producers from California
Film producers from New York (state)
Jewish American journalists
Jewish American novelists
Jewish women writers
Journalists from New York City
The New Yorker people
Novelists from New York (state)
People from the Upper East Side
People from the Upper West Side
Screenwriters from California
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Wellesley College alumni
Writers from Manhattan | [
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|
226202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/While%20You%20Were%20Sleeping%20%28film%29 | While You Were Sleeping (film) | While You Were Sleeping is a 1995 American romantic comedy film directed by Jon Turteltaub and written by Daniel G. Sullivan and Fredric Lebow. It stars Sandra Bullock as Lucy, a Chicago Transit Authority token collector, and Bill Pullman as Jack, the brother of a man whose life she saves, along with Peter Gallagher as Peter, the man who is saved, Peter Boyle and Glynis Johns as members of Peter's family, and Jack Warden as longtime family friend and neighbor.
The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing over $182 million at the box office. Bullock and Pullman received praise for their performances. Bullock also garnered a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical.
Plot
Lucy Eleanor Moderatz (Sandra Bullock) is a lonely fare token collector for the Chicago Transit Authority, stationed at the Randolph/Wabash station. She is secretly in love with a handsome commuter named Peter Callaghan (Peter Gallagher), although they are complete strangers. On Christmas Day, she rescues him from the oncoming Chicago "L" train after a group of muggers push him onto the tracks. He falls into a coma, and she accompanies him to the hospital, where a nurse overhears her musing aloud, "I was going to marry him." Misinterpreting her, the nurse tells his family that she is his fiancée.
At first, Lucy is too caught up in the panic to explain the truth. She winds up keeping the secret for a number of reasons: she is embarrassed, Peter's grandmother Elsie (Glynis Johns) has a heart condition, and Lucy quickly comes to love being a part of Peter's big, loving family. One night, thinking she is alone while visiting Peter, she confesses her predicament. Peter's godfather, Saul (Jack Warden), overhears the truth and later confronts her, but tells her he will keep her secret because the accident has brought the family closer.
With no family and few friends, Lucy becomes so captivated with the quirky Callaghans and their unconditional love for her that she cannot bring herself to hurt them by revealing that Peter does not even know her. She spends a belated Christmas with them and then meets Peter's younger brother Jack (Bill Pullman), who is supposed to take over his father's furniture business. He is suspicious of her at first, but he falls in love with her as they spend time together. They develop a close friendship and soon she falls in love with him as well.
After New Year's Eve, Peter wakes up. He does not know Lucy, so it is assumed that he must have amnesia. She and Peter spend time together, and Saul persuades Peter to propose to her "again"; she accepts, even though she is in love with Jack. When Jack visits her the day before the wedding, she gives him a chance to change her mind, asking him if he can give her a reason not to marry Peter. He replies that he cannot, leaving her disappointed.
On the day of the wedding, just as a priest begins the ceremony, Lucy finally confesses everything and tells the family she loves Jack rather than Peter. At this point, Peter's real fiancée Ashley Bartlett Bacon (Ally Walker), who happens to be married herself, arrives and also demands the wedding be stopped. As the family argues, Lucy slips out unnoticed, unsure of her future.
Some time later, while Lucy is at work, Jack places an engagement ring in the token tray of her booth. She lets him into the booth (after he pays his fare), and with the entire Callaghan family watching, he proposes to her. In the last scenes of the film, they kiss at the end of their wedding, then leave on a CTA train for their honeymoon. She narrates that he fulfilled her dream of going to Florence, Italy, and explains that, when Peter asked when she fell in love with Jack, she replied, "it was while you were sleeping."
Cast
Sandra Bullock as Narrator/Lucy Eleanor Moderatz
Bill Pullman as Jack Callaghan
Peter Gallagher as Peter Callaghan
Peter Boyle as Ox Callaghan
Jack Warden as Saul Tuttle
Glynis Johns as Elsie
Micole Mercurio as Midge Callaghan
Jason Bernard as Jerry Wallace
Michael Rispoli as Joe Fusco, Jr.
Ally Walker as Ashley Bartlett Bacon
Monica Keena as Mary Callaghan
Production
Both Demi Moore and Julia Roberts were offered the role of Lucy Moderatz but turned it down.
The original screenplay was entitled “Coma Guy”. The title changed shortly after being acquired by Caravan Pictures.
Reception
Box office
The film was a tremendous success, grossing a total of $182,057,016 worldwide against an estimated $17,000,000 budget. It made $9,288,915 on its opening weekend of April 21–23, 1995. It was the thirteenth-highest grosser of 1995 in the United States.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a "Certified Fresh" approval rating of 81% based on reviews from 62 critics, with an average rating of 6.50/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "While You Were Sleeping is built wholly from familiar ingredients, but assembled with such skill -- and with such a charming performance from Sandra Bullock -- that it gives formula a good name." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A on scale of A to F.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote: "It's a feel-good film, warm and good-hearted, and as it was heading for its happy ending, I was still a little astonished how much I was enjoying it."
Accolades
Bullock also was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in 2002 with a nomination for the list AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions.
References
External links
Janet Maslin. "The Blossoming of a Wallflower". The New York Times. April 21, 1995. C16.
Script-O-Rama: While You Were Sleeping transcript
While You Were Sleeping at Virtual History
1995 films
1995 romantic comedy films
American Christmas comedy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
Caravan Pictures films
Films about weddings
Films directed by Jon Turteltaub
Films set in Chicago
Films shot in Chicago
Hollywood Pictures films
Rail transport films
Films produced by Joe Roth
Films produced by Roger Birnbaum
Films scored by Randy Edelman
Love stories
1990s Christmas comedy films
Films set around New Year
1990s English-language films | [
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|
226204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henoch | Henoch | Henoch may refer to:
Henoch (journal), on the history of Judaism
Henoch–Schönlein purpura, a vascular disease
Henoch Leibowitz (1918–2008), Lithuanian-American rabbi
Chanoch Henoch Bornsztain (died 1965), Polish rabbi
Eduard Heinrich Henoch (1820–1910), German physician
Lilli Henoch (1899–1942), German world record holder in the discus, shot put, and relay
Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), born Meir Henoch Mojszewicz Wallach-Finkelstein, Russian revolutionary and diplomat
Henoch (fictional character), one of three incorporeal beings in the Star Trek episode "Return to Tomorrow"
See also
Enoch (disambiguation)
Hanoch (disambiguation) | [
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226206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullman%20Strike | Pullman Strike | The Pullman Strike was two interrelated strikes in 1894 that shaped national labor policy in the United States during a period of deep economic depression. First came a strike by the American Railway Union (ARU) against the Pullman factory in Chicago in spring 1894. When it failed the ARU launched a national boycott against all trains that carried Pullman passenger cars. The nationwide railroad boycott that lasted from May 11 to July 20, 1894, was a turning point for US labor law. It pitted the American Railway Union (ARU) against the Pullman Company, the main railroads, the main labor unions, and the federal government of the United States under President Grover Cleveland. The strike and boycott shut down much of the nation's freight and passenger traffic west of Detroit, Michigan. The conflict began in Chicago, on May 11 when nearly 4,000 factory employees of the Pullman Company began a wildcat strike in response to recent reductions in wages. Most of the factory workers who built Pullman cars lived in the "company town" of Pullman just outside of Chicago. It was designed as a model community by its namesake founder and owner George Pullman.
As the Panic of 1893 shut down much of the economy, railroads stopped purchase of new passenger cars from Pullman. When his company laid off workers and lowered wages, it did not reduce rents, and the workers called for a strike. Among the reasons for the strike were the absence of democracy within the town of Pullman and its politics, the rigid paternalistic control of the workers by the company, excessive water and gas rates, and a refusal by the company to allow workers to buy and own houses. They had not yet formed a union. Founded in 1893 by Eugene V. Debs, the ARU was an organization of railroad workers. Debs brought in ARU organizers to Pullman and signed up many of the disgruntled factory workers. When the Pullman Company refused recognition of the ARU or any negotiations, ARU called a strike against the factory, but it showed no sign of success. To win the strike, Debs decided to stop the movement of Pullman cars on railroads. The over-the-rail Pullman employees (such as conductors and porters) did not go on strike.
Debs and the ARU called a massive boycott against all trains that carried a Pullman car. It affected most rail lines west of Detroit and at its peak involved some 250,000 workers in 27 states. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) opposed the boycott because the ARU was trying to take its membership. The high prestige railroad brotherhoods of Conductors and Engineers were opposed to the boycott. The Fireman brotherhood—of which Debs had been a prominent leader—was split. The General Managers' Association of the railroads coordinated the opposition.
Thirty people were killed in riots in Chicago alone. Historian David Ray Papke, building on the work of Almont Lindsey published in 1942, estimated another 40 were killed in other states. Property damage exceeded $80 million.
Local responses
The strike affected hundreds of towns and cities across the country. Railroad workers were divided, for the old established Brotherhoods, which included the skilled workers such as engineers, firemen and conductors, did not support the labor action. ARU members did support the action, and often comprised unskilled ground crews. In many areas townspeople and businessmen generally supported the railroads while farmers—many affiliated with the Populists—supported the ARU.
In Billings, Montana, an important rail center, a local Methodist minister, J. W. Jennings, supported the ARU. In a sermon he compared the Pullman boycott to the Boston Tea Party, and attacked Montana state officials and President Cleveland for abandoning "the faith of the Jacksonian fathers." Rather than defending "the rights of the people against aggression and oppressive corporations," he said party leaders were "the pliant tools of the codfish monied aristocracy who seek to dominate this country." Billings remained quiet but on July 10, soldiers reached Lockwood, Montana, a small rail center, where the troop train was surrounded by hundreds of angry strikers. Narrowly averting violence, the army opened the lines through Montana. When the strike ended, the railroads fired and blacklisted all the employees who had supported it.
In California the boycott was effective in Sacramento, a labor stronghold, but weak in the Bay Area and minimal in Los Angeles. The strike lingered as strikers expressed longstanding grievances over wage reductions, and indicate how unpopular the Southern Pacific Railroad was. Strikers engaged in violence and sabotage; the companies saw it as civil war while the ARU proclaimed it was a crusade for the rights of unskilled workers.
Public opinion
President Grover Cleveland did not think Governor John Peter Altgeld could manage the strike as it continued to cause more and more physical and economic damage. Altgeld's pro-labor mindset and social reformist sympathies were viewed by outsiders as being a form of, “German Socialism. Critics of Altgeld worried that he was usually on the side of the workers. Outsiders also believed that the strike would get progressively worse since Altgeld, "Knew nothing about the problem of American evolution." Public opinion was mostly opposed to the strike and supported Cleveland's actions. Republicans and eastern Democrats supported Cleveland (the leader of the northeastern pro-business wing of the party), but southern and western Democrats as well as Populists generally denounced him. Chicago Mayor John Hopkins supported the strikers and stopped the Chicago Police from interfering before the strike turned violent. Governor John Peter Altgeld of Illinois, a Democrat, denounced Cleveland and said he could handle all disturbances in his state without federal intervention. The Press took the side of Cleveland and framed strikers as villains, while Mayor John Hopkins took the side of strikers and Altgeld. The New York Times and Chicago Tribune added fuel to the fire by insulting Altgeld. They called him idiotic and even put much of the blame on him for all of the violence that was taking place.
Media coverage was extensive and generally negative. A common trope in news reports and editorials depicted the boycotters as foreigners who contested the patriotism expressed by the militias and troops involved, as numerous recent immigrants worked in the factories and on the railroads. The editors warned of mobs, aliens, anarchy, and defiance of the law. The New York Times called it "a struggle between the greatest and most important labor organization and the entire railroad capital." President Cleveland and the press feared that the strike would foment anarchy and social unrest. Cleveland demonized the ARU for encouraging an uprising against federal authority and endangering the public. The large numbers of immigrant workers who participated in the strike further stoked the fears of anarchy. In Chicago the established church leaders denounced the boycott, but some younger Protestant ministers defended it.
Aftermath
Debs was arrested on federal charges, including conspiracy to obstruct the mail as well as disobeying an order directed to him by the Supreme Court to stop the obstruction of railways and to dissolve the boycott. He was defended by Clarence Darrow, a prominent attorney, as well as Lyman Trumbull. At the conspiracy trial Darrow argued that it was the railways, not Debs and his union, that met in secret and conspired against their opponents. Sensing that Debs would be acquitted, the prosecution dropped the charge when a juror took ill. Although Darrow also represented Debs at the United States Supreme Court for violating the federal injunction, Debs was sentenced to six months in prison.
Early in 1895, General Graham erected a memorial obelisk in the San Francisco National Cemetery at the Presidio in honor of four soldiers of the 5th Artillery killed in a Sacramento train crash of July 11, 1894, during the strike. The train wrecked crossing a trestle bridge purportedly dynamited by union members. Graham's monument included the inscription, "Murdered by Strikers", a description he hotly defended. The obelisk remains in place.
In the aftermath of the Pullman Strike, the state ordered the company to sell off its residential holdings. In the decades after Pullman died (1897), Pullman became just another South Side neighborhood. It remained the area's largest employer before closing in the 1950s. The area is both a National Historic Landmark as well as a Chicago Landmark District. Because of the significance of the strike, many state agencies and non-profit groups are hoping for many revivals of the Pullman neighborhoods starting with Pullman Park, one of the largest projects. It was to be a $350 million mixed used development on the site of an old steel plant. The plan was for 670,000 square feet of new retail space, 125,000 square foot neighborhood recreation center and 1,100 housing units.
Politics
Following his release from prison in 1895, ARU President Debs became a committed advocate of socialism, helping in 1897 to launch the Social Democracy of America, a forerunner of the Socialist Party of America. He ran for president in 1900 for the first of five times as head of the Socialist Party ticket.
Civil as well as criminal charges were brought against the organizers of the strike and Debs in particular, and the Supreme Court issued a unanimous decision, In re Debs, that rejected Debs' actions. The Illinois Governor John P. Altgeld was incensed at Cleveland for putting the federal government at the service of the employers, and for rejecting Altgeld's plan to use his state militia rather than federal troops to keep order.
Cleveland's administration appointed a national commission to study the causes of the 1894 strike; it found George Pullman's paternalism partly to blame and described the operations of his company town to be "un-American". In 1898, the Illinois Supreme Court forced the Pullman Company to divest ownership in the town, as its company charter did not authorize such operations, and the land was annexed to Chicago. Much of it is now designated as an historic district, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Labor Day
In 1894, in an effort to conciliate organized labor after the strike, President Grover Cleveland and Congress designated Labor Day as a federal holiday in contrast with the more radical May 1st. Legislation for the holiday was pushed through Congress six days after the strike ended. Samuel Gompers, who had sided with the federal government in its effort to end the strike by the American Railway Union, spoke out in favor of the holiday.
See also
United States labor law
History of rail transport in the United States
Murder of workers in labor disputes in the United States
References
Sources and further reading
Bassett, Johnathan "The Pullman Strike of 1894," OAH Magazine of History, Volume 11, Issue 2, Winter 1997, Pages 34–41, a lesson plan for high school s
Cooper, Jerry M. "The army as strikebreaker—the railroad strikes of 1877 and 1894." Labor History 18.2 (1977): 179–196.
DeForest, Walter S. The Periodical Press and the Pullman Strike: An Analysis of the Coverage and Interpretation of the Railroad Strike of 1894 by Eight Journals of Opinion and Reportage MA thesis. University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1973.
Eggert, Gerald G. Railroad labor disputes: the beginnings of federal strike policy (U of Michigan Press, 1967).
Ginger, Ray. The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene V. Debs. (1949). online
Hirsch, Susan Eleanor. After the Strike: A Century of Labor Struggle at Pullman. (U of Illinois Press, 2003).
Laughlin, Rosemary. The Pullman strike of 1894 (2006) online, for high schools
Lindsey, Almont. The Pullman Strike: The Story of a Unique Experiment and of a Great Labor Upheaval. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943. online, a standard history
Lindsey, Almont. "Paternalism and the Pullman Strike," American Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Jan., 1939), pp. 272–89
Nevins, Allan Nevins. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage. (1933) pp. 611–28
Papke, David Ray. The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1999.
Reiff, Janice L. "Rethinking Pullman: Urban Space and Working-Class Activism" Social Science History (2000) 24#1 pp. 7–32 online
Rondinone, Troy. "Guarding the Switch: Cultivating Nationalism During the Pullman Strike," Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era (2009) 8(1): 83–109.
Salvatore, Nick. Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1984. online
Schneirov, Richard, et al. (eds.) The Pullman Strike and the Crisis of the 1890s: Essays on Labor and Politics. (U of Illinois Press, 1999). online
Smith, Carl. Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief: The Great Chicago Fire, the Haymarket Bomb, and the Model Town of Pullman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
White, Richard. Railroaded: the transcontinentals and the making of modern America (WW Norton, 2011), pp 429–450.
Winston, A.P. "The Significance of the Pullman Strike," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 9, no. 4 (Sept. 1901), pp. 540–61.
Wish, Harvey. "The Pullman Strike: A Study in Industrial Warfare," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1939) 32#3 pp. 288–312
Primary sources
Cleveland, Grover. The Government and the Chicago Strike of 1894 [1904]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1913.
Manning, Thomas G. and David M. Potter, eds. Government and the American Economy, 1870 to the Present (1950) pp 117–160.
United States Strike Commission, Report on the Chicago Strike of June–July, 1894. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895. 54pp of history and 680pp of documents, testimony and recommendations
Warne, Colston E. ed. The Pullman Boycott 1894: The problem of Federal Intervention (1955) 113pp.
External links
Pullman Strike Timeline
Chicago Strike
The Pullman Strike, Illinois During the Gilded Age 1866–1894, Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries
Riots and civil disorder in Illinois
1894 in Illinois
1894 labor disputes and strikes
History of rail transportation in the United States
Labor disputes in Illinois
Transportation labor disputes in the United States
Socialism in the United States
1894 riots
Rail transportation labor disputes in the United States
1894 in rail transport
Progressive Era in the United States
Pullman Company
May 1894 events
Labour relations by company | [
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|
226208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%20Thomson | Roy Thomson | Roy Thomson may refer to:
Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet (1894–1976), Canadian newspaper proprietor and media entrepreneur
Roy Hendry Thomson (1932–2009), Knight of the Order of Saint John, and prominent citizen of Aberdeen, Scotland
See also
Roy Thompson (disambiguation) | [
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226211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier%20National%20Park%20%28U.S.%29 | Glacier National Park (U.S.) | Glacier National Park is an American national park located in northwestern Montana, on the Canada–United States border, adjacent to the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. The park encompasses more than and includes parts of two mountain ranges (sub-ranges of the Rocky Mountains), more than 130 named lakes, more than 1,000 different species of plants, and hundreds of species of animals. This vast pristine ecosystem is the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem," a region of protected land encompassing .
The region that became Glacier National Park was first inhabited by Native Americans. Upon the arrival of European explorers, it was dominated by the Blackfeet in the east and the Flathead in the western regions. Under pressure, the Blackfeet ceded the mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal government; it later became part of the park. Soon after the establishment of the park on May 11, 1910, a number of hotels and chalets were constructed by the Great Northern Railway. These historic hotels and chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks and a total of 350 locations are on the National Register of Historic Places. By 1932 work was completed on the Going-to-the-Sun Road, later designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, which provided greater accessibility for automobiles into the heart of the park.
Glacier National Park's mountains began forming years ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata. Known as the Lewis Overthrust, these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest examples of early life fossils on Earth. The current shapes of the Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges and positioning and size of the lakes show the telltale evidence of massive glacial action, which carved U-shaped valleys and left behind moraines that impounded water, creating lakes. Of the estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in the mid-19th century during the late Little Ice Age, only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010. Scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all the active glaciers may disappear by 2030 if current climate patterns persist.
Glacier National Park has almost all its original native plant and animal species. Large mammals such as grizzly bears, moose, and mountain goats, as well as rare or endangered species like wolverines and Canadian lynxes, inhabit the park. Hundreds of species of birds, more than a dozen fish species, and a few reptiles and amphibian species have been documented. The park has numerous ecosystems ranging from prairie to tundra. The easternmost forests of western redcedar and hemlock grow in the southwest portion of the park. Forest fires are common in the park. There has been a fire every year of the park's existence except 1964. 64 fires occurred in 1936, the most on record. In 2003, six fires burned approximately 136,000 acres (550 km2), more than 13% of the park.
Glacier National Park borders Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada—the two parks are known as the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park and were designated as the world's first International Peace Park in 1932. Both parks were designated by the United Nations as Biosphere Reserves in 1976, and in 1995 as World Heritage Sites. In April 2017, the joint park received a provisional Gold Tier designation as Waterton-Glacier International Dark Sky Park through the International Dark Sky Association, the first transboundary dark sky park.
History
According to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived in the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with lineage to current tribes were the Flathead (Salish) and Kootenai, Shoshone, and Cheyenne. The Blackfeet lived on the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as the Great Plains immediately to the east. The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter winds of the plains, allowing them to supplement their traditional bison hunts with other game meat. Today, the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation is located west and south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide. To the Blackfeet, the mountains of this area, especially Chief Mountain and the region in the southeast at Two Medicine, were considered the "Backbone of the World" and were frequented during vision quests. In 1895 Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area, some , to the U.S. government for , with the understanding that they would maintain usage rights to the land for hunting as long as the ceded stripe will be public land of the United States. This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation.
While exploring the Marias River in 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within of the area that is now the park. A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area that later became the park. In 1885 George Bird Grinnell hired the noted explorer (and later well-regarded author) James Willard Schultz to guide him on a hunting expedition into what would later become the park. After several more trips to the region, Grinnell became so inspired by the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a national park. In 1901 Grinnell wrote a description of the region in which he referred to it as the "Crown of the Continent." His efforts to protect the land made him the premier contributor to this cause. A few years after Grinnell first visited, Henry L. Stimson and two companions, including a Blackfoot, climbed the steep east face of Chief Mountain in 1892.
In 1891 the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at Marias Pass , which is along the southern boundary of the park. In an effort to stimulate the use of the railroad, the Great Northern soon advertised the splendors of the region to the public. The company lobbied the United States Congress. In 1897 the park was designated as a forest preserve. Under the forest designation, mining was still allowed but was not commercially successful. Meanwhile, proponents of protecting the region kept up their efforts. In 1910, under the influence of the Boone and Crockett Club, and spearheaded by George Bird Grinnell and Louis W. Hill, president of the Great Northern, a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which designated the region a national park. This bill was signed into law by President William Howard Taft in 1910. In 1910 Grinnell wrote, "This Park, the country owes to the Boone and Crockett Club, whose members discovered the region, suggested it being set aside, caused the bill to be introduced into congress and awakened interest in it all over the country".
From May until August 1910, the forest reserve supervisor, Fremont Nathan Haines, managed the park's resources as the first acting superintendent. In August 1910, William Logan was appointed the park's first superintendent. While the forest reserve designation confirmed the traditional usage rights of the Blackfeet, the enabling legislation of the national park does not mention the guarantees to the Native Americans. The United States government's position was that with the special designation as a National Park the mountains ceded their multi-purpose public land status and the former rights ceased to exist as the Court of Claims confirmed it in 1935. Some Blackfeet held that their traditional usage rights still exist de jure. In the 1890s, armed standoffs were avoided narrowly several times.
The Great Northern Railway, under the supervision of president Louis W. Hill, built a number of hotels and chalets throughout the park in the 1910s to promote tourism. These buildings, constructed and operated by a Great Northern subsidiary called the Glacier Park Company, were modeled on Swiss architecture as part of Hill's plan to portray Glacier as "America's Switzerland". Hill was especially interested in sponsoring artists to come to the park, building tourist lodges that displayed their work. His hotels in the park never made a profit but they attracted thousands of visitors who came via the Great Northern. Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between the lodges or utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to the Many Glacier areas in the northeast.
The chalets, built between 1910 and 1913, included Belton, St. Mary, Going-to-the-Sun, Many Glacier, Two Medicine, Sperry, Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight Lake. The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge, adjacent to the park on its east side, and the Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of Swiftcurrent Lake. Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of these buildings, choosing each for their dramatic scenic backdrops and views. Another developer, John Lewis, built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913–1914. The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and it was later renamed Lake McDonald Lodge. Some of the chalets were in remote backcountry locations accessible only by trail. Today, only Sperry, Granite Park, and Belton Chalets are still in operation, while a building formerly belonging to Two Medicine Chalet is now Two Medicine Store. The surviving chalet and hotel buildings within the park are now designated as National Historic Landmarks. In total, 350 buildings and structures within the park are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including ranger stations, backcountry patrol cabins, fire lookouts, and concession facilities. In 2017, Sperry Chalet closed early for the season due to the Sprague Fire which subsequently burned the entire interior portions of the structure, leaving only the stone exterior standing. Due to damage, the chalet was closed indefinitely and while the exterior stonework was stabilized in the fall of 2017. The rebuilding process was expected to last during the summers of 2018 and 2019, and is scheduled to reopen in July 2020.
After the park was well established and visitors began to rely more on automobiles, work was begun on the long Going-to-the-Sun Road, completed in 1932. Also known simply as the Sun Road, the road bisects the park and is the only route that ventures deep into the park, going over the Continental Divide at Logan Pass, at the midway point. The Sun Road is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1985 was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. Another route, along the southern boundary between the park and National Forests, is US Route 2, which crosses the Continental Divide at Marias Pass and connects the towns of West Glacier and East Glacier.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing both Glacier National Park and Yellowstone National Park. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work. The increase in motor vehicle traffic through the park during the 1930s resulted in the construction of new concession facilities at Swiftcurrent and Rising Sun, both designed for automobile-based tourism. These early auto camps are now also listed on the National Register.
Park management
Glacier National Park is managed by the National Park Service, with the park's headquarters in West Glacier, Montana. Visitation to Glacier National Park averaged about visitors in 2019, which surpassed its 2017 peak of . Glacier has had at least 2 million annual visitors consistently since 2012, but has broken annual attendance records from 2014 to 2018. Anyone entering the United States over land or waterway from Canada must have a passport with them.
Glacier National Park finished with a $13.803 million budget in 2016, with a planned budget of $13.777 million for 2017. In anticipation of the 100th anniversary of the park in 2010, major reconstruction of the Going-to-the-Sun Road was completed. The Federal Highway Administration managed the reconstruction project in cooperation with the National Park Service. Some rehabilitation of major structures such as visitor centers and historic hotels, as well as improvements in wastewater treatment facilities and campgrounds, are expected to be completed by the anniversary date. The National Park Service is engaged in fishery studies for Lake McDonald to assess status and develop protection programs to enhance native fish populations. The restoration of park trails, education and youth programs, park improvements and many community programs have been planned and are ongoing.
The National Park Service mandate is to "... preserve and protect natural and cultural resources". The Organic Act of August 25, 1916 established the National Park Service as a federal agency. One major section of the Act has often been summarized as the "Mission", "... to promote and regulate the use of the ... national parks ... which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." In keeping with this mandate, hunting is illegal in the park, as are mining, logging, and the removal of natural or cultural resources. Additionally, oil and gas exploration and extraction are not permitted. These restrictions, however, caused a lot of conflict with the adjoining Blackfeet Indian Reservation. When they sold the land to the United States government, it was with the stipulation of being able to maintain their usage rights of the area, many of which (such as hunting) had come into conflict with these regulations.
In 1974, a wilderness study was submitted to Congress which identified 95% of the area of the park as qualifying for wilderness designation. Unlike a few other parks, Glacier National Park has yet to be protected as wilderness, but National Park Service policy requires that identified areas listed in the report be managed as wilderness until Congress renders a full decision. Ninety-three percent of Glacier National Park is managed as wilderness, even though it has not been officially designated.
Geography and geology
The park is bordered on the north by Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta, and the Flathead Provincial Forest and Akamina-Kishinena Provincial Park in British Columbia. To the west, the north fork of the Flathead River forms the western boundary, while its middle fork is part of the southern boundary. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation provides most of the eastern boundary. The Lewis and Clark and the Flathead National Forests form the southern and western boundary. The remote Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex is located in the two forests immediately to the south.
The park contains over 700 lakes, but only 131 have been named as of 2016. Lake McDonald on the western side of the park is the longest at , the largest in area at , and the deepest at . Numerous smaller lakes, known as tarns, are located in cirques formed by glacial erosion. Some of these lakes, like Avalanche Lake and Cracker Lake, are colored an opaque turquoise by suspended glacial silt, which also causes a number of streams to run milky white. Glacier National Park lakes remain cold year-round, with temperatures rarely above at their surface. Cold water lakes such as these support little plankton growth, ensuring that the lake waters are remarkably clear. However, the lack of plankton lowers the rate of pollution filtration, so pollutants tend to linger longer. Consequently, the lakes are considered environmental bellwethers as they can be quickly affected by even minor increases in pollutants.
Two hundred waterfalls are scattered throughout the park. However, during drier times of the year, many of these are reduced to a trickle. The largest falls include those in the Two Medicine region, McDonald Falls in the McDonald Valley, and Swiftcurrent Falls in the Many Glacier area, which is easily observable and close to the Many Glacier Hotel. One of the tallest waterfalls is Bird Woman Falls, which drops from a hanging valley beneath the north slope of Mount Oberlin.
Geology
The rocks found in the park are primarily sedimentary rocks of the Belt Supergroup. They were deposited in shallow seas over 1.6 billion to 800 million years ago. During the formation of the Rocky Mountains 170 million years ago, one region of rocks now known as the Lewis Overthrust was forced eastward . This overthrust was several miles (kilometers) thick and hundreds of miles (kilometers) long. This resulted in older rocks being displaced over newer ones, so the overlying Proterozoic rocks are between 1.4 and 1.5 billion years older than Cretaceous age rocks they now rest on.
One of the most dramatic evidences of this overthrust is visible in the form of Chief Mountain, an isolated peak on the edge of the eastern boundary of the park rising above the Great Plains. There are six mountains in the park over in elevation, with Mount Cleveland at being the tallest. Appropriately named Triple Divide Peak sends waters towards the Pacific Ocean, Hudson Bay, and Gulf of Mexico watersheds. This peak can effectively be considered to be the apex of the North American continent, although the mountain is only above sea level.
The rocks in Glacier National Park are the best preserved Proterozoic sedimentary rocks in the world, with some of the world's most fruitful sources for records of early life. Sedimentary rocks of similar age located in other regions have been greatly altered by mountain building and other metamorphic changes; consequently, fossils are less common and more difficult to observe. The rocks in the park preserve such features as millimeter-scale lamination, ripple marks, mud cracks, salt-crystal casts, raindrop impressions, oolites, and other sedimentary bedding characteristics. Six fossilized species of stromatolites, early organisms consisting of primarily blue-green algae, have been documented and dated at about 1 billion years. The discovery of the Appekunny Formation, a well-preserved rock stratum in the park, pushed back the established date for the origination of animal life a full billion years. This rock formation has bedding structures which are believed to be the remains of the earliest identified metazoan (animal) life on Earth.
Glaciers
Glacier National Park is dominated by mountains which were carved into their present shapes by the huge glaciers of the last ice age. These glaciers have largely disappeared over the last 12,000 years. Evidence of widespread glacial action is found throughout the park in the form of U-shaped valleys, cirques, arêtes, and large outflow lakes radiating like fingers from the base of the highest peaks. Since the end of the ice ages, various warming and cooling trends have occurred. The last recent cooling trend was during the Little Ice Age, which took place approximately between 1550 and 1850. During the Little Ice Age, the glaciers in the park expanded and advanced, although to nowhere near as great an extent as they had during the Ice Age.
During the middle of the 20th century, examining the maps and photographs from the previous century provided clear evidence that the 150 glaciers known to have existed in the park a hundred years earlier had greatly retreated and disappeared altogether in many cases. Repeat photography of the glaciers, such as the pictures taken of Grinnell Glacier between 1938 and 2015 as shown, help to provide visual confirmation of the extent of glacier retreat.
In the 1980s, the U.S. Geological Survey began a more systematic study of the remaining glaciers, which has continued to the present day. By 2010, 37 glaciers remained, but only 25 of them were at least in area and therefore still considered active. Based on the warming trend of the early 2000s, scientists had estimated that the park's remaining glaciers would melt by 2020; however, a later estimate stated that the glaciers may be gone by 2030. This glacier retreat follows a worldwide pattern that has accelerated even more since 1980. Without a major climatic change in which cooler and moister weather returns and persists, the mass balance, which is the accumulation rate versus the ablation (melting) rate of glaciers, will continue to be negative and the glaciers have been projected to disappear, leaving behind only barren rock eventually.
After the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850, the glaciers in the park retreated moderately until the 1910s. Between 1917 and 1941, the retreat rate accelerated and was as high as per year for some glaciers. A slight cooling trend from the 1940s until 1979 helped to slow the rate of retreat and, in a few cases, even advanced the glaciers over ten meters. However, during the 1980s, the glaciers in the park began a steady period of loss of glacial ice, which continues as of 2010. In 1850, the glaciers in the region near Blackfoot and Jackson Glaciers covered , but by 1979, the same region of the park had glacier ice covering only . Between 1850 and 1979, 73% of the glacial ice had melted away. At the time the park was created, Jackson Glacier was part of Blackfoot Glacier, but the two have separated into individual glaciers since.
It is unknown how glacial retreat may affect the park's ecosystems beyond the broad concept of creating new problems over time, and intensifying or exacerbating existing challenges. There is concern over negative impacts, such as the loss of habitat for plant and animal species that are dependent on cold water. Less glacial melt reduces stream level flow during the dry summer and fall seasons, and lowers water table levels overall, increasing the risk of forest fires. The loss of glaciers will also reduce the aesthetic appeal that glaciers provide to visitors. Relative to the unpredictability of emerging science, misinformation began to circulate in the news media and on social media in early to mid-2019, claiming that Montana Park had discreetly removed or changed placards, movies, brochures, and other literature warning that the park's glaciers would be gone by 2020. Apparently, the event was triggered when the Park Service began updating their on-site placards to reflect the latest scientific findings. The "gone by 2020" date on one placard was replaced with, "When they will completely disappear, however, depends on how and when we act.” Another placard states, "Some glaciers melt faster than others, but one thing is consistent: the glaciers in the park are shrinking.”
Climate
As the park spans the Continental Divide, and has more than in elevation variance, many climates and microclimates are found in the park. As with other alpine systems, average temperature usually drops as elevation increases. The western side of the park, in the Pacific watershed, has a milder and wetter climate, due to its lower elevation. Precipitation is greatest during the winter and spring, averaging per month. Snowfall can occur at any time of the year, even in the summer, and especially at higher altitudes. The winter can bring prolonged cold waves, especially on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, which has a higher elevation overall. Snowfalls are significant over the course of the winter, with the largest accumulation occurring in the west. During the tourist season, daytime high temperatures average , and nighttime lows usually drop into the range. Temperatures in the high country may be much cooler. In the lower western valleys, daytime highs in the summer may reach .
Rapid temperature changes have been noted in the region. In Browning, Montana, just east of the park in the Blackfeet Reservation, a world record temperature drop of in only 24 hours occurred on the night of January 23–24, 1916, when thermometers plunged from .
Glacier National Park has a highly regarded global climate change research program. Based in West Glacier, with the main headquarters in Bozeman, Montana, the U.S. Geological Survey has performed scientific research on specific climate change studies since 1992. In addition to the study of the retreating glaciers, research performed includes forest modeling studies in which fire ecology and habitat alterations are analyzed. Additionally, changes in alpine vegetation patterns are documented, watershed studies in which stream flow rates and temperatures are recorded frequently at fixed gauging stations, and atmospheric research in which UV-B radiation, ozone, and other atmospheric gases are analyzed over time. The research compiled contributes to a broader understanding of climate changes in the park. The data collected, when compared to other facilities scattered around the world, help to correlate these climatic changes on a global scale.
Glacier is considered to have excellent air and water quality. No major areas of dense human population exist anywhere near the region and industrial effects are minimized due to a scarcity of factories and other potential contributors of pollutants. However, the sterile and cold lakes found throughout the park are easily contaminated by airborne pollutants that fall whenever it rains or snows, and some evidence of these pollutants has been found in park waters. Wildfires could also impact the quality of water. However, the pollution level is currently viewed as negligible, and the park lakes and waterways have a water quality rating of A-1, the highest rating given by the state of Montana.
Wildlife and ecology
Flora
Glacier is part of a large preserved ecosystem collectively known as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem", all of which is a primarily untouched wilderness of a pristine quality. Virtually all the plants and animals which existed at the time European explorers first entered the region are present in the park today.
A total of over 1,132 plant species have been identified parkwide. The predominantly coniferous forest is home to various species of trees such as the Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, subalpine fir, limber pine and western larch, which is a deciduous conifer, producing cones but losing its needles each fall. Cottonwood and aspen are the more common deciduous trees and are found at lower elevations, usually along lakes and streams. The timberline on the eastern side of the park is almost lower than on the western side of the Continental Divide, due to exposure to the colder winds and weather of the Great Plains. West of the Continental Divide, the forest receives more moisture and is more protected from the winter, resulting in a more densely populated forest with taller trees. Above the forested valleys and mountain slopes, alpine tundra conditions prevail, with grasses and small plants eking out an existence in a region that enjoys as little as three months without snow cover. Thirty species of plants are found only in the park and surrounding national forests. Beargrass, a tall flowering plant, is commonly found near moisture sources, and is relatively widespread during July and August. Wildflowers such as monkeyflower, glacier lily, fireweed, balsamroot and Indian paintbrush are also common.
The forested sections fall into three major climatic zones. The west and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir and the southwest by red cedar and hemlock; the areas east of the Continental Divide are a combination of mixed pine, spruce, fir and prairie zones. The cedar-hemlock groves along the Lake McDonald valley are the easternmost examples of this Pacific climatic ecosystem.
Whitebark pine communities have been heavily damaged due to the effects of blister rust, a non native fungus. In Glacier and the surrounding region, 30% of the whitebark pine trees have died and over 70% of the remaining trees are currently infected. The whitebark pine provides a high fat pine cone seed, commonly known as the pine nut, that is a favorite food of red squirrels and Clark's nutcracker. Both grizzlies and black bears are known to raid squirrel caches of pine nuts, one of the bears' favorite foods. Between 1930 and 1970, efforts to control the spread of blister rust were unsuccessful, and continued destruction of whitebark pines appears likely, with attendant negative impacts on dependent species.
Fauna
Virtually all the historically known plant and animal species, with the exception of the bison and woodland caribou, are still present, providing biologists with an intact ecosystem for plant and animal research. Two threatened species of mammals, the grizzly bear and the lynx, are found in the park. Although their numbers remain at historical levels, both are listed as threatened because in nearly every other region of the U.S. outside of Alaska, they are either extremely rare or absent from their historical range. On average, one or two bear attacks on humans occur each year. There have been 11 bear-related deaths since 1971, and 20 non-fatal injuries since 2001. The exact number of grizzlies and lynx in the park is unknown; however, the first ever scientific survey of the lynx population in the park was completed in 2021. The collected data will help researchers determine the number of individual lynx that populate certain areas of the park. Reports from state and federal resource agencies, such as the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, indicate that as of 2021, the grizzly population throughout the millions of acres in and around Glacier Park has climbed to around 1,051–more than triple the 300 or so population estimates in 1975 when grizzlies were first listed as a threatened species. While exact population numbers for grizzlies and the smaller black bear are still unknown, biologists have implemented a variety of methods in their efforts to achieve more accuracy in determining population range. Another study has indicated that the wolverine, another very rare mammal in the lower 48 states, also lives in the park. Other mammals such as the mountain goat (the official park symbol), bighorn sheep, moose, elk, mule deer, skunk, white-tailed deer, bobcat, coyote, and cougar are either plentiful or common. Unlike in Yellowstone National Park, which implemented a wolf reintroduction program in the 1990s, it is believed that wolves recolonized Glacier National Park naturally during the 1980s. Sixty-two species of mammals have been documented including badger, river otter, porcupine, mink, marten, fisher, two species of marmots, six species of bats, and numerous other small mammals.
Over 260 species of birds have been recorded, with raptors such as the bald eagle, golden eagle, peregrine falcon, osprey and several species of hawks residing year round. The harlequin duck is a colorful species of waterfowl found in the lakes and waterways. The great blue heron, tundra swan, Canada goose and American wigeon are species of waterfowl more commonly encountered in the park. Great horned owl, Clark's nutcracker, Steller's jay, pileated woodpecker and cedar waxwing reside in the dense forests along the mountainsides, and in the higher altitudes, the ptarmigan, timberline sparrow and rosy finch are the most likely to be seen. The Clark's nutcracker is less plentiful than in past years due to the decline in the number of whitebark pines.
Because of the colder climate, ectothermic reptiles are all but absent, with two species of garter snake and the western painted turtle being the only three reptile species proven to exist. Similarly, only six species of amphibians are documented, although those species exist in large numbers. After a forest fire in 2001, a few park roads were temporarily closed the following year to allow thousands of western toads to migrate to other areas.
A total of 23 species of fish reside in park waters, and native game fish species found in the lakes and streams include the westslope cutthroat trout, northern pike, mountain whitefish, kokanee salmon and Arctic grayling. Glacier is also home to the threatened bull trout, which is illegal to possess and must be returned to the water if caught inadvertently. Introduction in previous decades of lake trout and other non-native fish species has greatly impacted some native fish populations, especially the bull trout and west slope cutthroat trout.
Fire ecology
Forest fires were viewed for many decades as a threat to protected areas such as forests and parks. As a better understanding of fire ecology developed after the 1960s, forest fires were understood to be a natural part of the ecosystem. The earlier policies of suppression resulted in the accumulation of dead and decaying trees and plants, which would normally have been reduced had fires been allowed to burn. Many species of plants and animals actually need wildfires to help replenish the soil with nutrients and to open up areas that allow grasses and smaller plants to thrive.
Glacier National Park has a fire management plan which ensures that human-caused fires are generally suppressed. In the case of natural fires, the fire is monitored and suppression is dependent on the size and threat the fire may pose to human safety and structures.
Increased population and the growth of suburban areas near parklands, has led to the development of what is known as Wildland Urban Interface Fire Management, in which the park cooperates with adjacent property owners in improving safety and fire awareness. This approach is common to many other protected areas. As part of this program, houses and structures near the park are designed to be more fire resistant. Dead and fallen trees are removed from near places of human habitation, reducing the available fuel load and the risk of a catastrophic fire, and advance warning systems are developed to help alert property owners and visitors about forest fire potentials during a given period of the year. Glacier National Park has an average of 14 fires with burnt each year. In 2003, burned in the park after a five-year drought and a summer season of almost no precipitation. This was the most area transformed by fire since the creation of the park in 1910.
Recreation
Glacier is distant from major cities. The closest airport is in Kalispell, Montana, southwest of the park. Amtrak trains stop at East and West Glacier, and Essex. A fleet of restored 1930s White Motor Company coaches, called Red Jammers, offer tours on all the main roads in the park. The drivers of the buses are called "Jammers", due to the gear-jamming that formerly occurred during the vehicles' operation. The tour buses were rebuilt in 2001 by Ford Motor Company. The bodies were removed from their original chassis and built on modern Ford E-Series van chassis. They were also converted to run on propane to lessen their environmental impact.
Historic wooden tour boats, some dating back to the 1920s, operate on some of the larger lakes. Several of these boats have been in continuous seasonal operation at Glacier National Park since 1927 and carry up to 80 passengers. Three of these decades-old boats were added to the National Register of Historic Places in January 2018.
Hiking is popular in the park. Over half of the visitors to the park report taking a hike on the park's nearly of trails. of the Continental Divide National Scenic Trail spans most of the distance of the park north to south, with a few alternative routes at lower elevations if high altitude passes are closed due to snow. The Pacific Northwest National Scenic Trail crosses the park on from east to west.
Dogs are not permitted on any trails in the park due to the presence of bears and other large mammals. Dogs are permitted at front country campsites that can be accessed by a vehicle and along paved roads.
Many day hikes can be taken in the park. Back-country camping is allowed at campsites along the trails. A permit is required and can be obtained from certain visitor centers or arranged for in advance. Much of Glacier's backcountry is usually inaccessible to hikers until early June due to accumulated snowpack and avalanche risk, and many trails at higher altitudes remain snow-packed until July. Campgrounds that allow vehicle access are found throughout the park, most of which are near one of the larger lakes. The campgrounds at St. Mary and at Apgar are open year-round, but conditions are primitive in the off-season, as the restroom facilities are closed and there is no running water. All campgrounds with vehicle access are usually open from mid-June until mid-September. Guide and shuttle services are also available.
The park attracts many climbers though the rock quality is old and loose in the Lewis Overthrust fault structure. The seminal literature on climbing in the park, A Climber's Guide to Glacier National Park, was written by J. Gordon Edwards in 1961, with the latest edition published in 1995. The Glacier Mountaineers Society sponsors climbing in the park, issuing awards to those climbers who summit all peaks or all five technical peaks.
The park is a popular destination for fly fishing. A permit is not required to fish in park waters. The threatened bull trout must be released immediately back to the water if caught; otherwise, the regulations on limits of catch per day are liberal.
Winter recreation in Glacier is limited. Snowmobiling is illegal throughout the park. Cross-country skiing is permitted in the lower altitude valleys away from avalanche zones.
Notes
References
Further reading
Dutiful Son: Louis W. Hill Sr. Book, Book about Louis W. Hill Sr., son and successor of empire builder James J. Hill and major force behind the establishment and development of Glacier National Park.
Bottomly-O'looney, Jennifer, and Deirdre Shaw. "Glacier National Park: People, a Playground, and a Park." Montana: The Magazine of Western History 60#1 (2010): 42–55.
Harper, Andrew C. "Conceiving Nature: The Creation of Montana's Glacier National Park." Montana: The Magazine of Western History 60#1 (2010): 3–24.
External links
of the National Park Service
Guide to the Glacier National Park Papers at the University of Montana
The Glacier Institute
Glacier Park Remembered, a documentary produced by Montana PBS
National parks in Montana
National parks of the Rocky Mountains
Lewis Range
Livingston Range
Geology of Montana
Glaciers of North America
Protected areas of Flathead County, Montana
Protected areas of Glacier County, Montana
Protected areas established in 1910
1910 establishments in Montana
Rocky Mountains
History of the Rocky Mountains
Biosphere reserves of the United States
Civilian Conservation Corps in Montana
World Heritage Sites in the United States | [
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|
226214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attu%20Island | Attu Island | Attu (, ) is an island in the Near Islands (part of the Aleutian Islands chain). It is the westernmost point of the U.S. state of Alaska. The island became uninhabited in 2010, making it the largest uninhabited island in the United States.
The Battle of Attu was the site of the only World War II land battle fought in the United States. The battlefield area is a U.S. National Historic Landmark.
Attu Station, a former Coast Guard LORAN station, is located at , making it one of the westernmost points of the United States relative to the rest of the country. However, since it is in the Eastern Hemisphere, being on the opposite side of the 180° longitude line of the contiguous 48 states, it can also be considered one of the easternmost points of the country (a second Aleutian Island, Semisopochnoi Island at 179°46′E, is the easternmost location in the United States by this definition). For purposes of calendar date, the International Date Line, however, passes to the west of Attu Island, making it the westernmost place in the United States with the same date.
In the chain of the Aleuts, the next island to the west of Attu are the Russian Commander Islands, away (and on the other side of the International Date Line). Attu is nearly from the Alaskan mainland and northeast of the northernmost of the Kuril Islands of Russia, as well as being from Anchorage, from Alaska's capital of Juneau, and from New York City. Attu is about in size with a land area of , making it #23 on the list of largest islands in the United States. The population in the 2010 census was 20 people, all at the Attu Station, though all inhabitants left the island later in the year when the station closed. It then became the largest uninhabited island in the United States.
In 1982, the only significant trees on the island were those planted by American soldiers at a chapel constructed after the 1943 battle when the Japanese occupation was over; they have since gone.
Although Attu Island is the westernmost body of land east of the International Date Line, its time zone is the same as other western Aleutian Islands, UTC−10, which means that locations to the south-southeast (such as the uninhabited Baker Island and Howland Island in UTC−12 and Niue, Midway Atoll and American Samoa in UTC −11) have earlier clocks.
History
The name Attu is the Unangan language (Aleut) name for the island. Archaeological research of the large number of archaeological sites on the island suggests an estimated precontact population ranging from 2,000 to 5,000 Unangan (Aleut).
Attu, being the nearest to Kamchatka, was the first of the Aleutian Islands exploited by Russian traders. Russian explorer Aleksei Chirikov called the island Saint Theodore in 1742. Russians stayed on the island several years at a stretch to hunt sea otters. The Russians often clashed with the local Unangan population. After the initial wave of traders, European ships largely overlooked Attu.
World War II
The Aleuts were the primary inhabitants of the island prior to World War II. But, on June 7, 1942, six months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the 301st Independent Infantry Battalion of the Japanese Northern Army landed on the island without opposition, one day after landing on nearby Kiska, which made Attu the second of the only two invasion sites on United States soil during the war. Earlier, American authorities had forcibly moved about 880 Aleuts from villages elsewhere in the Aleutian Islands to concentration camps in the Alaska Panhandle, where about 75 of them died of various infectious diseases over two years.
However, Attu Village had not yet been evacuated when the Japanese invaded. At the time, Attu's population consisted of 45 native Aleuts and two white Americans, Charles Foster Jones (1879–1942), a radio technician, originally from St. Paris, Ohio, and his wife Etta (1879–1965), a schoolteacher, originally from Vineland, New Jersey. The village consisted of several houses around Chichagof Harbor. The 42 Attu inhabitants who survived the Japanese invasion were taken to a prison camp near Otaru, Hokkaidō. Sixteen of them died while they were imprisoned. Mr. Jones, 63, was murdered by the Japanese forces almost immediately after the invasion. Mrs. Jones, 63, was subsequently taken to the Bund Hotel in Yokohama, Japan, which also housed Australian prisoners of war from the 1942 Battle of Rabaul in Papua New Guinea. Later, Mrs. Jones and the Australian prisoners were held at the Yokohama Yacht Club from 1942 to 1944, and then at the Totsuka prisoner of war camp until their release in August 1945. Mrs. Jones died in December 1965 at age 86 in Bradenton, Florida.
Before the Attu villagers were returned to the U.S., the American government stated publicly that it was not aware of their status.
According to Gen. Kiichiro Higuchi, the Commander of the Japanese Northern Army, the invasion of Kiska and Attu was part of a threefold objective:
To break up any offensives against Japan by way of the Aleutians.
To place a barrier between the U.S. and Russia in case Russia decided to join the war against Japan.
To make preparation for air bases for future offensive action.
In late September 1942, the Japanese garrison on Attu was transferred to Kiska, and then Attu was essentially left unoccupied, but American forces made no attempt to occupy Attu during this time. On October 29, 1942, the Japanese reestablished a base on Attu at Holtz Bay under the command of Lt. Col. Hiroshi Yanekawa. Initially, the garrison was about 500 troops, but through reinforcements, that number reached about 2,300 by March 10, 1943. No more reinforcements arrived after that time, owing mainly to the efforts of the U.S. naval force under Rear Admiral Charles "Soc" McMorris, and United States Navy submarines. McMorris had been assigned to interdict the Japanese supply and reinforcement convoys. After the sizable naval Battle of the Komandorski Islands, the Japanese abandoned their attempts to resupply its Aleutian garrisons by surface ships. From then on, only submarines were used for the resupply runs.
On May 11, 1943, the American operation to recapture Attu began. A shortage of landing craft, unsuitable beaches, and equipment that failed to operate in the appalling weather caused great difficulties in projecting any force against the Japanese. Many soldiers suffered from frostbite – because essential supplies could not be landed, or having been landed, could not be moved to where they were needed. Army vehicles would not work on the tundra. The Japanese defenders under Colonel Yasuyo Yamasaki did not contest the landings, but rather they dug in on high ground away from the shore. This resulted in bloody fighting: there were 3,929 U.S. casualties: 549 were killed, 1,148 were injured, 1,200 had severe cold injuries, 614 succumbed to infectious diseases, and 318 died of miscellaneous causes – largely from Japanese booby traps and from friendly fire. The Japanese were defeated in Massacre Valley. The death count for the Japanese was 2,035. The Americans then built "Navy Town" near Massacre Bay.
On May 29, the last of the Japanese forces suddenly attacked near Massacre Bay in one of the largest banzai charges of the Pacific campaign. The charge, led by Colonel Yamasaki, penetrated U.S. lines far enough to encounter shocked rear-echelon units of the American force. After furious, brutal, close-quarter, and often hand-to-hand combat, the Japanese force was killed almost to the last man: only 28 prisoners were taken, none of them officers. U.S. burial teams counted 2,351 Japanese dead, but it was presumed that hundreds more had been buried by naval, air, and artillery bombardments over the course of the battle.
The Japanese Navy, realizing that their position was now untenable, evacuated Kiska three months later.
The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) built a larger airfield, the Alexai Point Army Airfield, and then used it on July 10, 1943, as the base for an air attack on the Japanese-held Kurile Islands, now a part of Russia. This was the first air attack on the Japanese "homelands" since the famous Doolittle Raid in 1942. Other attacks followed.
On April 11, 1945, in a period of only two hours, at least nine Japanese incendiary balloons sent to start forest fires in the United States West Coast were intercepted and shot down near Attu by USAAF P-38 Lightning aircraft.
Postwar
After the war, the survivors of the Otaru prison camp were shipped to other Aleutian islands or to the mainland of Alaska, as there were not enough survivors to sustain their old village at Attu. The United States government decided to construct a LORAN station on the southern tip of Attu, at Theodore Point. This installation was manned by a crew of about twenty members of the United States Coast Guard. The equipment to build the station came out of Holtz Bay and was ferried on barges and landing craft to Baxter Cove, about one mile east of the station. Bulldozers were used to cut a road from Baxter Cove to Theodore Point.
In 1954, the station was moved to Casco Cove, near the former Navy Base at Massacre Bay. In 1960, it was moved to Massacre Bay.
The island previously had scheduled airline service to and from Anchorage (ANC) flown by Reeve Aleutian Airways (RAA) which in 1976 was operating two direct flights a week between ANC and Attu with Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprop aircraft via an en route stop either at Adak Airport or Shemya in the Aleutian Islands. At the time, the airport on Attu was the westernmost airfield located in the U.S. to have scheduled passenger airline service.
In 1984, the "392" exchange in the 907 area code, which includes Attu (and whose rate center is on nearby Shemya Island), became the last telephone exchange in the United States to be upgraded to dial service. Prior to that, all telephone calls placed to and from that exchange could only be placed with the assistance of an operator.
The battlefield area and subsequent military sites were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1985. The battlefield is now part of Aleutian Islands World War II National Monument.
In 1987, with the approval of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the government of Japan placed a monument on Engineer Hill, site of the hand-to-hand finale of the battle against the Japanese. An inscription, in Japanese and English, reads: "In memory of all those who sacrificed their lives in the islands and seas of the North Pacific during World War II and in dedication to world peace."
In July 2007, the boots and foot bones of a Japanese soldier were found on the island, and on May 23, 2008, the remains of two more Japanese soldiers were discovered by U.S. Coast Guard Petty Officer 3rd Class Richard Brahm, a public affairs specialist who was a documentarian for the remains recovery team. More remains were located at the burial site, but were left untouched with plans to return at a later time and have them exhumed properly.
On August 1, 2010, the United States Coast Guard LORAN station on Attu permanently ceased operation. On August 27, 2010, the station was decommissioned and the Coast Guard personnel left, leaving the island with no resident population.
On June 7, 2012, the 70th anniversary of the Japanese invasion, Senator Lisa Murkowski and United States Coast Guard Rear Admiral Thomas Ostebo dedicated a memorial to Attu Village, its residents who died in Japanese captivity, and the survivors who were unable to return.
In 2015, Attu Island was visited by pilot and world circumnavigator Michael Smith. The island was a crucial refueling stop for Smith as he made his way from Adak island in the Aleutian Islands to Japan. As the island is uninhabited, he had to first fly containers of fuel there and then return as part of the journey from Adak to Japan. He was advised against staying overnight as there are large rats on the island.
After three months of efforts in digging up and removing contaminated soil from the island in the summer of 2016 via funding from the Formerly Used Defense Sites program, it was expected that further efforts would be required to finish the environmental clean up of the island.
Demographics
Attu first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as the unincorporated Aleut village of "Attoo", which at the time consisted of the village on western Chichagof Harbor. It had 107 residents, consisting of 74 Aleuts, 32 "Creoles" (mixed Russian and Native) and 1 White resident. In 1890, it appeared as Attu. It did not return again on the census until 1930. It appeared on the 1940 census, two years before the Japanese invasion of the village and island. It did not return again until 1980, when it consisted of the naval station residents at Massacre Bay, and was made a census-designated place (CDP). It did not return on the 1990 census. The name was changed to Attu Naval Station and redesignated a CDP in 2000. It last appeared on the 2010 census, just before the closure of the station in August that year and the departure of its remaining residents.
Climate
The weather on Attu is typically cloudy, rainy, and foggy. High winds occur occasionally. Five or six days a week are likely to be rainy, and there are only about eight to ten clear days a year. The rest of the time, even if rain is not falling, fog of varying density is the rule rather than the exception. There are of annual rainfall and other precipitation, with the heaviest rains in the autumn and early winter. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Attu has a subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc) closely bordering on a tundra climate (ET). For its latitude the climate is exceptionally chilly, with daytime maximum temperatures averaging in the mid-50s (°F) in summer.
Birding
Attu was an important location in the world of competitive birding, whose goal is to see or hear the largest possible number of bird species within a specific geographic area during a specific time period. Because it is so physically remote from other parts of North America, there are a number of bird species likely to be found on Attu that are not seen anywhere else on the continent. John Fitchen called the island "the Holy Grail of North American birding".
During his record-setting big year of 1998, in which he identified a record 745 species (later revised to 748), Sandy Komito spent 29 days (May 10 – June 7) on the island. Since the closure of Attu Station by the U.S. Coast Guard in 2010, access to the island by birders has been greatly restricted. In a 2010 interview on the subject, Al Levantin (one of Komito's competitors during the 1998 season) singled out inaccessibility of Attu as the factor that would make it nearly impossible to break Komito's record. However, Neil Hayward did break the record, by one species, in 2013 without visiting Attu.
Birding tours can still reach Attu but only by boat, following a multi-day trip from Adak Island.
Education
In the pre-World War II period, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) operated the sole school on the island. At the time of Attu's capture, the school had a single teacher who was a White American woman. , the uninhabited island is physically within the Aleutian Region School District.
See also
Aleutian Islands Campaign
Kiska
List of National Historic Landmarks in Alaska
National Register of Historic Places listings in Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska
Peaceful River (Alaska)
Web references
Attu Island: Blocks 1150 thru 1153 and 1155 thru 1170, Census Tract 1, Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska United States Census Bureau.
References
External links
Attu Homepage
Red White Black & Blue – feature documentary about The Battle of Attu
Soldiers of the 184th Infantry, 7th ID in the Pacific, 1943–1945
Suicidal Banzai charge in Attu : The 1st Gyokusai ordered Suicide for the Emperor?
”Attu: North American Battleground of World War II”, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Aleutian Islands campaign
Near Islands
Protected areas of Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska
World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument
World War II on the National Register of Historic Places in Alaska
Islands of Alaska
Islands of Unorganized Borough, Alaska
Islands of Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska
Uninhabited islands of Alaska | [
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|
226215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1879%20in%20sports | 1879 in sports | 1879 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Princeton Tigers
Events
Foundation of Michigan Wolverines
Association football
International
5 April — James F. M. Prinsep of Clapham Rovers becomes England's youngest international player at the age of 17 years and 252 when he makes his debut (and only appearance) for England against Scotland. The record stands for more than 123 years until broken by Wayne Rooney in 2003.
England
FA Cup final – Old Etonians 1–0 Clapham Rovers at The Oval
Sunderland AFC is founded by a meeting of local schoolteachers and originally called Sunderland & District Teachers AFC. Non–teachers are allowed to play the following year when the club's name is changed to Sunderland AFC.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Vale of Leven win by a walkover after Rangers refuse to appear in the replay due to a protest about a disallowed goal in the original match, drawn 1–1.
Baseball
National championship
National League champions – Providence Grays
Events
The National League agrees that no one else will hire any of five players listed by each club, the first reserve lists.
Boxing
Events
John J. Dwyer defeats former champion Jimmy Elliott in 12 rounds at Long Point, Canada, and then claims the Heavyweight Championship of America due to the continued inactivity of current champion Joe Goss and the main challenger Paddy Ryan. His claim is not recognised. Subsequently, Dwyer becomes involved in a bar room brawl with Ryan in New York City.
John L. Sullivan turns professional and wins his first five known fights.
Cricket
Events
2–4 January — Australia defeats England by 10 wickets at Sydney Cricket Ground in the only Test match of the season
2 January — Fred Spofforth of Australia claims the first hat-trick in Test cricket
25 February — formation of Leicestershire County Cricket Club
England
Champion County – Lancashire and Nottinghamshire share the title
Most runs – W. G. Grace 880 @ 35.20 (HS 123)
Most wickets – Fred Morley 147 @ 10.70 (BB 8–52)
Australia
Most runs – George Ulyett 306 @ 34.00 (HS 71)
Most wickets – Tom Emmett 44 @ 11.63 (BB 8–47)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Jamie Anderson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – The Liberator
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Wheel of Fortune
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Charibert
The Derby – Sir Bevys
The Oaks – Wheel of Fortune
St. Leger Stakes – Rayon d'Or
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Darriwell
Canada
Queen's Plate – Moss Rose
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Jupiter Tonans
Irish Derby Stakes – Soulouque
USA
Kentucky Derby – Lord Murphy
Preakness Stakes – Harold
Belmont Stakes – Spendthrift
Hurling
Events
The Irish Hurling Union formalises the sport for the first time.
Lacrosse
Events
The U.S. Amateur Lacrosse Association is formed and adopts the Canadian rules.
Rowing
The Boat Race
5 April — Cambridge wins the 36th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Events
Foundation of Bramley, Rosslyn Park F.C. and Warrington
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – John Hartley (GB) defeated Vere St. Leger Goold (GB) 6–2, 6–4, 6–2
World
The 3rd pre-open era 1879 Men's Tennis tour gets underway 12 tournaments are staged this year between 2 June – 28 December 1879.
References
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|
226216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1880%20in%20sports | 1880 in sports | 1880 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Princeton Tigers and Yale Bulldogs (shared)
Events
Walter Camp becomes an influential figure at the Massasoit House conventions where rules are debated and changed. His 1878 proposal to reduce the teams from fifteen players to eleven is passed in 1880, the effect being to open up the game and emphasise speed over strength. Camp's most famous rule proposal, the establishment of the line of scrimmage and the snap from center to quarterback, is also passed in 1880.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Clapham Rovers 1–0 Oxford University at The Oval
A dispute develops between Bolton Wanderers and the FA about professionalism, a heated topic in football through the 1880s which will directly or indirectly involve many other clubs besides Bolton. The FA espouses the so–called "Corinthian Spirit" and there are constant arguments about broken–time payments, out–of–pocket expenses and what amounts to actual wages. Despite its convictions, the FA has no objection to professional clubs playing in the FA Cup and this may be a tacit acknowledgement that the growth of professionalism is inevitable. There are close links at this time between football and cricket, which has employed professionals since the 17th century. Part of the problem is that many of the amateurs see football as "fun", but cricket is taken very seriously and the professional cricketer is considered necessary. Bolton Wanderers, formed in 1874 as a church team, has already become an ambitious club and is turning professional to attract talent from Scotland. Its neighbour Blackburn Rovers also turns professional in 1880.
Manchester City founded as St Marks (West Gorton) by members of St Mark's Church Cricket team. First match was on 13th November.
Ireland
Establishment of the Irish Football Association (IFA) in Belfast as the world's fourth oldest football association. Until the formation of the Football Association of Ireland (FAI) in 1921, the IFA administers football throughout Ireland although participation in the 19th century is mainly centred on the Belfast area. The IFA now governs football in Northern Ireland only and is not to be confused with the FAI which governs football in the Republic of Ireland.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park 3–0 Thornliebank at Hampden Park
Baseball
National championship
National League champions – Chicago White Stockings
Events
The latest National Association, a professional rival of the National League, goes out of business after its fourth season, contested by only three to four clubs.
Boxing
Events
30 May — after four years of inactivity, Joe Goss finally defends his Heavyweight Championship of America title against Paddy Ryan at Collier's Station, West Virginia. Ryan wins after 87 rounds.
John L. Sullivan is now the main contender for Ryan's title and announces that he will fight anyone in America, with or without gloves, for $500.
Cricket
Events
6–8 September — the first ever Test match played in England sees England defeat Australia at The Oval by 5 wickets after W. G. Grace scores England's first Test century.
England
Champion County – Nottinghamshire
Most runs – Billy Barnes 1,220 @ 28.37 (HS 143)
Most wickets – Alfred Shaw took 186 @ 8.54 (BB 8–31) and his Notts colleague Fred Morley took 184 @ 12.26 (BB 8–36)
Australia
Most runs – Alec Bannerman 103 @ 25.75 (HS 52)
Most wickets – William Cooper 12 @ 10.75 (BB 7–37)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Bob Ferguson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Empress
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Elizabeth
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Petronel
The Derby – Bend Or
The Oaks – Jenny Howlet
St. Leger Stakes – Robert the Devil
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Grand Flaneur
Canada
Queen's Plate – Bonnie Bird
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Controller
Irish Derby Stakes – King of the Bees
USA
Kentucky Derby – Fonso
Preakness Stakes – Grenada
Belmont Stakes – Grenada
Rowing
The Boat Race
22 March — Oxford wins the 37th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Events
Foundation of Batley RLFC, Leicester RUFC and Northampton RUFC
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – John Hartley (GB) defeats Herbert Lawford (GB) 6–3, 6–2, 2–6, 6–3
World
The 4th pre-open era 1880 Men's Tennis tour gets underway 13 tournaments are staged this year between 12 April – 28 November 1880.
References
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|
226217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1881%20in%20sports | 1881 in sports | 1881 in sports describes the year's events in world sports.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Events
Michigan Wolverines is the first "western" team to travel east and play against the established teams at Harvard Crimson, Yale Bulldogs and Princeton Tigers.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Old Carthusians 3–0 Old Etonians at The Oval in the last final to be played between two southern amateur sides.
Blackburn Rovers and Bolton Wanderers both change their venues to enclosed grounds where gate money can be charged, an increasing practice among clubs that are openly (or otherwise) professional.
Preston North End is founded and plays from the start at Deepdale, which holds the world record for the length of time a venue has been in continuous use by one major league club.
Burnley FC founded as Burnley Rovers RUFC which decides in May 1882 to switch codes. The Rovers suffix is dropped two years later and the club renamed as Burnley AFC.
Newcastle United, which has a complicated early history, is founded as Stanley FC by a cricket club in the Byker area of Newcastle.
France
Foundation of FC Girondins de Bordeaux.
Ireland
Moyola Park F.C. wins the inaugural Irish Cup final
Scotland
12 March — Andrew Watson makes his Scotland debut, becoming the world's first black international football player
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park 3–1 Dumbarton at Hampden Park (replay after Dumbarton protests about the original match which Queen's Park has won 2–1)
Baseball
National championship
National League champions – Chicago White Stockings
Events
Detroit replaces Cincinnati leaving Cleveland and Providence the southerly cities on the National League circuit. Four others lie on the northerly rail line from stalwart Chicago to stalwart Boston: Detroit, Buffalo, Troy, and Worcester.
In autumn, for the first time, all eight National League clubs prepare to continue next season.
Boxing
Events
Paddy Ryan takes part in a number of exhibition bouts but does not defend his Heavyweight Championship of America title.
John L. Sullivan continues his rise to the championship with a series of knockout victories, none of them lasting longer than eight rounds.
Cricket
Events
Lancashire County Cricket Club wins its first outright title. At the end of the season, an English team led by Alfred Shaw goes to Australia for the 1881–82 Test series.
England
Champion County – Lancashire
Most runs – A. N. Hornby 1,534 @ 40.36 (HS 188)
Most wickets – Ted Peate 173 @ 12.68 (BB 8–30)
Australia
Most runs – Tom Horan 318 @ 35.33 (HS 113)
Most wickets – Edwin Evans 32 @ 11.25 (BB 5–34)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Bob Ferguson
Gymnastics
Events
23 July — the Federation Internationale de Gymnastique, the world's oldest international sport federation, is founded.
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Woodbrook
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Thebais
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Peregrine
The Derby – Iroquois
The Oaks – Thebais
St. Leger Stakes – Iroquois
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Zulu
Canada
Queen's Plate – Vice Chancellor
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Antoinette
Irish Derby Stakes – Master Ned
USA
Kentucky Derby – Hindoo
Preakness Stakes – Saunterer
Belmont Stakes – Saunterer
Rowing
The Boat Race
8 April — Oxford wins the 38th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Events
Wales plays its first international match but is well beaten by England
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeated John Hartley (GB) 6–0 6–1 6–1
USA
First U.S. National Singles Championship, precursor of the US Open, won by Richard D. Sears (USA) who defeats William E. Glyn (USA) 6–0 6–3 6–2
World
The 5th pre-open era 1881 Men's Tennis season gets underway 27 tournaments are staged this year from 23 May to 10 November.
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Mischief defeats Canadian challenger Atalanta, of the Bay of Quinte Yacht Club
References
Sports by year | [
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|
226218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1882%20in%20sports | 1882 in sports | 1882 in sport describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Events
At the 1882 rules meeting, Walter Camp proposes that a team be required to advance the ball a minimum of five yards within three downs. These down-and-distance rules, combined with the already-established line of scrimmage, transform the game from a variation of rugby or association football into the distinct sport of American football.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Old Etonians 1–0 Blackburn Rovers at The Oval, the first time that a professional club has reached the final
Tottenham Hotspur founded as Hotspur FC by members of the Hotspur Cricket Club in Tottenham.
Ireland
18 February — Ireland makes its international debut, losing 13–0 to England in Belfast. Ireland is the world's fourth international team following England, Scotland and Wales.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park 4–1 Dumbarton (replay following a 2–2 draw)
Bandy
Events
Charles G. Tebbutt of the Bury Fen bandy club is responsible for the first published rules of bandy and also for introducing the game into the Netherlands and Sweden, as well as elsewhere in England.
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – Chicago White Stockings (NL) 1–1 Cincinnati Reds (AA)
Events
Foundation of Cincinnati Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates and St. Louis Cardinals
The American Association opens in six southerly cities from St. Louis to Philadelphia, a new professional baseball league that will rival the NL.
The National League completes two years with one circuit, eight northerly cities from Chicago to Boston.
Biking
February 22 - New York City's 24 hour bike race wins James Saunders, who ran 120 miles and won 100 dollars
Boxing
Events
7 February — John L. Sullivan defeats Paddy Ryan in nine rounds at Mississippi City to claim the Heavyweight Championship of America. Apart from Sullivan's famous 1889 fight against Jake Kilrain, this is the last major bareknuckle contest fought under London Prize Ring Rules. Sullivan will increasingly fight under Queensberry Rules from now on using gloves and will become the first generally recognised World Heavyweight Champion from 1885.
Cricket
Events
England, led by Alfred Shaw, tours Australia and plays a four-match Test series. Australia wins the series 2–0.
8 April (approx.) — formation of Warwickshire County Cricket Club at a meeting in Coventry
10 May — formation of Durham County Cricket Club
8, 9 & 10 June — Somerset County Cricket Club plays its inaugural first-class match v. Lancashire at Old Trafford and joins the County Championship, but for only four seasons initially.
28 & 29 August — England v. Australia at The Oval (only Test of the season). Australia wins the most famous match in history by 7 runs with F. R. Spofforth, the original "Demon Bowler", taking 7–46 and 7–44. Soon afterwards, The Sporting Times prints its legendary obituary notice:
In Affectionate Remembrance
of
ENGLISH CRICKET,
which died at the Oval
on
29th AUGUST, 1882,
Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing
friends and acquaintances
----
R.I.P.
----
N.B.—The body will be cremated and the
ashes taken to Australia.
England
Champion County – Lancashire and Nottinghamshire share the title
Most runs – Billy Murdoch 1,582 @ 31.64 (HS 286*)
Most wickets – Ted Peate 214 @ 11.52 (BB 8–32)
Australia
Most runs – Billy Murdoch 679 @ 61.72 (HS 321)
Most wickets – Joey Palmer 47 @ 21.55 (BB 7–46)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Bob Ferguson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Seaman
1,000 Guineas Stakes – St. Marguerite
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Shotover
The Derby – Shotover
The Oaks – Geheimniss
St. Leger Stakes – Dutch Oven
Australia
Melbourne Cup – The Assyrian
Canada
Queen's Plate – Fanny Wiser
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Chantilly
Irish Derby Stakes – Sortie
USA
Kentucky Derby – Apollo
Preakness Stakes – Vanguard
Belmont Stakes – Forester
Lacrosse
Events
The first high school lacrosse teams are formed: Phillips Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy and the Lawrenceville School.
Seven colleges form the first Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (ILA), which was later replaced by the Intercollegiate Lacrosse League in 1905 (which was renamed the U.S. Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association in 1929).
Rowing
The Boat Race
1 April — Oxford wins the 39th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
England
Leicester Rowing Club was formed
Rugby football
Events
Foundation of Waterloo R.F.C.
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeats Ernest Renshaw (GB) 6–1 2–6 4–6 6–2 6–2
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Richard D. Sears (USA) defeats Clarence M. Clark (USA) 6–1 6–4 6–0
World
The 6th pre-open era 1882 Men's Tennis season gets underway 43 tournaments are staged this year from 24 April to 12 November.
References
Sports by year | [
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|
226219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1883%20in%20sports | 1883 in sports | 1883 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Events
Modification of the scoring rules produces a system of four points for a touchdown, two points for kicks after touchdowns, two points for safeties, and five for field goals.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Blackburn Olympic 2–1 Old Etonians (aet). This is the first time that the FA Cup is won by a professional team and by a team from the north of England.
Burnley FC moves to its present ground at Turf Moor and plays its first game there in February against Rawtenstall, but loses 6–3.
Bristol Rovers founded as Black Arabs FC.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Dumbarton 2–1 Vale of Leven (replay following 2–2 draw)
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – Boston Beaneaters (NL) v. Philadelphia Athletics (AA) cancelled
Events
The NL, AA, and Northwestern League limit competition in the Tripartite Agreement, the first National Agreement and the birth of so-called "Organised Baseball".
6 September — Chicago White Stockings set a still standing record for Major League Baseball by scoring 18 runs in a single inning (the 7th) in a game against the Detroit Wolverines.
Boxing
Events
American heavyweight champion John L. Sullivan has a scare when he is knocked down in the first round of his fight against Charley Mitchell in New York City. He recovers to secure a technical knockout when police intervene after the third round and stop the fight. Sullivan goes on tour across America, fighting mainly in exhibition bouts; none of his genuine challengers last more than three rounds.
Cricket
Events
England tours Australia to play a Test series of three matches, England winning 2–1 and so regaining The Ashes for the first time.
England
Champion County – Nottinghamshire
Most runs – Walter Read 1,573 @ 47.66 (HS 168)
Most wickets – Ted Barratt 148 @ 15.90 (BB 8–28)
Australia
Most runs – Alec Bannerman 434 @ 54.25 (HS 101*)
Most wickets – Eugene Palmer 51 @ 11.52 (BB 7–65)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Willie Fernie
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Zoedone
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Hauteur
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Galliard
The Derby – St. Blaise
The Oaks – Bonny Jean
St. Leger Stakes – Ossian
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Martini-Henry
Canada
Queen's Plate – Roddy Pringle
Ireland
Irish Grand National – The Gift
Irish Derby Stakes – Sylph
USA
Kentucky Derby – Leonatus
Preakness Stakes – Jacobus
Belmont Stakes – George Kinney
Ice hockey
The first Montreal Winter Carnival ice hockey tournament is held as part of the Montreal Winter Carnival in Montreal, Quebec, Canada in late January and early February. It is the first championship ice hockey tournament and is won by the Montreal McGill University team.
5 March – The Ottawa Hockey Club is founded.
Luge
Events
First organised competition takes place in Davos, Switzerland
Rowing
The Boat Race
15 March — Oxford wins the 40th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The inaugural series is won by England
Other events
Foundation of Hull Kingston Rovers and Hunslet
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeats Ernest Renshaw (GB) 2–6 6–3 6–3 4–6 6–3
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Richard D. Sears (USA) defeats James Dwight (USA) 6–2 6–0 9–7
World
The 7th pre-open era 1883 Men's Tennis tour gets underway 30 tournaments are staged this year from 24 April to 12 November.
References
Sports by year | [
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|
226220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884%20in%20sports | 1884 in sports | 1884 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Events
Amos Alonzo Stagg enters Yale University as a divinity student and, a natural athlete, joins the university's football team.
25 October — Yale Bulldogs defeat Dartmouth 113–0. This is the first college football game where one team scores over 100 points and also the first time one team scores over 100 points while the opposing team scores zero.
29 October — The next week, the Princeton Tigers outscore the Lafayette Leopards by 140–0.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Blackburn Rovers 2–1 Queen's Park (Glasgow) at The Oval. Blackburn Rovers is the first extant club to win the FA Cup.
Everton moves as tenant to Anfield, a newly enclosed ground off Anfield Road, Liverpool.
Derby County founded by Derbyshire CCC to provide a winter activity for players and supporters.
Leicester City founded as Leicester Fosse.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park win by a walkover after Vale of Leven fail to appear
Baseball
National championship
Inauguration of the National League v. American Association fixture, sometimes called the "Original World Series" – Providence Grays (NL) defeats New York Metropolitans (AA) 3 games to nil.
Events
Ned Williamson hits 27 home runs for the Chicago White Stockings, establishing a record that will last for 35 years. He nearly doubles the record of 14 set the season before by Harry Stovey.
Moses Fleetwood Walker becomes the first black American major league baseball player when he makes his American Association league debut for the Toledo Blue Stockings.
Boxing
Events
The first of the modern World titles is recognised with Jack (Nonpareil) Dempsey as the original World Middleweight Champion. The weight limit for middleweights at this time is 154 pounds. Dempsey will hold the title until 1891.
American heavyweight champion John L. Sullivan faces a number of challengers but none of them last more than four rounds. Sullivan is very active on the exhibition circuit.
Lineal world champions
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
Canadian football
Events
The Canadian Rugby Football Union, forerunner of the Canadian Football League, is established.
Cricket
Events
An Australian team tours England but loses the three-match Test series 1–0 with two matches drawn.
Derbyshire suffer the ignominy of a perfectly bad season losing all ten of their county games
In stark contrast Nottinghamshire come closer to an absolutely perfect season than any county side since, winning nine games and being three wickets shy of victory in their tenth
England
Champion County – Nottinghamshire
Most runs – Lord Harris 1,417 @ 33.73 (HS 112*)
Most wickets – Fred Spofforth 207 @ 12.82 (BB 8–62)
Australia
Most runs – Billy Murdoch 567 @ 113.40 (HS 279*)
Most wickets – Joey Palmer 29 @ 17.51 (BB 6–72)
Gaelic Athletic Association
Events
1 November — Gaelic Athletic Association is founded at Hayes' Hotel in Thurles, County Tipperary, to promote hurling and Gaelic football. The foundation date has significance as Samhain: according to legend the day the Fianna fell from power.
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Jack Simpson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Voluptuary
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Busybody
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Scot Free
The Derby – dead heat between Harvester and St. Gatien
The Oaks – Busybody
St. Leger Stakes – The Lambkin
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Malua
Canada
Queen's Plate – Williams
Ireland
Irish Grand National – The Gift (second successive win)
Irish Derby Stakes – Theologian
USA
Kentucky Derby – Buchanan
Preakness Stakes – Knight of Ellerslie
Belmont Stakes – Panique
Ice hockey
February 11 – The Montreal Victorias defeat the Ottawa Hockey Club 1–0 to win the second Montreal Winter Carnival ice hockey tournament.
November 28 – The Montreal Hockey Club is founded.
Rowing
The Boat Race
7 April — Cambridge wins the 41st Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The 2nd series is won by England
Other events
The 1884 New Zealand rugby union tour of New South Wales is the inaugural overseas tour by the New Zealand team
Tennis
Events
Inaugural women's singles championship at Wimbledon
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeats Herbert Lawford (GB) 6–0 6–4 9–7
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Maud Watson (GB) defeats Lillian Watson (GB) 6–8 6–3 6–3
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Richard D. Sears (USA) defeats Howard A. Taylor (USA) 6–0 1–6 6–0 6–2
World
The 8th pre-open era Men's Tennis tour gets underway 54 tournaments are staged this year the tour runs from 6 May to 21 December 1884.
Tobogganing
Events
Cresta Run constructed at St. Moritz in Switzerland
References
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|
226221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1885%20in%20sports | 1885 in sports | 1885 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Princeton Tigers
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Blackburn Rovers 2–0 Queen's Park (Glasgow) at The Oval
20 July — the Football Association legitimises professionalism
Millwall FC founded by workers on the Isle of Dogs as Millwall Rovers.
Southampton FC founded as Southampton St Mary's by members of St Mary's Church YMCA.
Hungary
Újpest FC was founded in suburb of Budapest on June 16.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Renton 3–1 Vale of Leven at Hampden Park (replay following 0–0 draw)
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – Chicago NL ties St Louis A's, 3 games to 3 with one tie.
Events
The Cuban Giants, composed mainly of African-American players from Philadelphia, is the first black professional baseball team on a reasonably permanent basis. It will sometimes join a league and use a regular home park but more often tour independently.
Boxing
Events
29 August — John L. Sullivan's six round defeat of Dominick McCaffrey in Chester Park, Cincinnati, inaugurates the modern World heavyweight boxing championship under Queensberry Rules. The bout is described as being "to decide the Marquess of Queensberry glove contest for the championship of the world". Sullivan will hold the title until 1892.
World Middleweight Champion Jack (Nonpareil) Dempsey defeats 12 challengers during the year, most of them by knockouts.
Future World Heavyweight Champion James J. Corbett is the most successful amateur boxer on America's Pacific Coast and takes part in an exhibition bout with Dempsey.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
Cricket
Events
Nottinghamshire wins the county championship title for a third successive season
England
Champion County – Nottinghamshire
Most runs – Walter Read 1,880 @ 44.76 (HS 163)
Most wickets – George Lohmann 142 @ 14.36 (BB 8–18)
Australia
Most runs – Billy Barnes 520 @ 43.33 (HS 134)
Most wickets – Bobby Peel 35 @ 19.22 (BB 7–27)
Golf
Events
Inaugural British Amateur Championship held at Royal Liverpool Golf Club
Major tournaments
British Open – Bob Martin
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Allen MacFie
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Roquefort
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Farewell
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Paradox
The Derby – Melton
The Oaks – Lonely
St. Leger Stakes – Melton
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Sheet Anchor
Canada
Queen's Plate – Willie W.
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Billet Doux
Irish Derby Stakes – St. Kevin
USA
Kentucky Derby – Joe Cotton
Preakness Stakes – Tecumseh
Belmont Stakes – Tyrant
Ice hockey
Events
31 January — the Montreal Hockey Club defeats the McGill University 1–0 to win the 1885 Montreal Winter Carnival Ice Hockey Tournament
Rowing
The Boat Race
28 March — Oxford wins the 42nd Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The 3rd series of the Home Nations Championship is not completed
Other events
Establishment of London Welsh RFC and Connacht Rugby
Speed skating
Norway
1885 speed skating race at Frognerkilen
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeats Herbert Lawford (GB) 7–5 6–2 4–6 7–5
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Maud Watson (GB) defeats Blanche Bingley (GB) 6–1 7–5
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Richard D. Sears (USA) defeats Godfrey M. Brinley (USA) 6–3 4–6 6–0 6–3
The 9th pre-open era Men's Tennis tour gets underway 54 tournaments are staged this year the tour runs from 2 April to 12 October 1885.
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Puritan defeats British challenger Genesta, of the Royal Yacht Squadron, 2 races to 0
References
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|
226222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigamy | Bigamy | In cultures where monogamy is mandated, bigamy is the act of entering into a marriage with one person while still legally married to another. A legal or de facto separation of the couple does not alter their marital status as married persons. In the case of a person in the process of divorcing their spouse, that person is taken to be legally married until such time as the divorce becomes final or absolute under the law of the relevant jurisdiction. Bigamy laws do not apply to couples in a de facto or cohabitation relationship, or that enter such relationships when one is legally married. If the prior marriage is for any reason void, the couple is not married, and hence each party is free to marry another without falling foul of the bigamy laws.
Bigamy is a crime in most countries that recognise only monogamous marriages. When it occurs in this context often neither the first nor second spouse is aware of the other. In countries that have bigamy laws, with a few exceptions (such as Egypt and Iran), consent from a prior spouse makes no difference to the legality of the second marriage, which is usually considered void.
History of anti-bigamy laws
Even before Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, Diocletian and Maximian passed strict anti-polygamy laws in 285 AD that mandated monogamy as the only form of legal marital relationship, as had traditionally been the case in classical Greece and Rome. In 393, the Roman Emperor Theodosius I issued an imperial edict to extend the ban on polygamy to Jewish communities. In 1000, Rabbi Gershom ben Judah ruled polygamy inadmissible within Ashkenazi Jewish communities living in a Christian environment.
Legal situation
Most western countries do not recognise polygamous marriages, and consider bigamy a crime. Several countries also prohibit people from living a polygamous lifestyle. This is the case in some states of the United States where the criminalisation of a polygamous lifestyle originated as anti-Mormon laws, although they are rarely enforced.
In diplomatic law, consular spouses from polygamous countries are sometimes exempt from a general prohibition on polygamy in host countries. In some such countries, only one spouse of a polygamous diplomat may be accredited, however.
By country and region
Australia: Illegal. Up to five years' imprisonment.
Belgium: Illegal. Five to ten years' imprisonment.
Brazil: Illegal. Two to six years' imprisonment.
Canada: Illegal.
China: Illegal. Up to two years' imprisonment, and up to three years for bigamy with soldiers (but tolerated for some minorities, such as Tibetans, in some rural areas in the south-west).
Colombia: Illegal with exceptions (such as religion). Although bigamy no longer exists as a lone figure in the Colombian judicial code, marrying someone new without dissolving an earlier marriage may yield to other felonies such as civil status forgery or suppression of information.
Egypt: Legal for men if first wife consents.
Eritrea: Illegal. Up to five years' imprisonment.
Germany: Illegal. Up to three years' imprisonment.
Ghana: Illegal. Up to six months' imprisonment.
Hong Kong: Illegal. Up to seven years' imprisonment.
Iceland: Illegal.
India: Legal only for Muslim men but very rarely practised. Up to 10 years' imprisonment for others except in the state of Goa for Hindus due to its own civil code.
Indonesia: Depending on the specific tribe in question, bigamy can be legal or illegal.
Republic of Ireland: A criminal offence under section 57 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861, up to seven years' imprisonment. The Director of Public Prosecutions has discretion and rarely prosecutes. Catholic canon law permits a second marriage if the first was in a UK register office or annulled by the church; the state considered such marriages bigamous without a civil annulment (more restricted than a church annulment) or divorce (illegal from 1937 until 1996) and two cases in the 1960s led to suspended sentences. The 1861 act replaced an 1829 act which in turn replaced acts of 1725 and 1635.
Iran: Legal for men with consent of first wife. Rarely practised.
Israel: Illegal for members of each confessional community. Up to five years' imprisonment.
Italy: Illegal. Up to five years' imprisonment.
Libya: Legal for men with conditions.
Malaysia: Illegal for non-Muslims under federal jurisdiction. Under section 494 of Chapter XX of the Penal Code, non-Muslim offenders found guilty of bigamy or polygamy can be punished up to seven years' imprisonment. Bigamy or polygamy is legal only for Muslim men with restrictions under state jurisdiction, rarely practised.
Maldives: Permitted for anyone.
Malta: Illegal.
Morocco: Permitted for Muslims, restrictions apply.
Netherlands: Illegal. Up to six years' imprisonment. If the new partner is aware of the bigamy they can be imprisoned for a maximum of four years.
New Zealand: Illegal. Up to seven years' imprisonment, or up to two years' imprisonment if the judge is satisfied the second spouse was aware their marriage would be void.
Pakistan: Polygamy in Pakistan is permitted to men with some restrictions.
Philippines: Legal for Muslim men. Others face six to 12 years' imprisonment and legal dissolution of marriage.
Portugal: Illegal. Up to two years' imprisonment, or up to 240 days of day-fine.
Romania: Illegal.
Saudi Arabia: Bigamy or polygamy is legal for men.
Somalia: Polygamy is legal for men at marriage courts; long-standing tradition.
South Africa: Legal for men under the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, 1998 for customary marriages. Under civil law marriages (regulated by the Marriage Act), any marriage in addition to an already existing one is invalid (but not criminalised).
Sudan: Bigamy or polygamy is legal for men.
Taiwan: Illegal. Up to five years' imprisonment.
Thailand: Prior to October 1, 1935, polygamy in Thailand could be freely practised and recognised under civil law. Since its abolition, it is still practised and widely accepted in Thailand, though no longer recognised, as the law states "A man or a woman cannot marry each other while one of them has a spouse."
Tunisia: Illegal. Up to five years' imprisonment.
Turkey: Illegal. Up to two years' imprisonment.
United Kingdom: Illegal, although marriages performed abroad may be recognised for some legal purposes (see Polygamy in the United Kingdom).
On indictment, up to seven years' imprisonment or on summary conviction up to six months' imprisonment, or to a fine of a prescribed sum, or to both.
United States: Illegal in every state. Up to five years' imprisonment. (But see Polygamy in North America.)
Uzbekistan: Illegal.
References
External links
Polygamy law | [
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|
226223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886%20in%20sports | 1886 in sports | 1886 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Association football
England
Arsenal FC founded as Dial Square FC by munitions workers from the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich in southeast London. Dial Square is the name of one of their workshops. At the end of the year, the players hold a pub meeting and change the club's name to Royal Arsenal. Five years later, the name is changed to Woolwich Arsenal. The club's present name will be adopted in 1914 after the move to Islington.
13 March — Tinsley Lindley scores in the first of his record 9 consecutive England games
10 May — The Football Association approves a proposal made by N. Lane Jackson, an Old Corinthian, that players be given a cap for every international match in which they take part.
FA Cup final – Blackburn Rovers 2–0 West Bromwich Albion at The Oval; replay after 0–0 draw at The Oval. This is Blackburn's third successive victory and the final is the first to feature two extant members of The Football League.
December 11 – Dial Square F.C., later to become Arsenal FC (see above)), play their first match, a 6–0 win over the Eastern Wanderers.
Ireland
March — Linfield F.C. is formed in Belfast.
Scotland
20 March — John Lambie becomes the youngest Scotland player and captain, aged 17 years and 92 days.
May 17— Motherwell Football Club is formed.
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park 3–1 Renton
Switzerland
Grasshopper Club Zürich founded.
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – St Louis AA defeats Chicago NL, 4 games to 2.
Events
The Sporting News established in St. Louis. It becomes the dominant American publication covering baseball, so much so that it acquires the nickname "The Bible of Baseball".
Boxing
Events
The inaugural World Lightweight Champion is Jack McAuliffe, generally recognised following his 21st-round knockout of Billy Frazier at Boston. Lightweights weigh 130 to 135 pounds. McAuliffe will hold the title until he retires undefeated in 1893.
Jack Nonpareil Dempsey retains the World Middleweight Championship when he knocks out George LaBlanche in 13 rounds at Larchmont, NY.
John L. Sullivan knocks out Paddy Ryan in the third round at San Francisco. Sullivan retains the World Heavyweight Championship.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
Cricket
Events
Somerset does not play against any other first-class counties and drops out of the County Championship until 1891.
Hampshire ceases to be a first-class county after years of difficult circumstances and poor results. They do play matches against Surrey and Sussex in 1886 but these matches are not recognised as first-class. Hampshire will not recover first-class status until the beginning of the 1895 season when they will be readmitted to the County Championship.
England
Champion County – Nottinghamshire (fourth consecutive season)
Most runs – W. G. Grace 1,846 @ 35.50 (HS 170)
Most wickets – George Lohmann 160 @ 15.15 (BB 8–43)
Australia
Most runs – John McIlwraith 315 @ 78.75 (HS 133)
Most wickets – Fred Spofforth 18 @ 15.22 (BB 5–43)
Field hockey
Events
18 January — modern field hockey is born with the formation of the Hockey Association in England, which codifies the sport's rules
Gaelic Athletic Association
Events
Wexford GAA becomes the first of the 32 GAA county boards
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – David Brown
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Horace Hutchinson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Old Joe
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Miss Jummy
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Ormonde
The Derby – Ormonde
The Oaks – Miss Jummy
St. Leger Stakes – Ormonde
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Arsenal
Canada
Queen's Plate – Wild Rose
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Castle Lucas
Irish Derby Stakes – Theodemir
USA
Kentucky Derby – Ben Ali
Preakness Stakes – The Bard
Belmont Stakes – Inspector B
Ice hockey
Events
8 December — world's first championship ice hockey league, the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC) is formed at a meeting in Montreal
Rowing
The Boat Race
3 April — Cambridge wins the 43rd Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The 4th series is shared by Scotland and England who win two matches each.
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeats Herbert Lawford (GB) 6–0 5–7 6–3 6–4
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Blanche Bingley (GB) defeats Maud Watson (GB) 6–3 6–3
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Richard D. Sears (USA) defeats R. Livingston Beeckman (USA) 4–6 6–1 6–3 6–4
World
The 10th pre-open era Men's Tennis tour gets underway 85 tournaments are staged this year the tour runs from 24 April to 12 November 1886.
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Mayflower defeats British challenger Galatea, of the Royal Northern Yacht Club, 2 races to 0
References
Sports by year | [
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|
226224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1887%20in%20sports | 1887 in sports | 1887 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Events
The rules are changed so that gametime is set at two halves of 45 minutes each (as in Association football). Two paid officials, a referee and an umpire, are mandated for each game.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – Aston Villa 2–0 West Bromwich Albion at The Oval
Barnsley FC and Blackpool FC are founded
Germany
Hamburger SV founded as one of the oldest clubs in Germany
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Hibernian 2–1 Dumbarton
Australian rules football
Events
Carlton Football Club wins the Victorian Football Association premiership
Norwood Football Club wins the South Australian Football Association premiership
Unions Football Club wins the Western Australian Football Association premiership
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – Detroit Wolverines (NL) defeats Saint Louis Cardinals (AA) 10 games to 5
Events
The two major leagues agree to a unified set of rules.
The National Colored Base Ball League plays for a few weeks before folding.
Five black men play in the International League, the highest minor league, the high-water mark in racial integration of professional baseball.
Boxing
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
Cricket
Events
The English cricket team in Australia in 1886–87, generally known as Alfred Shaw's XI, is described by Wisden as "one of the strongest that ever left England for the Colonies". The team plays 10 first-class matches, winning 6 with 2 draws and 2 defeats (both against New South Wales). England win both Test matches played by 13 runs and 71 runs respectively.
England
Champion County – Surrey
Most runs – W. G. Grace 2,062 @ 54.26 (HS 183*)
Most wickets – George Lohmann 154 @ 15.61 (BB 8–36)
Australia
Most runs – Arthur Shrewsbury 721 @ 48.06 (HS 236)
Most wickets – Charlie Turner 70 @ 7.68 (BB 8–32)
Gaelic football
7 February — Irish forms of football are formally arranged into an organised playing code by the Gaelic Athletic Association, the rules being drawn up by Maurice Davin and published in the United Ireland magazine. The GAA seeks to promote traditional Irish sports, such as hurling and to reject "foreign" (particularly English) imports.
Limerick GAA wins the inaugural All-Ireland Senior Football Championship.
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Willie Park junior
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Horace Hutchinson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Gamecock
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Reve d'Or
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Enterprise
The Derby – Merry Hampton
The Oaks – Reve d'Or
St. Leger Stakes – Kilwarlin
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Dunlop
Canada
Queen's Plate – Bonnie Duke
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Eglentine
Irish Derby Stakes – Pet Fox
USA
Kentucky Derby – Montrose
Preakness Stakes – Dunboyne
Belmont Stakes – Hanover
Hurling
Tipperary GAA wins the first All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship
Ice hockey
February 25 - The Montreal Hockey Club defeats Montreal Victorias 1–0 to win the 1887 Montreal Winter Carnival Ice Hockey Tournament.
March 11 - The Montreal Crystals defeat the Montreal Victorias 3–2 to win the inaugural 1887 AHAC championship on the final challenge of the season, despite having a record of two wins and four losses.
Rowing
The Boat Race
26 March — Cambridge wins the 44th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
Scotland wins the 1887 Home Nations Championship, which is the 5th series
Softball
Events
George Hancock invents an indoor baseball game that would become known as softball in Chicago, Illinois (USA) on November 24.
Tennis
Events
American champion Richard D. Sears retires from the sport after winning the US singles title for the seventh successive time, a record that still stands
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Herbert Lawford (GB) defeats Ernest Renshaw (GB) 1–6 6–3 3–6 6–4 6–4
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Lottie Dod (GB) defeats Blanche Bingley (GB) 6–2 6–0
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Richard D. Sears (USA) defeats Henry Slocum (USA) 6–1 6–3 6–2
American Women's Singles Championship – Ellen Hansell (USA) defeats Laura Knight (USA) 6–1 6–0
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Volunteer defeats British challenger Thistle, of the Royal Clyde Yacht Club, 2 races to 0
References
Sports by year | [
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|
226225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1888%20in%20sports | 1888 in sports | 1888 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs (coached by Walter Camp)
Events
Tackling below the waist is legalised.
Association football
England
FA Cup final – West Bromwich Albion 2–1 Preston North End at The Oval
Walsall Town and Walsall Swifts merge to form Walsall Football Club. The club initially plays under the name of Walsall Town Swifts.
Small Heath, later Birmingham City, is the first football club to form a limited company
7 March — Tinsley Lindley scores in his ninth consecutive England game, a record that still stands.
Origin of the Football League
One of the problems facing professionalism is the lack of competitive matches, especially for teams that have been knocked out of the FA Cup. It is self–evident that crowds for friendly fixtures are much lower, which means a reduction in revenue and consequent struggle to pay wages.
Aston Villa's Scottish director William McGregor seeks a solution by asking other professional clubs to arrange annual home and away fixtures on a competitive basis, with points to be awarded for winning and drawing. Following a conference between club directors on 23 March, the English Football League is founded on 17 April as one division of twelve clubs.
The founder members are: Accrington F.C. (1888–1893), Aston Villa, Blackburn Rovers, Bolton Wanderers, Burnley, Derby County, Everton, Notts County, Preston North End, Stoke F.C., West Bromwich Albion and Wolverhampton Wanderers.
Hungary
MTK Budapest FC was founded.
India
Durand Cup instituted by Mortimer Durand as recreation for British troops stationed in India. It is the oldest tournament in India and the third oldest in the world.
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Renton 6–1 Cambuslang
Celtic Football Club is founded by members of the Marist Order, a teaching institute, as a way of raising money for a poor children's charity. The club's first ground is a piece of rented land not far from the present Celtic Park. Celtic's first recorded match is a home "friendly" against Rangers; Celtic win 5–2 in what is therefore the inaugural "Old Firm Game".
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – New York Giants (NL) defeats Saint Louis Cardinals (AA) 6 games to 4.
Events
The last of many adjustments finally sets four balls and three strikes for a "walk" and a strikeout.
Boxing
Events
10 March - Heavyweight Boxing champ John L. Sullivan draws Charlie Mitchell in 30 rounds
30 October - The inaugural World Welterweight Champion is Paddy Duffy of Boston, Massachusetts who is recognised following his 17th-round knockout of Billy McMillan at Fort Foote, Virginia on 30 October. Duffy retains the title until his death (by tuberculosis) in 1890. The welterweight division is for fighters weighing between 140 and 147lb.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
World Welterweight Championship – Paddy Duffy
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
Cricket
Events
After a run of disastrous results over a number of seasons, Derbyshire is demoted from first-class status and the 1888 championship is contested by only eight teams: Gloucestershire, Kent, Lancashire, Middlesex, Nottinghamshire, Surrey, Sussex and Yorkshire. Derbyshire will recover first-class status in 1894 and join the official County Championship in 1895.
5 July — formation of Glamorgan County Cricket Club at a meeting in the Angel Hotel, Cardiff.
Thanks mainly to the bowling of Bobby Peel, England defeats Australia 2–1 to retain The Ashes.
England
Champion County – Surrey
Most runs – W. G. Grace 1,886 @ 32.51 (HS 215)
Most wickets – Charlie Turner 283 @ 11.68 (BB 9–15)
Wisden Six Great Bowlers of the Year – George Lohmann, Johnny Briggs, John Ferris, Charlie Turner, Sammy Woods, Bobby Peel
Australia
Most runs – Harry Moses 815 @ 62.69 (HS 297*)
Most wickets – Charlie Turner 106 @ 13.59 (BB 8–39)
Golf
February 22 - “Father of American Golf” John Reid first demonstrates golf on a Yonkers cow pasture to friends
Major tournaments
British Open – Jack Burns
Other tournaments
British Amateur – John Ball
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Playfair
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Briar-root
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Ayrshire
The Derby – Ayrshire
The Oaks – Seabreeze
St. Leger Stakes – Seabreeze
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Mentor
Canada
Queen's Plate – Harry Cooper
Ireland
Irish Grand National – The Maroon
Irish Derby Stakes – Theodolite
USA
Kentucky Derby – MacBeth II
Preakness Stakes – Refund
Belmont Stakes – Sir Dixon
Ice hockey
March 15 – Montreal Hockey Club defeats Montreal Victorias 2–1 in a playoff to capture the 1888 AHAC championship.
Rowing
The Boat Race
24 March — Cambridge wins the 45th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The 1888 Home Nations Championship is the 6th series of the Home Nations Championship contested by Ireland, Scotland and Wales. England is excluded due to its refusal to join the International Rugby Board. The teams win one match apiece and the title is shared by all three.
Other events
The 1888 British Isles tour of New Zealand and Australia sees the first overseas touring rugby team from Britain. The tour is a private venture and not authorised by the Home Nations.
The 1888–1889 New Zealand Native football team are the first overseas rugby tourists from the Southern Hemisphere. The team plays matches under Rugby football, Victorian Rules football and Association football codes.
Bristol Football Club is formed when the Carlton club merges with rival club Redland Park to create a united Bristol team.
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Ernest Renshaw (GB) defeats Herbert Lawford (GB) 6–3 7–5 6–0
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Lottie Dod (GB) defeats Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) 6–3 6–3
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Henry Slocum (USA) defeats Howard A. Taylor (USA) 6–4 6–1 6–0
American Women's Singles Championship – Bertha Townsend (USA) defeats Ellen Hansell (USA) 6–3 6–5
References
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|
226226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1889%20in%20sports | 1889 in sports | 1889 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Princeton Tigers
Association football
Denmark
Formation of the Danish Football Union (Dansk Boldspil-Union or DBU)
England
The Football League – Preston North End 40 points, Aston Villa 29, Wolves 28, Blackburn Rovers 26, Bolton Wanderers 22, West Bromwich Albion 22
FA Cup final – Preston North End 3–0 Wolverhampton Wanderers at The Oval.
Preston North Ends wins the inaugural Football League championship unbeaten, an achievement that will not be equalled until 2003–04 by Arsenal. Preston also wins the FA Cup to become the first team ever to complete The Double. The team earns the nickname of "Invincibles".
The Football Alliance is founded as a rival to the Football League. It is short-lived and collapses in 1892 when the Football League expands. The Alliance is brokered by Sheffield Wednesday president John Holmes. Founder members include Sheffield Wednesday, Newton Heath (Manchester United), Nottingham Forest, Small Heath (Birmingham City) and Grimsby Town. Ardwick (Manchester City) will join in 1891 for the final season.
Sheffield United is founded. With Sheffield Wednesday having left Bramall Lane in 1887, the management committee of the Bramall Lane complex decides to form a new football club at the ground, using Sheffield United Cricket Club as its basis. Bramall Lane is the world's oldest professional football venue, though not the longest in continuous use (which is Deepdale).
The 1889–90 Football League season features the same 12 teams as in 1888–89.
Netherlands
8 December — formation of the Royal Dutch Football Association (i.e., the Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbalbond or KNVB).
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Third Lanark 2–1 Celtic (replay; the SFA declared the original match void due to adverse conditions). Celtic reaches the Scottish Cup final in the club's inaugural season.
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – New York Giants (NL) defeats Brooklyn Dodgers (AA) 6 games to 3.
Boxing
Events
8 July — John L. Sullivan defeats Jake Kilrain after 75 rounds in the last major bareknuckle contest. Some authorities recognise it as a world title contest although it is fought under London Prize Ring Rules rather than the now-accepted Queensberry Rules.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
World Welterweight Championship – Paddy Duffy
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
Cricket
Events
12–13 March — South Africa plays its inaugural Test match against the touring England national cricket team. England wins by 8 wickets. The match also marks the beginning of first-class cricket in South Africa where the Currie Cup is inaugurated as the premier domestic competition.
The number of balls per over in England is increased from four to five. The four-ball over has been used since time immemorial.
The major English county cricket clubs meet to agree a way of deciding an order of ranking for the next season; the official County Championship is established.
England
Champion County – Surrey, Lancashire and Nottinghamshire share the title
Most runs – W. G. Grace 1,396 @ 32.46 (HS 154)
Most wickets – George Lohmann 202 @ 13.43 (BB 9–67)
Wisden Nine Great Batsmen of the Year – Bobby Abel, Billy Barnes, Billy Gunn, Louis Hall, Robert Henderson, Maurice Read, Arthur Shrewsbury, Frank Sugg, Albert Ward
Australia
Most runs – Harry Trott 507 @ 39.00 (HS 172)
Most wickets – John Ferris 36 @ 15.83 (BB 6–62)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Willie Park junior
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Johnny Laidlay
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Frigate
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Minthe
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Enthusiast
The Derby – Donovan
The Oaks – L'Abbesse de Jouarre
St. Leger Stakes – Donovan
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Bravo
Canada
Queen's Plate – Colonist
Ireland
Irish Grand National – The Citadel
Irish Derby Stakes – Tragedy
USA
Kentucky Derby – Spokane
Preakness Stakes – Buddhist
Belmont Stakes – Eric
Ice hockey
Events
27 March — Montreal Hockey Club defeats Montreal Victorias 6–1 in the final challenge of the season to win the 1889 AHAC championship
Rowing
The Boat Race
30 March — Cambridge wins the 46th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The 7th series is won by Scotland following victories over both Ireland and Wales.
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – William Renshaw (GB) defeats Ernest Renshaw (GB) 6–4 6–1 3–6 6–0
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) defeats Lena Rice (GB) 4–6 8–6 6–4
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Henry Slocum (USA) defeats Quincy Shaw (USA) 6–3 6–1 4–6 6–2
American Women's Singles Championship – Bertha Townsend (USA) defeats Lida Voorhees (USA) 7–5 6–2
References
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|
226228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890%20in%20sports | 1890 in sports | 1890 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Harvard Crimson
Non-college amateur championships
Western Pennsylvania champions – Allegheny Athletic Association
Events
11 October — Western University of Pennsylvania (later renamed the University of Pittsburgh) played its first ever football game in a 38–0 loss to the Allegheny Athletic Association, which was held at Exposition Park.
15 November — The Colorado Buffaloes play their first football game against the Denver Athletic Club.
22 November — College football is first played in the state of Kansas at the 1890 Kansas vs. Baker football game
29 November — The first Army–Navy Game is played. Navy wins 24–0.
Association football
England
The Football League – Preston North End 33 points, Everton 31, Blackburn Rovers 27, Wolves 25, West Bromwich Albion 25, Accrington FC 24
FA Cup final – Blackburn Rovers 6–1 The Wednesday at The Oval
For the 1890–91 Football League season, Stoke FC is expelled and replaced by Sunderland FC who will remain in the top flight continuously until 1958, a record of 68 seasons that only Arsenal's current run (since 1919) has beaten.
Middlesbrough FC is split by a dispute over whether to turn professional or not. A breakaway group, who favour professionalism, form a new club called Middlesbrough Ironopolis which joins the Football League in 1893 but becomes bankrupt after only one season. Middlesbrough FC eventually turns professional in 1899 and is elected to the Football League at that time.
France
Formation of the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA), the principal governing body of football in France until 1919 when it is superseded by the Fédération Française de Football (FFF).
Scotland
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park 2–1 Vale of Leven (replay following 1–1 draw)
The Scottish Football League (SFL) is founded as one division of 10 teams. Founder members are Abercorn, Cambuslang, Celtic, Cowlairs, Dumbarton, Hearts, Rangers, St Mirren, Third Lanark and Vale of Leven.
Spain
Sevilla FC, officially founded on January 25.
Baseball
National championship
National League v. American Association – Louisville Colonels (AA) ties Brooklyn Dodgers (NL) three games each.
Events
The Players' League, initiated by the players' union, competes with the National League and American Association. It signs numerous leading players and is arguably the strongest league, but it survives for only one season.
Boxing
Events
10 July — death by tuberculosis of Paddy Duffy, the reigning World Welterweight Champion. The title remains vacant until 1892.
The inaugural World Featherweight Champion is Torpedo Billy Murphy of New Zealand who is recognised following his 14th-round knockout of Ike Weir at San Francisco on 13 January. Murphy is defeated by Young Griffo of Australia on 2 September at Sydney. Griffo retains the title until 1892 when he steps up to the lightweight division. The featherweight division is for fighters weighing between 118 and 126 lb, although the limit fluctuates somewhat in the division's early days.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey
World Welterweight Championship – Paddy Duffy → title vacant following death of Paddy Duffy
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
World Featherweight Championship – Torpedo Billy Murphy → Young Griffo
Cricket
Events
In South Africa, the inaugural Currie Cup is won by Transvaal
The 1890 English cricket season is the first in which the County Championship is held officially. The champion county is Surrey who win nine out of fourteen games.
England, captained by W. G. Grace, win The Ashes 2–0. One Test match is abandoned.
England
County Championship – Surrey
Most runs – William Gunn 1,621 @ 34.48 (HS 228)
Most wickets – George Lohmann 220 @ 13.62 (BB 8–65)
Wisden Five Great Wicket-Keepers – Jack Blackham, Gregor MacGregor, Dick Pilling, Mordecai Sherwin, Henry Wood
Australia
Most runs – Jack Lyons 254 @ 63.50 (HS 134)
Most wickets – Hugh Trumble 29 @ 14.20 (BB 8–110)
South Africa
Currie Cup – Transvaal
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – John Ball
Other tournaments
British Amateur – John Ball
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Ilex
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Semolina
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Surefoot
The Derby – Sainfoin
The Oaks – Memoir
St. Leger Stakes – Memoir
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Carbine
Canada
Queen's Plate – Kitestring
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Greek Girl
Irish Derby Stakes – Kentish Fire
USA
Kentucky Derby – Riley
Preakness Stakes – Montague
Belmont Stakes – Burlington
Ice hockey
Events
4 March 4 — the Montreal Hockey Club defeats the Montreal Victorias 2–1 to retain the 1890 AHAC season title.
19 November 19 — the Ottawa City Hockey League is founded to administer ice hockey in the area of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
27 November 27 — the Ontario Hockey Association is founded to administer ice hockey in Ontario, Canada.
Lacrosse
Events
The first ever women's lacrosse game is played at the St Leonards School in Scotland.
Rowing
The Boat Race
26 March — Oxford wins the 47th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
The 8th series is contested by England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. England and Scotland share the title with two wins apiece.
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Willoughby Hamilton (GB) defeats William Renshaw (GB) 6–8 6–2 3–6 6–1 6–1
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Lena Rice (GB) defeats May Jacks (GB) 6–4 6–1
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Oliver Campbell (USA) defeats Henry Slocum (USA) 6–2 4–6 6–3 6–1
American Women's Singles Championship – Ellen Roosevelt (USA) defeats Bertha Townsend (USA) 6–2 6–2
References
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|
226229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1891%20in%20sports | 1891 in sports | 1891 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Events
Kansas defeats Missouri in the first Border War game 22-10 beginning one of the oldest and most fierce college football rivalries.
Association footballArgentina
Argentine Primera Division foundedBelgium Club Brugge KV foundedEngland The Football League – Everton 29 points, Preston North End 27, Notts County 26, Wolves 26, Bolton Wanderers 25, Blackburn Rovers 24
FA Cup final – Blackburn Rovers 3–1 Notts County at The Oval
The Football League expands from twelve to fourteen teams for the 1891–92 season: Stoke FC, having been expelled in 1890, is restored; Darwen is elected.Scotland The Scottish Football League's inaugural season is completed with a shared title
Scottish Football League – Dumbarton and Rangers: title shared
Scottish Cup final – Heart of Midlothian 1–0 Dumbarton at Hampden ParkUruguay 28 September — foundation of the Central Uruguay Railway Cricket Club (CURCC) by British railway workers in Montevideo; it later becomes C.A. Peñarol
BaseballNational championship National League v. American Association – series not held
The National League winners are the Boston Beaneaters who decline to play against the American Association winners, the Boston RedsEvents The American Association folds after the season ends
BasketballEvents James Naismith of Springfield, Massachusetts invents basketball
BoxingEvents 14 January — Bob Fitzsimmons knocks out Jack Nonpareil Dempsey in the 13th round at New Orleans to win the Middleweight Championship of the World. It is the first of three world titles that Fitzsimmons will hold during his career.Lineal world champions World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan
World Middleweight Championship – Jack Nonpareil Dempsey → Bob Fitzsimmons
World Welterweight Championship – title vacant
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
World Featherweight Championship – Young Griffo
CricketEvents Inaugural Inter-Colonial Tournament takes place in the West Indies involving Barbados, British Guiana and Trinidad & Tobago.England County Championship – Surrey
Most runs – William Gunn 1336 @ 41.75 (HS 169)
Most wickets – George Lohmann 177 @ 11.66 (BB 7–20)
Wisden Five Great Bowlers – William Attewell, J T Hearne, Frederick Martin, Arthur Mold, John SharpeAustralia Most runs – George Giffen 275 runs @ 91.66 (HS 237)
Most wickets – Jim Phillips 25 wickets @ 10.00 (BB 7–20)South Africa Currie Cup – KimberleyWest Indies Inter-Colonial Tournament – Barbados
GolfMajor tournaments British Open – Hugh KirkaldyOther tournaments British Amateur – Johnny Laidlay
Horse racingEngland Grand National – Come Away
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Mimi
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Common
The Derby – Common
The Oaks – Mimi
St. Leger Stakes – CommonAustralia Melbourne Cup – MalvolioCanada Queen's Plate – VictoriousIreland Irish Grand National – Old Tom
Irish Derby Stakes – NarraghmoreUSA Kentucky Derby – Kingman
Preakness Stakes – not run
Belmont Stakes – Foxford
Ice hockeyEvents 5 March — the Montreal Hockey Club defeats the Montreal Crescents 8–2 in a challenge to retain the 1891 AHAC season title.
7 March — the Ottawa Hockey Club defeats the Toronto St. George's 5–0 to win the inaugural Ontario Hockey Association championship.Sweden Djurgårdens IF Hockey was founded in Stockholm
RowingThe Boat Race 21 March — Oxford wins the 48th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby footballHome Nations Championship The 9th series is won by Scotland with a 100% record against England, Ireland and Wales.Other events The 1891 British Lions tour to South Africa is the first British Isles tour of South Africa and only the second overseas tour conducted by a joint British team. Between 9 July and 7 September, the team plays 20 games, including three Tests against the South Africa national rugby union team. The British Isles wins all 20 matches including the three Tests. Although not named as such at the time, the tour is retrospectively recognised as a British Lions tour.
TennisEvents Inaugural French championship is held as the Championat de France International de Tennis. Initially, only the men's singles is contested; the women's singles will begin in 1897. Until 1924, the tournament is open only to tennis players who are licensed in France but, ironically, the inaugural tournament is won by an Englishman, H Briggs, who defeats French player P Baigneres in the final. Briggs is a British resident living in Paris.England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Wilfred Baddeley (GB) defeats Joshua Pim (Ireland) 6–4 1–6 7–5 6–0
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Lottie Dod (GB) defeats Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) 6–2 6–1France French Men's Singles Championship – H. Briggs (GB) defeats P. Baigneres 6–3 6–2USA'''
American Men's Singles Championship – Oliver Campbell defeats Clarence Hobart 2–6 7–5 7–9 6–1 6–2
American Women's Singles Championship – Mabel Cahill (GB) defeats Ellen Roosevelt 6–4 6–1 4–6 6–3
References
Sports by year | [
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226230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love%20triangle | Love triangle | A love triangle (also called a romantic love triangle or a romance triangle or an eternal triangle) is usually a romantic relationship involving three people. While it can refer to a polyamorous relationship between three people (i.e. Person A loves Person B loves Person C loves Person A), it often refers to two people competing for another's love.
The 1994 book Beliefs, Reasoning, and Decision Making states, "Although the romantic love triangle is formally identical to the friendship triad, as many have noted their actual implications are quite different...Romantic love is typically viewed as an exclusive relationship, whereas friendship is not." Statistics suggest that, in Western society, "willingly or not, most adults have been involved in a love triangle".
History and definitions
The term "love triangle" generally connotes an arrangement unsuitable to one or more of the people involved. One person typically ends up feeling betrayed at some point (e.g., "Person A is jealous of Person C who is having a relationship with Person B who, in Person A's eyes, is 'his/her person."). A similar arrangement that is agreed upon by all parties is sometimes called a triad, which is a type of polyamory even though polyamory usually implies sexual relations. Within the context of monogamy, love triangles are inherently unstable, with unrequited love and jealousy as common themes. In most cases, the jealous or rejected first party ends a friendship—and sometimes even starts a fight with—the second party over the third-party love interest. Though rare, love triangles have been known to lead to murder or suicide committed by the actual or perceived rejected lover.
Psychoanalysis has explored "the theme of erotic love triangles and their roots in the Oedipal triangle". Experience suggests that "a repeated pattern of forming or being caught in love triangle can be much dissolved by beginning to analyse the patterns of the childhood relationship to each parent in turn and to both parents as a couple". In such instances, "you find men who are attracted only by a married woman but who can't sustain the relationship if it threatens to become more than an affair. They need the husband to protect them from a full relationship...as women who repeatedly get involved with married men need the wives".
Common themes
Eternal triangle
"In geometric terms, the eternal triangle can be represented as comprising three points – a jealous mate (A) in a relationship with an unfaithful partner (B) who has a lover (C)...A feels abandoned, B is between two mates, and C is a catalyst for crisis in the union A-B".
It has been suggested that "a collusive network is always needed to keep the triangle eternal". This may take a tragic form – "I saw no prospect of its ending except with death – the death of one of three people" – or alternately a comic one: "A man at the funeral of a friend's wife, with whom he has been carrying on an affair, breaks into tears and finally becomes hysterical, while the husband remains impassive. 'Calm yourself,' says the husband, 'I'll be marrying again'."
Homosociality
It has been suggested that if men "share a sense of brotherhood and they allow a woman into their relationship, an isosceles triangle is created" automatically, as "in Truffaut's film Jules et Jim. René Girard has explored the role of envy and mimetic desire in such relationships, arguing that often the situation "subordinates a desired something to the someone who enjoys a privileged relationship with it". In such cases, 'it cannot be fair to blame the quarrel of the mimetic twins on a woman....She is their common scapegoat'.
Marital breakup
When a love triangle results in the breakup of a marriage, it may often be followed by what has been called "the imposition of a 'defilement taboo'...the emotional demand imposed by a jealous ex-mate...to eschew any friendly or supportive contact with the rival in the triangle". The result is often to leave children gripped by "shadows from the past...they often take sides. Their loyalties are torn", and – except in the best of cases – "the one left 'injured' can easily sway the feelings of the children against acknowledging this new relationship".
As to gender responsibility, evidence would seem to indicate that in late modernity both sexes may equally well play the part of the "Other Person" – that "men and women love with equivalent passion as well as folly" and that certainly there is nothing to "suggest that a man is better able to control himself in a love triangle than a woman". Stereotypically, the person at the center of a rivalrous love triangle is a woman, whereas for a split-object love triangle it is a man, due to the same reasons that polygyny is far more common than polyandry.
Those who find themselves tempted to become the Other Man may, however, still find a cynic's advice from the 1930s pertinent on "the emotional position of the adulterer, and why to avoid it...Did I know what a mug's game was? – No. – 'A mug's game,' he told me, 'is breaking your back at midnight, trying to make another man's wife come.
Ménage à trois
A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which either all members are romantically involved with each other, or one member has relations with two others who are reconciled to the situation instead of being in conflict. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.
In entertainment
Love triangles are a popular theme in entertainment, especially romantic fiction, including opera, romance novels, soap operas, romantic comedies, manga, tabloid talk shows, and popular music. They are a major aspect of Indian television shows.
Three of the highest grossing movies of all time adjusted for inflation (Gone with the Wind, Titanic and Doctor Zhivago) are romantic epics that feature a love triangle at its core. Young adult literature has seen a rise in the popularity of the love triangle story structure (such as Twilight or The Selection). But the love triangle story structure has been around since before early classic writers like William Shakespeare and Alexandre Dumas. Shakespeare's famous play Romeo and Juliet featured a love triangle between Juliet, Romeo, and Paris. Although more subtle, Dumas's classics The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers also feature love triangles strong enough to seek revenge and start a war.
In television shows, a love triangle is often prolonged, delaying final declarations of love between the pursued character and suitors that may prematurely end this dynamic or displease fans. Love triangles also featured prominently on soap operas, and can span more than a decade, as shown by Taylor Hamilton, Ridge Forrester and Brooke Logan on The Bold and the Beautiful, or between Luke Spencer, Laura Spencer, and Scotty Baldwin on General Hospital.
The love triangle has been a recurring subject in many popular songs throughout the years.
Warned of a love triangle by one of his prospective partners, Albert Einstein conceded to her that "You have more respect for the difficulties of triangular geometry than I, old mathematicus, have."
See also
Adultery
Affair
Tennessee Waltz
Threesome
Triangulation (psychology)
Archie Comics
References
External links
How to Cope in a Love Triangle
Triangle
Narrative techniques
Sexual fidelity | [
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|
226231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1892%20in%20sports | 1892 in sports | 1892 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Non-college amateur championships
Western Pennsylvania champions – Allegheny Athletic Association
Events
September 28 – The first night football game is attempted between Wyoming Seminary and Mansfield State.
12 November – Pudge Heffelfinger is paid $500 by the Allegheny Athletic Association to play in a game against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. He is considered the first professional football player of all time.
Association football
Bohemia
SK Slavia Prague was founded in Czechoslovakia
England
The Football League – Sunderland 42 points, Preston North End 37, Bolton Wanderers 36, Aston Villa 30, Everton 28, Wolves 26
FA Cup final – West Bromwich Albion 3–0 Aston Villa in the last final to be played at The Oval.
13 March — Liverpool Football Club is founded after Everton is split by a faction fight at board level over the proposed purchase of the freehold at Anfield. One faction, retaining the club's name and players, quits Anfield and moves across Stanley Park to establish a new home at Goodison Park. The other faction, which owns Anfield, decides to establish a new club there and this is called Liverpool F.C.. The new club joins the Lancashire League prior to the 1892–1893 season.
With the demise of the rival Football Alliance, the Football League is able to expand by inviting former Alliance members to join it. Membership doubles from 14 to 28 clubs with divisions introduced for the first time in the 1892–93 season. The original Football League becomes the new First Division, expanded to 16 teams; and the new Second Division is formed with 12 teams, many of them former members of the Alliance.
Darwen is relegated from the First Division; Newton Heath (Manchester United), Nottingham Forest and Sheffield Wednesday are elected to the First Division for 1892–93. Members of the new Second Division are Ardwick (Manchester City), Bootle (league members 1892–93), Burton United (1892–1907), Crewe Alexandra, Darwen, Grimsby Town, Lincoln City, Northwich Victoria (1892–94), Burslem Port Vale (1892–1907), Sheffield United, Small Heath (Birmingham City) and Walsall.
Germany
July 25 — Hertha Berlin founded as one of the oldest clubs in Germany
Nederland
May 14 — Dutch professional football club SBV Vitesse founded in Arnhem
Scotland
Scottish Football League – Dumbarton
Scottish Cup final – Celtic 5–1 Queen's Park at Ibrox Park
The SFL is reduced to 10 teams for 1892–93 after Cambuslang and Vale of Leven are expelled.
Athletics
Events
C. B. Fry equals the world record for the long jump of 23 ft. 5in – the record stands for 18 months.
Baseball
National championship
The "National League and American Association" is the sole major league in baseball after incorporating four clubs from the former American Association into the expanded and restructured National League and buying out the four others.
The National League plays a split season, Boston Beaneaters winning the first half, Cleveland Spiders winning the second. At the end of the season, Boston defeats Cleveland 5–0 in a championship series. The experiment will not be repeated but it will be adapted after two-month interruption of the 1981 season.
Basketball
Events
January 15 – James Naismith's rules for basketball are published for the first time in the Springfield YMCA International Training School's newspaper, in an article titled "A New Game." They said it was called "Basketball."
March 11 – First basketball game played in public, between students and faculty at the Springfield YMCA. The final score was 5–1 in favor of the students, with the only goal for the faculty being scored by Amos Alonzo Stagg. A crowd of 200 spectators watched the game.
Boxing
Events
7 September — James J. Corbett wins the World Heavyweight Championship with a 21st-round knockout of John L. Sullivan at the Olympic Club in New Orleans. Sullivan is gradually worn down by Corbett's combination of elusive footwork and fast jabs. Corbett holds the title until 1897.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – John L. Sullivan → James J. Corbett
World Middleweight Championship – Bob Fitzsimmons
World Welterweight Championship – vacant → "Mysterious" Billy Smith
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe
World Featherweight Championship – George Dixon
Cricket
Events
The English cricket team in Australia in 1891–92 tours Australia and Ceylon. The team, captained by W G Grace, is organised by Lord Sheffield who later subscribes his Sheffield Shield to Australian domestic first-class cricket. 29 matches are played in total, of which 12 are won, two lost and 15 drawn. Eight of the games are first–class including three Tests versus Australia. Australia win the Test series 2–1 to claim The Ashes.
Beginning of first-class cricket in India as the annual Bombay Presidency Matches between the Europeans and the Parsees are recognised as the inaugural first-class fixtures. Soon afterwards, the inaugural first-class tour of India by an overseas team takes place when Lord Hawke organises his 1892–93 English touring team.
England
County Championship – Surrey
Most runs – Herbie Hewett 1407 @ 35.17 (HS 201)
Most wickets – J T Hearne 163 @ 15.39 (BB 9–41)
Wisden Five Batsmen of the Year – Herbie Hewett, Lionel Palairet, Walter Read, Stanley Scott, Andrew Stoddart
Australia
Most runs – Jack Lyons 557 @ 55.70 (HS 145)
Most wickets – George Giffen 50 @ 17.30 (BB 9–96)
South Africa
Currie Cup – not contested
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Harold Hilton
Other tournaments
British Amateur – John Ball
Horse racing
Events
11 May — African-American jockey Alonzo "Lonnie" Clayton, aged 15, becomes the youngest rider ever to win the Kentucky Derby
England
Grand National – Father O'Flynn
1,000 Guineas Stakes – La Fleche
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Bona Vista
The Derby – Sir Hugo
The Oaks – La Fleche
St. Leger Stakes – La Fleche
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Glenloth
Canada
Queen's Plate – O'Donohue
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Springfield Maid
Irish Derby Stakes – Roy Neil
USA
Kentucky Derby – Azra
Preakness Stakes – not run
Belmont Stakes – Patron
Ice hockey
10 January — Ottawa Hockey Club defeats the Montreal Hockey Club 4–3 to become Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC) champions
2 March — Ottawa Hockey Club wins its second consecutive Ontario Hockey Association (OHA) title, defeating Toronto Osgoode Hall 10–4.
7 March — Montreal Hockey Club defeats Ottawa 1–0 to regain the AHAC title for the fifth consecutive year.
18 March — At a celebration dinner to honour the Ottawa Hockey Club, Canadian Governor-General Lord Stanley announces his new trophy to be awarded to the ice hockey champions of Canada. Originally known as the "Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup", it becomes known as the Stanley Cup, the championship trophy of the National Hockey League (NHL).
11 November — The Manitoba Hockey Association is founded to organize ice hockey play in Manitoba.
Ice skating
Events
The International Skating Union, the world governing body for ice skating, is founded in the Netherlands.
Rowing
The Boat Race
9 April — Oxford wins the 49th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
February 22 - A league that preceded the Canadian Football League Manitoba Rugby Football Union was founded
Home Nations Championship
The 10th series is contested by England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. England wins all its three games to take the title.
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Wilfred Baddeley (GB) defeats Joshua Pim (Ireland) 4–6 6–3 6–3 6–2
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Lottie Dod (GB) defeats Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) 6–1 6–1
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Jean Schopfer defeats Fassitt (GB) 6–2 1–6 6–2
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Oliver Campbell defeats Fred Hovey 7–5 3–6 6–3 7–5
American Women's Singles Championship – Mabel Cahill (GB) defeats Elisabeth Moore 5–7 6–3 6–4 4–6 6–2
References
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|
226232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893%20in%20sports | 1893 in sports | 1893 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Princeton Tigers
Events
22 February – Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn Tigers meet at Lakeview Baseball Park in Birmingham, Alabama for the first Iron Bowl.
2 December – Midshipman Joseph M. Reeves becomes the first documented player to wear a football helmet during the Army–Navy Game.
Association football
Argentina
21 February – formation of the Argentine Football Association (Asociación del Fútbol Argentino or AFA)
Bohemia
AC Sparta Prague, officially founded on 16 November.(later Czechoslovakia, present day Czech Republic)
England
The Football League – Sunderland 48 points, Preston North End 37, Everton 36, Aston Villa 35, Bolton Wanderers 32, Burnley 30
FA Cup final – Wolverhampton Wanderers 1–0 Everton at Fallowfield Stadium in Manchester
Ahead of the 1893–94 season, the Football League decides to expand the Second Division from 12 to 16 clubs but, with the unexpected demise of Accrington, they are left with 15.
Notts County and Accrington have been relegated from the First Division and replaced by Darwen and Sheffield United, both promoted from the Second Division. Bootle is expelled from the league and, to make the Second Division up to 16 clubs, the league elects Liverpool, Middlesbrough Ironopolis (league membership 1893–94), Newcastle United, Rotherham Town (1893–96) and Woolwich Arsenal, the latter being the first club from the south of England to join the Football League. Unexpectedly, Accrington then withdraws from the Football League and the 1893–94 Second Division has to proceed with an uneven 15 clubs.
Although the Football League is experiencing membership difficulties at this time, it has nevertheless succeeded in electing three of its most illustrious members: Liverpool, Newcastle United and Arsenal.
Portugal
28 September – foundation of F.C. Porto as Football Club do Porto
Scotland
Scottish Football League – Celtic
Scottish Cup final – Queen's Park 2–1 Celtic at Ibrox Park (replay after first match abandoned)
Formation of the SFL Second Division ahead of the 1893–94 season. Abercorn and Clyde are relegated to the Second Division and replaced in the First Division by Dundee and St. Bernard's. The new members of the Second Division are Cowlairs (re–elected to the SFL), Hibernian, Greenock Morton, Motherwell, Northern FC, Partick Thistle, Port Glasgow Athletic and Thistle FC.
Baseball
National championship
Beginning in 1893, the National League's championship pennant is awarded to the first–place club in the standings at the end of the season. Boston Beaneaters takes the 1893 title and there is no post–season play–off series.
Events
The pitcher's rubber replaces the box and the effective distance from home plate increases from 55 feet to 60 feet, 6 inches.
Basketball
Events
8 April – first college basketball game takes place in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania where Geneva College defeats New Brighton YMCA
Boxing
Events
World Lightweight Champion Jack McAuliffe retires undefeated and is one of the few boxers to be unbeaten in an entire career. The title becomes vacant.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – James J. Corbett
World Middleweight Championship – Bob Fitzsimmons
World Welterweight Championship – "Mysterious" Billy Smith
World Lightweight Championship – Jack McAuliffe → title vacant after McAuliffe retires undefeated
World Featherweight Championship – George Dixon
Cricket
Events
The inaugural Sheffield Shield competition in Australia is won by Victoria.
The 1892–93 season in India marks the beginning of recognised first-class cricket there.
An Australian team tours England and plays a Test series of three matches. Two are drawn and England win the other to reclaim The Ashes.
England
County Championship – Yorkshire
Most runs – Andrew Stoddart 2072 @ 42.28 (HS 195*)
Most wickets – J T Hearne 212 @ 16.47 (BB 8–55)
Wisden Five All–Round Cricketers – George Giffen, Alec Hearne, Stanley Jackson, Harry Trott, Ted Wainwright
Australia
Sheffield Shield – Victoria
Most runs – George Giffen 468 @ 58.50 (HS 181)
Most wickets – George Giffen 33 @ 23.00 (BB 9–147)
India
Bombay Presidency – Parsees
South Africa
Currie Cup – Western Province
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – Barbados
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – William Auchterlonie
Other tournaments
British Amateur – P.C. Anderson
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Cloister
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Siffleuse
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Isinglass
The Derby – Isinglass
The Oaks – Mrs Butterwick
St. Leger Stakes – Isinglass
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Tarcoola
Canada
Queen's Plate – Martello
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Thurles
Irish Derby Stakes – Bowline
USA
Kentucky Derby – Lookout
Preakness Stakes – not run
Belmont Stakes – Commanche
Ice hockey
Events
March – the Ottawa Hockey Club defeats the Toronto Granites by default to win the Ontario Hockey Association title.
17 March – At the conclusion of the 1893 AHAC season, Montreal Hockey Club wins the championship with a record of finishes in first place and is awarded the inaugural Stanley Cup. The club, which is in dispute with the Montreal AAA, refuses to accept it.
Rowing
The Boat Race
22 March – Oxford wins the 50th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
In the 11th series, six matches are played between England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Wales wins all three of its matches to take the Championship for the first time.
Speed skating
Events
First World Championships in speed skating (open to men only) directly under the auspices of the ISU held in Amsterdam
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Jaap Eden (Netherlands)
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Joshua Pim (Ireland) defeats Wilfred Baddeley (GB) 3–6 6–1 6–3 6–2
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Lottie Dod (GB) defeats Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) 6–8 6–1 6–4
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Laurent Riboulet defeats Jean Schopfer 6–3 6–3
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Robert Wrenn defeats Fred Hovey 6–4 3–6 6–4 6–4
American Women's Singles Championship – Aline Terry defeats Augusta Schultz 6–1 6–3
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Vigilant defeats British challenger Valkyrie II, of the Royal Yacht Squadron, 3 races to 0
References
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|
226233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894%20in%20sports | 1894 in sports | 1894 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Yale Bulldogs
Professional championships
Western Pennsylvania champions – Allegheny Athletic Association
Events
The 1894 Harvard–Yale game, known as the "Hampden Park Blood Bath", results in crippling injuries for four players; the contest is suspended until 1897. The annual Army–Navy Game is suspended from 1894 till 1898 for similar reasons. One of the major problems is the popularity of mass formations like the flying wedge, in which a large number of offensive players charge as a unit against a similarly arranged defense. The resultant collisions often lead to serious injury and sometimes even death.
Association football
Austria
Foundation of First Vienna FC, which is the oldest club in Austria (22 August).
England
The Football League – Aston Villa 44 points, Sunderland 38, Derby County 36, Blackburn Rovers 34, Burnley 34, Everton 33
FA Cup final – Notts County 4–1 Bolton Wanderers at Goodison Park
The Football League expands the Second Division from 15 to 16 clubs ahead of the 1894–95 season. Darwen and Newton Heath (Manchester United) are relegated from the First Division while Liverpool and Small Heath (Birmingham City) are promoted. Middlesbrough Ironopolis and Northwich Victoria are expelled from the league and three new clubs are elected: Bury, Burton Wanderers (league membership 1894–97) and Leicester Fosse (Leicester City).
The Southern League is founded prior to the 1894–95 season. Some of its early members will eventually join the Football League.
Scotland
Scottish Football League – Celtic
Scottish Cup – Rangers 3–1 Celtic at Hampden Park
Baseball
National championship
Baltimore Orioles win the first of three successive National League championships
Events
The Temple Cup is introduced, lasting until 1897, and matches the National League winner and runner-up in a best–of–seven, post–season championship series. It is also known as the "World's Championship Series" but it fails to gain fan support, partly because three of the four series held will be won by the league runner-up. In 1894, runner-up New York Giants defeats champion Baltimore Orioles 4 games to 0.
1894 is Major League Baseball's highest scoring season as Boston Beaneaters set the current record for the most runs scored in a season (1220) and another standing record with seven players scoring 100 or more runs; in addition, Philadelphia Phillies bat .349 for the season with all four outfielders above .400, but finish fourth despite the feat
Boxing
Events
26 July — Tommy Ryan defeats "Mysterious" Billy Smith after 20 rounds at Minneapolis to win the World Welterweight Championship. Ryan will hold the title until 1898, when he vacates it to challenge for the world middleweight title
The inaugural World Bantamweight Champion is Jimmy Barry of Chicago who is recognised following his 28th-round knockout of Casper Leon at Lemont, Illinois on 15 September. Barry retains the title until 1899 when he retires undefeated in the whole of his career. The bantamweight division is for fighters weighing between 112 and 118 lb.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – James J. Corbett
World Middleweight Championship – Bob Fitzsimmons
World Welterweight Championship – "Mysterious" Billy Smith → Tommy Ryan
World Lightweight Championship – title vacant
World Featherweight Championship – George Dixon
World Bantamweight Championship – Jimmy Barry
Cricket
Events
The inaugural South African tour of England takes place but none of its 24 matches are currently regarded as first-class fixtures.
England
County Championship – Surrey
Most runs – Bill Brockwell 1491 @ 38.23 (HS 128)
Most wickets – Arthur Mold 207 @ 12.30 (BB 8–67)
Wisden Five Young Batsmen of the Season – Bill Brockwell, Jack Brown, C B Fry, Tom Hayward, Archie MacLaren
Australia
Sheffield Shield – South Australia
Most runs – George Giffen 526 @ 75.14 (HS 205)
Most wickets – Charlie Turner 30 @ 12.30 (BB 6–51)
India
Bombay Presidency – Europeans
South Africa
Currie Cup – Natal
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – John Henry Taylor
Other tournaments
British Amateur – John Ball
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Why Not
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Amiable
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Ladas
The Derby – Ladas
The Oaks – Amiable
St. Leger Stakes – Throstle
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Patron
Canada
Queen's Plate – Joe Miller
Ireland
Irish Grand National – The Admiral
Irish Derby Stakes – Blairfinde
USA
Kentucky Derby – Chant
Preakness Stakes – Assignee
Belmont Stakes – Henry of Navarre
Ice hockey
Events
25 February — Ontario Hockey Association (OHA) champion Ottawa Hockey Club resigns from the association, ending Ottawa participation in OHA titles and tournaments.
22 March 22 — In a playoff to decide the 1894 AHAC season title and the Stanley Cup, Montreal Hockey Club defeats Ottawa Hockey Club 3–1.
March — Toronto Osgoode Hall defeats Queen's University of Kingston 3–2 to win the OHA championship.
Motor racing
Origin
22 July — the world's first competitive motor race was the Paris to Rouen. Although there have previously been some private events, this first real contest is organised by Paris magazine Le Petit Journal. Albert de Dion is first to arrive at Rouen in his de Dion-Bouton car, but he did not figure in the official results because his steam vehicle needed a 'stoker' and was thus ineligible. The 'official' victory was awarded to Albert Lemaître driving his 3 hp petrol engined Peugeot Type 5.
The internal combustion engine has been developed from simple gas-fuelled designs during the preceding decades to the point where several technicians such as Karl Benz in Mannheim and the partnership of Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart have built the first true automobiles during the 1880s. Racing of horse-drawn carriages has been popular among its participants in the past and it is a natural progression to race the new automobiles.
Rowing
The Boat Race
17 March — Oxford wins the 51st Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby football
Home Nations Championship
12th Home Nations Championship series is won by Ireland
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – none declared
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Joshua Pim (Ireland) defeats Wilfred Baddeley (GB) 10–8 6–2 8–6
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) defeats Edith Austin (GB) 6–1 6–1
France
French Men's Singles Championship – André Vacherot defeats Gérard Brosselin 1–6 6–3 6–3
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Robert Wrenn defeats Manliffe Goodbody 6–8 6–1 6–4 6–4
American Women's Singles Championship – Helen Hellwig defeats Aline Terry 7–5 3–6 6–0 3–6 6–3
References
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|
226234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1897%20in%20sports | 1897 in sports | 1897 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Penn Quakers
Professional championships
Western Pennsylvania champions – Greensburg Athletic Association
Association football
England
The Football League – Aston Villa 47 points, Sheffield United 36, Derby County 36, Preston North End 34, Liverpool 33, Sheffield Wednesday 31
FA Cup final – Aston Villa 3–2 Everton at Crystal Palace, London.
Aston Villa becomes the second club to complete The Double in English football
Scotland
Scottish Football League – Hearts
Scottish Cup – Rangers 5–1 Dumbarton at Hampden Park
Athletics
John J. McDermott wins the first running of the Boston Marathon, then known as the B.A.A. Road Race
Australian rules football
VFL Premiership
Formation of Victorian Football League (now Australian Football League) with initial clubs being Carlton, Collingwood, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne, St Kilda and South Melbourne
Essendon wins the 1st VFL Premiership (under the finals system used this year only, no Grand Final is played)
Baseball
National championship
Boston Beaneaters wins the National League championship
Events
Temple Cup – Baltimore Orioles 4–1 Boston Beaneaters
Boxing
Events
17 March — Bob Fitzsimmons knocks out James J. Corbett in the 14th round to win the World Heavyweight Championship in the first championship fight ever captured on film.
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – James J. Corbett → Bob Fitzsimmons
World Middleweight Championship – title vacant
World Welterweight Championship – Tommy Ryan
World Lightweight Championship – George "Kid" Lavigne
World Featherweight Championship – George Dixon → Solly Smith
World Bantamweight Championship – Jimmy Barry
Cricket
Events
Two English teams toured the West Indies under A A Priestley and Lord Hawke
A Philadelphian team tours England
England
County Championship – Lancashire
Minor Counties Championship – Worcestershire
Most runs – Bobby Abel 2099 @ 44.65 (HS 250)
Most wickets – Tom Richardson 273 @ 14.45 (BB 8–49)
Wisden Five Cricketers of the Year – Frederick Bull, Willis Cuttell, Frank Druce, Gilbert Jessop, Jack Mason
Australia
Sheffield Shield – New South Wales
Most runs – Jack Lyons 404 @ 57.71 (HS 113)
Most wickets – Tom McKibbin 44 @ 14.88 (BB 8–74)
India
Bombay Presidency – Europeans
South Africa
Currie Cup – Western Province
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – Barbados
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
World Men's Champion – Gustav Hügel (Austria)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Harold Hilton
U.S. Open – Joe Lloyd
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Jack Allan
US Amateur – H. J. Whigham
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Manifesto
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Chelandry
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Galtee More
The Derby – Galtee More
The Oaks – Limasol
St. Leger Stakes – Galtee More
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Gaulus
Canada
Queen's Plate – Ferdinand
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Breemount's Pride
Irish Derby Stakes – Wales
USA
Kentucky Derby – Typhoon II
Preakness Stakes – Paul Kauvar
Belmont Stakes – Scottish Chieftain
Ice hockey
Stanley Cup
Montreal Victorias win a 3rd Stanley Cup, defeating Ottawa.
Motor racing
Nice Speed Week
The first regular motor racing venue is Nice, France, where an annual "Speed Week" is established. To fill out the schedule, most types of racing event are invented here including the first hill climb, from Nice to La Turbie, and a sprint that has been called the forerunner of drag racing.
Rowing
The Boat Race
3 April — Oxford wins the 54th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby league
England
Championship – not contested
Challenge Cup final – Batley 10–3 St. Helens at Headingley Rugby Stadium, Leeds. This is the inaugural competition.
Lancashire League Championship – Broughton Rangers
Yorkshire League Championship – Brighouse Rovers
Rugby union
Home Nations Championship
15th Home Nations Championship series is not completed
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Jack McCulloch (Canada)
Tennis
Events
The inaugural French women's singles championship is held.
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Reginald Doherty (GB) defeats Harold Mahony (Ireland) 6–4 6–4 6–3
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) defeats Charlotte Cooper Sterry (GB) 5–7 7–5 6–2
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Paul Aymé defeats Francky Wardan (GB) 4–6 6–4 6–2
French Women's Singles Championship – Françoise Masson (France) defeats P Girod (France) 6–3 6–1
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Robert Wrenn defeats Wilberforce Eaves (GB) 4–6 8–6 6–3 2–6 6–2
American Women's Singles Championship – Juliette Atkinson defeats Elisabeth Moore 6–3 6–3 4–6 3–6 6–3
References
Sports by year | [
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|
226235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1898%20in%20sports | 1898 in sports | 1898 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Harvard Crimson
Professional championships
Western Pennsylvania champions – Duquesne Country and Athletic Club
Events
The Morgan Athletic Club, which will eventually become Arizona Cardinals, is founded in Chicago and is the sport's oldest professional team.
3 December — the Western Pennsylvania All-Stars are defeated by the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club, 16–0, in the very first all-star game for professional football.
Association football
Belgium
Standard Liège was founded.
England
The Football League – Sheffield United 42 points, Sunderland 37, Wolves 35, Everton 35, Sheffield Wednesday 33, Aston Villa 33
FA Cup final – Nottingham Forest 3–1 Derby County at Crystal Palace, London.
Both the Football League First and Second Divisions are expanded from 16 to 18 teams in 1898, bringing the total number of League sides to 36. Additionally, the test match system is abandoned in favour of automatic relegation and promotion. There is no relegation from the First Division in 1898, Burnley and Newcastle United being promoted to increase the number of teams to 18. To increase the size of the Second Division, Burslem Port Vale is restored to the League; Barnsley, Glossop (1898–1915) and New Brighton Tower (1898–1901) are elected for the first time.
Italy
Formation of the Italian Football Federation (Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio or FIGC) in Turin. It is also known as Federcalcio.
Scotland
Scottish Football League – Celtic
Scottish Cup – Rangers 2–0 Kilmarnock at Hampden Park
Athletics
Ronald J. MacDonald wins the second running of the Boston Marathon.
Australian rules football
VFL Premiership
Fitzroy wins the 2nd VFL Premiership: Fitzroy 5.8 (38) d Essendon 3.5 (23) at Junction Oval
Baseball
National championship
National League championship – Boston Beaneaters. This is Boston's fifth championship in eight years under manager Frank Selee.
Events
22 April — multiple no-hitters are thrown on the same day by two players: Ted Breitenstein and Jay Hughes.
Basketball
USA
23 April – The 23rd Street YMCA of New York City wins the first national basketball championship tournament, organized by the U.S. Amateur Athletic Union (AAU).
Boxing
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – Bob Fitzsimmons
World Middleweight Championship – vacant → Tommy Ryan
World Welterweight Championship – Tommy Ryan → Ryan vacates title → "Mysterious" Billy Smith
World Lightweight Championship – George "Kid" Lavigne
World Featherweight Championship – Solly Smith → Dave Sullivan → George Dixon
World Bantamweight Championship – Jimmy Barry
Cricket
England
County Championship – Yorkshire
Minor Counties Championship – Worcestershire
Most runs – Bobby Abel 2053 @ 48.88 (HS 219)
Most wickets – Jack Hearne 222 @ 14.05 (BB 9–68)
Wisden Five Cricketers of the Year – Wilfred Rhodes, Bill Storer, Charlie Townsend, Albert Trott, William Lockwood
Australia
Sheffield Shield – Victoria
Most runs – Clem Hill 1196 @ 66.44 (HS 200)
Most wickets – Ernie Jones 76 @ 21.75 (BB 7–80)
India
Bombay Presidency – Parsees
South Africa
Currie Cup – Transvaal
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
World Men's Champion – Henning Grenander (Sweden)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Harry Vardon
U.S. Open – Fred Herd
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Freddie Tait
US Amateur – Findlay S. Douglas
Horse racing
Events
11 June — Willie Simms becomes the only African-American jockey to win all three races of the United States Triple Crown Races when he rides Sly Fox to victory in the Preakness Stakes.
England
Grand National – Drogheda
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Nun Nicer
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Disraeli
The Derby – Jeddah
The Oaks – Airs and Graces
St. Leger Stakes – Wildfowler
Australia
Melbourne Cup – The Grafter
Canada
Queen's Plate – Bon Ino
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Porridge
Irish Derby Stakes – Noble Howard
USA
Kentucky Derby – Plaudit
Preakness Stakes – Sly Fox
Belmont Stakes – Bowling Brook
Ice hockey
Stanley Cup
5 March — Montreal Victorias wins the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC) championship and the Stanley Cup. It is the club's fourth AHAC championship in a row and second straight Cup title.
Events
10 December — first championship ice hockey league, the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC) disbands over a dispute to allow a new member in its senior league. The Canadian Amateur Hockey League (CAHL) is formed to replace it, from the clubs seceding from AHAC.
Motor racing
Paris-Amsterdam-Paris Trail
The 1898 Paris–Amsterdam–Paris Trail is run on 7–13 July over 1431 km and won by Fernand Charron driving a Panhard-Levassor in a time of 33:04:34. The race is in retrospect sometimes referred to as the III Grand Prix de l'ACF.
Rowing
The Boat Race
26 March — Oxford wins the 55th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby league
Events
Dewsbury RLFC founded
England
Championship – not contested
Challenge Cup final – Batley 7–0 Bradford F.C. at Headingley Rugby Stadium, Leeds
Lancashire League Championship – Oldham
Yorkshire League Championship – Hunslet
Rugby union
Home Nations Championship
16th Home Nations Championship series is not completed
Events
London Irish founded
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Peder Østlund (Norway)
Tennis
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Reginald Doherty (GB) defeats Laurence Doherty (GB) 6–3 6–3 2–6 5–7 6–1
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Charlotte Cooper Sterry (GB) defeats Louisa Martin (GB) 6–4 6–4
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Paul Aymé defeats Paul Lebreton: details unknown
French Women's Singles Championship – Françoise Masson wins: details unknown
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Malcolm Whitman defeats Dwight F. Davis 3–6 6–2 6–2 6–1
American Women's Singles Championship – Juliette Atkinson defeats Marion Jones 6–3 5–7 6–4 2–6 7–5
References
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|
226236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1899%20in%20sports | 1899 in sports | 1899 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
American football
College championship
College football national championship – Harvard Crimson
Professional championships
Western Pennsylvania champions – Duquesne Country and Athletic Club
Events
The 1899 Sewanee Tigers football team goes undefeated, 12–0, including five road wins in six days over top teams.
Association football
England
The Football League – Aston Villa 45 points, Liverpool 43, Burnley 39, Everton 38, Notts County 37, Blackburn Rovers 36
FA Cup final – Sheffield United 4–1 Derby County at Crystal Palace, London.
France
Foundation of Olympique de Marseille
Lyon Olympique Universitaire, as predecessor for Olympique Lyonnais, officially founded.
Germany
Foundation of TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, Eintracht Frankfurt and SV Werder Bremen
Hungary
Ferencváros TC was founded in suburb of Budapest on May 3.
Italy
Foundation of A.C. Milan as the Milan Associazione Calcio (Milan Association Football).
Scotland
Scottish Football League – Rangers
Scottish Cup – Celtic 2–0 Rangers
Spain
29 November — FC Barcelona founded by a Swiss, Hans Gamper, who wants to establish football in the city.
Uruguay
Club Nacional of Montevideo was founded in Montevideo.
Athletics
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships
Lawrence Brignolia won the third running of the Boston Marathon
Australian rules football
VFL Premiership
Fitzroy wins the 3rd VFL Premiership: Fitzroy 3.9 (27) d South Melbourne 3.8 (26) at Junction Oval
Baseball
National championship
National League championship – Brooklyn Superbas. Brooklyn's team features many former Baltimore Orioles players including Ned Hanlon, Willie Keeler, Hughie Jennings and Joe Kelley.
Events
Cleveland Spiders finish last in the twelve-team NL and establish an all-time major league record with 134 losses in a season, 84 games behind the pennant winner and 35 games out of 11th place. The team plays 113 games on the road, losing a record 102. They are dropped during the off-season when the National League contracts from twelve to eight teams.
Basketball
Events
Kansas played their first men's basketball game against the Kansas City YMCA, losing 5–16. The Jayhawks were coached by the inventor of basketball James Naismith. Kansas quickly became one of the most prestigious college basketball programs in the nation.
Boxing
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – Bob Fitzsimmons → James J. Jeffries
World Middleweight Championship – Tommy Ryan
World Welterweight Championship – "Mysterious" Billy Smith
World Lightweight Championship – George "Kid" Lavigne → Frank Erne
World Featherweight Championship – George Dixon
World Bantamweight Championship – Jimmy Barry → Barry retires undefeated → "Terrible" Terry McGovern → title vacant after McGovern moves up a weight
Cricket
Events
Four of the five Test matches in the 1899 Ashes series are drawn. Australia wins the Second Test at Lord's to take the series 1–0, their first series win in England since the original Ashes match in 1882.
W G Grace makes his final appearance for England in Test cricket in the First Test at Trent Bridge. In the same match, Wilfred Rhodes makes his Test debut.
Worcestershire becomes the fifteenth team in the County Championship, debuting with an 11-run loss to Yorkshire despite earning a 78-run lead on first innings. They eventually finished twelfth with two wins in 12 games.
W G Grace plays his last first-class game for Gloucestershire, having fallen out with them over his involvement with London County.
K S Ranjitsinhji becomes the first batsman to score 3000 runs in a season.
England
County Championship – Surrey
Minor Counties Championship – Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire share the title
Most runs – K S Ranjitsinhji 3159 @ 63.18 (HS 197)
Most wickets – Albert Trott 239 @ 17.09 (BB 8–64)
Wisden Five Cricketers of the Season – Joe Darling, Clem Hill, Arthur Jones, Monty Noble, Robert Poore
Australia
Sheffield Shield – Victoria
Most runs – Victor Trumper 873 @ 62.35 (HS 292*)
Most wickets – Ernie Jones 45 @ 27.53 (BB 6–154)
India
Bombay Presidency – Europeans
South Africa
Currie Cup – not contested
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested
Cycling
Road racing
Bordeaux–Paris road race won by Constant Huret
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
World Men's Champion – Gustav Hügel (Austria)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Harry Vardon
U.S. Open – Willie Smith
Other tournaments
British Amateur – John Ball
US Amateur – H. M. Harriman
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Manifesto
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Sibola
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Flying Fox
The Derby – Flying Fox
The Oaks – Musa
St. Leger Stakes – Flying Fox
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Merriwee
Canada
Queen's Plate – Butter Scotch
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Princess Hilda
Irish Derby Stakes – Oppressor
USA
Kentucky Derby – Manuel
Preakness Stakes – Half Time
Belmont Stakes – Hindus
Ice hockey
Stanley Cup
15–18 February — Montreal Victorias wins its fifth Stanley Cup, defeating Winnipeg Victorias in a Cup challenge
4 March — Montreal Shamrocks wins the inaugural Canadian Amateur Hockey League (CAHL) championship and takes the Stanley Cup
14 March — Montreal Shamrocks successfully defends the title in a Cup challenge by Queen's College of Kingston, Ontario, winning 6–2.
Motor racing
Tour de France Trail
The Tour de France Trail is held 16–24 July over a distance of 2172.5 km. The winner is René De Knyff driving a Panhard-Levassor in a time of 44:43:39. The race is sometimes referred to in retrospect as the IV Grand Prix de l'A.C.F.
In July, James Gordon Bennett Jr. establishes the Gordon Bennett Cup challenge series. It is run 1900–1905.
Rowing
The Boat Race
25 March — Cambridge wins the 56th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby league
England
Championship – not contested
Challenge Cup final – Oldham 19–9 Hunslet at Fallowfield Stadium, Manchester
Lancashire League Championship – Broughton Rangers
Yorkshire League Championship – Batley
Rugby union
Home Nations Championship
17th Home Nations Championship series is won by Ireland
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Peder Østlund (Norway)
Tennis
Events
18 September — Cincinnati Open starts. Today, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the United States still played in its original city, and is now known as the Western & Southern Financial Group Masters & Women's Open. The first singles champions are Nat Emerson and Myrtle McAteer.
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Reginald Doherty (GB) defeats Arthur Gore (GB) 1–6 4–6 6–3 6–3 6–3
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Blanche Bingley Hillyard (GB) defeats Charlotte Cooper Sterry (GB) 6–2 6–3
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Paul Aymé defeats Paul Lebreton: details unknown
French Women's Singles Championship – Françoise Masson wins: details unknown
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Malcolm Whitman defeats J. Parmly Paret 6–1 6–2 3–6 7–5
American Women's Singles Championship – Marion Jones defeats Maud Banks 6–1 6–1 7–5
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Columbia defeats British challenger Shamrock, of the Royal Ulster Yacht Club, 3 races to 0
References
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|
226238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%27s%20Bridge | Adam's Bridge | Adam's Bridge, also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu, is a chain of natural limestone shoals, between Pamban Island, also known as Rameswaram Island, off the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu, India, and Mannar Island, off the north-western coast of Sri Lanka. Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka.
The feature is long and separates the Gulf of Mannar (southwest) from the Palk Strait (northeast). Some of the regions are dry, and the sea in the area rarely exceeds in depth, thus hindering navigation. It was reportedly passable on foot until the 15th century when storms deepened the channel. Ramanathaswamy Temple records say that Adam's Bridge was entirely above sea level until it broke in a cyclone in 1480.
Historical mentions and etymology
The ancient Indian Sanskrit epic Ramayana (7th century BCE to 3rd century CE) written by Valmiki mentions a bridge constructed by god Rama through his Vanara (ape-men) army to reach Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from the Rakshasa king, Ravana. The location of the Lanka of the Ramayana has been widely interpreted as being present-day Sri Lanka making this stretch of land Nala's or Rama's bridge. Analysis of several of the older Ramayana versions by scholars for evidence of historicity have led to the identification of Lankapura no further south than the Godavari River. These are based on geographical, botanical, and folkloristic evidences as no archaeological evidence has been found. Scholars differ on the possible geography of the Ramayana but several suggestions since the work of H.D. Sankalia locate the Lanka of the epic somewhere in the eastern part of present day Madhya Pradesh.
The western world first encountered it in Ibn Khordadbeh's Book of Roads and Kingdoms (), in which he refers to it as Set Bandhai or Bridge of the Sea. Some early Islamic sources refer to a mountain in Sri Lanka as Adam's Peak (where the biblical Adam supposedly fell to earth). The sources describe Adam as crossing from Sri Lanka to India via the bridge after his expulsion from the Garden of Eden, leading to the name of Adam's Bridge. Alberuni () was probably the first to describe it in such a manner. A British cartographer in 1804 prepared the earliest map that calls this area by the name Adam's bridge.
Location
The bridge starts as a chain of shoals from the Dhanushkodi tip of India's Pamban Island. It ends at Sri Lanka's Mannar Island. Pamban Island is accessed from the Indian mainland by the 2-km-long Pamban Bridge. Mannar Island is connected to mainland Sri Lanka by a causeway.
Geological evolution
Considerable diversity of opinion and confusion exist about the nature and origin of this structure. In the 19th century, two significant theories were prominent in explaining the structure. One considered it to be formed by the process of accretion and rising of the land. At the same time, the other surmised that it was established by the breaking away of Sri Lanka from the Indian mainland. The friable calcareous ridges later broke into large rectangular blocks, which perhaps gave rise to the belief that the causeway is an artificial construction.
According to V. Ram Mohan of the Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Studies of the University of Madras, "reconstruction of the geological evolution of the island chain is a challenging task and has to be carried out based on circumstantial evidence". The lack of comprehensive field studies explains many of the uncertainties regarding the nature and origin of Adam's Bridge. It mostly consists of a series of parallel ledges of sandstone and conglomerates that are hard at the surface and grow coarse and soft as they descend to sandy banks.
Studies have variously described the structure as a chain of shoals, coral reefs, a ridge formed in the region owing to thinning of the earth's crust, a double tombolo, a sand spit, or barrier islands. One account mentions that this landform was formerly the world's largest tombolo. The tombolo split into a chain of shoals by a slight rise in mean sea level a few thousand years ago. The tombolo model affirms a constant sediment source and a high uni-directional or bi-directional (monsoonal) longshore current.
The Marine and Water Resources Group of the Space Applications Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) concludes that Adam's Bridge comprises 103 small patch reefs. The SAC study, based on satellite remote sensing data but without actual field verification, finds the reefs lying in a linear pattern. The feature consists of the reef crest (flattened, emergent, especially during low tides, or nearly emergent segment of a reef), sand cays (accumulations of loose coral sands and beach rock) and intermittent deep channels. Other studies variously designate the coral reefs as ribbon and atoll reefs.
The geological process that gave rise to this structure has been attributed in one study to crustal down warping, block faulting, and mantle plume activity. In contrast, another theory attributes it to continuous sand deposition and the natural process of sedimentation, leading to the formation of a chain of barrier islands related to rising sea levels. Another theory affirms the origin and linearity of the bridge to the old shoreline (implying that the two landmasses of India and Sri Lanka were once connected) from which shoreline coral reefs developed.
Another study attributes the origin of the structure to longshore drifting currents which moved in an anticlockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. The sand could have been dumped in a linear pattern along the current shadow zone between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar with the later accumulation of corals over these linear sand bodies. In a diametrically opposing view, another group of geologists propose a crustal thinning theory, block faulting and a ridge formed in the region owing to thinning and asserts that development of this ridge augmented the coral growth in the area and in turn coral cover acted as a 'sand trapper'.
One study tentatively concludes that there is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic emergence and that the raised reef in southern India probably results from a local uplift. Other studies also conclude that, during periods of lowered sea level over the last 100,000 years, Adam's Bridge has provided an intermittent land connection between India and Sri Lanka. According to famous ornithologists Sidney Dillon Ripley and Bruce Beehler, this supports the vicariance model for speciation in some birds of the Indian Subcontinent.
Age
The studies under "Project Rameswaram" of the Geological Survey of India (GSI), which included dating of corals, indicate Rameswaram Island evolved beginning 125,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of samples in this study suggests the domain between Rameswaram and Talaimannar may have been exposed sometime between 7,000 and 18,000 years ago. Thermoluminescence dating by GSI concludes that the dunes between Dhanushkodi and Adam's Bridge started forming about 500–600 years ago.
Another study suggests that the appearance of the reefs and other evidence indicate their recency, and a coral sample gives a radiocarbon age of 4,020±160 years BP. A team from Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS), Bharathidasan University, led by S.M. Ramasamy dated the beaches of the Adam's Bridge structure to approximately 3,500 years, concluding that the land/beaches between Ramanathapuram and Pamban were formed due to the longshore drifting currents. About 3,500 years ago, the currents moved in an anticlockwise direction in the north and in the clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. In the same study, carbon dating of some ancient beaches between Thiruthuraipoondi and Kodiyakarai shows the Thiruthuraipoondi beach dates back to 6,000 years and Kodiyakarai around 1,100 years ago.
Early surveys and dredging efforts
Due to shallow waters, Adam's Bridge presents a formidable hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait. Though trade across the India–Sri Lanka divide has been active since at least the first millennium BC, it was limited to small boats and dinghies. Larger ocean-going vessels from the west have had to navigate around Sri Lanka to reach India's eastern coast. Eminent British geographer Major James Rennell, who surveyed the region as a young officer in the late 18th century, suggested that a "navigable passage could be maintained by dredging the strait of Ramisseram ". However, little notice was given to his proposal, perhaps because it came from "so young and unknown an officer", and the idea was only revived 60 years later.
In 1823, Sir Arthur Cotton (then an Ensign), was assigned to survey the Pamban channel, which separates the Indian mainland from the island of Rameswaram and forms the first link of Adam's Bridge. Geological evidence indicates that a land connection bridged this in the past, and some temple records suggest that violent storms broke the link in 1480. Cotton suggested that the channel could be dredged to enable passage of ships, but nothing was done until 1828, when Major Sim directed the blasting and removal of some rocks.
A more detailed marine survey of Adam's Bridge was undertaken in 1837 by Lieutenants F. T. Powell, Ethersey, Grieve, and Christopher, along with draughtsman Felix Jones, and operations to dredge the channel were recommenced the next year. However, these and subsequent efforts in the 19th century did not succeed in keeping the passage navigable for any vessels except those with a light draft.
Sethusamudram shipping canal project
The Government of India constituted nine committees before independence, and five committees since then, to suggest alignments for a Sethusamudram canal project. Most of them suggested land-based passages across Rameswaram island, and none recommended alignment across Adam's Bridge. The Sethusamudram project committee in 1956 also strongly recommended to the Union government to use land passages instead of cutting Adam's Bridge because of the several advantages of land passage.
In 2005, the Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project. This project aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Strait by dredging the shallow ocean floor near Dhanushkodi. The channel is expected to cut over 400 km (nearly 30 hours of shipping time) off the voyage around the island of Sri Lanka. This proposed channel's current alignment requires dredging through Adam's Bridge.
Indian political parties including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)) and some Hindu organisations oppose dredging through the shoal on religious grounds. The contention is that Adam's Bridge is identified popularly as the causeway described in the Ramayana. The political parties and organizations suggest alternate alignment for the channel that avoids damage to Adam's Bridge. The then state and central governments opposed such changes, with the Union Shipping Minister T. R Baalu, who belongs to the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and a strong supporter of the project maintaining that the current proposal was economically viable and environmentally sustainable and that there were no other alternatives.
Opposition to dredging through this causeway also stems from concerns over its impact on the area's ecology and marine wealth, potential loss of thorium deposits in the area and increased risk of damage due to tsunamis. Some organisations oppose this project on economic and environmental grounds and claim that proper scientific studies were not conducted before undertaking this project.
Origin legends
Indian culture and religion include legends that the structure is of supernatural origin. According to the Hindu epic, Ramayana, Ravana, the demon king of Lanka (Sri Lanka) kidnapped Rama's wife Sita and took her to Lankapura, doing this for revenge against Rama and his brother Lakshmana for having cut off the nose of Ravana's sister, Shurpanakha. Shurpanakha had threatened to kill and eat Sita if Rama did not agree to leave her and marry Shurpanakha instead. To rescue Sita, Rama needed to cross to Lanka. Brahma created an army of vanaras (intelligent warrior monkeys) to aid Rama. Led by Nila and under the engineering direction of Nala, the vanaras constructed a bridge to Lanka in five days. The bridge is also called Nala Setu, the bridge of Nala. Rama crossed the sea on this bridge and pursued Ravana for many days. He fired hundreds of golden arrows which became serpents that cut off Ravana's heads, but ultimately had to use the divine arrow of Brahma (which had the power of the gods in it and cannot miss its target) to slay Ravana.
None of the early Ramayana versions provide geographical identifications that directly suggest that Lankapura was Sri Lanka. Versions of the Ramayana reached Sri Lanka in the sixth century but identifications of Sri Lanka with the land of Ravana are first noted in an 8th-century inscription from southern India. The idea that Sri Lanka was the Lankapura of the Ramayana is thought to have been promoted in the tenth century by Chola rulers seeking to invade the island and the identification of Sri Lanka as Ravana's land was supported by rulers of the Aryacakravarti dynasty who considered themselves guardians of the bridge. The idea of Rama Setu as a sacred symbol to be appropriated for political purposes strengthened in the aftermath of protests against the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project.
Controversy over origin
Religious beliefs that the geological structure was constructed by Rama have caused some controversy as believers reject the natural provenance of Adam's Bridge. Some of the more transient structures such as the beaches having ages that are within hundreds or thousands of years (see the above section on age) has provided fodder for speculation. For example, S.M. Ramasamy stated, "as the carbon dating of the beaches roughly matches the dates of Ramayana, its link to the epic needs to be explored". Some have gone even further; S. Badrinarayanan, a former director of the Geological Survey of India, a publication of the National Remote Sensing Agency, a spokesman for the Indian government in a 2008 court case, the Madras High Court, and an episode from the Science Channel series What on Earth? have all either explicitly or implicitly claimed that the ancient Hindu myth of Lord Ram building the structure could be literally true, contrary to the scientific facts of the matter.
In the What on Earth? episode, those claiming that Adam's Bridge was constructed based their arguments on vague speculation, false implications, and the point that – as with many geological formations – not every detail of its formation has been incontrovertibly settled. Indian Geologist C. P. Rajendran described the ensuing media controversy as an "abhorrent" example of the "post-truth era, where debates are largely focused on appeals to emotions rather than factual realities".
Other scientists in India and elsewhere have consistently rejected a supernatural explanation for the existence of the structure. NASA said that its satellite photos had been egregiously misinterpreted to make this point: "The images reproduced on the websites may well be ours, but their interpretation is certainly not ours. [...] Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands, and certainly, cannot determine whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen."
A report from the Archaeological Survey of India found no evidence for the structure being anything but a natural formation. The Archaeological Survey of India and the government of India informed the Supreme Court of India in a 2007 affidavit that there was no historical proof of the bridge being built by Rama. In 2017 the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) announced that it would conduct a pilot study into the origins of the structure, but then, in April 2018, the ICHR announced that it would not conduct or fund any further study to determine whether the Adam’s Bridge was a human-made or a natural structure, stating "It is not the work of historians to carry out excavations and work like that. For that, there are apt agencies such as the Archaeological Survey of India."
In 2007, the Sri Lankan Tourism Development Authority sought to promote religious tourism from Hindu pilgrims in India by including the phenomenon as one of the points on its "Ramayana Trail", celebrating the legend of Prince Rama. Some Sri Lankan historians have condemned the undertaking as "a gross distortion of Sri Lankan history".
See also
Adam's Bridge Marine National Park
Ramanathaswamy Temple
Pamban Bridge
Kumari Kandam
Bimini Road
Coral reefs in India
Notes
References
External links
Photo essay on the Palk Strait.
Complete Information about Sethusamudram
Ram Sethu campaign by Hindu Organizations
Coromandel Coast
Gulf of Mannar
India–Sri Lanka border
Landforms of Mannar District
Landforms of Tamil Nadu
Locations in Hindu mythology
Palk Strait
Transport in Rameswaram
Places in the Ramayana
Purana temples of Vishnu
Ramayana
Shoals of Asia
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|
226239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 2nd Annual Grammy Awards | The 2nd Annual Grammy Awards were held on November 29, 1959, at Los Angeles and New York. Hosted by Meredith Willson, this marked the first televised Grammy Award ceremony, and it was aired in episodes as special Sunday Showcase. It was held in the same year as the first Grammy Awards in 1959, and no award ceremony was held in 1960. These awards recognized musical accomplishments by performers for that particular year. Frank Sinatra and Duke Ellington each won three awards.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Bobby Darin for "Mack the Knife"
Album of the Year
Frank Sinatra for Come Dance with Me!
Song of the Year
Jimmy Driftwood for "The Battle of New Orleans"
Best New Artist
Bobby Darin
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Peter Ustinov for Prokofiev: Peter and the Wolf performed by Peter Ustinov & the Philharmonia Orchestra conducted by Herbert von Karajan
Classical
Best Classical Performance - Orchestra
Charles Münch (conductor) & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Debussy: Images for Orchestra
Best Classical Performance - Vocal Soloist (with or without orchestra)
Jussi Björling for Bjoerling in Opera
Best Classical Performance - Opera Cast or Choral
Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), Lisa Della Casa, Rosalind Elias, George London, Roberta Peters, Giorgio Tozzi & the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra for Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro
Best Classical Performance - Concerto or Instrumental Soloist (with full orchestral accompaniment)
Kiril Kondrashin (conductor), Van Cliburn & the Symphony of the Air Orchestra for Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 3
Best Classical Performance - Concerto or Instrumental Soloist (other than full orchestral accompaniment)
Arthur Rubinstein for Beethoven: Sonatas No. 21 in C (Waldstein) and No. 18 in E Flat
Best Classical Performance - Chamber Music (including chamber orchestra)
Arthur Rubinstein for Beethoven: Sonatas No. 21 in C (Waldstein) and No. 18 in E Flat
Comedy
Best Comedy Performance - Spoken
Shelley Berman for Inside Shelley Berman
Best Comedy Performance - Musical
Homer and Jethro for The Battle of Kookamonga
Composing and arranging
Best Musical Composition First Recorded and Released in 1959 (more than 5 minutes duration)
Duke Ellington for Anatomy of a Murder Soundtrack
Best Sound Track Album - Background Score from a Motion Picture or Television
Duke Ellington (composer) for Anatomy of a Murder
Best Arrangement
Billy May (arranger) for "Come Dance with Me" performed by Frank Sinatra
Country
Best Country & Western Performance
Johnny Horton for "The Battle of New Orleans"
Folk
Best Performance - Folk
The Kingston Trio for The Kingston Trio at Large
Jazz
Best Jazz Performance - Soloist
Ella Fitzgerald for Ella Swings Lightly
Best Jazz Performance - Group
Jonah Jones for I Dig Chicks
Musical show
Best Broadway Show Album
Ethel Merman & the original cast for Gypsy
The original cast with Gwen Verdon, Richard Kiley, Leonard Stone, Doris Rich, Cynthia Latham, Joy Nichols, Bob Dixon & Pat Ferrier for Redhead
Best Sound Track Album, Original Cast - Motion Picture or Television
André Previn, Ken Darby & the original cast for Porgy and Bess
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover
Robert M. Jones (art director) for Shostakovich: Symphony No. 5 conducted by Howard Mitchell
Pop
Best Vocal Performance, Female
Ella Fitzgerald for "But Not for Me"
Best Vocal Performance, Male
Frank Sinatra for Come Dance with Me!
Best Performance by a Vocal Group or Chorus
Richard P. Condie (choir director) for "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" performed by the Mormon Tabernacle Choir directed by Condie
Best Performance by a Dance Band
Duke Ellington for Anatomy of a Murder
Best Performance by an Orchestra
André Previn & David Rose for Like Young performed by Dave Rose and his Orchestra with André Previn
Best Performance by a "Top 40" Artist
Nat "King" Cole for "Midnight Flyer"
Production and engineering
Best Engineering Contribution - Other Than Classical or Novelty
Robert Simpson (engineer) for Belafonte at Carnegie Hall performed by Harry Belafonte
Best Engineering Contribution - Classical Recording
Lewis W. Layton (engineer), Robert Russell Bennett (conductor) & the RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra for Victory at Sea, Vol. I
Best Engineering Contribution - Novelty Recording
Ted Keep (engineer) for "Alvin's Harmonica" performed by David Seville
R&B
Best Rhythm & Blues Performance
Dinah Washington for "What a Diff'rence a Day Makes"
Spoken
Best Performance - Documentary or Spoken Word (other than comedy)
Carl Sandburg for A Lincoln Portrait
References
002
1959 in Los Angeles
1959 in New York City
1959 music awards
1959 in American music
November 1959 events in the United States
Events in Los Angeles
Events in New York City | [
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|
226241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860%20in%20music | 1860 in music |
Events
January 1 – Julius Friedländer buys the Leipzig music publishing house, CF Peters.
February 9 – The second "Querelle des Bouffons" is sparked when Hector Berlioz criticizes Richard Wagner's music in the Journal des débats. Wagner responds on February 15.
February 10 – The Serenade No. 2 in A, Op. 16 by Johannes Brahms is given its first public performance in Hamburg.
March 3 – The Serenade No. 1 in D, Op. 11 by Johannes Brahms is given its first public performance in Hanover.
April 9 – Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville records himself singing "Au Clair de la Lune" – the first known recording of the human voice.
May 4 – Charles Bacon's bronze statue of the late Felix Mendelssohn is unveiled at Crystal Palace in London.
September 14 – Franz Liszt makes a will.
October 22 – The city of Weimar pays tribute to Franz Liszt with a torchlight procession and honorary citizenship.
The first Viennese operetta, Das Pensionat by Franz von Suppé, is premièred at the Theater an der Wien.
Richard Wagner essay on "Music of the Future" is first published, in French translation.
First official National Eisteddfod of Wales is held at Denbigh.
Published popular music
"Dixie" by Dan Emmett
"Down Among the Cane-Brakes" by Stephen Foster
"Kalinka" by Ivan Larionov
"Lincoln and Liberty" words by Jesse Hutchinson, Jr.
"Mary Of Argyle" words by Charles Jefferys, music by Sidney Nelson
"Old Black Joe" by Stephen Foster
"Virginia Belle" by Stephen Foster
"When the Corn Is Waving, Annie Dear" by Charles Blamphin
"I'll Twine 'Mid the Ringlets" words by Maud Irving, music by Joseph Philbrick Webster
Classical music
Johannes Brahms
Vier Gesänge, for women's chorus, two horns and harp, Op. 17
String Sextet No. 1 in B-flat major, Op. 18
Franz Liszt – First of the Mephisto Waltzes
Anton Rubinstein – Soirées à Saint-Pétersbourg
Opera
Flor van Duyse – Teniers te Grimbergen (libretto by Prudens van Duyse, premiered at Ghent)
Stanislaw Moniuszko – Hrabina
Musical theater
Orphée Aux Enfers, Vienna production
Births
January 7 – Emanuil Manolov, Bulgarian composer (d. 1902)
March 13 – Hugo Wolf, composer (d. 1903)
May 5 – Pietro Floridia, composer (d. 1932)
May 29 – Isaac Albéniz, pianist and composer (d. 1909)
June 25 – Gustave Charpentier, composer (d. 1956)
July 7
Florence Farr, actress and composer (d. 1917)
Gustav Mahler, conductor and composer (d. 1911)
September 1 – Cleofonte Campanini, conductor (d. 1919)
September 18 – Alberto Franchetti, opera composer (d. 1942)
November 18 – Ignacy Jan Paderewski, pianist (d. 1941)
November 27 – Victor Ewald, composer (d. 1935)
December 4 – Lillian Russell, US singer and actress (d. 1922)
December 18 – Edward MacDowell, pianist and composer (d. 1908)
December 20 – Dan Leno, English music hall comedian, dancer and singer (d. 1904)
December 28 – Harry B. Smith, US songwriter (d. 1936)
December 30 – Thomas Bulch, brass-band composer (d. 1930)
Deaths
January 26 – Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, opera singer (b. 1804)
March 6 – Justus Johann Friedrich Dotzauer, French cellist and composer (b. 1783)
March 14 – Louis Antoine Jullien, conductor and composer (b. 1812)
May 21 – Johannes Frederik Fröhlich, violinist, conductor and composer (b. 1806)
June 21 – Mykola Markevych, musician, composer and poet (b. 1804)
10 August – Sara Augusta Malmborg, singer, pianist and painter (b. 1810)
August 26 – Friedrich Silcher, composer (b. 1789)
September 25 – Carl Friedrich Zöllner, composer and choirmaster (b. 1800)
November 27 – Ludwig Rellstab, critic (b. 1799)
date unknown
James Barr, composer (b. 1779)
Veena Kuppayyar, composer of Carnatic music (b. 1798)
References
19th century in music
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|
226247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puttaparthi | Puttaparthi | Puttaparthi (IAST: Puṭṭaparti) is a town in Anantapur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located in Puttaparthi mandal of Kadiri revenue division. The original name of Puttaparthi was Gollapalli. The town is located on the banks of Chitravathi River which is a tributary of Pennar River, and is surrounded by undulating hills. It is widely known for the birthplace of the Indian spiritual leader and guru Sathya Sai Baba and his ashram, Prasanthi Nilayam.
Etymology
Puttaparthi means "village of anthills." A local legend says that a cobra snake cursed the village after being hit by a cowherder, which caused the proliferation of anthills in this area.
Demographics
The official language in Puttaparthi is Telugu. Other common languages spoken in Puttaparthi are Hindi, Kannada, Tamil and English. Various national and international languages are understood and spoken due to the presence of national and international devotees.
Geography
Climate
The climate is generally hot and dry throughout the year, summer temperatures ranging from and winter . The hotter months are from March until July and the milder months are from November until January.
The southwest monsoons play a major role in determining the climate. The northeast monsoons are responsible for about one-third of the total rainfall. Some rainfall may be expected during the months of July and August and again from October to December."
Puttaparthi is 475 meters (1558 feet) above sea level.
Transport
Road
The Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) operates bus services from Puttaparthi bus station. People visit Puttapathi from all over India, and most State transport services also ply buses to Puttaparthi.
Puttaparthi is well connected by road to the district headquarters Anantapur (84 km), Hyderabad, (441 km), Bangalore (154 km) and all parts of Anantapur district.
Rail
Puttaparthi has a railway station named as Sri Sathya Sai Prasanthi Nilayam. The Railway station was inaugurated and became functional from November 23rd, 2000, Baba's 75th birthday. It is about 8 km to the west of the ashram. This station falls under the Bangalore Division of the South Western Railway and lies on the Bangalore–Guntakal railway line. It is easy to reach the town from the railway station in 20-25 mins, through various modes of transport like cabs, autorickshaws and APSRTC buses. The town is connected directly by train to Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Coimbatore, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Kolkata. and Sri Sathya Sai Prasanthi Nilayam railway station is the 5th busiest station in Bangalore division of SWR.
Air
Puttaparthi Airport is a domestic airport situated in the town.
The nearest International airport is the Kempegowda International Airport at Devanahalli, a suburb of Bangalore which is about 119 km from Puttaparthi.
Sports
Sri Sathya Sai International Centre for Sports and Sri Sathya Sai Hill View Stadium are two sporting facilities in Puttaparthi. Hill View Stadium was established in 1985 and mainly used cricket and capacity of 50,000 people. International Centre for Sports was established in 2006 with indoor facilities for Basketball, Volleyball, Tennis, Squash, Table tennis, Badminton, Gymnastics and Yoga/Aerobics.
References
External links
Cities and towns in Anantapur district | [
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|
226250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1699%20in%20literature | 1699 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1699.
Events
January 27 – Jonathan Swift is out of work after his employer, Sir William Temple, dies, leaving Swift £100.
May 4 – The beginning of the fictional Gulliver's Travels (1726).
June 1 – Joseph Addison receives a grant or pension from the Crown, enabling him to travel abroad.
New books
Prose
Richard Bentley – A Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris (prev. pub. in William Wotton's Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning)
Samuel Clarke
Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life, which relates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the Canon of the New Testament
Three Practical Essays on Baptism, Confirmation and Repentance
Jeremy Collier – A Defence of the Short View of the Profaneness and Immorality of the English Stage (see 1698 in literature)
Anne Dacier (Anne Lefèvre) – Homer's Iliad (prose, first translation into French)
William Dampier – Voyages and Descriptions (vol. ii)
John Dunton – The Dublin Scuffle
George Farquhar – The Adventures of Covent-Garden
François Fénelon (anonymously) – Les Aventures de Télémaque ("The Adventures of Telemachus")
Samuel Garth – The Dispensary (satire by one of Pope's mentors)
John Hughes – The Court of Neptune
George Keith – The Deism of William Penn, and his Brethren
William King
Dialogues of the Dead (in support of Charles Boyle)
The Furmetary
A Journey to London
Gerard Langbaine – The Lives and Characters of the English Dramatick Poets (cont. by Charles Gildon)
Roger L'Estrange – Fables and Storyes Moralized
John Locke – Mr Locke's Reply to the Right Revered the Lord Bishop of Worcester's Answer to his Second Letter (see 1697 in literature)
Cornelius Nary – The Chief Points in Controversy between the Catholics and the Protestants
Frances Norton – Reliquae Gethinianae
John Oldmixon – Reflections on the Stage, and Mr Collier's Defence of the Short View
Nicolas Steno (Niels Stenson) – De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus (Preliminary Discourse to a Dissertation on a Solid Body Naturally Contained within a Solid)
William Temple – Letters Written by Sir William Temple During his Being Ambassador at The Hague (edited initially by Jonathan Swift)
John Toland
The Life of John Milton
Amyntor; or, A Defence of Milton's Life
Thomas Traherne – A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of God
William Wake – The Principles of the Christian Religion Explained
Ned Ward – A Trip to New-England
James Wright – Historia Histrionica
Poetry
Thomas Brown – A Collection of Miscellany Poems, Letters, etc.
Thomas D'Urfey – A Choice Collection of New Songs and Ballads
John Pomfret – The Choice
Nahum Tate – Elegies
Drama
Abel Boyer – Achilles, or Iphegenia in Aulis
Colley Cibber – Xerxes
John Dennis – Rinaldo and Armida
George Farquhar – The Constant Couple
Charles Gildon – Measure for Measure, or Beauty the Best Advocate (a re-adaptation of Davenant's 1662 adaptation The Law Against Lovers)
Joseph Harris – Love's a Lottery, and a Woman the Prize
Charles Hopkins – Friendship Improved
Peter Anthony Motteux – The Island Princess; or, The Generous Portuguese (opera, adapted from John Fletcher)
Mary Pix – The False Friend
Births
April 17 – Robert Blair, Scottish poet (died 1746)
April 28 – Joseph Spence, English literary historian (died 1768)
June 26 – Madame Geoffrin, French salonnière (died 1777)
August 13 (bapt.) – John Dyer, Welsh poet (died 1757)
December 29 – Friedrich Ludwig Abresch, German-born Dutch philologist (died 1782)
Deaths
January 21 – Obadiah Walker, English religious writer and controversialist (born 1616)
January 27 – Sir William Temple, English statesman and essayist (born 1628)
March 24 – John Evelyn the Younger, English translator (born 1655)
March 27 – Edward Stillingfleet, English theologian (born 1635)
April 21 – Jean Racine, French dramatist (born 1639)
April 22
Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz, German statesman and poet (born 1646)
Lady Anne Halkett, English memoirist (born 1623)
November 23 – Joseph Beaumont, English clergyman, academic and poet (born 1616)
December 16 – Erhard Weigel, German philosopher and mathematician (born 1625)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1698%20in%20literature | 1698 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1698.
Events
March – In his Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage, clergyman Jeremy Collier attacks leading contemporary dramatists (William Congreve and Sir John Vanbrugh most prominently, but also John Dryden, Thomas d'Urfey, and William Wycherley) for moral shortcomings in their works. Collier's book launches a controversy that dominates the literary world of Britain for the year; future editions of the book continue the controversy until Collier's death in 1726.
The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge is formed by the Reverend Thomas Bray.
The latest edition of the Bay Psalm Book is the first to include music.
New books
Prose
Anonymous – The Maxims of the Saints Explained, Concerning the Interiour Life (translation of François Fénelon)
Francis Atterbury – A Discourse Occasion'd by the Death of the Right Honourable the Lady Cutts
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet – Relation sur le quiétisme
Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery – Dr. Bentley's Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris, and the Fables of Aesop
Cornelis de Bruijn – Reizen van Cornelis de Bruyn door de vermaardste Deelen van Klein Asia (A Voyage to the Levant: or Travels in the Principal Parts of Asia Minor)
John Bunyan – The Heavenly Foot-Man; or, A Description of the Man that Gets to Heaven
Jeremy Collier – A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage (continued in 1699, 1700, 1703, and 1708)
William Congreve – Amendments of Mr Collier's False and Imperfect Citations
Daniel Defoe
An Enquiry into the Occasional Conformity of Dissenters, in Cases of Preferment
The Poor Man's Plea
John Dennis – The Usefulness of the Stage, to the Happiness of Mankind, to Government and to Religion
John Dunton – Teague Land: or A Merry Ramble to the Wild Irish
Andrew Fletcher – A Discourse of Government with Relation to Militia's
George Fox – A Collection of Many Select and Christian Epistles, Letters and Testimonials
Charles Gildon – The Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets
Robert Gould – A Satyr Against Wooing
Charles Leslie – A Short and Easie Method with the Deists
Edmund Ludlow – Memoirs of Edmund Ludlow Esq.
Maximilien Misson – Mémoires et observations faites par un voyageur en Angleterre
Walter Pope – Moral and Political Fables, Ancient and Modern
George Ridpath – The Stage Condemn'd
Elkanah Settle – A Defence of Dramatick Poetry
Algernon Sidney – Discourses Concerning Government (vs. Robert Filmer)
Tooke's Pantheon of the Heathen Gods and Illustrious Heroes
John Vanbrugh – A Short Vindication of The Relapse and The Provok'd Wife, from Immorality and Prophaneness by the Author
Ned Ward
The London Spy (published as periodical through 1700)
A Trip to Jamaica
Benjamin Whichcote – Select Sermons of Dr. Whichcot (ed. Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl Shaftesbury)
Drama
Catherine Trotter Cockburn – The Fatal Friendship
John Crowne – Caligula
Thomas Dilke – The Pretenders
John Dennis – Rinaldo and Armida
Thomas D'Urfey – The Campaigners
George Farquhar – Love and a Bottle
Charles Gildon – Phaeton; or, The Fatal Divorce
George Granville – The Heroick Love
Peter Anthony Motteux – Beauty in Distress
John Oldmixon – Amintas (adapted from Aminta of Tasso)
William Philips – The Revengeful Queen
Mary Pix – Queen Catharine, or, The Ruins of Love
Edward Ravenscroft – The Italian Husband
Poetry
Charles Hopkins – White-hall; or, The Court of England
John Hughes – The Triumph of Peace
See also 1698 in poetry
Births
January 3 – Metastasio, born Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, Italian poet and opera librettist (died 1782)
January 10? – Richard Savage, English poet (died 1743)
May 8 – Henry Baker, English poet and naturalist (died 1774)
July 19 – Johann Jakob Bodmer, Swiss author (died 1783)
November 28 – Charlotta Frölich, Swedish poet and political writer (died 1770)
December 24 – William Warburton, English critic (died 1779)
Unknown date – Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair, Scottish Gaelic poet (died 1770)
Deaths
January 14 – Jacques Pradon, French dramatist (born 1632)
February 7 – Richard Adams, English theologian (born c. 1626)
February 11 – Anna Åkerhielm, Swedish writer and traveller (born 1642)
March 2 – Jacques Quétif, French bibliographer (born 1618)
July 18 – Johann Heinrich Heidegger, Swiss theologian (born 1663)
August 25 – Fleetwood Sheppard, English courtier and literary wit (born 1634)
September 3 – Sir Robert Howard, English dramatist and politician (born 1626)
October 11 – William Molyneux, Irish philosopher and political writer (born 1656)
December 11 (buried) – Elizabeth van der Woude, Dutch traveler and author (born 1657)
Unknown dates
Antoine Arnauld, French memoirist (born 1616)
Francesco Negri, Italian travel writer (born 1623)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1697%20in%20literature | 1697 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1697.
Events
May 7 – The 13th century royal Tre Kronor ("Three Crowns") castle in Stockholm burns to the ground and a large portion of the royal library is destroyed.
The actors of the Comédie-Italienne in Paris announce a performance of La fausse prude (The False Hypocrite), a play that ridicules King Louis XIV of France's wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, which causes the King to disband the company.
George Farquhar arrives in London from Dublin.
Thomas Corneille publishes his translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses into French.
Daniel Defoe's An Essay Upon Projects suggests insurance, an income tax and the education of women, among other public measures.
First publication of the 13th century Heimskringla in Old Norse, with Swedish and Latin translations by Johan Peringskiöld in Stockholm
New books
Prose
Mary Astell – A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Part II
Pierre Bayle – (Historical and Critical Dictionary, first part, publication continued until 1702)
Richard Blackmore – King Arthur
Thomas Burnet – Remarks upon An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding (on John Locke)
William Congreve – The Birth of the Muse
William Dampier – A New Voyage Round the World
Daniel Defoe – An Essay Upon Projects
John Dryden
Alexander's Feast; or, The Power of Musique (ode)
The Works of Virgil
John Evelyn – Numismata: A discourse of medals
Jane Lead – A Fountain of Gardens
John Locke
A Letter to the Right Reverend Edward Ld Bishop of Worcester
Mr Locke's Reply to the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Worcester's Answer to his Letter
A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity
Charles Perrault (as Pierre Perrault Darmancourt) – (Tales and Stories of the Past with Morals: Tales of Mother Goose)
John Phillips –
Humphrey Prideaux – The True Nature of Imposture Fully Display'd in the Life of Mahomet
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester – Familiar Letters
William Wotton – Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (setting off the English "quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns")
Drama
Anonymous (A Young Lady) – The Unnatural Mother
Colley Cibber – Woman's Wit
William Congreve – The Mourning Bride
John Dennis – A Plot and No Plot
Thomas Dilke – The City Lady, or Folly Reclaimed
Thomas D'Urfey
Cinthia and Endimion (opera)
The Intrigues at Versailles; or, A Jilt in all Humours
James Drake – The Sham Lawyer
Charles Gildon – The Roman Brides Revenge
Charles Hopkins – Boadicea, Queen of Britain
Peter Anthony Motteux – The Novelty, or Every Act a Play
Mary Pix
The Deceiver Deceiv'd
The Innocent Mistress
George Powell – The Imposture Defeated, or a Trick to Cheat the Devil
Jacques Pradon – Scipion
Elkanah Settle – The World in the Moon
John Vanbrugh
Aesop
The Provoked Wife
The Relapse (performed 1696, published 1697)
Births
April 1 - Abbé Prévost, French writer (died 1763)
June 16 – Jean-Baptiste de La Curne de Sainte-Palaye, French historian, classicist and lexicographer (died 1781)
December 27 – Sollom Emlyn, Irish legal writer (died 1754)
Deaths
February 5 – Hester Biddle (Esther Biddle), English Quaker writer (born c. 1629)
March 1 – Francesco Redi, Tuscan physician, naturalist and poet (born 1626)
June 7 – John Aubrey, English memoirist (born 1626)
December 9 – Scipion Abeille, French surgeon and poet (year of birth unknown)
Unknown date – Juan del Valle y Caviedes, Spanish Peruvian poet (born 1645)
Probable year of death – Gilbert Clerke, English mathematician, natural philosopher and theologian (born 1626)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1696%20in%20literature | 1696 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1696.
Events
January – Colley Cibber's play Love's Last Shift is first performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.
March 5 – William Penn marries his second wife, Hannah Callowhill.
September – The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, stages The Female Wits, an anti-feminist satire targeting Mary Pix, Delarivier Manley and Catherine Trotter, the three significant women dramatists of the era. The play is a hit, and runs for three nights straight (unusual in the repertory system of the day).
November 21 – John Vanbrugh's first play, the comedy The Relapse, or Virtue in Danger, a sequel to Love's Last Shift, is first performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, with Cibber in the cast.
unknown date
The Tuscan poet Vincenzo da Filicaja becomes governor of Volterra.
Chapbook peddlers in England are required to hold a licence.
New books
Fiction
John Aubrey – Miscellanies
Philip Ayres – The Revengeful Mistress
Aphra Behn (died 1689) – The Histories and Novels of the Late Ingenious Mrs. Behn
Charles Leslie – The Snake in the Grass
Mary Pix – The Inhumane Cardinal; or, Innocence Betray'd (novel)
John Suckling – The Works of Sir John Suckling
John Tillotson – The Works of John Tillotson
Drama
John Banks – Cyrus the Great, or The Tragedy of Love
Aphra Behn – The Younger Brother
Colley Cibber – Love's Last Shift
Thomas Dilke – The City Lady
Thomas Doggett – The Country Wake
Thomas D'Urfey – The Comical History of Don Quixote. The Third Part
George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdowne – The She-Gallants
Joseph Harris – The City Bride; or, The Merry Cuckold (adapted from A Cure for a Cuckold)
Charles Hopkins – Neglected Virtue
Delarivier Manley
The Lost Lover, or The Jealous Husband
The Royal Mischief
Peter Anthony Motteux
Love's a Jest
She Ventures and He Wins
Mary Pix
The Spanish Wives
Ibrahim, the Thirteenth Emperour of the Turks
Edward Ravenscroft – The Anatomist, or the Sham Doctor
Thomas Southerne – Oroonoko, or The Royal Slave: a tragedy (adapted from Aphra Behn's novel Oroonoko - published)
John Vanbrugh – The Relapse
Poetry
Nicholas Brady and Nahum Tate – New Version of the Psalms of David
John Dryden – An Ode on the Death of Mr Henry Purcell (died 1695)
John Oldmixon – Poems on Several Occasions
Elizabeth Singer Rowe – Poems on Several Occasions
Nahum Tate – Miscellanea Sacra; or, Poems on Divine & Moral Subjects
Non-fiction
Richard Baxter – Reliquiae Baxterianae (posthumous)
John Bellers – Proposals for Raising a College of Industry of All Useful Trades and Husbandry
Gerard Croese – The General History of the Quakers (translation)
Judith Drake (attributed) – An Essay in Defence of the Female Sex (anonymous)
Delarivier Manley – Letters Written by Mrs. Manley
William Penn – Primitive Christianity Revived in the Faith and Practice of the People called Quakers
John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby – The Character of Charles II, King of England
John Toland – Christianity not Mysterious
William Whiston – A New Theory of the Earth
Births
July 14 – William Oldys, English antiquary, bibliographer and poet (died 1761)
September 25 – Madame du Deffand, French literary hostess (died 1780)
October 13 – John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, English memoirist and courtier (died 1743)
Unknown date – Matthew Green, English writer of light verse and customs official (died 1737)
Deaths
January 3 – Mary Mollineux, English Quaker poet (born c.1651)
March 18 – Bonaventura Baron, Irish theologian, philosopher and writer in Latin (born 1610)
April 17 – Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, French author (born 1626)
April 27 – Simon Foucher, French polemic philosopher (born 1644)
May 10 – Jean de La Bruyère, French essayist (born 1645)
June 9 – Antoine Varillas, French historian (born 1626)
August 9 – Wacław Potocki, Polish nobleman (Szlachta), moralist, Baroque poet and writer (born 1621)
September 8 – Henry Birkhead, English academic, lawyer, Latin poet and founder of the Oxford Chair of Poetry (born 1617)
November 26 – Gregório de Matos, Brazilian Baroque poet (born 1636)
Unknown dates
Jón Magnússon, Icelandic writer (born c. 1610)
Gesshū Sōko (月舟宗胡), Japanese Zen Buddhist teacher, poet and calligrapher (born 1618)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1695%20in%20literature | 1695 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1695.
Events
April – The Parliament of England decides not to renew the Licensing Order of 1643, thus effectively abolishing most press censorship.
unknown dates
After twelve years of de facto theatrical monopoly in London, the senior actors of the mismanaged United Company break away to form a rival cooperative company led by Thomas Betterton, Elizabeth Barry and Anne Bracegirdle. This makes a brilliant start with the première on April 30 of William Congreve's comedy Love for Love, at the New Theatre, Lincoln's Inn Fields.
Antoine Le Maistre and his brother Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy complete their translation of the Catholic Bible into French (the Bible de Port-Royal).
Wren Library, Cambridge, the library of Trinity College, designed by Christopher Wren, is completed.
New books
Prose
Mary Astell (anonymous) – A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, for the Advancement of Their True and Greatest Interest
Charles Blount – Miscellaneous Works (ed. Charles Gildon)
Gilbert Burnet – An Essay on the Memory of the Late Queen (see 1694 in literature, as many memorials were written to Mary II of England)
Jeremy Collier – Miscellanies upon Moral Subjects: The second part
John Dennis – The Court of Death
John Dryden – De Arte Graphica (trans. of Charles Alphonse du Fresnoy)
Laurence Echard – The Roman History (vol. I)
"N. H." – The Ladies Dictionary, being a general entertainment of the fair-sex: a work never attempted before in English (published by John Dunton)
Nicolaas Heinsius the Younger – The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor ()
William Laud – The History of the Troubles and Tryal of William Laud
John Locke
Further Considerations Concerning Raising the Value of Money
The Reasonableness of Christianity as Delivered in the Scriptures
A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity (reply to John Edwards)
John Norris – Letters Concerning the Love of God (letters to Mary Astell)
Sir William Petty – Quantulumcunque Concerning Money (published posthumously)
John Phillips – A Reflection on Our Modern Poetry
Sujan Rai – Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh
Robert South – Tritheism (vs. William Sherlock)
Sir William Temple – An Introduction to the History of England
Lionel Wafer – A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America
Ned Ward – Female Policy Detected; or, The Arts of a Designing Woman Laid Open
Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou (compiled and edited) – Guwen Guanzhi, anthology of more than 200 works from Warring States period to Ming dynasty
Children
Charles Perrault – (Tales and stories of the past with morals. Tales of Mother Goose)
Drama
John Banks – Cyrus the Great
Catherine Trotter Cockburn – Agnes de Castro
William Congreve – Love for Love
Robert Gould – The Rival Sisters
George Granville – The She-Gallants
Charles Hopkins – Pyrrhus King of Epirus
Peter Anthony Motteux – The Loves of Mars and Venus
George Powell – Bonduca, or the British Heroine
Elkanah Settle – Philaster; or, Love Lies A-Bleeding (adapted from Fletcher's Philaster)
Thomas Scott – The Mock Marriage
Thomas Southerne – Oroonoko, or The Royal Slave: a tragedy (adapted from Aphra Behn's novel Oroonoko)
Ariadne – She Ventures and He Wins
Poetry
Joseph Addison – A Poem to His Majesty
Richard Blackmore – Prince Arthur
Colley Cibber – A Poem on the Death of our Late Sovereign Lady, Queen Mary
William Congreve – The Mourning Muse of Alexas: A pastoral (on Mary II)
John Milton – The Poetical Works of Mr John Milton (ed. Patrick Hume)
Matthew Prior – An English Ballad: In answer to Mr Despreaux's Pindarique ode on the taking of Namure
Richard Steele – The Procession: A poem on Her Majesties funeral
See also 1695 in poetry
Births
April 8 – Johann Christian Günther, German poet (died 1723)
September 20 – Hedvig Catharina Lillie, Swedish salonnière (died 1745)
Deaths
February 7 – Dorothy Osborne (Lady Temple), English letter writer (born 1627)
April 13 – Jean de la Fontaine, French poet and fabulist (born 1621)
April 17 – Juana Inés de la Cruz, Mexican poet (born 1651; plague)
April 23 – Henry Vaughan, Welsh metaphysical poet (born 1622)
June 11 – André Félibien, French court historian (born 1619)
August 12 – Huang Zongxi, Chinese political theorist (born 1610)
October – Sir William Killigrew, English playwright and courtier (born 1606)
November 28 – Anthony Wood, English antiquary (born 1632)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1694%20in%20literature | 1694 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1694.
Events
August 24 – The Académie française publishes the first complete edition of its Dictionnaire in Paris.
October 25 – Jonathan Swift is ordained a deacon in the Church of Ireland.
December 28 – The death of Queen Mary II of England prompts the writing of numerous elegies.
date unknown – Shortly before his death, Matsuo Bashō completes the writing of Oku no Hosomichi ("Narrow road to the interior"), not published until 1702.
New books
Prose
Edmund Arwaker – An Epistle to Monsieur Boileau
Mary Astell – A Serious Proposal to the Ladies
Thomas Pope Blount – De Re Poetica; or, Remarks upon Poetry
Gilbert Burnet – Four Discourses
Jeremy Collier – Miscellanies
John Dryden and Jacob Tonson – The Annual Miscellany: for the Year 1694
George Fox – The Journal of George Fox, edited by Thomas Ellwood
Charles Gildon – Chorus Poetarum; or, Poems on Several Occasions (incl. Aphra Behn, John Denham, George Etheridge, Andrew Marvell, inter al.)
William Killigrew – Mid-night and Daily Thoughts
William King – Account of Denmark
Jane Lead – The Enochian Walks with God
Jan Luyken – Het Menselyk Bedryf ("The Book of Trades")
John Milton – Letters of State (trans. Edward Phillips)
John Strype – Memorials of Thomas Cranmer
Matthew Tindal – An Essay Concerning the Laws of Nature and the Rights of Soveraigns
William Wotton – Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (answering Sir William Temple)
James Wright – Country Conversations
Drama
John Banks – The Innocent Usurper; or, The Death of the Lady Jane Grey published
Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery – Herod the Great published
William Congreve – The Double Dealer published
John Crowne – The Married Beau
John Dryden – Love Triumphant; or, Nature Will Prevail
Thomas D'Urfey – The Comical History of Don Quixote (some songs by Henry Purcell)
Laurence Echard, translator:
Plautus's Comedies: Amphytrion, Epidicus, and Rudens
Terence's Comedies
Edward Ravenscroft – The Canterbury Guests
Elkanah Settle – The Ambitious Slave
Thomas Southerne – The Fatal Marriage (adapted from Aphra Behn's The Nun)
Joseph Williams – Have at All, or the Midnight Adventures
Poetry
See 1694 in poetry
Births
August 8 – Francis Hutcheson, Irish philosopher (died 1746)
September 22 – Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, English man of letters (died 1773)
October 9 – Marquard Herrgott, German Benedictine historian (died 1762)
November 1 – Voltaire, French philosopher and writer (died 1778)
December 22 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German philosopher (died 1768)
probable
Mademoiselle Aïssé, French letter-writer (died 1733)
James Bramston, English satirical poet (died 1743)
Deaths
August 6 – Antoine Arnauld, French theologian and philosopher (born 1612)
September – Henry Neville, English satirist (born 1620)
October 13 – Samuel von Pufendorf, German philosopher and historian (born 1632)
November 8 – Ulrik Huber, Dutch-born German political philosopher (born 1636)
November 28 – Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉), Japanese poet (born 1644)
December 9 – Paolo Segneri, Italian ascetic writer (born 1624)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1693%20in%20literature | 1693 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1693.
Events
February 27 – March 17 – John Dunton publishes The Ladies' Mercury in London, the first periodical specifically for women.
March – William Congreve's first play, the comedy The Old Bachelor, is performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.
May – William Bradford prints the first book in New York, George Keith's New-England's Spirit of Persecution Transmitted to Pennsylvania.
July 29 – Anthony Wood is condemned in the vice-chancellor's court of the University of Oxford for libels against Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. He is fined and banished from the university until he recants. The offending pages are burned.
October – Congreve's comedy The Double Dealer is first performed at Drury Lane.
unknown dates
Joseph Addison addresses an early poem to John Dryden.
Swedish scholar Petter Salan publishes in Upsala Fortissimorum pugilum Egilli et Asmundi historiam antqvo gothico sermone exaratam, the first printed edition of the 14th century Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana.
Venetian sea-captain Julije Balović compiles Pratichae Schrivaneschae, including a five-language multilingual glossary.
New books
Fiction
The Genuine Remains of Dr. Thomas Barlow (posthumous)
Li Yu (李漁, probable author) – The Carnal Prayer Mat (written 1657)
The Third Part of the Pilgrim's Progress (anonymous)
Catherine Trotter (or Catherine Trotter Cockburn) – Olinda's Adventures; or, The Amours of a Young Lady
Sir Thomas Urquhart and Peter Anthony Motteux – first complete English translation of Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel
Vertue Rewarded
Drama
John Bancroft – Henry the Second, King of England; With the death of Rosamond
William Congreve
The Old Bachelor
The Double Dealer
Thomas D'Urfey – The Richmond Heiress, or A Woman Once in the Right
Henry Higden – The Wary Widow, or Sir Noisy Parrot
George Powell – A Very Good Wife (adapted from Richard Brome's The City Wit and The Court Beggar)
Elkanah Settle – The New Athenian Comedy (published)
Thomas Southerne – The Maid's Last Prayer, or Any Rather Than Fail
Thomas Wright – The Female Virtuosos
Poetry
John Dryden – Examen Poeticum: Being the Third Part of Miscellany Poems (anthology)
Non-fiction
John Dennis – The Impartial Critick
John Dryden – A Discourse Concerning the Origin and Progress of Satire
John Evelyn – The Compleat Gard'ner
August Hermann Francke – Manuductio ad lectionem Scripturae Sacrae
Robert Gould – The Corruption of the Times by Money
John Locke – Some Thoughts Concerning Education
Cotton Mather – Wonders of the Invisible World
William Penn – An Essay towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe by the Establishment of a European Dyet, Parliament or Estates
Thomas Rymer – A Short View of Tragedy
Gabrielle Suchon – Traité de la morale et de la politique (On Morality and Politics)
Samuel Wesley – The Life of Our Blessed Lord
Births
March 5 – Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian (died 1754)
May 10 – John Fox, English biographer (died 1763)
June 17 – Johann Georg Walch, German theologian (died 1775)
Unknown dates
Fray Casimiro Diaz, O.S.A., Spanish Augustinian friar and historian (died 1746)
Arthur Young, English religious writer and cleric (1759)
probable – Eliza Haywood, English dramatist, journalist and novelist (died 1756)
Deaths
February 7 – Paul Pellisson, French lawyer and author (born 1624)
April 9 – Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French memoirist (born 1618)
May 25 – Madame de La Fayette, French writer (born 1634)
May 27 – John Spencer, English scholar and cleric (born 1630)
August (end) – Charles Blount, English deist author (suicide, born 1654)
September 9 – Ihara Saikaku (井原西鶴), Japanese poet and author of "floating-world" fiction (born 1642)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1692%20in%20literature | 1692 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1692.
Events
November
Nahum Tate becomes Poet Laureate of England.
Thomas Rymer is made Historiographer Royal, and mounts a major effort to preserve and publish historical documents.
December 9 – Playwright William Mountfort is attacked in a London street and stabbed; he dies the next day.
New books
Prose
Richard Ames – The Jacobite Coventicle, Sylvia's Complaint, of Her Sexes Unhappiness (in answer to Robert Gould)
Madame d'Aulnoy – Histoire de Jean de Bourbon, Prince de Carency (The Prince of Carency)
Richard Baxter – Paraphrase on the Psalms of David
Richard Bentley – three "confutations" of Atheism and The Folly of Atheism, and (what is now called) Deism
Gilbert Burnet – A Discourse on the Pastoral Care
William Congreve – Incognita; or, Love and Duty Reconcil'd: A novel
Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway – The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy
John Dryden – Eleonara
Roger L'Estrange – Fables, of Aesop and other Eminent Mythologists
Ihara Saikaku – Reckonings That Carry Men Through the World
Ben Jonson – the third folio collection of the Works
John Locke – Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and Raising the Value of Money
George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax – Maxims of State
Sir William Temple – Memoirs of What Past in Christendom: From the war begun in 1672 to the peace concluded 1679
William Walsh – Letters and Poems, Amorous and Gallant
Anthony à Wood – Athenae Oxonienses, vol. ii.
Nicolás Antonio – Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus
Drama
Reuben Bourne – The Contented Cuckold, or Woman's Advocate
Nicholas Brady – The Rape, or the Innocent Impostors
John Crowne – Regulus
John Dryden (with Thomas Southerne) – Cleomenes, the Spartan Hero
Thomas D'Urfey – The Marriage-Hater Matched
William Mountfort – Henry II
Elkanah Settle – The Fairy-Queen, an adaptation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, with music by Henry Purcell
Thomas Shadwell – The Volunteers
Thomas Southerne – The Maid's Last Prayer, or Any Rather Than Fail
Poetry
John Dennis, Poems in Burleseque
Thomas Fletcher – Poems on Several Occasions
Charles Gildon – Miscellany Poems upon Several Occasions
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz – Obras (second volume)
Antonio de Solís y Rivadeneyra – Varias poesías sagradas y profanas
Births
February 25 Karl Ludwig von Pöllnitz, German adventurer and writer (died 1775)
February 29 John Byrom, English poet (died 1763)
April 5 Adrienne Lecouvreur, French actress (died 1730)
May 18 Joseph Butler, theologian of the Church of England (died 1752)
November 6 Louis Racine, French poet (died 1763)
Unknown dates
Li E (厲鶚), Chinese poet (died 1752)
John Mottley, English dramatist, biographer and compiler of jokes (died 1750)
Deaths
By February – Sir George Etherege, English dramatist (born c. 1636)
May 6 – Nathaniel Lee, English dramatist (born c. 1653)
May 18/19 – Elias Ashmole, English antiquarian (born 1617)
July 30 (buried) – Jacob Bauthumley, English radical religious writer (born 1613)
September 21 – Ermes di Colorêt, Friulian nobleman and poet (born 1622)
November 6 – Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux, French biographer (born 1619)
November 19 – Thomas Shadwell, English Poet Laureate and playwright (born c. 1642)
December 10 – William Mountfort, English dramatist and actor (born c. 1664)
unknown date - Zera Yacob, Ethiopian philosopher (born 1599)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1691%20in%20literature | 1691 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1691.
Events
March 17 – The Athenian Mercury begins twice-weekly publication in London.
May 5 – Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle becomes a member of the Académie française.
New books
Prose
Adrien Baillet – La vie de monsieur Descartes
Barbara Blaugdone – An Account of the Travels, Sufferings & Persecutions of Barbara Blaugdone. Given forth as a testimony to the Lord's power, and for the encouragement of Friends
Gerard Langbaine – An Account of the English Dramatic Poets
Maximilien Misson – Nouveau voyage d'Italie
Sir Dudley North – Discourses upon Trade
The Kingdom of Ireland
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz – Respuesta a Sor Filotea de la Cruz
Drama
Anonymous – The Braggadocio, or Bawd Turn'd Puritan
John Bancroft – Edward III, with the Fall of Mortimer, Earl of March
Pedro Calderon de la Barca – Céfalo y Pocris
David-Augustin de Brueys & Jean Palaprat – Le Muet
John Dryden – King Arthur, or the British Worthy (a "semi-opera" with music by Henry Purcell)
Thomas d'Urfey – Love for Money
Joseph Harris – The Mistakes
William Mountfort – Greenwich Park
Archibald Pitcairne and others – The Phanaticks (first published as The Assembly, or Scotch Reformation, posthumously as "by a Scots Gentleman", 1722)
Jean Racine – Athalie
John Smith (probable author – issued anonymously) – Win Her and Take Her, or Old Fools will be Medling: a comedy
Thomas Southerne – The Wives Excuse
John Wilson – Belphegor, or the Marriage of the Devil published
Births
February 3 – George Lillo, English dramatist and actor (died 1739)
February 27 – Edward Cave, English printer and publisher (died 1754)
April 9 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German classicist (died 1761)
October 18 – John Leland, English theologian (died 1766)
Deaths
June 26 – John Flavel, English Presbyterian religious writer (born 1627)
July 30 – Daniel Georg Morhof, German writer and critic (born 1639)
October 8 – Thomas Barlow, English religious writer and bishop (born 1609)
October 10 – Isaac de Benserade, French poet (born 1613)
December 8 – Richard Baxter, English Puritan religious leader and writer (born 1615)
Probable year of death – Samuel Pordage, English poet and cleric (born 1633)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1690%20in%20literature | 1690 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1690.
Events
December 10 – Playwright Henry Nevil Payne is tortured for his role in the Montgomery Plot to restore James II to the throne — the last time a political prisoner is subjected to torture in Britain.
Colley Cibber becomes an actor with the Drury Lane company.
New books
Prose
Nicholas Barbon – A Discourse of Trade
Pierre Bayle (attributed) – Avis important aux réfugiés
Sir Thomas Browne (posthumously) – A Letter to a Friend
Antoine Furetière (posthumously) – Dictionnaire universel
John Locke
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (dated this year but published 1689)
Two Treatises of Government
Samuel Pepys – Memoires of the Navy
Baro Urbigerus – Aphorismi Urbigerani
Drama
John Bancroft – King Edward III, with the Fall of Mortimer, Earl of March
Aphra Behn (posthumously) – The Widow Ranter
Thomas Betterton – The Prophetess, or The History of Dioclesian (adapted from Fletcher and Massinger's The Prophetess, with music by Henry Purcell)
Edmé Boursault – Esope à la ville
Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery – Mr. Anthony
John Crowne – The English Friar
John Dryden
Amphitryon, or the Two Sosias
Don Sebastian
William Mountfort – The Successful Strangers
George Powell
Alphonso, King of Naples
The Treacherous Brothers
Elkanah Settle – Distress'd Innocence, or The Princess of Persia
Thomas Shadwell – The Scourers
Thomas Southerne – Sir Anthony Love
"W. C." – The Rape Reveng'd, or the Spanish Revolution (adapted from William Rowley's All's Lost by Lust)
Poetry
Thomas D'Urfey:
Collin's Walk Through London and Westminster
New Poems
See also 1690 in poetry
Antonio Hurtado de Mendoza – Obras líricas y cómicas, divinas y humanas
Births
February 3 – Richard Rawlinson, English antiquary and cleric (died 1755)
September 12 – Peter Dens, Netherlandish theologian (died 1775)
1689/90 – Susanna Highmore, English poet (died 1750)
Deaths
March 21 – Henry Teonge, English diarist and cleric (born 1621)
May 5 – Theodore Haak, German-born English translator and natural philosopher (born 1605)
May 12 – John Rushworth, English author of Historical Collections (born c. 1612)
October 3 – Robert Barclay, Scottish Quaker writer (born c. 1648)
October 25 – Cornelius Hazart, Dutch Jesuit controversialist (born 1617)
Unknown date – Franciscus Plante, Dutch poet (born 1613)
Probable year of death – Jeremias Felbinger, German writer, teacher and lexicographer (born 1616)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1689%20in%20literature | 1689 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1689.
Events
April 30 – Thomas Shadwell becomes Poet Laureate and Historiographer Royal in England.
April/May – Jonathan Swift becomes secretary to Sir William Temple.
May 26 – Matsuo Bashō begins the journey described in Oku no Hosomichi (Narrow Road to the Deep North).
New books
Prose
Richard Cox –
George Hickes –
John Locke
Two Treatises of Government
A Letter Concerning Toleration
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (dated 1690)
John Selden (posthumously) – Table Talk
Johann Weikhard von Valvasor – The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola (Die Ehre deß Hertzogthums Crain)
Drama
Aphra Behn – The Widow Ranter
James Carlile – The Fortune Hunters
Sor Juana – (Love the Greater Labyrinth)
Nathaniel Lee – The Massacre of Paris
William Mountfort – The Successful Strangers
Thomas Shadwell – Bury Fair
Nahum Tate – Dido and Aeneas
Matthew Taubman – London's Great Jubilee
Births
January 18 – Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, French satirist (died 1755)
January 21 – Daniel Henchman, Colonial American bookseller and publisher (died 1761)
May 26 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English poet and letter-writer (died 1762)
July 9 – Alexis Piron, French epigrammatist (died 1773)
August 19 (bapt.) – Samuel Richardson, English novelist (died 1761)
Deaths
January – William Chamberlayne, English poet and playwright (born c. 1619)
February 21 – Isaac Vossius, Dutch-born collector of manuscripts (born 1618)
April 16 – Aphra Behn, English dramatist, poet and novelist (born 1640)
August 21 – William Cleland, Scottish soldier and poet (killed in battle, born c. 1661)
November 13 – Philipp von Zesen, German poet and hymn-writer (born 1619)
December 13 – Zbigniew Morsztyn, Polish poet (born c. 1628)
Unknown date – Pjetër Bogdani, Albanian-language author (born c. 1630)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1688%20in%20literature | 1688 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1688.
Events
February – John Locke returns to England in the escort of Princess Mary, the same year that the first abstract of his seminal An Essay Concerning Human Understanding appears in Leclerc's Bibliotheque universelle, although the work itself is not published until the following year.
December – John Dryden refuses to swear allegiance to the new monarchy after the Glorious Revolution and is dismissed as Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom. He is the only laureate not to die in office until the initiation of fixed-term appointments with Andrew Motion in 1999.
unknown date – The fourth, first illustrated edition of John Milton's Paradise Lost is published by Jacob Tonson in London. The illustrators include John Baptist Medina.
New books
Prose
David Abercromby – Ars explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore
Etienne Baluze – Marca hispanica
Aphra Behn:
The History of the Nun, or the Fair Vow-Breaker
Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave
The Fair Jilt: or, the Amours of Prince Tarquin and Miranda
Biblia de la București (Bucharest Bible, first complete translation into Romanian)
Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle – Digression sur les anciens et les modernes
Jean de La Bruyère – Les Caractères
Ihara Saikaku (井原 西鶴)
The Eternal Storehouse of Japan
Tales of Samurai Honor
Henry More – Divine Dialogues
George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax
The Anatomy of an Equivalent
The Lady's New-Years Gift: or, Advice to a Daughter (anonymous)
Drama
John Crowne – Darius, King of Persia
Thomas D'Urfey – A Fool's Preferment
William Mountfort – The Injured Lovers
Thomas Shadwell – The Squire of Alsatia
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz – El divino Narciso
Poetry
See 1688 in poetry
Romances varios
Births
January 29 – Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish scientist, philosopher and theologian. (died 1772)
February – Hermanus Angelkot junior, Dutch pharmacist, poet and dramatist (died 1727)
February 4 – Pierre de Marivaux, French playwright (died 1763)
February 7 – John Morgan, Anglo-Welsh poet (died 1733)
April 2 (baptised) – Lewis Theobald, English Shakespearean editor (died 1744)
May 21 – Alexander Pope, English poet (died 1744)
September 6 (baptised) – Laurence Eusden, English poet laureate (died 1730)
November 13 – Noël-Antoine Pluche, French natural historian and priest (died 1761)
November 15 (baptised) – Charles Rivington, English publisher (died 1742)
December 24 – Johann Bachstrom, Polish theologian and writer (died 1742)
Unknown date – Richard Bradley, English scientific writer (died 1732)
probable – William Meston, Scottish poet (died 1745)
Deaths
March 15 – Peter Walsh, Irish politician and historian (born 1618)
May 14 – Antoine Furetière, French satirist (born 1619)
May 22 – Johannes Andreas Quenstedt, German theologian (born 1617)
June 26 – Ralph Cudworth, English philosopher (born 1617)
August 31 – John Bunyan, English writer and preacher (born 1628)
September 22 – François Bernier, French physician and travel writer (born 1625)
October 14 – Joachim von Sandrart, German/Dutch art historian (born 1606)
November 16 – Bengt Gottfried Forselius, Swedish Estonian educational pioneer (born c. 1660)
November 26 – Philippe Quinault, French dramatist (born 1635)
December 8 – Thomas Flatman, English poet and painter (born 1635)
December 20 – Thomas Jevon, English playwright and harlequin (born 1652)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
226262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1687%20in%20literature | 1687 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1687.
Events
A Latin edition of the works of Confucius is published in Paris, the first translation of his works into any Western language. Confucian Sinarum Philosophus is the work of Jesuit scholars and Chinese converts to Christianity.
The Académie française publishes the first sections of its Dictionnaire in Frankfurt.
New books
Prose
Antoine Furetière – Couches de l'Académie
Ihara Saikaku
The Great Mirror of Male Love (男色大鑑, Nanshoku Ōkagami)
Transmission of the Martial Arts (武道伝来記, Budō Denraiki)
Gerard Langbaine – Momus Triumphans, or the Plagiaries of the English Stage Exposed
Isaac Newton – Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)
Charles Perrault – Le Siècle de Louis le Grand (The Century of Louis the Great)
George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax – Letter to a Dissenter
Drama
Aphra Behn – The Emperor of the Moon
Florent Carton Dancourt
Le Chevalier à la mode
La Désolation des joueuses
Sir Charles Sedley – Bellamira, or The Mistress
Nahum Tate:
The History of King Lear (adapted from Shakespeare's Lear, but with a happy ending)
The Island Princess (adapted from Fletcher's Island Princess)
Poetry
John Dryden – The Hind and the Panther
Matthew Prior – The Hind and the Panther Transversed to the Story of the Country and the City Mouse
Births
March 7 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian (died 1760)
June 24 – Johann Albrecht Bengel, German classicist and theologian (died 1752)
c. August 26 – Henry Carey, English poet, dramatist and songwriter (suicide 1743)
November 7 – William Stukeley, English antiquary (died 1765)
Deaths
February 16 – Charles Cotton, English poet and translator (born 1630)
March 27 – Edward Sheldon, English translator of religious works (born 1599)
March 28 – Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer (born 1596)
September 1 – Henry More, English philosopher (born 1614)
November 3 - René Rapin, French Jesuit writer (born 1621)
November 7 – Isaac Orobio de Castro, Portuguese Jewish philosopher and apologist (born c. 1617)
December 16 – William Petty, English economist and philosopher (born 1623)
Unknown date – George Dalgarno, Scottish linguist (born 1626)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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|
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