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226408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1615%20in%20literature | 1615 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1615.
Events
January 6 – Mercury Vindicated from the Alchemists, a masque written by Ben Jonson and designed by Inigo Jones, is performed at Whitehall Palace in London.
January 13 – William Browne's masque Circe and Ulysses is staged at the Inner Temple in London.
January 23 – English poet John Donne becomes an ordained minister in the Church of England.
March 7–11 – King James I of England and Prince Charles visit the University of Cambridge, the first royal visit there since the progress of Queen Elizabeth I in 1564. The university stages entertainments that include performances in Latin of Cecil's Aemilia (March 7), Ruggle's farce Ignoramus (March 8), Tomkis's comedy Albumazar (March 9), and Brooke's Melanthe (March 10). The royals leave Cambridge prior to the première of Fletcher's Sicelides, a Piscatory (March 13). King James enjoys Ignoramus so much that he returns to Cambridge in May to see it again.
Easter – Persian Safavid hordes led by Shah Abbas the Great kill all the monks at the David Gareja monastery complex in Georgia and set fire to its collection of manuscripts and works of art.
In England, George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, imposes a year's imprisonment for publishing Bibles without including the Apocrypha.
Pierre Dupuy is commissioned by Mathieu Molé, first president of the parlement of Paris, to draw up an inventory of the documents known as the .
The Chinese dictionary Zihui (字彙/字汇), edited by Mei Yingzuo (梅膺祚|梅膺祚), is published, introducing the Kangxi radicals in Chinese characters.
New books
Prose
Johannes Valentinus Andreae –
William Camden – , Part 1
Miguel de Cervantes – Don Quixote, Part 2
Gervase Markham – The English Huswife, Containing the Inward and Outward Virtues Which Ought to Be in a Complete Woman
Antoine de Montchrestien –
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala – (approximate date of completion of manuscript)
Joseph Swetnam – The Arraignment of Lewd, Idle, Froward, and Unconstant Women
Drama
"R. A., Gent." (Robert Anton, Robert Aylett or Robert Armin?) – (published)
Samuel Brooke – Melanthe
William Browne – Circe and Ulysses
Edward Cecil – Aemilia
Tirso de Molina –
Lope de Vega
Phineas Fletcher – Sicelides
Thomas Heywood – The Four Prentices of London (published)
Ben Jonson – Mercury Vindicated from the Alchemists
Anthony Munday – Metropolis Coronata
George Ruggle – Ignoramus
Thomas Tomkis – Albumazar
Poetry
Lope de Vega – La Arcadia
Births
March 23 – Ferrante Pallavicino, Italian satirist (died 1644)
June/July – Salvator Rosa, Italian painter and poet (died 1673)
November 12 – Richard Baxter, English non-conformist leader and religious writer (died 1691)
November 22 – Gabriel Cossart, French historian (died 1674)
Unknown dates
Laurence Clarkson, English theologian and pamphleteer (died 1667)
Adam Gdacjusz, Polish writer and preacher (died 1688)
Tanneguy Le Fèvre, French classicist (died 1672)
Probable year of birth – Sir John Denham, Irish poet (died 1669)
Deaths
February 4 – Giambattista della Porta, Italian polymath (born c. 1535)
July 10 – Henry Neville, English diplomat, proposed author of some Shakespeare plays (born 1562)
August – Arthur Agarde, English antiquary (born 1540)
September 1 – Étienne Pasquier, French historian (born 1529)
November – Robert Armin, English actor and dramatist (born c. 1563)
Unknown date – Gabriel Lobo Lasso de la Vega, Castilian poet, dramatist and historian (born 1555)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1614%20in%20literature | 1614 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1614.
Events
January–June – In the first six months of the year, no London theatres operate on the South Bank of the Thames, causing a severe decline in demand for the watermen's taxi service. The watermen respond by proposing to limit the locations of the theaters around London, much to the actors' displeasure. John Taylor the Water Poet describes the controversy in his The True Cause of the Watermen's Suit Concerning Players.
January 25 – The Lady Elizabeth's Men perform the formerly controversial Eastward Ho at Court.
April – Sir Francis Bacon's dual role as Member of Parliament and Attorney General is objected to by the Parliament of England.
May 24 – Lope de Vega becomes a priest.
June 30 – Rebuilding of the Globe Theatre is complete.
August 15 – Pietro Della Valle lands in Constantinople, after leaving Venice to begin his travels.
October 31 – The first performance of Ben Jonson's Bartholomew Fair is given at Philip Henslowe's newly opened Hope Theatre in London.
November 1 – The Lady Elizabeth's Men perform Bartholomew Fair at Court, the day after its première.
unknown dates
Luís de Sousa becomes a Dominican friar.
Izaak Walton moves from Chancery Lane to Fleet Street, London, where he opens a shop.
John Webster's tragedy The Duchess of Malfi is first performed publicly, at the Globe Theatre, London.
Madeleine de Souvré marries the marquis de Sablé.
New books
Prose
Johannes Althusius –
Johannes Valentinus Andreae – (at Kassel)
Christoph Besold – Signatura temporum
New edition of the King James Version of the Bible (in an easily read Roman typeface)
"Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda" – Second Part of Don Quixote (spurious)
Alonso Jerónimo de Salas Barbadillo –
Lope de Vega –
Heinrich Doergangk –
Michael Maier –
Samuel Purchas – Purchas, his Pilgrimage; or, Relations of the World and the Religions observed in all Ages
Drama
Anonymous – The Masque of Flowers
Samuel Daniel – Hymen's Triumph
Lope de Vega
Fuenteovejuna (approximate date)
John Fletcher and William Shakespeare – The Two Noble Kinsmen
Ben Jonson – Bartholomew Fair, first performance on 31 October
Johannes Messenius – Blanckamäreta
Anthony Munday – Himatia-Poleos
Robert Tailor – The Hog Hath Lost His Pearl published
Poetry
William Browne – The Shepherd's Pipe
Miguel de Cervantes –
Lope de Vega –
Births
October 12 – Henry More, English philosopher (died 1687)
Unknown date – Hallgrímur Pétursson, Icelandic poet (died 1674)
Probable year of birth – John Lilburne, English political writer and Leveller (died 1657)
Deaths
January 2 – Luisa Carvajal y Mendoza, Spanish poet and author (born 1556)
March 29 – Joshua Falk, Polish Hebrew scholar (born 1555)
April 3 – John Spenser, English classicist and cleric (born 1559)
June 17 – William Bathe, Irish writer and priest (born 1564)
July 1 – Isaac Casaubon, Genevan classicist and church historian (born 1559)
July 15 – Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme, French historian and biographer (born c. 1540)
Unknown dates
Simon Grahame, Scottish miscellanist (born 1570)
Cristóbal de Virués, Spanish dramatist and poet (born 1550)
See also
English Renaissance theatre
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1613%20in%20literature | 1613 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1613.
Events
January and February at the English royal court see massive celebrations for the marriage of Frederick V, Elector Palatine to King James's daughter Princess Elizabeth, culminating in their wedding on February 14.
During court festivities in the winter of 1612–1613, the King's Men give twenty performances, which include eight Shakespeare plays, four by Beaumont and Fletcher, and the lost Cardenio.
In early January, the Children of the Queen's Revels give two performances of Beaumont and Fletcher's Cupid's Revenge.
January 11 – The playing company that had been the Admiral's Men, then Prince Henry's Men, becomes the Elector Palatine's (or Palsgrave's) Men.
February 15 – The Memorable Masque of the Middle Temple and Lincoln's Inn, written by George Chapman and designed by Inigo Jones, is staged in the Great Hall of the Palace of Whitehall. Francis Beaumont's The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn follows five days later on February 20.
February 25 – The Lady Elizabeth's Men perform Marston's The Dutch Courtesan at Court. (They repeat it at the end of the year, on December 12.)
February 27 – The Queen's Revels Children act Chapman's The Widow's Tears.
Early March – Frederick and Prince Charles visit the University of Cambridge, where they see performances of Samuel Brooke's Latin plays Adelphe and Scyros.
June 5 – Cyril Tourneur is commissioned by Robert Daborne to write one act of the play The Arraignment of London in order to help meet a deadline. Later in the year, Tourneur is paid £10 for delivering letters from the Stuart monarchy to Brussels.
The English poet Francis Quarles attends the newly married Queen on her progress to Continental Europe.
June 8 – The King's Men re-play Cardenio at Court.
June 29 – The Globe Theatre burns down during a performance of Henry VIII.
unknown date – Elizabeth Cary, Lady Falkland's closet drama The Tragedy of Mariam, the Fair Queen of Jewry (written 1602–1604) is published in London as the first original dramatic work in English known to have been published by a woman and acknowledged as such ("Written by that learned, vertuous, and truly noble Ladie, E. C.").
New books
Prose
Miguel de Cervantes – Exemplary Novels
Thomas Dekker – A Strange Horse Race
Mark Ridley – A Short Treatise of Magneticall Bodies and Motions
Sir Anthony Shirley – Sir Anthony Shirley: his Relation of his Travels into Persia
Alexander Whitaker – Good Newes from Virginia
George Wither – Abuses Stript, and Whipt (satires)
Drama
Anonymous – Heteroclitanomalonomia
Giovan Battista Andreini – L'Adamo
Francis Beaumont
The Knight of the Burning Pestle published
The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn
Beaumont and Fletcher – The Honest Man's Fortune
Samuel Brooke – Adelphe and Scyros (in Latin)
Thomas Campion
The Lords' Masque
The Somerset Masque
Elizabeth Cary, Lady Falkland – The Tragedy of Mariam
George Chapman
The Memorable Masque of the Middle Temple and Lincoln's Inn
The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois published
Lope de Vega
La dama boba (The Foolish Lady)
El perro del hortelano (The Dog in the Manger)
San Diego de Alcalá
Thomas Heywood
The Silver Age (published)
The Brazen Age (published)
Ben Jonson (masques)
A Challenge at Tilt, at a Marriage
The Irish Masque at Court
John Marston and William Barksted – The Insatiate Countess (published)
Thomas Middleton – A Chaste Maid in Cheapside
William Shakespeare – Henry VIII
Shakespeare and John Fletcher (attributed) – The History of Cardenio
Poetry
William Drummond of Hawthornden – Tears on the Death of Moeliades
Births
February 11 – Henry Killigrew, English dramatist (died 1700)
April – Franciscus Plante, Dutch poet (died 1690)
June 16 – John Cleveland, English poet (died 1658)
August 15
Gilles Ménage, French classicist and historian (died 1692)
Jeremy Taylor, English writer and cleric (died 1667)
September 15 – François de La Rochefoucauld, French writer of maxims and memoirs (died 1680)
November 5 – Isaac de Benserade, French poet (died 1691)
probable year – Richard Crashaw, English poet (died 1667)
Deaths
January 28 – Sir Thomas Bodley, English founder of the Bodleian Library (born 1545)
February 16 – Mikalojus Daukša, Lithuanian religious writer and translator (born c. 1527)
August 18 – Giovanni Artusi, Italian music theorist (born c. 1540)
August 21 – Natshinnaung, Toungoo prince, poet and musician (executed, born 1578)
August 26 – George Owen, Welsh antiquarian (born 1552)
September 15 – Sir Thomas Overbury, English poet and essayist (probably poisoned, born 1581)
October 9 – Henry Constable, English Catholic polemicist and poet (born 1562)
October 22 – Mathurin Régnier, French satirist (born 1573)
November 16 – Trajano Boccalini, Italian satirist (born 1556)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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] |
226411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1612%20in%20literature | 1612 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1612.
Events
January 6 – Ben Jonson's masque Love Restored is performed.
January 12 – The King's Men and Queen Anne's Men unite for the first of two English Court performances in January, with Thomas Heywood's The Silver Age
January 13 – The King's Men perform Heywood's The Rape of Lucrece.
February 2 – Queen Anne's Men return to court to play Greene's Tu Quoque.
May 11 – Shakespeare testifies in the Bellott v. Mountjoy lawsuit.
November 6 – Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son and heir to King James I of England, dies of typhoid fever. His coterie of followers, which included literary figures like Ben Jonson and John Selden, are forced to seek other patrons.
unknown dates
Thomas Shelton publishes The History of the Valorous and Wittie Knight-Errant Don-Quixote of the Mancha, the first translation of Cervantes' novel Don Quixote (first part) into English (or any other language).
The Accademia della Crusca publishes the first dictionary of the Italian language.
"Printers Bible": Some copies of the King James Version of the Bible printed in England this year contain an erratum with Psalm 119:161 reading "printers" (rather than "princes") "have persecuted me without a cause."
New books
Traiano Boccalini – Ragguagli di Parnasso
John Brinsley – ; or The Grammar Schoole
John Davies – Discoverie of the True Causes why Ireland was never entirely subdued
John Davies of Hereford – The Picture of a Happy Man
Edward Grimeston
The Generall Historie of Spaine (translated from French)
The General History of the Magnificent State of Venice
Thomas Heywood – An Apology for Actors
Antonius Magirus – Koock-boeck ofte Familieren kevken-boeck
William Strachey - The Historie of Travaile Into Virginia Britannia
Francisco de Quevedo – La cuna y la sepultura
New drama
George Chapman – The Widow's Tears published
Robert Daborne – A Christian Turn'd Turk published
Nathan Field – A Woman is a Weathercock published
Ben Jonson – Love Restored (masque)
John Webster – The White Devil published
Poetry
Michael Drayton – Poly-Olbion
Luis de Góngora – Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea (Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea)
Expanded edition of The Passionate Pilgrim
George Wither – Elegy on the death of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
Births
February 6 – Antoine Arnauld, French theologian and philosopher (died 1694)
February 7 – Thomas Killigrew, English dramatist (died 1683)
February 8 – Samuel Butler, English poet and satirist (died 1680)
February 28 – John Pearson, English theologian and scholar (died 1686)
March 4 (bapt.) – Jan Vos, Dutch poet and dramatist (died 1667)
March 20 – Anne Bradstreet, née Dudley, English-born American poet (died 1672)
unknown date – Edward King, English poet (died 1637)
probable – John Rushworth, English lawyer and historian (died 1690)
Deaths
February – John Gerard (John Gerarde), English botanist and author of herbal (born c. 1545)
March 16 – Thomas Holland, English theologian and Bible translator (born 1539)
April 11 – Emanuel van Meteren, Flemish historian (born 1535)
June 1 – Carlos Félix, 6-year-old son of Lope de Vega.
July 29 – Jacques Bongars, French diplomat and scholar (born 1554)
August 4 – Hugh Broughton, English Biblical scholar (born 1549)
September – Giovanni de' Bardi, Italian music theorist and critic (born 1534)
September 24 – Johannes Lippius, German theologian, philosopher, composer, and music theorist (born 1585)
September 27 – Piotr Skarga (Piotr Poweski), Polish hagiographer (born 1536)
October 7 – Giovanni Battista Guarini, Italian poet (born 1538)
November 20 – Sir John Harington, English courtier, writer and inventor of flush toilet (born 1560)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloric%20theory | Caloric theory | The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a self-repellent fluid called caloric that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids. The "caloric theory" was superseded by the mid-19th century in favor of the mechanical theory of heat, but nevertheless persisted in some scientific literature—particularly in more popular treatments—until the end of the 19th century.
Early history
In the history of thermodynamics, the initial explanations of heat were thoroughly confused with explanations of combustion. After J. J. Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl introduced the phlogiston theory of combustion in the 17th century, phlogiston was thought to be the substance of heat.
There is one version of the caloric theory that was introduced by Antoine Lavoisier. Prior to Lavoisier's caloric theory, published references concerning heat and its existence, outside of being an agent for chemical reactions, were sparse only having been offered by Joseph Black in Rozier's Journal (1772) citing the melting temperature of ice. In response to Black, Lavoisier's private manuscripts revealed that he had encountered the same phenomena of a fixed melting point for ice and mentioned that he had already formulated an explanation which he had not published as of yet. Lavoisier developed the explanation of combustion in terms of oxygen in the 1770s. In his paper "Réflexions sur le phlogistique" (1783), Lavoisier argued that phlogiston theory was inconsistent with his experimental results, and proposed a 'subtle fluid' called caloric as the substance of heat. According to this theory, the quantity of this substance is constant throughout the universe, and it flows from warmer to colder bodies. Indeed, Lavoisier was one of the first to use a calorimeter to measure the heat released during chemical reaction. Lavoisier presented the idea that caloric was a subtle fluid, obeying the common laws of matter, but attenuated to such a degree that it is capable of passing through dense matter without restraint; caloric's own material nature is evident when it is in abundance such as in the case of an explosion.
In the 1780s, some believed that cold was a fluid, "frigoric". Pierre Prévost argued that cold was simply a lack of caloric.
Since heat was a material substance in caloric theory, and therefore could neither be created nor destroyed, conservation of heat was a central assumption. Heat conduction was believed to have occurred as a result of the affinity between caloric and matter thus the less caloric a substance possessed, thereby being colder, attracted excess caloric from nearby atoms until a caloric, and temperature, equilibrium was reached.
Chemists of the time believed in the self-repulsion of heat particles as a fundamental force thereby making the great fluid elasticity of caloric, which does not create a repulsive force, an anomalous property which Lavoisier could not explain to his detractors.
Radiation of heat was explained by Lavoisier to be concerned with the condition of the surface of a physical body rather than the material of which it was composed. Lavoisier described a poor radiator to be a substance with a polished or smooth surface as it possessed its molecules lying in a plane closely bound together thus creating a surface layer of caloric which insulated the release of the rest within. He described a great radiator to be a substance with a rough surface as only a small amount of molecules held caloric in within a given plane allowing for greater escape from within. Count Rumford would later cite this explanation of caloric movement as insufficient to explain the radiation of cold becoming a point of contention for the theory as a whole.
The introduction of the caloric theory was influenced by the experiments of Joseph Black related to the thermal properties of materials. Besides the caloric theory, another theory existed in the late eighteenth century that could explain the phenomenon of heat: the kinetic theory. The two theories were considered to be equivalent at the time, but kinetic theory was the more modern one, as it used a few ideas from atomic theory and could explain both combustion and calorimetry. Caloric theory's inability to explain evaporation and sublimation further led to the rise of kinetic theory through the work of Count Rumford. Count Rumford observed solid mercury's tendency to melt under atmospheric conditions and thus proposed that the intensity of heat itself must stem from particle motion for such an event to occur where great heat was not expected to be.
Successes
Quite a number of successful explanations can be, and were, made from these hypotheses alone. We can explain the cooling of a cup of tea in room temperature: caloric is self-repelling, and thus slowly flows from regions dense in caloric (the hot water) to regions less dense in caloric (the cooler air in the room).
We can explain the expansion of air under heat: caloric is absorbed into the air, which increases its volume. If we say a little more about what happens to caloric during this absorption phenomenon, we can explain the radiation of heat, the state changes of matter under various temperatures, and deduce nearly all of the gas laws.
Sadi Carnot developed his principle of the Carnot cycle, which still forms the basis of heat engine theory, solely from the caloric viewpoint.
Caloric was believed to be capable of entering chemical reactions as a substituent inciting corresponding changes in the matter states of other substances.</ref> Lavoisier explained that the caloric quantity of a substance, and by extent the fluid elasticity of caloric, directly determined the state of the substance. Thus, changes in state were a central aspect of a chemical process and essential for a reaction where the substituents undergo changes in temperature. Changes of state had gone virtually ignored by previous chemists making the caloric theory the inception point for this class of phenomena as a subject of interest under scientific inquiry.
However, one of the greatest apparent confirmations of the caloric theory was Pierre-Simon Laplace's theoretical correction of Sir Isaac Newton’s calculation of the speed of sound. Newton had assumed an isothermal process, while Laplace, a calorist, treated it as adiabatic. This addition not only substantially corrected the theoretical prediction of the speed of sound, but also continued to make even more accurate predictions for almost a century afterward, even as measurements became more precise.
Later developments
In 1798, Count Rumford published An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction, a report on his investigation of the heat produced while manufacturing cannons. He had found that boring a cannon repeatedly does not result in a loss of its ability to produce heat, and therefore no loss of caloric. This suggested that caloric could not be a conserved "substance", though the experimental uncertainties in his experiment were widely debated.
His results were not seen as a "threat" to caloric theory at the time, as this theory was considered to be equivalent to the alternative kinetic theory. In fact, to some of his contemporaries, the results added to the understanding of caloric theory.
Rumford's experiment inspired the work of James Prescott Joule and others towards the middle of the 19th century. In 1850, Rudolf Clausius published a paper showing that the two theories were indeed compatible, as long as the calorists' principle of the conservation of heat was replaced by a principle of conservation of energy. In this way, the caloric theory was absorbed into the annals of physics, and evolved into modern thermodynamics, in which heat is usually transfer of kinetic energy of particles (atoms, molecules) from a hotter to a colder substance.
In later combination with the law of energy conservation, the caloric theory still provides valuable physical insight into some aspects of heat, for example, the emergence of Laplace's equation and Poisson's equation in the problems of spatial distribution of heat and temperature.
Notes
References
Obsolete theories in physics
History of chemistry
History of thermodynamics | [
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226413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1611%20in%20literature | 1611 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1611.
Events
January 1 – Oberon, the Faery Prince, a masque written by Ben Jonson and designed by Inigo Jones, is performed at Whitehall Palace.
February 3 – Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly, another Jonson/Jones masque, is also staged at Whitehall.
May 2 – The Authorized King James Version of the Bible appears, printed in London by Robert Barker.
May 11 – The first known performance of Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale, probably new this year, is given by the King's Men at the Globe Theatre in London.
November 1 – The King's Men give perhaps the first performance of The Tempest, Shakespeare's last solo play, at Whitehall Palace.
November 5 – The King's Men perform The Winter's Tale at Whitehall Palace.
December 26 – The King's Men return to Court with Beaumont and Fletcher's A King and No King.
December 27 – Queen Anne's Men act one of their most popular plays, Greene's Tu Quoque (The City Gallant; probably written by John Cooke) at Court, having previously performed it at the Red Bull Theatre.
unknown dates
The last known traditional performance of an English mystery play is given at Kendal.
Dramatist Juan Ruiz de Alarcón returns to Spain from Mexico.
New books
Prose
The Holy Bible, Authorized King James Version
Jacques Bongars – Gesta Dei per Francos
Thomas Coryat – Coryat's Crudities hastily gobbled up in Five Months Travels in France, Italy, &c
Randle Cotgrave – A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues
John Donne – An Anatomy of the World
Giolla Brighde Ó hEoghusa (Bonaventura Ó hEoghusa or O'Hussey) – An Teagasc Criosdaidhe
Samuel Rowlands – The Knave of Clubs
John Speed:
The Historie of Great Britaine
The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine (map atlas)
Drama
Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher – A King and No King
George Chapman – May Day (published)
John Cooke (?) – Greene's Tu Quoque
Thomas Dekker and Thomas Middleton – The Roaring Girl (published)
Thomas Dekker – If This Be Not a Good Play, the Devil Is In It
Thomas Heywood – The Golden Age (published)
Ben Jonson
Oberon, the Faery Prince
Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly
Catiline His Conspiracy published
Johannes Messenius – Disa
Thomas Middleton (attributed to) – The Second Maiden's Tragedy
Anthony Munday – Chryso-Thriambos
William Shakespeare
The Winter's Tale (probable date)
The Tempest (consensus date)
Cyril Tourneur – The Atheist's Tragedy (published)
Poetry
See also 1611 in poetry
Richard Braithwaite – The Golden Fleece
John Donne – An Anatomy of the World
Emilia Lanier – Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum
Births
September 1 – William Cartwright, English dramatist (died 1643)
October 22 – Jacques Esprit ("abbé Esprit"), French moralist (died 1677)
October 26 – Antonio Coello, Spanish dramatist and poet (died 1652)
unknown dates
Richard Alleine, English religious writer (died 1681)
Charles Alphonse du Fresnoy, French writer on art and painter (died 1665)
Thomas Urquhart, Scottish translator (died c. 1660)
probable year
Jean François Sarrazin, French satirist (died 1654)
Deaths
February 8 – Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, Dutch historian (born 1563)
March 11 – Giles Fletcher, the Elder, English poet and diplomat (born c. 1548)
March 20 – Johann Georg Gödelmann, German demonological writer (born 1559)
April 23 – Martin Ruland the Younger, German alchemist and editor of his father's writings (born 1569)
June 8 – Jean Bertaut, French poet (born 1552)
September 22 – Pedro de Ribadeneira, Spanish ecclesiastical historian (born 1527)
unknown date
John Hamilton, Scottish Catholic controversialist (born c. 1547)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishopbriggs | Bishopbriggs | Bishopbriggs (; ); ) is a town in East Dunbartonshire, Scotland. It lies on the northern fringe of Greater Glasgow, approximately from the city centre. Historically in Lanarkshire, the area was once part of the historic parish of Cadder - originally lands granted by King William the Lion to the Bishop of Glasgow, Jocelin, in 1180. It was later part of the county of Lanarkshire, and then an independent burgh from 1964 to 1975. Today, Bishopbriggs' close geographic proximity to Glasgow now effectively makes it a suburb and commuter town of the city. The town's original Gaelic name Coille Dobhair reflects the name of the old parish of Cadder, but modern Gaelic usage uses Drochaid an Easbaig, a literal translation of Bishopbriggs. It was ranked the 2nd most desirable postcode in Scotland to live in following a study by the Centre for Economic and Business Research in 2015 and 2016.
Bishopbriggs grew from a small rural village on the old road from Glasgow to Kirkintilloch and Stirling during the 19th century, eventually growing to incorporate the adjacent villages of Auchinairn, Cadder, Jellyhill and Mavis Valley. It has a population of approximately 23,500 people.
History
Bishopbriggs' history stretches at least to Roman times, as Cadder was a Roman fort on the Antonine Wall, the furthest and most northerly boundary of the Roman Empire.
As early as 1568, reference is made to a path northwards from Glasgow as the 'common passage to Bischopis Briggis'. Bishopbriggs was first documented in the Cadder Parish records of 1655, and was recorded to have had only eleven residents in the mid-18th century. Even more than a century later, after substantial growth, the village was still being referred to in the terms of the larger settlement of Cadder. Despite fears that the village would end up being swamped by the rapid expansion of nearby Glasgow it managed to avoid this, however of the wider parish of Cadder were eventually absorbed by Glasgow Corporation in 1926, which would be used to construct the Milton peripheral housing scheme from the late 1940s.
By 1793, the introduction of new farming techniques had improved yields. While crops such as oats, barley, potatoes and flax flourished, Cadder's population fared less well; a decrease of around 600 from the mid-1760s was attributed to new agricultural methods which combined smaller farms or Run rigs and swept away independent tenants, known as the Lowland Clearances. By 1836 there were 'almost no cotters' with the largest farms employing no more than ten people, and some of those only as maid servants. Land reclamation (through drainage) changed the landscape so that crops could grow, where once there was only marshland. Dairy farming was relied upon to cover ground rents.
19th-century development
With the completion of the Forth and Clyde Canal in 1790, the area began to attract ironstone and coal mining industry. The Carron Company, became the area's main employer, building the mining villages of Mavis Valley and Jellyhill to accommodate its workers. From there, the Forth and Clyde Canal formed a convenient and direct transport link with their famous ironworks near Falkirk. There were also freestone quarries established at Coltpark (Colston), Crowhill, Huntershill and Kenmure.
Development during the 19th century was slow compared to the industrially-driven expansion of other nearby areas, such as Springburn. In 1836 Bishopbriggs' population stood at 175, compared to neighbouring Auchinairn Village's 284. Bishopbriggs railway station on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, opened in 1842 however, underlining its status as the emerging focus of the local area, although expansion remained slow throughout the latter half of the 19th century. The population of Bishopbriggs was recorded as 658 in 1861 and 782 in 1871. At the time, the village had also been known as 'Bishopbridges' and was so described thus or similarly in published maps up to the mid-1850s. The arrival of the railway heralded a change, although the first printed tickets called the station Bishopbridges, platform signage showed Bishopbriggs and it has remained so ever since. Groome, in 1882, described it as being "inhabited chiefly by poor Irish families".
Cadder Yard (2 km north of the Cross) became a major facility for the routing of freight and minerals on the line. Short spurs were constructed to link the various quarries (initially with the Forth & Clyde Canal) for transportation of minerals, very little evidence of this is visible today, but it is still possible to discover wooden sleepers in odd places. An underpass for the line which crosses under the A803 Kirkintilloch Road (at Hilton Road) was converted to a pedestrian subway and is one of the town's hidden gems. Also at Cadder Yard was a short spur that connected with Bishopbriggs Oil Terminal, used as a distribution point for West of Scotland deliveries before it ultimately closed in 1982.
The area continued to be a major centre for freestone quarrying during the 19th Century, supplying many major municipal building projects in Glasgow, such as Sir George Gilbert Scott's new Glasgow University main building (the second largest Gothic Revival building in Britain). The blonde coloured Bishopbriggs Sandstone is from the Upper Limestone Formation of the Lower Carboniferous age. It was one of the most important Glasgow building stones, and was a major supplier of stone for Victorian Glasgow along with stone from quarries in other local areas such as Giffnock. Increasing demand for building stone and the emergence of the railways allowed for the additional transportation of red sandstone to Glasgow from quarries in Locharbriggs from the late 19th century onwards.
The blonde sandstone however was still considered to be of such value that in the 1850s when the depth of overburden became too great for opencast quarrying, it was mined using the traditional pillar and stall technique. Quarrying ceased in 1907 however after a fall at Huntershill killed several men.
20th-century development
The Glasgow tramway network was extended north from Springburn to Bishopbriggs in 1903, with a terminus at Kirkintilloch Road close to traffic lights at what is now the Triangle Shopping Centre. As all trams were required to switch tracks (and direction) at a central crossover this proved dangerous as the levels of traffic on the main road increased. The tracks were eventually relocated and a new crossover created in a short spur which required all trams to turn left and terminate at Kenmure Avenue, where they changed direction and returned southwards to Glasgow. The tram service ceased across Glasgow in 1962.
Bishopbriggs suffered an economic decline in the early decades of the 20th century. With the working out of the quarries at that time, what mines the area had closed systematically thereafter, throughout the 1920s.
Manufacturing in the town began to grow after the First World War, one of the manufacturers that located in Bishopbriggs at the time was a producer of Infant formula, Sister Lauras Food Supplement. There were also engineering firms and the Scottish Wire Rope Company factory at Crowhill, Trebor Bassett at Huntershill, and Blackie and Sons Publishers at Cadder amongst those providing alternative employment.
In 1929, a new printing works for Blackie and Sons Publishers were erected on Kirkintilloch Road, retaining the name of their original Townhead works, 'The Villafield Press'. During the Second World War, Blackie & Son Ltd used part of their Bishopbriggs works for the manufacture of 3.45" shells for the Ministry of Supply. They also undertook some toolmaking for another Glasgow company, William Beardmore and Company; and, for a short time, produced aircraft radiators. By 1960 the publishing and administration section of the company also relocated from Townhead to join the printing section in Kirkintilloch Road, Bishopbriggs, and in 1971, new premises were occupied in Wester Cleddens Road, eventually becoming the headquarters of the company. The printworks were now no longer required and earmarked for demolition, following a demand for residential property in the area. The Villafield name was retained in the housing estate now on the site, opposite Cooper's Fine Fare supermarket (now Asda).
The Robert McCarroll Plant Hire company was established at Crowhill in 1934 and continues to operate today.
In 1932 the town saw the opening of its first (and only) cinema, The Kenmure. Located on Kirkintilloch Road it had an impressive towering facade and a single auditorium with capacity for 1000 patrons. Eventually the clientele dwindled after the arrival of television (in 1953) and by 1958 a decision was made to close it down. It lay derelict for a number of years, before being demolished to make way for the Churchill Way shopping centre which was constructed in 1962 (and demolished in 1993). The entrance to the cinema was where the Bishopbriggs Sub-Post Office is now located.
Proposals were also drawn up for the creation of a "Garden suburb" at Cadder by Patrick Abercrombie, under the instruction of Sir John Stirling-Maxwell in 1936 but by the 1950s just 26 art deco bungalows had been completed.
During the Second World War, the town was bombed by the Luftwaffe at around midnight on 7 April 1941, as part of a series of raids on the Greater Glasgow area during early 1941, which included the notorious Clydebank Blitz some three weeks earlier. Approximately five bombs were dropped in the vicinity of South Crosshill Road. One fell behind Cadder Church Hall, an annex building of Bishopbriggs School (now the library) housing the junior school, that had been converted into an Air Raid Precautions first-aid post, received a direct hit, killing five staff instantly, along with four civilian residents of South Crosshill Road. Three ARP staff were also injured in the blast and died of their injuries at Lennox Castle Hospital in Lennoxtown the next day. The only strategic targets in the area were the railway and RAF Bishopbriggs (now Low Moss Prison), a barrage balloon depot established at Cadder in 1939.
After the war, an unprecedented boost to the town's population came about as a result of the large-scale building programmes of the fifties and sixties which eventually replaced Balmuildy, Cadder and Woodhill farmlands with private housing, effectively amalgamating the various villages in the area into a single town, centred on the village of Bishopbriggs, increasing the population from 5,272 in 1951 to 21,000 in the early 1970s. The significant increase in local population was at least partially influenced by the recommendations of the Bruce Report, which advocated the reduction of the population density of inner-city Glasgow and dispersal of its population to the outskirts and suburbs of the city.
Agriculture continued to diminish in importance throughout the 20th century as demand for residential development grew; in 1920 there were 31 working farms in the area, in 1948 that number had fallen to 24 and by 1989 there were only 13 left.
Modern Bishopbriggs
Bishopbriggs Cross
The Town centre is known as 'The Village', 'Bishopbriggs Cross' or simply 'The Cross'. The principal retail areas are the Triangle Shopping Centre and the Cross Court. The Triangle Shopping Centre was created via the demolition of older tenement housing stock and the Kenmure Church Hall on the eastern side of Kirkintilloch Road to facilitate the construction of new development called 'The Triangle' so called due to the shape of the available land. The first floor fronting Kirkintilloch Road contained commercial offices, with its first anchor tenant as a district council office, twelve retail units, and a Morrisons (formerly Safeway) supermarket in 1991. In the Cross itself, tenement buildings dating from the Victorian era are still present on the western side of Bishopbriggs Cross.
There are proposals by Muse Developments for a £32 million redevelopment of the Triangle Shopping Centre, incorporating the former site of Bishopbriggs High School. The plans include: the creation of new public space, retail units, surface car parking, the relocation of St. Matthew's Church and hall and the construction of a new, larger, Morrisons supermarket. There has however been controversy over the demolition of the former Games Hall at Bishopbriggs High in May 2010.
Within Bishopbriggs Cross is also a pedestrianised area at Cross Court which includes the war memorial, erected in 1920 by the Stirling family, once major land owners in the area.
Other retailers in Bishopbriggs include an Asda superstore and the Strathkelvin Retail Park, including a B&Q Warehouse, located to the north of the town at Cadder, which opened in 1992. A number of businesses located at Huntershill Village generates useful employment in the area.
In architectural terms, Bishopbriggs is notable for its superior Victorian villas, constructed after local landowners Feued lands to the west of Kirkintilloch Road and Springfield Road from the 1850s, adjacent to the then recently completed Bishopbriggs Station on the Glasgow-to-Edinburgh Railway, its inter-war art deco 'Garden Suburb' on the former Kenmure Estate, and also for its large-scale post-war private housing developments, which has more recently also including housing developments in the neighbouring formerly rural area of Robroyston.
Education
The area is served by six Primary schools; Balmuildy, Meadowburn, St Helen's, St Matthew's, Thomas Muir and Wester Cleddens. Meadowburn Primary School hosts a Gaelic Medium Unit. There are also two Secondary schools, both of which have been rebuilt as the result of a Public-Private Partnership investment into education infrastructure, first launched in 2006 by East Dunbartonshire Council.
Bishopbriggs has two secondary schools; Bishopbriggs Academy (Non-denominational) at Woodhill and Turnbull High School (Roman Catholic) at Kenmure. Both schools rank as some of the best in Scotland, with Bishopbriggs being named Scottish State School of the year in both 2014 and 2017. Both schools have had new-build campuses built, which were completed in August 2009.
Bishopbriggs Academy was established in 2006 via the amalgamation of Bishopbriggs High School and Thomas Muir High School and was initially housed in the old Bishopbriggs High School building. The new building for Bishopbriggs Academy was scheduled to be built at the site of the old Bishopbriggs High School campus near Bishopbriggs Cross. However, after representations from the contractors, it was relocated to the former Thomas Muir High School site at Woodhill. The decision to change the location of the new school went against public opinion and caused significant local controversy at the time. The relocation has, however, made a large area of land adjacent to the Cross available for redevelopment.
In addition to these schools, there is also St Mary's on the edge of Bishopbriggs, which is a secure residential school for Young offenders on remand, under sentence and Children's Panel Orders. It is a modern, purpose built secure unit for 24 young people aged between 11 and 16
Healthcare
There has been controversy over the decision by NHS Greater Glasgow to downgrade facilities at the local Stobhill Hospital in nearby Springburn to an Ambulatory care facility, which will result in the nearest Accident and Emergency and inpatient facilities being located at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary in the city centre, as well as the development of an inpatient Psychiatric hospital at the site. This resulted in Jean Turner's election as the Independent Member of the Scottish Parliament for Strathkelvin and Bearsden on this single issue in 2003, however she eventually lost her seat to Labour's David Whitton in the 2007 elections for the Scottish Parliament.
Religion
The Church of Scotland has three churches and parishes in the town, Cadder, Kenmure and Springfield Cambridge. Colston Wellpark Church also serves the southern end of the town at the Glasgow boundary. The neighbouring parish of Robroyston has also been set up to accommodate the growing population on the outskirts of Bishopbrigs. The Free Church of Scotland worships at its church at Auchinairn Road. The Scottish Episcopal Church of St James The Less is situated on Hilton Road, having transferred from Springburn in 1980.
There are also two Roman Catholic Parishes in the town, St Matthew's parish was founded in 1946 and the C-listed church building was designed by Gillespie, Kidd & Coia, opening in 1950, featuring sculpture panels by Benno Schotz depicting the life of St. Matthew. To reflect the ongoing expansion of the town, St Dominic's parish was established in 1973 and the church building completed in 1977. Bishopbriggs Community Church has premises at Park Avenue, behind the Asda store, serving the whole town. Woodhill Evangelical Church, situated on Westercleddens Road, also serves the whole town. There is also a Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses in the town which is shared by Bishopbriggs and Kirkintilloch Congregations.
Rugby
Located near Bishopbriggs Cross are the former playing fields of Glasgow-based Allan Glen's School, which opened in 1923 and continue to be used by Allan Glen's RFC, who play in the West Regional League Division 1. The club has teams covering all age groups, from Primary 1 all the way up to the senior 1st XV team. Former Scotland and Glasgow Warriors captain Alastair Kellock started his rugby days at Allan Glens.
Football
Among the youth and junior football teams that play in the town are Rossvale, Westpark, East Dunbartonshire F.C. and Huntershill AFC.
Golf
The town has three golf courses. The oldest, Bishopbriggs Golf Club, was founded in 1906 and is situated in parkland which was once part of Kenmure House (built 1806 by David Hamilton, demolished 1955), formerly family seat of the Stirling-Maxwell Baronets. Cadder House, built in 1654, was also a Stirling family residence. It is now the clubhouse of Cawder Golf Club, which was established in 1933. Both original courses were designed by James Braid.
Bowling
The town has two bowling clubs; Bishopbriggs Bowling Club and Auchinairn Bowling Club.
Curling
The town has a curling club, Cadder Curling Club, which originally met in Cawder Estate but now meets at Braehead.
Youth Groups
The town has 3 Boys Brigades (182 Glasgow, 212 Glasgow and 268 Glasgow), a Scout group (175th Glasgow), a Girls Guides and a Girls Brigade. There is also numerous, much smaller groups often linked to local churches.
Other economic and social amenities
Other amenities include a municipal library, which forms a local landmark, housed in the B-Listed former buildings of the Bishopbriggs School, which was first opened in 1896 and was converted to a library when the new Bishopbriggs High School opened in 1965. The library was enhanced by a £400,000 refurbishment in 2003.
Major local firms include the Distribution centre of publisher HarperCollins, located in the Westerhill area of Bishopbriggs, employing some 340 people, William Collins, Sons and Co Ltd had moved there from Townhead in the early 1970s. Also in Westerhill is an Aviva customer service centre, employing over 1,000, along with automotive Graphic design firm John McGavigan, which employs around 135 people.
Bishopbriggs is also the location of a number of firms operating in the construction sector, with Carillion (approx 250), Carillion Training Services/TIGERS STA Training (currently there is approximately 100 live apprentices training at Huntershill Village depot, with over 600 apprentices having been registered over the last 6 years 2009–15), the Robert McCarroll Plant Hire company, Roofing contractor Marley Contract Services and Civil Engineering firm Luddon based in the town.
Bishopbriggs still remains predominantly a commuter suburb of Glasgow however, with around 80% of its workforce commuting to work in the wider Greater Glasgow area.
HMP Low Moss was located on the outskirts of the town at the site of a former World War II Royal Air Force Barrage balloon station, near to the Strathkelvin Retail Park and Low Moss Industrial Estate at Cadder. In early January 2007, it was announced that the Scottish Executive had overruled the initial objection by East Dunbartonshire Council for the prison to be extensively modernised and extended, and after completion will be three times its present size, capable of containing 700 inmates in a medium-security facility. The prison closed in May 2007 and construction of replacement is underway after a review by the Scottish Government.
Noted residents
Residents born or who have lived in the area include the political reformer Thomas Muir of Huntershill, the actor and writer Dirk Bogarde, TV and National Lottery draw presenter Jenni Falconer, singer Amy Macdonald, former Miss Scotland and Miss United Kingdom Nieve Jennings, actor and rock singer Steve Valentine, footballer Stuart Bannigan, poet laureate (makar) and novelist Professor Jackie Kay, musicians Paul Buchanan and Paul Joseph Moore from The Blue Nile and bassist Jack Bruce of Cream.
STV presenter Storm Huntley resides in the Meadowburn area where she attended Primary School. Humorists Sanjeev Kohli who played Navid in Scottish sitcom Still Game and his brother Hardeep Singh Kohli, a contributor on BBC magazine shows moved at a young age to Bishopbriggs and spent their childhood here. Oscar-winning director and actor Peter Capaldi attended St Matthew's Primary school.
Sports people include Alastair Kellock, Scotland cap, lock and captain of Rugby Union side Glasgow Warriors in the Celtic League who attended Bishopbriggs High School. Birmingham City F.C. and Scotland striker James McFadden attended Turnbull High School as did former Celtic and Partick Thistle striker Gerry Britton, previously manager of Stranraer F.C. and now Chief Executive Officer of Partick Thistle.
Politics
For local government, Bishopbriggs was originally part of the historic county of Lanarkshire, which continues to function as a Lieutenancy area, a successful campaign by the local Ratepayers Association won Bishopbriggs its late bid for independent Burgh status in 1964, in order to avoid being absorbed into the Glasgow Corporation's boundaries, resulting in the formation of Bishopbriggs Town Council. Following local government reorganisation, dissolution of the burgh system, and the creation of Regional and District Authorities, as a result of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, Bishopbriggs became part of the Strathclyde Region in 1975. The local Ratepayers Association again played a major role in keeping Bishopbriggs outwith Glasgow district and within the Strathkelvin district of the Strathclyde Region, along with Kirkintilloch and Lenzie.
With the introduction of the present unitary local government system in 1996, and the dissolution of the Regional and District setup, as a result of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, Bishopbriggs became part of the East Dunbartonshire Council area. As a result of the Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004, the town is now represented on the council by two Wards, represented by three Councillors each: Billy Hendry (CON), Anne McNair (SNP) and Una Walker (LAB) in Bishopbriggs North & Torrance, with Alan Moir (LAB), Gordan Low (SNP) and Michael O'Donnell (LAB) in Bishopbriggs South. Cllr Billy Hendry is deputy leader of East Dunbartonshire Council.
In the national government, Bishopbriggs is represented by the Strathkelvin and Bearsden constituency of the Scottish Parliament with the MSP being Rona Mackay of the Scottish National Party (SNP), as well as the 7 additional list MSPs that make up the West of Scotland region. The town is represented at Westminster by the East Dunbartonshire constituency of the House of Commons, with the MP being Amy Callaghan also of the SNP. Both constituencies are considered to be Marginal seats, with relatively high numbers of Swing votes. Prior to Brexit in 2020 it was part of the Scotland European Parliament Constituency.
Demography
NRS Social Classifications are used to determine the social classes stated above.
Bishopbriggs is a primarily a middle-class commuter suburb with two-thirds of residents classified in the social group ABC1.
Transport
Air
Glasgow International Airport, at Paisley, is the nearest commercial airport serving the Greater Glasgow region, however a private landing strip at Cumbernauld Airport services smaller aircraft and helicopters.
Road
Bishopbriggs is connected to the UK motorway network at Junction 2 of the M80 motorway at Robroyston. This interchange connects with the Bishopbriggs Relief Road that runs from Robroyston, bypassing Bishopbriggs to the east of Woodhill and Westerhill before linking up with the Torrance Roundabout near Low Moss. The main road through Bishopbriggs itself is Kirkintilloch Road, part of the A803 which connects Glasgow to Falkirk and Grangemouth.
Rail
The town is served by Bishopbriggs railway station, and is the first stop for local trains departing from Glasgow Queen Street station on the Croy Line to Stirling. All rail services are provided by Abellio ScotRail. Journey time to Glasgow is 6 minutes.
Canal
The Bishopbriggs section of the Forth and Clyde Canal opened in 1775 and when completed, connected the River Clyde, at Bowling, to the River Forth, at Grangemouth. Junctions at Falkirk with the Union Canal and at Maryhill to the Monkland Canal completed the network. The canal reopened in 2003 to non-commercial navigation as part of the Millennium Project. This included the newly reconstructed Farm Bridge over the Canal at Mavis Valley, adjacent to the Leisuredrome. The previous fixed Girder bridge replaced an older Bascule bridge, and was built after the closure of the canal in 1962. It had been set at a very low level, inhibiting canal navigation. Farm Bridge was also known as "Brash's Bridge", because members of the Brash family held the post of bridge-keeper for over a century, from 1838 to 1942. Brash's bridge-house was on the north bank of the canal, beside the bridge. The only other Bridge across the canal in Bishopbriggs is at Cadder.
Bus
Bus services provide services through the Kelvin Valley (Kirkintilloch, Kilsyth), long-distance services to Stirling and Falkirk were discontinued in 2017. Bus companies include First Glasgow in addition to a local circular service 142 from Glasgow Citybus (previously operated by John Morrow Coaches) that runs a local route around the town linking the Cross, Mavis Valley, Cadder, Strathkelvin Retail Park, Woodhill and Auchinairn from 0800 to 1700 Mon-Fri. Additional services 147 (to Scotstoun) and 148 (to Clydebank) are infrequent and used only to facilitate trips to the bus depot. Defunct operator Kelvin Scottish Buses had their headquarters in the town at Westerhill Road.
Twin towns
Corbeil-Essonnes, France
Yoichi, Japan
References
External links
Images of Bishopbriggs
East Dunbartonshire Council
Huntershill Village
Live train departure information
Burghs
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226415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partick%20Thistle%20F.C. | Partick Thistle F.C. | Partick Thistle Football Club (nicknamed the Jags) are a professional football club from Glasgow, Scotland. Despite their name, the club are based at Firhill Stadium in the Maryhill area of the city, and have not played in Partick since 1908. The club have been members of the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL) since its formation in 2013. In the 2020–21 season, Thistle won Scottish League One, the third tier of the SPFL structure, and returned to the Scottish Championship, having been relegated from there in 2019–20.
Since 1936, Thistle have played in their distinctive red-and-yellow jerseys of varying designs, with hoops, stripes and predominantly yellow tops with red trims having been used, although in 2009 a centenary kit was launched in the original navy-blue style to commemorate 100 years at Firhill. Since 1908 the club have won the Scottish Second Division (third tier, now Scottish League One) twice and the Scottish First Division (second tier, now the Scottish Championship) six times, most recently in 2013. Thistle have won the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup in 1921 and 1971 respectively.
The club are currently managed by Ian McCall in his second spell in charge. Under Alan Archibald's management, the club achieved promotion to the newly formed Scottish Premiership in 2013, and remained there for five consecutive seasons. During this spell Thistle secured major investment and in 2017 finished in the top six of Scottish football for the first time in over three decades. Key players such as Kris Doolan broke numerous records and became one of the club's top goal scorers. Despite relegation in the 2017–18 Scottish Premiership season, Archibald remained as Thistle's manager. However, after a poor start to the 2018–19 Scottish Championship campaign Archibald's 5-year tenure came to an end. He returned to the club as McCall's assistant in 2019.
History
Formation and early years
Partick Thistle Football Club was formed in 1876 in the burgh of Partick, which was at that time administratively independent of Glasgow (Partick was not subsumed into Glasgow until 1912). The club's first recorded match (and victory) took place in February against a local junior team, named Valencia. The location of this match, and thereby Thistle's first home ground, was recorded as 'Overnewton Park', which is thought to have been located next to Overnewton Road, just south of Kelvingrove Park. In 1891, Partick Thistle joined the Scottish Football Alliance, one of several competitions set up immediately after the formation of the Scottish Football League in 1890. The club won the Second Division championship in 1897 and were elected to the First Division. The following season they were re-elected after finishing in eighth place. In 1900 they were elected back to the top level, having finished as Second Division champions again, but were relegated the following season and then promoted in second place in 1902. This would be the last time Thistle changed their division for almost 70 years. Since joining the Scottish professional leagues in 1893, Thistle had been an unpredictable side, spending four years in the First Division and five in the Second, winning promotion three times. It was during the 1902–03 Scottish Division One season that Thistle set their highest finish in the Scottish league structure, finishing 8th in the table with 19 points. In the following 33 years, they moved from home to home, using parks at Kelvingrove, Jordanvale, Muirpark, Inchview among others. In 1897 they moved to Meadowside, where they played until 1908. After being homeless for over a season, they moved to their present home, Firhill Stadium, in the Maryhill district of Glasgow. They played their first home match at Firhill, on 18 September 1909, in a 3–1 victory against Dumbarton Harp.
Cup success and league progress
In 1921 Thistle won the Scottish Cup, beating Rangers 1–0 in the final. Johnny Blair scored the only goal of the game, which was held at Celtic Park. The Jags reached the final again nine years later, facing the same opposition, but Rangers won 2–1 in a replay following a 0–0 draw in the first match. In 1935 the Jags won both the Glasgow Cup and the Charity Cup, competitions that were taken seriously at the time.
Although it was over 30 years before Thistle achieved further cup success they not only maintained their top tier status during this period but finished third in the league in 1947–48, 1953–54 and 1962–63.
On 23 October 1971 Davie McParland's team secured the club's most famous result against Jock Stein's Celtic in the League Cup final at Hampden Park, Glasgow. 62,470 fans watched Thistle take a dramatic 4–0 lead at half time with goals from Alex Rae, Bobby Lawrie and Jimmy Bone amongst the many emerging talents in the Thistle squad including Alan Rough, Alex Forsyth and Denis McQuade. Kenny Dalglish pulled a goal back for Celtic, however the final result was never in doubt as Thistle eased to a 4–1 victory. Ironically before the match, former BBC sport broadcaster Sam Leitch stated that "In Scotland, it's League Cup final day at Hampden Park, where Celtic meet Partick Thistle, who have no chance."
Decline and "Save the Jags" campaign
Thistle's fortunes on the pitch declined during the 1980s. Although the club had experienced difficult times before, having dropped into the second tier of Scottish football twice in the 1970s, they had bounced straight back up on both occasions. The relegation of 1982 led to the club's first sustained period outside the top tier since the late 19th century. Between 1986 and 1989, Thistle were owned by Ken Bates, chairman of Chelsea, whose intention was to use Thistle as a feeder club for the English team; however few players moved between the clubs during those years, which were also unsuccessful on the field (they finished 8th in the second tier for five seasons running between 1985–86 and 1989–90).
Although this period of exile ended with promotion in 1992, mounting financial problems, including a debt of over £1.5 million, threatened to put the club out of existence. In 1998 in particular the club was close to going bankrupt and was only kept afloat by the fan-organised "Save the Jags" campaign. Despite avoiding financial oblivion Thistle were relegated to the third tier of Scottish Football in 1997–98 and only narrowly avoided a further relegation the following season, finishing in eighth place.
Revival under John Lambie
In 1999 John Lambie commenced his third period as manager of the club and under his stewardship Thistle enjoyed a brief revival, winning back-to-back promotions in 2000–01 and 2001–02, the second of which earned the club a place in the Scottish Premier League. SPL guidelines at the time stipulated that clubs would only be eligible for promotion to the league if their stadium had a minimum 10,000 seated capacity. To comply with these guidelines the terraced section at the north end of Firhill was replaced with a 2000-seat stand. Speaking in 2004, Thistle chairman Tom Hughes argued the club did not at the time require a stadium with such a large capacity and building the new stand 'seriously affected [their] competitiveness'. Thistle maintained their place in the SPL under Lambie by finishing 10th in 2002–03, despite being favourites for relegation.
Successive relegations and play-off promotion
Following Lambie's retirement at the end of the 2002–03 season, Thistle struggled. Gerry Collins (Lambie's previous assistant) was sacked mid-season and replaced with joint player-managers Derek Whyte and Gerry Britton. This change was not enough to revive the team, and Thistle were relegated at the end of the 2003–04 season after Inverness, having won the First Division title, were permitted to groundshare with Aberdeen. In season 2004–05 the team continued to struggle and Whyte and Britton were dismissed mid-season. Dick Campbell, their successor, was unable to avoid relegation to the Second Division. He did return the club to the First Division the following season, through the newly introduced play-off system, having finished 4th in the league. This brought to a close the club's most unpredictable decade, in footballing terms at least: between 1996 and 2006 Thistle had been promoted three times and relegated four times. They were the second team in Scottish football to be relegated from the top flight through successive subsequent relegations, excluding those caused by league reconstruction, after St. Johnstone in the 1980s.
Ian McCall's tenure, (2007–2011)
Despite starting well upon returning to the First Division, Dick Campbell was sacked on 27 March 2007, following a succession of poor results. A caretaker management team of Jimmy Bone and Terry Butcher saw out the season before Ian McCall, a former player, was unveiled as manager. McCall's first season saw Thistle finish 6th in the First Division and embark on a successful Scottish Cup campaign, reaching the quarter-finals before being defeated by eventual winners Rangers after a 1–1 draw at Ibrox, Thistle lost the replay 2–0 at Firhill. League form further improved in season 2008–09 with Thistle exceeding expectations to finish 2nd in the First Division, behind St Johnstone. This season saw midfielder Gary Harkins win the Irn Bru Phenomenal Player of the Year and Northern Ireland's Jonny Tuffey become the club's first full international for several years.
McCall quit his post as manager in April 2011, citing personal reasons. Jackie McNamara was initially appointed as caretaker manager before being made full-time manager of the club at the end of the 2010–11 season.
Jackie McNamara (2011–2013)
McNamara and assistant Simon Donnelly guided Thistle to a sixth-place finish in 2011–12 season. The following season Thistle started well and emerged as promotion candidates, competing with Dunfermline and Greenock Morton for a place in the following season's top flight. On 29 January 2013 the club gave permission to Dundee United to speak to McNamara about becoming their new manager. The following day McNamara and his assistant Simon Donnelly resigned, to become the new management team at United. Along with Donnelly, Jackie McNamara brought goalkeeper Craig Hinchliffe, Paul Paton and Chris Erskine to Tannadice. Thistle were second in the league at the time and, because McNamara was under contract, compensation was owed to the club.
Archibald era and the Scottish Premiership (2013–2018)
On 30 January 2013, Alan Archibald was appointed as the club's interim manager, with former Thistle player Scott Paterson as his assistant. On 22 March, the duo were given the job on a permanent basis signing a one-year rolling contract. The following month on 20 April 2013, the club clinched promotion to the Scottish Premiership having sealed the First Division championship with a 2–0 victory away to Falkirk. The title win meant Thistle returned to the top flight of Scottish football for the first time in nine years. The team also lost the Scottish Challenge Cup final to Queen of the South on penalties in April 2013.
Thistle's initial return to the Premiership had mixed success. The team managed to maintain a relatively positive away record, however it was months before Thistle finally secured a home win, with them beating Aberdeen 3–1 at Firhill in February 2014. Thistle managed to avoid the relegation and play-off spots, eventually finishing third-bottom, following a 4–2 win away to Hearts at Tynecastle. Thistle announced the club were completely free of debt in November 2015.
The 2015–16 Scottish Premiership season saw Thistle secure long-term contracts for many of their key players, including Kris Doolan, Callum Booth, Tomáš Černý and Mustapha Dumbuya.
On 7 May 2016, Thistle secured their Premiership status with a 2–0 away victory to Kilmarnock, with goals coming from Steven Lawless and Kris Doolan. This result meant that Archibald overtook former manager Davie McParland as the record holder of top-flight victories. On 8 April 2017, Thistle beat Motherwell 1–0 to secure a place in the top six for the first time since the league split was first introduced to the Scottish top flight in 2000–01.
In the 2017–18 Scottish Premiership, Thistle finished in 11th position, narrowly avoiding 12th place with Ross County being automatically relegated. Thistle subsequently went into the Scottish Premiership play-offs against Livingston, who had finished second in the Scottish Championship in their first season of returning to the league. On 17 May 2018, Thistle lost the first leg 2–1 away at Almondvale Stadium, with Kris Doolan getting Thistle's goal. Livingston then came to face Thistle at Firhill on 20 May 2018. Livingston won the away leg 0–1 after Keaghan Jacobs scored in the 46th minute. Thistle were relegated to the Scottish Championship after a stay in the top flight of five years. Subsequently, speculation surrounded whether or not Archibald would remain as Thistle's manager. On 24 May, Thistle announced on their website Archibald would remain as Partick Thistle's manager going into the Championship next season. As a result of Thistle's poor season, a number of players were not offered a new contract by the club including captain Abdul Osman, Callum Booth, Steven Lawless, Mustapha Dumbuya, Paul McGinn and Ryan Scully. Transfer listed players were Adam Barton, Niall Keown and Miles Storey. Australian midfielder Ryan Edwards triggered a relegation contract clause, allowing him to leave the club immediately. After a poor start to their 2018–19 Scottish Championship season, Archibald was sacked as manager on 6 October 2018 following a 2–0 loss to Ross County, leaving Thistle 8th in the Championship.
Gary Caldwell (2018–2019)
On 15 October 2018, Thistle announced that former Celtic and Scotland international Gary Caldwell had been appointed as Archibald's replacement. Chairman Jacqui Low said "Put simply, he plans to build a strong defence that allows us to then push forward and play attacking football."
Thistle's first season in the Scottish Championship after relegation was a difficult one; the club were one of the promotion favourites but after a poor first half of the season they were sitting bottom by December and facing the possibility of back to back relegations. Caldwell performed a large squad overhaul in January including the key signing of Scott McDonald who went on to score 7 goals in 13 games. Caldwell managed to turn the season around with the club finishing in 6th position and avoiding further relegation to League One with a 3–0 away win to Queen of the South thus removing the threat of the relegation play-offs. Although safe, Caldwell released striker Kris Doolan who ended his decade-long stay at the club after being informed that his contract would not be renewed. Other players to depart included Miles Storey, Scott McDonald, Niall Keown and Souleymane Coulibaly.
From June 2019 and during the run up to the start of the 2019–20 season, a consortium led by Chinese American billionaire Chien Lee and American businessman Paul Conway looked to buy Partick Thistle, with talks going on throughout the beginning of the season. Partick Thistle Trust, a supporters group and the single biggest shareholder at the time with 19.28% of the club, released a statement urging shareholders not to support the potential takeover bid. By November, the takeover had not taken place.
Thistle made another poor start to the Championship season, picking up two points in the opening five games. Following a 1–1 draw away to Arbroath, Caldwell was sacked as manager.
Ian McCall return (2019–present) and club takeover
After the sacking of Caldwell, Partick Thistle appointed Ayr United boss Ian McCall as their manager on the 23rd of September 2019.
On 21 November, Colin Weir completed the takeover of Partick Thistle, instead of the consortium led by Chien Lee and Paul Conway. Weir purchased a majority shareholding and a holding in land at Firhill, Weir then immediately gave the land back to the club. Weir's takeover included the plan to gift the shares of the club back to the fans, to ensure Partick Thistle became a fan owned club, with a Working Group of The PTFC Trust and Thistle Forever plus an interim board overseeing the transfer of shares. After Weir's takeover the club announced that the plans for Partick Thistle's own training ground were to be shelved with the focus instead on completing the takeover and transfer of shares to the fans. In December 2019, majority shareholder and lifelong Jags fan Weir died at the age of 71.
McCall made several changes during the January 2020 transfer window, including bringing in the likes of Brian Graham, Zak Rudden and Darren Brownlie, with veteran striker Kenny Miller among those leaving, but Thistle continued to struggle. Thistle were knocked out of the Scottish Cup in a 2–1 home defeat against Celtic, and later lost in the Scottish Challenge Cup semi final to League One side Raith Rovers.
Scottish football was stopped in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, at which time Thistle were in last place in the Championship (two points behind 9th place Queen of the South, although Thistle had a game in hand). A vote was subsequently taken to curtail the Championship, League One and League Two seasons, which meant that Thistle were relegated to League One. After talks of league reconstruction (which would have prevented Thistle being relegated) fell through, and following an anonymous donation, Thistle joined a legal action by Heart of Midlothian (who were relegated from the Scottish Premiership) against the SPFL. After a hearing at the Court of Session, a Scottish Football Association arbitration panel ruled that the SPFL had acted within its powers and therefore confirmed the relegations of Hearts and Thistle, meaning Thistle had now been relegated twice in the space of three seasons, dropping from the Premiership to League One.
The 2020–21 Scottish League One season was a stop-start affair due to COVID-19 and shutdown mid-season for a number of months before restarting in March, with the clubs agreeing to a further reduced 22 game season rather than the 27 game season originally planned. After a mixed first half of the campaign in League One, Thistle went on a fantastic run of form in April, winning six games and drawing two, as they secured the 2020–21 Scottish League One title on 29 April 2021 after defeating Falkirk 5–0 (their first trophy for eight years) and promotion back to the Scottish Championship at the first time of asking. Thistle manager Ian McCall described the title win as the most satisfying of his career.
Club crest and colours
The first crest to appear on a Partick Thistle kit was a thistle design, and every logo since has featured a thistle. The thistle appeared first in 1902, then again in 1909. It remained until 1978, when a new logo with the thistle housed inside a roundel was used. A modernist logo with the thistle on a rectangle was introduced in 1990, and the current crest was introduced in 2008.
The Jags flirted with a number of colour schemes in their early years. From their inception until 1900 the kits were predominantly blue with red and white trimmings. There was then a brief period in which the players wore an orange and black striped top with white shorts and black socks. This was replaced in 1905 by a colour scheme close to that used by Aston Villa, before the club reverted to the predominantly blue kits in 1909. In season 1936–37 they changed to, and settled upon, the red-yellow-and-black attire for which they are best known, this change having been triggered initially by the club borrowing kits from the local rugby union team, West of Scotland Football Club.
In 2008–09 and 2009–10, Thistle became the first football club in Scotland to use pink as the primary colour in their away kit. In 2008–09 this took the form of silver- and pink-hooped tops.
During the 2014–15 season, Partick Thistle supported the Breast Cancer Care Charity by wearing a black and pink away shirt, with the charity ribbon on the shirt. The partnership saw a portion of kit sale revenue being donated to Breast Cancer Care.
For the 2019–20 season, Partick Thistle released their new away kit which featured a Rainbow flag design under the sleeves to show support for the LGBT movement. By doing so, they became the first Scottish club to incorporate the flag on a football jersey. Club executive Gerry Britton said: "We are really pleased with how the strips look and hope the supporters will like them as much as we do. We were very clear when putting together the design, that we wanted to make a statement about inclusivity and that’s what inspired the rainbow feature on the away shirt."
Stadium
Before moving to the Maryhill area in 1909, Partick Thistle hosted their home games over numerous sites in and around Glasgow including Kelvingrove Park, Jordanvale Park and Muir Park. In 1897, the club moved to Meadowside, near the River Clyde. However, in 1908 Thistle were forced to vacate the area to make way for a new shipyard.
After playing at numerous other grounds in Glasgow, Greenock, Port Glasgow, Kilmarnock, Edinburgh and even Aberdeen for over a season, Partick Thistle moved to their present home, Firhill Stadium, in 1909, when they purchased some spare Caledonian Railway land in Maryhill for £5,500. The stadium consists of three stands: the Main Stand which was built in 1927 and can seat around 2,900 supporters; the Jackie Husband Stand, which was built in 1994 and has a capacity of approximately 6,500; and the North Stand, renamed the John Lambie Stand in 2018 in tribute to the legendary club manager who died that year, which can house around 2,000 supporters. On the south side of the stadium there is a grass embankment, known to home fans as "The Bing", which had been open terracing until this was demolished in 2006 due to the stand failing to meet the criteria of Scottish Football Association safety regulations. There have been various plans to redevelop the south end of the stadium but thus far none have come to fruition.
Firhill has been used by other football teams and for rugby over the years. Between 1986 and 1991 Clyde ground shared with Thistle, following their eviction from Shawfield. Hamilton Academical also ground shared for two spells over seven years, following them being forced out of Douglas Park in 1994. In December 2005, Firhill also became the home of Glasgow's professional rugby union team, Glasgow Warriors, when they moved from their previous base at Hughenden Stadium. After returning to Hughenden in 2006, the Warriors took up a two-year residency at Firhill from the start of the 2007–08 Celtic League season. This was extended in April 2009 for a further five years. Glasgow Warriors left Firhill after the 2011–12 season and moved to Scotstoun Stadium. During the 2012–13 season the ground was also used by Celtic's under-20 squad as their home ground, but following Thistle's promotion this stopped for the 2013–14 season.
During the 2013–14 season, the Main Stand was re-opened to seat the high number of away supporters. In one instance, the North Stand was used for Celtic supporters as fears grew over fire dangers. During early June 2016 the Main Stand was renamed The Colin Weir Stand in honour of Colin Weir who was made the first ever patron of Partick Thistle after making numerous donations to the club's youth system, the Thistle Weir Academy.
On the Glasgow Subway network, Kelvinbridge and St George's Cross are within 15 minutes walk of the stadium. The A81 road (Maryhill Road), leading to Firhill Road, runs from the M8 motorway and is also the route of several local buses from the city centre. and , served by trains from Glasgow Queen Street, are the nearest railway stations to Firhill, but are not particularly close; the walk between the two sites takes around 30 minutes.
Training facilities
For many years, Thistle struggled to find a permanent training ground at which to base themselves. Subsequently, the club relied on independently owned facilities that usually restricted Thistle's ability to train freely.
As of 2014, the club trained at the University of Glasgow's Garscube Sports Complex on the northern periphery of the city (near Bearsden, East Dunbartonshire).
Thistle's fortunes improved however in April 2017, the month they secured their top-six Premiership status. Millionaire couple Colin and Christine Weir invested in the club again, allowing plans for a new £4 million purpose-built training centre for the club to use as a permanent base. Thistle expected to lease this from the Weirs' company Three Black Cats.
In July 2018, it was announced that the new training facility would be named after Thistle's 1971 Scottish League Cup Final manager Davie McParland, who died just days after the announcement was made. The new facility was to be located near the town Kirkintilloch. Plans for the new facility were abandoned in December 2019 as the investment money was instead used by Colin Weir to purchase the club and to operate a fan-owned business model. A short time after this announcement, Weir died at the age of 71.
In preparation for the 2020–21 Scottish League One season, Thistle trained at Burnbrae Stadium in Milngavie, which is the home of rugby union club West of Scotland FC.
Notable former players
All former players or managers listed have been inducted into either the Scottish Football Hall of Fame or Partick Thistle's own Hall of Fame. These include players who participated in both the 1921 Scottish Cup Final and the 1971 Scottish League Cup Final.
Scottish Hall of Fame
Alan Hansen
Mo Johnston
Alan Rough
Club Hall of Fame
Partial list of those in the Club Hall of Fame.
Andy Anderson
Alan Archibald
Kenny Arthur
Bertie Auld
Gerry Britton
Chic Charnley
Nobby Clark
Kris Doolan
Neil Duffy
John Harvey
Bobby Houston
Jackie Husband
John Lambie
Bobby Law
Danny Lennon
Peter McKennan
Johnny MacKenzie
Davie McParland
Denis McQuade
Alex O'Hara
Alex Rae
Doug Somner
Kenny Watson
Club culture and fanbase
The club has a relatively modest fanbase which is mostly centred around Northern Glasgow, although they do have pockets of fans from across the globe. Being in close proximity to a large student population the club attracts many new fans from the local universities.
The club prides itself on being non-sectarian and, therefore, not involved in the Old Firm division.
Since the 1980s, the club has a small hooligan firm called the North Glasgow Express.
Rivalries
Although the club competes with neighbours Rangers and Celtic, due to the vast differences in team size and fortunes those rivalries are not reciprocated. The "Glasgow derby" is therefore contested with Clyde, sometimes dubbed the "Old Firm alternative". One of the fiercest rivals were Airdrieonians with past violent clashes between fans including Airdrie's Section B group, however this rivalry has faded with time. Strong rivalries also existed with Clydebank due to the geographic proximity and controversial ownership in the past (with plans which almost saw both clubs bankrupt); and local rivals Kilmarnock. The club has a more modern rivalry with Morton, which stemmed from the 2012–13 title race; Thistle won the First Division and Morton finished runners-up.
Chants and songs
Thistle fans sing songs during matches, some of which are relatively generic but others which are unique. Choruses of "He Wears Number 9", "Rellow Army", "Mary fae Maryhill", "Over Land and Sea", "Forever and Ever", "We've Followed the Thistle for Many a Day" (to the tune of Wild Rover), "Oh Maryhill is wonderful", "We’re a well known Glasgow Football Team", "Super Ian McCall", "We score when we want" and "Gerry Britton is the King of Spain" are commonly heard in the singing section of the home support, in the John Lambie stand.
Attendances
During their previous foray into the top flight of Scottish football in season 2002–03 attendances exceeded 6,000, whereas in the lower divisions they have tended to range between 2,000 and 4,000.
During the Jags' title winning campaign of 2012–13, a match of significant importance was played against Greenock Morton; the attendance was 8,875 which was the biggest First Division crowd that season.
On the day of their return to the top flight against Dundee United on 2 August 2013, the attendance at Firhill was 7,822. Average home attendances for Thistle's maiden season back in the Scottish Premiership was around 5,000, however the 2014–15 season saw a 25% drop with an average home crowd of 3,500.
Notable supporters
Mhairi Black, MP for Paisley & Renfrewshire South.
Maryhill born actor Robert Carlyle (Trainspotting, The Full Monty and The 51st State) is also a famous supporter, stating he would rather watch the Jags than watch Arsenal or Manchester United.
Craig Ferguson, former host of the popular American chat show The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson.
Laura Kuenssberg, BBC Political editor.
The historian Niall Ferguson was a supporter while growing up in Glasgow.
Hollyoaks actor Chris Fountain.
American actor David Hasselhoff said he is a fan of the club, and likes the club's values. Mr Hasselhoff also met some of the team for a live TV interview.
Jack Revill, DJ from Glasgow better known as Jackmaster.
Former Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn was pictured wearing a Partick Thistle scarf on a train and has mentioned the club in the past.
Former Tennis player Colin Fleming is a self proclaimed Jags fan, following in his family's footsteps as he attended games when he was younger and kept track of Thistle's results while on tour.
Sponsors
The club's main sponsor is Just Employment Law, taking over from Kingsford Capital Management. MacB resumed sponsorship of Partick Thistle in the summer of 2012, and subsequently signed a two-year extension, keeping them as main sponsors until the end of the 2014–15 season. Scottish security system company Alarmfast also started sponsoring Thistle for the 2014–15 season.
Thistle's kit maker is Irish manufacturers O'Neills, having replaced Spanish company Joma at the start of the 2020–21 season.
Mascot
Partick Thistle's current mascot is a sun-shaped character named Kingsley, and was designed by the Turner Prize-nominated artist David Shrigley. Kingsley was unveiled on 22 June 2015 to coincide with Thistle's new sponsorship with California-based investment firm Kingsford Capital Management. Kingsley succeeded Jaggy MacBee, a bumble bee who had been the club's mascot from 2011 to 2015, as part of the club's sponsorship with Scottish beverage company MacB. Prior to that the mascot was a brightly-coloured toucan called Pee Tee.
Kingsley gained widespread notoriety online, having trended worldwide on Twitter, as well as being publicised by major networks such as CNN and The Washington Post, CNN and TIME Magazine. The launch, and subsequent pictures, appeared across the UK media including in The Daily Telegraph, The Times, BBC, Sky Sports, The Herald, and Talk Sport.
Partick Thistle's general manager Ian Maxwell hailed the success of Kingsley in drawing attention to the club, stating that the worldwide interest and TV coverage amounted to the "biggest amount of publicity from a sponsorship launch in Scottish football history". The Kingsley mascot has become a major source of merchandising potential for the club, with demand outstripping supply.
Community trust
Partick Thistle Women
Thistle Weir Ladies Football Club was officially founded as part of the Thistle Weir Academy in 2014, having previously existed as part of the Charitable Trust for one year prior to that.
In October 2018, the team gained promotion to the Scottish Women's Premier League 2 (SWPL 2), which is the second highest tier for women's football in Scotland. In January 2019, the club rebranded as Partick Thistle Women's Football Club.
The team train at the Firhill Complex in Maryhill, but play their matches at Petershill Park in Springburn.
Thistle Weir Youth Academy
In October 2013, millionaires and long time Thistle fans Chris and Colin Weir donated £750,000 to Partick Thistle to set up a new advanced youth academy. The academy was named the Thistle Weir Youth Academy and is run by Scott Allison. Graduates of the academy include Livingston defender James Penrice, Queen of the South midfielder Aidan Fitzpatrick, Club Brugge defender Jack Hendry and Hibernian striker Kevin Nisbet.
Current squad
First team squad
On loan
Club staff
Managers
Boardroom
Other staff
Source:
Individual achievements
Most appearances
All-time top goalscorers
Honours
Major
Scottish Cup:
Winners (1): 1920–21
Runners up (1): 1929–30
Scottish League Cup:
Winners (1): 1971–72
Runners up (3): 1953–54, 1956–57, 1958–59
Minor
Scottish Championship / Scottish Football League First Division, second tier:
Winners (6): 1896–97, 1899–1900, 1970–71, 1975–76, 2001–02, 2012–13
Runners up (3): 1901–02, 1991–92, 2008–09
Scottish League One / Scottish Football League Second Division, third tier:
Winners (2): 2000–01, 2020–21
Play-off Winners: 2005–06
Scottish Challenge Cup:
Runners up: 2012–13
Other
Glasgow Cup
Winners (7): 1934–35, 1950–51, 1952–53, 1954–55, 1960–61, 1980–81, 1988–89
Runners up (11): 1888–89, 1900–01, 1911–12, 1914–15, 1917–18, 1919–20, 1932–33, 1936–37, 1959–60, 1966–67, 1968–69
Glasgow Merchants Charity Cup
Winners (3): 1926–27, 1934–35, 1948–49
Runners up (7): 1904–05, 1915–16, 1917–18, 1940–41, 1950–51, 1955–56, 1959–60
Summer Cup: 1945
Glasgow Dental Hospital Cup: 1928
West of Scotland FA Cup: 1879
Yoker Cup: 1881, 1882, 1883
Partick Championship: 1884
Greenock Charity Cup: 1893
Paisley Charity Cup: 1936
British Cup-Winners' Challenge: 1921
Tennents' Sixes: 1993 (last winners)
Coronation Cup: 1928, 1929
ARR Craib Cup: 2012
Club records
Highest record home attendance: 49,838 vs Rangers, Scottish First Division, 18 February 1922
Most league appearances: Alan Rough, 410
Most league goals in a season: Alex Hair, 41, 1926–27
Record defeat: 0–10 v Queen's Park, Scottish Cup, 3 December 1881
Record victory: 16–0 v Royal Albert, Scottish Cup 1st round, 17 January 1931
Record points total: 78, Scottish First Division, 2012–13
Record transfer fee paid: £85,000 to Celtic for Andy Murdoch, February 1991
Record transfer fee received: £350,000 from Barnsley for Liam Lindsay, June 2017 / £350,000 from Norwich City for Aidan Fitzpatrick, July 2019
European record
Thistle have participated in European competition on three different occasions. On the first occasion, they qualified having finished third in the First Division. They progressed to the second round of the Fairs Cup before being eliminated by Spartak Brno. They qualified for the UEFA Cup in 1972–73 after winning the League Cup the previous season; Hungarian side Honvéd eliminated them in the first round. Their most recent European campaign was the 1995 UEFA Intertoto Cup, when they finished 4th with four points in Group 6.
References
Sources
External links
BBC Sport: Partick Thistle
Evening Times: Partick Thistle
Grasping the Thistle, 2002 BBC Scotland documentary
Football clubs in Scotland
Association football clubs established in 1876
Football clubs in Glasgow
1876 establishments in Scotland
Scottish Premier League teams
Scottish Football League teams
Scottish Cup winners
Scottish Professional Football League teams
Scottish League Cup winners
Non-English Teams in the FA Cup
Partick
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226416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1610%20in%20literature | 1610 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1610.
Events
June 5 – The masque Tethys' Festival by Samuel Daniel is performed at Whitehall Palace to celebrate the investiture of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales.
September 7 – Lope de Vega buys a house in Madrid.
December 12 – Sir Thomas Bodley makes an agreement with the Stationers' Company of London to put a copy of every book registered with it into his new Bodleian Library in the University of Oxford.
unknown dates
The Douay–Rheims Bible (The Holie Bible Faithfully Translated into English), a translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English made by members of the English College, Douai, is published under the Catholic Church.
At the Dominican Order's printing press at Abucay Church in the Philippines, Tomas Pinpin prints Father Francisco Blancas de San Jose's Arte y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala and his assistant Diego Talaghay prints Pinpin's own Librong Pagaaralan nang mga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla, the first book written by a native Filipino in the local Tagalog language. It encourages his countrymen to learn Spanish.
Henry Savile begins publication at Eton College at his own expense of Tou en hagiois patros hemon Ioannou Archiepiskopou Konstantinoupoleos tou Chrysostomou ton heuriskomenon, his edition of the works of St John Chrysostom, a notable work of English scholarship.
New books
Prose
Jean Beguin – Tyrocinium Chymicum
Edmund Bunny –
William Camden – Britannia, in an enlarged translation by Philemon Holland into English
Foxe's Book of Martyrs, fourth edition
John Healey – St. Augustine of the Citie of God, a translation of St. Augustine's De Civitate Dei into English
Charles Loyseau – Traité des ordres et simples dignités
Drama
Samuel Daniel – Tethys' Festival or the Queenes Wake (masque)
Lope de Vega
El divino africano
John Fletcher – The Faithful Shepherdess (published)
Ben Jonson
The Alchemist
The Speeches at Prince Henry's Barriers
John Marston – Histriomastix (published)
John Mason – The Turk (published)
William Shakespeare – Cymbeline
Poetry
Giles Fletcher the younger – Christ's Victory and Triumph
Births
January 10 – Louis Maimbourg, French historian (died 1686)
January 15 (baptised) – Sidney Godolphin, English poet, politician and soldier (killed in action 1643)
April 1 – Charles de Saint-Évremond, French soldier, critic and essayist (died 1703)
July 4 – Paul Scarron, French poet, dramatist and novelist (died 1660)
July 18 – Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra, Spanish dramatist and historian (died 1686)
July 28 (baptised) – Henry Glapthorne, English dramatist (died c. 1643)
December 18 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist and historian (died 1688)
Unknown dates
Richard Bulstrode, English author and soldier (died 1711)
Edmund Chilmead, English writer and translator (died 1654)
Reinhold Curicke, German historian of the Hanseatic League (died 1667)
Jeremias de Dekker, Dutch poet (died 1666)
Jin Shengtan, born Jin Renrui, Chinese editor, writer and critic (died 1661)
Li Yu (李漁), Chinese comic writer (died 1680)
François Eudes de Mézeray, French historian (died 1683)
Madeleine Patin, French moralist writer (died 1682)
Deaths
July – Richard Knolles, English historian (born c. 1545)
August 27 – Anne Bacon, English translator (born c. 1528)
September 22 – Jan Moretus, Flemish printer (born 1543)
November 21 – Benet Canfield, English mystical writer (born 1562)
November 23 – Bernard de Girard Haillan, French historian (born c. 1535)
November 28 – Lorenzo Scupoli, Italian theologian (born c. 1530)
unknown dates
Adam Berg, German printer and publisher (born 1540)
Georgios Chortatzis, Greek verse dramatist (born c. 1545)
Nikola Vitov Gučetić, Ragusan philosopher and science writer (born 1549)
Yuan Hongdao (袁宏道), Chinese poet (born 1568)
probable
Peter Bales, English inventor of shorthand (born 1547)
Philip Stubbs, English pamphleteer (born c. 1555)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-vector | Four-vector | In special relativity, a four-vector (or 4-vector) is an object with four components, which transform in a specific way under Lorentz transformation. Specifically, a four-vector is an element of a four-dimensional vector space considered as a representation space of the standard representation of the Lorentz group, the (,) representation. It differs from a Euclidean vector in how its magnitude is determined. The transformations that preserve this magnitude are the Lorentz transformations, which include spatial rotations and boosts (a change by a constant velocity to another inertial reference frame).
Four-vectors describe, for instance, position in spacetime modeled as Minkowski space, a particle's four-momentum , the amplitude of the electromagnetic four-potential at a point in spacetime, and the elements of the subspace spanned by the gamma matrices inside the Dirac algebra.
The Lorentz group may be represented by 4×4 matrices . The action of a Lorentz transformation on a general contravariant four-vector (like the examples above), regarded as a column vector with Cartesian coordinates with respect to an inertial frame in the entries, is given by
(matrix multiplication) where the components of the primed object refer to the new frame. Related to the examples above that are given as contravariant vectors, there are also the corresponding covariant vectors , and . These transform according to the rule
where denotes the matrix transpose. This rule is different from the above rule. It corresponds to the dual representation of the standard representation. However, for the Lorentz group the dual of any representation is equivalent to the original representation. Thus the objects with covariant indices are four-vectors as well.
For an example of a well-behaved four-component object in special relativity that is not a four-vector, see bispinor. It is similarly defined, the difference being that the transformation rule under Lorentz transformations is given by a representation other than the standard representation. In this case, the rule reads , where is a 4×4 matrix other than . Similar remarks apply to objects with fewer or more components that are well-behaved under Lorentz transformations. These include scalars, spinors, tensors and spinor-tensors.
The article considers four-vectors in the context of special relativity. Although the concept of four-vectors also extends to general relativity, some of the results stated in this article require modification in general relativity.
Notation
The notations in this article are: lowercase bold for three-dimensional vectors, hats for three-dimensional unit vectors, capital bold for four dimensional vectors (except for the four-gradient), and tensor index notation.
Four-vector algebra
Four-vectors in a real-valued basis
A four-vector A is a vector with a "timelike" component and three "spacelike" components, and can be written in various equivalent notations:
where in the last form the magnitude component and basis vector have been combined to a single element.
The upper indices indicate contravariant components. Here the standard convention is that Latin indices take values for spatial components, so that i = 1, 2, 3, and Greek indices take values for space and time components, so α = 0, 1, 2, 3, used with the summation convention. The split between the time component and the spatial components is a useful one to make when determining contractions of one four vector with other tensor quantities, such as for calculating Lorentz invariants in inner products (examples are given below), or raising and lowering indices.
In special relativity, the spacelike basis E1, E2, E3 and components A1, A2, A3 are often Cartesian basis and components:
although, of course, any other basis and components may be used, such as spherical polar coordinates
or cylindrical polar coordinates,
or any other orthogonal coordinates, or even general curvilinear coordinates. Note the coordinate labels are always subscripted as labels and are not indices taking numerical values. In general relativity, local curvilinear coordinates in a local basis must be used. Geometrically, a four-vector can still be interpreted as an arrow, but in spacetime - not just space. In relativity, the arrows are drawn as part of Minkowski diagram (also called spacetime diagram). In this article, four-vectors will be referred to simply as vectors.
It is also customary to represent the bases by column vectors:
so that:
The relation between the covariant and contravariant coordinates is through the Minkowski metric tensor (referred to as the metric), η which raises and lowers indices as follows:
and in various equivalent notations the covariant components are:
where the lowered index indicates it to be covariant. Often the metric is diagonal, as is the case for orthogonal coordinates (see line element), but not in general curvilinear coordinates.
The bases can be represented by row vectors:
so that:
The motivation for the above conventions are that the inner product is a scalar, see below for details.
Lorentz transformation
Given two inertial or rotated frames of reference, a four-vector is defined as a quantity which transforms according to the Lorentz transformation matrix Λ:
In index notation, the contravariant and covariant components transform according to, respectively:
in which the matrix Λ has components Λμν in row μ and column ν, and the inverse matrix Λ−1 has components Λμν in row μ and column ν.
For background on the nature of this transformation definition, see tensor. All four-vectors transform in the same way, and this can be generalized to four-dimensional relativistic tensors; see special relativity.
Pure rotations about an arbitrary axis
For two frames rotated by a fixed angle θ about an axis defined by the unit vector:
without any boosts, the matrix Λ has components given by:
where δij is the Kronecker delta, and εijk is the three-dimensional Levi-Civita symbol. The spacelike components of four-vectors are rotated, while the timelike components remain unchanged.
For the case of rotations about the z-axis only, the spacelike part of the Lorentz matrix reduces to the rotation matrix about the z-axis:
Pure boosts in an arbitrary direction
For two frames moving at constant relative three-velocity v (not four-velocity, see below), it is convenient to denote and define the relative velocity in units of c by:
Then without rotations, the matrix Λ has components given by:
where the Lorentz factor is defined by:
and δij is the Kronecker delta. Contrary to the case for pure rotations, the spacelike and timelike components are mixed together under boosts.
For the case of a boost in the x-direction only, the matrix reduces to;
Where the rapidity ϕ expression has been used, written in terms of the hyperbolic functions:
This Lorentz matrix illustrates the boost to be a hyperbolic rotation in four dimensional spacetime, analogous to the circular rotation above in three-dimensional space.
Properties
Linearity
Four-vectors have the same linearity properties as Euclidean vectors in three dimensions. They can be added in the usual entrywise way:
and similarly scalar multiplication by a scalar λ is defined entrywise by:
Then subtraction is the inverse operation of addition, defined entrywise by:
Minkowski tensor
Applying the Minkowski tensor ημν to two four-vectors A and B, writing the result in dot product notation, we have, using Einstein notation:
It is convenient to rewrite the definition in matrix form:
in which case ημν above is the entry in row μ and column ν of the Minkowski metric as a square matrix. The Minkowski metric is not a Euclidean metric, because it is indefinite (see metric signature). A number of other expressions can be used because the metric tensor can raise and lower the components of A or B. For contra/co-variant components of A and co/contra-variant components of B, we have:
so in the matrix notation:
while for A and B each in covariant components:
with a similar matrix expression to the above.
Applying the Minkowski tensor to a four-vector A with itself we get:
which, depending on the case, may be considered the square, or its negative, of the length of the vector.
Following are two common choices for the metric tensor in the standard basis (essentially Cartesian coordinates). If orthogonal coordinates are used, there would be scale factors along the diagonal part of the spacelike part of the metric, while for general curvilinear coordinates the entire spacelike part of the metric would have components dependent on the curvilinear basis used.
Standard basis, (+−−−) signature
In the (+−−−) metric signature, evaluating the summation over indices gives:
while in matrix form:
It is a recurring theme in special relativity to take the expression
in one reference frame, where C is the value of the inner product in this frame, and:
in another frame, in which C′ is the value of the inner product in this frame. Then since the inner product is an invariant, these must be equal:
that is:
Considering that physical quantities in relativity are four-vectors, this equation has the appearance of a "conservation law", but there is no "conservation" involved. The primary significance of the Minkowski inner product is that for any two four-vectors, its value is invariant for all observers; a change of coordinates does not result in a change in value of the inner product. The components of the four-vectors change from one frame to another; A and A′ are connected by a Lorentz transformation, and similarly for B and B′, although the inner products are the same in all frames. Nevertheless, this type of expression is exploited in relativistic calculations on a par with conservation laws, since the magnitudes of components can be determined without explicitly performing any Lorentz transformations. A particular example is with energy and momentum in the energy-momentum relation derived from the four-momentum vector (see also below).
In this signature we have:
With the signature (+−−−), four-vectors may be classified as either spacelike if , timelike if , and null vectors if .
Standard basis, (−+++) signature
Some authors define η with the opposite sign, in which case we have the (−+++) metric signature. Evaluating the summation with this signature:
while the matrix form is:
Note that in this case, in one frame:
while in another:
so that:
which is equivalent to the above expression for C in terms of A and B. Either convention will work. With the Minkowski metric defined in the two ways above, the only difference between covariant and contravariant four-vector components are signs, therefore the signs depend on which sign convention is used.
We have:
With the signature (−+++), four-vectors may be classified as either spacelike if , timelike if , and null if .
Dual vectors
Applying the Minkowski tensor is often expressed as the effect of the dual vector of one vector on the other:
Here the Aνs are the components of the dual vector A* of A in the dual basis and called the covariant coordinates of A, while the original Aν components are called the contravariant coordinates.
Four-vector calculus
Derivatives and differentials
In special relativity (but not general relativity), the derivative of a four-vector with respect to a scalar λ (invariant) is itself a four-vector. It is also useful to take the differential of the four-vector, dA and divide it by the differential of the scalar, dλ:
where the contravariant components are:
while the covariant components are:
In relativistic mechanics, one often takes the differential of a four-vector and divides by the differential in proper time (see below).
Fundamental four-vectors
Four-position
A point in Minkowski space is a time and spatial position, called an "event", or sometimes the position four-vector or four-position or 4-position, described in some reference frame by a set of four coordinates:
where r is the three-dimensional space position vector. If r is a function of coordinate time t in the same frame, i.e. r = r(t), this corresponds to a sequence of events as t varies. The definition R0 = ct ensures that all the coordinates have the same units (of distance). These coordinates are the components of the position four-vector for the event.
The displacement four-vector is defined to be an "arrow" linking two events:
For the differential four-position on a world line we have, using a norm notation:
defining the differential line element ds and differential proper time increment dτ, but this "norm" is also:
so that:
When considering physical phenomena, differential equations arise naturally; however, when considering space and time derivatives of functions, it is unclear which reference frame these derivatives are taken with respect to. It is agreed that time derivatives are taken with respect to the proper time . As proper time is an invariant, this guarantees that the proper-time-derivative of any four-vector is itself a four-vector. It is then important to find a relation between this proper-time-derivative and another time derivative (using the coordinate time t of an inertial reference frame). This relation is provided by taking the above differential invariant spacetime interval, then dividing by (cdt)2 to obtain:
where u = dr/dt is the coordinate 3-velocity of an object measured in the same frame as the coordinates x, y, z, and coordinate time t, and
is the Lorentz factor. This provides a useful relation between the differentials in coordinate time and proper time:
This relation can also be found from the time transformation in the Lorentz transformations.
Important four-vectors in relativity theory can be defined by applying this differential .
Four-gradient
Considering that partial derivatives are linear operators, one can form a four-gradient from the partial time derivative /t and the spatial gradient ∇. Using the standard basis, in index and abbreviated notations, the contravariant components are:
Note the basis vectors are placed in front of the components, to prevent confusion between taking the derivative of the basis vector, or simply indicating the partial derivative is a component of this four-vector. The covariant components are:
Since this is an operator, it doesn't have a "length", but evaluating the inner product of the operator with itself gives another operator:
called the D'Alembert operator.
Kinematics
Four-velocity
The four-velocity of a particle is defined by:
Geometrically, U is a normalized vector tangent to the world line of the particle. Using the differential of the four-position, the magnitude of the four-velocity can be obtained:
in short, the magnitude of the four-velocity for any object is always a fixed constant:
The norm is also:
so that:
which reduces to the definition of the Lorentz factor.
Units of four-velocity are m/s in SI and 1 in the geometrized unit system. Four-velocity is a contravariant vector.
Four-acceleration
The four-acceleration is given by:
where a = du/dt is the coordinate 3-acceleration. Since the magnitude of U is a constant, the four acceleration is orthogonal to the four velocity, i.e. the Minkowski inner product of the four-acceleration and the four-velocity is zero:
which is true for all world lines. The geometric meaning of four-acceleration is the curvature vector of the world line in Minkowski space.
Dynamics
Four-momentum
For a massive particle of rest mass (or invariant mass) m0, the four-momentum is given by:
where the total energy of the moving particle is:
and the total relativistic momentum is:
Taking the inner product of the four-momentum with itself:
and also:
which leads to the energy–momentum relation:
This last relation is useful relativistic mechanics, essential in relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory, all with applications to particle physics.
Four-force
The four-force acting on a particle is defined analogously to the 3-force as the time derivative of 3-momentum in Newton's second law:
where P is the power transferred to move the particle, and f is the 3-force acting on the particle. For a particle of constant invariant mass m0, this is equivalent to
An invariant derived from the four-force is:
from the above result.
Thermodynamics
Four-heat flux
The four-heat flux vector field, is essentially similar to the 3d heat flux vector field q, in the local frame of the fluid:
where T is absolute temperature and k is thermal conductivity.
Four-baryon number flux
The flux of baryons is:
where n is the number density of baryons in the local rest frame of the baryon fluid (positive values for baryons, negative for antibaryons), and U the four-velocity field (of the fluid) as above.
Four-entropy
The four-entropy vector is defined by:
where s is the entropy per baryon, and T the absolute temperature, in the local rest frame of the fluid.
Electromagnetism
Examples of four-vectors in electromagnetism include the following.
Four-current
The electromagnetic four-current (or more correctly a four-current density) is defined by
formed from the current density j and charge density ρ.
Four-potential
The electromagnetic four-potential (or more correctly a four-EM vector potential) defined by
formed from the vector potential a and the scalar potential ϕ.
The four-potential is not uniquely determined, because it depends on a choice of gauge.
In the wave equation for the electromagnetic field:
{in vacuum}
{with a four-current source and using the Lorenz gauge condition }
Waves
Four-frequency
A photonic plane wave can be described by the four-frequency defined as
where ν is the frequency of the wave and is a unit vector in the travel direction of the wave. Now:
so the four-frequency of a photon is always a null vector.
Four-wavevector
The quantities reciprocal to time t and space r are the angular frequency ω and wave vector k, respectively. They form the components of the four-wavevector or wave four-vector:
A wave packet of nearly monochromatic light can be described by:
The de Broglie relations then showed that four-wavevector applied to matter waves as well as to light waves. :
yielding and , where ħ is the Planck constant divided by 2π.
The square of the norm is:
and by the de Broglie relation:
we have the matter wave analogue of the energy–momentum relation:
Note that for massless particles, in which case , we have:
or ‖k‖ = ω/c. Note this is consistent with the above case; for photons with a 3-wavevector of modulus ω/c, in the direction of wave propagation defined by the unit vector .
Quantum theory
Four-probability current
In quantum mechanics, the four-probability current or probability four-current is analogous to the electromagnetic four-current:
where ρ is the probability density function corresponding to the time component, and j is the probability current vector. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, this current is always well defined because the expressions for density and current are positive definite and can admit a probability interpretation. In relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, it is not always possible to find a current, particularly when interactions are involved.
Replacing the energy by the energy operator and the momentum by the momentum operator in the four-momentum, one obtains the four-momentum operator, used in relativistic wave equations.
Four-spin
The four-spin of a particle is defined in the rest frame of a particle to be
where s is the spin pseudovector. In quantum mechanics, not all three components of this vector are simultaneously measurable, only one component is. The timelike component is zero in the particle's rest frame, but not in any other frame. This component can be found from an appropriate Lorentz transformation.
The norm squared is the (negative of the) magnitude squared of the spin, and according to quantum mechanics we have
This value is observable and quantized, with s the spin quantum number (not the magnitude of the spin vector).
Other formulations
Four-vectors in the algebra of physical space
A four-vector A can also be defined in using the Pauli matrices as a basis, again in various equivalent notations:
or explicitly:
and in this formulation, the four-vector is represented as a Hermitian matrix (the matrix transpose and complex conjugate of the matrix leaves it unchanged), rather than a real-valued column or row vector. The determinant of the matrix is the modulus of the four-vector, so the determinant is an invariant:
This idea of using the Pauli matrices as basis vectors is employed in the algebra of physical space, an example of a Clifford algebra.
Four-vectors in spacetime algebra
In spacetime algebra, another example of Clifford algebra, the gamma matrices can also form a basis. (They are also called the Dirac matrices, owing to their appearance in the Dirac equation). There is more than one way to express the gamma matrices, detailed in that main article.
The Feynman slash notation is a shorthand for a four-vector A contracted with the gamma matrices:
The four-momentum contracted with the gamma matrices is an important case in relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory. In the Dirac equation and other relativistic wave equations, terms of the form:
appear, in which the energy E and momentum components are replaced by their respective operators.
See also
Relativistic mechanics
paravector
wave vector
Dust (relativity) for the number-flux four-vector
Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime
Minkowski space
References
Rindler, W. Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd edn.) (1991) Clarendon Press Oxford
Minkowski spacetime
Theory of relativity
Concepts in physics
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226425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampriformes | Lampriformes | Lampriformes is an order of ray-finned fish. Members are collectively called lamprids (which is more properly used for the Lampridae) or lampriforms, and unite such open-ocean and partially deep-sea Teleostei as the crestfishes, oarfish, opahs, and ribbonfishes. A synonym for this order is Allotriognathi, while an often-seen, but apparently incorrect, spelling variant is Lampridiformes. They contain seven extant families which are generally small but highly distinct, and a mere 12 lampriform genera with some 20 species altogether are recognized.
The scientific name literally means "shaped (like the) bright (one)", as "lampr-", meaning bright, comes from lampris, the generic name for the opah. In contrast, most other living lampriforms are actually ribbon-like and not very similar to the disc-shaped opahs in habitus. They are, however, quite distinctly united by their anatomy, and the family's phylogeny, as well as the most ancient fossils of this order suggest the original lampriform was rather "opah-shaped". The scientific name is a combination of Lampris (the type genus) + the standard fish order suffix "-formes". It ultimately derives from Ancient Greek lamprós (λαμπρός, "bright") + Latin forma ("external form"), the former in reference to brilliant coloration of opahs.
Description and ecology
These oceanic fishes are pelagic feeders that stay well above the sea floor, and normally occur in waters 100–1000 m deep. They are typically brightly coloured as adults, often with brilliant crimson fins. Lampriforms have highly variable body forms, but they are generally laterally compressed. Some are rounded in lateral view, while others are very elongated. The former are termed bathysomes—"deep-bodies", from Ancient Greek bathýs (βᾶθύς) "deep" + sōma (σῶμα) "body"—and the latter taeniosomes—"ribbon-bodies", Greek tainía (ταινία) "ribbon". They vary greatly in size, too, ranging from less than in the sailfin moonfishes (Veliferidae) to Regalecus glesne, the longest of all living bony fishes, which may reach in length.
The lampriforms have 84 to 96 total vertebrae; an orbitosphenoid bone is present in some members of this order. Their premaxilla completely excludes the maxilla from the gape, but the jaws are highly protrusible, nonetheless. The upper jaw's protrusion is achieved in a unique way: the maxilla, instead of being ligamentously attached to the ethmoid and palatine, slides in and out with the highly protractile premaxilla. The pelvic fins have up to 17 rays and are placed rather far toward the front of the animal, but they can be missing entirely. The dorsal fin is long, and tends to extend along most of the length of the body. Fin spines are absent in all. Some have a physoclistous gas bladder, while others have none. They either have tiny scales or naked skin.
Systematics and evolution
The Lampriformes are anatomically similar to some Acanthopterygii at a first glance, but more detailed studies reveal they are not as advanced, and many authors assign them to a basal position inside the advanced spiny-rayed Teleostei clade called Acanthomorpha, as monotypic superorder Lampridiomorpha. Unlike their presumed relatives, they lack fin spines, however, and other authors have considered them to form a lineage just outside the Acanthomorpha, and the sister taxon of the Myctophiformes. Molecular data also support the view that the Lampriformes are close to the advanced Teleostei. But the data do not agree on their exact relationships, and the Myctophiformes are also inferred to be close to the Protacanthopterygii, one of the core groups of moderately advanced teleosts. As modern taxonomy tries to avoid a profusion of small taxa, and the delimitation of the Euteleostei (Protacanthopterygii sensu stricto and their allies) versus Acanthopterygii remains uncertain, the systematics and taxonomy of the Lampriformes among the teleosts are in need of further study.
The lampriforms diverged from other teleosts in the Cretaceous, perhaps 80 million years ago (Mya) or slightly more, considering that the oldest-known lampriforms, Nardovelifer, date from the late Campanian epoch and are already clearly assignable to the present order. The basal lampriforms were bathysomes, while the taeniosome body shape is apomorphic and seems to have evolved only once. The order underwent its main radiation in the Paleocene period; the opah-like Turkmenidae were a family of lampriforms thriving at that time, but going extinct around the start of the Neogene, about 23 Mya. Other fossil Lampridiformes are Bajaichthys, Palaeocentrotus, and Veronavelifer.
Classification
The order is occasionally divided into the Bathysomi and the Taeniosomi. The former are a paraphyletic assemblage, thus effectively synonymous with the entire order, while the latter can be considered a valid suborder. Including fossil taxa, the classification of the Lampriformes in phylogenetic sequence, with the number of living genera and species, can thus be given as:
Basal and incertae sedis
Genus Bathysoma (fossil)
Genus Nardovelifer (fossil)
Genus Palaeocentrotus (fossil)
Family Turkmenidae (fossil)
Family Veliferidae — sailfin moonfishes (two genera, six species)
Family Lampridae — opahs (one genus, two species)
Suborder Taeniosomi
Family Lophotidae — crestfishes (two genera, three species)
Family Radiicephalidae — tapertail (monotypic)
Family Trachipteridae — ribbonfishes (three genera, 10 species)
Family Regalecidae — oarfishes (two genera, four species)
Timeline of genera
Footnotes
References
FishBase (2000): Order Lampriformes. Version of 2000-OCT-17. Retrieved 2009-SEP-30.
Glare, P.G.W. (ed.) (1968–1982): Oxford Latin Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Nelson, Joseph S. (2006): Fishes of the World (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Olney, John E. (1998): Lampriformes. In: : Encyclopedia of Fishes: 167–169. Academic Press, San Diego.
Woodhouse, S.C. (1910): English-Greek Dictionary - A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. George Routledge & Sons Ltd., Broadway House, Ludgate Hill, E.C. Searchable JPEG fulltext
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Extant Campanian first appearances
Ray-finned fish orders | [
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226426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20Premier%20League | Scottish Premier League | The Scottish Premier League (SPL) was the top level league competition for professional football clubs in Scotland. The league was founded in 1998, when it broke away from the Scottish Football League (SFL). It was abolished in 2013, when the SPL and SFL merged to form the new Scottish Professional Football League, with its top division being known as the Scottish Premiership. A total of 19 clubs competed in the SPL, but only the Old Firm clubs, Celtic and Rangers won the league championship.
Background
For most of its history, the Scottish Football League had a two divisional structure (Divisions One and Two) between which clubs were promoted and relegated at the end of each season. However, by the mid-1970s, this organisation was perceived to be stagnant, and it was decided to split into a three divisional structure: Premier Division (formerly Division One), First Division (formerly Division Two) and a newly added Second Division. This system came into force for the 1975–76 season. This setup continued until the 1994–95 season, when – in response to an attempt by the biggest clubs to form a breakaway 'Super League' in 1992 – a four divisional structure was introduced. This involved the creation of a Third Division, with all four divisions consisting of ten clubs.
On 8 September 1997, the clubs in the Premier Division decided to split from the Scottish Football League and form a Scottish Premier League. This followed an earlier example in England, which came into force during the 1992–93 season. This decision was fuelled by a desire by the top clubs in Scotland to retain more of the revenue generated by the game. Originally, league sponsorship money was divided proportionally between clubs in all four divisions. After the SPL was formed, its clubs retained all of its commercial revenues except for an annual payment to the SFL and a parachute payment to recently relegated clubs.
Competition format
Teams received three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points were awarded for a loss. Teams were ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. At the end of each season, the club with the most points was crowned league champion. If points were equal, the goal difference and then goals scored determine the winner.
Split
Originally the SPL contained 10 clubs, but it subsequently enlarged to 12 for the 2000–01 season and retained this structure until 2013. The increase from 10 clubs to 12 was part of the deal offered to obtain approval from SFL member clubs. After the expansion to 12 clubs, the SPL operated a "split" format. This was done to prevent the need for a 44-match schedule, based on playing each other four times. That format had been used in the Scottish Premier Division but was considered to be too high a number of matches in a league season.
A season, which runs from August (except in 2011–12, when that season began in July) until May, was divided into two phases. During the first phase, each club played three matches against every other team, either once at home and twice away, or vice versa. After this first phase of matches, by which time all clubs had played 33 matches, the league split into a "top six" and a "bottom six". Each club then played a further five matches against the other five teams in their own section. Points achieved during the first phase of 33 matches were carried forward to the second phase, but the teams competed only within their own sections during the second phase. After the first phase was completed, clubs could not move out of their own section in the league, even if they achieved more or fewer points than a higher or lower ranked team, respectively.
At the beginning of each season, the SPL "predicted" the likely positions of each club in order to produce a fixture schedule that ensured the best possible chance of all clubs playing each other twice at home and twice away. This was known as the league seeding and was based on clubs' performance in previous years. If a club did not finish in the half where it was predicted to finish, it faced the possibility of playing an unequal number of home and away matches. For example, one club would sometimes play another three times at home and once away.
There was criticism of the split season format. However, the SPL defended the split format, dismissing the possibility of expanding the league due to a lack of strong enough clubs within the Scottish Football League. In March 2008, Kilmarnock manager Jim Jefferies was the latest to call for a league revamp, claiming the potential for four matches per season against the same opponent was too many.
Promotion and relegation
The bottom placed SPL club at the end of the season was relegated, and swapped places with the winner of the Scottish First Division, provided that the winner satisfied the SPL entry criteria. These promotion criteria sometimes caused controversy. In 2003, the chairmen of the member clubs voted against Falkirk's proposed ground share with Airdrie United and stopped the club from having the 10,000 capacity stadium it required, therefore saving Motherwell from relegation.
The same situation nearly materialised in 2004. After several votes and discussion, including threats of court cases from Partick Thistle, the team threatened with relegation, Inverness Caledonian Thistle were promoted on the basis that they would ground share with Aberdeen at Pittodrie. In 2005, the stadium size criterion for entry to the SPL was reduced to 6,000, thereby allowing Inverness Caledonian Thistle to return to their home stadium during the 2005–06 season.
Old Firm dominance
One of the main criticisms of the SPL was the dominance of the two Old Firm clubs, Celtic and Rangers. No team outside the Old Firm has won the Scottish league championship since 1985. Until Rangers were ejected from the SPL due to their liquidation, there was only one SPL season (2005–06) where both clubs failed to occupy first and second positions, with Hearts finishing second behind Celtic. While other European leagues were dominated by a few clubs in the 2000s, the Old Firm dominance in Scotland dated back to the beginning of Scottish league football, with a few exceptional periods. The average home attendances of both clubs is significantly higher than the other Scottish clubs, which resulted in the Old Firm having far greater revenues and therefore more money to spend on players. Both clubs also received significant revenues from participation in the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League.
Despite having more resources than other Scottish clubs, the Old Firm experienced difficulty in competing with big clubs from other leagues in terms of transfer fees and player wages due to the SPL's relatively low television revenue. A recurring theme during the existence of the SPL was the prospect of the two clubs leaving the Scottish football set-up to join the English football league system, an Atlantic League with clubs from countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal, or forming a new European Super League. While some observers believed the departure of the Old Firm from the Scottish football setup would be detrimental to Scottish football as a whole, others, such as Craig Levein, believed it would benefit Scottish football due to increased competition among the remaining clubs for the SPL title. World football's governing body FIFA ruled out the prospect of any Old Firm move to the English set-up. The duopoly was effectively broken when Rangers entered administration in 2012 and was liquidated after it failed to reach an agreement with creditors. Rangers was relaunched by a new company and were voted into the Scottish Football League Third Division.
In March 2013, Rangers chief executive Charles Green suggested that Rangers could join the Football Conference and that EU competition law banning restraints of trade could be used to overcome any legal barriers to such a plan. Green also suggested that Rangers and Celtic would not be playing in the Scottish league system in ten years time. Scotland manager Gordon Strachan said he believed the Old Firm clubs would join a future new 38-club two-division European Super League.
Winter break
The SPL instituted a "winter break" during the January of each season, beginning with the 1998–99 season. However, this practice was removed beginning in the 2000–01 season, forcing clubs to play throughout January and sometimes resulting in postponement of matches and significant damage to clubs' pitches. Managers Martin O'Neill, Jim Duffy and Walter Smith were among those who called for the winter break to be reinstated. Alex McLeish accused the SPL of taking Scottish football "back to the Dark Ages" after its decision to scrap the mid-season hiatus.
European qualification
In the seasons after the SPL's inception, Scotland's UEFA coefficient improved significantly, having been ranked 26th in 1998–99, they reached a high of 10th at the end of the 2007–08 season. The SPL ranking thereafter declined, the league falling back to the 24th position at the end of 2012–13.
In 2003, Celtic became the first Scottish club since Dundee United in 1987 to reach a European final, eventually losing 3–2 to Porto after extra time in the UEFA Cup final. In 2003–04, two Scottish clubs, Celtic and Rangers, qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time. In 2005–06, Rangers became the first Scottish club to reach the knockout stage of the Champions League, a feat repeated by Celtic the following two seasons. In the 2007–08 season, three Scottish clubs were competing in Europe after Christmas for the first time since 1970, while in the same season, Rangers reached the 2008 UEFA Cup final, but lost 2–0 to Russian club Zenit Saint Petersburg. During the season, Scotland's European representatives collected the most coefficient points since the 1982–83 season.
Players
Scottish Premier League clubs had almost complete freedom to sign whatever number and category of players they wish. There was no team or individual salary cap, no squad size limit, no age restrictions other than those applied by general employment law, no restrictions on the overall number of foreign players and few restrictions on individual foreign players. All players with EU nationality, including those able to claim an EU passport through a parent or grandparent, were eligible to play, and top players from outside the EU were able to obtain UK work permits.
The only restriction on selection was the "Under-21 rule". This rule stated that each club must include at least three players under the age of 21 in its matchday squad. Opinions on this rule were divided among SPL managers. Walter Smith, Gus MacPherson and Jim Jefferies expressed their disapproval of the policy. John Collins approved of the ruling, claiming it is healthy for Scottish football and encouraged the development of young players.
A decline in television revenue resulted in relatively little spending among SPL clubs, with major transfer spending mostly limited to the Old Firm clubs. As a result, most clubs became reliant on developing their own young players and selling them on for profit. This also resulted in a large proportion of SPL clubs' squads being made up of Scottish players (73% in the 2004–05 season).
Finances
Attendance
Due to its relatively low income from television and commercial partners, Scottish clubs were highly dependent on revenues from fans attending matches. More people in Scotland per head of population watched their domestic top-level league than any other European nation. All ten of the clubs that played in the 1998–99 Scottish Premier League also participated in the 2011–12 Scottish Premier League. Nine of those ten clubs recorded lower average attendance. Celtic had a 14% decline in attendance since a peak season of 2000–01, when the club won the domestic treble. Dunfermline, who were newly promoted to the SPL in 2011–12, only saw an increase of 939 in average attendance from the 2010–11 Scottish First Division season. They also attracted a bigger crowd for a Fife derby game in the First Division against Raith Rovers than any game in the SPL.
Sponsorship
The Bank of Scotland, which had sponsored the league since March 1999 (the League was unsponsored for most of the inaugural season), did not renew its sponsorship at the end of the 2006–07 season. Talks began with Clydesdale Bank, and a four-year contract worth £8 million came into effect from July 2007; in 2010, the contract was extended until 2013.
Insolvency events
During the SPL era, six of its member clubs entered administration. Serious financial difficulties first arose in 2002 when broadcaster Sky Sports withdrew its interest in the League's television rights when the SPL rejected its offer of £45 million, hoping a better deal would arise from another broadcaster. However, a superior deal failed to arise, adding to the clubs' already delicate financial position. Total debt among SPL clubs was estimated during 2001–02 to be around £132m, having been barely into double figures two years previously. Motherwell became the first SPL club to enter administration in April 2002, with debts of £11 million and a wage bill totalling 97% of the club's annual turnover. Dundee were next to follow, when in November 2003 it sacked 25 staff after debts of £20 million.
The severity of the SPL's financial problems were revealed in September 2003 when combined losses for SPL clubs during 2001–02 was estimated to have been £60 million. A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) in 2003 described five SPL clubs – Dundee, Dunfermline Athletic, Hearts, Hibernian and Livingston – as "technically insolvent". Livingston became the third SPL club to enter administration in February 2004 with debts of £3.5 million. Dunfermline Athletic's financial position also looked bleak, with several players asked to take wage-cuts, while Rangers chairman David Murray announced in September 2004 a plan to raise £57 million via a rights issue in an attempt to eliminate a large proportion of the club's debts.
After widespread cost-cutting measures, the finances of SPL clubs began to show signs of improvement. Both Motherwell and Dundee came out of administration in April and August 2004 respectively, while Livingston ended its 15-month spell in administration in May 2005. The 2006 report on SPL finances by PWC revealed operating profits of £2.8 million among SPL clubs, the first collective operating profit made by Scotland's top-flight clubs in over a decade. Seven of the SPL's 12 clubs had a wage turnover ratio of less than 60%.
The 2007 report by PWC revealed a collective loss of £9 million for 2005–06, although six clubs – Falkirk, Hibernian, Inverness CT, Kilmarnock, Motherwell and Rangers – made a profit. The report highlighted the increasingly precarious financial position of Hearts, describing its current finances as "unsustainable" with debt rising by £7 million to £28 million and a wage bill which represents 97% of its turnover. The figures for 2006–07 showed a collective profit of £3 million, with eight clubs making a profit.
In March 2008, Gretna became the fourth SPL club to enter administration. The club's main benefactor, Brooks Mileson, was forced to withdraw his financial support due to failing health. The club was liquidated after it had been relegated to the Scottish Football League at the end of the 2007–08 Scottish Premier League. Gretna fans formed a new club, Gretna 2008, which entered the East of Scotland Football League.
SPL clubs were badly affected by the late 2000s financial crisis and UK economic recession. The 21st PWC annual review found that SPL clubs made a collective loss of £22 million during the 2008–09 season, although this loss was almost entirely due to problems at two clubs. Rangers incurred a £14 million loss after losing most of their European revenues due to an early defeat by FBK Kaunas, while Hearts lost £8 million. In 2010, Hearts was described by The Scotsman as the only true financial "basket case" in the SPL, with the club having a wages-to-turnover ratio of 126% and debt of over three times turnover. Rangers stabilised financially in the next two seasons, thanks to income generated from Champions League participation. Rangers entered administration on 14 February 2012, owing an approximate £9 million in unpaid taxes and with an ongoing tribunal with HMRC. HMRC blocked a proposed Company Voluntary Arrangement in June 2012, forcing preferred bidder Charles Green to use a new company to buy out the business and assets of Rangers. Weeks before the SPL merged into the Scottish Professional Football League, Hearts became the sixth SPL club to enter administration.
Media coverage
Television
Between 1998–99 and 2001–02, exclusive television rights for live Scottish Premier League matches were held by Sky Sports. In January 2002, the SPL rejected a £45 million offer from Sky Sports and began considering setting up its own pay-per-view channel, dubbed "SPL TV". However, these plans broke down in April 2002 when the Old Firm clubs – Rangers and Celtic – utilised the 11–1 voting system to veto the proposals. This caused discontent among the remaining ten SPL clubs, which subsequently announced their intention to resign from the league.
Despite a two-year television deal being agreed with BBC Scotland in July 2002 for a significant amount less than previously offered by Sky Sports, the ten non-Old Firm clubs confirmed their resignation from the SPL in August 2002, citing discontent with the voting system. The ten clubs withdrew their resignations in January 2003 after an agreement was reached to change some of the voting procedures and to change the distribution of TV revenue.
The SPL agreed a television rights deal with Irish broadcaster Setanta Sports in February 2004 in a four-year deal worth £35 million. This deal was revised in 2006, with a two-year extension to the original deal agreed, the new four-year deal now being worth £54.5 million and running to 2010. In June 2008, it was announced that a further four-year deal would commence for the 2010–11 season, worth £125 million. Setanta lost the rights to show live SPL matches in the United Kingdom as it was unable to pay the £3 million it owed to the SPL. The SPL then agreed a deal with ESPN and Sky Sports worth £13 million per season to the clubs. This was comparable to the deal which was in place with Setanta, but it was around half the amount Setanta was due to pay from 2010. The Old Firm criticised the decision of nine of the other SPL clubs to accept that offer from Setanta, instead of taking an alternative package from Sky that would have been worth significantly more than the deal signed after Setanta went into administration.
In 2009, Sky and ESPN agreed a five-year deal with the SPL where they would pay a total of £65 million for the rights to show 30 matches each per season. In November 2011, it was announced that a five-year extension to the contract would commence from the 2012–13 season. This deal was amended after Rangers entered insolvency and was not allowed to transfer its SPL membership to a new company. The rights held by ESPN were acquired by BT Sport in February 2013.
BBC Scotland's Sportscene held the rights to broadcast highlights of each match first on terrestrial TV. The BBC also held the rights to show online Internet highlights to UK users for one week after each match. BBC Alba, launched in September 2008, showed one full SPL match per week in delayed coverage. BBC Alba will also showed some live matches in the 2012–13 season. The SPL was broadcast in Australia by Setanta Sports Australia, in Canada by Sportsnet World and in the United States by Fox Soccer Channel and Fox Soccer Plus.
Radio
Radio broadcasting rights were held by BBC Radio Scotland. BBC Radio Scotland also provided internet webcasts to all Scottish Premier League matches, having become the first broadcaster to introduce such a service in June 2000. Old Firm matches were also broadcast on BBC Radio 5 Live and 102.5 Clyde 1.
Member clubs
The clubs listed below competed in the Scottish Premier League. Teams in italics were founder members, who played in the 1998–99 competition.
Stadia
The following stadia were used by clubs in the Scottish Premier League.
Statistics
Championships
All-time SPL table
This table is a cumulative record of all SPL matches played. The table is accurate from the 1998–99 season to the end of the 2012–13 season, inclusive.
P = Position; Ssn = Number of seasons; Pld = Matches played; W = Matches won; D = Matches drawn; L = Matches lost; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; GD = Goal difference; Pts = Points; Ppg = Points per game
Top goalscorers
Kilmarnock and Rangers player Kris Boyd scored the most goals in the SPL, with 167 goals. He broke the previous record of 158, set by Henrik Larsson, by scoring five goals for Rangers in a 7–1 win against Dundee United on 30 December 2009. Boyd and Larsson were the only players who scored more than 100 goals in the SPL era. There are players who scored far more goals in the predecessor Scottish Football League competition, with Jimmy McGrory holding the overall record with 408 goals in the top flight of Scottish football.
Top 10 SPL goalscorers
Records and awards
Biggest home win Celtic 9–0 Aberdeen (2010–11)
Biggest away win Dunfermline Athletic 1–8 Celtic (2005–06)
Most goals in a game Motherwell 6–6 Hibernian (2009–10)
Most consecutive wins Celtic, 25, 2003–04
Most consecutive games unbeaten Celtic, 32, 2003–04
Most consecutive defeats Partick Thistle, 10, 2003–04
Most consecutive games without a win Hamilton Academical, 22, 2010–11
Most consecutive games without scoring a goal Dunfermline Athletic, 9, 2006–07
Most points in a season Celtic, 103 points, 2001–02
Fewest points in a season Gretna, 13 points, 2007–08
Most goals scored in a season Celtic, 105 goals, 2003–04
Fewest goals scored in a season St Johnstone, 23 goals, 2010–11
Most goals conceded in a season Aberdeen, 83 goals, 1999–00 Gretna, 83 goals, 2007–08
Fewest goals conceded in a season Celtic, 18 goals, 2001–02
Most wins in a season Celtic, 33, 2001–02
Fewest wins in a season Dunfermline Athletic, 4, 1998–99 Livingston, 4, 2005–06
Fewest defeats in a season Celtic, 1, 2001–02
Most defeats in a season Livingston, 28, 2005–06
Most draws in a season Dunfermline Athletic, 16, 1998–99 St Mirren, 16, 2011–12
Fewest home defeats in a season Celtic, 0, 2001–02 and 2002–03 Rangers, 0, 2009–10
Fewest away defeats in a season Celtic, 0, 2003–04
Fewest home wins in a season Hamilton Academical, 1, 2010–11 Dunfermline Athletic, 1, 2011–12
Fewest away wins in a season Dunfermline Athletic, 0, 1998–99
Youngest player Scott Robinson, for Hearts vs Inverness CT,
Youngest goalscorer Fraser Fyvie, for Aberdeen vs Heart of Midlothian,
Oldest player Andy Millen, for St Mirren vs Hearts, 42 years 279 days, 15 March 2008
Most goals in a season Henrik Larsson (Celtic), 35 goals, 2000–01
Fastest goal Kris Commons, 12.2 seconds, Celtic 4 - 3 Aberdeen, 16 March 2013
All-time top scorer Kris Boyd (Kilmarnock and Rangers), 164 goals
Most hat-tricks Henrik Larsson (Celtic), 12
Hat-tricks in consecutive games Henrik Larsson (Celtic), 2000–01Anthony Stokes (Falkirk), 2006–07
Most goals in a game Kenny Miller, 5, Rangers v St Mirren, 4 November 2000 Kris Boyd, 5, Kilmarnock v Dundee United, 25 September 2004 Kris Boyd, 5, Rangers v Dundee United, 30 December 2009 Gary Hooper, 5, Celtic v Heart of Midlothian, 13 May 2012
Most consecutive clean sheets Robert Douglas, Celtic, 7 games, 2000–01
Most clean sheets in a season Fraser Forster and Łukasz Załuska, Celtic, 25 games, 2011–12
Most SPL appearances James Fowler, 401 (correct to the end of the 2012–13 season)
Highest attendance 60,440, Celtic v St Mirren, 7 April 2001
Lowest attendance 431, Gretna v Inverness CT, 5 April 2008
Highest average attendance 59,369, Celtic, 2000–01
Lowest average attendance 2,283, Gretna, 2007–08
Highest transfer fee paid Tore André Flo, from Chelsea to Rangers, £12 million, 23 November 2000
Highest transfer fee received Aiden McGeady, from Celtic to Spartak Moscow, £9.5 million, 13 August 2010
Highest transfer fee between two SPL clubs Scott Brown, from Hibernian to Celtic, £4.4 million, 1 June 2007
See also
List of attendance figures at domestic professional sports leagues
Scottish Premier League monthly awards
Notes
References
Defunct top level football leagues in Europe
1
1998 establishments in Scotland
2013 disestablishments in Scotland
2
Sports leagues established in 1998 | [
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226427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlook | Outlook | Outlook or The Outlook may refer to:
Computing
Microsoft Outlook, an e-mail and personal information management software product from Microsoft
Outlook.com, a web mail service from Microsoft
Outlook on the web, a suite of web applications by Microsoft for Outlook.com, Office 365, Exchange Server, and Exchange Online
Outlook Express, an e-mail and news client bundled with earlier versions of Microsoft Windows
Places
Outlook, Montana, a town in Montana, United States
Outlook, Saskatchewan, a town in Saskatchewan, Canada
Outlook, Washington, a town in Yakima Valley of Washington State
Outlook Peak, a mountain on Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut, Canada
Printed media
Media companies
Outlook Media, a company that publishes Outlook Columbus, a GLBT magazine based in Columbus, Ohio
Magazines
Outlook (Indian magazine), a weekly English language news magazine published in India
Outlook (Jewish magazine), a left-leaning Canadian Jewish magazine founded in 1962
Outlooks, a monthly gay magazine published in Canada
The Outlook (British magazine), a political magazine published between 1898 and 1928
The Outlook (New York City), a popular weekly magazine published in New York, 1870–1935
The Outlook Magazine, a Chinese lifestyle magazine
Newspapers
The Outlook (Gresham), a newspaper published in Gresham, Oregon
The Outlook (Rathfriland), a newspaper published in Rathfriland, Northern Ireland
Other uses
Outlook (1960 TV series), a Canadian television series
Outlook (1966 TV series), Canadian short film television series
Outlook (radio programme), a radio programme produced by BBC World Service
Saturn Outlook, a "crossover" utility vehicle (CUV) made and marketed by General Motors Corporation | [
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226430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryhill | Maryhill | Maryhill () is an area of the City of Glasgow in Scotland. Maryhill is a former burgh. Maryhill stretches over along Maryhill Road. The Maryhill district has several sub-districts, such as Acre, Botany, Dawsholm Park, Firhill, Gairbraid, Gilshochill, Maryhill Park, North Kelvinside, Queen's Cross, St George's Cross, Cadder, Summerston, Woodside and Wyndford.
The far north west of the area is served by Maryhill railway station.
History
Hew Hill, the Laird, or Lord, of Gairbraid, had no male heir and so he left his estate to his daughter, Mary Hill (1730-1809). She married Robert Graham of Dawsholm in 1763, but they had no income from trade or commerce and had to make what they could from the estate. They founded coalmines on the estate but they proved to be wet and unprofitable, and their property ventures are best known for an acre of ground they did not sell. It is still known as Acre today.
On 8 March 1768 Parliament approved the cutting of the Forth and Clyde Canal through their estate, which provided some much-needed money. The canal reached the estate in 1775, but the canal company had run out of money and work stopped for eight years. The Government granted funds from forfeited Jacobite estates to start it again and the crossing of the River Kelvin became the focus for massive construction activity. Five locks, the great Kelvin Aqueduct and, between two of the locks, a dry dock boatyard were built. A village too began to grow up and the Grahams provided more land for its development; Robert Graham attached one condition that was to immortalise the heiress of Gairbraid, his wife and the last in line of centuries of Hills of Gairbraid after the death of her father Hew Hill. The then village was to be "in all times called the town of MaryHill".
The new canal waterway attracted industries including boat-building, saw-milling and ironfounding to its banks within Mary's estate. By 1830 the scattered houses had grown to form a large village with a population of 3000. The building of the Glasgow, Dumbarton and Helensburgh Railway passing through Maryhill in the 1850s. The proximity of the Loch Katrine pipeline led to further growth, and in 1856 Maryhill became a burgh in its own right. It was absorbed into the boundaries of the city of Glasgow in 1891.
Part of the Antonine Wall runs through Maryhill, in the Maryhill Park area, where there is the site of a Roman fort adjoining the wall in nearby Bearsden. A Roman bath-house may still be seen there.
Maryhill had the first Temperance Society in the United Kingdom after lawlessness filled the streets in the Victorian era.
Maryhill also boasts one of Glasgow's original Carnegie libraries, designed by the Inverness architect James Robert Rhind.
Maryhill Barracks was opened in 1872 and once dominated the area that is now the Wyndford housing estate. It was home to the Scots Greys and the Highland Light Infantry, and held Adolf Hitler's second-in-command Rudolf Hess during World War II after his supposed "peace" flight to the UK.
The barracks were decommissioned in the early 1960s. However the Territorial Army unit, the 52nd Lowland, 6th Battalion, the Royal Regiment of Scotland continues to be based at the adjacent Walcheren Barracks. 32 (Scottish) Signal Regiment is also based near Kelvinside, with 105th Regiment Royal Artillery in nearby Partick.
Maryhill was known as the Venice of the North for its canals and also for being the centre of the glass industry, with its Caledonia Works and Glasgow Works.
The Glasgow Industrial School for Girls moved to Maryhill in 1882.
Governance
Maryhill is part of the Glasgow Maryhill and Springburn constituency in the Scottish Parliament and of Maryhill Ward (Ward 15) on Glasgow City Council. Glasgow Maryhill was a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1918 until 2005 when it was subsumed into the new Glasgow North constituency.
Maryhill Ward is a multi-member Ward and has three Councillors: John Letford (Alba), Jane Morgan (Labour) and Franny Scally (SNP). The MSP for Maryhill and Springburn is Bob Doris and the MP for Glasgow North is Patrick Grady.
Demography
The population of the Glasgow Maryhill and Springburn constituency was 73,493 as of 2015 and the population as of 2013 of the Maryhill/Kelvin Ward was 27,125. Although the population is predominantly White Scottish/British (22,784), Maryhill is ethnically diverse. The largest of the other ethnic groups are Chinese and African (664 and 660 respectively).
Economy
Although historically a working class area, as of 2013 there are more people employed in professional services than in manufacturing, construction and utilities in Maryhill. , the working-age population (16–64) was 18,770. Of these, 13,237 were economically active.
According to the Glasgow Centre for Population Health, the level of income deprivation in Glasgow North West is 24%, while the figure for Maryhill is slightly higher at 25%.
Housing
Many areas in the north of Glasgow are below the normal UK standard of living. However, not all areas of North Glasgow are in poor condition. Maryhill is in the north west of the city, and consists of well maintained traditionally "Glaswegian" sandstone tenements with the traditional high ceilings as well as many large Victorian town houses. There are also large housing association-run housing estates.
The district contains the Wyndford and Gairbraid estate, a housing estate with a population of almost 5,000, containing a number of high-rise housing blocks, the highest four reaching heights of 26 storeys. These are intermixed with lower residences to create an estate of significant housing contrast and variety.
Sport
Maryhill is the home of Firhill Stadium, which has been the home ground of Scottish Championship club Partick Thistle since 1909. Originally from the burgh of Partick, the club moved to the Maryhill area in 1909, after struggling to find a new home nearer Partick.
During 2005-2012, Firhill was also the home of professional Rugby Union team, Glasgow Warriors. The junior team, Maryhill F.C. and Glasgow's oldest athletic club (Maryhill Harriers) are also located in Maryhill. Firhill is also the home stadium for Queens Park matches, while the club await development of their new stadium at Lesser Hampden.
Architecture, canalside and modernisation
Ruchill Church Hall was designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh.
The Forth and Clyde Canal flows through Maryhill, at one stage forming a vital part of the local economy. It was for many years polluted and largely unused after the decline of heavy industry, but recent efforts to regenerate and re-open the canal to navigation have seen it rejuvenated. Along the canalside, from the city centre along into Maryhill: plans for canalside flats, similar to the rejuvenation of old industrial warehouses in Manchester, have been granted.
Twenty unique stained glass windows were produced by Stephen Adam in 1878 for the Maryhill Burgh Halls, depicting the many varied industries and occupations of Maryhill's inhabitants. The Burgh Halls, part of a complex of listed buildings including the former Baths & Wash-houses, the former Fire Station, and former Police Station, were restored in a £9.2M regeneration project, and a number of the original stained glass windows have been on display since late 2011.
The Maryhill Lochs were the venue for the 2017 Red Bull Neptune Race on 18 March that year.
Subdivisions
Botany
Botany () is an area in Maryhill. One explanation for the name of the area that it was viewed as a rougher part of the then village of Maryhill, with many rough-and-tumble lodging houses and public houses, and many of its residents were expected to be deported to Botany Bay in Australia, then acting as a penal colony. However, a more prosaic explanation is that there was a school in the area known as the Botany School, now long closed, but the name survived.
This reputation for being a rough area did not lessen over the years, with Botany (commonly referred to as 'The Butney' by local people) having many social problems of deprivation, unemployment and drug abuse. The local gang was known as "The Butny".
The area has been completely cleared by the city council and is under construction for new modern apartment flats along with many other areas of Maryhill.
The area's name is preserved by a local bar which has been named The Botany.
Maryhill Park
Maryhill Park () is an area of Maryhill. Unlike much of the rest of Maryhill, the population is predominantly middle-class and the property type in the area consists mainly of Victorian semi-detached town houses. The Maryhill Locks, a steeply-descending series of pools on the Forth & Clyde Canal are nearby.
The present day Maryhill railway station was at one stage called Maryhill Park to distinguish it from the Maryhill railway station that then existed further down Maryhill Road (near the Wyndford area of Maryhill). Both stations were closed as part of the Beeching cuts of the 1960s, and when the former Maryhill Park station was reopened in the 1990s the "Park" part of the title was dropped as the other station was not reopened. The area is also served by numerous bus routes along Maryhill Road.
Queen's Cross
Queen's Cross is a neighbourhood in the area of Maryhill mostly made up of working class social housing, mainly owned by Queens Cross Housing Association, the local housing authority named for the area.
The cross is the junction where Maryhill Road and Garscube Road meet extending south to the neighbouring areas of St George's Cross and Cowcaddens respectively. The area's Queen's Cross Church designed by Glasgow architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh also serves as the headquarters of the Charles Rennie Mackintosh Society.
Maryhill in the media
Maryhill has been the location for a number of television programmes and films, namely:
A short-lived 1960s TV soap High Living created by (then) Cowcaddens-based Scottish Television was set in a tower block in the Wyndford area of Maryhill, however as a totally studio-based drama, it relied on pictures of the flats as part of the opening and closing title sequences.
Taggart, an internationally famous Glaswegian detective television programme, which is translated into many languages including German and Japanese is set and filmed in Maryhill. Fans and tourists still come to the Maryhill Police Station to take photographs.
Trainspotting, A cafe in Maryhill was used as a set in Trainspotting, Jaconelli's at the Queens Cross area. Also, Crosslands on Queen Margaret Drive was the pub where Begbie started a fight by throwing a glass over his head into a crowded bar.
The hit BBC television comedy series Chewin' the Fat was filmed in the area, a precedent followed by its successor the sitcom Still Game. They often showed local features including the Forth and Clyde Canal in the background and several other areas and landmarks of Maryhill in outdoor shots.
Notable people
Jamesina Anderson, politician
Bertie Auld, footballer
Maggie Bell, blues-rock singer
Sean Biggerstaff, actor
Robert Carlyle, actor
Donovan, singer-songwriter
John Maxwell Geddes (1941–2017), composer
Archibald Lyle, footballer
Duncan Macrae, actor
Ian McAteer, Dalmuir-born former gangster
David McCallum, actor and musician
Charlie Nicholas, footballer
Jerry Reynolds, footballer
Andrew Robertson, footballer
Robert Smith, Baron Smith of Kelvin, businessman
See also
Forth to Firth Canal Pathway
Glasgow tower blocks
References
External links
Unlocking Maryhill – A history of its places and people at Pat's Guide to Glasgow West End
Areas of Glasgow
Burghs | [
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226431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow%20Coma%20Scale | Glasgow Coma Scale | The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is a clinical scale used to reliably measure a person's level of consciousness after a brain injury.
The GCS assesses a person based on their ability to perform eye movements, speak, and move their body. These three behaviors make up the three elements of the scale: eye, verbal, and motor. A person's GCS score can range from 3 (completely unresponsive) to 15 (responsive). This score is used to guide immediate medical care after a brain injury (such as a car accident) and also to monitor hospitalized patients and track their level of consciousness.
Lower GCS scores are correlated with higher risk of death. However, the GCS score alone should not be used on its own to predict the outcome for an individual person with brain injury.
Scoring
The Glasgow Coma Scale is used for people above the age of two and composed of three tests: eye, verbal, and motor responses. The scores for each of these tests are indicated in the table below.
The Glasgow Coma Scale is reported as the combined score (which ranges from 3 to 15) and the score of each test (E for eye, V for Verbal, and M for Motor). For each test, the value should be based on the best response that the person being examined can provide.
For example, if a person obeys commands only on their right side, they get a 6 for motor. The scale also accounts for situations that prevent appropriate testing (Not Testable). When specific tests cannot be performed, they must be reported as "NT" and the total score is not reported.
The results are reported as the Glasgow Coma Score (the total points from the three tests) and the individual components. As an example, a person's score might be: GCS 12, E3 V4 M5. Alternatively, if a patient was intubated, their score could be GCS E2 V NT M3.
Eye response (E)
There are four grades starting with the most severe:
No opening of the eye
Eye opening in response to pain stimulus. A peripheral pain stimulus, such as squeezing the lunula area of the person's fingernail is more effective than a central stimulus such as a trapezius squeeze, due to a grimacing effect.
Eye opening to speech. Not to be confused with the awakening of a sleeping person; such people receive a score of 4, not 3.
Eyes opening spontaneously
NT (Not testable). Examples for this would include severe damage to the eyes, sedation from drugs, and paralysis.
Verbal response (V)
There are five grades starting with the most severe:
No verbal response
Incomprehensible sounds. Moaning but no words.
Inappropriate words. Random or exclamatory articulated speech, but no conversational exchange. Speaks words but no sentences.
Confused. The person responds to questions coherently but there is some disorientation and confusion.
Oriented. Person responds coherently and appropriately to questions such as the person’s name and age, where they are and why, the year, month, etc.
NT (Not testable). Examples for this would include intubation, deafness, language barrier, sedation from drugs, and paralysis.
Motor response (M)
There are six grades starting with the most severe:
No motor response. Lack of any motor response should raise suspicion for spinal cord injury.
Abnormal Extension in response to pain. Different guidelines report different evaluation of abnormal extension. While some sources indicate extension at the elbow is sufficient, other sources use the language "decerebrate posturing". It is important to note that the original publication of the Glasgow Coma Scale explicitly avoided the term "decerebrate extension" because it implied specific anatomical findings.
Abnormal Flexion in response to pain. Different guidelines report different evaluation. While some sources focus on arm movements, other sources use the term "decorticate posturing".
Normal Flexion (absence of abnormal posturing; unable to lift hand past chin with supraorbital pain but does pull away when nailbed is pinched)
Localizes to pain (purposeful movements towards painful stimuli; e.g., brings hand up beyond chin when supraorbital pressure applied)
Obeys commands (the person does simple things as asked)
NT (Not testable). Examples for this would include spinal cord injury, sedation from drugs, and paralysis.
Pediatric scoring
Children below the age of two struggle with the tests necessary for assessment of the Glasgow Coma Scale. As a result, a version for children has been developed, and is outlined below.
Interpretation
Individual elements as well as the sum of the score are important. Hence, the score is expressed in the form "GCS 9 = E2 V4 M3 at 07:35".
Patients with scores of 3-8 are usually considered to be in a coma.
Generally, brain injury is classified as:
Severe, GCS < 8–9
Moderate, GCS 8 or 9–12 (controversial)
Minor, GCS ≥ 13.
Tracheal intubation and severe facial/eye swelling or damage make it impossible to test the verbal and eye responses. In these circumstances, the score is given as 1 with a modifier attached (e.g. "E1c", where "c" = closed, or "V1t" where t = tube). Often the 1 is left out, so the scale reads Ec or Vt. A composite might be "GCS 5tc". This would mean, for example, eyes closed because of swelling = 1, intubated = 1, leaving a motor score of 3 for "abnormal flexion".
The GCS has limited applicability to children, especially below the age of 36 months (where the verbal performance of even a healthy child would be expected to be poor). Consequently, the Paediatric Glasgow Coma Scale was developed for assessing younger children.
History
Pre-history
During the 1960s, assessment and management of head injuries became a topic of interest. The number of head injuries was rapidly increasing, in part because of increased use of automobiles. Also, doctors recognized that after head trauma, many patients had poor recovery. This led to a concern that patients were not being assessed or medically managed correctly. Appropriate assessment is a critical step in medical management for several reasons. First, a reliable assessment allows doctors to provide the appropriate treatment. Second, assessments let doctors keep track of how a patient is doing, and intervene if the patient is doing worse. Finally, a system of assessment allows researchers to define categories of patients. This makes it possible to determine which treatments are best for different types of patients.
A number of assessments for head injury (“coma scales”) were developed, though none were widely adopted. Of 13 scales that had been published by 1974, all involved linear scales that defined levels of consciousness. These scales posed two problems. First, levels of consciousness in these scales were often poorly defined. This made it difficult for doctors and nurses to evaluate head injury patients. Second, different scales used overlapping and obscure terms that made communication difficult.
Origin
In this setting, Bryan Jennett and Graham Teasdale began work on what became the Glasgow Coma Scale. Based on their experiences, they aimed to make a scale satisfying several criteria. First, it needed to be simple, so that it could be performed without special training. Second, it needed to be reliable, so that doctors could be confident in the results of the scale. Third, the scale needed to provide important information for managing a patient with head injury.
Their work resulted in the 1974 publication of the first iteration of the GCS. The original scale involved three exam components (eye movement, motor control, and verbal control). These components were scored based on clearly defined behavioral responses. Clear instructions for administering the scale and interpreting results were also included. The original scale is identical to the current scale except for the motor assessment. The original motor assessment included only five levels, combining "flexion" and "abnormal flexion". This was done because Jennett and Teasdale found that many people struggled in distinguishing these two states.
Updates to the Glasgow Coma Scale
In 1976, Teasdale updated the motor component of the Glasgow Coma Scale to differentiate flexion movements. This was because trained personnel could reliably distinguish flexion movements. Further research also demonstrated that normal and abnormal flexion have different clinical outcomes. As a result, the six-point motor scale is now considered the standard.
Teasdale did not originally intend to use the sum score of the GCS components. However, later work demonstrated that the sum of the GCS components, or the Glasgow Coma Score, had clinical significance. Specifically, the sum score was correlated with outcome (including death and disability). As a result, the Glasgow Coma Score is used in research to define patient groups. It is also used in clinical practice as shorthand for the full scale.
Adoption in clinical use
The Glasgow Coma Scale was initially adopted by nursing staff in the Glasgow neurosurgical unit. Especially following a 1975 nursing publication, it was adopted by other medical centers. True widespread adoption of the GCS was attributed to two events in 1978. First, Tom Langfitt, a leading figure in neurological trauma, wrote an editorial in Journal of Neurosurgery strongly encouraging neurosurgical units to adopt the GCS score. Second, the GCS was included in the first version of Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS), which expanded the number of centers where staff were trained in performing the GCS.
Controversy
The GCS has come under pressure from some researchers who take issue with the scale's poor inter-rater reliability and lack of prognostic utility. Although there is no agreed-upon alternative, newer scores such as the simplified motor scale and FOUR score have also been developed as improvements to the GCS. Although the inter-rater reliability of these newer scores has been slightly higher than that of the GCS, they have not yet gained consensus as replacements.
See also
AVPU scale
Blantyre coma scale
Early warning score
Revised Trauma Score
Triage
References
Citations
General sources
Coma
Diagnostic intensive care medicine
Emergency medicine
Medical assessment and evaluation instruments
Medical scales
Memory tests
Neuropsychological tests
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226434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic-size%20swimming%20pool | Olympic-size swimming pool | An Olympic-size swimming pool conforms to regulated dimensions that are large enough for international competition. This type of swimming pool is used in the Olympic Games, where the race course is in length, typically referred to as "long course", distinguishing it from "short course" which applies to competitions in pools that are in length. If touch panels are used in competition, then the distance between touch panels should be either 25 or 50 metres to qualify for FINA recognition. This means that Olympic pools are generally oversized, to accommodate touch panels used in competition.
An Olympic-size swimming pool is used as a colloquial unit of volume, to make approximate comparisons to similarly sized objects or volumes. It is not a specific definition, as there is no official limit on the depth of an Olympic pool. The value has an order of magnitude of 1 megaliter (ML).
Specifications
FINA specifications for an Olympic-size pool are as follows:
There must be two spaces wide outside lanes 1 and 8 (in effect, two empty lanes). The length of must be between the touch pads at the end of each lane, if they are used. If starting blocks are used, then there must be a minimum depth of from between from the end of the pool to at least from the end of the pool. At all other points, the minimum depth is . If the pool is used for Olympic Games or World Championships, then the minimum depth is increased to .
At FINA's 2009 Congress, rules were approved for 10-lane course for competition, as an alternative to the more traditional 8-lane course.
History
This version of the Olympic-sized swimming pool debuted in the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. Beforehand, the Summer Olympics featured the more traditional 8-lane course with a depth of roughly seven feet, now the minimum depth requirement. Twenty-five world records were broken at this pool.
Advantages
The new Olympic-sized swimming pool was designed to provide advantages to assist the swimmers, the first being the increase in the number of lanes. Increasing the lane count from eight to ten gives the swimmers a "buffer lane", helping to absorb waves generated by the swimmers' movements, allowing for less resistance against the swimmers. Moreover, increasing the depth of the pool further gives swimmers another advantage, as the added depth assists the lane lines in dissipating water churn from the swimmers, creating less hydrodynamic drag for the swimmers.
See also
Sport venue
List of long course swimming pools in the United Kingdom
List of long course swimming pools in the Republic of Ireland
List of Olympic-size swimming pools in the Philippines
List of largest swimming pools
List of Olympic venues in swimming
References
Swimming at the Summer Olympics | [
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] |
226438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHEG-5 | MHEG-5 | MHEG-5, or ISO/IEC 13522-5, is part of a set of international standards relating to the presentation of multimedia information, standardised by the Multimedia and Hypermedia Experts Group (MHEG). It is most commonly used as a language to describe interactive television services.
Characteristics
MHEG-5 is a licence-free and public standard for interactive TV middleware that is used both to send and receive interactive TV signals. It allows a wide range of TV-centric interactive services to be deployed. It is used by Freeview and Freesat in the UK, Freeview in New Zealand, TVB in Hong Kong, Freeview in Australia, Saorview in Ireland and has been specified in South Africa.
Recent work by the DTG in the UK has led to the development of the MHEG-5 Interaction Channel (MHEG-IC), which enables an extension of broadcast interactive services to be delivered via an IP connection. The principles behind the MHEG-IC are to provide a seamless viewer experience of broadcast delivered content augmented with content delivered over IP as an extension of the channel or network. Broadcasters have full editorial control of the user experience. The MHEG-IC gives access to streamed on-demand video content in addition to traditional text and graphics as well as the ability to support secure transactions.
MHEG-5 is an object-based declarative programming language which can be used to describe a presentation of text, images and video. An MHEG-5 application consists of a number of Scenes which the user of the application can move between. Each Scene lists the items of text and graphics to be presented and can contain blocks of procedural code which are executed in response to one of a predefined set of events such as keys being pressed, timers firing or content being successfully loaded into memory. These blocks of code consist of elementary actions which can perform operations such as changing the text displayed by a text object, or starting a video clip playing.
MHEG-5 specifies a hierarchy of classes that are available to the application author. Unlike in object oriented languages, it is not possible for new classes to be defined. The standard defines two representations of MHEG applications, one of which is textual and the other is represented in ASN.1. Applications are normally written in the textual notation and then encoded into ASN.1 for interpretation by the MHEG engine.
MHEG-5 is suited to programming interactive kiosks and interactive television services.
Use in other standards
MHEG-5 has been selected as the mandatory interactivity engine for CI+ compliant TVs (and other CI+ devices).
Profiles and commercial roll-out
The MHEG-5 language itself is just that, a language. To be useful in any particular context, the language needs to be profiled.
A broadcast profile of the language has been standardized by ETSI, forming ETSI standard ES 202 184.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, MHEG-5 is used to provide interactive services for digital television such as the BBC's red button Ceefax replacement service. The full specification of how MHEG-5 is used in the context of the UK Freeview platform is the UK Profile of MHEG-5. MHEG is also used on Freesat for its programming guide in addition to the DVB EIT, as opposed to the OpenTV platform used on Sky.
New Zealand and Australia
In New Zealand, the same profile as in UK is used, with minor additions for the Maori language and its use of the guide key on certified Freeview receivers. The guide receiver key is used to activate the MHEG-5 programming guide; this however disables use of the more compatible and faster loading DVB EIT guide feature. In Australia, this guide practice was adopted for the phase 2 Freeview and VAST receivers referenced by the label Freeview EPG.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, TVB has also selected MHEG-5 for interactive services available on its digital-only channels.
Ireland
Ireland has selected MHEG-5 (v1.06) middleware for interactive services as a recommended feature of its Minimum Receiver Requirements for DTT in Ireland. The name for Ireland's free digital service is Saorview.
Class hierarchy
Note: You can download the PDF version of above image from http://mheg5.net/down/class.pdf.
See also
Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV), an alternative technology used for interactive television services via broadcasting and broadband communication media in some European countries.
MediaHighway, a proprietary middleware for interactive television owned by NDS.
Multimedia Home Platform (MHP), an alternative technology used for interactive television services in some European countries.
References
External links
Interactive television
IEC standards
ISO standards
Hypermedia
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226439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20New%20York%20%28state%29 | List of people from New York (state) | The following is a list of prominent people who were born in/lived in or around the U.S. state of New York, or for whom New York is a significant part of their identity.
Government and politics
Presidents
Chester A. Arthur (1829–1886), 20th Vice President and 21st President of the United States – Schenectady
Martin Van Buren (1782–1862), 8th Vice President and 8th President of the United States – Kinderhook
Grover Cleveland (1837–1908), 22nd and 24th President of the United States – Fayetteville
Millard Fillmore (1800–1874), 12th Vice President and 13th President of the United States – Moravia
Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), 25th Vice President and 26th President of the United States – Manhattan
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1883–1945), 32nd President of the United States – Hyde Park
Donald Trump (born 1946), 45th President of the United States – Queens
Vice presidents
Aaron Burr (1756–1836), 3rd Vice President of the United States – Manhattan
George Clinton (1739–1812), 4th Vice President of the United States – Little Britain
Schuyler Colfax (1823–1885), 17th Vice President of the United States – Manhattan
Levi P. Morton (1824–1920), 22nd Vice President of the United States – Albany
Nelson Rockefeller (1908–1979), 41st Vice President of the United States – Albany
James S. Sherman (1855–1912), 27th Vice President of the United States – Utica
Daniel D. Tompkins (1774–1825), 6th Vice President of the United States – Scarsdale
William A. Wheeler (1819–1887), 19th Vice President of the United States – Malone
Governors
DeWitt Clinton (1769–1828), 6th Governor of New York, built the Erie Canal
Andrew Cuomo (born 1957), 56th Governor of New York, praised for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, but forced into resigning amid sexual harassment allegations
Mario Cuomo (1932–2015), 52nd Governor of New York, father of Andrew Cuomo, praised public speaker and liberal icon
Howard Dean (born 1948), former Governor of Vermont (1991–2003), and 2004 Democratic candidate for president
Thomas E. Dewey (1902–1971), 47th Governor of New York, Republican nominee for president in 1944 and 1948
Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948), 36th Governor of New York, Secretary of State, 11th Chief Justice of the United States and 1916 Republican presidential nominee
Kathy Hochul (born 1958), 57th (incumbent) Governor of New York, and first woman to hold that position
John Jay (1745–1829), 1st Chief Justice of the United States, 2nd Governor of New York, and 8th President of the Continental Congress
David Paterson (born 1954), 55th Governor of New York, first African American Governor & Lt. Governor of New York
George Pataki (born 1945), 53rd Governor of New York, governor during the 9/11 attacks
Horatio Seymour (1810–1886), 18th Governor of New York and 1868 Democratic presidential nominee
Al Smith (1873–1944), 42nd Governor of New York and 1928 Democratic presidential candidate
Samuel J. Tilden (1814–1886), 25th Governor of New York and 1876 Republican presidential candidate
Senators
Barbara Boxer (born 1940), longtime California Senator (1993–2017) – New York City
Hillary Clinton (born 1947), former United States Secretary of State (2009–2013), New York Senator (2000–2009), and former First Lady (1993–2000); 2016 Democratic nominee for president – Chappaqua
Roscoe Conkling (1829–1888), New York Senator (1867–1881) and leader of the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party – Albany
Al Franken (born 1951), Minnesota Senator (2009–2018) – New York City
Kirsten Gillibrand (born 1966), New York Senator since 2009 – Albany
Bob Menendez (born 1954), New Jersey Senator since 2006 – New York City
Chris Murphy (born 1973), former Congressman (2007–2013) and current Connecticut Senator since 2013 – White Plains
Bernie Sanders (born 1941), Vermont Senator since 2007, former Mayor of Burlington, Vermont (1981–1989) and 2016 and 2020 Democratic presidential candidate – Brooklyn
Chuck Schumer (born 1950), Democratic Leader of the United States Senate since 2017 and long-time New York Senator since 1999 cousin of comedian Amy Schumer – Brooklyn
Robert F. Wagner (1877–1953), New York Senator (1927–1949) – Manhattan
Mayors
Bill de Blasio (born 1961), 109th (incumbent) Mayor of New York City
Michael Bloomberg (born 1942), 108th Mayor of New York City (2002–2013)
Rudy Giuliani (born 1944), 107th Mayor of New York City (1994–2001), mayor during the 9/11 attacks
David Dinkins (1927-2020), 106th Mayor of New York City (1990-1993), first African-American Mayor of New York City
Ed Koch (1924–2013) 105th Mayor of New York City (1978–1989)
Fiorello La Guardia (1882–1947), 99th Mayor of New York City (1934–1945)
John Lindsay (1921–2000), 103rd Mayor of New York City (1966–1973)
Stephanus Van Cortlandt (1643–1700), 17th, and first native-born, mayor of New York City (1677–1678 and 1686–1688)
Robert Anderson Van Wyck (1849–1918), 91st Mayor of New York City (1898–1901), first Mayor post-consolidation
Robert F. Wagner Jr. (1910–1991), 102nd Mayor of New York City (1954–1965)
Jimmy Walker (1881–1946), flamboyant 97th Mayor of New York City (1926–1932) forced into resigning by the Seabury Commission
Other politicians
Parmenio Adams (1776–1832), sheriff and US Congressman
Alessandra Biaggi (born 1986), New York State Senator
Mario Biaggi (1917-2015), decorated policeman and US Congressmen
Shirley Chisholm (1924–2005), US Congresswoman and 1972 Democratic presidential candidate
John "J.J." Dewey (1822–1891), territorial legislator in Minnesota
William H. Donaldson (born 1931), 27th Chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
Geraldine Ferraro (1935–2011), US Congresswoman from NY and first female Vice Presidential candidate of a major political party in 1984
Alexander Hamilton (1757–1804), 1st US Secretary of the Treasury
Zach Iscol (born 1978), US Marine Corps veteran, entrepreneur, candidate in the 2021 New York City Comptroller election
Boris Johnson (born 1964), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Lazarus Joseph (1891–1966), NY State Senator and New York City Comptroller
Jack Kemp (1935–2009), NFL football player for the Buffalo Bills, Secretary of Housing under President George H. W. Bush, and 1996 Republican nominee for vice president under Bob Dole
Caroline Kennedy (born 1957), former U.S. Ambassador to Japan (2013–2017), and daughter of former president John F. Kennedy and former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
William Loeb Jr. (1866–1937), secretary to President Theodore Roosevelt
Joseph McGoldrick (1901–1978), NYC Comptroller and NY State Residential Rent Control Commissioner, lawyer, and professor
Harvey Milk (1930–1978), first openly gay person to be elected to public office in California
William M. Tweed (1823–1878), known as "Boss" Tweed; Grand Sachem of Tammany Hall
First Ladies
Barbara Bush (1925–2018), First Lady of the United States as the wife of George H.W. Bush
Rose Cleveland (1846–1918), First Lady of the United States as the wife of Grover Cleveland
Abigail Fillmore (1798–1853), First Lady of the United States as the wife of Millard Fillmore
Mary Arthur McElroy (1841–1917), acting First Lady of the United States as the sister of Chester A. Arthur
Elizabeth Monroe (1768–1830), First Lady of the United States as the wife of James Monroe
Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis (1929–1994), First Lady of the United States as the wife of John F. Kennedy
Frances Cleveland (1864–1947), First Lady of the United States as the wife of Grover Cleveland
Nancy Reagan (1921–2016), First Lady of the United States as the wife of Ronald Reagan
Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962), First Lady of the United States as the wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Julia Gardiner Tyler (1820–1889), First Lady of the United States as the wife of John Tyler
Priscilla Cooper Tyler (1816–1889), First Lady of the United States as the wife of John Tyler
Entertainment
Film, television, theater, and dance
George Abbott (1887–1995), stage producer
Gia Allemand (1983–2013), actress
Woody Allen (born 1935), actor, director, and writer
June Allyson (1917–2006), actress
Tyler Alvarez (born 1997), actor
Michael Angarano (born 1987), actor
Diane Arbus (1923–1971), photographer
Moisés Arias (born 1994), actor
Alan Arkin (born 1934), actor
Alison Arngrim (born 1962), actress and comedian
Rosanna Arquette (born 1959), actress
Jean Arthur (1900–1991), actress
Jake T. Austin (born 1994), actor
Awkwafina (born 1988), actress, rapper, and comedian
Lauren Bacall (1924–2014), actress
Morena Baccarin (born 1979), Brazilian-born actress
Alec Baldwin (born 1958), actor, producer, and comedian
Daniel Baldwin (born 1960), actor, director, and producer
Stephen Baldwin (born 1966), actor, author, and producer
William Baldwin (born 1963), actor, producer, and writer
Lucille Ball (1911–1989), actress
Anne Bancroft (1931–2005), actress
Joseph Barbera (1911–2006), animator, producer, and director
Mikhail Baryshnikov (born 1948), ballet dancer
Frances Bavier (1902–1989), actor
Barbara Bel Geddes (1922–2005), actress
William Bendix (1906–1964), actor
Constance Bennett (1904–1965), actress
Matt Bennett (born 1991), actor
Yasmine Bleeth (born 1968), actress
Corbin Bleu (born 1989), actor, model, singer-songwriter, dancer, and film producer
Joan Blondell (1906–1979), actress
Nikki Blonsky (born 1988), actress
Ann Blyth (born 1928), actress
Humphrey Bogart (1899–1957), actor
Shirley Booth (1898–1992), actress
Clara Bow (1905–1965), actress
Abigail Breslin (born 1996), actress
Spencer Breslin (born 1992), actor
Richard Bright (1937–2006), actor
Matthew Broderick (born 1962), actor
Adrien Brody (born 1973), actor
Mel Brooks (born 1926), actor, producer, and director
Steve Buscemi (born 1957), actor, comedian, and director
Edd Byrnes (1932–2020), actor
James Caan (born 1940), actor
James Cagney (1899–1986), actor
Jeanne Cagney (1919–1984), actress
William Cagney (1905–1988), actor
Néstor Carbonell (born 1967), actor and director
Richard S. Castellano (1933–1988), actor
David Castro (born 1996), actor
Raquel Castro (born 1994), actress, singer, and songwriter
Harrison Chad (born 1992), actor and voice actor
Jeff Chandler (1918–1961), actor
Chevy Chase (born 1943), actor and comedian
Ruth Chatterton (1892–1961), actress
James Coco (1930–1987), actor
Claudette Colbert (1903–1996), actress
Jennifer Connelly (born 1970), actress and model
Kevin Conroy (born 1955), actor and voice actor
Francis Ford Coppola (born 1939), film director, producer, and screenwriter
Kevin Corrigan (born 1969), actor
Billy Crudup (born 1968), actor
Tom Cruise (born 1962), actor
Jon Cryer (born 1965), actor, screenwriter, television director, and film producer
Billy Crystal (born 1948), actor
Kieran Culkin (born 1982), actor
Macaulay Culkin (born 1980), actor, Kevin McAllister from Home Alone
Rory Culkin (born 1989), actor
Tony Curtis (1925–2010), actor
Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), actress
Matthew Daddario (born 1987), actor
Claire Danes (born 1979), actress
Rodney Dangerfield (1921–2004), comedian and actor
Marion Davies (1897–1961), actress
Sammy Davis Jr. (1925–1990), actor and singer
Agnes de Mille (1905–1993), dancer and choreographer
Robert De Niro (born 1943), actor
Willy DeVille (1950–2009), singer
Don Diamont (born 1962), actor
Guillermo Díaz (born 1975), Cuban-American actor
Vin Diesel (born 1967), actor, producer, director, and screenwriter
Taye Diggs (born 1971), actor
Matt Dillon (born 1964), actor
Troy Donahue (1936–2001), actor
Kether Donohue (born 1985), actress and singer
Kirk Douglas (1916–2020), actor and father of Michael Douglas
Michael Douglas (born 1944), actor, producer, and son of Kirk Douglas
Robert Downey Jr. (born 1965), actor
Robert Downey Sr. (1936–2021), actor, filmmaker, and father of Robert Downey Jr.
Fran Drescher (born 1957), actress
Lena Dunham (born 1986), actress, filmmaker, and writer
Jimmy Durante (1893–1980), entertainer, actor, singer, and comedian
Jesse Eisenberg (born 1983), actor
Omar Epps (born 1973), actor
Peter Falk (1927–2011), actor
Alice Faye (1915–1998), actress
Jane Fonda (born 1937), actress
Spencer Fox (born 1993), actor
James Gandolfini (1961–2013), actor and producer
John Garfield (1913–1952), actor
Ben Gazzara (1930–2012), actor
Sarah Michelle Gellar (born 1977), actress
Richard Genelle (1961–2008), actor
Mel Gibson (born 1956), American-born Australian/Irish actor and filmmaker
Jackie Gleason (1916–1987), actor
Paulette Goddard (1910–1990), actress
Whoopi Goldberg (born 1955), actress, comedian, and co-host of ABC's The View
Cuba Gooding Jr. (born 1968), Academy Award-winning actor
Elliott Gould (born 1938), actor
Jennifer Grey (born 1960), actress
Jason Griffith (born 1980), voice actor
A. R. Gurney (1930–2017), playwright
Maggie Gyllenhaal (born 1977), actress
Estelle Harris (born 1928), actress, voice actress, and comedian
Jonathan Harris (1914–2002), actor
Hurd Hatfield (1917–1998), actor
Anne Hathaway (born 1982), actress
Susan Hayward (1917–1975), actress
Rita Hayworth (1918–1987), actress
Kathleen Herles (born 1990), voice actress
Philip Seymour Hoffman (1967–2014), actor
Judy Holliday (1921–1965), actress
Whitney Houston (1963–2012), singer, actress, producer, and model
Sarah Hyland (born 1990), actress
Skai Jackson (born 2002), actress
Rick Jason (1923–2000), actor
Scarlett Johansson (born 1984), actress, model, and singer
Jason Harris Katz (born 1969), voice actor and television host
Danny Kaye (1911–1987), actor, singer
Jack Kelly (1927–1992), actor
Moira Kelly (born 1968), actress
Morgana King (1930–2018), singer and actress
Wayne Knight (born 1955), actor, voice artist, and comedian
Ricki Lake (born 1968), actress, talk-show host
Veronica Lake (1922–1973), actress
Adam Lamberg (born 1984), actor
Burt Lancaster (1913–1994), actor
Michael Landon (1936–1991), actor
Linda Larkin (born 1970), actress and voice actress
Fredric Lebow (born 1956), screenwriter
Peyton Elizabeth Lee (born 2004), actress
Spike Lee (born 1957), director, producer
Melissa Leo (born 1960), actress
John Lithgow (born 1945), actor, comedian
Aliana Lohan (born 1993), actress, singer and sister of actors Lindsay and Michael Lohan Jr.
Lindsay Lohan (born 1986), actress, singer and sister of actors Ali and Michael Lohan Jr.
Kristanna Loken (born 1979), actress
Seth MacFarlane (born 1973), actor, writer, producer, and creator of Family Guy
Steele MacKaye (1842–1894), playwright and actor
John Marley (1907–1984), actor
Vincent Martella (born 1992), actor
John Martino (born 1937), actor
Lee Marvin (1924–1987), actor
James Maslow (born 1990), actor, singer, and dancer
Alanna Masterson (born 1988), actress
Christopher Masterson (born 1980), actor
Danny Masterson (born 1976), actor
Walter Matthau (1920–2000), actor
Al Matthews (1942–2018), actor and singer
Julianna Rose Mauriello (born 1991), actress and dancer
Eaddy Mays, actress
Jesse McCartney (born 1987), actor, singer, and songwriter
Thomas McDonell (born 1986), actor
Michael McKean (born 1947), comedian, actor and musician
Caleb McLaughlin (born 2001), actor
Ethel Merman (1908–1984), actor and singer
Lea Michele (born 1986), actress and singer
Arthur Miller (1915–2005), playwright
Lenny Montana (1926–1992), actor and professional wrestler
Robert Montgomery (1904–1981), actor
Charlie Murphy (1959–2017), actor and comedian
Chad Michael Murray (born 1981), actor
Jack Nicholson (born 1937), actor and filmmaker
Dylan O'Brien (born 1991), actor
Cameron Ocasio (born 1999), actor
Jerry O'Connell (born 1974), actor
Eugene O'Neill (1888–1953), playwright
Al Pacino (born 1940), actor
Hayden Panettiere (born 1989), actress, model, singer, and activist
Jansen Panettiere (born 1994), actor and voice actor
Connor Paolo (born 1990), actor
Corey Parker (born 1965), actor
George A. Parkhurst (1841–1890), actor
Josh Peck (born 1986), actor
Amanda Peet (born 1972), actress and writer
Nicola Peltz (born 1995), actress
Will Peltz (born 1986), actor
Anthony Perkins (1932–1992), actor
Regis Philbin (1931–2020), actor, singer, and television personality
Priscilla Presley (born 1945), actress and business magnate
Fátima Ptacek (born 2000), actress and voice actress
Bill Pullman (born 1953), actor
Mae Questel (1908–1998), actress
George Raft (1895–1980), actor
Gene Anthony Ray (1962–2003), actor
Nancy Reagan (1921–2016), actress and former First Lady of the United States
Alan Reed (1907–1977), actor and voice artist
Christopher Reeve (1952–2004), actor
Tara Reid (born 1975), actress
Leah Remini (born 1970), actress
Alfonso Ribeiro (born 1971), actor, television director, dancer, and television personality; host of America's Funniest Home Videos and season 19 winner of Dancing with the Stars
Thelma Ritter (1902–1969), actress
Emma Roberts (born 1991), actress and singer
Edward G. Robinson (1893–1973), actor
Ray Romano (born 1957), actor, comedian
Saoirse Ronan (born 1994), American-born Irish actress
Mickey Rooney (1920–2014), actor
Emmy Rossum (born 1986), actress, singer, and songwriter
Mickey Rourke (born 1952), actor, screenwriter, and retired boxer
Paul Rudd (born 1969), actor, comedian, writer, and producer
Gianni Russo, actor, singer, and restaurateur
Ernie Sabella (born 1949), actor and voice actor
Zoe Saldana (born 1978), American-Dominican actress and dancer
Ruben Santiago-Hudson (born 1956), actor and playwright
Ben Schwartz (born 1981), actor, comedian, and writer
Martin Scorsese (born 1942), director
George Segal (1934–2021), actor
Matthew Senreich (born 1974), screenwriter
Charlie Sheen (born 1965), actor
Talia Shire (née Coppola), actress
Sylvia Sidney (1910–1999), actress
Christian Slater (born 1969), actor
Jamil Walker Smith (born 1982), actor
Kevin Spacey (born 1959), actor, film director, producer, screenwriter, and singer
Sylvester Stallone (born 1946), actor, screenwriter, producer, and director
Barbara Stanwyck (1907–1990), actor
Rod Steiger (1925–2002), actor
Howard Stern (born 1954), actor, radio and television personality, author, and photographer
Ben Stiller (born 1965), actor, comedian, and filmmaker
Oliver Stone (born 1946), director
Beatrice Straight (1914–2001), actress
Lee Strasberg (1901–1982), Polish-born actor, director, and theatre practitioner
Meryl Streep (born 1949) actress
David Strickland (1969–1999), actor
Kevin Sussman (born 1970), actor and comedian
Veronica Taylor (born 1978), voice actress
Benj Thall (born 1978), actor
Leon Thomas III (born 1993), actor
Gene Tierney (1920–1991), actress
Ashley Tisdale (born 1985), actress, singer, and producer
Michelle Trachtenberg (born 1985), actress
Claire Trevor (1910–2000), actress
John Turturro (born 1958), American-Italian actor, writer, and filmmaker
Abe Vigoda (1921–2016), actor
Denzel Washington (born 1954), Academy Award-winning actor
Kerry Washington (born 1977), actress
Michael Weatherly (born 1968), actor and director
Scott Weinger (born 1975), actor, voice actor, writer, and producer
Tuesday Weld (born 1943), actress
Tom Welling (born 1977), actor, director, producer, and model
Ming-Na Wen (born 1963), Macau-born actress and model
Mae West (1893–1980), actor
Kristen Wiig (born 1973), actress
Olivia Wilde (born 1984), actress
Tylen Jacob Williams (born 2001), actor
Tyler James Williams (born 1992), actor
Tyrel Jackson Williams (born 1997), actor
Zelda Williams (born 1989), actress; daughter of late comedian and actor Robin Williams
Lanford Wilson (1937–2011), playwright
April Winchell (born 1960), actress
Paul Winchell (1922–2005), actor and comedian
Alex Wolff (born 1997), actor, musician, and composer
Nick Zano (born 1978), actor
Comedians, entertainers, and humorists
Pamela Adlon (born 1966), actress, voice actress, producer, and director
Carlos Alazraqui (born 1962), actor and comedian
Woody Allen (born 1935), comedian, screenwriter, director, actor, author, playwright, and musician
Alec Baldwin (born 1958), actor, comedian, and producer
Lucille Ball (1911–1989), comedian, actress
Mike Bocchetti (born 1961), stand-up comedian and radio personality
Zach Braff (born 1975), actor, comedian, director, screenwriter, and producer
Alyson Cambridge (born 1980), operatic soprano and classical music, jazz, and American popular song singer
Michael Carbonaro (born 1982), actor and magician
Eddie Carmel, born Oded Ha-Carmeili (1936–1972), Israeli-born entertainer with gigantism and acromegaly, popularly known as "The Jewish Giant"
George Carlin (1937–2008), comedian and actor
Michael Cole (born 1968), WWE announcer
Pete Davidson (born 1993), comedian and actor
Philip DeFranco (born 1985), YouTuber and video blogger
Danny DeVito (born 1944), comedian, actor, producer, and director
John DiMaggio (born 1968), actor and comedian
Jimmy Fallon (born 1974), comedian, actor, and television host
Nika Futterman (born 1969), actress, voice actress, comedian, and singer
Curly Howard (1903–1952), comedian, vaudevillian actor, and member of The Three Stooges
Moe Howard (1897–1975), actor, comedian, and member of The Three Stooges
Kevin James (born 1965), comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer
Colin Jost (born 1982), comedian, actor and writer
JWoww (real name Jennifer Farley) (born 1986), reality television personality
Tom Kenny (born 1962), actor, comedian, voice of SpongeBob SquarePants
Jimmy Kimmel (born 1967), comedian, producer, voice actor, musician, and television personality
Jay Leno (born 1950), comedian, former host of The Tonight Show (1992–2014)
Demetri Martin (born 1973), comedian
Chico Marx (1887–1961), vaudeville comedian with the Marx Brothers
Groucho Marx (1890–1977), vaudeville comedian with the Marx Brothers
Gummo Marx (1892–1977), vaudeville comedian with the Marx Brothers
Harpo Marx (1888–1964), vaudeville comedian with the Marx Brothers
Zeppo Marx (1901–1979), vaudeville comedian with the Marx Brothers
Jackie Mason (1928–2021), comedian and actor
Kate McKinnon (born 1984), comedienne, actress, and voice actress
Eddie Murphy (born 1961), comedian, actor, writer, singer, producer, and voice actor
Rosie O'Donnell (born 1962), comedian, actress, and television personality
Jordan Peele (born 1979), comedian, actor, film director, and screenwriter
Melissa Rauch (born 1980), comedian and actress
Kevin Michael Richardson (born 1964), actor and voice actor
Adam Richman (born 1974), television personality
Don Rickles (1926–2017), comedian
Joan Rivers (1933–2014), actress and comedian
Chris Rock (born 1965), comedian and actor
Adam Sandler (born 1966), comedian, actor, screenwriter, film producer, and musician
Adam Savage (born 1967), co-host of MythBusters
Amy Schumer (born 1981), stand-up comedian and actress
Jerry Seinfeld (born 1954), comedian and actor
Judy Sheindlin (born 1942), lawyer and television personality (Judge Judy)
Martha Stewart (born 1941), businesswoman, writer, chef, and television personality
Jon Stewart (born 1962), comedian, actor, writer, producer, director, media critic, and television personality; former host of The Daily Show (1999–2015)
Fred Tatasciore (born 1967), voice actor
John Valby (born 1944), comedian and musician
Singers and instrumentalists
Aaliyah (1979–2001), singer, actress, model, and dancer
Christina Aguilera (born 1980), singer, songwriter, and actress
Vinnie Amico, drummer
Fiona Apple (born 1977), singer
Harold Arlen (1905–1986), composer
Adrienne Bailon (born 1983), singer
David Baker, singer
Chris Barnes (born 1967), musician
Count Basie (1904–1984), jazz musician
Bryan Bautista (born 1992), Dominican-American pop singer and contestant on NBC's The Voice season 10
Jay Beckenstein (born 1951), saxophonist
Pat Benatar (born 1953), singer
Tony Bennett (born 1926), jazz singer
Mary J. Blige (born 1971), singer, songwriter, and actress
Jon Bon Jovi (born 1962), singer-songwriter, record producer, philanthropist, and actor (Bon Jovi)
Laura Branigan (1957–2004), singer
Keith Buckley (born 1979), musician
Clem Burke (born 1955), musician and drummer (Blondie)
Maria Callas (1923–1977), opera singer
Mariah Carey (born 1970), pop and R&B singer, and songwriter
Vanessa Carlton (born 1980), pop singer-songwriter
Peter Case (born 1954), singer-songwriter
Peter Cincotti (born 1983), singer, songwriter, and pianist
Coko (born 1973), singer (SWV)
John Coltrane (1926–1967), jazz musician
Aaron Copland (1900–1990), composer
Warren Cuccurullo (born 1956), rock guitarist
Vic Dana (born 1942), singer
Dawin (full name Dawin Polanco; born 1990), hip hop-R&B singer/songwriter and record producer
Blossom Dearie (1924–2009), jazz singer and pianist
Lana Del Rey (born 1985), singer and songwriter
Rob Derhak (born 1968), bass guitarist
Lance Diamond (1945–2015), singer
Neil Diamond (born 1941), singer and songwriter
Ani DiFranco (born 1970), singer-songwriter
Jonathan Donahue (born 1966), rock musician
JoAnn Falletta (born 1954), classical guitarist and orchestral conductor
Morton Feldman (1926–1987), composer
Ella Fitzgerald (1918–1996), singer
John Flansburgh (born 1960), singer-songwriter
Brendan Fletcher (born 1990), pop singer-songwriter and contestant on NBC's The Voice season 11
Lukas Foss (1922–2009), composer and orchestral conductor
Sawyer Fredericks (born 1999), contemporary folk singer-songwriter, and winner of NBC's The Voice season 8
Dave Fridmann, producer
Lady Gaga (real name Stefani Germanotta) (born 1986), singer and songwriter
Art Garfunkel (born 1941), folk rock singer, poet, and actor (Simon & Garfunkel)
Chuck Garvey, guitarist
George Gershwin (1898–1937), composer
Kim Gordon (born 1953), bass guitarist, guitarist, singer, songwriter, and visual artist (Sonic Youth)
Lesley Gore (1946–2015), singer-songwriter, actress, and activist
Andy Grammer (born 1983), singer-songwriter and record producer
Grasshopper (born Sean Mackowiak; born 1967), rock musician
Jim Hall (1930–2013), jazz guitarist
Debbie Harry (born 1945), singer-songwriter, actress, and lead singer of Blondie
Alan Heatherington (born 1945), orchestral conductor
Ray Henderson (1897–1970), songwriter
Lauryn Hill (born 1975), singer-songwriter, rapper, record producer, and actress
Joel Hirschhorn (1938–2005), songwriter
Billie Holiday (1915–1959), jazz and blues singer
Bob Holz (born 1958), drummer and composer
Lena Horne (1917–2010), singer and actress
Whitney Houston (1963–2012), singer, actress, producer, and model
Freddie Jackson (born 1956), singer
Rick James (1948–2004), singer
Billy Joel (born 1949), pianist, singer, and songwriter
Joe Jonas (born 1989), singer-songwriter, actor, former member of the Jonas Brothers, brother of Nick, and current lead singer of DNCE
Nick Jonas (born 1992), singer-songwriter, producer, actor, brother of Joe, and former member of the Jonas Brothers
Jerome Kern (1885–1945), composer
Alicia Keys (born 1981), singer-songwriter
Carole King (born 1942), singer-songwriter
Linda Király (born 1983), American-born Hungarian pop singer-songwriter and sister of Viktor
Viktor Király (born 1984), American-born Hungarian pop singer and contestant on NBC's The Voice season 9
Cyndi Lauper (born 1953), singer
Jacquie Lee (born 1997), pop singer and contestant on NBC's The Voice season 5
Mel Lewis (1929–1990), drummer
John Linnell (born 1959), singer-songwriter
Joe Locke (born 1959), jazz artist
John Lombardo (born 1952), musician and songwriter
Jennifer Lopez (born 1969), singer, actress, and dancer
David Lucas (born 1937), composer
Gary Mallaber (born 1946), drummer
Barry Manilow (born 1943), singer-songwriter and musician
Constantine Maroulis (born 1975), singer
Melanie Martinez (born 1995), singer, songwriter, and music/video director
Brian McKnight (born 1969), R&B singer
Don McLean (born 1945), singer
Don Menza (born 1936), saxophonist
Idina Menzel (born 1971), singer-songwriter, actress, and voice of Elsa in Frozen
Natalie Merchant (born 1963), singer-songwriter
Stephanie Mills (born 1957), singer
Janelle Monáe (born 1985), musician, model, and actress
Gurf Morlix, musician
Josh Newton (born 1973), bassist
Willie Nile (born 1948), singer-songwriter
Laura Nyro (1947–1997), singer-songwriter
Colby O'Donis (born 1989), pop-R&B singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor
Olivia (born 1981), R&B singer known for contributing vocals to the 50 Cent song "Candy Shop"
Jack Owen (born 1967), guitarist (Cannibal Corpse)
Tina Parol (born 1988), singer-songwriter
Caroline Pennell (born 1996), singer-songwriter and contestant on NBC's The Voice season 5
Alisan Porter (born 1981), retired actress, singer-songwriter, and winner of NBC's The Voice season 10
Charlie Puth (born 1991), pop singer-songwriter and record producer
Joey Ramone (1951–2001), Punk rock singer-songwriter and musician (Ramones)
Mary Ramsey (born 1963), musician
Sharon Redd (1945–1992), singer
Lou Reed (1942–2013), singer, songwriter, and guitarist
Neil Rosenshein (born 1947), operatic singer and lyric tenor
Rahzel (born 1964), beatboxer
Kevin Rudolf (born 1983), pop/indie rock singer, musician, and record producer
Jason Sebastian Russo (born 1973), rock musician
Justin Russo (born 1976), rock musician
John Rzeznik (born 1965), musician (Goo Goo Dolls)
Adam Schlesinger (1967–2020), musician (Fountains of Wayne), songwriter, producer, and arranger
Al Schnier (born 1968), guitarist
John Serry Sr. (1915–2003), concert accordionist, organist, composer, arranger, and educator
Billy Sheehan (born 1953), bass guitarist
Kevin Shields (born 1963), musician, singer-songwriter and record producer (My Bloody Valentine)
Paul Simon (born 1941), folk rock musician, guitarist, singer-songwriter, and actor (Simon & Garfunkel)
Frank Sinatra (1915–1998), iconic jazz/pop singer, actor, and producer
Lonnie Smith (1942–2021), jazz organist
Ronnie Spector (born 1943), singer (The Ronettes)
John Stevens (born 1987), singer
Stevie J (born Steve Jordan), musician
Barbra Streisand (born 1942), singer, actress
Stan Szelest (1943–1991), musician
Robby Takac (born 1964), musician (Goo Goo Dolls)
George Tutuska, musician (Goo Goo Dolls, Jackdaw)
Steven Tyler (born 1948), Hard rock musician, singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, former television music competition judge, and lead singer of the rock band Aerosmith
Sal Valentinetti (born 1995), Italian-American jazz singer and contestant on America's Got Talent season 11
Grace VanderWaal (born 2004), singer-songwriter, ukuleleist, and winner of America's Got Talent season 11
Luther Vandross (1951–2005), singer
Jeremy Wall, jazz musician
Luke Walter Jr. (1947–1996), Belgian musician
Grover Washington Jr. (1943–1999), saxophonist
Gerard Way (born 1977), pop punk-alternative/punk/emo rock musician, singer-songwriter, comic book writer, actor, and former lead singer of My Chemical Romance
Alex Webster (born 1969), bassist (Cannibal Corpse)
Mary Weiss (born 1948), singer (The Shangri-Las)
Cory Wells (1941–2015), singer
Patrick Wilson (born 1969), drummer
Jack Yellen (1892–1991), lyricist, composer
Rappers
2Pac (1971–1996), rapper, record producer, actor, and poet
50 Cent (born 1975), rapper, actor, businessman, and actor
ASAP Rocky (born 1988), rapper, record producer, director, actor, and model
Beastie Boys (1979–2014), hip hop/hardcore punk band
Big L (1974–1999), hip-hop recording artist
Busta Rhymes (born 1972), hip hop recording artist, actor, record producer, and record executive
Cam'ron (born 1976), rapper, actor, and entrepreneur
Sean Combs (born 1969), rapper, singer, songwriter, actor, record producer, and entrepreneur (also known as "P. Diddy", "Puff Daddy", or "Diddy")
Desiigner (born 1997), rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, record executive, and actor
DMX (1970–2021), rapper, record producer, and actor
Jay-Z (born 1969), rapper, businessman, investor, and actor
Jim Jones (1931–1978), hip-hop recording artist
MC Jin, rapper and actor
KRS-One (born 1965), rapper and occasional producer
Lil' Kim (born 1975), rapper, songwriter, record producer, model, and actress
LL Cool J (born 1968), rapper, actor, and host of Spike TV's Lip Sync Battle
Matisyahu (1979), rapper, reggae vocalist, beatboxer, and alternative rock musician
MF Doom (born 1971), rapper and record producer
Mobb Deep
Mos Def (born 1973), hip hop recording artist, actor, and activist
Nas (born 1973), hip hop recording artist, record producer, actor, and entrepreneur
The Notorious B.I.G. (1972–1997), rapper and actor (also known as "Biggie Smalls" or "Biggie")
Onyx
Post Malone (born 1995), rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer
Rakim (born 1968), rapper
Remedy (born Ross Filler in 1972), rapper
Run-DMC
Russ (born 1992), rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer
Juelz Santana (born 1982), rapper and actor
A Tribe Called Quest
Freaky Tah (1971–1999), rapper
Wu-Tang Clan
Adam Yauch (1964–2012), rapper, singer, musician, songwriter, director, and film distributor
6ix9ine (born 1996), rapper, songwriter
Bands
AJR (2005–), indie pop band
American Authors (2006–), pop rock band
Beastie Boys (1979–2014), hip hop/hardcore punk band
Blondie (1974–), new wave-punk rock band
Cobra Starship (2006–2015), dance-pop band
Blue Öyster Cult (1967–), rock band
Goo Goo Dolls (1985–), alternative-pop rock band
KIϟϟ (1973–), hard rock band
Naturally 7, a cappella band
Ramones (1974–1996), punk rock band
Steely Dan (1971–), jazz rock band
Twisted Sister (1972–), heavy metal band
X Ambassadors (2009–), alternative/pop rock band
Art, literature, journalism, and philosophy
Samuel Hopkins Adams (1871–1958), muckraker; born in Dunkirk
Scott Adams (born 1957), cartoonist and creator of Dilbert
George Worsley Adamson (1913–2005), illustrator and cartoonist
Marv Albert (born 1941), basketball announcer on TNT
Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906), women's rights activist
Cory Arcangel (born 1978), artist
William Bliss Baker (1859–1886), landscape painter
Lauren Belfer, author
J. Bowyer Bell (1931–2003), historian, artist and art critic
Timothy D. Bellavia (born 1971), artist and illustrator
Louise Blanchard Bethune (1856–1913), architect
Wolf Blitzer (born 1948), CNN journalist, host of The Situation Room
Lawrence Block (born 1938), author
Howard Bloom (born 1943), author
Joseph Brodsky (1940–1996), Russian-American poet
Dale Brown (born 1956), author
Gordon Bunshaft (1909–1990), architect
Charles E. Burchfield (1893–1967), artist
Charles Clough (born 1951), artist
Anderson Cooper (born 1967), CNN journalist and television personality
Howard Cosell (1918–1995), ABC Sports broadcaster from 1953 until 1985
Bob Costas (born 1952), longtime broadcaster for NBC Sports and television host of twelve Olympic Games
Burton Crane (1901–1963), journalist
Robert Creeley (1926–2005), poet
Jasper Francis Cropsey (1823–1900), artist
Arthur B. Davies (1863–1928), artist
Don DeLillo (born 1936), author
Melvil Dewey (1851–1931), originator of Dewey Decimal System
Amy Dickinson (born 1959), Chicago Tribune advice columnist from Freeville
Amanda Minnie Douglas (1831–1916), writer
Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), editor and publisher of abolitionist newspapers such as The North Star
Arthur Dove (1880–1946), artist
Philip Evergood (1901–1973), artist
Leslie Fiedler (1917–2003), literary critic
Steve Fiorilla (1961–2009), artist
Ira Joe Fisher (born 1947), author and weatherman; born and raised in Little Valley
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940), author; raised in Buffalo
Helen Frankenthaler (1928–2011), artist
Kelly Freas (1922–2005), artist
Anna Katharine Green (1846–1935), author
E.B. Green (1855–1950), architect
Terry Gross (born 1951), radio host of Fresh Air
Alex Haley (1921–1992, author of Roots
Sean Hannity (born 1961), radio and television talk show host
Alfred Harvey (1913–1994), writer and publisher; founder of Harvey Comics
Richard Hofstadter (1916–1970), author and philosopher
Paul Horgan (1903–1995), author
Roni Horn (born 1955), artist
Elbert Hubbard (1856–1915), philosopher and writer
Idil Ibrahim, director
Washington Irving (1783–1859), author of Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
Henry James (1843–1916), author
William James (1842–1910), philosopher
James A. Johnson (1865–1939), architect
Frank Judge, poet and translator
Michael Kay (born 1961), play-by-play announcer for the New York Yankees
Ellsworth Kelly (1923–2015), artist
Megyn Kelly (born 1970), political commentator
John Kessel (born 1950), author
Larry King (1933–2021), television and radio host
Verlyn Klinkenborg (born 1952), member of The New York Times writer and farmer; editorial board
Nancy Kress (born 1948), author
Matt Lauer (born 1957), anchor for The Today Show
Zoe Leonard (born 1961), photographer and visual artist
Robert Longo (born 1953), artist
Mabel Dodge Luhan (1879–1962), writer and patron
Bill Maher (born 1956), host of HBO political talk show Real Time with Bill Maher
Norman Mailer (1923–2007), author
Francis A. Mallison (1832–1877), journalist and helped organize the Great Civil War Gold Hoax; from Rome
Brice Marden (born 1938), artist
Herman Melville (1819–1891), author of Moby-Dick
Al Michaels (born 1944), longtime sportscaster for both NBC Sports and ABC Sports; play-by-play announcer on Sunday Night Football
David Muir (born 1973), ABC journalist and anchor
Ogden Nash (1902–1971), poet
Joyce Carol Oates (born 1938), author
Bill O'Reilly (born 1949), host of The O'Reilly Factor on Fox News
William Ordway Partridge (1861–1930), sculptor
Tim Powers (born 1952), author
Thomas Pynchon (born 1937), author
Ishmael Reed (born 1938), poet
John Reed (born 1969), author of Snowball's Chance
Seymour Reit (1918–2001), writer and cartoonist
Norman Rockwell (1894–1978), painter
Spain Rodriguez (1940–2012), cartoonist
Milton Rogovin (1909–2011), photographer
Charles Rohlfs (1853–1936), craftsman
Al Roker (born 1954), weather anchor for NBC's Today
Tim Russert (1950–2008), host of NBC's Meet the Press
Vin Scully (born 1927), longtime broadcaster for the Los Angeles Dodgers
David Sedaris (born 1956), humorist and author
Al Sharpton (born 1954), civil rights activist and radio talk show host
Tony Sisti (1901–1983), painter
Eugene Speicher (1883–1962), painter
Fran Striker (1903–1962), creator of the Lone Ranger and Green Hornet
Elizabeth Swados (1951–2016), author
Jake Tapper (born 1969), news anchor for CNN
Dorothy Thompson (1983–1961), journalist and radio broadcaster
Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933), artist
Mike Tirico (born 1966), sportscaster
Tom Toles (born 1951), cartoonist
Sojourner Truth (1797–1883), slave and civil rights activist
Israel Tsvaygenbaum (born 1961), Russian-American artist
Mark Twain (1835–1910), author
Andrew Vachss (1942–2021), author, activist, and lawyer
Richard A. Waite (1848–1911), architect
J. Alden Weir (1852–1919), painter
Edith Wharton (1862–1937), author
Walt Whitman (1819–1892), poet
Brian Williams (born 1959), anchor of NBC Nightly News
Julia McNair Wright (1840–1903), author
John Zogby (born 1948), pollster and blogger from Utica
Athletes
Baseball
Moe Berg (1902–1972), Major League Baseball catcher and spy for the Office of Strategic Services
Dellin Betances (born 1988), baseball pitcher
Craig Biggio (born 1965), Baseball Hall of Famer
Ralph Branca (1926–2016), baseball pitcher
Alexander Cartwright (1820–1892), "father of modern baseball", founding member of the New York Knickerbockers Base Ball Club
Harry Eisenstat (1915–2003), baseball player
Mike "SuperJew" Epstein (born 1943), Major League Baseball first baseman
Johnny Evers (1881–1947), Baseball Hall of Famer
Whitey Ford (1928–2020), Baseball Hall of Famer
John Franco (born 1960), baseball pitcher
Lou Gehrig (1903–1941), Baseball Hall of Famer
Sid Gordon (1917–1975), two-time All Star major league baseball player
Hank Greenberg (1911–1986), Baseball Hall of Famer (Greenwich Village)
Sandy Koufax (born 1935), Baseball Hall of Famer
Jason Marquis (born 1978), Major League Baseball All Star pitcher
Edgar Martínez (born 1963), baseball player
Bob Melvin (born 1961), baseball player and manager
Sam Nahem (1915–2004), Major League Baseball pitcher
Joe Nathan (born 1974), baseball player, Minnesota Twins; born in Pine Bush
Jim Palmer (born 1945), Baseball Hall of Famer
A. J. Pierzynski (born 1976), baseball player (Chicago White Sox); born in Bridgehampton
Lipman Pike (1845–93), Major League Baseball player, two-time home run champion
Phil Rizzuto (1917–2007), Baseball Hall of Famer
Alex Rodriguez (born 1975), Major League Baseball player
Saul Rogovin (1923–1995), Major League Baseball pitcher
Richie Scheinblum (1942–2021), Major League Baseball All Star outfielder
Norm Sherry (1931–2021), catcher, manager, and coach in Major League Baseball
Mose Solomon (1900–1966), the "Rabbi of Swat", Major League Baseball player
Warren Spahn (1921–2003), Baseball Hall of Famer
Carl Yastrzemski (born 1939), Baseball Hall of Famer
Basketball
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (born 1947), NBA Hall of Fame player
Carmelo Anthony (born 1984), professional basketball player for the New York Knicks
Nate Archibald (born 1948), NBA Hall of Fame basketball player
Desi Barmore (born 1960), basketball player
David Bernsley (born 1969), American-Israeli basketball player
Sue Bird (born 1980), Women's National Basketball Association point guard; two-time Olympic champion; four-time All-Star (Seattle Storm) (Syosset)
Harry Boykoff (1922–2001), professional basketball player for the Boston Celtics
Larry Brown (born 1940), professional All Star basketball player and coach
Isaiah Cousins (born 1994), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Bob Cousy (born 1928), professional basketball player for the Boston Celtics
Jon Dalzell, basketball player
John DiBartolomeo (born 1991), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Shay Doron (born 1985), professional basketball player
Bryant Dunston (born 1986), basketball player
Julius Erving (born 1950), NBA player
Mickey Fisher (1904/05–1963) - basketball coach
Marty Friedman (1889–1986), Hall of Fame pro basketball player and coach
Marcus Gaither (1961–2020), basketball player
Sidney Hertzberg (1922–2005), professional basketball player
Art Heyman (1941–2012), professional basketball player
Nat Holman (1896–1995), Hall of Fame basketball player
Red Holzman (1920–1998), NBA Hall of Fame basketball player and coach
Lamont Jones (born 1972), basketball player
Michael Jordan (born 1963), iconic NBA Hall of Fame basketball player, businessman and owner/chairman of the Charlotte Hornets; considered the best basketball player of all time (Brooklyn)
Sean Kilpatrick (born 1990), basketball player in NBA and for Hapoel Jerusalem of the Israeli Basketball Super League
Ken Labanowski (born 1959), basketball player
Sylven Landesberg (born 1990), basketball player
Rudy LaRusso (1927–2004), professional basketball player
Ivan Leshinsky (born 1947), American-Israeli basketball player
Nancy Lieberman (born 1958), WNBA Hall of Fame basketball player, general manager, and coach (Olympic silver medal)
Boris Nachamkin (1933–2018), professional basketball player
Joakim Noah (born 1985), professional basketball player (New York Knicks)
Lamar Odom (born 1979), former professional basketball player
Bernard Opper (1915–2000), professional basketball player
Donna Orender (née Geils) (born 1957), college basketball player and Women's Professional Basketball League All-Star; WNBA president
Tubby Raskin (1902–1981), basketball player and coach
Danny Schayes (born 1959), college and professional basketball player; son of Dolph Schayes
Dolph Schayes (1928–2015), NBA Hall of Fame player and coach
Ossie Schectman (1919–2013), basketball player; scored the first basket in NBA history
Barney Sedran (1891–1964), NBA Hall of Fame basketball player
Lou Silver, basketball player
Sid Tannenbaum (1925–1986), professional basketball player
Mark Turenshine (1944–2016), basketball player
Kemba Walker (born 1990), professional basketball player for the Charlotte Hornets
Metta World Peace (born 1979), former professional basketball player
Max Zaslofsky (1925–1985), professional basketball player
Adam Kemp, (born 1990), professional basketball player
Boxing
Abe "The Little Hebrew" Attell (1883–1970), boxer, World Featherweight Champion
Riddick "Big Daddy" Bowe (born 1967), World Heavyweight Champion
Shannon Briggs (born 1971), boxer, World Heavyweight Champion
Al "Bummy" Davis (1920–45), professional boxer (Brooklyn)
Abe Goldstein (1898–1977), boxer, World Bantamweight champion
Zab Judah (born 1977), boxer, World Welterweight and Junior Welterweight Champion Leiner; 1896–1947), boxer, World Lightweight Champion
Solly Krieger (1909–1964), boxer, World Middleweight Champion
Jake "Raging [Bronx] Bull" LaMotta (1922–2017), boxer, World Middleweight Champion
Boyd Melson (born 1981), boxer, World Military Boxing Champions in the 69 kg. weight class
Samuel Mosberg (1896–1967), boxer, Olympic light heavyweight champion
Floyd Patterson (1935–2006), boxer, World Heavyweight Champion
Sugar Ray Robinson (1921–1989), boxer, World Middleweight Champion
Maxie "Slapsie Maxie" Rosenbloom (1907–1976), World Light Heavyweight Champion
Charlie Phil Rosenberg (1902–1976), boxer, World Bantamweight Champion
Barney Ross (born Dov-Ber "Beryl" David Rosofsky; 1909–1967), boxer, world champion in three weight divisions: lightweight, light welterweight, and welterweight
Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz (1902–1988), boxer, World Flyweight Champion
Al "The Bronx Beauty" Singer (1909–1961), boxer, World Lightweight Champion
Gene Tunney (1897–1978), boxer, World Heavyweight Champion
Mike Tyson (born 1966), former professional boxer, World Heavyweight Champion
Coaches
Red Auerbach (1917–2006), basketball coach
Tom Coughlin (born 1946), football coach
Billy Cunningham (born 1943), basketball coach
Billy Donovan (born 1965), basketball coach
Brian Flores (born 1981), football coach
Bucky Harris (1896–1977), baseball manager
Vince Lombardi (1913–1970), football coach
Doug Marrone (born 1964), football coach
John McGraw (1873–1934), baseball manager
Joe Paterno (1926–2012), football coach
Matt Patricia (born 1974), football coach
Rick Pitino (born 1952), basketball coach
Pat Riley (born 1945), basketball coach
Allie Sherman (1923–2015), football coach
Joe Torre (born 1940), baseball manager
Jim Valvano (1946–1993), basketball coach
Pop Warner (1871–1954), football coach
Fencing
Norman C. Armitage (born Norman Cudworth Cohn; 1907–1972), Olympic medalist saber fencer, 6x Olympian
Albert Axelrod (1921–2004), Olympic medalist foil fencer, 5x Olympian
Cliff Bayer (born 1977), 2x Olympic foil fencer
Robert Blum (born 1928), 2x Olympic saber fencer
Daniel Bukantz (1917–2008), 4x Olympic foil fencer
Herbert Cohen (born 1940), 2x Olympic foil fencer
Gene Glazer (born 1939), 2x Olympic foil fencer
Hal Goldsmith (born Hans Goldschmidt; 1930–2004), 3x Olympic foil fencer
Ralph Goldstein (1913–1997), 2x Olympic épée fencer
Julia Jones-Pugliese (1909–1993), national champion fencer and fencing coach
Allan Kwartler (1917–1998), 3x Olympic sabre and foil fencer, Pan American Games and Maccabiah Games champion
Nate Lubell (1916–2006), 3x Olympic foil fencer
Tim Morehouse (born 1978), Olympic medalist saber fencer, 3x Olympian
Soren Thompson (born 1981), 2x Olympic and team World Champion épée fencer
American football
Doc Alexander (1897–1975), football player and coach
Lyle Alzado (1949–1992), football All Pro player (Denver Broncos, Los Angeles Raiders)
Jim Brown (born 1936), Hall of Fame football player (Cleveland Browns)
Jordan Dangerfield (born 1990), NFL football player
Boomer Esiason (born 1961), former football player (Cincinnati Bengals)
D'Brickashaw Ferguson (born 1983), NFL offensive tackle (New York Jets)
Jay Fiedler (born 1971), NFL football quarterback
Rob Gronkowski (born 1989), former football player (New England Patriots)
Thomas Hennessy (born 1994), football player
Mark Ingram Jr. (born 1989), football player (Baltimore Ravens)
Chandler Jones (born 1990), NFL outside linebacker
Brett Kern (born 1986), NFL punter (Tennessee Titans)
Sid Luckman (1916–1998), football player (Chicago Bears), inducted into Hall of Fame in 1965
John Mackey (1941–2011), football player (Baltimore Colts), inducted into Hall of Fame in 1992
Ali Marpet (born 1993), football player (Tampa Bay Buccaneers)
Josh Miller (born 1970), football player and football analyst
Art Monk (born 1957), former football player (Washington Redskins), inducted into Hall of Fame in 2008
Ed Newman (born 1951), All-Pro football player
Adam Podlesh (born 1983), football player
Ray Rice (born 1987), former football player (Baltimore Ravens)
Herb Rich (1928–2008), 2x All-Pro football player
Aaron "Rosy" Rosenberg (1912–1979), 2x All-American college football player, and film and television producer
Allie Sherman (1923–2015), National Football League player and head coach
Will Smith (1981–2016), football player (New Orleans Saints) (born in Queens)
Alan Veingrad (born 1963), NFL football player
Ice hockey
Ryan Callahan (born 1985), NHL ice hockey player (Tampa Bay Lightning) (Rochester)
Tim Erixon (born 1991), American-born Swedish ice hockey player (Port Chester)
Joel Farabee (born 2000), NHL ice hockey player (Philadelphia Flyers) (Cicero)
Adam Fox (born 1998), NHL ice hockey defenseman (New York Rangers)
Brian Gionta (born 1979), NHL ice hockey player (Buffalo Sabres) (Rochester)
Patrick Kane (born 1988), NHL ice hockey player (Chicago Blackhawks) (Buffalo)
Seymour H. Knox III (1926–1996), co-founder of the Buffalo Sabres
Alex "Mine Boy" Levinsky (1910–1990), American-born Canadian NHL player (Syracuse)
Eric Nystrom (born 1983), NHL player
Max Pacioretty (born 1988), NHL ice hockey player (Vegas Golden Knights)
Mathieu Schneider (born 1969), NHL player
Soccer
Jordan Cila (born 1982), Major League Soccer midfielder
Benny Feilhaber (born 1985), soccer midfielder
Shep Messing (born 1949), Olympic soccer goalkeeper and current broadcaster
Charlie Reiter (born 1988), soccer player
Sara Whalen (born 1976), Olympic soccer player
Tennis
Irvin Dorfman (1924–2006), tennis player
Herbert Flam (1928–1980), tennis player
Jim Grabb (born 1964), tennis player
Jim Gurfein (born 1961), tennis player
Ladislav Hecht (1909–2004), tennis player
Scott Lipsky (born 1981), tennis player
Jamie Loeb (born 1995), tennis player
Bruce Manson (born 1956), tennis player
John McEnroe (born 1959), tennis player
Renée Richards (born 1934), tennis player
Noah Rubin (born 1996), tennis player
Julius Seligson (1909–1987), tennis player
Bill Tilden (1893–1953), tennis player
Other sports
Ed Banach (born 1960), Olympic gold medalist in freestyle wrestling
Lou Banach (born 1960), Olympic gold medalist in freestyle wrestling
Herman Barron (1909–1978), professional golfer
Jeff Blatnick (1957–2012), Olympic gold medalist in Greco-Roman wrestling
Andy Bloom (born 1973), Olympic shot putter
Glenn Cowan (1952–2004), table tennis player
Kyle Dake (born 1991), World Champion in freestyle wrestling, won four NCAA wrestling national titles in four different weight classes
Tommy Dreamer (born 1971), professional wrestler (Yonkers)
Jim Drucker (born 1952/1953), former Commissioner of the Continental Basketball Association, former Commissioner of the Arena Football League, and founder of NewKadia Comics
Mick Foley (born 1965), professional wrestler and author
Danielle Goldstein (born 1985), American-Israeli show jumper
Laurie Hernandez (born 2000), artistic gymnast, gold medalist at the 2016 Rio Olympics, and winner of Dancing with the Stars season 23
Kevin Jackson (born 1964), Olympic gold medalist and two-time world champion in freestyle wrestling
Caitlyn Jenner (formerly Bruce Jenner) (born 1949), retired decathlete, gold medalist at the 1976 Montreal Olympics, and television personality
Jon Jones (born 1987), UFC champion
Ryan Lochte (born 1984), competitive swimmer, gold medalist at the 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2016 Olympics, and contestant on Dancing with the Stars season 23 (Rochester)
Lia Neal (born 1995), competitive swimmer, silver and bronze Olympic medalist (Brooklyn)
Colette Nelson (born 1974), professional bodybuilder
Beth Phoenix (born 1980), professional wrestler (born in Elmira, New York)
Judy Shapiro-Ikenberry (born 1942), long-distance runner
Ashley Twichell (born 1989), Olympic swimmer (Fayetteville)
Business
John Jacob Astor, fur trader and company founder
Nicholas F. Brady, former CEO of Dillon Read and 68th United States Secretary of the Treasury
C. Douglas Dillon, former CEO of Dillon Read, United States Ambassador to France (1953–1957), and 57th United States Secretary of the Treasury
George Eastman (1854–1932), founder of Eastman Kodak
Joseph Ellicott (1760–1826), surveyor and city planner
William Fargo (1818–1881), co-founder of American Express Company and Wells Fargo; Mayor of Buffalo
Reggie Fils-Aimé (born 1961), president and chief operating officer of Nintendo of America
Debra Fox, founder of Fox Learning Systems
Alexander Snow Gordon (died 1803), silversmith
Scott Greenstein (born 1959), president and chief content officer of Sirius XM Satellite Radio
E. H. Harriman, errand boy, broker, railroader
George A. Hormel (1860–1946), founder of Hormel
Jeremy Jacobs (born 1940), owner of Delaware North and Boston Bruins
John J. Kennedy (1857–1914), financier and 45th New York State Treasurer
Seymour H. Knox I (1861–1915), businessman and co-founder of F. W. Woolworth Company
Seymour H. Knox II (1898–1990), philanthropist and former director of Marine Midland Bank
Reginald Lenna, CEO and philanthropist
Jon L. Luther, food service executive
Sherman J. Maisel (1918–2010), economist
Jeremiah Milbank, banker, co-founder of Borden Milk Co. (1857)
Jacquelyn Ottman, marketing consultant
Henry Paulson, former CEO of Goldman Sachs and United States Secretary of the Treasury
Nelson Peltz (born 1942), billionaire businessman and investor
Joseph R. Perella, financier
Jeffry Picower (1942–2009), investor and noted philanthropist involved in the Madoff investment scandal
Pat Powers (1870–1948), movie producer
Donald Regan, former CEO of Merrill Lynch and 66th United States Secretary of the Treasury
Robert E. Rich Sr. (1913–2006), inventor and foodservice executive
David Rockefeller (1915–2017), banker
John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), philanthropist and founder of Standard Oil
John D. Rockefeller Jr., philanthropist and financier
William Rockefeller (1841–1941), co-founder of Standard Oil
Jeffrey Rosen, billionaire businessman
Robert Rubin, former CEO of Goldman Sachs and 70th United States Secretary of the Treasury
Scott Rudin, movie producer
Jacob Schiff, Wall Street executive and banker
Edward Selzer (1893–1970), movie producer
Ellsworth Milton Statler (1863–1928), hotelier
Stuart Sternberg (born 1959), owner of the Tampa Bay Rays
Jill Stuart, fashion designer
Donald Trump Jr. (born 1977), businessman; eldest son of Donald Trump and brother of Eric, Ivanka, and Tiffany
Eric Trump (born 1984), philanthropist and businessman; son of Donald Trump and brother of Ivanka, Tiffany, and Donald Jr.
Ivanka Trump (born 1981), businesswoman, writer, and former fashion model; daughter of Donald Trump and sister of Eric, Donald Jr., and Tiffany
Tiffany Trump (born 1993), daughter of Donald Trump and sister of Ivanka, Eric, and Donald Jr.
Cornelius Vanderbilt, ferry and tugboat captain, company founder, and railroader
Sanford Weill, former CEO of Citigroup
Henry Wells (1805–1878), businessman
Bob Weinstein, movie producer and co-founder of Miramax Films
Harvey Weinstein, movie producer and co-founder of Miramax Films
John G. Wickser (1858–1928), businessman and New York State Treasurer (1903–1904)
Robert G. Wilmers (1934–2017), CEO of M&T Bank
Christopher Woodrow, movie producer
Mark Zuckerberg (born 1984), founder and CEO of Facebook
Fashion, beauty, and modeling
Keith Carlos (born 1987), fashion model, former football player, and winner of America's Next Top Model season 21
Nyle DiMarco (born 1989), model, actor, deaf activist, and winner of Dancing with the Stars season 22 and America's Next Top Model season 22
Tom Ford (born 1961), fashion designer, film director, screenwriter, and film producer
Mary Therese Friel (born 1960), beauty queen, model, businesswoman, and winner of Miss USA 1979
Marc Jacobs (born 1963), fashion designer and former creative director of Louis Vuitton (1997–2014)
Scarlett Johansson (born 1984), actress, model, and singer
Calvin Klein (born 1942), fashion designer and founder of Calvin Klein Inc
Michael Kors (born 1959), sportswear fashion designer; founder and CEO of Michael Kors Holdings
Ralph Lauren (born 1939), fashion designer, philanthropist, business executive, and founder of the Ralph Lauren Corporation
Stacy London (born 1969), stylist, fashion consultant
Jackie Loughery (born 1930), actress, beauty queen, and inaugural winner of Miss USA
Sienna Miller (born 1981), actress, model, and fashion designer
Sarah Natochenny (born 1987), actress, film editor, fashion model, and voice actress
Rachel Nichols (born 1980), actress and model
Hayden Panettiere (born 1989), actress, model, singer, and activist
Kimberly Pressler (born 1977), model, reality television star, and first runner-up at Miss USA 1995
Tanya Roberts (1955–2020), actress, model
Carmen Marc Valvo (born 1953), evening-wear and high-end cocktail dress designer
Lawyers and jurists
Nicholas Allard (born 1952), Dean and President of Brooklyn Law School
Benjamin N. Cardozo (1870–1938), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
Alan Dershowitz (born 1938), Harvard Law School professor and scholar of United States constitutional law and criminal law
Linda Fairstein (born 1947), prosecutor and author
Gerrit Forbes (1836–1906), Justice of the Supreme Court of New York
Felix Frankfurter (1882–1965), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
Henry Friendly (1903–1986), judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
Kumiki Gibson, lawyer
Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1933–2020), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
Arthur Goldberg (1908–1990), United States Secretary of Labor, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and United States Ambassador to the United Nations
Alvin Hellerstein (born 1933), United States federal judge
John Jay (1745–1829), first Chief Justice of the United States
Elena Kagan (born 1960), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
A. Leo Levin (1919–2015), law professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School
John Roberts (born 1955), Chief Justice of the United States
Antonin Scalia (1936–2016), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
Sonia Sotomayor (born 1954), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
Amy Wax (born 1953), Robert Mundheim Professor of Law at the University of Pennsylvania Law School
Religious leaders
Avraham Qanaï, leader of one of the first Karaite Jewish congregations in the United States
Emanuel Rackman (1910–2008), Modern Orthodox rabbi; President of Bar-Ilan University
Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902–1994), Orthodox Jewish rabbi
Science and medicine
Richard Axel (born 1946), scientist and Nobel Prize winner
Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), biochemist, pharmacologist and Nobel Prize winner
Richard P. Feynman (1918–1988), physicist and Nobel prize winner
Murray Gerstenhaber (born 1927), mathematician and lawyer
Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer
Jonas Salk (1914–1995), scientist and developed first polio vaccine
George Herman Babcock (1832–1893), inventor
William Martin Beauchamp, ethnologist and clergyman. Born in Orange County, he served an Episcopal parish in Baldwinsville for 35 years while also performing archæological research, particularly concerning the Haudenosaunee, and publishing his findings in eight books between 1892 and 1908.
Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, abolitionist, women's rights activist, and the first female doctor in the United States, studied medicine at Geneva College.
Willis Carrier, inventor
Cornelius Cooper, African-American physician, famous for his lawsuit to separate from the U.S. Army as an objector to the war while attending West Point Military Academy
Dr. Asa Fitch of Salem, first occupational entomologist in the United States. In 1838 he began to collect and study insects for New York state. In 1854 he became the first professional Entomologist of New York State Agricultural Society, commissioned by the State of New York.
Dr. George Franklin Grant. Born in Oswego, he was the first African-American professor at Harvard. He was also a Boston dentist, and the inventor of the golf tee.
James Hall (paleontologist)
Professor Joseph Henry, scientist who advanced the understanding of electricity, and who served as the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Franklin B. Hough
Irving Langmuir, chemist and physicist, Nobel laureate and resident of Schenectady.
Eben Jenks Loomis, born at Oppenheim, was an astronomer. He was assistant in the Harvard American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac office from 1850 until his retirement in 1900. During this time he also held the position of special assistant at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC. He was a member of the United States eclipse expedition to Africa of 1889.
Lewis Henry Morgan of Aurora and Rochester, ethnologist, anthropologist, writer and attorney. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels relied on his accounts of the evolution of indigenous peoples to fill in their own account of the development of capitalist society.
Roger Tory Peterson, naturalist, ornithologist, writer and educator, born in Jamestown.
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, geographer, geologist, and ethnologist, born in Guilderland.
Dr. Edward Livingston Trudeau, established the Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium at Saranac Lake for treatment of tuberculosis.
Charles Doolittle Walcott, paleontologist
Dr. Mary Edwards Walker of Oswego, feminist, abolitionist, prohibitionist, suffragist, alleged spy, prisoner of war, surgeon, and the only woman to receive the Medal of Honor.
Henry Augustus Ward
Foreign-born New Yorkers
Andrulla Blanchette (born 1966), British-born professional bodybuilder
Maksim Chmerkovskiy (born 1980), Ukrainian-born Latin ballroom dancer, choreographer, and instructor from ABC's Dancing with the Stars; brother of Val
Valentin Chmerkovskiy (born 1986), Ukrainian-born professional dancer from ABC's Dancing with the Stars; brother of Maks
Laura Creavalle (born 1959), Guyanese-born Canadian/American professional bodybuilder
Lisa Cross (born 1978), British-born professional bodybuilder
Steven Derounian (1918–2007), Bulgarian-born politician and former United States Representative of New York (1953–1963, 1963–65)
Heather Foster (born 1966), Jamaican-born American professional bodybuilder
Bev Francis (born 1955), Australian-born professional bodybuilder, powerlifter, and national shot put champion
Carolina Herrera (born 1939), Venezuelan-born fashion designer; dress designer of First Ladies from Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis to Michelle Obama
Kyrie Irving (born 1992), Australian-born American professional basketball player for the Brooklyn Nets (formerly for the Cleveland Cavaliers)
John Kneller (1916–2009), English-American professor and fifth President of Brooklyn College
John Leguizamo (born 1964), Colombian-born actor, voice actor, producer, and stand-up comedian
Sean Patrick Maloney (born 1966), Canadian-born politician and U.S. Representative of New York since 2013
Joel McHale (born 1971), Italian-born actor, comedian, writer, television producer, and television host
Nicki Minaj (born 1982), Trinidadian-born rapper and actress
Pelé (real name Edson Arantes do Nascimento) (born 1940), Brazilian-born iconic soccer player and honorary president of the New York Cosmos; considered the best soccer player of all time
Keanu Reeves (born 1964), Lebanese-born Canadian/American actor, producer, and musician
Alana Shipp (born 1982), Barbadian-born Israeli/American professional bodybuilder
Gene Simmons (real name Chaim Weitz) (born 1949), Israeli-born musician, singer-songwriter, record producer, entrepreneur, actor, television personality, and lead singer of the band Kiss
Albio Sires (born 1951), Cuban-born politician and United States Representative of New Jersey since 2006
Snooki (real name Nicole Polizzi) (born 1987), Chilean-born reality television personality from Jersey Shore
Bruce Willis (born 1955), German-born American actor, producer, and singer
Jason Wu (born 1982), Taiwanese-born Canadian/American fashion designer and designer of First Lady Michelle Obama's dresses
Infamous New Yorkers
David Berkowitz (born 1953), serial killer (also known as "Son of Sam" and ".44 Caliber Killer")
Billy the Kid (1859–1881), notorious wild west criminal
Al Capone (1899–1947), gangster; co-founder and boss of the Chicago Outfit
Frank Costello (1891–1973), Italian-American Mafia gangster
Robert Garrow (1936–1978), spree killer
David Hampton (1964–2003), actor and impostor; posed as Poitier's son "David" in 1983, which inspired a play and film
Steven Hoffenberg, CEO and fraudster
Lucky Luciano (1897–1962), mobster; considered the father of modern organized crime in the United States
Eugene Palmer (born 1939) murderer and FBI most wanted fugitive
Theodore Rinaldo (1944–2000), convicted child sex offender
Shirley Winters (born 1948), convicted arsonist and accused serial killer
Joseph James DeAngelo (born 1945) serial killer (also known as the "Golden State Killer")
Other
Lina Beecher (1841–1915), roller coaster designer and inventor
William Boylan (1869–1940), first President of Brooklyn College
Grace Brown (1886–1906), murder victim
Harry Gideonse (1901–1985), President of Brooklyn College, and Chancellor of The New School for Social Research
Wilson Greatbatch (1919–2011), inventor
Frances Shimer (1826–1901), founder of Shimer College
Richard Stallman (born 1953), programmer of Emacs and founder of GNU
Josephine Terranova (1889–1981), criminal defendant
See also
List of people associated with Albany County, New York
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226445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel%20Redding | Noel Redding | David Noel Redding (25 December 1945 – 11 May 2003) was an English rock musician, best known as the bass player for the Jimi Hendrix Experience and guitarist/singer for Fat Mattress.
Following his departure from the Experience in 1969 and the dissolution of Fat Mattress in 1970, Redding formed the short-lived group Road in the United States, which released the self-titled album Road before he re-located to Clonakilty, Ireland, in 1972. There he formed the Noel Redding Band with former Thin Lizzy guitarist Eric Bell, with whom he released two albums. Although by the 1980s Redding had largely removed himself from the music business, he would later perform around his new hometown with wife Carol Appleby.
He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Jimi Hendrix Experience in 1992.
Biography
Background
Redding was born at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Folkestone, Kent, to Bromley-born Margaret (née Berggren) and Horace Albert Redding. He grew up on Cliff Road, Seabrook, where his mother ran a guest house, with his mother, his Swedish-born grandmother, his brother Anthony, and his sister Vicki. He attended St Leonards Primary school in Hythe, and the Harvey Grammar School in Folkestone. At the age of nine he played violin at school, and then mandolin and guitar. His first public appearances were at the Hythe Youth Club, and at his school.
At 17 Redding became a professional musician and toured clubs in Scotland and Germany with Neil Landon and the Burnettes (formed in late 1962) and the Loving Kind (formed in November 1965). In addition, the Lonely Ones reunited in September 1964, and Redding remained with them a year before taking his leave.
The Jimi Hendrix Experience
Upon his arrival in England in September 1966, Jimi Hendrix and his producer/manager Chas Chandler set about finding backing musicians. Although Redding had played guitar up to that point, he switched to bass guitar and became the second member of the Jimi Hendrix Experience, followed shortly by drummer Mitch Mitchell, to form a power trio. With the group, he recorded three landmark albums: Are You Experienced, Axis: Bold as Love, and Electric Ladyland. Redding also wrote and sang lead on two songs, "Little Miss Strange" and "She's So Fine". His playing style was distinguished by the use of a pick, a mid-range "trebly" sound, and in later years the use of fuzz and distortion effects through overdriven Sunn amps. For the bass line in "Red House", Redding played the bass strings on a normal six-string guitar.
By 1969, Hendrix was performing and recording with a number of different musicians. Without consulting Redding, Hendrix announced that he intended to expand the group. Redding responded by quitting the Experience during the American tour on 29 June 1969, and returned to England. However, when Hendrix's attempts to form a new group were unsuccessful, his manager, Michael Jeffery, tried to reunite the Experience in early 1970. The three were interviewed by Rolling Stone magazine to announce the reformation, but ultimately Redding was passed over in favor of bassist Billy Cox, who had performed with Hendrix at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys album with Buddy Miles.
Fat Mattress
In 1968, Redding formed the group Fat Mattress with another Kent musician, Neil Landon. The band also included Jim Leverton on bass and keyboards and Eric Dillon on drums. Redding played guitar and vocals, and a key part of the Fat Mattress sound was the vocal harmonies between him, Landon and Leverton. The band initially toured in support of the Jimi Hendrix Experience, requiring Redding to play two full sets each night. He left Fat Mattress after only one album with them, though some of his compositions would appear on their second album.
Later years
Redding soon went on to other projects. While living in Los Angeles, he formed Road, a three-piece in the same psychedelic hard rock vein as the Experience, with Rod Richards (ex-Rare Earth) on guitar and Les Sampson on drums, and Redding switching back to bass. They released one album, Road (1972), with the three members taking turns on lead vocals.
Redding moved to Ireland in 1972. He formed the Noel Redding Band with Eric Bell (from Thin Lizzy), Dave Clarke, Les Sampson, and Robbie Walsh. Despite the band's name, Redding shared songwriting and lead vocal duties equally with Clarke. They released two albums for RCA, three tours of the Netherlands, two tours of England, one tour of Ireland, and a 10-week tour in the US. The band dissolved after a dispute with their management company. Tracks recorded for a third unreleased album were later released as The Missing Album on Mouse Records.
In his book Are You Experienced?, co-authored with his long-term wife Carol Appleby, he spoke openly about his disappointment in his being cut off from the profits of the continued sale of the Hendrix recordings. He had signed away his royalties in 1974, and in 1980 sold the bass guitar he used with the Experience to a collector. Redding had received $100,000 as a one-off payment after he had been told that there would be no more releases of Jimi Hendrix Experience material. This was before the advent of CDs and DVDs.
In 1990, Redding and Appleby were involved in a car crash returning home from a concert in Glounthaune. Appleby was left brain dead by the accident, with Redding later stating that "she was in intensive care on life support and after four days I had to make the terrible decision of shutting down the machine". They had been together for seventeen years and, just two days prior to the accident, Appleby had finished helping Redding co-write his autobiography.
In 1997, Fender produced the Noel Redding Signature Jazz bass in a signed limited edition of 1000. Premiered at the NAMM Show in January 1997, the bass was based on the 1964 Jazz bass which Redding used throughout his time with the Experience. Redding tracked down the person to whom he had sold the bass some years prior, who agreed to allow Fender to inspect it. Redding stating that "Fender got the original bass from him, copied it, and sent me a prototype, and it was exactly the same as my original bass; they did a brilliant job".
After meeting San Francisco musician and songwriter Keith Dion in London during the awarding of an English Heritage Blue Plaque Award in 1997, Redding performed several tours across the United States with Dion's band "3:05 AM". Recordings from these tours were released on the UK and European releases "West Cork Tuning" and "Stone Free". Video footage from these tours was shown in May 2014 during the now annual Noel Redding Tribute Festival held in Clonakilty each year. Positive feedback was also received from the Irish Cultural Minister and the head of the Irish Film Board.
In 2002, a live album Live From Bunkr Prague was released. Predominantly made up of Experience material, the concert was recorded in 1995 in the Czech Republic with guitarist and singer Anthony Krizan of the Spin Doctors, rhythm guitarist Ivan Kral of the Patti Smith Group and drummer Frankie LaRocka. The band rehearsed for a mere 45 minutes before performing. Vaclav Havel, the then President of the Czech Republic watched from the side of the stage.
Redding's last performance was in Clonakilty at De Barras pub, where he had held the Friday night residency for nearly 20 years, performing with some of the local musicians who appeared on his last album Thank You, Goodnight and Good Luck including Steve Pawsey, Jeff Ward, Jim O'Neil, Eric Bell and Les Sampson.
Death
Redding was found dead in his home in Clonakilty on 11 May 2003, three weeks after the death of his mother. A postmortem was carried out on 13 May at Cork University Hospital in Wilton, Cork. The report concluded that Redding died from "shock haemorrhage due to oesophageal varices in reaction to cirrhosis of the liver". He was 57 years old; he was survived by a brother, a sister, and a son, Nicolas Noel Redding, by his former wife, Danish-born Susanne.
Legacy
In the village of Ardfield, local people erected a plaque to Redding's memory. His then partner, the US-born Deborah McNaughton, had returned to America where she died from breast cancer nine months after Redding's death.
Three months prior to his death, Redding had threatened to sue Experience Hendrix, LLC, the company that manages the Hendrix catalogue, for £3.26 million in lost earnings. The estate rejected his claim and went on to release a posthumous compilation album entitled The Experience Sessions in 2004. Along with unreleased takes of Redding-penned Experience album tracks "She's So Fine" and "Little Miss Strange", the album contained unreleased songs recorded by The Jimi Hendrix Experience which Redding had written whilst with the band. Most of the tracks are outtakes from the Axis: Bold As Love and Electric Ladyland albums, and feature Redding on guitar with Hendrix on bass. It also featured a live version of Hendrix's "Red House" with Redding on rhythm guitar. Notably the album features the song "Dream", but omits the other Redding-penned song "Dance" which was recorded during the same session on which Hendrix participated on bass. Written by Redding for drummer Mitch Mitchell to sing, Hendrix would later take Redding's guitar riff and use it for his own song "Ezy Rider", which was first released on the posthumous album The Cry of Love.
A town square in Redding's hometown of Folkestone was renamed "Noel's Yard" as a memorial, described as being "a public 'Theatre in a Square' which promotes commerce, the arts, entertainment, as well as the best of British seaside living within a vibrant and safe creative community".
In 2013, an art exhibition was organised to mark the 10th anniversary of Redding's death. It was opened by his brother Anthony.
Discography
The Loving Kind
"Accidental Love" / "Nothing Can Change This Love" (Piccadilly 7N 35299) 1966
"Love the Things You Do" / "Treat Me Nice" (Piccadilly 7N 35318) 1966
"Ain't That Peculiar" / "With Rhyme and Reason" (Piccadilly 7N 35342) 1966
The Jimi Hendrix Experience
For a more complete listing of Redding's recordings with Hendrix, see Jimi Hendrix discography and Jimi Hendrix posthumous discography.
Are You Experienced (1967)
Axis: Bold as Love (1967)
Electric Ladyland (1968)
Fat Mattress
Fat Mattress (1969)
Fat Mattress II (1970)
"Naturally" / "Iridescent Butterfly" (1969)
"Magic Lanterns" / "Bright New Way" (1969)
"Highway" / "Black Sheep of the Family" (1970, co-wrote the A-side only, no performance)
Road
Road (1972)
Randy California
Kapt. Kopter and the (Fabulous) Twirly Birds (1972, appears pseudonymously on three songs)
Noel Redding Band (also known as the Clonakilty Cowboys)
Clonakilty Cowboys (1975)
Blowin' (1976)
The Missing Album (1995)
"Roller Coaster Kids" / "Snowstorm"
"Take It Easy" / "Back on the Road Again"
Lord Sutch and Heavy Friends
Lord Sutch and Heavy Friends (1970)
British Invasion All-Stars
British Invasion All-Stars (2001)
305 AM and Keith Dion
West Cork Tuning (2001)
West Coast Experience (2002)
Stone Free (2003)
On Tour with 305 AM (2003)
West Cork Tuning Deluxe Edition (2003)
Noel Redding and Friends
Live From Bunkr Prague (2002)
Thank You, Goodnight and Gud' Luck (2009)
Yardbirds Experience
Family Tree: Birds of a Feather (2006)
References
Sources
Obituary from Billboard.com
1945 births
2003 deaths
Deaths from cirrhosis
English rock singers
English male singer-songwriters
Rhythm guitarists
English rock guitarists
English rock bass guitarists
British rhythm and blues boom musicians
People from Folkestone
Musicians from Kent
The Jimi Hendrix Experience members
People educated at The Harvey Grammar School
English expatriates in Ireland
Alcohol-related deaths in Ireland
Male bass guitarists
20th-century English bass guitarists
21st-century English bass guitarists
English people of Swedish descent
Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages members
The Noel Redding Band members
Fat Mattress members
Lord Sutch and Heavy Friends members
20th-century British male singers | [
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226446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging | Imaging | Imaging is the representation or reproduction of an object's form; especially a visual representation (i.e., the formation of an image).
Imaging technology is the application of materials and methods to create, preserve, or duplicate images.
Imaging science is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the generation, collection, duplication, analysis, modification, and visualization of images, including imaging things that the human eye cannot detect. As an evolving field it includes research and researchers from physics, mathematics, electrical engineering, computer vision, computer science, and perceptual psychology.
Imager are imaging sensors.
Imaging chain
The foundation of imaging science as a discipline is the "imaging chain" – a conceptual model describing all of the factors which must be considered when developing a system for creating visual renderings (images). In general, the links of the imaging chain include:
The human visual system. Designers must also consider the psychophysical processes which take place in human beings as they make sense of information received through the visual system.
The subject of the image. When developing an imaging system, designers must consider the observables associated with the subjects which will be imaged. These observables generally take the form of emitted or reflected energy, such as electromagnetic energy or mechanical energy.
The capture device. Once the observables associated with the subject are characterized, designers can then identify and integrate the technologies needed to capture those observables. For example, in the case of consumer digital cameras, those technologies include optics for collecting energy in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and electronic detectors for converting the electromagnetic energy into an electronic signal.
The processor. For all digital imaging systems, the electronic signals produced by the capture device must be manipulated by an algorithm which formats the signals so they can be displayed as an image. In practice, there are often multiple processors involved in the creation of a digital image.
The display. The display takes the electronic signals which have been manipulated by the processor and renders them on some visual medium. Examples include paper (for printed, or "hard copy" images), television, computer monitor, or projector.
Note that some imaging scientists will include additional "links" in their description of the imaging chain. For example, some will include the "source" of the energy which "illuminates" or interacts with the subject of the image. Others will include storage and/or transmission systems.
Subfields
Subfields within imaging science include: image processing, computer vision, 3D computer graphics, animations, atmospheric optics, astronomical imaging, biological imaging, digital image restoration, digital imaging, color science, digital photography, holography, magnetic resonance imaging, medical imaging, microdensitometry, optics, photography, remote sensing, radar imaging, radiometry, silver halide, ultrasound imaging, photoacoustic imaging, thermal imaging, visual perception, and various printing technologies.
Methodologies
Acoustic imaging
Chemical imaging, the simultaneous measurement of spectra and pictures
Digital imaging, creating digital images, generally by scanning or through digital photography
Disk image, a file which contains the exact content of a data storage medium
Document imaging, replicating documents commonly used in business
Geophysical imaging
Industrial process imaging
Medical imaging, creating images of the human body or parts of it, to diagnose or examine disease
Medical optical imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging
Molecular imaging
Radar imaging, or imaging radar, for obtaining an image of an object, not just its location and speed
Range imaging, for obtaining images with depth information
Reprography, reproduction of graphics through electrical and mechanical means
Cinematography
Photography, the process of creating still images
Xerography, the method of photocopying
Speckle imaging, a method of shift-and-add for astronomical imaging
Stereo imaging, an aspect of sound recording and reproduction concerning spatial locations of the performers
Thermography, infrared imaging
Tactile imaging, also known as elastography
Examples
Imaging technology materials and methods include:
Computer graphics
Virtual camera system used in computer and video games and virtual cinematography
Microfilm and Micrographics
Visual arts
Etching
Drawing and Technical drawing
Film
Painting
Photography
Multiple-camera setup enables stereoscopy and stereophotogrammetry
Light-field camera (basically refocusable photography)
Printmaking
Sculpture
Infrared
Radar imagery
Ultrasound
Multi-spectral image
Electro-optical sensor
Charge-coupled device
Ground-penetrating radar
Electron microscope
Imagery analysis
Medical radiography
Industrial radiography
LIDAR
Structured-light 3D scanner
See also
Image development (disambiguation)
Image processing
Nonimaging optics
Society for Imaging Science and Technology
The Imaging Science Journal
References
Further reading
Harrison H. Barrett and Kyle J. Myers, Foundations of Image Science (John Wiley & Sons, 2004)
Ronald N. Bracewell, Fourier Analysis and Imaging (Kluwer Academic, 2003)
Roger L. Easton, Jr., Fourier Methods in Imaging (John Wiley & Sons, 2010) DOI 10.1002/9780470660102
Robert D. Fiete, Modeling the Imaging Chain of Digital Cameras (SPIE Press, 2010)
External links
Carlson Center for Imaging Science at RIT Research center that offers B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in Imaging Science.
The University of Arizona College of Optical Sciences offers an image science track for the M.S and Ph.D. degree in optical sciences.
Science de l'image et des médias numériques Bachelor of image science and digital media unique in Canada.
Image Sciences Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands Utrecht University Institute for Image Sciences - focuses on fundamental and applied research in specifically medical image processing and acquisition.
Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science - dedicated to using imaging to improve health-care and for advancing knowledge in the biological sciences. | [
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226454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadwall | Gadwall | The gadwall (Mareca strepera) is a common and widespread dabbling duck in the family Anatidae.
Taxonomy
The gadwall was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. DNA studies have shown that it is a sister species with the falcated duck; the two are closely related to the three species of wigeons, and all of them have been assigned to the genus Mareca. There are two subspecies:
M. s. strepera, the common gadwall, described by Linnaeus, is the nominate subspecies.
M. s. couesi, Coues's gadwall, extinct 1874, was formerly found only on Teraina, a coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean.
The specific name strepera is Late Latin for "noisy". The etymology of the word gadwall is not known, but the name has been in use since 1666.
Description
The gadwall is long with a wingspan. The male is slightly larger than the female, weighing on average against her . The breeding male is patterned grey, with a black rear end, light chestnut wings, and a brilliant white speculum, obvious in flight or at rest. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage, the drake looks more like the female, but retains the male wing pattern, and is usually greyer above and has less orange on the bill.
The female is light brown, with plumage much like a female mallard. It can be distinguished from that species by the dark orange-edged bill, smaller size, the white speculum, and white belly. Both sexes go through two moults annually, following a juvenile moult.
The gadwall is a quieter duck, except during its courtship display. Females give a call similar to the quack of a female mallard but higher-pitched, transcribed as gag-ag-ag-ag. Males give a grunt, transcribed as mep, and a whistle.
Distribution
The gadwall breeds in the northern areas of Europe and across the Palearctic, and central North America. In North America, its breeding range lies along the Saint Lawrence River, through the Great Lakes, Alberta, Saskatchewan, the Dakotas, south to Kansas, west to California, and along coastal Pacific Canada and southern coastal Alaska. The range of this bird appears to be expanding into eastern North America. This dabbling duck is strongly migratory, and winters farther south than its breeding range, from coastal Alaska, south into Central America, and east into Idaho, Kansas, Ohio, Virginia, and then south all the way into Central America.
In Great Britain, the gadwall is a scarce-breeding bird and winter visitor, though its population has increased in recent years. It is likely that its expansion was partly through introduction, mainly to England, and partly through colonization by continental birds staying to breed in Scotland. In Ireland a small breeding population has recently become established, centred on County Wexford in the south and Lough Neagh in the north. The Gadwall is also seen in some parts of South Asia, particularly the southern part of India.
Behaviour
The gadwall is a bird of open wetlands, such as prairie or steppe lakes, wet grassland or marshes with dense fringing vegetation, and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food with head submerged. They can also dive underwater for food, more proficiently than other dabbling ducks, and may also steal food from diving birds such as coots. It nests on the ground, often some distance from water. It is not as gregarious as some dabbling ducks outside the breeding season and tends to form only small flocks.
Gadwalls are monogamous and may start breeding after their first year. Pair formation begins during fall migration or on breeding grounds, but has also been reported to occur in August when males are still in eclipse plumage. Gadwalls are generally quiet, except during courtship. The male utters a mep call during a display known as the burp, where he raises his head pointing his bill towards a female. The grunt-whistle is similar to that of mallards, where the male rears his outstretched head with the bill dipped into water, displacing a stream of water droplets towards a nearby female as the bill is raised against the chest. During this display the male makes a loud whistle call followed by a low burp. Paired males may follow other females in flight displays.
Young birds feed on insects at first; adults also eat some molluscs and insects during the nesting season.
Conservation
Currently, the gadwall is listed as least concern in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The gadwall is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Populations have increased approximately 2.5% over the course of 49 years (from 1966 to 2010), and continue to grow. Gadwalls are one of the most hunted duck species (3rd to the mallard and green-winged teal), with 1.7 million shot each year.
Because of the efforts of the United States and Canadian groups Ducks Unlimited, Delta Waterfowl Foundation and other private conservation groups, the species continues to be sustainably hunted there.
Gallery
References
Literature cited
Gadwall Duck Journal (Anas Strepera): 150 Page Lined Notebook/diary. N.p.: CreateSpace Publishing Platform, 2018. ISBN 9781724968739
External links
RSPB Birds by Name Gadwall Page
Gadwall Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Gadwall – Anas strepera – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Gadwal at the Massachusetts Breeding Bird Atlas
Feathers of gadwall (Anas strepera)
Mareca
Ducks
Holarctic birds
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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226464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakebite%20%28disambiguation%29 | Snakebite (disambiguation) | A Snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake.
Snakebite or snake bite may also refer to:
Music
Snakebite, a German band that featured Doro
Snakebite (album), a 1978 album by Whitesnake
"Snakebite," a song from Alice Cooper's album Hey Stoopid
"Snakebite," a song from Big D and the Kids Table's album Strictly Rude
"Snakebite," a song from Judas Priest's album Redeemer of Souls
Other
Snakebite (drink), an alcoholic beverage made with beer and cider
Snake Bite (truck), a monster truck
Snakebite Township, Bertie County, North Carolina, a former municipality in the United States
Peter Wright (darts player), darts player nicknamed Snakebite
Snake bites, a type of lip piercing, or any two body piercings placed side by side
Young Sherlock Holmes: Snake Bite, a novel written by Andy Lane
Snake bite, an abusive prank where the prankster twists another persons forearm/wrist | [
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226465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me%20de%20cassis | Crème de cassis | Crème de cassis () (also known as Cassis liqueur) is a sweet, dark red liqueur made from blackcurrants.
Several cocktails are made with crème de cassis, including the very popular wine cocktail, kir.
It may also be served as an after-dinner liqueur or as a frappé.
Ingredients
It is made from blackcurrants that are crushed and soaked in alcohol, with sugar subsequently added.
Origin and production
The modern version of the beverage first appeared in 1841, when it displaced "ratafia de cassis", which had been produced in prior centuries.
While crème de cassis is a specialty of Burgundy, it is also made in Anjou, England, Luxembourg, Alberta, Quebec and Tasmania.
The quality of crème de cassis depends upon the variety of fruit used, the content of the berries, and the production process. If it is labelled "Crème de Cassis de Dijon", one is guaranteed berries from the commune of Dijon.
In 1979, Germany attempted to restrict the import based on the alcohol content being too low. The Europe Court of Justice found this to be a breach of trade, in Rewe-Zentral AG v Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein.
In 2015, the new protected geographical indication (PGI) "Crème de Cassis de Bourgogne" was approved. Promoted by a syndicate of fruit producers and liqueurs companies from Burgundy, this "Crème de Cassis de Bourgogne" guarantees the Burgundian origin and the minimum quantity of berries used in its production, essentially the variety Noir de Bourgogne.
Sales
Nearly of crème de cassis are produced annually in France. It is consumed mostly in France but is also exported.
In popular culture
In the movie At War with the Army, while in drag to sneak off base, Jerry Lewis orders this at the bar, to the surprise of the bartender.
It is a favourite drink of the fictional detective Hercule Poirot.
References
French liqueurs
Berry liqueurs | [
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226469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell%20F3H%20Demon | McDonnell F3H Demon | The McDonnell F3H Demon is a subsonic swept-wing United States Navy carrier-based jet fighter aircraft. The successor to the F2H Banshee, the Demon was originally designed to use the Westinghouse J40 engine, but had to be redesigned to accept the Allison J71 after the J40 suffered severe problems and was ultimately abandoned. Though it lacked sufficient power for supersonic performance, it complemented day fighters such as the Vought F8U Crusader and Grumman F11F Tiger as an all-weather, missile-armed interceptor until 1964.
It was withdrawn before it could serve in Vietnam when both it and the Crusader were replaced on Forrestal-class and similar supercarriers by the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. McDonnell's Phantom, which was equally capable against ground, fighter, and bomber targets, bears a strong family resemblance, as it was conceived as an advanced development of the Demon. The supersonic United States Air Force F-101 Voodoo was similar in layout, but was derived from the earlier XF-88 Voodoo, which also influenced the Demon's layout.
Development
Development work began in 1949, using a swept wing from the start rather than adapting a straight-winged design as was done with the Grumman F9F Panther. A competing contract was also awarded for the delta wing Douglas F4D Skyray. The Skyray, with a top speed of , would become the Navy's first fighter to fly supersonic in level flight, while the Demon would never reach that level of performance. The original design work was based at its predecessor, the F2H Banshee. However, departing from its tradition of using two engines, the Demon would result in McDonnell's only single-engined carrier-based fighter, adopting under some Navy pressure, the Westinghouse J40 engine. That engine was being promoted by the Navy for its next generation of aircraft, and was to have thrust of over 11,000 lbf (49 kN)—three times that of the engines in the F2H Banshee. It was the first swept-wing design produced by McDonnell and among the first U.S. aircraft to have missile armament.
The Navy desperately needed a high performance fighter to meet the challenge of the swept-wing MiG-15 encountered over Korea. Production of the F3H-1N was hastily ordered even before the first flight of the XF3H-1 prototype on 7 August 1951 by test pilot Robert Edholm. The first test flights of the operational design did not occur until January 1953, by which time the Korean War was winding down.
The F3H Demon was originally designed around Navy's ambitious new Westinghouse J40 which was to offer enough power to use just one engine in a number of new aircraft designs. But the engine would ultimately fail to produce the promised thrust or run reliably. The engine was a major disappointment, producing only half of the expected power. Worse, it was temperamental and unreliable. Of 35 F3H-1N aircraft flown with the J40 engine, eight were involved in major accidents. The first production Demons were grounded after the loss of six aircraft and four pilots. Time magazine called the Navy's grounding of all Westinghouse-powered F3H-1 Demons a "fiasco", with 21 unflyable planes that could be used only for Navy ground training at a loss of $200 million. One high point of the J40 was the 1955 setting of an unofficial time-to-climb record, in a Demon, of in 71 seconds. The proposed F3H-1P reconnaissance version was never built. The J40 program was terminated sometime in 1955.
All the aircraft it was to power were either canceled or redesigned to use other engines, notably the J57 and the J71. The F4D Skyray had been designed to accept larger engines in case the J40 did not work out, and was eventually powered by the Pratt & Whitney J57. But no other engine could simply be fitted into the old Demons, as both the wings and fuselage would have to be redesigned and enlarged. The best alternative turned out to be the Allison J71 engine which was also used in the Douglas B-66 Destroyer. Subsequent F3Hs with this powerplant were designated the F3H-2N. In service, the J71 proved problematic, providing insufficient power for an aircraft of the Demon's size. The engine also suffered from frequent flameouts and compressor stalls. The first J71-powered Demon flew in October 1954. Another significant problem was the reliability of the ejection seats: initial versions were found to be unreliable and were eventually replaced with Martin-Baker ejection seats that were becoming the standard Navy seat of choice due to their higher performance at low altitude and better reliability.
Despite the problems, the Navy ordered 239 F3H-2s, and the first were deployed in March 1956. 519 Demons were built up to the end of production in November 1959. It was not the Navy's first all-weather interceptor with radar (the AN/APG-51 air interception set was used first on the F2H-4 Banshee). The F3H-2 Demon had the AN/APG-51A, later upgraded to the 51-B version with a tunable magnetron then on to 51-C with better counter-measures in the receiver.
The F3H-2N's standard armament was four 20 mm (.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannons. In later years, the upper two cannons were often omitted to save weight. Later models, redesignated F3H-2M, were equipped to fire the Raytheon AAM-N-2 Sparrow and later the Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. Deployed aircraft carried both types of missiles, the Sparrow on the inboard rails and the Sidewinder outboard. Cannons were not used in carrier air defense applications, but they were installed and armed when situations (such as the Cuban Missile Crisis) dictated, and where the aircraft might be deployed against surface targets.
A reconnaissance version, the F3H-2P, was proposed, but never built. It remained the Navy's front-line fighter until 1962, when it was succeeded by the F-4 Phantom II (which was a development of a proposed "Super Demon", a larger and much heavier version of the F3H). Developed during the Korean War to counter the MiG-15, it did not claim any aerial victories with missiles or dogfights, although it flew over Lebanon and Quemoy in 1958.
In 1962, the F3H was redesignated F-3. The F3H-2N became the F-3C, the F3H-2M became MF-3B, and the F3H-2 changed to F-3B.
The last Demon-equipped squadron, VF-161 'Chargers', traded their F-3s for F-4 Phantom IIs in September 1964.
Due to excellent visibility from the cockpit, the Demon earned the nickname "The Chair". Demon pilots were known colloquially as "Demon Drivers" and those who worked on the aircraft were known as "Demon Doctors". The unfavorable power-to-weight ratio gave rise to the less flattering nickname "lead sled", sometimes shortened to "sled".
Variants
XF3H-1
Prototype single-seat clear-weather interceptor fighter. Powered by ( with afterburner) Westinghouse XJ40-WE-6 engine. Two built.
F3H-1N
Initial production version. Single-seat all-weather fighter version, powered by ( with afterburner) J40-WE-22 engine. 58 built.
F3H-1P
Proposed reconnaissance version of F3H-1. Never built.
F3H-2N
All-weather fighter powered by ( Allison J71-A-2 engine and equipped to carry AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. 239 built. Redesignated F-3C in 1962.
F3H-2M
Derivative of F3H-2N armed with four AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missiles. 80 built. Redesignated MF-3B in 1962.
F3H-2
Single-seat strike fighter version, retaining Sidewinder and Sparrow capability of the −2M/N and adding payload of 6,000 lb (2,730 kg) bombs or rockets. 239 built. Redesignated F-3B in 1962.
F3H-2P
Proposed photo-reconnaissance version of −2. Unbuilt.
F3H-3
Proposed version with the General Electric J73 engine. Unbuilt.
Operators
United States Navy
Aircraft on display
F3H-2M
BuNo 137078 - National Museum Naval Aviation at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.
F3H-2N
BuNo 133566 - USS Intrepid Museum in New York City, New York.
BuNo 145221 - Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona.
Specifications (F3H-2)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo and Peter M. Bowers. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. .
Dorr, Robert F. "McDonnell F3H Demon". Aeroplane, Volume 36, No. 3, March 2008, pp. 58–73. London: IBC.
Elward, Brad A. and Peter Davies. US Navy F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1965–70, Part 1 (Osprey Combat Aircraft). London: Osprey Publishing, 2001. .
Gunston, Bill. Fighters of the Fifties. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Limited, 1981. .
"Naval Aircraft: Demon". Naval Aviation News, March 1974, pp. 22–23.
Spick, Mike. "A Demon Possessed". Air Enthusiast, Forty-three, 1991, pp. 40–49. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0143-5450.
External links
F3H Demon Index
Modeling Madness Demon History
Demon Drivers
Bob Jellison's F3H Demon
Global Security
Carrier-based aircraft
F3H Demon
McDonnell F03H Demon
Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined jet aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1951
Second-generation jet fighters | [
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226475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Malta | Flag of Malta | The flag of Malta () is a bicolour, with white in the hoist and red in the fly. A representation of the George Cross, awarded to Malta by George VI in 1942, is carried, edged with red, in the canton of the white stripe.
Colours
The red hue in the Maltese flag is officially documented as Pantone 186 C, RGB (207,20,43), Hex #CF142B or Spot Colour - 50% rubine red • 50% warm red.
Tradition states that the colours of the flag were given to Malta by Roger I of Sicily in 1090. Roger's fleet landed in Malta on the completion of the Norman conquest of Sicily. It is said that local Christians offered to fight by Roger's side against the Arab defenders. In order to recognise the locals fighting on his side from the defenders, Roger reportedly tore off part of his chequered red-and-white flag. This story has, however, been debunked as a 19th-century myth, possibly even earlier due to the Mdina, Malta's old capital, associating its colours with Roger's in the late Middle Ages.
The flag of the Knights of Malta, a white cross on a red field, was a more likely source of the Maltese colours, inspiring the red and white shield used during the British colonial period.
The George Cross
The George Cross originally appeared on the flag placed on a blue canton (see List of flags of Malta). The flag was changed on 21 September 1964 with Malta's independence when the blue canton was replaced by a red fimbriation, the intention being that the Cross appear less prominent.
Civil ensign
The civil ensign shows a red field, bordered white and charged with a blank Maltese cross.
Historical flags of Malta
See also
Award of the George Cross to Malta
Coat of arms of Malta
Flags and symbols of Malta
List of flags of Malta
Culture of Malta
Politics of Malta
References
External links
Flags, Symbols and their uses
1964 establishments in Malta
Flags introduced in 1964
National symbols of Malta
National flags
Red and white flags
Malta
Saint George and the Dragon | [
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226476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madchester | Madchester | Madchester was a musical and cultural scene that developed in the English city of Manchester in the late 1980s, closely associated with the indie dance scene. Indie-dance (sometimes referred to as indie-rave) saw artists merging indie music with elements of acid house, psychedelia and 1960s pop. The term Madchester was coined by Factory Records' Tony Wilson, with the label popularised by the British music press in the early 1990s, and its most famous groups include the Stone Roses, Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets, the Charlatans, James and 808 State. It is widely seen as being heavily influenced by drugs, especially MDMA. At that time, the Haçienda nightclub, co-owned by members of New Order, was a major catalyst for the distinctive musical ethos in the city that was called the Second Summer of Love.
Pre-Madchester
The music scene in Manchester immediately before the Madchester era had been dominated by The Smiths, New Order, and The Fall, who were to become a significant influence on the Madchester scene. The May 1982 opening of the Haçienda nightclub, an initiative of Factory Records, was also influential in the development of popular culture in Manchester. For the first few years of its life, the club played predominantly club-oriented pop music and hosted gigs by artists including New Order, Cabaret Voltaire, Culture Club, Thompson Twins, and the Smiths. It had DJs such as Hewan Clarke and Greg Wilson and switched focus from being a live venue to being a dance club by 1986. In 1987, the Hacienda started playing house music with DJs Mike Pickering, Graeme Park, and "Little" Martin Prendergast hosting "Nude Night" on Fridays.
The Festival of the Tenth Summer in July 1986, organised by Factory Records, helped to consolidate Manchester's standing as a centre for alternative pop culture. The festival included film screenings, a music seminar, art shows, and gigs by the city's most prominent bands, including an all-day gig at Manchester G-Mex featuring A Certain Ratio, the Smiths, New Order, and the Fall. According to Dave Haslam, the festival demonstrated that "the city had become synonymous with larger-than-life characters playing cutting edge music. [...] Individuals were inspired and the city was energised; of own accord, uncontrolled".
The Haçienda went from making a consistent loss to selling out by early 1987. During 1987, it hosted performances by American house artists including Frankie Knuckles and Adonis. Other clubs in the Manchester area started to catch on to house music including Devilles, Isadora's, Konspiracy, House, Soundgardens and Man Alive in the city centre, Bugsy's in Ashton-under-Lyne and the Osbourne Club in Miles Platting. Another key factor in the build-up to Madchester was the sudden availability of the drug MDMA in the city, beginning in 1987 and growing the following year. According to Haslam, "[MDMA] use changed clubs forever; a night at the Haçienda went from being a great night out to an intense, life changing experience."
The British music scene was such that The Guardian later stated, "The '80s looked destined to end in musical ignominy." The Madchester movement burgeoned as its sound was new and refreshing, and its popularity soon grew. Music by artists such as the Stone Roses and Happy Mondays began to chart highly in 1989 with New Order releasing the acid house-influenced Technique, which topped the UK Albums Chart.
Artists' early careers
Although the Madchester scene cannot really be said to have started before 1988 (the term "Madchester" was not coined until a year after that by Factory Records video director Philip Shotton), many of its most significant bands and artists were around on the local scene long before then. The Stone Roses were formed in 1983 by singer Ian Brown and guitarist John Squire, who had grown up on the same street in Timperley. They had been in bands together since 1980, but the Stone Roses were the first to release a record: "So Young" in 1985. The line-up was completed by Alan "Reni" Wren on drums and Gary "Mani" Mounfield on bass.
The Happy Mondays were formed in Salford in 1980. The members between then and the break-up of the band in 1992 were Shaun Ryder, his brother Paul, Mark "Bez" Berry, Paul Davis, Mark Day, and Gary Whelan. They were signed to Factory Records, supposedly after Haçienda DJ Mike Pickering saw them at a Battle of the Bands contest in which they came last. They released two singles—"45", produced by Pickering in 1985, and "Freaky Dancin'", produced by New Order's Bernard Sumner in 1986—before putting out an album produced by John Cale and bearing the title Squirrel and G-Man Twenty Four Hour Party People Plastic Face Carnt Smile (White Out) in 1987.
The Inspiral Carpets were formed in Oldham in 1983. The line-up was Clint Boon (organ), Stephen Holt (vocals; Tom Hingley would not join until the beginning of 1989), Graham Lambert (guitar), Martyn Walsh (bass), and Craig Gill (drums). They released a flexi-disc a year later, and in 1988 the Planecrash EP (on their own Cow Records) brought them to the attention of John Peel.
James were formed in 1982 by Paul Gilbertson and Jim Glennie (after whom the band was named), recruiting drama student Tim Booth on vocals and Gavan Whelan on drums (Gilbertson and Whelan were to leave the band before it attained commercial success). They released their first EP, Jimone, on Factory Records in 1983 and attracted critical enthusiasm as well as the patronage of Morrissey. Sales of their two albums for Blanco y Negro Records, Stutter in 1986 and Strip-mine in 1988, were disappointing; at the time Madchester began, the band was using T-shirt sales to fund its own releases through Rough Trade Records. Madchester helped bring them commercial success and the single "Sit Down" became one of the most popular anthems of the era.
808 State were formed in 1987 by the owner of the Eastern Bloc Records shop on Oldham Street, Martin Price, together with Graham Massey and Gerald Simpson. The three put together an innovative live acid house set, performing at various venues around town, and releasing an acclaimed and influential album Newbuild on Price's own label. Simpson left soon after the release of Newbuild, but went on to record as A Guy Called Gerald.
Beginnings
In October 1988, the Stone Roses released "Elephant Stone" as a single. Around the same time, the Happy Mondays released the single "Wrote for Luck" (followed by the Bummed album, produced by Martin Hannett). In November, A Guy Called Gerald released his first solo single, "Voodoo Ray". Only "Voodoo Ray" was a commercial success; by December of that year, however, a sense had started to develop in the British music press that there was something going on in the city. According to Sean O'Hagan, writing in the NME, "There is a particularly credible music biz rumour-come theory that certain Northern towns — Manchester being the prime example — have had their water supply treated with small doses of mind-expanding chemicals. [...] Everyone from Happy Mondays to the severely disorientated Morrissey conform to the theory in some way. Enter A Guy Called Gerald, out of his box on the limitless possibilities of a bank of keyboards."
The Stone Roses' following increased as they gigged around the country and released the "Made of Stone" single in February 1989. This did not chart, but enthusiasm for the band in the music press intensified when they released their debut album (produced by John Leckie) in March. Bob Stanley (later of Saint Etienne), reviewing the Stone Roses album in Melody Maker, wrote, "This is simply the best debut LP I've heard in my record buying lifetime. Forget everybody else. Forget work tomorrow." NME did not put it quite so strongly, but reported nonetheless that it was being talked of as "the greatest album ever made". John Robb in Sounds gave the album 9/10 and said that the Stone Roses "revolutionised British pop".
The club scene in Manchester continued to grow during 1988 and 1989, with the Haçienda launching Ibiza-themed nights in the summer of 1988 and the "Hot" acid house night (hosted by Mike Pickering and Jon DaSilva) in November of the same year.
"Baggy"
The "baggy" sound generally includes a combination of funk, psychedelia, guitar rock, and house music. In the Manchester context, the music can be seen as mainly influenced by the indie music that had dominated the city's music scene during the 1980s, but also absorbing the various influences coming through "the Haçienda" nightclub. Alongside the music, a way of dressing emerged that gave baggy its name. Baggy jeans (often flared, with the pants usually being made by Shami Ahmed's 'Joe Bloggs' brand) alongside brightly coloured or tie-dye casual tops and general 1960s style became fashionable first in Manchester and then across the country, frequently topped off with a fishing hat in the style sported by the Stone Roses' drummer Alan "Reni" Wren. The overall look was part rave, part retro or part hippie, part football casual. Many Madchester bands had football casual fans and a number of bands even wore football shirts.
Growing success
In mid-1989, media interest in the Manchester scene continued to grow. In September, the Happy Mondays released a Vince Clarke remix of "Wrote for Luck" as a single. In November, four important singles were released: "Move" by the Inspiral Carpets, "Pacific State" by 808 State, the Happy Mondays EP Madchester Rave On and "Fools Gold"/"What the World is Waiting For" by the Stone Roses. The Happy Mondays record, featuring the lead track "Hallelujah!", coined the term "Madchester" – it had originally been suggested by their video directors the Bailey Brothers as a potential T-shirt slogan.
In November, the Stone Roses performed a gig at London's Alexandra Palace and were invited onto BBC Two's high-brow Late Show (during their performance the electricity was cut off by noise limiting circuitry and singer Ian Brown shouted "Amateurs, amateurs" as the presenter tried to link into the next item). On 23 November 1989, the Stone Roses and the Happy Mondays appeared on the same edition of Top of the Pops. The "Fools Gold" single made number 8 in the UK Singles Chart, becoming the biggest-selling indie single of the year.
Madchester became something of an industry bandwagon from this time. According to NME journalist Stuart Maconie, the British press had "gone bonkers over Manchester bands". James were amongst the first beneficiaries of this. The local success of their self-financed singles "Come Home" and "Sit Down" led to a deal with Fontana, and they were to score chart hits with "How Was it For You" and a re-recorded version of "Come Home" in the summer of 1990.
The Charlatans came to prominence through appearances in Manchester, particularly as a support act to the Stone Roses and became strongly associated with the scene. They released a debut single "Indian Rope" in October 1989 and their second "The Only One I Know" made the UK top ten. A number of other Manchester bands gained the attention of the music press during 1990, including World of Twist, New Fast Automatic Daffodils, the High, Northside, the Paris Angels, and Intastella. These "second wave" bands, according to John Robb, "copped the critical backlash, but were making great music". and they also received a great deal of local support with TV appearances on various Granada shows and local radio play.
Commercial success
Bands associated with the Madchester scene released material almost exclusively on indie records labels, with the significant exception of James, who signed to Fontana Records in 1989. The Madchester was growing in popularity and was not just a local trend in Manchester with an article entitled Stark Raving Madchester appearing in the Newsweek Magazine in 1990 describing the Madchester scene. The main Madchester bands dominated the UK Indie Charts during late 1989 and much of 1990.
The success in the UK Singles and Albums charts of a number of indie acts associated with a "scene" was unprecedented at the time. "Step On" and "Kinky Afro" by the Happy Mondays both made number 5 in the singles chart, whilst James scored the biggest Madchester hit, making number 2 in 1991 with a re-recording of "Sit Down". In the albums chart, the Happy Mondays made number 4 with Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches, and the Inspiral Carpets got to number 2 with Life. The Charlatans were the only Madchester band to take the number 1 spot, with the album Some Friendly in the autumn of 1990.
Outside the UK, the success of Madchester was limited, although some releases gained recognition in specialist charts around the world. In the U.S., the albums The Stone Roses, Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches and Some Friendly reached the lower echelons of the U.S. album chart. Several singles by the Stone Roses, the Inspiral Carpets, the Happy Mondays and the Charlatans were successful on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The Happy Mondays toured the US in 1990 and charted on the Billboard Hot 100 with "Step On" reaching No. 57 in 1990. They also reached No. 1 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, with "Kinky Afro" in 1990. The only other Madchester artist to reach No. 1 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart was the Charlatans, whose single "Weirdo" was No. 1 for the week of 23 May 1992.
Decline
On 27 May 1990, the Stone Roses performed at Spike Island in Widnes, supported by DJs Frankie Bones, Dave Haslam, Phonso Buller, and Dave Booth. The concert was described as a "Woodstock for the E generation". A rapid succession of chart hits followed during the summer, including "One Love" by the Stone Roses, "This Is How It Feels" by the Inspiral Carpets, "The Only One I Know" by the Charlatans, and "Kinky Afro" by the Happy Mondays. The end of the year saw triumphant concerts by James and a double-header with the Happy Mondays and 808 State, both at Manchester G-Mex.
The Stone Roses cancelled their June 1990 tour of America and issued a press statement saying, "America doesn't deserve us yet." However, their debut album sold more than 350,000 copies in the U.S. that year. The band also cancelled a gig in Spain and an appearance on the UK chat show Wogan. They did not face the public again until the end of 1994, spending the intervening time in and out of studios in Wales, where they recorded the album Second Coming, and fighting in court to release themselves from their contract with Silvertone Records.
The making of the next Happy Mondays album, Yes Please! was also problematic, and it would not be released until October 1992. The band flew to Barbados to record it, and went "crack crazy" according to Paul Ryder, making repeated requests to Factory Records for extra time and additional funds. This is reputed to have been the major factor in the bankruptcy of the label in November 1992.
With the two bands seen as the most central to the scene out of action, media fascination with Madchester dwindled. James, the Inspiral Carpets, the Charlatans, and 808 State continued to record with varying degrees of success during the 1990s, but ceased to be seen as part of a localised scene. Local bands catching the tail-end of Madchester, such as the Mock Turtles, became part of a wider baggy scene. The music press in the UK began to place more focus on shoegazing bands from southern England and the U.S. grunge scene, which in turn was overtaken by Britpop acts such as Manchester's Oasis and London's Blur.
Legacy
Musical legacy
The immediate influence of Madchester was an inspiration to the wider baggy movement in the UK, with bands from various parts of the country producing music in the early 1990s heavily influenced by the main Madchester players. These bands included Flowered Up (from London), the Farm and the Real People (from Liverpool), the Bridewell Taxis (from Leeds), the Soup Dragons (from Glasgow) and Ocean Colour Scene (from Birmingham). Blur, from Colchester, adopted a baggy style in their early career, although in an interview with Select Magazine in 1991 they claimed to have "killed" the genre. Blur famously shared a rivalry throughout the 1990s with fellow Britpop band Oasis, who hailed from Manchester.
Bands formed in Manchester during the Madchester era included the Chemical Brothers, The Verve, Sub Sub (who would later become Doves) and Oasis (Noel Gallagher had been a roadie for the Inspiral Carpets). More generally, the Madchester scene brought together electronic dance music and alternative rock, in particular the combination of the types of drumming found in funk and disco music (and sampled in '80s hip-hop music) with jingle-jangle guitar. In the 1990s, this became a commonplace formula, found frequently in even the most commercial music.
There have been numerous polls in the years following the Madchester movement to find the best song of the era. In 2005, "Voodoo Ray" by A Guy Called Gerald was voted as the best song from the Madchester scene. The song beat "Step On" by the Happy Mondays and "Waterfall" by the Stone Roses for first place.
In 2010, a new nightclub managed by Peter Hook of New Order, FAC251 opened in Manchester, with musical emphasis on Madchester music. Although Madchester faded by the mid-1990s, various bands have reformed for one-off concert tours. Notable bands which reformed in 2012 include the Stone Roses, the Happy Mondays and the Inspiral Carpets.
The Guardian critic Penny Anderson looked unfavourably upon the scene, calling it a "breeding ground for aggressively marketed mediocrity".
The sound of the scene influenced the electronic and dance influenced album by U2 Achtung Baby. Elysa Gardner of Rolling Stone compared the layering of dance beats into guitar-heavy mixes of the album to songs by British bands Happy Mondays and Jesus Jones. "Mysterious Ways" combines a funky guitar riff with a danceable, conga-laden beat, for what Bono called "U2 at our funkiest... Sly and The Family Stone meets Madchester baggy." It also influenced The Cure's song "Never Enough".
Impact on Manchester
The mushrooming of Manchester's nightlife during the Madchester period has had a long-term impact, particularly with the subsequent development of the Gay Village and Northern Quarter. City centre living is also something that began to catch on in Manchester in the wake of Madchester, and which continues to this day.
The attraction of the city was such that, at the height of Madchester in 1990, the University of Manchester was the most sought-after destination for university applicants in the UK.
The scene also gave a boost to the city's media and creative industries. Channel 4 already had great success with The Word and in its wake the BBC launched The 8:15 From Manchester, a Saturday morning kids' TV show (with a themetune by the Inspiral Carpets, a re-write of "Find out Why") and Granada Television also jumped on the bandwagon with a cheaper version of The Word, called 'Juice' presented by John Bramwell and Joan Collins' daughter Tara Newley.
Organised crime became an unfortunate side-story to Madchester, with the vibrancy of the clubbing scene in the city (and the popularity of illegal drugs, particularly ecstasy) providing a fertile environment for opportunist gangsterism. Violent incidents at the Haçienda led to a campaign against it by Greater Manchester Police, and contributed to its closure in 1997.
In the late 1990s, a Manchester musical walk of fame was commissioned for Oldham Street in the Northern Quarter of Manchester. The walk includes a triangular slab for each music group and pays homage to bands such as the Stone Roses, the Happy Mondays, the Inspiral Carpets, 808 State, and James.
A blue plaque marks the site of The Boardwalk, another club seminal to the Madchester scene, where Oasis played their first gig and Dave Haslam hosted the Yellow club night until the club's closure in 1999. It reads "Madchester venue nightclub and rehearsal rooms" and features a yellow smiley face beneath. Funkademia, a club night that began at the Boardwalk in 1995, is now still held at Mint Lounge in the Northern Quarter.
See also
Music of Manchester
List of city nicknames in the United Kingdom
The Haçienda
Rave
24 Hour Party People
The Boardwalk
References
Further reading
Christian Terry : Brothers From Childhood To Oasis
Crossley, James (April 2011): "For EveryManc a Religion: Biblical and Religious Language in the Manchester Music Scene, 1976–1994". Biblical Interpretation 19 (2): 151–180. DOI:10.1163/156851511X557343
Luck, Richard: The Madchester Scene, Pocket Essentials, London, 2002 ()
Wilson, Tony: 24-hour Party People, Channel 4 Books, London, 2002 ()
McNichols, Conor (ed): NME Originals: Madchester, IPC, London, 2003
External links
WaveCat playlist
Madchester on Pride of Manchester website
Madchester by Jonathan Schofield
The Madchester Years by Marcy Curtis
Dance music genres
Music in Manchester
Music scenes
British styles of music
British rock music genres
1980s in music
1990s in music | [
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226479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandy | Shandy | Shandy is beer mixed with a lemon or a lemon-lime flavored beverage. The citrus beverage, often called lemonade, may or may not be carbonated. The proportions of the two ingredients are adjusted to taste but are usually half lemonade and half beer. Shandies are popular in UK, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada (where they are sometimes known by the French name Panaché).
In some jurisdictions, the low alcohol content of shandies exempts them from laws governing the sale of alcoholic beverages.
Etymology
The debated origin of the term (recorded first in 1888) is shortened from Shandygaff, from Britain in 1853 and itself of the obscure source.
Variants by name
Bitter Shandy is a popular drink in UK and is usually ordered as either "Bitter Shandy" (50/50 Bitter Beer and Fizzy Lemonade) or "Lager Shandy" in which lager is substituted for the beer.
Radler
Radler (German for "cyclist") has a long history in German-speaking regions. It commonly consists of a 50:50 mixture of beer and a lemon flavored soda like Sprite.
The term Radler originates with a drink called Radlermass ("cyclist litre") that was created by innkeeper Franz Kugler in the small town of Deisenhofen, just outside Munich. During the great cycling boom of the Roaring Twenties, Kugler created a bicycle trail from Munich through the woods that led directly to his drinking establishment. On a June day in 1922, 13,000 cyclists arrived at Kugler’s. He blended it 50/50 with lemon soda as he started to run out of beer.
While the term Radler has been widely attributed to Kugler, the combination of beer and soda is documented in texts dating from 1912. Nowadays, Radler is consumed not only in Bavaria, but also in all of Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Poland, Netherlands, Bulgaria, United States, Canada, and Romania.
In northern Germany, a half-and-half mix of Pilsner beer and soda is known as an Alster (short for Alsterwasser, German for "Water from the Alster", a river in Hamburg). Regionally the Radler and Alster may refer to shandies made with either citrus soda or orange soda, with the two terms either contrasting or referring to the same drink. In Hamburg, Alsterwasser may also be made with cola, in reference to the supposed appearance of the actual river. In Austria, a saure Radler is a mix of lager and soda water.
In Austria, it is common to use Almdudler instead of lemon soda for the Radler.
Radler is very popular during the summer months due to its reputation of being a thirst-quencher.
In New Zealand, the word "radler" was trademarked by DB Breweries for their "Monteith's Radler" beer, which is a citrus-flavoured, full-strength (5%) beer. This has led to some brewers to use the names "reldar" (Radler spelled backwards) and "Cyclist" (the literal meaning of Radler).
Russ
In Bavaria, the southeastern state of Germany, as well as in the countryside of Austria, a mix of 50% Weißbier and 50% lemon soda is called a "Russ". There are three different theories about the origin of this name:
Due to a shortage of raw materials that occurred during the great inflation between 1921 and 1923, Weißbier became more popular. To further reduce material efforts, the Weißbier was thinned with lemonade. The name "Russ" may derive from the popularity of the drink among Russian workers in Germany at that time.
Another theory of the name's origin is that the drink initially was called "Riesen-Maß" (Riesen = giant), as the drink mixture frothed heavily.
The most popular theory is that the drink was first served in the Mathäser-Keller in Munich after the 1918 Revolution when communists came together.
Shandygaff
A Shandygaff is an older British name for beer mixed with ginger beer or ginger ale; the earliest written record of the word dates back to 1853. In H. G. Wells’ comic novel The History of Mr Polly, Wells refers to Shandygaff as "two bottles of beer mixed with ginger beer in a round-bellied jug".
Lager top
In England, Wales and Scotland, a lager top is a lager with a dash of lemonade on top, the latter of which reduces the lager's hardness.
Monaco
In France, a 50/50 mix of lager and carbonated lemonade with a dash of Grenadine is called a .
See also
Beer cocktail
Michelada
Queen Mary (beer cocktail)
References
External links
Types of beer
Cocktails with beer | [
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226486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1609%20in%20literature | 1609 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1609.
Events
January 1 – The Children of the Blackfriars perform Thomas Middleton's A Trick to Catch the Old One at the English royal court.
January 15 – Avisa Relation oder Zeitung, an early newspaper, begins publication in Wolfenbüttel (Holy Roman Empire).
May 20 – The London publisher Thomas Thorpe issues Shake-speares Sonnets, with a dedication to "Mr. W. H.", and the poem A Lover's Complaint appended. It is unclear whether this had Shakespeare's authority.
July 28 – The Sea Venture is wrecked in Bermuda – an event thought to have been an inspiration for Shakespeare's play The Tempest.
October 12 – A version of the rhyme "Three Blind Mice" appears in Deuteromelia or The Seconde part of Musicks melodie (London). The editor and possible author of the verse is the teenage Thomas Ravenscroft.
December 8 – The Sala Fredericiana, the first reading room of the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, opens. It is one of the first major libraries to have bookshelves ranged along the walls.
December 21 – William Ames delivers a controversial sermon for St Thomas's Day criticizing the "heathenish debauchery" of Cambridge students during the Twelve Days of Christmas.
December 24 – John Marston, having retired from writing for the theater, is ordained a priest.
c. December – Ben Jonson's comedy Epicœne, or The silent woman is premièred at the Whitefriars Theatre in London by the Children of the Queen's Revels led by Nathan Field.
unknown date – Jacques Auguste de Thou's Historia sui temporis is placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
New books
Prose
Douay–Rheims Bible
Charles Butler – The Feminine Monarchie, or the History of Bees
Thomas Dekker
Four Birds of Noah's Ark
The Gull's Hornbook
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega – Comentarios Reales de los Incas
Edward Grimeston – A General History of the Netherlands
Hugo Grotius – Mare liberum
Johannes Kepler – Astronomia nova
Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola – Conquista de las Islas Molucas
Marc Lescarbot – Histoire de la Nouvelle-France
Thomas Middleton
Sir Robert Sherley his Entertainment in Cracovia (translation)
The Two Gates of Salvation
William Rowley – A Search for Money
St. Francis de Sales – Introduction à la vie dévote (Introduction to the Devout Life)
Wang Qi (王圻) and Wang Siyi (王思义) – Sancai Tuhui (三才圖會, Illustrations of the Three Powers)
Drama
Anonymous – Every Woman in Her Humour (published)
Robert Armin (published)
The History of the Two Maids of More-clacke
The Italian Tailor and his Boy
Fulke Greville – Mustapha (published)
Ben Jonson
(and collaborators?) – The Case is Altered (published)
Epicœne, or The silent woman
William Shakespeare (published)
Pericles, Prince of Tyre
Troilus and Cressida
Poetry
Alonso Jerónimo de Salas Barbadillo – La Patrona de Madrid restituida
Samuel Daniel – Civil Wars (first complete edition, revised)
William Shakespeare – The Sonnets and A Lover's Complaint
Births
February 10 – Sir John Suckling, English poet (died 1642)
February 18 – Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English historian (died 1674)
August 19 – Jean Rotrou, French poet and dramatist (died 1650)
October 5 – Paul Fleming, German poet (died 1640)
October 19 – Gerrard Winstanley, English religious and political writer (died 1676)
December 24 – Philip Warwick, English politician and memoirist (died 1683)
unknown date – Gauthier de Costes, seigneur de la Calprenède, French novelist and dramatist (died 1663)
probable – Barbara Blaugdone, English Quaker autobiographer (died 1705)
Deaths
January 21 – Joseph Justus Scaliger, French Protestant writer (born 1540)
March 9 – William Warner, English poet (born c. 1558)
August 22 – Judah Loew ben Bezalel, Jewish mystic and philosopher (born 1525)
October 19 – Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian (born 1560)
December 4 – Alexander Hume, Scottish poet (born c. 1560)
December – Barnabe Barnes, English poet (born c. 1571)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1608%20in%20literature | 1608 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1608.
Events
January 10 – Ben Jonson's The Masque of Beauty is performed by Queen Anne and her retinue at the Banqueting House, Whitehall, a sequel to The Masque of Blackness.
February 9 – Another masque by Jonson, The Hue and Cry After Cupid, is performed at the Banqueting House, with sets designed by Inigo Jones.
March 31 – Hamlet is played aboard the East India Company ship Red Dragon, commanded by Capt. William Keeling.
April – Performances of George Chapman's play The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron by the Children of the Chapel at the Blackfriars Theatre in London are suppressed after the French Ambassador complains to King James. After June the play is published with the offensive passages suppressed.
May–October – Thomas Coryat makes a walking tour of continental Europe.
June 12–August 19 – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón returns to Mexico from Spain, to take up an academic post.
June 19 – Thomas Overbury is knighted.
August – Richard Burbage with fellow members of the King's Men (playing company), including Shakespeare, take direct control of the indoor Blackfriars Theatre in London as a winter playhouse, also taking over the plays and playwrights previously presented there by the Children of the Chapel.
unknown dates
Henry Ainsworth publishes a response to Richard Bernard's The Separatist Schisme.
Father Francisco Blancas de San Jose establishes a printing press at Abucay Church in the Philippines to produce books in the Spanish and Tagalog languages; Tomas Pinpin joins the staff the following year.
Scottish poet Arthur Johnston goes to Italy to study medicine at Padua.
The Morgan Bible is given by Cardinal Bernard Maciejowski, Bishop of Cracow, to Abbas I (Shah of Persia).
New books
Prose
George Abbot – A Brief Description of the Whole World
Robert Armin – A Nest of Ninnies
Thomas Dekker
The Dead Term
The Bellman of London
Francesco Maria Guazzo – Compendium Maleficarum
Johannes Kepler – Somnium (written; published posthumously in 1634)
Mathurin Régnier – Les Premieres d'Euvres ou Satyres de Regnier
Salomon Schweigger – Newe Reyßbeschreibung Teutschland Auss to Constantinople
"P. F." – The History of the Damnable Life and Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus
Drama
Lording Barry – Ram Alley (published)
George Chapman – The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron
John Day – Humour Out of Breath and Law Tricks (published)
Lope de Vega
("The steel of Madrid")
La adúltera perdonada (autos sacramentales)
("What you Pretend Has Become Real")
Peribáñez y el Comendador de Ocaña
John Fletcher – The Faithful Shepherdess (first performance)
Thomas Heywood – The Rape of Lucrece (published)
Ben Jonson
The Masque of Beauty (performed, and published with The Masque of Blackness)
The Hue and Cry After Cupid (performed and published)
Henry Machin and Gervase Markham – The Dumb Knight
The Merry Devil of Edmonton (attributed to Thomas Dekker, Michael Drayton, William Shakespeare and others; published; first performed by 1604)
Thomas Middleton
The Family of Love, A Mad World, My Masters, and A Trick to Catch the Old One (published)
A Yorkshire Tragedy (attributed; published with attribution to "W. Shakspeare")
John Sansbury – Periander
William Shakespeare – King Lear (published)
Poetry
See 1608 in poetry
Births
February 6 – António Vieira, Portuguese Jesuit orator and writer (died 1697)
February 12 – Daniello Bartoli, Jesuit writer (died 1685)
June 19 (bapt.) – Thomas Fuller, English cleric and historian (died 1661)
December 8 – Vendela Skytte, Swedish salonist and poet (died 1629)
December 9 – John Milton, English poet and author (died 1674)
Unknown date – Antoine Le Maistre, French lawyer, author and translator (died 1658)
Deaths
January 28 – Enrique Henríquez, Portuguese Jesuit theologian (born 1536)
February 16 – Nicolas Rapin, French translator, poet and satirist (born 1535)
February 26
Thomas Craig, Scottish poet (born c. 1538)
John Still, English bishop, once credited with writing Gammer Gurton's Needle (born c. 1543)
March 29 – Laurence Tomson, English theologian (born 1539)
April 19 – Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset, statesman and poet (born 1536)
June 19
Alberico Gentili, Italian legal writer (born 1552)
Johann Pistorius (the younger), German controversialist and historian (born 1546)
July 26 – Pablo de Céspedes, Spanish poet and artist (born 1538)
September – Mary Shakespeare, English mother of Shakespeare (born c. 1540)
October 19
Martin Delrio, Netherlandish-born Spanish theologian (born 1551)
Geoffrey Fenton, English writer and politician (born c. 1539)
before December – George Bannatyne, Scottish collector of Scottish poems (born 1545)
Unknown date – Nicolas de Montreux, French novelist, poet and dramatist (born c. 1561)
Probable year – Jean Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, French poet (born 1536)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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] |
226488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1607%20in%20literature | 1607 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1607.
Events
January 22 – Shortly before his death, bookseller Cuthbert Burby transfers the rights to print the text of The Taming of the Shrew to Nicholas Ling.
February 2 – The King's Men perform Barnes's The Devil's Charter at the English Court.
June 5 – John Hall marries Susanna, daughter of William Shakespeare.
September 5 – Hamlet is performed aboard the East India Company ship Red Dragon, under the command of Captain William Keeling, anchored off the coast of Sierra Leone, the first known performance of a Shakespeare play outside England in English, and the first by amateurs.
September 30 – Richard II is acted aboard the Dragon.
unknown dates
First performance of the first wholly parodic play in English, Francis Beaumont's The Knight of the Burning Pestle, unsuccessfully, probably by child actors at the Blackfriars Theatre in London.
The King's Revels Children are active as a playing company in London: their repertoire includes Edward Sharpham's Cupid's Whirligig and Thomas Middleton's The Family of Love.
New books
Prose
William Alabaster – Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi
John Cowell – The Interpreter (suppressed by the English House of Commons for excessive royalism)
Michael Drayton – The Legend of Great Cromwell
Antoine Loysel – Institutes coutumières
César Oudin – Thrésor des deux langues françoise et espagnole
Lawrence Twine – The Pattern of Painful Adventures, second edition; a source for Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre
Honoré d'Urfé – L'Astrée (part 1)
Drama
William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling – The Monarchic Tragedies (second edition adding The Alexandrean and Julius Caesar to closet dramas Croesus and Darius
Anonymous – Claudius Tiberius Nero
Barnabe Barnes – The Devil's Charter
Francis Beaumont – The Knight of the Burning Pestle
Beaumont and Fletcher – The Woman Hater (published, earliest of their collaborations to appear in print)
Thomas Campion – Lord Hay's Masque
George Chapman – Bussy D'Ambois (published)
John Day, William Rowley, and George Wilkins – The Travels of the Three English Brothers
Thomas Dekker – The Whore of Babylon
Thomas Dekker and John Webster – Westward Ho and Northward Ho published
Dekker & Webster, with Henry Chettle (?), Thomas Heywood (?), and Wentworth Smith (?) – Sir Thomas Wyatt (published)
Thomas Heywood – The Fair Maid of the Exchange (published)
Ben Jonson – Volpone (published)
John Marston – What You Will (published)
Thomas Middleton
Michaelmas Term (performed)
The Phoenix (published)
The Puritan (published as "written by W.S.")
The Revenger's Tragedy (published)
Edward Sharpham – Cupid's Whirligig
Thomas Tomkis – Lingua (published)
George Wilkins – The Miseries of Enforced Marriage (published)
Poetry
Thomas Dekker – The Seven Deadly Sins of London
Births
March 8 – Johann von Rist, German poet (died 1667)
July 10 – Philippe Labbe, French Jesuit writer (died 1667)
October 4 – Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (died c. 1660)
November 1 – Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, German poet and translator (died 1658)
November 5 – Anna Maria van Schurman, Dutch poet (died 1678)
November 15 – Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (died 1701)
Unknown dates
Alaol, Bengali poet (died 1673)
Antoine Gombaud, French essayist (died 1684)
Filadelfo Mugnos, Italian historian (died 1675)
Francisco Núñez de Pineda y Bascuñán, Chilean writer and soldier (died 1682)
Deaths
January 6 – Guidobaldo del Monte, Italian philosopher (born 1545)
May – Sir Edward Dyer, English poet (born 1543)
June – Thomas Newton, English physician, clergyman, poet, author and translator (born c. 1542)
June 19 – Johannes Bertelius, historian of Luxembourg (born 1544)
June 30 – Caesar Baronius, Italian ecclesiastical historian (born 1538)
July 6 – Achille Gagliardi, Italian theologian (born 1537)
July 7 – Penelope Rich, Lady Rich, English noblewoman, inspiration for Sir Philip Sidney's "Stella" (born 1563)
October 31 – Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, Polish philosopher (born c. 1540)
Unknown dates
Cuthbert Burby, English publisher and bookseller
Dinko Ranjina, Croatian poet (born 1536)
Probable year of death – Henry Chettle, English dramatist (born c. 1564)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1606%20in%20literature | 1606 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1606.
Events
January? – Sir Thomas Craig becomes church procurator.
February – John Day's satirical play The Isle of Gulls causes a scandal which sends several of the young actors from the Children of the Chapel to prison for short periods.
Spring – Ben Jonson's satirical play Volpone is first performed, by the King's Men at the Globe Theatre in London.
May 27 – The English Parliament passes An Act to Restrain Abuses of Players, tightening censorship controls on public theatre performances, notably in relation to profane oaths.
August 7 – Possible first performance of Shakespeare's Macbeth, with Richard Burbage in the title role, amongst a series of plays presented by the King's Men before Kings James I of England and Christian IV of Denmark (his brother-in-law) at Hampton Court Palace in England.
November 14 – Marc Lescarbot's dramatic poem Théâtre de Neptune is performed at the Habitation at Port-Royal, Nova Scotia, the first theatrical performance in North America.
December 26 (St. Stephen's Day) – Shakespeare's King Lear is performed at Court before King James I of England. The title role is played by Richard Burbage and the Fool by Robert Armin.
New books
Prose
Thomas Dekker
The Double PP
News From Hell
Salvator Fabris – Lo Schermo, overo Scienza D'Arme
Philemon Holland – The Historie of Twelve Caesars, a translation of Suetonius's De vita Caesarum
Drama
Anonymous (published)
The Returne from Pernassus, or The Scourge of Simony
Wily Beguiled
Anonymous (probably Thomas Middleton) – The Revenger's Tragedy
George Chapman
Sir Giles Goosecap (attributed; published)
The Gentleman Usher (published)
Monsieur D'Olive (published)
John Day – The Isle of Gulls
Lope de Vega
El anzuelo de Fenisa (Fenisa's Hook)
El gran duque de Moscovia
Ben Jonson
Volpone
Hymenaei
John Marston
The Wonder of Women, or the Tragedy of Sophonisba
Parasitaster, or The Fawn (published)
Thomas Middleton (attributed) – The Puritan, or, The Widow of Watling-Street (probable date)
William Shakespeare
Macbeth (possible first performance)
King Lear (first recorded performance)
Edward Sharpham – The Fleir
Poetry
Hieronim Morsztyn – Światowa Rozkosz (Worldly Pleasure)
Jean Passerat (posthumous) – Recueil des œuvres poétiques
Births
February 28 – William Davenant, English poet and dramatist (died 1668)
March 3 – Edmund Waller, English poet (died 1687)
May 12 – Joachim von Sandrart, German art historian (died 1688)
June 6 – Pierre Corneille, French dramatist (died 1684)
Unknown dates
Pierre du Ryer, French dramatist (died 1658)
Junije Palmotić, Ragusan dramatist and poet (died 1657)
Deaths
May 13 (burial) – Arthur Golding, English translator (born c. 1536)
May 17 – Niccolò Orlandini, Italian Jesuit writer (born 1554)
May 30 – Guru Arjan, Sikh Guru and compiler of scriptures (in custody, born 1563)
September 28 – Nicolaus Taurellus, German philosopher and theologian (born 1547)
October 5 – Philippe Desportes, French poet (born 1546)
November 13 – Girolamo Mercuriale, Italian philologist and medical writer (born 1530)
November 20 (burial) – John Lyly, English dramatist, poet and novelist (born c. 1553)
November 22 – Sir Henry Billingsley, English translator (birth year unknown)
Unknown date – Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer – Dutch cartographer (born 1533/1534)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1605%20in%20literature | 1605 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1605.
Events
January 1 – The Queen's Revels Children perform George Chapman's All Fools at the court of King James I of England.
January 6 – At the first performance of The Masque of Blackness at the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall Palace, the cast includes Penelope Rich and Lady Mary Wroth.
January 7 – The King's Men perform Shakespeare's Henry V at court.
January 8 – Ben Jonson's Every Man Out of His Humour is performed at court by the King's Men.
January – the King's Men perform Love's Labour's Lost before Queen Anne.
January 16 – The first part of Miguel de Cervantes' satire on chivalry, Don Quixote (El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha, "The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha"), claimed to be translated from Arabic by Cide Hamete Benengeli into dialects of Old Spanish, and printed by Juan de la Cuesta in 1604, is published by Francisco de Robles in Madrid. Most of the first edition is shipped to Spanish America. One of the first significant novels in western literary tradition, it becomes a global bestseller almost at once and new editions, authorized and pirated, are produced across the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the year.
February 2 – The King's Men give a repeat performance of Ben Jonson's Every Man in His Humour at court.
February 10 and February 12 – Performances of The Merchant of Venice are given at court.
May 30 – John Spottiswoode becomes a member of the Scottish privy council.
August 27–August 30 – King James I, Queen Anne, and their son Prince Henry visit the University of Oxford. Gentlemen from St John's and Christ Church colleges entertain them with a series of plays, including (at the latter) an early example of perspective scenery. The big success is Samuel Daniel's The Queen's Arcadia. Matthew Gwinne's Latin play Vertumnus puts James to sleep.
October – Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien by Johann Carolus in Strasbourg (Holy Roman Empire) first appears. It is generally regarded as the world's first newspaper. De Nieuwe Tijdinghen, a Dutch proto-newspaper, is perhaps also published this year.
Uncertain dates
Richard Rowlands publishes A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence in Antiquities concerning the most noble and renowned English Nation in Antwerp, including the first English-language telling of the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.
Luis de Góngora has some poems published in an anthology.
The Rose theatre in London is abandoned after its lease runs out.
New books
Prose
Anonymous – Ratsey's Ghost
Johann Arndt – Vier Bücher vom wahren Christenthum (Four Books of True Christianity, 1605–1610)
Francis Bacon – The Advancement of Learning
William Camden – Remaines of a Greater Worke, Concerning Britaine
Miguel de Cervantes – Don Quixote
Melchior Goldast – Suevicarum rerum scriptores
Garcilaso de la Vega – Historia de la Florida
Drama
Anonymous
The Fair Maid of Bristow (published)
The First Part of Hieronimo (published)
The History of Richard Whittington, of his lowe byrth, his great fortune (licensed; later lost)
The True Chronicle History of King Leir (published)
The London Prodigal (published with attribution to William Shakespeare)
Robert Armin and others – Fool upon Fool (published)
George Chapman, Ben Jonson and John Marston – Eastward Hoe (performed and published)
George Chapman – All Fools (published)
Henry Chettle and Thomas Heywood (?) – The Trial of Chivalry (published)
Samuel Daniel – The Queen's Arcadia
Thomas Dekker and John Webster – Northward Ho
Thomas Heywood – If You Know Not Me, You Know Nobody
Ben Jonson
The Masque of Blackness
Sejanus (published)
John Marston – The Dutch Courtesan published
Thomas Middleton – A Yorkshire Tragedy (attributed; approximate year; published 1608 with attribution to "W. Shakspeare")
Samuel Rowley – When You See Me, You Know Me (published)
Poetry
Samuel Daniel – Certain Small Poems
John Davies of Hereford – Humours Heav'n on Earth
Births
June – Thomas Randolph, English poet and dramatist (died 1635)
July 29 – Simon Dach, German poet and hymnist (died 1659)
July 25 – Theodore Haak, German-born Calvinist translator and natural philosopher (died 1690)<ref>A. G. Keller, "Haak, Theodore (1605–1690)" (Oxford, UK: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: OUP, 2004)
Retrieved 25 July 2017</ref>
September 12 – William Dugdale, English antiquary and herald (died 1686)
October 19 – Sir Thomas Browne, English writer and polymath (died 1682)
November – François Combefis, French Dominican patrologist (died 1679)
November 4 – Thomas Nabbes, English dramatist (died c. 1645)Uncertain datesWalter Blith, English writer on husbandry (died 1654)
John Gauden, English writer and bishop (died 1662)
William Habington, English poet (died 1654)
Sor Marcela de San Félix, Spanish poet, dramatist and nun (died 1687)Probable yearHugh Paulinus de Cressy, English church scholar (died 1674)
Deaths
March 26 – Jakob Ayrer, German dramatist (born c. 1543)
April 6 – John Stow, English historian (born c. 1525)
May – Edward Lively, English linguist and Bible scholar (born 1545)
September 9 – Heinrich Khunrath, German alchemist and philosopher (born c. 1560)
September 23 – Pontus de Tyard, French poet (born c. 1521)
October 13 – Theodore Beza, French Protestant theologian (born 1519)Uncertain dates''
William Haughton, English dramatist
Lodewijk Toeput, Flemish painter and poet (born c. 1550)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1604%20in%20literature | 1604 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1604.
Events
January 1 – The King's Men perform Shakespeare's comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream at the English Court.
c. April – The King's Men perform Ben Jonson's tragedy Sejanus His Fall (written 1603 and previously presented at Court) at the Globe Theatre, where it is not popular. The title role is probably played by Richard Burbage, and Shakespeare also appears.
July – Miguel de Cervantes sells the rights of the first part of his satirical novel on the theme of chivalry, Don Quixote (El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha), to Madrid publisher-bookseller Francisco de Robles. In September license to publish is granted and in December the printing (by Juan de la Cuesta) is finished for publication the following month.
November 1 ("Hallowmas" Day) – The King's Men perform Shakespeare's tragedy Othello at Whitehall Palace with Burbage in the title role, the first recorded performance.
November 4 – The King's Men perform Shakespeare's comedy The Merry Wives of Windsor at Whitehall Palace.
December 26 – The King's Men perform Shakespeare's comedy Measure for Measure at Court.
December 28 – The King's Men perform Shakespeare's The Comedy of Errors at Court.
December – A report shows that the King's Men are performing a play on the politically sensitive Gowrie Conspiracy. It is suppressed and has not survived, but does not affect the company's general success.
The first known performance of a Shakespeare play in translation, Romeo and Juliet, is performed at Nördlingen in Bavaria in an anonymous German version, .
Construction takes place of the Red Bull Theatre at Clerkenwell in London.
The last performances in England of the Beverley miracle plays are given.
Isaac Casaubon becomes sub-librarian of the royal library in Paris.
The Table Alphabeticall, the first known English alphabetical dictionary, is published.
New books
Prose
Bhattakalanka Deva – Karnataka Sabdanusasana
Lancelot de Casteau – L'Ouverture de cuisine
Francisco de Quevedo – El Buscón (approximate date of composition)
Thomas Dekker
News from Gravesend
The Meeting of Gallants at an Ordinary
Elizabeth Grymeston – Miscellanea: prayers, meditations, memoratives
King James I of England – A Counterblaste to Tobacco
Agnolo Monosini – Floris Italicae lingue libri novem
Samuel Rowlands –
John Stow – Revised edition of Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles
Simon Studion – Naometria
Jacques Auguste de Thou – Historia sui temporis (History of His Own Times)
Drama
William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling – The Monarchic Tragedies; includes Croesus and Darius, two closet dramas
Samuel Daniel – Philotas; The Vision of the Twelve Goddesses (masque)
Thomas Dekker and Thomas Middleton – The Honest Whore, Part 1
Thomas Dekker and John Webster – Westward Ho
Ben Jonson and Thomas Dekker – The Coronation Triumph
Christopher Marlowe (k. 1593) – Doctor Faustus (first quarto, the "A text"; original text probably written around 1589)
John Marston – The Malcontent (published)
Thomas Middleton – Michaelmas Term
William Shakespeare – Hamlet published (second quarto, "Q2", a "good" quarto as opposed to the 1603 "bad quarto", "Q1")
Poetry
Bernardo de Balbuena – La Grandeza Mexicana ("Mexico's Grandeur")
Nicholas Breton – The Passionate Shepherd
Guru Arjan – Guru Granth Sahib
Anthony Scoloker – Daiphantus, or the Passions of Love
Births
February 24 – Arcangela Tarabotti, born Elena Tarabotti, Venetian nun and feminist writer (died 1652)
May 10 – Jean Mairet, French dramatist (died 1686)
May 29 (bapt.) – Isaac Ambrose, English religious writer and diarist (died c. 1663)
October 16 – Charles Coypeau d'Assoucy, French burlesque poet (died 1677)
November 23 (bapt.) – Jasper Mayne, English translator and dramatist (died 1672)
Unknown dates
Charles Cotin, French philosopher and poet (died 1681)
Nicholas French, Irish Catholic pamphleteer and bishop (died 1678)
Girolamo Graziani, Italian poet (died 1675)
Deaths
February 25 – Manuel da Costa, Portuguese historian (born 1541)
March 4 – Fausto Paolo Sozzini, Italian theologian (born 1539)
March 13 – Arnaud d'Ossat, French diplomat, cardinal and writer (born 1537)
April 1 – Thomas Churchyard, English poet (born c. 1520)
June 10 – Isabella Andreini, Paduan-born actress and writer (born 1564)
June 24 – Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford English poet, playwright and courtier (born 1550)
August 3 – Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish military commander and historian (born c. 1540)
September 10 – William Morgan, Welsh Bible translator (born 1545)
October 8 – Janus Dousa, Dutch historian and poet (born 1545)
November – Thomas Storer, English poet (born c. 1571)
December 22 – Juan Jose Marti, Spanish novelist (born c. 1570)
unknown date – Thomas North, English translator (born 1535)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1603%20in%20literature | 1603 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1603.
Events
Early in the year – Thomas Middleton marries Magdalen (Mary) Marbeck in London.
February/March – Thomas Heywood's domestic tragedy A Woman Killed with Kindness is performed by Worcester's Men at The Rose in London.
March 19 – Performances in the London theaters are suspended due to the terminal illness of Queen Elizabeth I of England.
March 24 – Queen Elizabeth I of England dies at Richmond Palace, ending the Elizabethan era begun in 1558, and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, where he has ruled since 1567, thus uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. Ben Jonson and Thomas Dekker collaborate on a pageant to welcome the new king and Thomas Middleton writes a speech of welcome to him.
c. April – An outbreak of bubonic plague closes the London public theaters for a year.
May 11 – Chronicler Richard Baker is knighted by James I.
May 19 – The London acting company previously known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men comes under the patronage of the new monarch and is chartered as the King's Men. The principals are named as Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard Burbage, Augustine Phillips, John Heminges, Henry Condell, William Sly, Robert Armin and Richard Cowley.
August 17 – The Accademia dei Lincei, the oldest scientific academy in the world, is founded in Rome by Federico Cesi.
October – Last known reference to Henry Chettle.
November 17 – Sir Walter Ralegh goes on trial for treason in the converted Great Hall of Winchester Castle. He is found guilty but his life is spared by the King at this time and he is returned to imprisonment in the Tower of London.
December 2 – As You Like It may have been performed at Wilton House before King James I.
Uncertain dates
Elizabeth Melville, later Lady Colville of Culros, publishes her poem Ane Godlie Dreame in the Scots language in Edinburgh, as the first Scottish woman to see her work in print. She publishes the English translation, A Godly Dreame, in 1604.
Jacobus Arminius becomes professor of theology at Leiden.
An early legal deposit law requires a copy of every book printed in Venice to be placed in its Biblioteca Marciana.
Johannes Huser of Waldkirch publishes a collected edition of Paracelsus's works.
Frederick de Houtman publishes a grammar and dictionary of the Malay and Malagasy languages.
Izumo no Okuni originates kabuki dance drama in Japan.
New books
Prose
Johann Bayer – Uranometria
John Davies of Hereford – Microcosmos
Thomas Dekker
The Wonderful Year
(with Thomas Middleton) News from Gravesend
John Florio – Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo. Michaell de Montaigne, a translation of Montaigne's Essais
Samuel Harsnett – A Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures
Christopher Heydon – A Defence of Judiciall Astrologie
Philemon Holland – The Philosophie, commonly called, the Morals, a translation of Plutarch's Moralia
Drama
Anonymous – Philotus
Thomas Heywood – A Woman Killed with Kindness
Ben Jonson – Sejanus: His Fall and The Entertainment at Althorp
John Marston – The Malcontent (first performed)
William Shakespeare – Hamlet published (first quarto, the "bad quarto")
Poetry
Juan de la Cueva – La Conquista de Betica
Births
January 21 – Shackerley Marmion, English dramatist (died 1639)
July 12 – Edward Benlowes, English poet (died 1676)
August 9 – Johannes Cocceius, Dutch theologian (died 1669)
August 16 – Adam Olearius, German scholar and librarian (died 1671)
December 21 – Roger Williams, English-born American theologian (died 1684)
Uncertain dates
Gabriel Bocángel, Spanish dramatist (died 1658)
Valentin Conrart, French memoirist (died 1675)
Gysbert Japiks, Frisian poet (died 1666)
Probable year
George Abbot, English theologian and scholar (died 1648)
Deaths
February 18 – Claude Catherine de Clermont, French salon hostess (born 1543)
February 19 – Juan Azor, Spanish philosopher (born 1535)
April 25 – Gregory of Valencia, Spanish humanist philosopher (born 1550)
June 27 – Jan Dymitr Solikowski, Polish writer and archbishop (born 1539)
October/November – Will Kempe, English comic performer associated with works of Shakespeare
November 16 – Pierre Charron, French theologian and philosopher (born 1541)
November 30 – William Gilbert, English natural philosopher (born 1544)
Uncertain dates
Sharaf Khan Bidlisi, Kurdish historian and poet
Peter Short, English printer associated with works of Shakespeare
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1602%20in%20literature | 1602 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1602.
Events
February 2 – The Lord Chamberlain's Men perform Twelfth Night at the Middle Temple in London.
May – Henry Wotton returns to Florence having disclosed a plot to murder King James VI of Scotland.
May 4 – Richard Hakluyt is installed as prebendary of Westminster Abbey.
November 8 – The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford opens to scholars.
November 22 – Samuel Rowley and William Bird(e) (or Borne) are paid by the Admiral's Men for additions to Christopher Marlowe's play Doctor Faustus.
New books
Prose
Tommaso Campanella – The City of the Sun (a philosophical work, one of the most important utopias)
Thomas Campion – Observations in the Art of English Poetry
Richard Carew – A Survey of Cornwall
Sir Hugh Plat – Delightes for Ladies (book of recipes and household hints)
Drama
Anonymous – A Larum for London, or The Siedge of Antwerpe with the actes and valorous deeds of the lame soldier published
Henry Chettle – Hoffmann
John Davies of Hereford – Mirum in Modum
Thomas Dekker (with Thomas Middleton?) – Blurt, Master Constable, or The Spaniards Night-Walke published
Ben Jonson – The Poetaster published
Sir David Lyndsay (died c. 1555) – Humanity and Sensuality and A Satire of the Three Estates published
John Marston – Antonio and Mellida published
William Shakespeare – Hamlet performed (latest date), The Merry Wives of Windsor published, Troilus and Cressida probable completion date
"W.S." – Thomas Lord Cromwell published
Poetry
Giambattista Marino – Le Rime
Cristóbal de Virués – El Monserrate segundo
Births
March 29 – John Lightfoot, English theologian (died 1675)
April 30 – Robert Baillie, Scottish divine and historian (died 1662)
May 2 – Athanasius Kircher, German scholar (died 1680)
May 10 – Samuel Newman, American Biblical commentator (died 1663)
October or November – Dudley North, English poet, writer and politician (died 1677)
Unknown date – Juan Pérez de Montalbán, Spanish dramatist and poet (died 1638)
Approximate year – Owen Feltham, English essayist (died 1668)
Deaths
February 13 – Alexander Nowell, English theologian (born c. 1507)
September 14 – Jean Passerat, French poet and satirist (born 1534)
October 13 – Franciscus Junius (the elder), Swiss theologian (born 1545)
October 30 – Jean-Jacques Boissard, French poet (born 1528)
Unknown date – Jean Pithou, French legal writer (born 1534)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1601%20in%20literature | 1601 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1601.
Events
January 1 – The "Paul's Boys", a children's drama group, perform at the English royal court.
January 6 – The Children of the Chapel give their first theatrical performance at the English court since 1584: Liberality and Prodigality, by an unknown dramatist.
January 21 – Tirso de Molina enters the monastery of San Antolín at Guadalajara, Spain.
February 7 – The Lord Chamberlain's Men stage a performance of Shakespeare's Richard II at the Globe Theatre in London. The performance is specially commissioned (at a 40-shilling bonus) by the plotters in the Earl of Essex's rebellion of the following day. The plotters hope that the play, depicting the overthrow of a reigning monarch, will influence the public mood in their favour. The plot fails.
February 17 – Actor Augustine Phillips, a member of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, is deposed by the Privy Council of England.
Spring – Probable latest date for first performance of Shakespeare's Hamlet. The play is presented by the Lord Chamberlain's Men at the Globe Theatre in London with Richard Burbage playing Prince Hamlet and (according to theatrical tradition) the dramatist playing the Ghost.
May 31 – The authorities demand proof of the insanity of Tommaso Campanella, imprisoned in Italy for revolutionary plotting; Campanella is eventually judged insane and spared the death penalty and sentenced to life imprisonment, in the course of which he writes The City of the Sun.
June (approximate) – Ben Jonson's The Poetaster is performed on stage for the first time.
July – Lancelot Andrewes becomes Dean of Westminster.
unknown dates
Thomas Overbury meets Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, and they become firm friends.
Philemon Holland publishes his translation of the Natural History of Pliny the Elder. When he composes Othello in the next year of so, Shakespeare exploits the book for references, including the "Anthropophagi" and the "Pontic Sea."
New books
Prose
Nicolas Barnaud – De Occulta philosophia
Carolus Clusius – Rariarum plantarum historia
Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas – Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos, volume 1
Nicholas Hill – Philosophia epicurea
Philemon Holland – The Historie of the World, a translation of Pliny's Natural History
Thomas Middleton – The Penniless Parliament of Threadbare Poets
Mavro Orbin – The Realm of the Slavs
Achilles Tatius – The Adventures of Leucippe and Cleitophon (first printed edition of original Greek text, published Heidelberg)
Brás Viegas – Commentarii exegetici in Apocalypsim
Drama
Anonymous
(Sebastian Westcote?) – The Contention Between Liberality and Prodigality
The Return from Parnassus
Thomas Dekker – Satiromastix and Blurt, Master Constable, or The Spaniards Night-Walke (with Thomas Middleton?)
Ben Jonson – The Poetaster performed; Cynthia's Revels published
John Lyly – Love's Metamorphosis published
John Marston – What You Will
Anthony Munday – The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington published together
William Percy – Arabia sitiens, or, A Dreame of a Drye Yeare: a Tragaecomodye
William Shakespeare – Twelfth Night, or What You Will; Hamlet (possible first performance)
Robert Yarington – Two Lamentable Tragedies published
Poetry
Robert Chester – Love's Martyr. The volume also contains fourteen poems by other hands, including:
William Shakespeare – The Phoenix and the Turtle
Gervase Markham – Mary Magdalene's Tears
John Weever – The Mirror of Martyrs, or The Life and Death of Sir John Oldcastle
Bento Teixeira – Prosopopeia
Births
January 8 – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish Jesuit writer (died 1658)
March 7 – Johann Michael Moscherosch, German satirist (died 1669)
June 5 – John Trapp, English Biblical commentator (died 1669)
July 17 – Emmanuel Maignan, French theologian (died 1676)
August 22 – Georges de Scudéry, French novelist, dramatist and poet (died 1667)
Probable year of birth – François Tristan l'Hermite, French dramatist (died 1655)
Deaths
January 11 – Scipione Ammirato, Italian historian (born 1531)
March 13 – Henry Cuffe, English philosophical writer and politician (executed, born 1563)
April 10 – Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish poet (born 1562)
August 19 – William Lambarde, English antiquary and lawyer (born 1536)
August 31 – Gian Vincenzo Pinelli, Italian humanist and book collector (born 1535)
September 7 – John Shakespeare, English glover and father of William Shakespeare (born c. 1530)
November 8 – John Hooker, English constitutionalist (born c. 1527)
Approximate year of death – Thomas Nashe, English pamphleteer, poet and satirist (born 1567)
References
Years of the 17th century in literature | [
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226496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1600%20in%20literature | 1600 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1600.
Events
January 1 – The Admiral's Men perform Dekker's The Shoemaker's Holiday at the English Court.
January – Carpenter Peter Street is contracted to build the Fortune Playhouse just north of the City of London by theatrical manager Philip Henslowe and his stepson-in-law, the leading actor Edward Alleyn, for the Admiral's Men, who move there from The Rose by the end of the year.
March 6 – George Carey, Lord Hunsdon, the Lord Chamberlain of England, entertains the Flemish ambassador Ludowic Verreyken at Hunsdon House in the Blackfriars district of London. The entertainment includes a performance of Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1 by the Lord Chamberlain's Men.
March 10 – Philip Henslowe lends William Haughton ten shillings "to release him out of the Clink".
c. April – Publication of Ben Jonson's 1599 play Every Man out of His Humour; it goes through three editions this year.
April 18 – Hortensio Félix Paravicino joins the Trinitarian Order.
May – Robert Shirley returns from Persia.
Whitsuntide – The last performances of the Chester miracle plays take place.
June 3 – Thomas Pavier becomes a publisher in the City of London, securing the rights to the plays Captain Thomas Stukeley, Sir John Oldcastle, Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy and Shakespeare's Henry V.
By August – Robert Armin succeeds Will Kempe as clown of the Lord Chamberlain's Men at the Globe Theatre in London. By September, Kempe is playing with Worcester's Men at The Rose (theatre).
September – Richard Burbage leases the disused Blackfriars Theatre in London to Henry Evans and Nathaniel Giles for £40 per year. Evans and Giles use the space for the performances of the Children of the Chapel. Giles drafts Solomon Pavy, age ten, into his acting troupe.
September 8 – John Marston's Jack Drum's Entertainment is entered in the Stationers' Register. It is being acted by the newly re-formed Children of Paul's. The character of Brabant Senior represents Ben Jonson, thus continuing London's War of the Theatres. Jonson responds with Cynthia's Revels, acted by the Children of the Chapel at the Blackfriars Theatre (and over Christmas at Court, but without success there).
October 18 – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón begins his legal studies at the University of Salamanca.
November 4 – Tirso de Molina joins the Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy.
By end – The Admiral's Men are playing at Edward Alleyn and Philip Henslowe's new Fortune Playhouse just north of the City of London.
Biblioteca Riccardiana established in Florence.
New books
Prose
Robert Armin (as "Clonnico de Curtanio Snuffe") – Fool Upon Fool
William Camden (anonymously) – Reges, reginae, nobiles et alii in ecclesia collegiata B. Petri Westmonasterii sepulti (tombs and epitaph of Westminster Abbey)
Fabritio Caroso – Nobiltà de dame
Olivier de Serres – Théâtre d'agriculture
Lope de Vega – Romancero general
William Gilbert and Aaron Dowling – De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure
Philemon Holland – The Romane Historie (translation of Livy's Ab Urbe Condita)
Aonio Paleario (executed 1570) – Actio in pontifices romanos et eorum asseclas
Samuel Rowlands – The Letting of Humour's Blood in the Head-vaine with A Mery Meetinge, or tis Mery when Knaves mete
Drama
Anonymous
Look About You (published)
The Maid's Metamorphosis
Sir John Oldcastle (published)
The Weakest Goeth to the Wall (published)
The Wisdom of Doctor Dodypoll
Henry Chettle & John Day – The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, Part 1 (Parts 2 and 3, by Day and William Haughton, lost)
Georgios Chortatzis – Erofili (approximate year)
Lope de Vega – year of some approximate
La campana de Aragón
El castigo del discreto
La imperial de Otón
El postrer godo de España
La quinta de Florencia
Roma abrasada
La viuda valenciana (The Widow from Valencia)
Thomas Dekker – Old Fortunatus (published)
Thomas Dekker and others (probable) – Lust's Dominion (approximate date)
Thomas Dekker, John Marston, and William Haughton – The Spanish Moor's Tragedy (possibly same as Lust's Dominion)
Thomas Heywood – Edward IV, Parts 1 and 2 published
Thomas Heywood (attrib.) and others? – Edward IV (published)
Ben Jonson – Cynthia's Revels
John Marston – Jack Drum's Entertainment
Thomas Nashe – Summer's Last Will and Testament (published)
William Shakespeare – Henry IV, Part 2, The Merchant of Venice, Henry V, A Midsummer Night's Dream, and Much Ado About Nothing (published)
Poetry
Siddha Basavaraja – Bedagina Vachanagalu (anthology)
England's Helicon (anthology including work by Edmund Spenser, Michael Drayton, Thomas Lodge, Philip Sidney etc.)
Robert Jones – The First Book of Songs and Airs
Gervase Markham – The Tears of the Beloved
Thomas Middleton – The Ghost of Lucrece
Births
January 1 – Friedrich Spanheim, Flemish writer (died 1649)
January 17 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish dramatist (died 1681)
February 2 – Gabriel Naudé, French librarian and scholar (died 1653)
September 19 – Hermann Busenbaum, German Jesuit theologian (died 1668)
October 5 – Thomas Goodwin, English theologian (died 1680)
November – John Ogilby, Scottish translator (died 1676)
November 19 – Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian (died 1669)
Unknown dates
Martin de Barcos, French Jansenist theologian (died 1678)
Marin le Roy de Gomberville, French poet and novelist (died 1674)
William Prynne, English Puritan controversialist (died 1669)
Adriaan Vlacq, Dutch publisher (died 1667)
Brian Walton, Bishop of Chester, English compiler of Polyglot Bible and bishop (died 1661)
Probable year of birth
Piaras Feiritéar, Irish poet (hanged 1653)
Richard Flecknoe, English dramatist and poet (died 1678)
Samuel Hartlib, German-born English polymath (died 1662)
Deaths
January 23 – John Case, English commentator on Aristotle
February 15 – José de Acosta, Spanish naturalist (born 1539)
April – Thomas Deloney, English novelist and balladist (born 1543)
May 18 – Fulvio Orsini, Italian historian (born 1529)
June 25 – David Chytraeus, German theologian and historian (born 1530)
September 25 – Antoine du Verdier, French politician and writer (born 1544)
October 12 – Luis de Molina, Spanish Jesuit writer (born 1535)
November – Robert Wilson, English dramatist (date of birth unknown)
November 2 – Richard Hooker, English theologian (born 1554)
November 23 or 24 – Balthasar Russow, Estonian chronicler (born 1536)
Unknown dates
Bâkî (Mahmud Abdülbâkî), Ottoman Turkish poet (born 1526)
Mustafa Selaniki, Ottoman chronicler (date of birth unknown)
References
Literature
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ha%C3%A7ienda | The Haçienda | The Haçienda was a nightclub and music venue in Manchester, North West England, which became famous during the Madchester years of the 1980s and early 1990s.
Post-punk, Haçienda opened in 1982, unleashing the Manchester house and rave scene, which New Order's early success with "Blue Monday" helped to subsidise.
Content with indie status, Factory Records sponsored much of the rave scene, to the extent that its subculture (viz. MDMA) was noted by the Chief Constables of Merseyside & Greater Manchester as reducing football hooliganism.
Creation
The former warehouse occupied by the club was at 11–13, Whitworth Street West on the south side of the Rochdale Canal: the frontage was curved and built of red Accrington brick. Before it was turned into a club, The Haçienda was a yacht builder's shop and warehouse.
Originally conceived by Rob Gretton, it was largely financed by the record label Factory Records and the band New Order along with label boss Tony Wilson. It was on the corner of Whitworth Street West and Albion Street, close to Castlefield, on the edge of the city centre. FAC 51 was its official designation in the Factory catalogue. New Order and Tony Wilson were directors of the club.
Designed by Ben Kelly, upon recommendation by Factory graphic designer Peter Saville, upstairs consisted of a stage, dance area, bar, cloakroom, cafeteria area and balcony with a DJ booth. Downstairs was a cocktail bar called The Gay Traitor, which referred to Anthony Blunt, a British art historian who spied for the Soviet Union. The two other bars, The Kim Philby and Hicks, were named after Blunt's fellow spies. From 1995 onwards, the lower cellar areas of the venue were converted to create the 5th Man, a smaller music venue.
The Sound & Lighting design & installation for the Hacienda was done by Eddie Akka from Akwil Ltd.
Name
The name comes from a slogan of the radical group Situationist International: "The Hacienda Must Be Built", from Formulary for a New Urbanism by Ivan Chtcheglov. A hacienda is a large homestead in a ranch or estate usually in places where Colonial Spanish culture has had architectural influence. Even though the cedilla is not used in Spanish, the spelling "Haçienda" was decided on for the club because the cedilla makes the "çi" resemble "51", the club's catalogue number.
History
The Haçienda was opened on 21 May 1982, when the comedian Bernard Manning remarked to the audience, "I've played some shit-holes during my time, but this is really something." His jokes did not go down well with the crowd and he returned his fee.
A wide range of musical acts appeared at the club. One of the earliest was the German EBM band Liaisons Dangereuses, which played there on 7 July 1982. The Smiths performed there three times in 1983. It served as a venue for Madonna on her first performance in the United Kingdom, where the renowned music photographer Kevin Cummings took photos of the evening on 27 January 1984. She was invited to appear as part of a one-off, live television broadcast by Channel 4 music programme The Tube with then-resident Haçienda DJ Greg Wilson live mixing on the show. Madonna performed "Holiday" whilst at The Haçienda and the performance was described by Norman Cook (better known as Fatboy Slim) as one that "mesmerised the crowd".
At one time, the venue also included a hairdressing salon. As well as club nights there were regular concerts, including one in which Einstürzende Neubauten drilled into the walls that surrounded the stage. The venue was instrumental in the careers of Happy Mondays, Oasis, The Stone Roses, 808 State, Chemical Brothers and Sub Sub.
In 1986, it became one of the first British clubs to start playing house music, with DJs Hewan Clarke, Greg Wilson and later Mike Pickering (of Quando Quango and M People) and Little Martin (later with Graeme Park) hosting the visionary "Nude" night on Fridays. This night quickly became legendary, and helped to turn around the reputation and fortunes of The Haçienda, which went from making a consistent loss to being full every night of the week by early 1987.
Acid house and rave
The growth of the 'Madchester' scene had little to do with the healthy house music scene in Manchester at the time but it was boosted by the success of The Haçienda's pioneering Ibiza night, "Hot", an acid house night hosted by Pickering and Jon DaSilva in July 1988.
However, drug use became a problem. On 14 July 1989, the UK's first ecstasy-related death occurred at the club; 16-year-old Clare Leighton collapsed and died after her boyfriend gave her an ecstasy tablet. The police clampdown that followed was opposed by Manchester City Council, which argued that the club contributed to an "active use of the city centre core" in line with the government's policy of regenerating urban areas. The resulting problems caused the club to close for a short period in early 1991, before reopening with increased security later the same year.
Haçienda DJs made regular and guest appearances on radio and TV shows like Granada TV's Juice, Sunset 102 and BBC Radio 1. Between 1994 and 1997 Hacienda FM was a weekly show on Manchester dance station Kiss 102.
Security was frequently a problem, particularly in the club's latter years. There were several shootings inside and outside the club, and relations with the police and licensing authorities became troubled. When local magistrates and police visited the club in 1997, they witnessed a near-fatal assault on a man in the streets outside when 18-year-old Andrew Delahunty was hit over the head from behind with what looked like a metal bar before being pushed into the path of an on-coming car.
Although security failures at the club were one of the contributing factors to the club eventually closing, the most likely cause was its finances. The club simply did not make enough money from the sale of alcohol, and this was mainly because many patrons instead turned to drug use. As a result, the club rarely broke even as alcohol sales are the main source of income for nightclubs. Ultimately, the club's long-term future was crippled and, with spiralling debts, The Haçienda eventually closed definitively in the summer of 1997. Peter Hook stated in 2009 that The Haçienda lost up to £18 million in its latter years.
Legacy
The Haçienda lost its entertainments licence in June 1997. The last night of the club was 28 June 1997, a club night called "Freak" featuring Elliot Eastwick and Dave Haslam (the final live performance was by Spiritualized on 15 June 1997). The club remained open for a short period as an art gallery before finally going bankrupt and closing for good. After The Haçienda officially closed, it was used as a venue for two free parties organised by the Manchester free party scene. One of the parties ended in a police siege of the building while the party continued inside. These parties resulted in considerable damage and the application of graffiti to the Ben Kelly-designed interior.
Following a number of years standing empty, the Whitworth Street West site was purchased from the receivers by Crosby Homes. They chose to demolish the nightclub, and reuse the site for the construction of domestic flats. The old name was kept for the new development, with The Haçienda name licensed from Peter Hook, who owns the name and trademark. The nightclub was demolished in 2002—Crosby Homes had acquired the property some time before that and, on Saturday 25 November 2000, had held a charity auction of the various fixtures and fittings from the nightclub. Clubgoers and enthusiasts from across the country attended to buy memorabilia ranging from the DJ booth box and radiators to emergency exit lights. The DJ booth was bought by Bobby Langley, ex-Haçienda DJ and Head of Merchandise for Sony Music London for an undisclosed fee.
Crosby Homes were widely criticised for using The Haçienda brand name—and featuring the strapline "Now the party's over...you can come home" in the promotional material. Another controversial feature of the branding campaign was the appropriation of many of the themes which ran through the original building. One of these was the yellow and black hazard stripe motif which was a powerful element in the club's original design, featuring as it did on the club's dominant supporting pillars and later in much of the club's literature and flyers.
Michael Winterbottom's 2002 film 24 Hour Party People starring Steve Coogan as Tony Wilson, tells the story of The Haçienda. The film was shot in 2001, and required reconstructing The Haçienda as a temporary set in a Manchester factory, which was then opened to ticket holders for a night, acting as a full-scale nightclub (except with free bar) as the film shooting took place.
The Manchester exhibition centre Urbis hosted an exhibition celebrating the 25th anniversary of the club's opening, which ran from mid-July 2007 until mid-February 2008. Peter Hook and many other of those originally involved contributed or loaned material.
The Manchester Museum of Science and Industry now holds a variety of Haçienda and Factory records artefacts, including the main loading bay doors from the club, and a wide array of posters, fliers and props. Rob Gretton bequeathed his collection of Haçienda memorabilia to the museum.
In October 2009, Peter Hook published his book on his time as co-owner of The Haçienda, How Not to Run a Club.
In 2010, Peter Hook had six bass guitars made using wood from The Haçienda's dancefloor. The fret boards have been made from dancefloor planks, so they have "stiletto marks and cigarette burns".
See also
List of electronic dance music venues
References
Bibliography
External links
Pride Of Manchester Haçienda memories by Haçienda DJ Dave Haslam
Haçienda Profile - Profile on the club & more on rave
Ben Kelly Design - gallery of interior photos of The Haçienda
Fantazia.org.uk - Fantazia/Haçienda flyer from 1992
The Haçienda Story
The first Hacienda DJ Booth
Hacienda DJ Booth Story
Nightclubs in Manchester
Defunct nightclubs in the United Kingdom
Demolished buildings and structures in Manchester
History of Manchester
Madchester
Music venues in Manchester
Electronic dance music venues
Factory Records
Music venues completed in 1982
1982 establishments in England
1997 disestablishments in England
Warehouses in England
Buildings and structures demolished in 2002 | [
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226498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection%20cell | Convection cell | In the field of fluid dynamics, a convection cell is the phenomenon that occurs when density differences exist within a body of liquid or gas. These density differences result in rising and/or falling currents, which are the key characteristics of a convection cell. When a volume of fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense and thus more buoyant than the surrounding fluid. The colder, denser part of the fluid descends to settle below the warmer, less-dense fluid, and this causes the warmer fluid to rise. Such movement is called convection, and the moving body of liquid is referred to as a convection cell. This particular type of convection, where a horizontal layer of fluid is heated from below, is known as Rayleigh–Bénard convection. Convection usually requires a gravitational field, but in microgravity experiments, thermal convection has been observed without gravitational effects.
Fluids are generalized as materials that exhibit the property of flow; however, this behavior is not unique to liquids. Fluid properties can also be observed in gases and even in particulate solids (such as sand, gravel, and larger objects during rock slides).
A convection cell is most notable in the formation of clouds with its release and transportation of energy. As air moves along the ground it absorbs heat, loses density and moves up into the atmosphere. When it is forced into the atmosphere, which has a lower air pressure, it cannot contain as much fluid as at a lower altitude, so it releases its moist air, producing rain. In this process the warm air is cooled; it gains density and falls towards the earth and the cell repeats the cycle.
Convection cells can form in any fluid, including the Earth's atmosphere (where they are called Hadley cells), boiling water, soup (where the cells can be identified by the particles they transport, such as grains of rice), the ocean, or the surface of the sun. The size of convection cells is largely determined by the fluid's properties. Convection cells can even occur when the heating of a fluid is uniform.
Process
A rising body of fluid typically loses heat when it encounters a cold surface when it exchanges heat with colder liquid through direct exchange, or in the example of the Earth's atmosphere, when it radiates heat. At some point, the fluid becomes denser than the fluid beneath it, which is still rising. Since it cannot descend through the rising fluid, it moves to one side. At some distance, its downward force overcomes the rising force beneath it, and the fluid begins to descend. As it descends, it warms again through surface contact or conductivity and the cycle repeats.
Within the Earth's troposphere
Thunderstorms
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air rises within cooler air, similar to hot air balloons. Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools, causing some of the water vapor in the rising packet of air to condense. When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as the latent heat of vaporisation, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air, continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable air mass, and a lifting force (heat).
All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: a 'developing stage', a 'mature stage', and a 'dissipating stage'. The average thunderstorm has a diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, these three stages take an average of 30 minutes to go through.
Adiabatic processes
Heating caused by the compression of descending air is responsible for such winter phenomena as the chinook (as it is known in western North America) or the Föhn (in the Alps).
Within the Sun
The Sun's photosphere is composed of convection cells called granules, which are rising columns of superheated (5,800 °C) plasma averaging about 1,000 kilometres in diameter. The plasma cools as it rises and descends in the narrow spaces between the granules.
References
External links
Mountainnature.com — Chinook
Convection | [
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226501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaujolais | Beaujolais | Beaujolais ( , ) is a French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) wine generally made of the Gamay grape, which has a thin skin and is low in tannins. Like most AOC wines they are not labeled varietally. Whites from the region, which make up only 1% of its production, are made mostly with Chardonnay grapes though Aligoté is also permitted until 2024 (on condition the vines were planted before 2004). Beaujolais tends to be a very light-bodied red wine, with relatively high amounts of acidity. In some vintages, Beaujolais produces more wine than the Burgundy wine regions of Chablis, Côte d'Or, Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais put together.
The wine takes its name from the historical Province of Beaujolais, a wine-producing region. It is located north of Lyon, and covers parts of the north of the department of Rhône, the Rhône-Alpes region and southern areas of the department of Saône-et-Loire, in Burgundy. While administratively considered part of the Burgundy wine region, the climate is closer to that of the Rhône, and the wine is sufficiently individual in character to be considered apart from Burgundy and Rhône. The region is known internationally for its long tradition of winemaking, for the use of carbonic maceration, and more recently for the popular Beaujolais nouveau.
History
The region of Beaujolais was first cultivated by the Romans who planted the areas along its trading route up the Saône valley. The most noticeable Roman vineyard was Brulliacus located on the hillside of Mont Brouilly. The Romans also planted vineyards in the area around Morgon. From the 7th century through the Middle Ages, most of the viticulture and winemaking was done by the Benedictine monks. In the 10th century, the region got its name from the town of Beaujeu, Rhône and was ruled by the Lords of Beaujeu until the 15th century when it was ceded to the Duchy of Burgundy. The wines from Beaujolais were mostly confined to the markets along the Saône and Rhône, particularly in the town of Lyon. The expansion of the French railroad system in the 19th century opened up the lucrative Paris market. The first mention of Beaujolais wines in English followed soon after when Cyrus Redding described the wines of Moulin-à-Vent and Saint-Amour as being low-priced and best consumed young.
In the 1980s, Beaujolais hit a peak of popularity in the world's wine market with its Beaujolais nouveau wine. Spurred on by the creative marketing from wine merchants such as Georges Duboeuf, demand outpaced supply for the easy-drinking, fruity wines. As more Beaujolais producers tried to capitalize on the "Nouveau craze", production of regular Beaujolais dropped and an eventual backlash occurred in the late 1990s and early 21st century. By this point, the whole of Beaujolais wine had developed a negative reputation among consumers who associated Gamay based wines with the slightly sweet, simple light bodied wines that characterized Beaujolais Nouveau. Producers were left with a wine surplus that French authorities compelled them to reduce through mandatory distillation. In response, there has been renewed emphasis on the production of more complex wines that are aged longer in oak barrels prior to release. Recent years have seen a rise in the number of terroir driven estate-bottled wines made from single vineyards or in one of the Cru Beaujolais communes, where the name of the commune is allowed to be displayed on the label.
Gamay grape
Gamay noir is now known to be a cross of pinot noir and the ancient white variety Gouais, the latter a Central European variety that was probably introduced to northeastern France by the Romans. The grape brought relief to the village growers following the decline of the Black Death. In contrast to the pinot noir, Gamay ripened two weeks earlier and was less difficult to cultivate. It also produced a strong, fruitier wine in a much larger abundance. In July 1395, the Duke of Burgundy Philippe the Bold outlawed the cultivation of Gamay as being "a very bad and disloyal plant", due in part to the variety occupying land that could be used for the more "elegant" pinot noir. Sixty years later, Philippe the Good issued another edict against Gamay, in which he stated the reason for the ban was that "The Dukes of Burgundy are known as the lords of the best wines in Christendom. We will maintain our reputation". The edicts had the effect of pushing Gamay plantings southward, out of the main region of Burgundy and into the granite based soils of Beaujolais where the grape thrived.
Scandals
Following the 2001 vintage, over 1.1 million cases of Beaujolais wine (most of it Beaujolais Nouveau) had to be destroyed or distilled due to lackluster sales as part of a consumer backlash against the popularity of Beaujolais Nouveau. French wine critic François Mauss claimed, in an interview given to a local newspaper, Lyon Mag, that the reason for the backlash was the poor quality of Beaujolais Nouveau that had flooded the market in recent decades. He claimed that Beaujolais producers had long ignored the warning signs that such a backlash was coming and continued to produce what Mauss termed vin de merde (shit wine). This triggered an outcry among Beaujolais producers followed by an association of 56 cooperative producers filing a lawsuit against the Lyon Mag for publishing Mauss's comments.
Rather than sue for libel, the producers sued under an obscure French law that punishes the denigration of French products. In January 2003, the court in Villefranche-sur-Saône found in favor of the Beaujolais producers and awarded USD$350,000 which would put the small, employee owned publication out of business. The bad publicity garnered from the "Shit wine case" was extensive, with several publications such as Le Monde, The Times, The New York Times and the Herald Tribune running critical or satirical articles on the court's decision. In 2005, the highest court of appeal reversed and found that there was no cause of action against the publication, and the Beaujolais winemakers were ordered to pay €2,000 (US$2,442) in court costs to Lyon Mag.
In 2005, the Vins Georges Duboeuf company was charged with mixing low-grade wine with better vintages after a patchy 2004 harvest. Georges Duboeuf denied wrongdoing, blaming human error and pointing out that none of the affected wine was released to consumers. The production manager directly responsible admitted his actions and resigned, and a court found that both "fraud and attempted fraud concerning the origin and quality of wines" had been committed. Fewer than 200,000 liters of the company's annual 270 million liter production were implicated, but L'Affaire Duboeuf, as it was called, was considered a serious scandal.
In December 2007, five people were arrested after reportedly selling nearly 600 tonnes of sugar to growers in Beaujolais. Up to 100 growers were accused of using the sugar for illegal chaptalization and also of exceeding volume quotas between 2004 and 2006.
Climate and geography
Beaujolais is a large wine-producing region, larger than any single district of Burgundy. There are over of vines planted in a stretch of land that is between 7 and wide (11 to 14 km). The historical capital of the province is Beaujeu (Bôjor /Biôjœr in Arpitan) and the economic capital of the area is Villefranche-sur-Saône (Velafranche). Many of Beaujolais vineyards are found in the hillside on the outskirt of Lyons in the eastern portion of the region along the Saône valley. The Massif Central is located to the west and has a tempering influence on Beaujolais' climate. The region is located south of the Burgundy wine region Mâconnais with nearly 100 communes in the northern region of Beaujolais overlapping between the AOC boundaries Beaujolais and the Maconnais region of Saint-Véran.
The climate of Beaujolais is semi-continental with some temperate influences. The proximity of the Mediterranean Sea does impart some Mediterranean influence on the climate. The region is overall, warmer than Burgundy with vines that consistently fully ripen grapes. By the time that the Beaujolais Nouveau is released in late November, the foothills in the western regions will have normally seen snow. A common viticultural hazard is spring time frost.
The soils of Beaujolais divide the region into a northern and southern half, with the town of Villefranche serving as a near dividing point. The northern half of Beaujolais, where most of the Cru Beaujolais communes are located, includes rolling hills of schist and granite based soils with some limestone. On hillsides, most of the granite and schist is found in the upper slopes with the lower slopes having more stone and clay composition. The southern half of the region, also known as the Bas Beaujolais, has flatter terrain with richer, sandstone and clay based soils with some limestone patches. The Gamay grape fares differently in both regions-producing more structured, complex wines in the north and more lighter, fruity wines in the south. The angle of the hillside vineyards in the north exposes the grapes to more sunshine which leads to harvest at an earlier time than the vineyards in the south.
Appellations
The new rules for Beaujolais appellations were issued by INAO in 2011
There are 12 main appellations of Beaujolais wines covering the production of more than 96 villages in the Beaujolais region. They were originally established in 1936, with additional crus being promoted in 1938 and 1946, plus Régnié in 1988. About half of all Beaujolais wine is sold under the basic Beaujolais AOC designation. The majority of this wine is produced in the southern Bas Beaujolais region located around the town of Belleville. The minimum natural alcohol level for the grapes is 10%, and the maximum yield is 60 hl/ha (65 hl/ha for a bumper crop) The wine may be labeled as Beaujolais Supérieur in case the minimum natural alcohol level for the grapes is 10,5%, and the maximum yield is 58 hl/ha (63 hl/ha for a bumper crop). Exactly the same limits are effective for Beaujolais-Villages. Maximum chaptalization levels are established at 3 g/l (glucose + fructose).
is the most extended appellation allowed to be used in any of the 96 villages, but essentially covering 60 villages, and refers to all basic Beaujolais wines. A large portion of the wine produced under this appellation is sold as Beaujolais Nouveau. Annually, this appellation averages around 75 million bottles a year in production. Maximum level of sulfur dioxide in the Nouveau is limited at 100 mg/l.
, the intermediate category in terms of classification, covers 39 communes/villages in the Haut Beaujolais, the northern part of the region accounting for a quarter of production. Some is sold as Beaujolais-Villages Nouveau, but it is not common. Most of the wines are released in the following March after the harvest. The terrain of this region is hillier with more schist and granite soil composition than what is found in the regions of the Beaujolais AOC and the wine has the potential to be of higher quality. If the grapes come from the area of a single vineyard or commune, producers can affix the name of their particular village to the Beaujolais-Villages designation. Since most of the villages of Beaujolais, outside of those classified as Cru Beaujolais, villages have little international name recognitions most producers choose to maintain the Beaujolais-Villages designation. The maximum permitted yields for this AOC is 58 hl/ha. These wines are meant to be consumed young, within two years of their harvest. Several of the communes in the Beaujolais-Villages AOC also qualify to produce their wines under the Mâconnais and Saint-Véran AOCs. The Beaujolais producers that produce a red wine under the Beaujolais-Villages appellation will often produce their white wine under the more internationally recognized names of Mâcon-Villages or Saint-Véran.
Cru Beaujolais, the highest category of classification in Beaujolais, account for the production within ten villages/areas in the foothills of the Beaujolais mountains. Unlike Burgundy and Alsace, the phrase cru in Beaujolais refers to an entire wine-producing area rather than an individual vineyard. Seven of the Crus relate to actual villages while Brouilly and Côte de Brouilly refer to the vineyards areas around Mont Brouilly and Moulin-à-Vent is named for a local windmill. These wines do not usually show the word "Beaujolais" on the label, in an attempt to separate themselves from mass-produced Nouveau; in fact vineyards in the cru villages are not allowed to produce Nouveau. The maximum yields for Cru Beaujolais wine is 48 hl/ha. Their wines can be more full-bodied, darker in color, and significantly longer-lived. From north to south the Beaujolais crus are- Saint-Amour, Juliénas, Chénas, Moulin-à-Vent, Fleurie, Chiroubles, Morgon, Régnié, Brouilly and Côte de Brouilly.
Beaujolais Blanc & Beaujolais Rosé - A small amount of white wine made from Chardonnay is grown in the region and used to produce Beaujolais Blanc or Beaujolais-Villages Blanc. The vineyards to produces these wines are normally found in the limestone soils of the far northern extremities of the region. Part of the reason for the small production of these wines is that many of the vineyards overlap into the Mâconnais regions and producers will usually choose to label their wines under the more marketable and well known Mâcon Blanc designation. There is also regulations in several Beaujolais communes restricting growers to dedicating no more than 10% of their vineyard space to white wine grape varieties. Beaujolais Rosé made from Gamay is permitted in the Beaujolais AOC but is rarely produced.
Beaujolais crus
The 10 Beaujolais crus differ in character. The following three crus produce the lightest-bodied Beaujolais and are typically intended to be consumed within three years of the vintage.
- The largest cru in Beaujolais, situated around Mont Brouilly and contains within its boundaries the sub-district of Côte de Brouilly. The wines are noted for their aromas of blueberries, cherries, raspberries and currants. Along with Côte de Brouilly, this is the only Cru Beaujolais region that permits grapes other than Gamay to be produced in the area with vineyards growing Chardonnay, Aligote and Melon de Bourgogne as well. The Brouilly cru also contains the famous Pisse Vieille vineyard (roughly translated as "piss old woman!") which received its name from a local legend of a devout Catholic woman who misheard the local priest's absolution to "Allez! Et ne péchez plus." (Go! And sin no more.) as "Allez! Et ne pissez plus." (Go! And piss no more). The vineyard name is the admonishment that her husband gave to her upon learning of the priest's words.
- The most recently recognized cru, graduating from a Beaujolais-Villages area to Cru Beaujolais in 1988. One of the more full-bodied crus in this category. It is noted for its redcurrant and raspberry flavors. Local lore in the region states that this cru was the site of the first vineyards planted in Beaujolais by the Romans.
- This cru has vineyards at some of the highest altitudes among the Cru Beaujolais. Chiroubles cru are noted for their delicate perfume that often includes aromas of violets.
The next three crus produce more medium bodied Cru Beaujolais that Master of Wine Mary Ewing-Mulligan recommends needs at least a year aging in the bottle and to be consumed within four years of the vintage.
- Located on the higher slopes of the extinct volcano Mont Brouilly within the Brouilly Cru Beaujolais. The wines from this region are more deeply concentrated with less earthiness than Brouilly wine.
- One of the most widely exported Cru Beaujolais into the United States. These wines often have a velvet texture with fruity and floral bouquet. In ideal vintages, a vin de garde (wine for aging) is produced that is meant to age at least four years before consuming and can last up to 16 years.
- Local lore suggest that this region was named after a Roman soldier (St. Amateur) who converted to Christianity after escaping death and established a mission near the area. The wines from Saint-Amour are noted for their spicy flavors with aromas of peaches. The vin de garde wines require at least four year aging and can last up to 12 years.
The last four crus produce the fullest bodied examples of Cru Beaujolais that need the most time ageing in the bottle and are usually meant to be consumed between four and 10 years after harvest.
- Once contained many of the vineyards that are now sold under the Moulin-à-Vent designation. It is now the smallest Cru Beaujolais with wines that are noted for their aroma of wild roses. In ideal vintages, a vin de garde is produced that is meant to age at least five years before consuming and last up to 15. The area named is derived from the forest of French oak trees (chêne) that used to dot the hillside.
-This cru is based around the village named after Julius Caesar. The wines made from this area are noted for their richness and spice with aromas reminiscent of peonies. In contrast to the claims of Régnié, Juliénas growers believe that this area was the site of the first vineyards planted in Beaujolais by the Romans during this conquest of Gaul.
- Produces earthy wines that can take on a Burgundian character of silky texture after five years aging. These wines are generally the deepest color and most rich Cru Beaujolais with aromas of apricots and peaches. Within this cru there is a particular hillside, known as Côte du Py, in the center of Morgon that produces the most powerful examples of Morgon wines.
Moulin-à-Vent - Wines are very similar to the nearby Chénas Cru Beaujolais. This region produces some of the longest-lasting examples of Beaujolais wine, with some wines lasting up to 10 years. Some producers will age their Moulin-à-Vent in oak which gives these wines more tannin and structure than other Beaujolais wines. The phrase fûts de chêne (oak casks) will sometimes appear on the wine label of these oak aged wines. The region is noted for the high level of manganese that is in the soil, which can be toxic to grape vines in high levels. The level of toxicity in Moulin-à-Vent does not kill the vine but is enough to cause chlorosis and alter the vine's metabolism to reduce yields severely. The resulting wines from Moulin-à-Vent are the most full bodied and powerful examples in Beaujolais. The vin de garde styles require at least 6 years aging and can last up to 20 years.
Beaujolais Nouveau
The early history of Beaujolais Nouveau can trace its roots to 19th century when the first wines of the vintage were sent down the Saône to the early bistros of Lyon. Upon their arrival signs would be put out proclaiming "Le Beaujolais Est Arrivé!" and its consumption was seen as a celebration of another successful harvest. In the 1960s, this style of simple Beaujolais became increasingly popular worldwide with more than half a million cases of it being sold. In 1985 the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine (INAO) established the third Thursday of November to allow for a uniform release date for the wine. Wines are typically shipped a few days earlier to locations around the world where they must be held in a bonded warehouse till 12:01am, when the wines can be first opened and consumed.
Today, about a third of the region's production is sold as Beaujolais Nouveau, a marketing name created by Georges Duboeuf for the local vin de l'année. It is the lightest, fruitiest style of Beaujolais and meant for simple quaffing. Any Beaujolais or Beaujolais-Villages AOC vineyard can produce Beaujolais Nouveau. The grapes are harvested between late August and early September. It is fermented for just a few days and released to the public on the third Thursday of November - "Beaujolais Nouveau Day". It is the first French wine to be released for each vintage year. In 1992, at its peak, more than half of all Beaujolais wine was sold as "Beaujolais Nouveau". The wines are meant to be drunk as young as possible, when they are at their freshest and fruitiest. They can last up to one or two years but will have lost most of their characteristic flavors by that point.
Viticulture and grape varieties
The Beaujolais region has one of the highest vine density ratios of any major worldwide wine region, with anywhere from 9000 to 13,000 vines per hectare. Most vines are trained in the traditional gobelet style, where the spurs of the vines are pushed upwards and arranged in a circle, resembling a chalice. This method has its roots in the Roman style of vine training and has only recently begun to fall out of favor for the guyot method which involves taking a single or double spur and training it out horizontally. Harvest usually occurs in late September and is almost universally done by hand rather than with the use of mechanical harvesters. This is because the Beaujolais wine-making style of carbonic maceration utilizes whole bunches of grape clusters that normally get broken and separated by a mechanical harvester.
The Gamay grape, more accurately known as Gamay noir à Jus blanc to distinguish it from the Gamay teinturier grapes with red juice and different from the Napa Gamay and the Gamay Beaujolais grapes of California, is the most widely planted grape in Beaujolais, accounting for nearly 98% of all plantings. The remaining plantings are mostly Chardonnay. Aligote vines that were planted prior to 2004 are permitted in wine production, but the entire grape variety is being phased out of the region by 2024. According to AOC regulation, up to 15% of white wine grape varieties can be included in all Beaujolais red wines from the basic Beaujolais AOC to the Cru Beaujolais wines, but in practice the wines are almost always 100% Gamay. Pinot noir, which has very small plantings, is also permitted, but that grape is being phased out by 2015 as Beaujolais winemakers continue to focus their winemaking identity on the Gamay grape. The characteristics that the Gamay grapes adds to Beaujolais are a deep bluish-red color, high acidity, moderate tannins, and light to medium body. The aroma associated with the grape itself is typically red berries.
Since the 1960s, more focus has been placed on the choice of rootstocks and clonal selection, with six approved clones of Gamay for the wine region. In recent years the rootstock Vialla has gained popularity due to its propensity to produce well in granite soils. The SO4 and 3309 rootstocks also account for significant plantings. Clonal selection of the Gamay grape has shifted towards an emphasis on smaller, thicker-skinned berries.
Winemaking and style
Beaujolais wines are produced by the winemaking technique of semi-carbonic maceration. Whole grape clusters are put in cement or stainless steel tanks with capacities between . The bottom third of the grapes gets crushed under the weight of gravity and resulting must begins normal yeast fermentation with ambient yeasts found naturally on the skins of the grapes. Carbon dioxide is released as a byproduct of this fermentation and begins to saturate the individual intact grape berries that remain in the barrel. The carbon dioxide seeps into the skin of the grape and begin to stimulate fermentation at an intracellular level. This is caused, in part, by the absence of oxygen in the winemaking environment. This results in a fruity wine without much tannin. In the case of Beaujolais nouveau, this process is completed in as little as four days, with the other AOCs being allowed longer time to ferment. As the grapes ferment longer, they develop more tannins and a fuller body. Maximum length of the cuvaison for Nouveau wines is limited to 10 days.
After fermentation, the must is normally high in malic acid and producers will put the wine through malolactic fermentation to soften the wine. The process of chaptalization, adding sugar to the grape must to boost alcohol levels, has been a controversial issue for Beaujolais winemakers. Historically, Beaujolais producers would pick grapes at ripeness that were at minimum potential alcohol levels of 10-10.5% and then add sugar in order to artificially boost the alcohol levels to the near the maximum of 13-13.5%. This created wines lacking structure and balance to go with the high alcohol body and mouthfeel. The recent trend towards higher quality wine production has limited the use of chaptalization in the premium levels of Beaujolais wine. Filtering the wine in order to stabilize it is practiced to varying degrees by Beaujolais winemakers. Some producers who make Beaujolais on a large commercial scale will filter the wine aggressively to avoid any impurity or future chemical reactions. This can have the negative side effect of diminishing some of the wine's unique fruit character and leave a flavor that critics have described as Jell-O-like.
Basic Beaujolais is the classic bistro wine of Paris; a fruity, easy-drinking red traditionally served in 1 pint glass bottles known as pot. This is epitomized in Beaujolais Nouveau, which is fermented for just a few days and can be dominated by estery flavors such as bananas and pear drops. Basic Beaujolais and Beaujolais nouveau are meant to be drunk within a year of their harvest. Beaujolais-Villages are generally consumed within 2–3 years and Cru Beaujolais has the potential to age longer, some not even fully developing till at least 3 years after harvest. Premium examples from Chénas, Juliénas, Morgon and Moulin-à-Vent can spend up to 10 years continuing to develop in the bottle and in very good vintages can take on Burgundian qualities of structure and complexity.
Wine industry
The Beaujolais wine industry is dominated by the more than 30 négociants who produce nearly 90% of the wine sold outside the Beaujolais region. Many of these négociants, such as Maison Louis Jadot (which owns Moulin-à-Vent-based Château des Jacques) and Bouchard Père et Fils, are based in Burgundy. One of the most well known Beaujolais producers is the négociant Georges Duboeuf. There are more than 4000 vineyard owners in Beaujolais and the fractional amount that is not sold to négociants are bottled by the nearly 20 village co-operatives with a growing amount being estate bottled. Very little of the estate bottled Beaujolais wines are exported into the United States or United Kingdom though a few exporters specialize in this small niche—the most notable being Kermit Lynch and Alain Jugenet.
Serving and food pairing
Wine expert Karen MacNeil has described Beaujolais as "the only white wine that happens to be red". Similarly, Beaujolais is often treated like a white wine and served slightly chilled to a lower temperature, the lighter the style. Beaujolais Nouveau, being the lightest style, is served at about . Beaujolais AOC and Beaujolais-Villages are generally served between . Cru Beaujolais, especially the fuller bodied examples, can be treated like red Burgundy wine and served at . The wines rarely need to be decanted. In Beaujolais, it is traditional to soak the bottles in buckets of ice water and bring them out to the center villages for picnics and games of boules.
Beaujolais wine can be paired with a variety of food according to the lightness and body of the wine. Beaujolais Nouveau is typically used as an apéritif with basic Beaujolais and Beaujolais-Villages doing well with light fare, like picnics and salads. The lighter Cru Beaujolais pair well with poultry and the heavier Crus pairing better with red meats and hearty dishes like stews. In Norway, Beaujolais is a favorite with cod and bacalhau dishes. According to Lyon chef Paul Bocuse, Beaujolais wine is used to make a traditional regional dessert involving a glass of sliced peaches, topped with blackcurrants and drenched in chilled Beaujolais wine.
See also
List of Vins de Primeur
References
External links
Beaujolais Wines Homepage
French wine vintage chart-Including Beaujolais
Beaujolais-Intro
Beaujolais Food and Wine pairing
Wine Region map
Domaine de la Merlette
Former provinces of France
Rhône (department)
Saône-et-Loire
Wine regions of France
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226503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig%20%28card%20game%29 | Pig (card game) | Pig is a simple, collecting card game of 20th century American origin suitable for three to thirteen players that is played with a 52-card French-suited pack. It has two very similar and well known variants – Donkey and Spoons. It is often classed as a children's game. It may be descended from an old game called Vive l'Amour.
History
Pig is first recorded in 1947 by Frey who describes it as a "modern simplification" of an old game called Vive l'Amour; a four-player game in which the aim was to be first to collect all 13 cards on one suit. Although intended for children, the game was also apparently played by adults with special cards in those parts of the US where standard playing cards are taboo. In 1957, a variant, Donkey, is first mentioned by Culbertson. The rules are identical; the main exception being that, whereas in Pig players touch their noses when they acquire a quartet, in Donkey, a number of objects – one fewer than the number of players – is placed in the middle and the first player with a quartet calls "Donkey!" and takes one. The subtle distinction between the two games is missed by some later authors. Gibson (1974) states that the games are "practically identical", while Maguire describes Pig but calls it Donkey. Maguire introduces the rule that 'donkeys' receive the letters of the word D-O-N-K-E-Y and the first to spell the whole word is the overall loser. He also records the game of Spoons for the first time, describing it as a variant in which, however, the player who stays to the end without spelling S-P-O-O-N-S is the overall winner. Arnold equates Pig and Donkey, while Spadaccini and Bicycle Cards faithfully describe the original Pig. Katz conflates Pig with Spoons and uses the whole pack, but adds some interesting variations. A good summary of the rules and variations for Pig and Spoons is at pagat.com.
Rules
Pig
The rules have changed little over time. The earliest and most basic rules are as follows:
Pig is suitable for six to ten-year olds. Three to thirteen may play, but four to seven is best. The aim is to be first to collect a quartet, i.e. four cards of the same rank, known as a book. The game requires as many quartets as there are players e.g. if five play, five quartets are used from a standard 52-card pack and the rest laid aside. Each player is dealt four cards which they pick up and view. Then all the players simultaneously discard one card face down to their left and, after doing so, they all pick up the card from the player to their right. As soon as a player collects a book, that player puts a finger to his nose. As soon as they spot this, the other players do likewise. The last player to put a finger to his nose is the Pig and loses the deal.
According to Culbertson, the game is best for more than three players – "the more the merrier" – and is often played by adults at parties as an ice-breaker.
Variations:
Go!: The dealer calls "Go" to initiate the passing each time. Once players have passed, picked up and if no-one has a quartet, the dealer calls "Go" again.
Start!: The dealer calls "Start" to initiate the passing and then play continues until someone has a quartet.
P-I-G: Players have three lives scored as P-I-G. The first to record P-I-G is the overall loser and, optionally, has to oink like a pig. Alternatively, the last player who did not record P-I-G is the overall winner.
Pointing: Players point to their nose instead of touching it.
Twin Pack: For more than 13 players, two packs may be used.
Two Winners: One player drops out in each deal, and the last two left in are joint winners.
Donkey
In 1957, Donkey appears as a variant. The rules are the same as in the earliest version of Pig above, except that "a number of chips, matches, or other tokens" are used; always one fewer than the number of active players. These objects are placed in the middle. When a player collects four of a kind, he calls "Donkey" and takes a chip, etc. The others now also pick up a chip if they can and the player left without a chip is the Donkey.
Maguire (1990) adds the requirement for a scorekeeper and introduces the rule that, each time a player becomes the Donkey, he or she is assigned a letter from that word. The first player to be assigned all the letters, i.e. D-O-N-K-E-Y, is the loser.
Variations:
Swap!: The dealer calls "Swap" each time to initiate the exchanging of cards.
Prizes: For a party game, prizes are used as the objects.
Spoons
The name Spoons first appears in 1990. It is essentially Donkey using spoons as the objects to be picked up. The player left without a spoon in each deal is assigned a letter from the word 'spoons'. The player who gets S-P-O-O-N-S is eliminated from the game, and the game continues. The last player staying in the game without being assigned S-P-O-O-N-S is the winner.
Variations:
Stockpile: A whole 52-card pack and so there is a stockpile from which the dealer draws each time and a discard pile to which the player on his or her right passes a card each time.
Five Cards: Players may be dealt five cards each, but still only need four-of-a-kind to pick up a spoon.
Series: There is a series of games with one player being eliminated each time, and the last player standing is the overall winner.
Extreme Spoons/Hidden Spoons: Instead of the middle of the table as usual, the spoons are placed in some inconvenient location nearby.
Two Winners: Similar to Series, but the last two players left are joint winners.
Joker Spoons: The deck includes jokers which act as wild cards.
Tongue
In the game of Tongue, players quietly stick out their tongue when they have a quartet.
Tactics
Tactics may include:
Bluffing: Bluffing is allowed. Spoons may be reached at any time as long as they are not touched. This may distract the others or even cause someone to grab a spoon prematurely which may result in their elimination.
Eyes on the spoons: Players keep an eye on the number of spoons in case one has been taken without anyone noticing.
Continuing to play. After sticking out a tongue or collecting a spoon, a player may continue to pass and pick up to confuse other players, but they must keep their quartet intact. This is not possible with Pig as one hand is needed to touch the nose.
See also
Happy Families - quartet-collecting game
My Ship Sails - collecting game in which several cards of one suit are needed to win
Musical chairs - elimination game involving players, chairs and music
Footnotes
References
Literature
_ (2014), The Card Games Bible, Hamlyn, London: Octopus.
Bathroom Reader's Institute (BRI). 2012. Uncle John's Book of Fun. Portable Press.
Arnold, Peter (2009). Chambers card games for families. Chambers Harrap, Edinburgh.
Culbertson, Ely (1957). Culbertson’s Card Games Complete. Arco.
Frey, Richard L. (1947) [Also Albert Morehead and Geoffrey Mott-Smith, but they were not permitted by contract to allow their names to be used]. The New Complete Hoyle. David McKay.
Gibson, Walter Brown (1974). Hoyle’s Modern Encyclopedia of Card Games. Dolphin.
Kansil Joli Quentin (2001). Bicycle Official Rules of Card Games, 90th edn. Cincinnati: USPC.
Katz, Nikki (2012). The Book of Card Games. Simon & Schuster.
Maguire, Jack (1990). Hopscotch, Hangman , Hot Potato & Ha Ha Ha. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney: Simon & Schuster. .
Parlett, David (2008). The Penguin Book of Card Games, Penguin, London.
Spadaccini, Stephanie (2005). The Big Book of Rules. London, NY, etc: Penguin.
External links
Arneson, Erik (2019). How to Play Spoons at www.thesprucecrafts.com.
Pig, Spoons - rules at pagat.com
Rules for Pig at Classic Games and Puzzles.com
Party games
Card games for children
Card games introduced in 1947
Card passing games
American card games | [
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226505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit%20point | Limit point | In mathematics, a limit point (or cluster point or accumulation point) of a set in a topological space is a point that can be "approximated" by points of in the sense that every neighbourhood of with respect to the topology on also contains a point of other than itself. A limit point of a set does not itself have to be an element of
There is also a closely related concept for sequences. A cluster point or accumulation point of a sequence in a topological space is a point such that, for every neighbourhood of there are infinitely many natural numbers such that This definition of a cluster or accumulation point of a sequence generalizes to nets and filters.
In contrast to sets, for a sequence, net, or filter, the term "limit point" is synonymous with a "cluster/accumulation point"; by definition, the similarly named notion of a limit point of a filter (respectively, a limit point of a sequence, a limit point of a net) refers to a point that the filter converges to (respectively, the sequence converges to, the net converges to).
The limit points of a set should not be confused with adherent points for which every neighbourhood of contains a point of . Unlike for limit points, this point of may be itself. A limit point can be characterized as an adherent point that is not an isolated point.
Limit points of a set should also not be confused with boundary points. For example, is a boundary point (but not a limit point) of set in with standard topology. However, is a limit point (though not a boundary point) of interval in with standard topology (for a less trivial example of a limit point, see the first caption).
This concept profitably generalizes the notion of a limit and is the underpinning of concepts such as closed set and topological closure. Indeed, a set is closed if and only if it contains all of its limit points, and the topological closure operation can be thought of as an operation that enriches a set by uniting it with its limit points.
Definition
Accumulation points of a set
Let be a subset of a topological space
A point in is a limit point or cluster point or if every neighbourhood of contains at least one point of different from itself.
It does not make a difference if we restrict the condition to open neighbourhoods only. It is often convenient to use the "open neighbourhood" form of the definition to show that a point is a limit point and to use the "general neighbourhood" form of the definition to derive facts from a known limit point.
If is a space (such as a metric space), then is a limit point of if and only if every neighbourhood of contains infinitely many points of In fact, spaces are characterized by this property.
If is a Fréchet–Urysohn space (which all metric spaces and first-countable spaces are), then is a limit point of if and only if there is a sequence of points in whose limit is In fact, Fréchet–Urysohn spaces are characterized by this property.
The set of limit points of is called the derived set of
Types of accumulation points
If every neighbourhood of contains infinitely many points of then is a specific type of limit point called an of
If every neighbourhood of contains uncountably many points of then is a specific type of limit point called a condensation point of
If every neighbourhood of satisfies then is a specific type of limit point called a of
Accumulation points of sequences and nets
In a topological space a point is said to be a cluster point or if, for every neighbourhood of there are infinitely many such that
It is equivalent to say that for every neighbourhood of and every there is some such that
If is a metric space or a first-countable space (or, more generally, a Fréchet–Urysohn space), then is a cluster point of if and only if is a limit of some subsequence of
The set of all cluster points of a sequence is sometimes called the limit set.
Note that there is already the notion of limit of a sequence to mean a point to which the sequence converges (that is, every neighborhood of contains all but finitely many elements of the sequence). That is why we do not use the term of a sequence as a synonym for accumulation point of the sequence.
The concept of a net generalizes the idea of a sequence. A net is a function where is a directed set and is a topological space. A point is said to be a cluster point or if, for every neighbourhood of and every there is some such that equivalently, if has a subnet which converges to Cluster points in nets encompass the idea of both condensation points and ω-accumulation points. Clustering and limit points are also defined for filters.
Relation between accumulation point of a sequence and accumulation point of a set
Every sequence in is by definition just a map so that its image can be defined in the usual way.
If there exists an element that occurs infinitely many times in the sequence, is an accumulation point of the sequence. But need not be an accumulation point of the corresponding set For example, if the sequence is the constant sequence with value we have and is an isolated point of and not an accumulation point of
If no element occurs infinitely many times in the sequence, for example if all the elements are distinct, any accumulation point of the sequence is an -accumulation point of the associated set
Conversely, given a countable infinite set in we can enumerate all the elements of in many ways, even with repeats, and thus associate with it many sequences that will satisfy
Any -accumulation point of is an accumulation point of any of the corresponding sequences (because any neighborhood of the point will contain infinitely many elements of and hence also infinitely many terms in any associated sequence).
A point that is an -accumulation point of cannot be an accumulation point of any of the associated sequences without infinite repeats (because has a neighborhood that contains only finitely many (possibly even none) points of and that neighborhood can only contain finitely many terms of such sequences).
Properties
Every limit of a non-constant sequence is an accumulation point of the sequence.
And by definition, every limit point is an adherent point.
The closure of a set is a disjoint union of its limit points and isolated points :
A point is a limit point of if and only if it is in the closure of
If we use to denote the set of limit points of then we have the following characterization of the closure of : The closure of is equal to the union of and This fact is sometimes taken as the of closure.
A corollary of this result gives us a characterisation of closed sets: A set is closed if and only if it contains all of its limit points.
No isolated point is a limit point of any set.
A space is discrete if and only if no subset of has a limit point.
If a space has the trivial topology and is a subset of with more than one element, then all elements of are limit points of If is a singleton, then every point of is a limit point of
See also
Citations
References
Topology
General topology | [
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226507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuirass | Cuirass | A cuirass (; , ) is a piece of armour that is formed of a single or multiple pieces of metal or other rigid material which covers the torso. The word originates from the original material; leather, from the French cuirace and Latin word coriacea. The use of the term "cuirass" generally refers to both the chest plate (or breastplate) and the back piece together. Whereas a chest plate only protects the front and a back plate only protects the back, a cuirass protects both the front and the back.
Description
In Hellenistic and Roman times, the musculature of the male torso was idealized in the form of the muscle cuirass or "heroic cuirass" (in French the cuirasse esthétique) sometimes further embellished with symbolic representation in relief, familiar in the Augustus of Prima Porta and other heroic representations in official Roman sculpture. As parts of the actual military equipment of classical antiquity, cuirasses and corsets of bronze, iron, or some other rigid substance were used. Secondary protection for the breast was worn in earlier times by men-at-arms in addition to mail hauberks and reinforced coats. It was not until the 14th century that the plate armour became an established part of medieval armour.
History
The Roman emperor Galba donned a cuirass just before he went to his death. Suetonius records in 12 Caesars that, "As [Galba] was offering sacrifice on the morning before he was killed, a soothsayer warned him again and again to look out for danger, since assassins were not far off. Not long after this he learned that Otho held possession of the camp, and when several advised him to proceed thither as soon as possible – for they said that he could win the day by his presence and prestige – he decided to do no more than hold his present position and strengthen it by getting together a guard of the legionaries, who were encamped in many different quarters of the city. He did however put on a linen cuirass, though he openly declared that it would afford little protection against so many swords."
The latter portion of the 14th century saw the cuirass gradually come into general use in connection with plate armour for the limbs until, at the close of the century, mail was phased out among the nobles (e.g., knights) except in the camail of the bascinet and at the edge of the hauberk. The cuirass was almost universally worn throughout its lifespan as a form of armour. The globule form of the breast-armour of the Black Prince, in his effigy in Canterbury Cathedral, 1376, intimates that a cuirass (as well as a hauberk) is to be considered to have been covered by the royalty-emblazoned jupon (surcoat) of the Prince.
Historical cuirass, contrary to many modern reproductions, did not rest on the hips. Historical cuirass usually stopped somewhere around the midriff or navel in order to allow a sufficient range of movement to the wearer. A cuirass ending at the waist would severely limit the ability of the wearer to lean forward, backward or sideways. Thus, to protect the rest of the torso, mail or fauld were used, depending on the time period.
Early in the 15th century, plate armour, including the cuirass, began to be worn without any surcoat; but in the concluding quarter of the century the short surcoat, with full short sleeves, known as a "tabard", was in general use over the armour. While the surcoat was being phased out, small plates of various forms and sizes (and not always made in pairs, i.e., the plate for the sword-arm often being smaller and lighter than the one for the off-hand) were attached to the armour in front of the shoulders, to defend the otherwise vulnerable points where the plate defenses left a gap.
About the middle of the 15th century, the breastplate of the cuirass was made in two parts; the lower adjusted to overlap the upper, held together with a strap or sliding rivet in order to add flexibility to the advantages plate armour had over mail. In the second half of the 15th century, the cuirass was occasionally superseded by the brigandine jacket, the medieval forerunner of the flak jacket. In essence, the brigandine jacket was constructed of metal plates sewn into a fabric jacket. The fabric was generally a rich material, and was lined throughout with overlapping scales of metal which were attached to the jacket by rivets, having their heads, like studs, visible on the outside.
About 1550, the breast-piece of the cuirass was characterized by a vertical central ridge, called the tapul, having near its center a projecting point. Somewhat later, the tapul was moved lower on the breast. Eventually, the profile of the plate began to resemble a pea pod and, as such, was referred to as the peascod cuirass. During the English Civil War, only the wealthiest and physically strongest of men could afford this form of armour.
Corslets, provided with both breast and back pieces, were worn by foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their mounted comrades were equipped with heavier and stronger cuirasses. These defenses continued in use longer than any other single piece of armour. Their use never altogether ceased and in modern armies mounted cuirassiers, armed with breast and back plates as in the earlier days, have, to some degree, emulated the martial splendour of the body armour of the era of medieval chivalry.
Both the French and German heavy cavalry wore cuirasses in parade leading up to World War I. In the early part of that conflict, they painted their cuirasses black and wore canvas protection covers over the neo-Roman style helmets.
Some years after Waterloo, certain historical cuirasses were taken from their repose in the Tower of London and adapted for ceremonial service by the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals of the British Army's Household Cavalry.
For parade purposes, the Prussian Gardes du Corps and other corps wore cuirasses of richly decorated leather. The Pontifical Swiss Guard still wear cuirasses for swearing-in ceremonies, Christmas and Easter.
The Japanese cuirass
Cuirasses were manufactured in Japan as early as the 4th century. Tankō, worn by foot soldiers, and keikō, worn by horsemen, were both pre-samurai types of early Japanese cuirass constructed from iron plates connected by leather thongs. During the Heian period (794 to 1185), Japanese armourers started to use leather as a material and lacquer for weatherproofing.
By the end of the Heian period, the Japanese cuirass had arrived at the shape recognized as part of iconic samurai armour. Scales of iron and leather, bound together by silk lace, were used to construct samurai armours. The introduction of firearms to Japan in 1543 resulted in the development of a cuirass constructed of solid iron plates. The use of the samurai cuirass lasted until the 1860s when a national army using conventional uniforms was established. Samurai armour (and cuirasses) were last used in 1877 during the Satsuma rebellion.
See also
Linothorax
Mirror armour
References
Sources
Body armor
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226509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hambletonian%20Stakes | Hambletonian Stakes | The Hambletonian Stakes is a major American harness race, named in honor of Hambletonian 10, a foundation sire of the Standardbred horse breed, also known as the "Father of the American Trotter." The Hambletonian is held annually for three-year-old trotting Standardbreds. It is the first event in the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters. The Hambletonian is run at Meadowlands Racetrack (New Jersey) on the first Saturday in August.
Sites
The Hambletonian first took place at the New York State Fair in Syracuse in 1926. The race switched from Syracuse to Lexington, Kentucky for the 1927 and 1929 races, however, because of rainouts. Starting in 1930, Good Time Park in Goshen, New York hosted the race until 1956 with the exception of 1943. That year, The Hambletonian was raced at Empire City Race Track, which became Yonkers Raceway in 1950, because of wartime gas rationing. The Du Quoin State Fair in Du Quoin, Illinois gained the rights to host the race in 1957 and held on to it until 1980. Since 1981, the race has been at the Meadowlands Racetrack in East Rutherford, New Jersey.
Records
Most wins by a driver
6 – John Campbell (1987, 1988, 1990, 1995, 1998, 2006)
Most wins by a trainer
5 – Billy Haughton (1974, 1976, 1977, 1980, 1982)
Ben White (1927, 1933, 1936, 1942, 1943)
Stanley Dancer (1965, 1968, 1972, 1975, 1983)
Stakes record
1:50 1/5 – Muscle Hill (2009)
Hambletonian Stakes winners
References
External links
Sugar Loaf Historical Society
New Jersey Horse Enthusiast Web
Meadowlands Racetrack
Harness races in the United States
Harness races for three-year-old trotters
United States Triple Crown of Harness Racing
Sports in East Rutherford, New Jersey
Recurring sporting events established in 1926
1926 establishments in New York (state) | [
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226510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Greenblatt | Stephen Greenblatt | Stephen Jay Greenblatt (born November 7, 1943) is an American Shakespearean, literary historian, and author. He has served as the John Cogan University Professor of the Humanities at Harvard University since 2000. Greenblatt is the general editor of The Norton Shakespeare (2015) and the general editor and a contributor to The Norton Anthology of English Literature.
Greenblatt is one of the founders of new historicism, a set of critical practices that he often refers to as "cultural poetics"; his works have been influential since the early 1980s when he introduced the term. Greenblatt has written and edited numerous books and articles relevant to new historicism, the study of culture, Renaissance studies and Shakespeare studies and is considered to be an expert in these fields. He is also co-founder of the literary-cultural journal Representations, which often publishes articles by new historicists. His most popular work is Will in the World, a biography of Shakespeare that was on The New York Times Best Seller list for nine weeks. He won the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction in 2012 and the National Book Award for Nonfiction in 2011 for The Swerve: How the World Became Modern.
Life and career
Education and career
Greenblatt was born in Boston and raised in Newton, Massachusetts. After graduating from Newton North High School, he was educated at Yale University (BA 1964, PhD 1969) and Pembroke College, Cambridge (MPhil 1966). Greenblatt has since taught at the University of California, Berkeley, and Harvard University. He was Class of 1972 Professor at Berkeley (becoming a full professor in 1980) and taught there for 28 years before taking a position at Harvard University. He was named John Cogan University Professor of the Humanities in 2000. Greenblatt is considered "a key figure in the shift from literary to cultural poetics and from textual to contextual interpretation in U.S. English departments in the 1980s and 1990s."
Greenblatt is the founder and faculty co-chair of Harvard's branch of the Scholars at Risk (SAR) program. SAR is a U.S.-based international network of academic institutions organized to support and defend the principles of academic freedom and to defend the human rights of scholars around the world. Greenblatt was a long-term fellow of the Wissenschaftskolleg in Berlin. As a visiting professor and lecturer, Greenblatt has taught at institutions including the École des Hautes Études, the University of Florence, Kyoto University, the University of Oxford and Peking University. He was a resident fellow at the American Academy in Rome, and is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1987), the American Philosophical Society (2007), and the American Academy of Arts and Letters (2008); he has been president of the Modern Language Association.
In February 2022, Greenblatt was one of 38 Harvard faculty to sign a letter to the Harvard Crimson defending Professor John Comaroff, who had been found to have violated the university's sexual and professional conduct policies. After students filed a lawsuit with detailed allegations of Comaroff's actions and the university's failure to respond, Greenblatt was one of several signatories to say that he wished to retract his name from the letter.
Family
Greenblatt is an Eastern European Jew, an Ashkenazi, and a Litvak. His observant Jewish grandparents were born in Lithuania; his paternal grandparents were from Kovno and his maternal grandparents were from Vilna. Greenblatt's grandparents immigrated to the United States during the early 1890s in order to escape a Czarist Russification plan to conscript young Jewish men into the Russian army.
In 1998, he married literary critic Ramie Targoff, whom he has described as his soulmate.
Work
Greenblatt has written extensively on Shakespeare, the Renaissance, culture and New Historicism (which he often refers to as "cultural poetics"). Much of his work has been "part of a collective project", such as his work as co-editor of the Berkeley-based literary-cultural journal Representations (which he co-founded in 1983), as editor of publications such as the Norton Anthology of English Literature, and as co-author of books such as Practicing New Historicism (2000), which he wrote with Catherine Gallagher. Greenblatt has also written on such subjects as travelling in Laos and China, story-telling, and miracles.
Greenblatt's collaboration with Charles L. Mee, Cardenio, premiered on May 8, 2008, at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. While the critical response to Cardenio was mixed, audiences responded quite positively. The American Repertory Theater has posted audience responses on the organization's blog. Cardenio has been adapted for performance in ten countries, with additional international productions planned.
He wrote his 2018 book Tyrant: Shakespeare on Politics out of anxiety over the result of the 2016 US presidential election.
New Historicism
Greenblatt first used the term "New Historicism" in his 1982 introduction to The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance wherein he uses Queen Elizabeth I's "bitter reaction to the revival of Shakespeare's Richard II on the eve of the Essex rebellion" to illustrate the "mutual permeability of the literary and the historical". New Historicism is regarded by many to have influenced "every traditional period of English literary history". Some critics have charged that it is "antithetical to literary and aesthetic value, that it reduces the historical to the literary or the literary to the historical, that it denies human agency and creativity, that it is somehow out to subvert the politics of cultural and critical theory [and] that it is anti-theoretical". Scholars have observed that New Historicism is, in fact, "neither new nor historical." Others praise New Historicism as "a collection of practices" employed by critics to gain a more comprehensive understanding of literature by considering it in historical context while treating history itself as "historically contingent on the present in which [it is] constructed".
As stated by Shakespeare scholar Jonathan Bate, the approach of New Historicism has been "the most influential strand of criticism over the last 25 years, with its view that literary creations are cultural formations shaped by 'the circulation of social energy'." When told that several American job advertisements were requesting responses from experts in New Historicism, Greenblatt remembered thinking: "'You've got to be kidding. You know it was just something we made up!' I began to see there were institutional consequences to what seemed like a not particularly deeply thought-out term."
He has also said that "My deep, ongoing interest is in the relation between literature and history, the process through which certain remarkable works of art are at once embedded in a highly specific life-world and seem to pull free of that life-world. I am constantly struck by the strangeness of reading works that seem addressed, personally and intimately, to me, and yet were written by people who crumbled to dust long ago".
Greenblatt's works on New Historicism and "cultural poetics" include Practicing New Historicism (2000) (with Catherine Gallagher), in which Greenblatt discusses how "they anecdote ... appears as the 'touch of the real'" and Towards a Poetics of Culture (1987), in which Greenblatt asserts that the question of "how art and society are interrelated," as posed by Jean-François Lyotard and Fredric Jameson, "cannot be answered by appealing to a single theoretical stance". Renaissance Self-Fashioning and the introduction to the Norton Shakespeare are regarded as good examples of Greenblatt's application of new historicist practices.
New Historicism acknowledges that any criticism of a work is colored by the critic's beliefs, social status, and other factors. Many New Historicists begin a critical reading of a novel by explaining themselves, their backgrounds, and their prejudices. Both the work and the reader are affected by everything that has influenced them. New Historicism thus represents a significant change from previous critical theories like New Criticism, because its main focus is to look at many elements outside of the work, instead of reading the text in isolation.
Shakespeare and Renaissance studies
"I believe that nothing comes of nothing, even in Shakespeare. I wanted to know where he got the matter he was working with and what he did with that matter".
Greenblatt states in "King Lear and Harsnett's 'Devil-Fiction'" that "Shakespeare's self-consciousness is in significant ways bound up with the institutions and the symbology of power it anatomizes". His work on Shakespeare has addressed such topics as ghosts, purgatory, anxiety, exorcists and revenge. He is also a general editor of the Norton Shakespeare.
Greenblatt's New Historicism opposes the ways in which New Criticism consigns texts "to an autonomous aesthetic realm that [dissociates] Renaissance writing from other forms of cultural production" and the historicist notion that Renaissance texts mirror "a coherent world-view that was held by a whole population," asserting instead "that critics who [wish] to understand sixteenth- and seventeenth-century writing must delineate the ways the texts they [study] were linked to the network of institutions, practices, and beliefs that constituted Renaissance culture in its entirety". Greenblatt's work in Renaissance studies includes Renaissance Self-Fashioning (1980), which "had a transformative impact on Renaissance studies".
Norton Anthology of English Literature
Greenblatt joined M. H. Abrams as general editor of The Norton Anthology of English Literature published by W. W. Norton during the 1990s. He is also the co-editor of the anthology's section on Renaissance literature and the general editor of the Norton Shakespeare, "currently his most influential piece of public pedagogy."
Political commentary
Although it does not refer to Donald Trump directly, Greenblatt's 2018 book, Tyrant: Shakespeare on Power, is considered by literary critics in leading newspapers as thinly veiled criticism of the Trump administration.
Honors
1964–66: Fulbright scholarship
1975: Guggenheim Fellowship
1983: Guggenheim Fellowship
1989: James Russell Lowell Prize of the Modern Language Association (Shakespearean Negotiations)
2002: Honorary D.Litt., Queen Mary College, University of London
2002: Erasmus Institute Prize
2002: Mellon Distinguished Humanist Award
2005: William Shakespeare Award for Classical Theatre, The Shakespeare Theatre, Washington, D.C.
2006: Honorary degree, University of Bucharest, Romania
2010: Wilbur Cross Medal, Yale University
2011: National Book Award for Nonfiction, The Swerve: How the World Became Modern
2011: James Russell Lowell Prize of the Modern Language Association, The Swerve: How the World Became Modern
2012: Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction, The Swerve: How the World Became Modern
2016: Honorary Ph.D. in Visual Arts: Philosophy, Aesthetics, and Art Theory, from the Institute for Doctoral Studies in the Visual Arts
2016 Holberg Prize for outstanding scholars for work in the arts, humanities, social sciences, law or theology
Lectures
Clarendon Lectures, University of Oxford (1988)
Carpenter Lectures, University of Chicago (1988)
Adorno Lectures, Goethe University Frankfurt (2006)
Campbell Lectures, Rice University (2008)
Sigmund H Danziger Jr Lecture, University of Chicago (2015)
Rosamond Gifford Lecture Series, Syracuse, New York (2015)
Mosse Lecture Series, Humboldt University (2015)
Humanitas Visiting Professorship in Museums, Galleries and Libraries, University of Oxford (2015)
Bibliography
Books
Essays and reporting
See also
Cultural Materialism (often contrasted with)
Historicism
Literary theory
Notes
Further reading
External links
Cardenio, American Repertory Theater
The Cardenio Project
The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism
Harvard Faculty profile
The Norton Anthology of English Literature
Booknotes interview with Greenblatt on Will in the World, November 14, 2004.
Stephen Greenblatt, interviewed on Charlie Rose
1943 births
Living people
20th-century American historians
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American historians
21st-century American essayists
21st-century American male writers
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
American literary critics
American literary historians
American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Fellows of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Harvard University faculty
Holberg Prize laureates
Jewish American writers
National Book Award winners
New Historicism
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction winners
Shakespearean scholars
The New Yorker people
Jewish historians
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Writers from Newton, Massachusetts
Yale University alumni
Members of the American Philosophical Society
American male non-fiction writers
Historians from Massachusetts
Newton North High School alumni
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters | [
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226515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20and%20the%20Argonauts%20%281963%20film%29 | Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film) | Jason and the Argonauts (working title: Jason and the Golden Fleece) is a 1963 Anglo-American independent mythological fantasy adventure film distributed by Columbia Pictures. It was produced by Charles H. Schneer, directed by Don Chaffey, and stars Todd Armstrong, while co-starring Nancy Kovack, Honor Blackman, and Gary Raymond.
Shot in Eastman Color, the film was made in collaboration with stop-motion animation master Ray Harryhausen and is known for its various legendary creatures, notably the iconic fight scene featuring seven skeleton warriors.
Although it was a box office disappointment during its initial release, the film was critically acclaimed and later became a cult classic.
The film score was composed by Bernard Herrmann, who had partnered with Harryhausen on The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958), The 3 Worlds of Gulliver (1960) and Mysterious Island (1961).
Plot
Pelias usurps the throne of Thessaly, killing King Aristo, but knows that a prophecy states that one of Aristo's children will avenge him. The god Hermes, disguised as Pelias's soothsayer, watches as the infant Jason, Aristo's son, is spirited away by one of Aristo's soldiers. Pelias slays one of Aristo's daughters after she seeks sanctuary in the temple of the goddess Hera. Because the murder has profaned her temple, Hera becomes Jason's protector. She warns Pelias to beware of "a one-sandaled man".
Twenty years later, Jason saves Pelias from drowning in a river, an "accident" orchestrated by Hera, but loses his sandal in the process, so Pelias recognizes his enemy. Learning that Jason intends to seek the legendary Golden Fleece to rally support against him, he encourages Jason in the attempt, hoping that Jason will be killed.
Hermes takes Jason to Mount Olympus to speak with Zeus and Hera. Hera tells him Zeus has decreed that she can help him only five times. This is the same number of times that Jason's murdered sister Briseis called on Hera for protection. She directs him to search for the Fleece in the land of Colchis. Zeus offers aid, but Jason declines.
He sets out to build a ship and recruit a crew. Men from all over Greece compete for the honor of joining his quest. Because their ship is named the Argo after her builder, Argus, the crew are dubbed the Argonauts. Among them are Hercules, Hylas, and Acastus, the son of Pelias (unknown to Jason), sent by his father to sabotage the voyage.
Hera guides Jason to the Isle of Bronze, but warns him to take nothing but provisions. However, Hercules steals a brooch pin the size of a javelin from a building filled with treasure and surmounted by a gigantic bronze statue of Talos. The statue comes to life and attacks the Argonauts. Jason again turns to Hera, who tells him to open a large plug on Talos's heel to release the giant's ichor. Talos falls to the ground, crushing Hylas and hiding his body. Hercules refuses to leave until he ascertains the fate of his friend. The other Argonauts are unwilling to abandon Hercules, so Jason calls upon Hera again. She informs them that Hylas is dead and that Zeus has other plans for Hercules.
Hera directs Jason to seek out Phineus, who has been blinded and is tormented by harpies for misusing Zeus's gift of prophesy. After the Argonauts capture and cage the harpies, Phineus tells them how to reach Colchis, by sailing between the Clashing Rocks. He also gives Jason an amulet of the sea god Triton. The Argonauts see another ship trying to pass through the other way, only to be crushed and sunk when the Clashing Rocks smash together. Upon Jason's refusal to turn back, when the Argo tries to row through, the ship appears doomed as well. In despair, Jason throws Phineus's amulet into the water, whereupon Triton rises up and holds the rocks apart long enough for the Argo to pass. Upon clearing the rocks, the Argonauts rescue a survivor from the other ship lost, the wonderfully and deadly attractive Medea, high priestess of Colchis.
Finally nearing Colchis, Acastus challenges Jason's authority and engages him in a duel. Disarmed, Acastus jumps into the sea and disappears. Jason and his men land and accept an invitation from King Aeëtes to a feast. Unknown to them, Acastus has warned Aeëtes of Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece. Aeëtes has the unwary Argonauts imprisoned, but Medea, having fallen in love with Jason, helps him and his men escape.
Acastus tries to steal the Fleece first, but is killed by its guardian, the Hydra. Jason is able to kill the beast and take the Fleece. Medea is mortally wounded by an arrow, but Jason heals her with the Fleece. Aeëtes then sows the Hydra's teeth and prays to the goddess Hecate. Seven armed skeletons, the "children of the Hydra's teeth", emerge from the ground. Jason, Phalerus and Castor, hold them off, while Medea and Argus escape back to the Argo with the Fleece. After a prolonged battle, in which his companions are killed, Jason escapes by jumping into the sea, and he, Medea, and the surviving Argonauts begin their voyage home to Thessaly. On Olympus, Zeus tells Hera that, while Jason can enjoy his triumph, he is not done with Jason.
Cast
Todd Armstrong as Jason (dubbed by Tim Turner, uncredited)
Nancy Kovack as Medea (dubbed by Eva Haddon, uncredited)
Gary Raymond as Acastus
Laurence Naismith as Argus
Niall MacGinnis as Zeus
Michael Gwynn as Hermes/priest
Douglas Wilmer as Pelias
Jack Gwillim as King Aeëtes
Honor Blackman as Hera
John Cairney as Hylas
Patrick Troughton as Phineus
Andrew Faulds as Phalerus
Nigel Green as Hercules
John Crawford as Polydeuces (uncredited)
Ferdinando Poggi as Castor (uncredited)
Bill Gudgeon as Triton (uncredited)
Doug Robinson as Eupaemus (uncredited)
Davina Taylor as Briseis (uncredited)
Aldo Cristiani as Lynceus (uncredited)
Film score
The film is one of the mythically-themed fantasies scored by Bernard Herrmann. Apart from being the composer's fourth collaboration with Ray Harryhausen (The 7th Voyage of Sinbad, The 3 Worlds of Gulliver, and Mysterious Island, made in 1958, 1960, and 1961 respectively), Herrmann also scored the science fiction films The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959).
Contrasting with Herrmann's all-string score for Psycho, the film's soundtrack was made without a string section. This leaves the brass and percussion to perform the heroic fanfares, and the woodwinds along with additional instruments (such as the harp) to dominate in the more subtle and romantic parts.
In 1995, Intrada released a re-recording of the original score. The new version was conducted by American composer/conductor Bruce Broughton, and performed by the Sinfonia of London.
Differences from classical mythology
The film differs in some ways from the traditional telling in Greek mythology:
Pelias does not kill his half-brother King Aristo (Aeson) but instead had him imprisoned. Eventually, it is Medea, and not Jason, who kills Pelias; she demonstrates to Pelias' daughters that she can rejuvenate an old ram into a young one by killing, chopping and boiling it in a pot. She promises to do the same for Pelias, so his daughters kill and chop him. However, Medea breaks her word and Pelias remains dead.
Hera does not attempt to kill Pelias herself by drowning him in the river Anavros. Instead, in order to prove Jason's virtuous heart to Zeus, she disguises herself as an old woman unable to cross on her own. Jason, feeling sympathy for the lady, ferries her across on his back but loses a sandal into its depths.
In mythology, the Argonauts encountered Talos on their return journey after they had obtained the Golden Fleece. He was defeated not by Jason, but by Medea casting a spell on Talos, causing him to remove the bronze nail from his ankle which kept the ichor inside. The mythological Talos guarded Crete, not the "Isle of Bronze", and was protecting not a treasure, but Queen Europa.
In the film, Hylas was killed when the crumbling remains of Talos crushed him. However, in mythology, Hylas was actually kidnapped by a naiad who fell in love with him as he took a drink from a spring. When Hercules could not find him, he believed him to still be alive, and stayed behind on the island to look for him (as in the film).
The harpies were not caught in a net or caged, but were chased away by the Boreads: Calaïs and Zetes (also Zethes)
In the film, the god Triton saved the Argo from destruction passing through the Clashing Rocks: however; according to Apollonius of Rhodes, Phineus instructed Jason to release a dove and if the bird makes it through, row with all their might and the goddess Athena provided the extra push to the ship needed to clear them; "the Argo darted from the rocks like a flying arrow". Another source is Homer's Odyssey, in which Circe tells Odysseus: "One ship alone, one deep-sea craft sailed clear, the Argo, sung by the world, when heading home from Aeëtes shores. And she would have crashed against those giant rocks and sunk at once if Hera, for her love of Jason, had not sped her through".
Jason was not betrayed by Acastus in the classical tale. Jason openly told King Aeëtes that he had come for the Fleece. The king promised Jason could have it if he performed three tasks, knowing full well they were impossible. However, Jason was able to complete the tasks with the help of Medea. It was not the Hydra that protected the Fleece but rather a dragon. Jason did not slay it, but instead, Medea cast a spell on it, causing it to fall asleep. Jason sowed the dragon's teeth into the ground, not Aeëtes. Jason defeated the "dragon's offspring" (the spartoi) by making them fight among themselves and destroy each other, rather than battling them with his colleagues.
One of the two Argonauts killed by the skeletons is Castor, who in Greek mythology would perish much later as the result of a feud with Idas and Lynceus. The other is Phalerus, who in mythology would also survive the adventures of the Argonauts.
The film ultimately omits the story of Medea killing and butchering her own brother, Absyrtus, to help Jason and the Argonauts escape; and also the episodes with Cyzicus, the Gegeines and the Argonauts' stay on the isle of Lemnos.
Reception
Critical response
The film received critical acclaim and is now considered a classic. On Rotten Tomatoes it has a "Certified Fresh" approval rating of 89%, based on 45 reviews. The site's consensus is: "Don Chaffey's Jason and the Argonauts is an outlandish, transportive piece of nostalgia whose real star is the masterful stop-motion animation work of Ray Harryhausen".
Variety magazine wrote: "The $3 million film has a workable scenario and has been directed resourcefully and spiritedly by Don Chaffey, under whose leadership a colorful cast performs with zeal".
Ray Harryhausen regarded the film as his best. Previous Harryhausen films had been generally shown as part of double features in "B" theatres. Columbia was able to book it as a single feature in many "A" theatres in the United States.
Accolades
At the 1992 Academy Awards, in honoring Ray Harryhausen with a lifetime-achievement award, actor Tom Hanks remarked: "Some people say Casablanca or Citizen Kane. I say Jason and the Argonauts is the greatest film ever made".
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated the film for its Top 10 Fantasy Films list.
In April 2004, Empire magazine ranked Talos as the second-best film monster of all time, after King Kong.
Home media
Columbia released the film on Blu-ray (for regions A, B, and C) on 6 July 2010. The disc's special features include two new audio commentaries, one by Peter Jackson and Randall William Cook, and the other by Harryhausen in conversation with his biographer Tony Dalton.
Comic book adaptation
The five-issue comic book miniseries Jason and the Argonauts: The Kingdom of Hades (2007) from TidalWave Productions' Ray Harryhausen Signature Series, continued the story. It was followed by Jason and the Argonauts: Final Chorus (2014).
Dell Movie Classic: Jason and the Argonauts (August–October 1963)
See also
Jason and the Argonauts (2000 miniseries)
List of stop-motion films
Sword-and-sandal
Greek mythology in popular culture
References
External links
This film on archive.org
1963 films
1960s fantasy adventure films
American films
American fantasy adventure films
1960s English-language films
Films based on the Jason-Medea myth
Films scored by Bernard Herrmann
Films directed by Don Chaffey
Films set in ancient Greece
Films set in the Mediterranean Sea
Films using stop-motion animation
Columbia Pictures films
Epic fantasy films
Films adapted into comics
Films set on ships
Films about Heracles
Cultural depictions of Harpies
Works based on the Argonautica
Films produced by Charles H. Schneer
Films with screenplays by Beverley Cross | [
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226519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%207th%20Voyage%20of%20Sinbad | The 7th Voyage of Sinbad | The 7th Voyage of Sinbad is a 1958 Technicolor heroic fantasy adventure film directed by Nathan H. Juran and starring Kerwin Mathews, Torin Thatcher, Kathryn Grant, Richard Eyer, and Alec Mango. It was distributed by Columbia Pictures and produced by Charles H. Schneer.
It was the first of three Sinbad feature films from Columbia, the later two from the 1970s being The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973) and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977). All three Sinbad films were conceptualized by Ray Harryhausen using Dynamation, the full color widescreen stop-motion animation technique that he created.
While similarly named, the film does not follow the storyline of the tale "The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad the Sailor" but instead has more in common with the Third and Fifth voyages of Sinbad.
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad was selected in 2008 for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
Sinbad the Sailor and his ship's crew make landfall on the island of Colossa, where they encounter Sokurah the magician fleeing a giant cyclops. Though he escapes, Sokurah loses a magic lamp to the creature. Sinbad refuses his desperate pleas to return to Colossa because Parisa, Princess of Chandra, is aboard. Their coming marriage is meant to secure peace between her father's realm and Sinbad's homeland, Baghdad.
After reaching Baghdad, Sokurah performs magic at the pre-wedding festivities, temporarily turning Parisa's handmaiden into a snake-like being. Despite his prowess and a dark prophecy about war between Baghdad and Chandra, the Caliph of Baghdad refuses to help the magician return to Colossa. Later that night, Sokurah secretly shrinks the princess, enraging her father, the Sultan of Chandra, who declares war on Baghdad. Sinbad and the Caliph give in to Sokurah, who explains that the eggshell of a Roc is needed for the potion that will restore Parisa, and it can be found only on Colossa. Sokurah provides Sinbad with the plans for a giant crossbow for protection against the island's giant creatures.
Sinbad recruits additional crewmen from among the convicts in the Caliph's prisons. Before they reach Colossa, the cutthroats are inspired to mutiny by the treacherous Karim and capture Sokurah, Sinbad, and his men. During a violent storm, the sounds of keening demons from a nearby island drives the crew nearly mad, endangering the ship. One of the men releases Sinbad so he can save them, after Karim falls to his death from the crow's nest.
On Colossa, Sinbad, Sokurah, and six of his crew enter the valley of the cyclops, followed by Sinbad's loyal aide Harufa. Sinbad and Sokurah split their forces. Sinbad and his men find the cyclops' treasure cave, but are captured by one of the creatures and locked in a wooden cage. Instead of helping them, Sokurah retrieves the magic lamp, but is chased by the cyclops, who kills three of the men. With Parisa's aid, Sinbad manages to escape, then blinds the one-eyed creature and lures it off the edge of a cliff to its death. Sinbad decides to hold on to the lamp until Parisa is returned to normal size.
Sokurah leads Sinbad and his starving men to the nesting place of the giant Rocs. Out of hunger, Sinbad's men try to break open a Roc egg, causing it to hatch, but the newborn chick is killed by the men and roasted for food. While the men are eating, Parisa enters the magic lamp and befriends Barani, the childlike Genie inside, who tells her how to summon him in exchange for her promise of his freedom. The parent Roc returns and slays the men. Sinbad tries to summon the genie, but he is grabbed by the Roc, who takes flight, and drops him, unconscious, into its nearby nest. Sokurah kills Harufa and abducts the princess, taking her to his underground fortress.
Sinbad awakens and rubs the magic lamp, summoning Barani, who takes Sinbad to Sokurah's fortress and helps him evade the chained dragon that stands guard. Sinbad reaches Sokurah, who restores the princess to normal. When Sinbad refuses to hand over the lamp, the magician animates a skeleton warrior, which Sinbad fights and destroys. With the help of the genie, Sinbad and Parisa make their way out of the cave, stopping to destroy the lamp by throwing it into a pool of lava, thus freeing Barani.
Leaving the cave, they encounter another cyclops. Sinbad releases the dragon, which fights and kills the creature. Sinbad and Parisa make their escape, but Sokurah orders the dragon to hunt them down. Sinbad heads to the beach, where his men have readied the giant crossbow, and they use it to kill the dragon. The dying dragon collapses on Sokurah, crushing him to death. Sinbad, Parisa, and the remaining crew depart for Baghdad. They are joined by Barani, now human, who has appointed himself as Sinbad's cabin boy. In a final act of magic as he was being freed, Barani filled the captain's cabin with the treasure from the cyclops' cave, a wedding gift to Sinbad and Parisa.
Cast
Kerwin Mathews as Sinbad
Kathryn Grant as Princess Parisa
Richard Eyer as Barani, the Genie
Torin Thatcher as Sokurah
Alec Mango as the Caliph of Baghdad
Harold Kasket as the Sultan, Parisa's father
Alfred Brown as Harufa, Sinbad's loyal right-hand man
Nana DeHerrera as Sadi (as Nana de Herrera)
Nino Falanga as Gaunt Sailor
Luis Guedes as Crewman
Virgilio Teixeira as Ali, one of Sinbad's crewmen
Danny Green as Karim, the leader of the mutineers
Juan Olaguivel as Golar
Production
Schneer announced the production in June 1957. It was a co production between his company, Morningstar, and Columbia Pictures.
The leads, Kerwin Matthews and Kathryn Grant were under contract to Columbia. Schneer left for Europe to scout locations on 15 July 1957. Filming started the following month in Granada, Spain.
It took Ray Harryhausen 11 months to complete the full color, widescreen stop-motion animation sequences for The 7th Voyage of Sinbad. Harryhausen's "Dynamation" label was used for the first time on this film.
Harryhausen gave the cyclops a horn, goat legs, and cloven hooves, an idea based upon the concept of the Greek god Pan. He lifted much of the creature's design (for example the torso, chest, arms, poise and style of movement) from his concept of the Ymir (the Venusian creature from his earlier 20 Million Miles to Earth). He used the same armature for both figures; to do this, he had to cannibalize the Ymir, removing the latter's latex body.
Harryhausen researched the cobra-woman sequence (when Sakourah entertains the Caliph and the Sultan) by watching a belly dancer in Beirut, Lebanon. During the performance, Harryhausen says, "smoke was coming up my jacket. I thought I was on fire! It turned out the gentleman behind me was smoking a hookah!" The cyclops is the film's most popular character, but Harryhausen's personal favorite was the cobra-woman, a combination of Princess Parisa's maid, Sadi, and a cobra.
The film's original script had a climax that involved two cyclops fighting. In the final version, however, the climactic battle featured a single cyclops versus a dragon called Taro. The model of the dragon was more than three feet long and was very difficult to animate; the fight sequence took nearly three weeks for Harryhausen to complete. Originally, it was planned to have the dragon breathing fire from its mouth during the entire sequence, but the cost was deemed too high. So the scenes where it does breathe fire, Harryhausen used a flamethrower, shooting out flames 30 to 40 feet against a night sky, then superimposed the filmed fire very near the dragon's mouth. The dragon model used parts of the model of the Rhedosaurus from The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms.
The sword fight scene between Sinbad and the skeleton proved so popular with audiences that Harryhausen recreated and expanded the scene five years later, this time having a group of seven armed skeletons fight the Greek hero Jason and his men in 1963's Jason and the Argonauts.
The stop-motion cobra-woman figure used for the film was cannibalized 20 years later in order to make the Medusa figure in Harryhausen's final film, Clash of the Titans.
Film score
The music score for The 7th Voyage of Sinbad was composed by Bernard Herrmann, better known at the time for his collaboration with the director Alfred Hitchcock. Herrmann went on to write the scores for three other Harryhausen films: Mysterious Island, The 3 Worlds of Gulliver, and Jason and the Argonauts. Of the four, Harryhausen regarded the score for The 7th Voyage of Sinbad as being the finest, due to the empathy Herrmann's main title composition evoked for the subject matter.
The soundtrack producer Robert Townson, who re-recorded the score in 1998 with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, described the music as rich and vibrant, commenting "I would cite The 7th Voyage of Sinbad as one of the scores which most validates film music as an art form and a forum where a great composer can write a great piece of music. As pure composition, I would place Sinbad beside anything else written this century and not worry about it being able to stand on its own".
Reception
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad continues to be well-reviewed, with many critics holding the opinion that it is the best film of the "Sinbad" trilogy. The film carries a 100% approval rating at the film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews with a weighted average score of 7.61/10, with several reviewers citing its nostalgic value. Mountain Xpress critic Ken Hanke, for example, calls it "Childhood memory stuff of the most compelling kind".
American Film Institute Lists
AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills - Nominated
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:
Sinbad - Nominated Hero
AFI's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Fantasy Film
The film was released during Christmas 1958 to cash-in during the family holiday, but it continued to do well following the holiday period, becoming a sleeper hit. In its first three weeks the film grossed $3.5 million, including $500,000 at the Roxy Theatre in New York City. Its total rentals were more than $6 million worldwide.
Producer Edward Small, impressed with the film's success, produced a fantasy film on his own in 1962, titled Jack the Giant Killer, reuniting the starring cast members of The 7th Voyage, Kerwin Mathews as Jack and Torin Thatcher as the evil sorcerer Pendragon.
Comic book adaptions
Dell Four Color #944 (September 1958)
Marvel Spotlight #25 (December 1975)
See also
List of American films of 1958
List of films featuring miniature people
References
Notes
Bibliography
Dalton, Tony. The Art of Ray Harryhausen. London: Aurum, 2005. .
Dalton, Tony. Ray Harryhausen: An Animated Life. London: Aurum, 2003. .
Warren, Bill. Keep Watching the Skies: American Science Fiction Films of the Fifties, 21st Century Edition. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2009, (First edition 1982). .
External links
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad essay by Tony Dalton on the National Film Registry site.
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 549-550
1958 films
American films
1950s English-language films
1950s fantasy adventure films
1950s monster movies
American children's adventure films
American children's fantasy films
American fantasy adventure films
American monster movies
Columbia Pictures films
Films scored by Bernard Herrmann
Films adapted into comics
Films based on Sinbad the Sailor
Films directed by Nathan Juran
Films set in the 8th century
Films set in the Indian Ocean
Films set on fictional islands
Films shot in Madrid
Films shot in Mallorca
Films using stop-motion animation
Seafaring films
Genies in film
United States National Film Registry films
Films about dragons
Heroic fantasy
Peplum films
Films about size change
Films produced by Ray Harryhausen
Films produced by Charles H. Schneer
Roc (mythology)
Films set in the Middle Ages
Films shot at MGM-British Studios | [
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226524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Day%20process | Ben Day process | The Ben Day process, named after illustrator and printer Benjamin Henry Day Jr. (son of 19th-century publisher Benjamin Henry Day), is a printing and photoengraving technique dating from 1879. While the Ben Day process is commonly described in terms of dots ("Ben Day dots"), other shapes may be used, such as parallel lines, textures, irregular effects or waved lines.
Depending on the effect, colour and optical illusion needed, small colored dots are closely spaced, widely spaced or overlapping. Magenta dots, for example, are widely spaced to create pink. Comic books of the 1950s through the 1970s used Ben-Day dots in the four process colors (cyan, magenta, yellow and black) to inexpensively create shading and secondary colors such as green, purple, orange, and flesh tones on the cheap paper on which they were printed.
The Ben-Day dots process differ from the halftone dots process in that the Ben-Day dots are always of equal size and distribution in a specific area. To apply the dots to a drawing the artist would purchase transparent overlay sheets from a stationery supplier. The sheets were available in a wide variety of dot size and distribution, which gave the artist a range of tones to use in the work. The overlay material was cut in the shapes of the tonal areas desired—i.e. shadow or background or surface treatment—and rubbed onto the specific areas of the drawing with a burnisher. When photographically reproduced as a line cut for letterpress printing, the areas of Ben-Day overlay provided tonal shading to the printing plate.
The use of Ben-Day dots was a hallmark of American artist Roy Lichtenstein, who enlarged and exaggerated them in many of his paintings and sculptures. Other illustrators and graphic designers have used enlarged Ben-Day dots in print media for a similar effect.
See also
Dither
Halftone
Letratone
Pointillism
Hatching (heraldry), the representation of color by monochrome lines.
Polka dot
References
Printing processes
Dot patterns
Engraving | [
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226526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Day%20%28publisher%29 | Benjamin Day (publisher) | Benjamin Henry Day (April 10, 1810 – December 21, 1889) was an American newspaper publisher best known for founding the New York Sun, the first penny press newspaper in the United States, in 1833.
Biography
Day was born in Springfield, Massachusetts on April 10, 1810, to Henry Day, a hatter, and Mary Ely. Day started his printing career in 1824, at the Springfield Republican.
In 1835, Day's Sun was responsible for publishing a story written by Richard Adams Locke about life on the moon that was fictional, but was received by the general public as fact. The publicity of the article was widespread at the time and now is referred to as "The Great Moon Hoax". Day is credited with stretching the truth that came to be known as sensationalism. Day is also credited for importing to the United States the London Plan, a system of newspaper distribution largely antiquated today in which the paper carriers buy newspapers in bulk from the publisher and sell the papers to the reading public for a profit.
Day sold the Sun to his brother-in-law Moses Yale Beach for $40,000 in 1838. Afterwards he started the True Sun in 1840, which had but a brief run. In 1842, he created the Brother Jonathan, the first illustrated weekly in the U.S., which he ran for twenty years.
Day constantly quarreled with George Wisner over the publication of abolitionist articles. Day considered himself democratic to Wisner's extreme abolitionist standpoint.
From The New Yorker:
The American newspaper business as we know it was born on September 3, 1833, when a twenty-three-year-old publisher named Benjamin Day put out the first edition of the New York Sun. Whereas other papers sold for five or six cents, the Sun cost just a penny. For revenue, Day relied on advertising rather than on subscriptions. Above all, he revolutionized the way papers were distributed. He sold them to newsboys in lots of a hundred to hawk in the street. Before long, Day was the most important publisher in New York.
Day married Evelina Shepard (b. 1811) in 1831, and had four children: Henry (b. 1832), Mary Ely Day (1833–38), Benjamin Henry Day, Jr. (1838–1916), the inventor of Ben-Day dots, and Clarence Shephard Day (1844–1927), a stockbroker (and father of author Clarence Shephard, Jr.).
References
Sources
Britannica.com
Whitby, Gary L. "Horns of a Dilemma: The Sun, Abolition, and the 1833-34 New York Riots." Journalism Quarterly.
1810 births
1889 deaths
American newspaper founders
19th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
19th-century American male writers | [
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226528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna%20%28paint%29 | Magna (paint) | Magna is the brand name of an acrylic resin paint, developed by Leonard Bocour and sold by Bocour Artist Colors, Inc. in 1947. It is somewhat different from modern acrylic paint, as it is composed of pigments ground in an acrylic resin brought into emulsion through the use of solvents. Magna paint has more of a shine to it than most modern acrylic paint, a glossier finish. In 1960, Bocour Artist Colors developed a water-borne acrylic paint named Aqua-Tec. Modern acrylic paint is water-soluble, while Magna is miscible with turpentine or mineral spirits, though both can dry rapidly to a matte or glossy finish. It was used by artists such as Barnett Newman, Morris Louis, and Roy Lichtenstein. Roy Lichtenstein used magna with oil paints.
Modern Equivalent
Golden Artist Colors produces Mineral Spirit Acrylics as a direct replacement for Magna. Any differences between the two are small, if any, and Roy Lichtenstein used them for that purpose. If anything, he thought the available color spectrum of MSA Conservation Color was better than Bocour's Magna.
See also
Golden Artist Colors
Sam Golden
Liquitex
References
External links
Golden Artist Colors' Mineral Spirit Acrylics
Further reading
Visual arts materials
Art materials brands | [
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226532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau%20of%20Engraving%20and%20Printing | Bureau of Engraving and Printing | The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) is a government agency within the United States Department of the Treasury that designs and produces a variety of security products for the United States government, most notable of which is Federal Reserve Notes (paper money) for the Federal Reserve, the nation's central bank. In addition to paper currency, the BEP produces Treasury securities; military commissions and award certificates; invitations and admission cards; and many different types of identification cards, forms, and other special security documents for a variety of government agencies. The BEP does not produce coins; all coinage is produced by the United States Mint. With production facilities in Washington, D.C., and Fort Worth, Texas, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is the largest producer of government security documents in the United States.
History
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing has its origins in legislation enacted to help fund the Civil War. In July 1861, Congress authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to issue paper currency in lieu of coins due to the lack of funds needed to support the conflict. The paper notes were essentially government IOUs and were called Demand Notes because they were payable "on demand" in coin at certain Treasury facilities. At this time the government had no facility for the production of paper money so a private firm produced the Demand Notes in sheets of four. These sheets were then sent to the Treasury Department where dozens of clerks signed the notes and scores of workers cut the sheets and trimmed the notes by hand. The Second Legal Tender Act (July 11, 1862; ) authorized the Treasury Secretary to engrave and print notes at the Treasury Department; the design of which incorporates fine-line engraving, intricate geometric lathe work patterns, a Treasury seal, and engraved signatures to aid in counterfeit deterrence.
Initially, the currency processing operations in the Treasury were not formally organized. When Congress created the Office of Comptroller of the Currency and National Currency Bureau in 1863, currency-processing operations were nominally subordinated to that agency and designated the "First Division, National Currency Bureau". For years, however, the currency operations were known by various semi-official labels, such as the "Printing Bureau", "Small Note Bureau", "Currency Department", and "Small Note Room". It was not until 1874 that the "Bureau of Engraving and Printing" was officially recognized in congressional legislation with a specific allocation of operating funds for the fiscal year of 1875.
From almost the very beginning of its operations, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing designed and printed a variety of products in addition to currency. As early as 1864, the offices which would later become the BEP made passports for the State Department and money orders for the Post Office Department. Passports are now produced by the Government Publishing Office. Other early items produced by the BEP included various government debt instruments, such as interest-bearing notes, refunding certificates, compound interest Treasury notes, and bonds. The production of postage stamps began in 1894, and for almost the next century the BEP was the sole producer of postage stamps in the country.
Production
Postage stamp production
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing officially took over production of postage stamps for the United States government in July 1894. The first of the works printed by the BEP was placed on sale on July 18, 1894, and by the end of the first year of stamp production, the BEP had printed and delivered more than 2.1 billion stamps. The United States Postal Service switched purely to private postage stamp printers in 2005, ending 111 years of production by the Bureau. Starting in 2011 the United States Postal Service in-housed all postage stamp printing services.
Currency production
Plate capacity on power presses increased from four to eight notes per sheet in 1918 in order to meet greatly expanded production requirements related to World War I.
With the redesign of currency in 1929, the first major change since paper currency was first issued in 1861, note design was not only standardized but note size was also significantly reduced. Due to this reduction in size, the Bureau was able to convert from eight-note printing plates to twelve-note plates. The redesign effort came about for several reasons, chief among them a reduction in paper costs and improved counterfeit deterrence through better public recognition of currency features.
A further increase in the number of notes per sheet was realized in 1952 after breakthrough developments in the production of non-offset inks. Beginning in 1943, the BEP experimented with new inks that dried faster, therefore obviating the need to place tissues between sheets to prevent ink from offsetting to other sheets. The faster drying ink also enabled printed sheets of backs to be kept damp until the faces were printed, thereby reducing distortion caused by wetting, drying, and re-wetting of the paper (sheets needed to be dampened before each printing).
By reducing the distortion that increases proportionally with the size of the sheet of paper, the Bureau was able to convert from 12-note printing plates to plates capable of printing 18 notes in 1952. Five years later in 1957, the Bureau began printing currency via the dry intaglio method that utilizes special paper and non-offset inks, enabling a further increase from 18 to 32 notes per sheet. Since 1968, all currency has been printed by means of the dry intaglio process, whereby wetting of the paper prior to printing is unnecessary. In this process, fine-line engravings are transferred to steel plates from which an impression is made on sheets of distinctive paper. Ink is applied to a plate containing 32 note impressions, which is then wiped clean, leaving ink in the engraved lines. The plate is pressed against the sheet of paper with such pressure as to actually press the paper into the lines of the plate to pick up the ink. Both faces and backs are printed in this manner – backs first. After the faces are printed, the sheets are then typographically overprinted with Treasury Seals and serial numbers.
During Fiscal Year 2013, the Bureau delivered 6.6 billion notes at an average cost of 10 cents per note.
Locations
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing has two locations: one in Washington, D.C., and another in Fort Worth, Texas.
District of Columbia location
The Washington facility consists of two adjacent buildings. The elder, considered the main building and located between 14th and 15th streets SW, was constructed in 1914. The architectural style of the main building is neoclassical. It has a steel superstructure with fireproof concrete, Indiana limestone, and granite trim exterior. The main façade of the building faces Raoul Wallenberg Place (15th St), the Tidal Basin, and the Jefferson Memorial, with stone columns spanning the length of the building's front. The building is deep and high with four wings that extend back toward 14th Street. The building is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places as Auditor's Building Complex.
In May 1938, work was completed on an addition to the Washington, D.C., facility to accommodate increases in personnel and production. The annex building, as it is called, is located on 14th Street, between C and D streets SW, just opposite the main building. The building is long, wide, and made entirely of reinforced concrete with a limestone façade. The structure consists of a central backbone running from 14th Street to 13th Street with five wings extending north and south from the backbone.
The Washington, D.C., location offers a free 30-minute guided tour which features the various phases of currency production. Tours may be taken Monday through Friday. The Bureau is closed for all federal holidays and the week between Christmas and New Year's Day.
Fort Worth location
In 1987, construction began on a second facility in Fort Worth, Texas. In addition to meeting increased production requirements, a western location was seen to serve as a contingency operation in case of emergencies in the DC metropolitan area; additionally, costs for transporting currency to Federal Reserve banks in San Francisco, Dallas, and Kansas City would be reduced. Currency production began in December 1990 at the Fort Worth facility, and the official dedication took place on April 26, 1991. Any currency printed at Fort Worth includes a small "FW", usually located to the left of the bill's face plate number, and most also have larger back plate numbers.
Historic locations
The Bureau moved into its own building in 1880 with the completion of a facility at 14th St. and Independence Ave. SW, now the Sidney Yates Building. An addition was built on the south side of the building in 1891. The Bureau relocated to its present Washington location, just south of the original building, in 1914.
BEP Police
The Bureau operates a police department, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing Police Force, that protects BEP personnel and facilities. The BEP Police are responsible for enforcing federal and local laws, Treasury Department rules and regulations, Washington, DC Criminal Code through a Memorandum of Understanding, and Texas Criminal Code. In 2004, 234 Police officers were employed.
See also
US Treasury specimen book
Charles R. Chickering, chief stamp designer for BEP
Federal Reserve System
Title 31 of the Code of Federal Regulations
United States Mint Police
United States Treasury Police
Who's Minding the Mint?, a 1967 film with the D.C. Bureau of Engraving and Printing as its setting
References
External links
BEP Annual Production Figures
BEP Monthly Production Figures
BEP production figures broken down by month, as well as some other currency-related articles
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Tourist attractions in Washington, D.C.
Engraving and Printing
Government agencies established in 1862
Banknote printing companies
1862 establishments in the United States | [
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226533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunotherapy | Immunotherapy | Immunotherapy or biological therapy is the treatment of disease by activating or suppressing the immune system. Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies.
In recent years, immunotherapy has become of great interest to researchers, clinicians and pharmaceutical companies, particularly in its promise to treat various forms of cancer. As a result, the standard of care for cancer is changing, as well as gaining complexity for managing patient care.
Immunomodulatory drugs currently have unknown effects on the body.
Cell-based immunotherapies are effective for some cancers. Immune effector cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells (NK Cell), cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), etc., work together to defend the body against cancer by targeting abnormal antigens expressed on the surface of tumor cells. Vaccine-induced immunity to Covid-19 relies mostly on an immunomodulatory T cell response.
Therapies such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interferons, imiquimod and cellular membrane fractions from bacteria are licensed for medical use. Others including IL-2, IL-7, IL-12, various chemokines, synthetic cytosine phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides and glucans are involved in clinical and preclinical studies.
Immunomodulators
Immunomodulators are the active agents of immunotherapy. They are a diverse array of recombinant, synthetic, and natural preparations.
Activation immunotherapies
Cancer
Cancer treatment used to be focused on killing or removing cancer cells and tumours, with chemotherapy or surgery or radiation. These treatments can be very effective and in many cases are still used. In 2018 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo "for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation." Cancer immunotherapy attempts to stimulate the immune system to destroy tumours. A variety of strategies are in use or are undergoing research and testing. Randomized controlled studies in different cancers resulting in significant increase in survival and disease free period have been reported and its efficacy is enhanced by 20–30% when cell-based immunotherapy is combined with conventional treatment methods.
One of the oldest forms of cancer immunotherapy is the use of BCG vaccine, which was originally to vaccinate against tuberculosis and later was found to be useful in the treatment of bladder cancer. BCG immunotherapy induces both local and systemic immune responses. The mechanisms by which BCG immunotherapy mediates tumor immunity have been widely studied, but they are still not completely understood.
The use of monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy was first introduced in 1997 with rituximab, an anti-CD20 antibody for treatment of B cell lymphoma. Since then several monoclonal antibodies have been approved for treatment of various haematological malignancies as well as for solid tumours.
The extraction of G-CSF lymphocytes from the blood and expanding in vitro against a tumour antigen before reinjecting the cells with appropriate stimulatory cytokines. The cells then destroy the tumour cells that express the antigen. Topical immunotherapy utilizes an immune enhancement cream (imiquimod) which produces interferon, causing the recipient's killer T cells to destroy warts, actinic keratoses, basal cell cancer, vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia, squamous cell cancer, cutaneous lymphoma, and superficial malignant melanoma. Injection immunotherapy ("intralesional" or "intratumoural") uses mumps, candida, the HPV vaccine or trichophytin antigen injections to treat warts (HPV induced tumours).
Adoptive cell transfer has been tested on lung and other cancers, with greatest success achieved in melanoma.
Dendritic cell-based pump-priming or vaccination
Dendritic cells (DC) can be stimulated to activate a cytotoxic response towards an antigen. Dendritic cells, a type of antigen-presenting cell, are harvested from the person needing the immunotherapy. These cells are then either pulsed with an antigen or tumour lysate or transfected with a viral vector, causing them to display the antigen. Upon transfusion into the person, these activated cells present the antigen to the effector lymphocytes (CD4+ helper T cells, cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and B cells). This initiates a cytotoxic response against tumour cells expressing the antigen (against which the adaptive response has now been primed). The first FDA-approved cell-based immunotherapy, the cancer vaccine Sipuleucel-T is one example of this approach. The Immune Response Corporation (IRC) developed this immunotherapy and licensed the technology to Dendreon, which obtained FDA clearance.
The current approaches for DC-based vaccination are mainly based on antigen loading on in vitro-generated DCs from monocytes or CD34+ cells, activating them with different TLR ligands, cytokine combinations, and injecting them back to the patients. The in vivo targeting approaches comprise administering specific cytokines (e.g., Flt3L, GM-CSF) and targeting the DCs with antibodies to C-type lectin receptors or agonistic antibodies (e.g., anti-CD40) that are conjugated with antigen of interest. Future approach may target DC subsets based on their specifically expressed C-type lectin receptors or chemokine receptors. Another potential approach is the generation of genetically engineered DCs from induced pluripotent stem cells and use of neoantigen-loaded DCs for inducing better clinical outcome.
T-cell adoptive transfer
Adoptive cell transfer in vitro cultivates autologous, extracted T cells for later transfusion.
Alternatively, Genetically engineered T cells are created by harvesting T cells and then infecting the T cells with a retrovirus that contains a copy of a T cell receptor (TCR) gene that is specialised to recognise tumour antigens. The virus integrates the receptor into the T cells' genome. The cells are expanded non-specifically and/or stimulated. The cells are then reinfused and produce an immune response against the tumour cells. The technique has been tested on refractory stage IV metastatic melanomas and advanced skin cancer. The first FDA-approved CAR-T drug, Kymriah, used this approach. To obtain the clinical and commercial supply of this CAR-T, Novartis purchased the manufacturing plant, the distribution system and hired the production team that produced Sipuleucel-T developed by Dendreon and the Immune Response Corporation.
Whether T cells are genetically engineered or not, before re-infusion, lympho-depletion of the recipient is required to eliminate regulatory T cells as well as unmodified, endogenous lymphocytes that compete with the transferred cells for homeostatic cytokines. Lymphodepletion may be achieved by myeloablative chemotherapy, to which total body irradiation may be added for greater effect. Transferred cells multiplied in vivo and persisted in peripheral blood in many people, sometimes representing levels of 75% of all CD8+ T cells at 6–12 months after infusion. , clinical trials for metastatic melanoma were ongoing at multiple sites. Clinical responses to adoptive transfer of T cells were observed in patients with metastatic melanoma resistant to multiple immunotherapies.
Checkpoint inhibitors
Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies are the two types of checkpoint inhibitors currently available to patients. The approval of anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) antibodies for human use has already resulted in significant improvements in disease outcomes for various cancers.
Although these molecules were originally discovered as molecules playing a role in T cell activation or apoptosis, subsequent preclinical research showed their important role in the maintenance of peripheral immune tolerance.
Immune checkpoint inhibitors are approved to treat some patients with a variety of cancer types, including melanoma, breast cancer, bladder cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, head and neck cancer, or Hodgkin lymphoma.
These therapies have revolutionized cancer immunotherapy as they showed for the first time in many years of research in metastatic melanoma, which is considered one of the most immunogenic human cancers, an improvement in overall survival, with an increasing group of patients benefiting long-term from these treatments.
Immune enhancement therapy
Autologous immune enhancement therapy use a person's own peripheral blood-derived natural killer cells, cytotoxic T lymphocytes, epithelial cells and other relevant immune cells are expanded in vitro and then re-infused. The therapy has been tested against Hepatitis C, Chronic fatigue syndrome and HHV6 infection.
Suppression immunotherapies
Immune suppression dampens an abnormal immune response in autoimmune diseases or reduces a normal immune response to prevent rejection of transplanted organs or cells.
Immunosuppressive drugs
Immunosuppressive drugs help manage organ transplantation and autoimmune disease. Immune responses depend on lymphocyte proliferation. Cytostatic drugs are immunosuppressive. Glucocorticoids are somewhat more specific inhibitors of lymphocyte activation, whereas inhibitors of immunophilins more specifically target T lymphocyte activation. Immunosuppressive antibodies target steps in the immune response. Other drugs modulate immune responses and can be used to induce immune regulation. It has been observed in a preclinical trial that regulation of the immune system by small immunosuppressive molecules such as Vitamin D, Dexamethasone, and Curcumin administered under a low-dose regimen and subcutaneously, could be helpful in preventing or treating chronic inflammation.
Immune tolerance
The body naturally does not launch an immune system attack on its own tissues. Models generally identify CD4+ T-cells at the centre of the autoimmune response. Loss of T-cell tolerance then unleashes B-cells and other immune effector cells on to the target tissue. The ideal tolerogenic therapy would target the specific T-cell clones co-ordinating the autoimmune attack.
Immune tolerance therapies seek to reset the immune system so that the body stops mistakenly attacking its own organs or cells in autoimmune disease or accepts foreign tissue in organ transplantation. A recent therapeutic approach is the infusion of regulatory immune cells into transplant recipients. The transfer of regulatory immune cells has the potential to inhibit the activity of effector.
Creating immune tolerance reduces or eliminates the need for lifelong immunosuppression and attendant side effects. It has been tested on transplantations, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune disorders.
Allergies
Immunotherapy can also be used to treat allergies. While allergy treatments (such as antihistamines or corticosteroids) treat allergic symptoms, immunotherapy can reduce sensitivity to allergens, lessening its severity.
Immunotherapy may produce long-term benefits. Immunotherapy is partly effective in some people and ineffective in others, but it offers allergy sufferers a chance to reduce or stop their symptoms.
The therapy is indicated for people who are extremely allergic or who cannot avoid specific allergens.
IgE-mediated food allergy is a global health problem that affects millions of persons and affects every aspect of life for the patient. A promising approach to treat food allergies is the use of oral immunotherapy (OIT). OIT consists in a gradual exposure to increasing amounts of allergen can lead to the majority of subjects tolerating doses of food sufficient to prevent reaction on accidental exposure. Dosages increase over time, as the person becomes desensitized. This technique has been tested on infants to prevent peanut allergies.
Allergen-specific immunotherapy (ASIT) has become the gold standard for the causative treatment for IgE-mediated allergic diseases for a large variety of allergens. One may curiously await the new developments, which will further enhance our understanding of allergy mechanisms and improve ASIT for the next generations of patients and physicians.
Helminthic therapies
Whipworm ova (Trichuris suis) and Hookworm (Necator americanus) have been tested for immunological diseases and allergies. Helminthic therapy has been investigated as a treatment for relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis Crohn's, allergies and asthma. The mechanism of how the helminths modulate the immune response, is unknown. Hypothesized mechanisms include re-polarisation of the Th1 / Th2 response and modulation of dendritic cell function. The helminths down regulate the pro-inflammatory Th1 cytokines, Interleukin-12 (IL-12), Interferon-Gamma (IFN-γ) and Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-ά), while promoting the production of regulatory Th2 cytokines such as IL-10, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13.
Co-evolution with helminths has shaped some of the genes associated with Interleukin expression and immunological disorders, such Crohn's, ulcerative colitis and celiac disease. Helminth's relationship to humans as hosts should be classified as mutualistic or symbiotic.
See also
Biological response modifier
Sepsivac
Checkpoint inhibitor
Interleukin-2 immunotherapy
Immunostimulant
Microtransplantation
Photoimmunotherapy in vitro or in vivo
References
External links
International Society for Biological Therapy of Cancer
Cancer Research Institute Annual International Cancer Immunotherapy Symposia Series
The story behind immunotherapy's innovative cellular voyage
Cancer immunotherapy
Virotherapy | [
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226539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Savage%20%28Nova%20Scotia%20politician%29 | John Savage (Nova Scotia politician) | John Patrick Savage, OC, ONS (May 28, 1932 – May 13, 2003) was a Welsh-born Canadian physician and politician. Savage was the 23rd premier of Nova Scotia between 1993 and 1997. He was born in Wales, and educated in both the United Kingdom and Ireland. He immigrated to Canada in 1967 and was a noted family physician in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. He became the mayor of Dartmouth in 1985, and won re-election twice. He then became the leader of the Nova Scotia Liberal Party in 1992 and stepped down as mayor. In 1993, he defeated the incumbent provincial government and became premier. Savage was a controversial premier, bringing in many reforms in taxation, regional government, and government hiring practices. He resigned as premier in 1997 due to his low approval ratings in public polls. He died of cancer at the age of 70 in 2003. He was the father of Mike Savage, current mayor of the Halifax Regional Municipality.
Early life
Born in Newport, Wales, he was the son of an Irish Roman Catholic doctor father and a Welsh Baptist housewife mother. He attended school at Prior Park College, Bath, before attending Queen's University of Belfast to become a physician.
Nova Scotia
He was generally unhappy with the United Kingdom's government-run healthcare system known as the National Health Service. When he saw an advertisement for doctors in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, Savage decided to pack up his family and move across the ocean to continue his medical practice in 1967. He made a name for himself as the "hippie doctor" in the 1970s, due to his beard and progressive health stances. By setting up a detox centre — and a free clinic in the economically disadvantaged and mostly black community of North Preston — he assured his reputation as a left-winger.
He started his political life running for federal office in the Halifax area in the 1970s. He was defeated twice as a federal Liberal Party candidate. In 1985, he ran successfully to become the mayor of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, where he lived. While mayor, he received a reputation as a left-wing free spender. He was re-elected as mayor in both 1988 and 1991.
Premier of Nova Scotia
The Nova Scotia Liberal Party was having its annual general meeting in Dartmouth on February 29, 1992. Savage attended a session of the meeting to bring greetings from the City of Dartmouth, in his capacity as its mayor. Little did he realize that the party's rank and file were about to oust their long-time leader, Vince McLean. He was approached to run for the Liberal leadership and took a leave of absence from his mayoral duties. The election was held by computerized telephone balloting, and he won on the second ballot in June 1992.
On May 25, 1993, Savage defeated sitting Premier Donald Cameron and the governing Progressive Conservatives in the 1993 provincial election, winning 40 of the legislature's 52 seats.
During his term as premier, saddled with huge operating debts left by the previous government and declining equalization payments from the federal government of Jean Chrétien, he became a tough fiscal conservative, balancing the provincial budget in 1996 for the first time since 1978.
In doing so, he cut social spending drastically and cut the wages of thousands of civil servants. Other programs such as constructing a toll highway, municipal amalgamations by creating the Cape Breton Regional Municipality and the Halifax Regional Municipality, and the implementation of the Harmonized Sales Tax were initiated under his watch.
His government also led the country in the creation of tougher anti-smoking legislation, consolidation of school boards and local health authorities, creation of the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre, the establishment of one of the most modern emergency health services in North America along with province-wide emergency field communications systems, and he waged a tough and ultimately successful fight against an entrenched patronage system in the provincial Department of Transportation and Public Works, as well as within his own political party.
Savage's detractors labelled him as inexperienced and stubborn. Faced with increasing discontent from within his own party over some of his anti-patronage policies, and after surviving a July 1995 leadership review vote, he resigned as premier in 1997. In its editorial page on March 22, 1997, The Globe and Mail, after citing his list of reforms, called him "the best premier in a generation," and berated both Liberal party members and the public for forcing him to resign.
Later life and death
After Savage resigned, he and his wife, Margaret, traveled to Africa to perform missionary work. They worked in The Gambia, providing HIV/AIDS education to youth. In 2001, he acknowledged he had stomach cancer, which spread throughout his body until his death on May 13, 2003. Just three days before his death, he was made an officer of the Order of Canada. He died in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, about six weeks after his wife's death, also from cancer. Savage and his wife had seven children, with their son Mike Savage following in his father's footsteps and becoming the mayor of the Halifax Regional Municipality in 2012.
Electoral history
References
Bibliography
Clancy, Peter; Bickerton, James; Haddow, Rodney and Stewart, Ian. (2000) The Savage Years: The Perils of Reinventing Government in Nova Scotia. Halifax: Formac Publishing Company Limited.
External links
Order of Canada citation
1932 births
People from Newport, Wales
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
20th-century Welsh medical doctors
Welsh emigrants to Canada
People from Dartmouth, Nova Scotia
Canadian general practitioners
Nova Scotia Liberal Party MLAs
Nova Scotia political party leaders
Premiers of Nova Scotia
Members of the Order of Nova Scotia
Officers of the Order of Canada
Deaths from stomach cancer
2003 deaths
Canadian Roman Catholic missionaries
Roman Catholic missionaries in Africa
Deaths from cancer in Nova Scotia
20th-century Canadian politicians
20th-century Canadian physicians
Christian missionaries in the Gambia
Christian medical missionaries | [
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226540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherocytosis | Spherocytosis | Spherocytosis is the presence of spherocytes in the blood, i.e erythrocytes (red blood cells) that are sphere-shaped rather than bi-concave disk shaped as normal. Spherocytes are found in all hemolytic anemias to some degree. Hereditary spherocytosis and autoimmune hemolytic anemia are characterized by having only spherocytes.
Causes
Spherocytes are found in immunologically-mediated hemolytic anemias and in hereditary spherocytosis, but the former would have a positive direct Coombs test and the latter would not. The misshapen but otherwise healthy red blood cells are mistaken by the spleen for old or damaged red blood cells and it thus constantly breaks them down, causing a cycle whereby the body destroys its own blood supply (auto-hemolysis). A complete blood count (CBC) may show increased reticulocytes, a sign of increased red blood cell production, and decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit.
The term "non-hereditary spherocytosis" is occasionally used, albeit rarely.
Lists of causes:
Warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia
Cold autoimmune hemolytic anemia/paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria
Acute and delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions
ABO hemolytic diseases of newborn/Rh hemolytic disease of newborn
Hereditary spherocytosis
Intravenous water infusion or drowning (fresh water)
Hypophosphatemia
Bartonellosis
Snake bites
Hyposplenism
Rh-null phenotype
Pathophysiology
Spherocytosis most often refers to hereditary spherocytosis. This is caused by a molecular defect in one or more of the proteins of the red blood cell cytoskeleton, including spectrin, ankyrin, Band 3, or Protein 4.2. Because the cell skeleton has a defect, the blood cell contracts to a sphere, which is its most surface tension efficient and least flexible configuration. Though the spherocytes have a smaller surface area through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can be exchanged, they in themselves perform adequately to maintain healthy oxygen supplies. However, they have a high osmotic fragility—when placed into water, they are more likely to burst than normal red blood cells. These cells are more prone to physical degradation.
In short, spherocytosis has an attribute of decreased cell deformability.
Diagnosis
Spherocytosis can be diagnosed in Peripheral blood film by seeing spherical red blood cells rather than biconcave. Because spherical red blood cells are more prone to lysis in water (because they lack some proteins in their cytoskeleton) there will be increased osmotic fragility on acidified glycerol lysis test.
Treatment
Treatment may vary depending on the cause of the condition. In the case of hereditary spherocytosis, although research is ongoing, at this point there is no cure for the genetic defect that causes hereditary spherocytosis. Current management focuses on interventions that limit the severity of the disease. Treatment options for this type of spherocytosis include:
Splenectomy: As in non-hereditary spherocytosis, acute symptoms of anemia and hyperbilirubinemia indicate treatment with blood transfusions or exchanges and chronic symptoms of anemia and an enlarged spleen indicate dietary supplementation of folic acid and splenectomy, the surgical removal of the spleen. Splenectomy is indicated for moderate to severe cases, but not mild cases. To decrease the risk of sepsis, post-splenectomy spherocytosis patients require immunization against the influenza virus, encapsulated bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and meningococcus, and prophylactic antibiotic treatment. However, the use of prophylactic antibiotics, such as penicillin, remains controversial.
Partial splenectomy: Since the spleen is important for protecting against encapsulated organisms, sepsis caused by encapsulated organisms is a possible complication of splenectomy. The option of partial splenectomy may be considered in the interest of preserving immune function. Research on outcomes is currently limited, but favorable.
Surgical removal of the gallbladder may be necessary.
See also
Anemia
Blood
Blood diseases
Red blood cells
Hereditary diseases
References
External links
A picture of spherocytes from Medline
Hereditary Spherocytosis from Medscape
Red blood cell disorders
Abnormal clinical and laboratory findings for RBCs
Anemias | [
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] |
226545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropological%20theories%20of%20value | Anthropological theories of value | Anthropological theories of value attempt to expand on the traditional theories of value used by economists or ethicists. They are often broader in scope than the theories of value of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, etc. usually including sociological, political, institutional, and historical perspectives (transdisciplinarity). Some have influenced feminist economics.
The basic premise is that economic activities can only be fully understood in the context of the society that creates them. The concept of "value" is a social construct, and as such is defined by the culture using the concept. Yet we can gain some insights into modern patterns of exchange, value, and wealth by examining previous societies. An anthropological approach to economic processes allows us to critically examine the cultural biases inherent in the principles of modern economics. Anthropological linguistics is a related field that looks at the terms we use to describe economic relations and the ecologies they are set within. Many anthropological economists (or economic anthropologists) are reacting against what they see as the portrayal of modern society as an economic machine that merely produces and consumes.
Marcel Mauss and Bronisław Malinowski for example wrote about objects that circulate in society without being consumed. Georges Bataille wrote about objects that are destroyed, but not consumed. Bruce Owens talks about objects of value that are neither circulating nor consumed (e.g. gold reserves, warehoused paintings, family heirlooms).
Value as meaning-making
David Graeber attempts to synthesize the insights of Karl Marx and Marcel Mauss. He sees value as a model for human meaning-making. Starting with Marxist definitions of consumption and production, he introduces Mauss's idea of "objects that are not consumed" and posits that the majority of human behavior consists of activities that would not be properly categorized as either consumption or production.
List of things that are neither consumption nor production
A list of things that are neither consumption nor production in 2003 includes those human activities that are not consumption, in the narrow sense of simply purchasing something, and are not production, in the sense of creating or modifying something intended for sale or exchange, namely:
cooking a meal
extinguishing a fire
dressing and undressing
applying makeup
watching television
playing in a band
falling in love
reading
listening to music
going to a museum or gallery
taking a photograph
gardening
writing
conducting a coming of age ceremony
going window shopping
exercising
acting
turning around in a circle
teaching
having an argument
playing games
having sex
attending a religious service
looking at old photos
critiquing art
Criticisms
Some behaviors that do not appear to fall under the categories of consumption or production can be interpreted as complex or indirect examples of consumption or production. For example, writing might be treated as the production of material for someone to consume through reading, and might be performed for some return in value (such as prestige). Other behaviors may be usefully interpreted as analogous to consumption or production. For example, window shoppers can be seen as consuming a product by spending attention on shop displays, which are produced by marketers. In addition, some behaviors that do not appear to match the description of consumption can be understood as replacements for consumption. For example, a person that cooks a meal instead of purchasing it can be seen as having paid for that meal through labor instead of wages. Gary Becker's household production functions and similar topics note that people often purchase goods and then combine them with time to produce something that has meaning or practicality to them (which produce utility).
See also
Conformity
Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)
Westernization
References
Anthropology
Economic anthropology
Social constructionism
Value (ethics)
Axiological theories | [
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226546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodick | Brodick | Brodick ( , ("Castle Beach") or Breadhaig) is the main village on the Isle of Arran, in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland. It is halfway along the east coast of the island, in Brodick Bay below Goat Fell, the tallest mountain on Arran. The name is derived from the Norse "breda-vick" meaning "Broad Bay".
The harbour receives the main ferry between Arran and the mainland via Ardrossan. Brodick Castle is a former residence of the Dukes of Hamilton.
Brodick is one of the largest villages on the island and is seen as the main hub due to the ferry terminal which connects the island to the mainland. It is host to many homes, hotels and shops, the health centre, nursing home, heritage museum, tourist information centre, Brodick Castle, public beach, park and an 18-hole golf course.
Transport
Brodick has Arran's main ferry terminus, which occasionally connects Brodick to Ardrossan on the mainland and to the national rail network. The ferries are operated by Caledonian MacBrayne. serves the island year-round, with providing additional sailings during the summer. The crossing takes less than one hour. The route is one of the busiest crossings on the CalMac network, and dolphins and basking sharks are rarely spotted en route. A second, smaller ferry – – sails from Lochranza to Claonaig on the Kintyre peninsula between March and October.
The village has seen investment recently with £30M being spent on the new Brodick Ferry Terminal. This is a new larger passenger terminal with a larger pier capable of handling two large vessels at once, increasing capacity on Scotland's busiest ferry route which handled 828,262 passengers and 202,843 cars in 2016 up 8.7% and 6.8% respectively.
In addition to the new ferry terminal, which was formally opened by Derek Mackay MSP on 12 April 2018, the island is expected to get a new dual-fuelled ferry built on the River Clyde for around £45m. The ferry has been named after a public vote in Spring 2017, and the ferry is expected to be delivered in early 2019. Unfortunately this deadline has been delayed, and it is unknown when it will enter service.
The village is connected to all parts of the island by road including Lamlash and Whiting Bay to the south, Lochranza to the north and Blackwaterfoot to the west.
A new upgraded bus terminal opened in Brodick at the new ferry terminal in early 2017, and is a hub for transport on the island, providing many bus services.
Village
Brodick is a popular holiday destination and a base for hill-walking. Tourism provides much of the village's economic base. There are many family-owned and independent businesses, such as hotels, restaurants, shops, bed and breakfast establishments, guest houses and outdoor activities. There is also a brewery (located in nearby Cladach), a sports and leisure complex, and an 18-hole golf course.
The village of Brodick is the largest settlement on the island (although Lamlash has a larger population), and is seen as the centre of economic activity due to the many businesses that are located around the village. These include the 22 bedroom Douglas Hotel & Bar, and the Auchrannie Spa and Resort, which comprises two 4-star hotels with 85 rooms and thirty 5-star self-catering lodges along with a spa, two leisure centres, and adventure company and more on site.
The village is also the home of Arran Haulage and Arran Aromatics, as well as many more small independent businesses.
Brodick has a primary school, village hall, library, church, sports park, health centre and public beach, and is the main shopping base on the island. Brodick has a large Co-op supermarket in the village, as well as a smaller Co-op convenience store at Invercloy. There are also hairdressers, estate agents, the post office, gift shops, bakers, chocolate shop, bike hire store, and numerous cafes, bars and restaurants, most notably Crofters, Douglas Bistro, Ormidale Bar, Brodick Bar and The Auchrannie Resort which has three restaurants and bars; Brambles - Seafood & Grill, Cruize - Bar/Brasserie and Eighteen69 - Scottish Tapas. Brodick is also home to Brodick Golf Club, which has 18 holes.
The high school, council offices, Highlands and Islands University Resource Centre and hospital can all be found in Lamlash, located to the south.
The largest peak on the island, Goat Fell, overlooks the village and Brodick Bay. Reaching above sea-level, it is one of the most popular hiking routes in Scotland.
Brodick Castle
Brodick Castle was previously a seat of the Dukes of Hamilton, but is now owned by the National Trust for Scotland. The castle itself will be closed for 2 years until 2018/2019 for refurbishment by NTS, however the grounds will be open throughout. A new Kids adventure section of the park opened in July 2017.
References
External links
Canmore - Arran, Brodick, General site record
Canmore - Brodick, Rosaburn, Arran Heritage Museum, Rosaburn House site record
Villages in the Isle of Arran
Ports and harbours of Scotland
Firth of Clyde | [
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226552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinomianism | Antinomianism | Antinomianism (Ancient Greek: ἀντί, "against" and νόμος, "law") is any view which rejects laws or legalism and argues against moral, religious or social norms (Latin: mores), or is at least considered to do so. The term has both religious and secular meanings.
In some Christian belief systems, an antinomian is one who takes the principle of salvation by faith and divine grace to the point of asserting that the saved are not bound to follow the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments.
The distinction between antinomian and other Christian views on moral law is that antinomians believe that obedience to the law is motivated by an internal principle flowing from belief rather than from any external compulsion. John Eaton, a leader in the antinomian underground during the 1630s, interpreted Revelation 12:1 with a quote recorded by Giles Firmin: "I saw a Woman Clothed with the Sun [That is, the Church Clothed with the righteousness of Christ, to her Justification] and the Moon, [that is, Sanctification] under her Feet." Scholars have speculated that the "sun" and "light" may have been signals of antinomian sympathies.
Examples of antinomians being confronted by the religious establishment include Martin Luther's critique of antinomianism and the Antinomian Controversy of the seventeenth-century Massachusetts Bay Colony. In Lutheranism and Methodism, antinomianism is a heresy.
Outside of Christianity, the 10th-century Sufi mystic al-Hallaj was accused of antinomianism, and the term is also used to describe certain practices or traditions in Frankism, Buddhism and Hinduism, such as aspects of Vajrayana and Tantra that include sexual rituals.
Christianity
Antinomianism has been a point of doctrinal contention in the history of Christianity, especially in Protestantism, given the Protestant belief in justification through faith alone versus justification on the basis of merit or good works or works of mercy. Most Protestants consider themselves saved without having to keep the commandments of the Mosaic law as a whole; that is, their salvation does not depend upon keeping the Mosaic law. However, salvific faith is generally seen as one that produces obedience, consistent with the reformed formula, "We are justified by faith alone but not by a faith that is alone," in contrast to rejecting moral constraint.
The term antinomianism was coined by Martin Luther during the Reformation to criticize extreme interpretations of the new Lutheran soteriology. In the 18th century, John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist tradition, severely attacked antinomianism.
A general consensus has been historically reached as to which laws of the Old Testament Christians are still enjoined to keep. These moral laws, as opposed to civil or ceremonial laws, are derivative of what St. Paul indirectly refers to as natural law (Rom. 2.14–15). Mosaic law has authority only insofar as it reflects the commands of Christ and the natural law. Christian sects and theologians who believe that they are freed from more moral constraint than is customary are often called "antinomian" by their critics. Thus, classic Methodist commentator Adam Clarke held, "The Gospel proclaims liberty from the ceremonial law, but binds you still faster under the moral law. To be freed from the ceremonial law is the Gospel liberty; to pretend freedom from the moral law is Antinomianism."
Gnosticism
The term antinomian came into use in the sixteenth century, however, the doctrine itself can be traced in the teaching of earlier beliefs. Early Gnostic sects were accused of failing to follow the Mosaic Law in a manner that suggests the modern term "antinomian". Most Gnostic sects did not accept the Old Testament moral law. For example, the Manichaeans held that their spiritual being was unaffected by the action of matter and regarded carnal sins as being, at worst, forms of bodily disease.
The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most of the Gnostics. Even the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics (Cerinthus), the Ebionite (Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take up an inconsistent attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old Testament. In this respect, the opposition to Gnosticism led to a reactionary movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a different fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the Old Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old Testament, and gave a wider scope to the legal conception of religion, this must be in part ascribed to the involuntary reaction upon it of Gnosticism.
Marcion of Sinope was the founder of Marcionism which rejected the Hebrew Bible in its entirety. Marcion considered the God portrayed in the Bible to be a lesser deity, a demiurge, and he claimed that the law of Moses was contrived. Such deviations from the moral law were criticized by proto-orthodox rivals of the Gnostics, who ascribed various aberrant and licentious acts to them. A biblical example of such criticism can be found in , which criticizes the Nicolaitans, possibly an early Gnostic sect.
Lutheranism
The term "antinomianism" was coined by Martin Luther during the Reformation, to criticize extreme interpretations of the new Lutheran soteriology. The Lutheran Church benefited from early antinomian controversies by becoming more precise in distinguishing between law and gospel and justification and sanctification. Martin Luther developed 258 theses during his six antinomian disputations, which continue to provide doctrinal guidance to Lutherans today.
Upon hearing that he was being charged with the rejection of the Old Testament moral law, Luther responded: "And truly, I wonder exceedingly, how it came to be imputed to me, that I should reject the Law or Ten Commandments, there being extant so many of my own expositions (and those of several sorts) upon the Commandments, which also are daily expounded, and used in our Churches, to say nothing of the Confession and Apology, and other books of ours." In his "Introduction to Romans," Luther stated that saving faith is, "a living, creative, active and powerful thing, this faith. Faith cannot help doing good works constantly. It doesn't stop to ask if good works ought to be done, but before anyone asks, it already has done them and continues to do them without ceasing. Anyone who does not do good works in this manner is an unbeliever...Thus, it is just as impossible to separate faith and works as it is to separate heat and light from fire!"
First Antinomian controversy
As early as 1525, Johannes Agricola advanced his idea, in his commentary on Luke, that the law was a futile attempt of God to work the restoration of mankind. He maintained that non-Christians were still held to the Mosaic law, while Christians were entirely free from it, being under the Gospel alone. He viewed sin as a malady or impurity rather than an offense that rendered the sinner guilty and damnable before God. The sinner was the subject of God's pity rather than of his wrath. To Agricola, the purpose of repentance was to abstain from evil rather than the contrition of a guilty conscience. The law had no role in repentance, which came about after one came to faith, and repentance was caused by the knowledge of the love of God alone.
In contrast, Philipp Melanchthon urged that repentance must precede faith and that knowledge of the moral law is needed to produce repentance. He later wrote in the Augsburg Confession that repentance has two parts. "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."
Shortly after Melanchthon drew up the 1527 Articles of Visitation in June, Agricola began to be verbally aggressive toward him, but Martin Luther succeeded in smoothing out the difficulty at Torgau in December 1527. However, Agricola did not change his ideas and later depicted Luther as disagreeing with him. After Agricola moved to Wittenberg, he maintained that the law must be used in the courthouse but it must not be used in the church. He said that repentance comes from hearing the good news only and does not precede but rather follows faith. He continued to disseminate this doctrine in books, despite receiving various warnings from Luther.
Luther, with reluctance, at last, believed that he had to make a public comment against antinomianism and its promoters in 1538 and 1539. Agricola apparently yielded, and Luther's book Against the Antinomians (1539) was to serve as Agricola's recantation. This was the first use of the term Antinomian. But the conflict flared up again, and Agricola sued Luther. He said that Luther had slandered him in his disputations, Against the Antinomians, and in his On the Councils and Churches (1539). But before the case could be brought to trial, Agricola left the city, even though he had bound himself to remain at Wittenberg, and moved to Berlin where he had been offered a position as preacher to the court. After his arrival there, he made peace with the Saxons, acknowledged his "error", and gradually conformed his doctrine to that which he had before opposed and assailed. He still used such terms as gospel and repentance in a different manner from Luther's.
Second Antinomian controversy
The antinomian doctrine, however, was not eliminated from Lutheranism. Melanchthon and those who agreed with him, called Philippists, were checked by the Gnesio-Lutherans in the Second Antinomian Controversy during the Augsburg Interim. The Philippists ascribed to the Gospel alone the ability to work repentance, to the exclusion of the law. They blurred the distinction between Law and Gospel by considering the Gospel itself to be a moral law. They did not identify Christ's fulfillment of the law with the commandments which humans are expected to follow.
As a result, the Book of Concord rejects antinomianism in the last confession of faith. The Formula of Concord rejects antinomianism in the fifth article, On the Law and the Gospel and in the sixth article, On the Third Use of the Law.
Calvinism
The Articles of the Church of England, Revised and altered by the Assembly of Divines, at Westminster, in the year 1643 condemns antinomianism, teaching that "no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. By the moral law, we understand all the Ten Commandments taken to their full extent." The Westminster Confession, held by Presbyterian Churches, holds that the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments "does forever bind all, as well justified persons as others, to the obedience thereof". The Westminster Confession of Faith further states: "Faith, thus receiving and resting on Christ and His righteousness, is the alone instrument of justification; yet it is not alone in the person justified, but is ever accompanied with all other saving graces, and is no dead faith, but works by love."
However, a number of seventeenth-century English writers in the Reformed tradition held antinomian beliefs. None of these individuals argued that Christians would not obey the law. Instead, they believed that believers would spontaneously obey the law without external motivation. Antinomianism during this period is likely a reaction against Arminianism, as it emphasized free grace in salvation to the detriment of any participation on the part of the believer. John Eaton (fl. 1619) is often identified as the father of English antinomianism. Tobias Crisp (1600–1643), a Church of England priest who had been Arminian and was later accused of being an antinomian. He was a divisive figure for English Calvinists, with a serious controversy arising from the republication of his works in the 1690s. Also lesser known was John Saltmarsh (priest).
From the latter part of the 18th century, critics of Calvinists accused them of antinomianism. Such charges were frequently raised by Arminian Methodists, who subscribed to a synergistic soteriology that contrasted with Calvinism's monergistic doctrine of justification. The controversy between Arminian and Calvinistic Methodists produced the notable Arminian critique of Calvinism: Fletcher's Five Checks to Antinomianism (1771–75).
Methodism
John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist tradition, harshly criticized antinomianism, considering it the "worst of all heresies". He taught that Christian believers are bound to follow the moral law and that they are to partake in the means of grace for their sanctification. Methodists teach the necessity of following the moral law as contained in the Ten Commandments, citing Jesus' teaching, "If ye love me, keep my commandments" (cf. John 14:15).
Quakers
Religious Society of Friends were charged with antinomianism due to their rejection of a graduate clergy and a clerical administrative structure, as well as their reliance on the Spirit (as revealed by the Inner Light of God within each person) rather than the Scriptures. They also rejected civil legal authorities and their laws (such as the paying of tithes to the State church and the swearing of oaths) when they were seen as inconsistent with the promptings of the Inner Light of God.
Jesuits
Blaise Pascal accused the Jesuits of antinomianism in his Lettres provinciales, charging that Jesuit casuistry undermined moral principles.
Charges against other groups
Other Protestant groups that have been accused of antinomianism include the Anabaptists and Mennonites. The Ranters of 17th century England were one of the most outright antinomian sects in the history of Christianity. New Covenant Theology has been accused of antinomianism for their belief that the Ten Commandments have been abrogated, but they point out that nine of these ten are renewed under the New Covenant's Law of Christ.
Biblical law in Christianity
The question of the obligation to follow the Mosaic Law was a point of contention in the Early Christian Church. Many early converts were Greek and thus had less interest in adherence to the Law of Moses than did the earliest Christians, who were primarily Jewish and already accustomed to the Law. Thus, as Christianity spread into new cultures, the early church was pressured to decide which laws were still required of Christians, and which were no longer required under the New Covenant. The New Testament, (especially the book of Acts) is interpreted by some as recording the church slowly abandoning the "ritual laws" of Judaism, such as circumcision, Sabbath and kosher law, while remaining in full agreement on adherence to the "divine law", or Jewish laws on morality, such as the Ten Commandments. Thus, the early Christian church incorporated ideas sometimes seen as partially antinomian or parallel to Dual-covenant theology, while still upholding the traditional laws of moral behavior.
The first major dispute over Christian antinomianism was a dispute over whether circumcision was required of Christians. This happened at the Council of Jerusalem, which is dated to about 50 AD and recorded in the Acts of the Apostles:
The apostles and elders met at Jerusalem, and after a spirited discussion, their conclusion, later called the Apostolic Decree, possibly a major act of differentiation of the Church from its Jewish roots (the first being the idea that Jesus was the messiah), was recorded in :
Beginning with Augustine of Hippo, many have seen a connection to Noahide Law, while some modern scholars reject the connection to Noahide Law and instead see Lev 17–18 as the basis.
James sets out a preliminary list of commands which Gentiles should obey. Gentiles were not required to be circumcised but were required to obey the four beginning requirements to be part of the larger congregation. This passage shows that the remainder of the commandments would follow as they studied "Moses" in the Synagogues. If Gentiles did not follow this reduced requirement, they risked being put out of the Synagogue and missing out on a Torah education (in and ). James's list still includes some dietary commands, but many of those also passed out of some Christian traditions quite early. describes the following vision, which was used to excuse early gentile Christians from the Mosaic dietary laws.
Peter was perplexed about the vision in Acts 10. His subsequent explanation of the vision in Acts 11 gives no credence to antinomianism as it relates to the admission of Gentiles into covenant relationship with God.
Though the Apostolic Decree is no longer observed by many Christian denominations today, it is still observed in full by the Greek Orthodox.
In the Letter to the Hebrews (), it is written that under the Old Testament Law, priests had to be from the tribe of Levi, Aaron, and his sons:
It is pointed out that Jesus was from the tribe of Judah, and thus Jesus could not be a priest under the Old Testament Law, as Jesus is not a descendant of Aaron. It states that the Law had to change for Jesus to be the High Priest: "For when there is a change of the priesthood, there must also be a change of the law." (Hebrews 7:12)
Supporting Pauline passages
The Apostle Paul, in his Letters, says that believers are saved by the unearned grace of God, not by good works, "lest anyone should boast", and placed a priority on orthodoxy (right belief) before orthopraxy (right practice). The soteriology of Paul's statements in this matter has long been a matter of dispute. The ancient gnostics interpreted Paul, for example in , to be referring to the manner in which embarking on a path to enlightenment ultimately leads to enlightenment, which was their idea of what constituted salvation. In what has become the modern Protestant orthodoxy, however, this passage is interpreted as a reference to justification by trusting Christ.
Paul used the term freedom in Christ, for example, . Some understood this to mean "lawlessness" (i.e. not obeying Mosaic Law). For example, in , Paul is accused of "persuading .. people to worship God in ways contrary to the law."
In James the Just explained his situation to Paul:
is sometimes presented as proof of Paul's antinomistic views. For example, the NIV translates these verses: "... he forgave us all our sins, having canceled the written code, with its regulations, that was against us and that stood opposed to us; he took it away, nailing it to the cross." But, the NRSV translates this same verse as: "... he forgave us all our trespasses, erasing the record that stood against us with its legal demands. He set this aside, nailing it to the cross." This latter translation makes it sound as though it is a record of trespasses, rather than the Law itself, that was "nailed to the cross." The interpretation partly depends on the original Greek word which, according to Strong's G5498, literally means "something written by hand;" it is variously translated as "the bond" (RSV, NAB), "written code" (NIV), or "record" (ESV, NRSV, CEB), as in a record of debt.
2 Corinthians 3:6–17 says,
"Who also hath made us able ministers of the new testament; not of the letter, but of the spirit: for the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life. But if the ministration of death, written and engraven in stones, was glorious, so that the children of Israel could not stedfastly behold the face of Moses for the glory of his countenance; which glory was to be done away: How shall not the ministration of the spirit be rather glorious? For if the ministration of condemnation be glory, much more doth the ministration of righteousness exceed in glory. For even that which was made glorious had no glory in this respect, by reason of the glory that excelleth. For if that which is done away was glorious, much more that which remaineth is glorious. Seeing then that we have such hope, we use great plainness of speech: And not as Moses, which put a veil over his face, that the children of Israel could not stedfastly look to the end of that which is abolished: But their minds were blinded: for until this day remaineth the same vail untaken away in the reading of the old testament; which vail is done away in Christ. But even unto this day, when Moses is read, the vail is upon their heart. Nevertheless when it shall turn to the Lord, the vail shall be taken away. Now the Lord is that Spirit: and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty." (KJV)
Some cite : "And by him all that believe are justified from all things, from which ye could not be justified by the law of Moses." states twice that believers are not under the law: Romans 6:14 "For sin shall not have dominion over you: for ye are not under the law, but under grace." and Romans 6:15 "What then? shall we sin, because we are not under the law, but under grace? God forbid.". KJV
describes the Galatians as "foolish" for relying on being observant to the Law: "(1) O foolish Galatians, who hath bewitched you, that ye should not obey the truth, before whose eyes Jesus Christ hath been evidently set forth, crucified among you? (2) This only would I learn of you, Received ye the Spirit by the works of the law, or by the hearing of faith? (3) Are ye so foolish? having begun in the Spirit, are ye now made perfect by the flesh? (4) Have ye suffered so many things in vain? if it be yet in vain. (5) He therefore that ministereth to you the Spirit, and worketh miracles among you, doeth he it by the works of the law, or by the hearing of faith?" KJV
says that the purpose of the Law was to lead people to Christ, once people believe in Christ, they are no longer under the Law:
"(23) But before faith came, we were kept under the law, shut up unto the faith which should afterwards be revealed. (24) Wherefore the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith.(25) But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a schoolmaster." KJV
In , Paul compares the Old Covenant with the New Covenant. In this comparison, he equates each covenant with a woman, using the wives of Abraham as examples. The old covenant is equated with the slave woman, Hagar, and the new covenant is equated with the free woman Sarah.(). He concludes this example by saying that we are not children of the slave woman, but children of the free woman. In other words, we are not under the old covenant, we are under the new covenant.
"(22) For it is written, that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bondmaid, the other by a freewoman. (23) But he who was of the bondwoman was born after the flesh; but he of the freewoman was by promise. (24) Which things are an allegory: for these are the two covenants; the one from the mount Sinai, which gendereth to bondage, which is Agar. (25) For this Agar is mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth to Jerusalem which now is, and is in bondage with her children. (26) But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all." KJV ()
is sometimes translated: "For Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believeth" (KJV), or "Christ is the end of the law so that there may be righteousness for everyone who believes" (NRSV). The key word here is telos (Strong's G5056). Robert Badenas argues that telos is correctly translated as goal, not end, so that Christ is the goal of the Law. N. T. Wright in his New Testament for Everyone translates this verse as: "The Messiah, you see, is the goal of the law, so that covenant membership may be available for all who believe." Andy Gaus' version of the New Testament translates this verse as: "Christ is what the law aims at: for every believer to be on the right side of [God's] justice."
Also cited is : "He has abolished the law with its commandments and ordinances, that he might create in himself one new humanity in place of the two, thus making peace," NRSV. Another passage cited is , especially Romans 7:4 "Wherefore, my brethren, ye also are become dead to the law by the body of Christ; that ye should be married to another, even to him who is raised from the dead, that we should bring forth fruit unto God." and Romans 7:6 "But now we are delivered from the law, that being dead wherein we were held; that we should serve in newness of spirit, and not in the oldness of the letter." KJV
The first covenant (made with Israel, as recorded in the Old Testament) is compared with the new covenant in . In Hebrews 8:6–7: "But the ministry Jesus has received is as superior to theirs as the covenant of which he is mediator is superior to the old one, and it is founded on better promises. For if there had been nothing wrong with that first covenant, no place would have been sought for another." It goes on to say that the problem with the first covenant was with the people who were supposed to keep it and that in the new covenant: "I will put my laws into their minds, and write them on their hearts, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people."
The first covenant was said to be obsolete, and would soon disappear: "By calling this covenant "new," he has made the first one obsolete; and what is obsolete and aging will soon disappear." . It identifies the first covenant which is disappearing in . Particularly the "stone tablets of the covenant" in Hebrews 9:4 referred directly to the Ten Commandments.
"Now the first covenant had regulations for worship and also an earthly sanctuary. A tabernacle was set up. In its first room were the lampstand, the table, and the consecrated bread; this was called the Holy Place. Behind the second curtain was a room called the Most Holy Place, which had the golden altar of incense and the gold-covered ark of the covenant. This ark contained the gold jar of manna, Aaron's staff that had budded, and the stone tablets of the covenant. Above the ark were the cherubim of the Glory, overshadowing the atonement cover." (Hebrews 9:1–5)
However, the notion that the Ten Commandments have been abrogated, as found in New Covenant Theology, is challenged by some.
Some scholars consider Jesus' Sermon on the Mount (particularly the Antitheses) to be an antitype of the proclamation of the Ten Commandments or Mosaic Covenant by Moses from the Biblical Mount Sinai.
Opposing Pauline passages
Those who oppose antinomianism invoke Paul as upholding obedience to the law:
"Because the carnal mind is enmity against God: for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be. So then they that are in the flesh cannot please God." KJV
"But if any provide not for his own, and specially for those of his own house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel." KJV
"But now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner; with such an one no not to eat." KJV
"Children, obey your parents in the Lord: for this is right. Honour thy father and mother; which is the first commandment with promise;" KJV
"Do we then make void the law through faith? God forbid: yea, we establish the law." KJV
"For as many as have sinned without law shall also perish without law: and as many as have sinned in the law shall be judged by the law; (For not the hearers of the law are just before God, but the doers of the law shall be justified." KJV
"For this ye know, that no whoremonger, nor unclean person, nor covetous man, who is an idolater, hath any inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God. Let no man deceive you with vain words: for because of these things cometh the wrath of God upon the children of disobedience. " KJV
"Know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God? Be not deceived: neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with mankind, Nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God." KJV
"Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law." KJV
"Mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil concupiscence, and covetousness, which is idolatry." KJV
"Neither be ye idolaters, as were some of them; as it is written, The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play." KJV
"Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these; Adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, Idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies, Envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like: of the which I tell you before, as I have also told you in time past, that they which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God." KJV
"Say I these things as a man? or saith not the law the same also? For it is written in the law of Moses, Thou shalt not muzzle the mouth of the ox that treadeth out the corn. Doth God take care for oxen?" KJV
"The wife is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be married to whom she will; only in the Lord." KJV
"Wherefore, my dearly beloved, flee from idolatry." KJV
"While he answered for himself, Neither against the law of the Jews, neither against the temple, nor yet against Cæsar, have I offended any thing at all." KJV
Theology
The Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) article on "Judaizers" notes: "Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required (). Thus he shortly after the Council of Jerusalem circumcised Timothy (), and he was in the very act of observing the Mosaic ritual when he was arrested at Jerusalem ( sqq.)."
The Jewish Encyclopedia article on "Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah" notes the following reconciliation: "R. Emden, in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam," gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law—this explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the laws of Moses and the Sabbath."
The Tübingen school of historians was founded by F. C. Baur holds that in Early Christianity, there was a conflict between Pauline Christianity and the Jerusalem Church led by James the Just, Simon Peter, and John the Apostle, the so-called "Jewish Christians" or "Pillars of the Church." In many places Paul writes that he was an observant Jew and that Christians should "uphold the Law" (). In , part of the Incident at Antioch, Paul publicly accused Peter of judaizing. Even so, he says sins remain sins and upholds by several examples the kind of behaviour that the church should not tolerate (e.g., , ). In he cites Jesus' teaching on divorce ("not I but the Lord") and does not reject it, but goes on to proclaim his own teaching ("I, not the Lord"), an extended counsel regarding a specific situation which some interpret as conforming to what the Lord said. But, this may mean he received direct knowledge of what the Lord wanted him to teach through the Holy Ghost ().
Paul versus James
The Epistle of James, in contrast, states that we are to obey the Law of God and that "a person is justified by works and not by faith alone" (). Historically, this statement has been difficult for Protestants to reconcile with their belief in justification by faith alone as it appears to contradict Paul's teaching that works don't justify (Romans 4:1–8). Martin Luther, believing that his doctrines were refuted by James's conclusion that works also justify, suggested that the Epistle might be a forgery, and relegated it to an appendix in his Bible. Literature which discusses this includes the article on James 2:20 in Law and Gospel. , , and Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification.
James also wrote: "For whoever keeps the whole law and yet stumbles at just one point is guilty of breaking all of it. For he who said, 'Do not commit adultery,' also said, 'Do not murder.' If you do not commit adultery but do commit murder, you have become a lawbreaker." . One interpretation is that people who want to keep the Old Testament Law must perfectly keep all of the Law—"an impossible task." James appeals to his readers to follow the "Royal Law of Love" instead of in the preceding verses (James 2:8–9). But the scholar Alister McGrath says that James was the leader of a Judaizing party that taught that Gentiles must obey the entire Mosaic Law.
Paul made a statement that appears to agree with James, saying that "both" faith produced as a result of repentance (the initial requirement for justification) "and" works (the evidence or proof of true faith) must exist together:
"So then, King Agrippa, I was not disobedient to the vision from heaven. First to those in Damascus, then to those in Jerusalem and in all Judea, and to the Gentiles also, I preached that they should repent and turn to God and prove their repentance by their deeds." Acts 26:19–20 (NIV)
Jesus
The Torah prescribes the death penalty for desecrating the Sabbath by working (). To avoid any possibility of breaking the simple and few original Torah commands, the Pharisees formulated and added several thousand strict laws and numerous traditions which they treated as laws. According to the Christians, Jesus criticized the Pharisees for adding to the law (). The Jewish Encyclopedia article on Jesus notes:
"Jesus, however, does not appear to have taken into account the fact that the Halakah was at this period just becoming crystallized, and that much variation existed as to its definite form; the disputes of Bet Hillel and Bet Shammai were occurring about the time of his maturity."
In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus' disciples were picking grain for food on the Sabbath (). This was against one of the Pharisaic laws that had been added to the original Torah law which prohibited work on the Sabbath day. When the Pharisees challenged Jesus over breaking their law, he pointed to Biblical precedent and declared that "the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath". Some claim Jesus rejected complete adherence to the Torah. Most scholars hold that Jesus did not reject the law, but directed that it should be obeyed in context. E. P. Sanders notes, "No substantial conflict existed between Jesus and the Pharisees with regard to Sabbath, food, and purity laws. ... The church took some while to come to the position that the Sabbath need not be kept, and it is hard to think that Jesus explicitly said so." There may be passages where the words of Jesus have been misinterpreted and were not really in contradiction with the Jewish law. Jesus never once broke the Torah, yet he did denounce the added Pharisaic rules and openly defied the Pharisees.
In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is sometimes said to refer to wicked people with the term ergazomenoi tēn anomian ()—e.g., , . Due to this negative context, the term has almost always been translated as "evildoers", although it literally means "workers of lawlessness". In Hebrew, lawlessness would imply "Torahlessness". Matthew appears to present Jesus as equating wickedness with encouraging antinomianism. Scholars view Matthew as having been written by or for a Jewish audience, the so-called Jewish Christians. Several scholars argue that Matthew artificially lessened a claimed rejection of Jewish law so as not to alienate his intended audience. But, Jesus called for full adherence to the commandments () He declared: "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them." (). A parallel verse to is .
states: "Everyone who commits sin is guilty of lawlessness; sin is lawlessness."
Buddhism
Among some Buddhist groups there are types of 'antinomianism' that may act as a gloss for 'left-handed attainment' (Sanskrit: Vamachara): naturalist/spontaneous antinomianism, ritualist/philosophical antinomianism, and empirical antinomianism. There may also be those who subscribe to all or some combination of these three types. Not all Buddhist schools accept antinomian thought as skillful.
Naturalist antinomians believe that enlightened beings may spontaneously break monastic codes of conduct while living out a natural state of enlightened mind. Another view is that an enlightened mind responds to circumstances based on Buddhist morality, rather than the legalism of the monastic codes and that the "break" is not therefore spontaneous. There are tales of Buddhists who perform acts that appear to be bizarre or immoral, sometimes referred to as 'crazy wisdom' (Tibetan: yeshe chölwa). The movement of the Nyönpa in Seventeenth-Century Tibet has strong associations with antinomian behavior as well.
Ritualist antinomians, such as some Tantric Buddhists, may practice which seemingly may appear to be breaking the codes of conduct in specific religious rituals designed to teach non-duality or other philosophical concepts.
Empirical antinomians may break or disregard traditional ethical or moral rules that they believe are unconducive to the individual's contemplative life. They view such codification as having arisen in specific historical-cultural contexts and, as such, not always supportive of Buddhist training. Thus the individual and the community must test and verify which rules promote or hinder enlightenment.
Islam
In Islam, the law—which applies not only to religion, but also to areas such as politics, banking, and sexuality—is called sharīʿah (), and traditionally draws from four primary sources:
the Quran, which is Islam's central religious text;
the sunnah, which refers to actions practised during the time of the prophet Muḥammad, and is often thought to include the ḥadīth, or recorded words and deeds of Muḥammad;
ijmāʿ, which is the consensus of the ʿulamāʾ, or class of Islamic scholars, on points of practice;
qiyās, which—in Sunnī Islam—is a kind of analogical reasoning conducted by the ʿulamāʾ upon specific laws that have arisen through appeal to the first three sources; in Shia Islam, ʿaql ("reason") is used in place of qiyās
Actions, behavior, or beliefs that are considered to violate any or all of these four sources—primarily in matters of religion—can be termed "antinomian". Depending on the action, behavior, or belief in question, a number of different terms can be used to convey the sense of "antinomian": shirk ("association of another being with God"); bidʻah ("innovation"); kufr ("disbelief"); ḥarām ("forbidden"); etc.
As an example, the 10th-century Sufi mystic al-Hallaj was executed for shirk for, among other things, his statement ana al-Ḥaqq (), meaning "I am the Truth". As al-Ḥaqq ("the Truth") is one of the Names of God in Islam, this would imply he was saying: "I am God." Expressions like these are known as šaṭḥiyyāt. Another individual who has often been termed antinomian is Ibn Arabi, a 12th and 13th-century scholar and mystic whose doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd ("unity of being") has sometimes been interpreted as being pantheistic, and thus shirk.
Apart from individuals, entire groups of Muslims have also been called antinomian. One of these groups is the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa, who have always had strong millenarian tendencies arising partly from persecution directed at them by Sunnīs. Influenced to a certain extent by Gnosticism, the Ismāʿīlīs developed a number of beliefs and practices—such as their belief in the imamatte and an esoteric exegesis of the Qurʾān—that orthodox Sunnī Muslims considered being shirk and, hence, to be seen as antinomian. Certain other groups that evolved out of Shīʿah belief, such as the Alawites and the Bektashi Order, have also been considered antinomian. The Bektashis, particularly, have practices that diverge from conventional Islamic practice, such as the consumption of alcoholic beverages, the non-wearing of the ḥijāb ("veil") by women, and gathering in the cemevi in preference to the mosque.
Left-hand path
In Western esotericism the Left-Hand Path and Right-Hand Path are the dichotomy between two opposing approaches to magic. This terminology is used in various groups involved in the occult and ceremonial magic. In some definitions, the Left-Hand Path is equated with malicious black magic or black shamanism, while the Right-Hand Path with benevolent white magic. Other occultists have criticised this definition, believing that the Left–Right dichotomy refers merely to different kinds of working and does not necessarily connote good or bad magical actions.
Nonreligious usage
George Orwell was a frequent user of "antinomian" in a secular (and always approving) sense. In his 1940 essay on Henry Miller, "Inside the Whale", the word appears several times, including one in which he calls A. E. Housman a writer in "a blasphemous, antinomian, ‘cynical’ strain", meaning defiant of arbitrary societal rules.
The psychologist, Nathan Adler, defined the "antinomian personality type" as "manifested by one whose frame of reference is threatened or has been disrupted. He suffers from a breakdown in the balance of his control and release mechanisms and from the permeability of his body boundaries."
In his study of late-20th-century western society the historian Eric Hobsbawm used the term in a sociological sense.
See also
Abrogation of Old Covenant laws
Antinomian controversy - 1630s Massachusetts
Christian anarchism
Christian liberty
Christian–Jewish reconciliation
Covenant (biblical)
Do what thou wilt
Frankism
Free Grace theology
Heterodoxy
Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
Legalism (theology)
Libertine
Minuth
Montanism
Neonomianism
Sovereign citizen movement
Supersessionism
Upāya-kauśalya
Notes
References
Badenas, Robert. Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective. Sheffield (UK): JSOT Press, 1985 argues that telos is correctly translated as goal, not end, so that Christ is the goal of the Law, end of the law would be antinomianism.
Bar-Asher, Me'ir Mikha'el and Kofsky, Aryeh. The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawī Religion: An Enquiry into its Theology and Liturgy. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2002. .
Chittick, William C. The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn Al-Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989. .
Clarence-Smith, W.G. Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. London: C. Hurst & Co. (Publishers) Ltd, 2006. .
Daftary, Farhad; ed. Mediaeval Ismaʿili History and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. .
Dunn, James D.G. Jesus, Paul and the Law 1990
Encyclopaedia of the Orient. "Isma'ilism ". Retrieved 10 October 2006.
Freedman, David Noel, editor. (1998). Anchor Bible Dictionary, article on Antinomianism by Hall, Robert W.,
G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1896)
J. C. L. Gieseler, Ch. Hist. (New York ed. 1868, vol. iv.)
J. H. Blunt Dict. of Doct. and Hist. Theol. (1872)
Luther, Martin. Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations. Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008.
Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker. The Many-Headed Hydra. Beacon Press, Boston, 2000
Pratt, Douglas. The Challenge of Islam: Encounters in Interfaith Dialogue. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005. .
Riess, in I. Goschler's Dict. Encyclop. de la théol. cath. (1858)
Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. .
Weir, Anthony. "Differences Between Bektashism and Islamic Orthodoxy" in The Bektashi Order of Dervishes . Retrieved 10 October 2006.
External links
Benjamin Brown, 'The Two Faces of Religious Radicalism – Orthodox Zealotry and Holy Sinning in Nineteenth Century Hasidism in Hungary and Galicia'
Catholic Catechism on The Moral Law
Catholic Encyclopedia: Moral Aspect of Divine Law
Catholic Encyclopedia: Mosaic Legislation
Henry Eyster Jacobs, Lutheran Cyclopedia p. 18, "Antinomianism"
Jewish Encyclopedia: Antinomianism
Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus: Attitude Toward the Law
Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament – For and Against the Law
Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus: Paul's Opposition to the Law
New Perspective on Paul
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge: Antinomianism
Sermon on Antinomianism
Christian anti-Gnosticism
Salvation in Protestantism
Christian terminology
Early Christianity and Gnosticism
Ethical theories
Mosaic law in Christian theology
Heresy in Christianity | [
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226557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bite%20%28disambiguation%29 | Bite (disambiguation) | A bite is a wound received from the mouth of an animal or human; it is also a verb describing that action.
Bite or BITE may also refer to:
Related to biting
Biting, the process of chewing or mastication, whereby food is crushed and ground by teeth
Occlusion (dentistry), called "bite" (e.g., as in "overbite" or "underbite"), the contact between teeth
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Bite (album), a 1983 album by Altered Images
Bites (album), a 1985 album by Skinny Puppy
Bite, a 1990 album by Ned's Atomic Dustbin
Stage productions
Bite (show), a topless vampire show at the Stratosphere Las Vegas in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
BITE, an acronym for Barbican International Theatre Events at the Barbican Centre, London
Other arts, entertainment, and media
Bite (film), a 2015 horror film
BiteTV, a Canadian television channel
The Beast in the East, a professional wrestling event produced by WWE
Science and technology
BiTE, an acronym for bi-specific T-cell engagers, a class of specific modified antibodies
BITE Model (Behavior, Information, Thought, and Emotional control), a model to describe control methods used by cults
Built-in test equipment, or BITE, a concept in aviation
Other uses
The Bite, or the Adelaide Bite, a baseball team now known as the Adelaide Giants
Bitė Group, a Lithuanian telecommunication company
See also
Bight (disambiguation)
Bit (disambiguation)
Bitten (disambiguation)
Byte (disambiguation) | [
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226558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column%20%28botany%29 | Column (botany) | The column, or technically the gynostemium, is a reproductive structure that can be found in several plant families: Aristolochiaceae, Orchidaceae, and Stylidiaceae.
It is derived from the fusion of both male and female parts (stamens and pistil) into a single organ. This means that the style and stigma of the pistil, with the filaments and one or more anthers, are all united.
Orchidaceae
The stigma sits at the apex of the column in the front but is pointing downwards after resupination (the rotation by 180 degrees before unfolding of the flower).
This stigma has the form of a small bowl, the clinandrium, a viscous surface embedding the (generally) single anther. On top of it all is the anther cap. Sometimes there is a small extension or little beak to the median stigma lobe, called rostellum.
Column wings may project laterally from the stigma. The column foot is formed by the attachment of the lip to the basal protruding part of the column. One speaks of a mentum (chin) if the lateral sepals are also basally adnate (= attached to the foot of the column).
The column both releases pollen and also receives it (from another individual) for fertilization. In the family Orchidaceae, unlike almost all other flowering plants, the single male anther at the tip of the column produces pollen that is not free and powdery but held in waxy masses of two, four or six pellets called pollinia. The transfer of pollinia from one flower to another, though highly efficient, is often reliant upon one particular species of arthropods and it can be catastrophic for the population if its pollinator disappears from the community.
References
Plant morphology
Pollination
Orchid morphology | [
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226559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hamm | John Hamm | John Frederick Hamm, (born April 8, 1938) is a Canadian physician and politician, who served as the 25th premier of Nova Scotia from 1999 to 2006.
Education
Hamm, a graduate of the University of King's College and Dalhousie University, was a family doctor in his hometown of Stellarton, Nova Scotia, and the president of the Nova Scotia Medical Society.
Provincial politics
He entered politics in 1993, becoming the Member of the Legislative Assembly for the riding of Pictou Centre.
Progressive Conservative Party
Hamm was elected leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Nova Scotia in 1995, succeeding Terry Donahoe. His party won 14 seats in the 1998 provincial election and held the balance of power in a minority government where both the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party, led by Russell MacLellan and Robert Chisholm, respectively, held nineteen seats.
Premier of Nova Scotia
Hamm's Tories defeated the Liberal minority government on a budget vote on June 17, 1999, and in the subsequent election on July 27, 1999, Hamm was elected Premier, winning 30 of the 52 seats in the provincial legislature.
After taking office, Hamm sold or closed government-owned industries such as Sydney Steel. He invested more in education and health care, and implemented some tax cuts. His government was the first to truly balance provincial finances in 25 years, following changes in public sector accounting practises.
In 2001, Hamm was at odds with the Nova Scotia Government Employees Union, trying to legislate nurses back to work after a legal strike.
In the 2003 election, Hamm's Progressive Conservatives were reduced to a minority government. The main issue in that election was the increasing cost of car insurance and whether Nova Scotia should begin to allow general Sunday shopping. Despite the minority government, Hamm's government was able to drop an NDP plan for government automobile insurance issue, and put the Sunday shopping issue to a province-wide plebiscite. Hamm is opposed to Sunday shopping and a public auto insurance system.
Retirement
On September 29, 2005, Hamm announced his intention to retire as Premier and PC Leader. In the 2006 Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia leadership election, Rodney MacDonald was elected his successor.
After politics
On December 21, 2006, Hamm was appointed Chairperson of Assisted Human Reproduction Canada, a federal agency created to protect and promote the health and safety, human dignity and human rights of Canadians who use or are born of assisted human reproduction technologies, and to foster ethical principles in relation to assisted human reproduction and other related matters.
In 2009, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his contributions to the province of Nova Scotia as a former premier, family physician and community leader."
In 2010 he became the Chairman of the Board of the holding company for Northern Pulp mill of Abercrombie, whose board he had joined shortly after his resignation from politics prior to the 2006 provincial election.
In May 2014 he was awarded a Doctor of Civil Law (honoris causa) from University of King's College, Halifax, Nova Scotia for his service to King’s, his community and the province.
October 2014, he was awarded an "Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada."
Also in October 2014, John Hamm was appointed the Honorary Colonel for the 1st Battalion Nova Scotia Highlanders (North) for the next three years.
Atlantic Accord
One of his most notable achievements was negotiating with the federal government to implement the Atlantic Accord, a multi-decade regional development program that had been approved in principle during the late 1980s to prevent provincial government offshore oil and gas royalties from being included in calculations for the federal equalization program. This resulted in an $830 million payment in 2005 from the federal government, which Hamm applied against the principal on the province's long term debt, thereby reducing debt servicing payments by over $50 million annually.
References
1938 births
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian monarchists
Canadian general practitioners
Living people
Members of the Order of Nova Scotia
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from New Glasgow, Nova Scotia
Premiers of Nova Scotia
Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs
University of King's College alumni
21st-century Canadian politicians
Members of the Executive Council of Nova Scotia
Dalhousie University alumni
Physicians from Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia political party leaders | [
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226562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin%20Cup | Tin Cup | Tin Cup is a 1996 American romantic comedy and sports film co-written and directed by Ron Shelton, and starring Kevin Costner and Rene Russo with Cheech Marin and Don Johnson in major supporting roles. The film received generally positive reviews and was a moderate box office success grossing $75.8 million against its $45 million budget. Costner received a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.
Plot
Roy "Tin Cup" McAvoy (Kevin Costner) is a former golf prodigy leading a generally aimless existence. He owns a ramshackle driving range in West Texas, where he drinks and hangs out with his pal Romeo Posar (Cheech Marin) and their friends. One day Dr. Molly Griswold (Rene Russo), a clinical psychologist, arrives looking for a golf lesson. She has been dating David Simms (Don Johnson), a top professional golfer who played with Roy in college. Roy soon becomes attracted to Molly.
The next day David Simms shows up at Roy's trailer ahead of a local benefit tournament. Roy thinks he is being invited to play, but Simms actually wants to hire him as a caddie (since Roy knows the course). During the round, Roy needles Simms about laying up instead of having the nerve to take a 230-yard shot over a water hazard. A bet amongst the other players is made and Simms fires Roy after he makes the long shot.
To get even with Simms, Roy decides to try and qualify for the U.S. Open. He makes a play for Molly who is already his therapist.
In the first qualifying round, with Romeo as his caddie, Roy's game is excellent but his head needs help. Roy insists on playing recklessly and he demands the driver instead of the safe play which is laying up. Roy and Romeo fight and Romeo quits. Amazingly, Roy still manages to advance to the final qualifying round.
Without Romeo, Roy barely succeeds at the sectional qualifying round, earning a spot in the U.S. Open. Romeo returns and helps Roy with some swing problems.
On the first day of the U.S Open, Roy shoots a horrendous 83. Meanwhile, Molly sees Simms' unpleasant side and decides she truly wants to help Roy. With renewed confidence, McAvoy shocks the golf world by making the cut with an impressive score. Roy's third round is also excellent and it moves him into contention.
On the last day of the U.S. Open tournament, Roy is in a three-way battle to win. For the 4th day in a row, Roy takes a shot that repeatedly fails to keep the ball out of the water hazard. On his 12th and final shot, facing disqualification, he reaches the green and amazingly, it goes in the hole. Roy realizes that he has blown a shot at winning the U.S. Open, but Molly re-assures him about how people will always remember his amazing shot.
Back in Texas, Molly tells Roy that he automatically qualified for next year's Open due to his standing. They kiss passionately as the movie ends.
Cast
Kevin Costner as Roy "Tin Cup" McAvoy
Rene Russo as Dr. Molly Griswold
Don Johnson as David Simms
Cheech Marin as Romeo Posar
Rex Linn as Dewey
Linda Hart as Doreen
Dennis Burkley as Earl
Lou Myers as Clint
Richard Lineback as Curt
George Perez as Jose
Mickey Jones as Turk
Michael Milhoan as Boone
Jim Nantz as CBS announcer
Ken Venturi as CBS announcer
Tin Cup was based on a story by Ron Shelton and Tim Norville. It was scripted by Norville and received a rewrite from Shelton. Costner joined the project in June 1995, having previous worked with Shelton on Bull Durham. Filming was due to start on September 15, 1995.
Janine Turner was reportedly the first choice for the role of Molly Griswold, but she turned it down. Michelle Pfeiffer was also approached before Rene Russo was then cast. Pierce Brosnan and Alec Baldwin were considered for the part of David Simms, before Don Johnson was placed in the film. John Leguizamo was offered the character of Romeo Posar, until Cheech Marin stepped in to do the role.
Kevin Costner trained extensively with Gary McCord to learn how to play golf, as stated in the foreword Costner wrote for McCord's book, Golf For Dummies. McCord, helped Costner develop a swing and pre-shot routine, is listed in the end credits as a golf consultant and has a cameo appearance in the film.
The film's climactic scenes take place at a fictional U.S. Open tournament set in North Carolina. Some of the film was shot in Kingwood, Texas, and some was shot at Tubac GC in Tubac, Arizona. The movie's 18th hole is actually the 13th hole on Kingwood's Deerwood course; the lake that guards the front of the green on this beautiful and difficult par-5, actually a par 4 in real life, was built for the movie by the film company.
There are (credited) cameo appearances by pro golfers, including Phil Mickelson, Craig Stadler, John Cook, Johnny Miller, Lee Janzen, Billy Mayfair, Corey Pavin, Fred Couples and Peter Jacobsen—as well as TV golf broadcasters Jim Nantz, Ken Venturi, Gary McCord, Ben Wright, Frank Chirkinian, Lance Barrow, Peter Kostis, Jimmy Roberts, Brian Hammonds and George Michael—all playing themselves.
Many of the golf shots by Roy McAvoy (Kevin Costner) were made by Costner himself.
The scene at the end of the movie where Roy McAvoy hits the shot into the water hazard again and again was based on an actual event. Gary McCord is an actual commentator and pro on the Champions Tour. In a tournament where he had a similar shot to McAvoy's, he needed a birdie to win and went for it. He shot over and over again and finally got it in 16 strokes. In the movie, McAvoy holes out the shot and gets it in 12.
The scene with a Costner golf shot that knocked a pelican off its perch was also a real-life scenario inspired by McCord.
The film included product placement from Taylor Made. Don Johnson's character David Simms uses a Taylor Made golf bag and clubs. Costner also used Taylor Made but the prop department repainted and sanded the clubs to make them look suitably rough.
Other
An annual golf tournament located in Charlotte, NC that benefits the American Cancer Society is named the "Tin Cup Tournament". It is the American Cancer Society's largest single-day golf event in the Carolinas. Play is always on the second Monday of August. The 2004 REMAX World Long Drive Champion, David Mobley, is an annual celebrity guest. Most recently, the location is at Ballantyne Resort Golf Course. A yearly golf outing in Appleton, WI is called the Tin Cup Open and players are only able to play with a 7 iron club, inspired by McAvoy's qualifying meltdown. The outing raises funds for the local Early Intervention Program of Outagamie and Winnebago Counties and is a yearly big draw.
After carding a quadruple bogey and a double bogey on the 17th and 18th holes of the 2013 Players Championship, "Tin Cup" became a nickname for professional golfer Sergio García.
Eddie Pepperell was disqualified from a tournament in 2019 after running out of balls in a moment that was compared to the movie.
Reception
Box office
The movie debuted at No. 1. In its opening weekend the film earned $10.1 million and went on to earn $54 million at the US box office, and a worldwide total of $75.8 million against a budget of $45 million.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 72% based on reviews from 53 critics. The site's consensus states: "Breezy and predictable, Tin Cup is a likeable sports comedy that benefits greatly from Kevin Costner's amiable lead performance." On Metacritic the film has a score of 60 out of 100, based on reviews from 19 critics. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B on scale of A to F.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3 out of 4 and wrote: "Well written. The dialogue is smart and fresh."
Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine wrote: "Amiable and constantly amusing rather than uproarious, this mangy tale of a ne'er-do-well's fitful assault on personal and professional respectability benefits greatly from Kevin Costner's ingratiatingly comic star turn, his most appealing work in years."
Soundtrack
The soundtrack was released through Sony in 1996.
"Little Bit Is Better Than Nada" - The Texas Tornados
"Cool Lookin' Woman" - Jimmie Vaughan
"Crapped Out Again" - Keb' Mo'
"Big Stick" - Bruce Hornsby
"Nobody There But Me" - Bruce Hornsby
"Let Me into Your Heart" - Mary-Chapin Carpenter
"I Wonder" - Chris Isaak
"This Could Take All Night" - Amanda Marshall
"Back to Salome" - Shawn Colvin
"Just One More" - George Jones
"Where Are You Boy" - Patty Loveless
"Every Minute, Every Hour, Every Day" - James House
"Character Flaw" - Joe Ely
"Double Bogey Blues" - Mickey Jones
References
External links
1996 films
1990s romantic comedy-drama films
1990s sports comedy-drama films
American romantic comedy-drama films
English-language films
American sports comedy-drama films
American films
Golf films
Films directed by Ron Shelton
Films set in North Carolina
Films set in Texas
Films shot in Texas
Films shot in Arizona
Warner Bros. films
Regency Enterprises films
Films scored by William Ross
American sports films | [
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226564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene%20Russo | Rene Russo | Rene Marie Russo (born February 17, 1954) is an American actress and model. She began her career as a fashion model in the 1970s, appearing on magazine covers such as Vogue and Cosmopolitan. She made her film debut in the 1989 comedy Major League, and rose to international prominence in a number of thrillers and action films throughout the 1990s, including Lethal Weapon 3 (1992), In the Line of Fire (1993), Outbreak (1995), Get Shorty (1995), Ransom (1996), Lethal Weapon 4 (1998), and The Thomas Crown Affair (1999).
After headlining the family comedy Yours, Mine & Ours (2005), Russo took a five-year break from acting. She returned to the screen as Frigga, the mother of the titular hero, in the superhero film Thor (2011), a role she reprised in Thor: The Dark World (2013) and Avengers: Endgame (2019). In 2014, Russo starred in the acclaimed crime thriller Nightcrawler, for which she won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She has also appeared in The Intern (2015), Just Getting Started (2017), and Velvet Buzzsaw (2019).
Early life and education
Russo was born in 1954 Burbank, California, the daughter of Shirley (née Balocca), a factory worker and barmaid, and Nino Russo, a sculptor and car mechanic who left the family when Russo was two. Her father was of Italian descent, while her mother had Italian, German, and English ancestry. Russo grew up with her mother and her sister, Toni (who was married to lyricist Bernie Taupin between 1979 and 1991), and attended Burroughs High School, where her classmates included director Ron Howard. She was plagued with scoliosis and had to wear a full-torso brace. Her tall height also earned her the nickname "Jolly Green Giant" from her classmates. In a 2019 interview with Financial Times, she indeed described herself as a "geek", and admitted that the bullying she endured during high school made her drop out in the tenth grade. Growing up, Russo did not have any "ambitions", remarking that she "was too busy just trying to survive, along with my sister and my mom —money was tight, my mom worked two jobs". She began taking a variety of part-time jobs to help her family, including working in an eyeglass factory and as a movie theater cashier. She eventually got scouted for modelling and went to New York City, which she described as a "scary place compared to where I grew up".
Career
1970s–1980s
After allegedly being spotted at a 1972 Rolling Stones concert by John Crosby, an agent from International Creative Management, Russo originally began her career as a model. With Crosby's encouragement, Russo applied to, and was signed by, Ford Modeling Agency. She became one of the top models of the 1970s and early 1980s, appearing on magazine covers for Vogue, Mademoiselle, and Cosmopolitan, as well as advertisements for perfume and cosmetics. Vogue in a 2016 article, wrote: "In the '70s, Russo stood for a sexiness that was both accessible and aspirational: She could vamp it up with the best of them, posing for Francesco Scavullo in decadent furs, or swathed in Versace for Richard Avedon, but Russo wasn't your average pinup. The poise she brought to her images made her the first choice for editorial shoots that demanded models with tenacity, whether she was bound for the boardroom in a power suit or posing on a beach with Tony Spinelli".
Demand for her as a model began to wane as she entered her 30s. She did a few more commercials and then turned her back on modeling for a period of time. She studied theater and acting, and began appearing in theater roles at small theaters in Los Angeles and elsewhere in California. At one point, she took acting lessons from veteran actor Allan Rich, whom she credits with introducing her to the craft of acting. Russo made her debut in a television series in 1987, with a supporting role in the short-lived ABC production Sable, based on the comic book, Jon Sable: Freelance by Mike Grell. She made her feature film debut as the girlfriend of a former baseball star in Major League, a comedy written and directed by David S. Ward. The film was a critical success.
1990s
In 1990, Russo appeared in the fantasy comedy film Mr. Destiny, with Jim Belushi, playing the wife in what was an alternate reality of an ordinary guy's life. In 1991, she had her first leading film role in One Good Cop, as the wife of a New York City Police Department detective (played by Michael Keaton). In 1992, Russo achieved breakout success with her role as internal affairs detective Lorna Cole, opposite Mel Gibson and Danny Glover, in the action film Lethal Weapon 3. The film made US$320 million worldwide, becoming the fifth highest-grossing film of 1992 and the highest-grossing film in the Lethal Weapon film series. Her other 1992 film release was the science fiction film Freejack, which despite an overall negative response, earned Russo a nomination for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress.
Throughout the 1990s, Russo took on major roles in a number of commercially and critically successful films. In 1993, she starred with Clint Eastwood in the thriller film In the Line of Fire, directed by Wolfgang Petersen, playing a federal agent involved with the sole active-duty Secret Service agent remaining from the detail guarding John F. Kennedy in Dallas, Texas, at the time of his assassination in 1963. The film made US$176.9 million globally, and received three Academy Awards nominations. In 1995, Petersen cast her as a medical doctor, who uncovers a newly discovered Ebola-like virus which came to the United States from Africa in an infected monkey, in the medical disaster film Outbreak, with Dustin Hoffman. The film grossed over US$189 million worldwide. She starred as a B movie actress, opposite John Travolta, in the crime comedy Get Shorty, directed by Barry Sonnenfeld. Upon its release, Get Shorty opened atop at the North American box office and remained number one for three consecutive weeks.
In 1996, Russo played a clinical psychologist and the love interest of a former golf prodigy with little ambition in the romantic comedy Tin Cup, with Kevin Costner, and reunited with Mel Gibson to play his wife in the crime thriller Ransom, directed by Ron Howard. While Tin Cup was a moderate commercial success, Ransom was the 6th highest-grossing film of 1996, with a worldwide gross of US$309.5 million. In 1997, Russo portrayed exotic animal owner Gertrude Lintz in the little-seen comedy Buddy, and in 1998, reprised her role in Lethal Weapon 4, the final film in the series, which made US$285.4 million. In 1999, she starred as an insurance investigator and the lover of a billionaire, alongside Pierce Brosnan, in the heist film The Thomas Crown Affair directed by John McTiernan. Critic Kenneth Turan, in his review for the film, wrote: "[Her] smart, gritty performance is the best thing about this remake of the stylish caper movie Thomas Crown." The production grossed US$124.3 million worldwide.
2000s
In 2000, Russo obtained the role of villain Natasha Fatale, opposite Robert De Niro and Piper Perabo, in the adventure comedy The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle, directed by Des McAnuff and based on the television cartoon of the same name by Jay Ward. The film received mixed reviews from critics and went largely unnoticed at the box office. For her portrayal, she received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress, and conversely, a Razzie Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actress. She reunited with De Niro to play the producer of a reality police show in the comedy Showtime (2002), also starring Eddie Murphy. Budgeted at US$85 million, the film grossed US$77.7 million.
The comedy Big Trouble, which was based on the novel by Dave Barry and featured her as a devoted mother, was originally scheduled for release on September 21, 2001, and had a strong advertising push. The events of September 11 of that year cast a pall over the movie's comedic smuggling of a nuclear device onto an airplane. Consequently, the film was pushed back until 2002, and the promotion campaign was toned down almost to the point of abandonment. The film came to theaters and left quickly afterwards, without generating much of an impact.
Russo starred in and produced the film Two for the Money (2005), with Al Pacino and Matthew McConaughey, playing the wife of a sports gambling agent. In Yours, Mine & Ours (also 2005), Russo starred with Dennis Quaid, as a widowed handbag designer with ten kids. While Film Journal International felt that the "secret to the film's modest success can be summed up" in Russo and Quaid's performances, Daily Radar wrote that "the able-bodied actors fulfill the slapstick demands of this run-of-the-mill family comedy based on the 1968 movie with Henry Fonda and Lucille Ball". Despite receiving overwhelmingly negative reviews from critics, the film made over US$72 million worldwide and marked her only commercial success in the decade. Following its release, Russo took a five-year hiatus from acting, opting to focus on her health and personal life.
2010s
In 2010, Russo returned to the screen in the superhero film Thor, released in 2011, after being persuaded by director Kenneth Branagh in December 2009, who asked her to portray Frigga, the mother of the titular hero. However, most of her scenes were removed in editing. She received more screen time in Thor: The Dark World (2013). She credited those films, which made more than US$1 billion combined, with introducing her to a new generation of filmgoers. "The funny thing is now I have kids coming up to me, and I'm thinking, 'how do you know my movies?' And they say, 'That's Thor'''s mummy'."
In 2014, Russo appeared as a morning news director, alongside Jake Gyllenhaal, in the crime thriller Nightcrawler, written and directed by her husband Dan Gilroy. The film was met with widespread praise and several critics listed it as one of the best films of 2014. Indiewire asserted: "Russo is an integral part of the narrative and she gives as good as she gets. The role is easily her finest in several years and the rich material uncorks a wealth of inventiveness from the actress. There's not a lot of imaginatively drawn roles for aging women, but Russo sinks her teeth into the role of a coldblooded vampiress protective of her own uncertain hold in the newsroom." Budgeted at US$8.5 million, the film grossed US$50.3 million.
Russo portrayed a groupie and the mother of director G.J. Echternkamp in his independent comedy Frank and Cindy (2015), based on the 2007 documentary of the same name. In 2015, she reunited once again with Robert De Niro, playing an in-house massage therapist and his love interest, in the comedy The Intern, directed by Nancy Meyers. The New York Post and The Washington Post found her to be a highlight in her role, and the film grossed US$194.6 million globally. Russo starred with Morgan Freeman and Tommy Lee Jones in another comedy, Just Getting Started (2017), as the regional director of the luxury resort Villa Capri in Palm Springs, California. Variety felt that the three actors "do little more than embarrass themselves here", as part of an overall negative response.
In Velvet Buzzsaw (2019), Russo worked again with Jake Gyllenhaal and Dan Gilroy, playing a tough art gallery owner haunted by the mysterious nature of a series of paintings by an unknown artist. The film was released by Netflix, to positive reviews. She briefly reprised her role of Frigga in Avengers: Endgame.
Personal life
Russo married screenwriter Dan Gilroy on March 14, 1992. They met while working on the film Freejack (1992). They have one daughter, Rose, who has ventured into modelling, and live in Brentwood, California.
Russo revealed during a 2014 taping of The Queen Latifah Show'' that she has bipolar disorder. While the condition has plagued her since childhood, an emotionally turbulent time prompted her to start taking medication, despite initial apprehension.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
See also
List of people with bipolar disorder
References
External links
1954 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Burbank, California
American female models
American film actresses
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Italian descent
American television actresses
People from Burbank, California
People with bipolar disorder
People from Brentwood, Los Angeles
Christians from California | [
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226565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyn%C4%8Dice%20%28Vra%C5%BEn%C3%A9%29 | Hynčice (Vražné) | Hynčice (, ) is a little Silesian village, administratively part of Vražné municipality, located about 13 km west of Nový Jičín in Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic. According to 2001 census it had 58 houses and population of 232.
The village is best known for being the birthplace of Gregor Mendel while being named Heinzendorf.
References
External links
Vražné at bohemianet
Villages in Nový Jičín District | [
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226568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinzendorf | Heinzendorf | Heinzendorf may refer to:
Places
Hynčice (), municipality in the Okres Náchod, Czech Republic
Jasienica (Heinzendorf, Kreis Teschen), municipality in the Powiat Bielski, Poland
Vítějeves (Heinzendorf bei Politschka), municipality in the Okres Svitavy, Czech Republic
Bagno (Heinzendorf, Kreis Wohlau), urban locality in the municipality Oborniki Śląskie, Powiat Trzebnicki, Poland
Henčov (Heinzendorf bei Iglau), locality of Jihlava, Okres Jihlava, Czech Republic
Hynčice pod Sušinou (Heinzendorf unter der Dürren Koppe), locality of Staré Město pod Sněžníkem, Okres Šumperk, Czech Republic
Hynčice nad Moravou (Heinzendorf an der March), locality of Hanušovice, Okres Šumperk, Czech Republic
Hynčice u Krnova (Heinzendorf bei Olbersdorf), locality of Město Albrechtice, Okres Bruntál, Czech Republic
Hynčice u Vražného (Heinzendorf bei Odrau), locality of Vražné, Okres Nový Jičín, Czech Republic
Jasienica (Heinzendorf, Kreis Münsterberg), urban locality in the municipality Ziębice, Powiat Ząbkowicki, Poland
Skrzynka (Heinzendorf, Kreis Habelschwerdt), urban locality in the municipality Lądek-Zdrój, Powiat Kłodzki
Unikowice (Heinzendorf, Kreis Neiße), urban locality in the municipality Paczków, Powiat nyski, Poland
Witoszyce (Heinzendorf, Kreis Guhrau), urban locality in the municipality Góra, Powiat Górowski, Poland
Wrociszów (Heinzendorf, Kreis Freystadt), urban locality in the municipality Nowa Sól, Powiat Nowosolski, Poland
Jędrzychów (Groß-Heinzendorf), urban locality in the municipality Polkowice, Powiat Polkowicki, Poland
Jędrzychówek (Klein-Heinzendorf), urban locality in the municipality Przemków, Powiat Polkowicki, Poland
Horní Hynčina (Ober Heinzendorf), locality of Pohledy, Okres Svitavy, Czech Republic
Hynčina (Unter Heinzendorf), municipality in the Okres Šumperk, Czech Republic | [
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226573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple%20Plan | Simple Plan | Simple Plan is a Canadian rock band from Montreal, Quebec formed in 1999. The band's lineup consists of Pierre Bouvier (lead vocals and bass), Chuck Comeau (drums), Jeff Stinco (lead guitar), and Sébastien Lefebvre (rhythm guitar, backing vocals), with all four performing with the group since its inception. David Desrosiers (bass and backing vocals) joined the band in early 2000 and departed in July 2020 due to sexual misconduct accusations. The band has released five studio albums: No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (2002), Still Not Getting Any... (2004), Simple Plan (2008), Get Your Heart On! (2011), and Taking One for the Team (2016). The band has also released an EP titled Get Your Heart On – The Second Coming! (2013), in addition to two live albums: Live in Japan 2002 (2003) and MTV Hard Rock Live (2005).
The band performed at the Vans Warped Tour every year from 1999 to 2005, and in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2018. The band also performed at the 2010 Winter Olympics closing ceremony, along with The X Factor Australia. In December 2012, the band performed at Mood Indigo, the college festival of IIT Bombay in Mumbai, India. In 2004, the band participated in the movie New York Minute, starring the Olsen twins, Mary-Kate and Ashley. Simple Plan also performed O Canada at the 2016 NHL Winter Classic. They also performed the theme music for and were featured on an episode of What's New, Scooby-Doo?.
History
1999–2001: Formation and early years
In 1993, lead vocalist Pierre Bouvier and drummer Chuck Comeau were in a band named Reset. In 1998, Comeau left soon after to go to college. In mid 1999, he met with high school friends and guitarists Jeff Stinco and Sébastien Lefebvre who were in separate bands of their own. They combined to create Simple Plan. In late 1999, Bouvier and Comeau reacquainted at a Sugar Ray concert and Bouvier left Reset soon after to join Comeau in the band. Bassist and backing vocalist David Desrosiers replaced Bouvier in Reset, but he too left the band six months later to join Simple Plan. This allowed Bouvier, who had doubled as the band's lead vocalist and bassist, to concentrate on the singing, and Stinco, who had doubled as the band's lead guitarist and backing vocalist, to concentrate on the guitar. In 2001 the band performed at Edgefest II in Toronto.
The origin of the band's name is obscure. Band members have given various responses, including that the band was their "simple plan to avoid working at McDonald's" or other fast food restaurant chains. However, the name may be derived from the 1998 film and novel of the same name.
2002–03: No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls
In 2002, Simple Plan released their debut studio album, No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls, which featured the singles "I'm Just a Kid", "I'd Do Anything", "Addicted", and "Perfect". The band was aiming for a pure pop punk record.
The record was originally released in the United States with 12 tracks, ending with "Perfect". Enhanced and foreign editions came in several different versions with up to two additional tracks in addition to the original 12. Two pop punk singers contributed on vocals:
"I'd Do Anything" included vocals by Mark Hoppus from Blink-182, and "You Don't Mean Anything" included vocals by Joel Madden from Good Charlotte.
The years of 2002 and 2003 were very formative for the band. MTV Networks featured "Addicted" on one of their top performing shows during the spring of 2003 in the United States and internationally; on MTV and MTVu, and was filmed at the University at Buffalo (SUNY Buffalo) in Western New York. Addicted was the theme song for Fraternity Life. While the show was taken off the air the following season the band continued to rise on the billboard charts in the United States and performances continued to be booked and reruns of the show played around the world.
In 2002, the band also performed and recorded the theme song for a rebooted installment of the Scooby-Doo franchise, What's New, Scooby-Doo?. This show used the band's intro throughout its entire run until its conclusion in 2006. It also featured many of the band's songs within episodes of the show, including "I'd Do Anything".
In 2003, the band played as a headliner on the Vans Warped Tour — an appearance memorialized in the comedy slasher film, Punk Rock Holocaust, in which four of the five band members are killed. The band also played short stints on the Warped Tour in 2004 and 2005. That same year (2003) the band opened for Avril Lavigne on her "Try To Shut Me Up" Tour. In addition to several headlining tours, the band has also opened for Green Day and Good Charlotte. The album had sold one million copies in early 2003 then went on to sell over four million copies worldwide, making it the band's best selling album to date.
2004–06: Still Not Getting Any...
In 2004, Simple Plan released its second album, Still Not Getting Any... which was produced by Bob Rock and led to the subsequent singles, "Welcome to My Life", "Shut Up", "Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me?)", "Crazy", and (in some markets) "Perfect World".
According to the album's bonus DVD, the band originally considered other names for it like Get Rich or Die Trying, Enema of the State, and In The Zone before deciding on Still Not Getting Any.... The name stemmed from the band's belief that they were not getting any good reviews, with Bouvier once noting that the band only had one recent good review in Alternative Press. Still Not Getting Any... was a musical departure from the group's previous album: the band retained its style of downbeat lyrics matched to upbeat music, but managed to transcend from the standard pop punk genre. Although many of the tracks on this CD still carried the feeling of teen angst that is probably most noticeable in "I'm Just a Kid" from No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls, the general slant of this album tends toward slightly deeper and more mature lyrical themes, as well as a more mainstream sound that edges away from the pure pop punk style of the group's last album. Some critics have pointed towards the inclusion of "classic" or "mainstream" rock elements, claiming the album "de-emphasizes punk-pop hyperactivity in favor of straightforward, well-crafted modern rock".
In 2005, their cover version of Cheap Trick's "Surrender" was featured in the soundtrack album for the superhero film, Fantastic Four.
Lyrics from "Welcome to My Life" are featured in edition 97 of the xkcd webcomic A Simple Plan.
2006–09: Simple Plan
After nearly a year and a half in support of Still Not Getting Any..., the band ended most touring in February 2006. They were playing only a few shows, taking some time off, and beginning work on the third studio album. Bouvier headed to Miami as on about 21 March 2007 to work with Dave Fortman. The band entered the studio for pre-production in Los Angeles on 29 June. On 15 July the band returned to Montréal to record at Studio Piccolo, the same studio in which the band had recorded Still Not Getting Any.... The band finished recording and headed back to Miami and Los Angeles to mix the album. The final part of making the record was done in New York City, and it was officially completed on 21 October.
When I'm Gone, the first single from Simple Plan, was released on 29 October. This album was produced by both Dave Fortman and Max Martin. On 17 February 2008, the band achieved its highest charting single in the U.K. After the first two albums just missed the UK top 40, "When I'm Gone" gave the band its best chart position in the UK, coming in at number 26.
Simple Plan held an extensive tour schedule in support of the album. After completing an around-the-world promotional tour, they played several holiday shows during December 2007. After they continued promotional tours in January, Simple Plan played a triple bill in Camden Town, London on 27 January 2008, with the first show featuring songs from the band's first CD, the second from the second, and the third from the new release. The band played four U.S. shows in late February, and completed a European tour running until late April. The band played four Japan dates, followed by several European festivals and headlining dates. On 1 July 2008, the band gave a free concert on Québec City's Plains of Abraham, attracting a crowd of 150,000 people to the Canada Day show. After a return to the Far East in late July and early August, the band played a Cross Canada Tour with Faber Drive, Cute is What We Aim For and Metro Station. After dates in Germany, Mexico, and Australia, the band played its second full European tour of the year from 28 October to 29 November, playing in Estonia and Poland for the first time. The band also played in Tel Aviv and Dubai in early December—shows at which the band played as a four-piece, with Desrosiers absent due to a family emergency and Lefebvre on bass.
2010–13: Get Your Heart On!
The band's fourth album Get Your Heart On! was released on 21 June 2011. The album marks Simple Plan's second time since No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls to feature collaborations with other artists, including Weezer's Rivers Cuomo, Marie-Mai, Natasha Bedingfield, K'naan and Alex Gaskarth of All Time Low. In April, "Jet Lag" was released in English and French versions featuring singers Natasha Bedingfield and Marie-Mai respectively. The band was on the roster of Warped Tour 2011 for selected dates in June and July 2011.
In September and October 2011, Simple Plan performed four shows in Australia, on the "Get Your Heart On" tour, with supporting bands Tonight Alive and New Empire. During the Australian tour, Jenna McDougall from Tonight Alive featured in "Jet Lag". We the Kings supported Simple Plan in Europe on a tour in spring 2012. The song "Last One Standing" was featured on the NASCAR The Game: Inside Line soundtrack. Simple Plan also performed live with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra at Montreal Symphony House in Montréal, Quebec, Canada on 20 September 2011, raising over $500,000 for sick children and young people in need.
An EP titled Get Your Heart On – The Second Coming! was released on 3 December. Consequently, Simple Plan uploaded the DVD, directed by Peter John from Epik Films and shot by Peter John for the official Simple Plan YouTube channel, in high quality for free as a gift to the fans.
2014–17: Taking One for the Team
In March 2014, when the band members started recording the first demos for the album, it was announced through My Chemical Romance rhythm guitarist Frank Iero's Instagram that Iero is working with Simple Plan on the next album. This information was later confirmed by Comeau; the band estimated to release the album in the second half of 2015, plus the band discussed the band's future projects. On 30 July 2014, the band formally stated that the music writing for the next album had begun. In December 2014, Simple Plan started to choose which songs would be included on the album. "Saturday", was released on 21 June 2015, although the band stated this song would not be in the album.
In April 2015, Simple Plan performed with up-and-coming Canadian singer Andee at the FIFA Women's World Cup Trophy Tour at MUCH in Toronto.
Simple Plan toured on the 2015 Vans Warped Tour, performing a total of five shows.
On 28 August 2015, the band released "Boom", a song from the upcoming fifth album. On the same day, a music video was released for the song, which contains footage from the 2015 Vans Warped Tour, The Alternative Press Music Awards, and a performance in Montreal at New City Gas; the video contains cameos from members of the bands MxPx, All Time Low, New Found Glory, PVRIS, Pierce the Veil, The Summer Set, Silverstein, Black Veil Brides, Parkway Drive and Issues.
On 18 September 2015, the band released a second song from the fifth studio album, "I Don't Wanna Be Sad," and a third called "I Don't Wanna Go to Bed," featuring rapper Nelly on 16 October 2015.
On 17 October 2015, it was leaked by Pierre Bouvier that there will be a song called "Kiss Me Like Nobody's Watching". On 30 November 2015, the band revealed the title of the album would be Taking One for the Team. The group set the release date for 19 February 2016, along with the album cover and the first tour dates of the Taking One for the Team Tour, with shows scheduled in European countries Also in 2016 the band performed at the 2016 NHL Winter Classic at Gillette Stadium against the Montreal Canadiens and Boston Bruins. They performed O Canada during the pregame and also performed during the second intermission.
"Opinion Overload", the second single from Taking One for the Team was released on 5 February 2016. Simple Plan released their third single "Singing in the Rain" internationally on 12 April. The album was released on 19 February 2016. It was described as a "pure, no-frills, feel-good fun, a start-to-finish crowd-pleaser for fans of that classic pop-punk sound." On 5 December, Simple Plan released "Christmas Everyday", 15 years after their last Christmas song and first single, "My Christmas List". In 2017, the band embarked on a tour called No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (15th Anniversary Tour Edition) in support of the album in question's anniversary, during which they played the entire album front to back during each show.
2017–present: Sixth studio album and Desrosiers' departure
From May 2017 until June 2019, David Desrosiers had been on hiatus from touring with Simple Plan, while he was at home recovering from depression. During that time, a touring musician named Chady Awad had been performing bass with the band as a touring substitute for more than two years, while Bouvier and Lefebvre had divided Desrosiers' vocal parts. This marks the second time Desrosiers has been absent from the band; the first time was in December 2008, when Lefebvre temporarily switched to bass for 2 weeks during live performances.
In September 2017, while interviewed by Purdue University, Jeff Stinco revealed that the band would start working on their new album in early 2018.
On 5 September 2018, Music in Minnesota reported that members of Simple Plan spent a day in Owatonna, Minnesota to appear in scenes of a punk rock musical titled Summertime Dropouts. The feature film was released in the fall of 2019. Simple Plan recorded a song called "Bigger", which was released on the soundtrack of the film on 16 November 2018.
On 8 June 2019, the band reunited with Desrosiers in Cleveland, Ohio, marking his official return to the band.
In October 2019, Simple Plan released a collaboration track with State Champs and We the Kings called "Where I Belong"; the three also conducted a tour together.
On 10 July 2020, it was announced that Desrosiers had parted ways with Simple Plan for the third time after being accused of sexual misconduct on social media. Their touring bassist Chady Awad left the band over sexual allegations five days later.
On July 22, 2021, the band re-recorded the What's New, Scooby-Doo? theme song and made it available for streaming.
On 5 November 2021, the band released "The Antidote", the first single from their upcoming sixth album and the first without Desrosiers on bass.
On February 18, 2022, the band released the single, "Ruin My Life", featuring vocals from Deryck Whibley of Sum 41.
Musical style
Simple Plan's musical style has been described as emo, pop punk, alternative rock, pop rock, punk rock, and power pop. Atlantic Records marketing material has described the band's style as having "classic punk energy and modern pop sonics".
Simple Plan Foundation
The members of Simple Plan created the Simple Plan Foundation, which focuses on teen problems ranging from suicide to poverty to drug addiction. As of 9 December 2005, the Simple Plan Foundation had raised more than $100,000.
A fundraising event was held in September 2009 in Montréal. In October 2008, the band announced a special release on iTunes of the single "Save You", to benefit the Foundation, with a special composite video featuring cancer survivors. The song was inspired by the struggle with cancer of Bouvier's brother Jay.
On 15 March 2011, the Foundation stated it would donate $10,000 in aid after the 2011 earthquake that hit Japan.
In 2012, to mark the band's 10th anniversary, the book Simple Plan: The Official Story was released, which was used as a fundraiser for the Simple Plan Foundation.
Band members
Current members
Pierre Bouvier – lead vocals, additional guitar and percussion (1999–present); bass (1999–2000, 2020–present)
Chuck Comeau – drums, percussion (1999–present);
Jeff Stinco – lead guitar (1999–present);
Sébastien Lefebvre – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1999–present);
Former members
David Desrosiers – bass, backing vocals, additional percussion (2000–2020; hiatus in 2017–2019)
Touring substitutes
Chady Awad – bass (2017–2019, 2020)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (2002)
Still Not Getting Any... (2004)
Simple Plan (2008)
Get Your Heart On! (2011)
Taking One for the Team (2016)
Awards and nominations
Radio Canada/La Presse Awards
2013 Nominated for Arts and Entertainment Award
Dahsyatnya Awards
2013 Nominated for Outstanding Guest Star
CASBY Awards
2002 Won CASBY Award
Juno Awards
2012 Won Allan Waters Humanitarian Award
2009 Nominated for Juno Award
2009 Nominated for Juno Award (for the group itself)
2006 Won Juno Fan Choice Award
2005 Nominated for Juno Award
2005 Nominated for Juno Award
2005 Nominated for Juno Award
Kerrang! Awards
2008 Nominated for Kerrang! Award
MTV Asia Awards
2006 Nominated for Favourite Pop Act
MTV Europe Music Awards
2014 Nominated for MTV Europe Music Award (Best World Stage- WS Monterrey)
MTV Video Music Awards
2004 Nominated for MTV Video Music Award
2003 Nominated for MTV Video Music Award
MuchMusic Video Awards
2012 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award (Best International Video by a Canadian)
2012 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award (UR FAVE VIDEO)
2011 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2009 Won MuchMusic Video Award
2008 Won MuchMusic Video Award
2008 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2008 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2006 Won MuchMusic Video Award
2006 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2006 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2005 Won MuchMusic Video Award
2005 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2005 Nominated for MuchMusic Video Award
2004 Won MuchMusic Video Award
2003 Won MuchMusic Video Award
NRJ Music Awards
2012 Won NRJ Music Award
2007 Nominated for NRJ Music Award
Teen Choice Awards
2008 Nominated for Teen Choice Award
2005 Won Teen Choice Award
ADISQ
2006 Won Artiste québécois s'étant le plus illustré hors Québec
2006 Won Album de l'année – Anglophone
References
External links
Simple Plan official website
Musical groups established in 1999
Emo musical groups
1999 establishments in Quebec
Musical groups from Montreal
Canadian pop punk groups
Canadian punk rock groups
Canadian alternative rock groups
Canadian power pop groups
Atlantic Records artists
Juno Fan Choice Award winners
English-language musical groups from Quebec | [
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226575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Harryhausen | Ray Harryhausen | Raymond Frederick Harryhausen (June 29, 1920 – May 7, 2013) was an American animator and special effects creator who created a form of stop motion model animation known as "Dynamation". His works include the animation for Mighty Joe Young (1949) with his mentor Willis H. O'Brien (for which the latter won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects); his first color film, The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958); and Jason and the Argonauts (1963), which featured a sword fight with seven skeleton warriors. His last film was Clash of the Titans (1981), after which he retired.
In 1960, Harryhausen moved to the United Kingdom and became a dual American-British citizen. He lived in London until his death in 2013. During his life, his innovative style of special effects in films inspired numerous filmmakers. In November 2016 the BFI compiled a list of those present-day filmmakers who claim to have been inspired by Harryhausen, including Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson, Joe Dante, Tim Burton, Nick Park, James Cameron, and Guillermo del Toro. Others influenced by him include George Lucas, John Lasseter, John Landis, Henry Selick, J. J. Abrams, and Wes Anderson.
Early life
Harryhausen was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Martha L. (née Reske) and Frederick W. Harryhausen. Of German descent, the family surname was originally spelled "Herrenhausen".
Life and career
1930s and 1940s
After having seen King Kong (1933) on its initial release for the first of many times, Harryhausen spent his early years experimenting in the production of animated shorts, inspired by the burgeoning science fiction literary genre of the period. The scenes utilising stop-motion animation (or model animation), those featuring creatures on the island or Kong, were the work of pioneer model animator Willis O'Brien. His work in King Kong inspired Harryhausen, and a friend arranged a meeting with O'Brien for him. O'Brien critiqued Harryhausen's early models and urged him to take classes in graphic arts and sculpture to hone his skills. Taking O'Brien's advice, while still at high school, Harryhausen took evening classes in art direction, photography and editing at the newly formed School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California, where he would later serve as a lecturer. Meanwhile, he became friends with an aspiring writer, Ray Bradbury, with similar enthusiasms. Bradbury and Harryhausen joined the Los Angeles chapter of the Science Fiction League (now the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society), Bradbury in 1937, Harryhausen in 1939, where they met Forrest J Ackerman; and the three became lifelong friends.
After studying art and anatomy at Los Angeles City College, Harryhausen secured his first commercial model-animation job, on George Pal's Puppetoons shorts, based on viewing his first formal demo reel of fighting dinosaurs from a project called Evolution of the World, which was never finished.
During World War II, Harryhausen served in the United States Army Special Services Division under Colonel Frank Capra, as a loader, clapper boy, gofer and later camera assistant, whilst working at home animating short films about the use and development of military equipment. During this time, he also worked with composer Dimitri Tiomkin and Ted Geisel ("Dr. Seuss"). Following the war, he salvaged several rolls of discarded 16 mm surplus film from which he made a series of fairy tale-based shorts, which he called his "teething-rings".
In 1947, Harryhausen was hired as an assistant animator (credited as "First technician, Special Effects") on what turned out to be his first major film, Mighty Joe Young (1949).
1950s
The first film with Ray Harryhausen in full charge of technical effects was The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953) which began development under the working title Monster From the Sea. The filmmakers learned that a long-time friend of Harryhausen, writer Ray Bradbury, had sold a short story called "The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms" (later re-titled "The Fog Horn") to The Saturday Evening Post, about a dinosaur drawn to a lone lighthouse by its foghorn. Because the story for Harryhausen's film featured a similar scene, the film studio bought the rights to Bradbury's story to avoid any potential legal problems. Also, the title was changed back to The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms. Under that title, it became Harryhausen's first solo feature film effort, and a major international box-office hit for Warner Brothers.
It was on The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms that Harryhausen first used a technique he created called "Dynamation" that split the background and foreground of pre-shot live action footage into two separate images into which he would animate a model or models, seemingly integrating the live-action with the models. The background would be used as a miniature rear-screen with his models animated in front of it, re-photographed with an animation-capable camera to combine those two elements together, the foreground element matted out to leave a black space. Then the film was rewound, and everything except the foreground element matted out so that the foreground element would now photograph in the previously blacked out area. This created the effect that the animated model was "sandwiched" in between the two live action elements, right into the final live action scene.
In most of Harryhausen's films, model animated characters interact with, and are a part of, the live action world, with the idea that they will cease to call attention to themselves as only "animation." Most of the effects shots in his earliest films were created via Harryhausen's careful frame-by-frame control of the lighting of both the set and the projector. This dramatically reduced much of degradation common in the use of back-projection or the creation of dupe negatives via the use of an optical printer. Harryhausen's use of diffused glass to soften the sharpness of light on the animated elements allowed the matching of the soft background plates far more successfully than Willis O'Brien had achieved in his early films, allowing Harryhausen to match live and miniature elements seamlessly in most of his shots. By developing and executing most of this miniature work himself, Harryhausen saved money, while maintaining full technical control.
A few years later, when Harryhausen began working with color film to make The 7th Voyage of Sinbad, he experimented extensively with color film stocks to overcome the color-balance-shift problems. Ray's producer/partner Charles H. Schneer coined the word Dynamation as a "merchandising term" (modifying it to "SuperDynaMation" and then "Dynarama" for some subsequent films).
Harryhausen was always heavily involved in the pre-production conceptualizing of each film's story, script development, art-direction, design, storyboards, and general tone of his films, as much as any auteur director would have on any other film, which any "director" of Harryhausen's films had to understand and agree to work under. The complexities of the Directors Guild of America's rules prevented Harryhausen from being credited as the director of his films, resulting in the more modest credits he had in most of his films.
Throughout most of his career, Harryhausen's work was a sort of family affair. His father did the machining of the metal armatures (based on his son's designs) that were the skeletons for the models and allowed them to keep their position, while his mother assisted with some miniature costumes. After Harryhausen's father died in 1973, Harryhausen contracted his armature work out to another machinist. An occasional assistant, George Lofgren, a taxidermist, assisted Harryhausen with the creation of furred creatures. Another associate, Willis Cook, built some of Harryhausen's miniature sets. Other than that, Harryhausen worked generally alone to produce almost all of the animation for his films.
The same year that Beast was released, 1953, fledgling film producer Irwin Allen released a live action documentary about life in the oceans titled The Sea Around Us, which won an Oscar for best documentary feature film of that year. Allen's and Harryhausen's paths would cross three years later, on Allen's sequel to this film.
Harryhausen soon met and began a fruitful partnership with producer Charles H. Schneer, who was working with the Sam Katzman B-picture unit of Columbia Pictures. Their first tandem project was It Came from Beneath the Sea (a.k.a. Monster from Beneath the Sea, 1955), about a giant octopus attacking San Francisco. It was a box-office success, quickly followed by Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956), set in Washington D.C. – one of the best of the alien invasion films of the 1950s, and also a box office hit.
In 1954, Irwin Allen had started work on a second feature-length documentary film, this one about animal life on land called The Animal World (completed in 1956). Needing an opening sequence about dinosaurs, Allen hired premier model animator Willis O'Brien to animate the dinosaurs, but then gave him an impossibly short production schedule. O'Brien again hired Harryhausen to help with animation to complete the eight-minute sequence. It was Harryhausen's and O'Brien's first and only professional full-color work. Most viewers agree that the dinosaur sequence of Animal World was the best part of the entire movie (Animal World is available on the DVD release of O'Brien's 1957 film The Black Scorpion).
Harryhausen then returned to Columbia and Charles Schneer to make 20 Million Miles to Earth (1957), about an American spaceship returning from Venus. The spaceship crashes into the sea near Sicily, releasing an on-board alien egg specimen which washes up on shore. The egg soon hatches a creature that, in Earth's atmosphere, rapidly grows to gigantic size and terrifies the citizens of Rome. Harryhausen refined and improved his already-considerable ability at establishing emotional characterizations in the face of his Venusian Ymir model, creating yet another international box office hit.
Schneer was eager to graduate to full-color films. Reluctant at first, Harryhausen managed to develop the systems necessary to maintain proper color balances for his DynaMation process, resulting in his biggest hit of the 1950s, The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958). The top-grossing film of that summer, and one of the top-grossing films of that year, Schneer and Harryhausen signed another deal with Columbia for four more color films.
1960s
After The 3 Worlds of Gulliver (1960) and Mysterious Island (1961), both great artistic and technical successes, and successful at the box office, according to Harryhausen, who stated in the DVD and Blu-ray featurette about the making of Mysterious Island: "Mysterious Island was one of the most successful films that we made and I am glad people are still enjoying it today". And Gulliver "made its profits" as Ray is quoted in Jeff Rovin's bio-book From The Land Beyond Beyond: The Making of the Movie Monsters You've Known and Loved – The Films of Willis O'Brien and Ray Harryhausen. His next film is considered by film historians and fans as Harryhausen's masterwork, Jason and the Argonauts (1963). Among the film's several celebrated animation sequences is an extended fight between three actors and seven living skeletons, a considerable advance on the single-skeleton fight scene in Sinbad. This stop-motion sequence took over four months to complete.
Harryhausen next made First Men in the Moon (1964), his only film made in the 2.35:1 widescreen (a.k.a. "CinemaScope") format, based on the novel by H. G. Wells. Jason and First Men in the Moon were box office disappointments at the time of their original theatrical release. That, plus changes of management at Columbia Pictures, resulted in his contract with Columbia Picture not being renewed. Also, as the 1960s counter-culture came to influence more and more and younger filmmakers, and failing studios struggled to find material that was popular with the new "Boomer-generation" audience, Harryhausen's love of the past, setting his stories in ancient fantasy worlds or previous centuries, kept him from keeping pace with changing tastes in the 1960s. Only a handful of Harryhausen's features have been set in then-present time, and none in the future. As this revolution in the traditional Hollywood film studio system, and the influx of a new generation of film makers sorted itself out, Harryhausen became a free agent.
Harryhausen was then hired by Hammer Films to animate the dinosaurs for One Million Years B.C. (1966). It was a success at the box office, helped in part by the presence of Raquel Welch in her second film. Harryhausen next went on to make another dinosaur film, The Valley of Gwangi with Schneer. The project had been developed for Columbia, who declined. Schneer then made a deal with Warner Brothers instead. It was a personal project to Harryhausen, which he had wanted to do for many years, as it was storyboarded by his original mentor, Willis O'Brien for a 1939 film, Gwangi, that was never completed. Set in Mexico, The Valley of Gwangi is a parallel Kong story—cowboys capture a living Allosaurus and bring him to the nearest Mexican town for exhibition. Sabotage releases the creature, and it wreaks havoc on the town. The film features a roping scene reminiscent of 1949's Mighty Joe Young (which was itself recycled from the old Gwangi storyboards), and a spectacular fire and animation sequence inside a cathedral toward the end of the film.
1970s–1990s
After a few lean years, Harryhausen and Schneer talked Columbia Pictures into reviving the Sinbad character, resulting in The Golden Voyage of Sinbad, often remembered for the sword fight involving a statue of the six-armed Hindu goddess Kali. It was first released in Los Angeles in the Christmas season of 1973, but garnered its main audience in the spring and summer of 1974. It was followed by Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977), which disappointed some fans because of its tongue-in-cheek approach. Both films were, however, box office successes.
Schneer and Harryhausen finally were allowed by MGM to produce a big budget film with name actors and an expanded effects budget. The film started out smaller, but then MGM increased the budget to hire stars such as Laurence Olivier. It became the last feature film to showcase his effects work, Clash of the Titans (1981), for which he was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Special Effects. For this film, he hired protégé model animators Steve Archer and two-time Oscar-nominated Jim Danforth to assist with major animation sequences. Harryhausen fans will readily discern that the armed-and-finned Kraken (a name borrowed from medieval Scandinavian folklore) he invented for Clash of the Titans has similar facial qualities to the Venusian Ymir he created 25 years earlier for 20 Million Miles to Earth.
Perhaps because of his hermetic production style and the fact that he produced half of his films outside of Hollywood (living in London since 1960), reducing his day-to-day kinship with other more traditional, but still influential Hollywood effects artists, none of Harryhausen's films were nominated for a special effects Oscar. Harryhausen himself says the reason was that he worked in Europe, but this oversight by the AMPAS visual-effects committee also occurred throughout the 1950s when Harryhausen lived in Los Angeles.
In spite of the very successful box office returns of Clash of the Titans, more sophisticated computer-assisted technology developed by ILM and others began to eclipse Harryhausen's production techniques, and so MGM and other studios passed on funding his planned sequel, Force of the Trojans, causing Harryhausen and Schneer to retire from active filmmaking.
In the early 1970s, Harryhausen had also concentrated his efforts on authoring a book, Film Fantasy Scrapbook (produced in three editions as his last three films were released) and supervising the restoration and release of (eventually all) his films to VHS, Laserdisc, DVD, and currently Blu-ray. A second book followed, Ray Harryhausen: An Animated Life, written with author and friend Tony Dalton, which details his techniques and history. This was then followed in 2005 by The Art of Ray Harryhausen, featuring sketches and drawings for his many projects, some of them unrealized. In 2008, Harryhausen and Dalton published a history of stop-motion model animation, A Century of Model Animation, and, to celebrate Harryhausen's 90th birthday, the Ray & Diana Harryhausen Foundation published Ray Harryhausen – A Life in Pictures. In 2011, Harryhausen and Dalton's last volume, called Ray Harryhausen's Fantasy Scrapbook, was also published.
Harryhausen continued his lifelong friendship with Ray Bradbury until Bradbury's death in 2012. Another longtime close friend was Famous Monsters of Filmland magazine editor, book writer, and sci-fi collector Forrest J Ackerman, who loaned Harryhausen his photos of King Kong in 1933, right after Harryhausen had seen the film for the first time. Harryhausen also maintained his friendships with his longtime producer, Charles H. Schneer, who lived next door to him in a suburb of London until Schneer moved full-time to the U.S. (a few years later, in early 2009, Schneer died at 88 in Boca Raton, Florida); and with model animation protégé, Jim Danforth, still living in the Los Angeles area.
Harryhausen and Terry Moore appeared in small comedic cameo roles in the 1998 remake of Mighty Joe Young, and he provided the voice of a polar bear cub in the film Elf. He also appears as a bar patron in Beverly Hills Cop III, and as a doctor in the John Landis film Spies Like Us. In 2010, Harryhausen had a brief cameo in Burke & Hare, a British film directed by Landis.
In 1986, Harryhausen formed the Ray & Diana Harryhausen Foundation, a registered charity in the U.K. and U.S. that preserves his collection and promotes the art of stop-motion animation and Harryhausen's contributions to the genre.
2000s–2010s
TidalWave Productions' Ray Harryhausen Signature Series produced authorized comic-book adaptions of some of Harryhausen's unrealized projects from 2007 on.
In 2009, he released self-colorized versions on Blu-Ray video of three of his classic black-and-white Columbia films: 20 Million Miles to Earth, Earth vs. the Flying Saucers, and It Came from Beneath the Sea. He also personally supervised the colorization of three films, two of them in partial tribute to their producer Merian C. Cooper, who had supervised King Kong, the film that inspired him as a young man: The Most Dangerous Game (1932), She (1935), and the non-Cooper film Things to Come (1936).
Death and legacy
Harryhausen married Diana Livingstone Bruce in October, 1962. The couple had a daughter, Vanessa. The family announced Harryhausen's death on Twitter and Facebook on May 7, 2013. Diana survived her husband by five months.
The Daily Mirror quoted Harryhausen's website, saying his "influence on today's film makers was enormous, with luminaries; Steven Spielberg, James Cameron, Peter Jackson, George Lucas, John Landis and the U.K.'s own Nick Park have cited Harryhausen as being the man whose work inspired their own creations." Harryhausen drew a distinction between films that combine special effects animation with live action and films that are completely animated, such those of Nick Park, Henry Selick, Ivo Caprino, Ladislav Starevich (and his own fairy tale shorts), which he saw as pure "puppet films", and which are more accurately (and traditionally) called "puppet animation".
The BBC quoted Peter Lord of Aardman Animations, who wrote on Twitter that Harryhausen was "a one-man industry and a one-man genre". The BBC also quoted Shaun of the Dead director Edgar Wright: "I loved every single frame of Ray Harryhausen's work ... He was the man who made me believe in monsters." In a full statement released by the family, George Lucas said, "Without Ray Harryhausen, there would likely have been no Star Wars". Terry Gilliam said, "What we do now digitally with computers, Ray did digitally long before but without computers. Only with his digits." James Cameron said, "I think all of us who are practitioners in the arts of science fiction and fantasy movies now all feel that we're standing on the shoulders of a giant. If not for Ray's contribution to the collective dreamscape, we wouldn't be who we are."
John Walsh, author of Harryhausen: The Lost Movies, calls Harryhausen "the most influential stop-motion animator and special-effects wizard in cinema history."
Foundation
Harryhausen left his collection, which includes all of his film-related artifacts, to the Ray & Diana Harryhausen Foundation, which he set up in 1986 to look after his extensive collection, to protect his name and to further the art of model stop-motion animation. The trustees are his daughter Vanessa Harryhausen, Simon Mackintosh, actress Caroline Munro, who appeared in The Golden Voyage of Sinbad and film maker John Walsh, , who first met Harryhausen in 1988 as a student at the London Film School and made the documentary Ray Harryhausen: Movement Into Life, narrated by Doctor Who actor Tom Baker. The foundation's website charts progress on the restoration of the collection and plans for Harryhausen's legacy.
In 2013, the RH foundation and Arrow Films released a feature-length biography of Harryhausen and his films, Ray Harryhausen – Special Effects Titan, on Blu-Ray. Featuring photos, artifacts, and film clips culled directly from Harryhausen's estate and never before seen by the public, the film was initially released only in the U.K., but was released on Blu-Ray in the U.S. in 2016.
In February 2016, John Walsh and Collections Manager Connor Heaney began a podcast about all things Harryhausen, from the films to the various composers involved on the productions. Occasionally the podcast features interviews with fans, as well as insights into Harryhausen's models from Foundation model conservator Alan Friswell. The podcast has featured Mark Gatiss, John Cairney, Caroline Munro, and Vanessa Harryhausen.
Some of Harryhausen's models and artworks were showcased as part of the Barbican Centre's 'Into the Unknown' exhibition from June 3 to September 1, 2017. To mark his 97th birthday on July 29, 2017, the Barbican posted a guest blog by Heaney, highlighting Harryhausen's lasting influence on science fiction.
On June 5, 2017, it was announced that a major exhibition of Harryhausen's models, "Ray Harryhausen—Mythical Menagerie", would take place at the Science Museum Oklahoma. The exhibition opened on July 29. USA Today called it "one of best museum exhibits in the U.S. this fall". In 2018 the exhibition was nominated for a Rondo Hatton Award for "Best Live Event".
An exhibition at Tate Britain from June 26 to November 19, 2017 features work from the Harryhausen collection and short film made by John Walsh on the restoration of a painting owned by Harryhausen which influenced his work.
In September 2018, Titan Books published Harryhausen – The Movie Posters by author Richard Holliss, focusing on the various movie posters associated with Harryhausen's films from across the globe.
In September 2019, Foundation trustee, Titan Books published a new book by Walsh, Harryhausen: The Lost Movies which delves into the hidden treasures of Ray's unrealised film projects. On the 15th September, a book launch and signing event was held at the Forbidden Planet London Megastore, and was followed up with a 4K screening of The 7th Voyage of Sinbad. In a podcast interview with BritFlicks, Walsh discussed his plans to further develop lost Ray Harryhausen film projects, which includes the follow up to 1981's "Clash of the Titans", entitled "Force of the Trojans".
An exhibition opened showing items from the Harryhausen collection at the Valence House Museum on March 14, 2018. The exhibition was inspired by local man Alan Friswell, who worked with Ray Harryhausen on the creatures' restorations. It was funded by Barking and Dagenham London Borough Council.
Centenary
In July 2018, it was announced that the largest ever exhibition of Ray Harryhausen's models and artwork would take place at the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in Edinburgh, to mark the centenary of his birth. The exhibition is running for a year, from October 2020 until September 2021. The exhibition was the subject of a BBC iPlayer documentary entitled 'Culture in Quarantine', which featured interviews with Vanessa Harryhausen, Caroline Munro and Martine Beswick, as well as footage from Ray Harryhausen: Movement into Life. Many of Harryhausen's original latex models have been repaired for this exhibition: in an interview with the Visual Effects Society, Walsh said that ‘We’re restoring pieces as we go, trying to get things back as close to how people remember them as possible'.
It was also announced that Vanessa Harryhausen was writing a book to mark her father's centenary, to accompany the exhibition in Edinburgh. Also entitled Ray Harryhausen: Titan of Cinema, the book looks back on his personal and professional life through Vanessa's 100 favourite objects from his collection, and contains contributions from John Landis, Rick Baker, Phil Tippett, Jim Danforth and others.
The Gordon E. Sawyer Academy Award
During the 1980s and early 1990s, Harryhausen's fans who had graduated into the professional film industry started lobbying The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to acknowledge Harryhausen's contribution to the film industry, and so, in 1992 the Academy finally awarded him the Gordon E. Sawyer Award (effectively a lifetime achievement "Oscar") for "technological contributions [which] have brought credit to the industry", with actor Tom Hanks as the Master of Ceremonies, and Ray Bradbury (a friend from when they were both just out of high school) presenting the award to him. After the presentation to Harryhausen, actor Tom Hanks told the audience, "Some people say Casablanca or Citizen Kane...I say Jason and the Argonauts is the greatest film ever made!"
Other awards and honors
The work of Ray Harryhausen was celebrated in an exhibition at London's Museum of the Moving Image (MOMI) in 1990.
In 2010 the main screening theater at Sony Pictures Digital Productions was named in honor of Harryhausen.
The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Harryhausen in 2005, the first year it honored non-literary contributors. He received the annual British Fantasy Society Wagner Award in 2008 for his lifetime contribution to the genre.
On June 10, 2003, Harryhausen was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
In 2005, Harryhausen received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Amsterdam Fantastic Film Festival.
Ray received an honorary BAFTA in June 2010 at a ceremony at the British Film Institute. His mask award was presented to him by filmmaker Peter Jackson.
In 2011, Harryhausen was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Visual Effects Society. Harryhausen was later inducted into the Visual Effects Society Hall of Fame in 2018
Preservation
The Academy Film Archive has preserved a number of Ray Harryhausen's films, including Guadalcanal, How to Bridge a Gorge, and The Story of Hansel and Gretel.
In popular culture
Fan and filmmaker tributes to Harryhausen abound in many forms.
In the video game Killer Instinct, three characters are Harryhausen-inspired, specifically Spinal, Eyedol, and Gargos.
The Mythos Games/Virgin Interactive Entertainment computer game Magic and Mayhem (1999) features over 25 stop-motion mythological creatures that were inspired by Harryhausen's work. Constructed by special effects expert and stop-motion animator Alan Friswell, the various characters include a dragon, a centaur, a griffin and a fighting skeleton. For the griffin's wing animation, Friswell studied the griffin from The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1974). Friswell subsequently worked for the Ray and Diana Harryhausen Foundation, restoring many of the original animation models used in Harryhausen's films. Friswell still holds the position of official restorer for the Foundation.
The 1992 comedy-horror film Army of Darkness features the titular army resembling the army of skeletons from Jason and the Argonauts.
In the 2001 Disney/Pixar animated film Monsters, Inc. pays homage to Harryhausen in a scene where James P. "Sulley" Sullivan, Mike Wazowski, Boo, Celia Mae and other monsters visit a Japanese and sushi restaurant named Harryhausen's in Monstropolis.
Tim Burton considers his satiric science fiction movie Mars Attacks! (1996) to be a tribute to Harryhausen, especially in a scene in which one of the hostile Martians' flying saucers chops down the Washington Monument by crashing into it, just as Harryhausen had done in his movie Earth vs. the Flying Saucers in 1956.
In 2007, fantasy comic book author/illustrator Stephen D. Sullivan dedicated his novel Warrior's Bones to Harryhausen and comic book creator Stan Lee. "For stoking the fires of my imagination." In the book, which is part of the Dragonlance: The New Adventures series, the heroine must battle a rampaging clockwork giant.
The Gravity Falls episode, "Little Gift Shop of Horrors" (specifically the "Clay Day" segment), has several references to Ray Harryhausen and his work.
In the 2005 film Corpse Bride, while Victor is at Victoria's house, he plays the piano, which is labelled as a "Harryhausen".
The 2007 song Worried About Ray, by London pop rock band The Hoosiers, is inspired by and is about Harryhausen.
A short clay-animation film, "Martian Peen Worm" (here abridged from a much longer title) made in the 1970s in Texas by Ivan Stang of Church of the SubGenius fame, refers to the worm at one stage of its growth-development as a "Nesuahyrrah" (Harryhausen spelled backwards).
Another 17-minute short film made in 2005, "Southwestern Orange County vs. the Flying Saucers", uses identical saucer models to Harryhausen's similarly titled 1956 alien invasion movie.
In The Venture Bros. Season 4 Episode 5 "The Revenge Society", Red Mantle sarcastically compares Phantom Limb to Ray Harryhausen. Harryhausen is also mentioned in Season 5 Episode 2 "Spanikopita!" by Billy Quizboy's nemesis, Augustus St. Cloud, who shows off the movie prop Bubo, from Clash of the Titans, stating "Harryhausen's a friend."
Harryhausen was the subject of the song Monster, the title track of former Stranglers singer Hugh Cornwell's 2018 solo album.
In March 1983, Harryhausen participated in a special one-day event at Mann's Chinese Theater celebrating the 50th anniversary of premier screening of the 1933 King Kong in the same theater. Visual effects technicians from several film-effects facilities recreated the life-sized bust of Kong as it appeared in the theater's outer lobby area 50 years earlier. The August 1983 issue of American Cinematographer features three articles about the event.
Filmography
Feature films and creatures animated
Mighty Joe Young (1949, First technician)
Mighty Joe Young
The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953, Visual effects)
Rhedosaurus
It Came from Beneath the Sea (1955, Visual effects)
It (Giant octopus)
The Animal World (1956, Effects technician, documentary)
Brontosaurus
Allosaurus
Brontosaurus hatchling
Stegosaurus
Ceratosaurus
Triceratops
Tyrannosaurus
Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956, Special photographic/animation effects)
Flying saucers
20 Million Miles to Earth (1957, Visual effects)
Spaceship
Ymir
Elephant
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958, Associate producer, visual effects)
Cyclops
Serpent woman
Roc hatchling
Roc
Skeleton
Dragon
The 3 Worlds of Gulliver (1960, Visual effects)
Squirrel
Crocodile
Mysterious Island (1961, Special visual effects)
Crab
Phororhacos
Cephalopod
Bee
Jason and the Argonauts (1963, Associate producer, visual effects)
Talos
Harpies
Hydra
Skeletons
First Men in the Moon (1964, Associate producer, visual effects)
Moonship
Space Sphere
Moon Cow
Kate Calendar's skeleton
Selenite
Grand Lunar
One Million Years B.C. (1966, Special visual effects)
Brontosaurus
Archelon
Allosaurus
Triceratops
Ceratosaurus
Pterodactyl
Rhamphorhynchus
Pterodactyl hatchlings
The Valley of Gwangi (1969, Associate producer, visual effects)
Horse
Eohippus
Pteranodon
Ornithomimus
Gwangi (Allosaurus/Tyrannosaurus)
Styracosaurus
Elephant
The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973, Producer, visual effects)
Homonicus
Figurehead
Kali
Centaur
Griffin
Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977, Producer, visual effects)
Ghouls
Baboon
Minoton
Hornet
Walrus
Troglodyte
Guardian of the Shrine
Clash of the Titans (1981, Producer, visual effects)
Vulture
Pegasus
Calibos
Bubo (Mechanical Horned owl)
Dioskilos
Medusa
Scorpions
Kraken
Short films
How to Bridge a Gorge (also known as How to Build a Bridge) (1942) (producer)
Tulips Shall Grow (1942) (chief animator) – part of George Pal's Puppetoons
Guadalcanal (1943) (director, 10 minutes)
Mother Goose Stories (1946) (producer) (silent with text)
The Story of Little Red Riding Hood (1949) (producer, animator)
The Story of Rapunzel (1951) (producer)
The Story of Hansel and Gretel (1951) (producer)
The Story of King Midas (1953) (producer)
The Story of The Tortoise & the Hare (2002) (director, co-producer, animator) (production begun in 1953)
Interviews and acting
20 Million Miles to Earth (1957) – Man Feeding Elephant (uncredited)
The Fantasy Film World of Ray Harryhausen (1983) – interview (reissued as Aliens, Dragons, Monsters & Me in 1986 and 1990)
Spies Like Us (1985) – Dr. Marston
The Fantasy Film Worlds of George Pal (1985) – interview
Ray Harryhausen: Movement Into Life (1989) – interview made by Ray Harryhausen Foundation Trustee John Walsh
Beverly Hills Cop III (1994) – Bar Patron #2
The Harryhausen Chronicles (1997) – interview
Mighty Joe Young (1998) – Gentleman at Party
Elf (2003) – Polar Bear Cub (voice)
Ray Harryhausen: Special Effects Titan (2011) – interview
Trail of the Screaming Forehead (2007) – himself – presenter
The Boneyard Collection (2008) – himself (segment "Her Morbid Desires")
Burke & Hare (2010) – Distinguished Doctor (final film role)
MENTALLUSIONS: Radical Eclectic Films of Benjamin Meade (2012) – himself
Unrealized projects
The Jupiter Project (a.k.a. Jupiterian) (1937): A short experimental film by Ray when he was seventeen, the story was about Flash Gordon–like adventure in which a spaceship lands on Jupiter and encounters a multi-armed creature
Evolution of the World (a.k.a. Evolution) (1938): Planned as a short film exploring the lifespan of the dinosaurs and their eventual extinction, Ray stopped when he saw the Disney film, Fantasia (1940) had a similar sequence. Only artwork and a twenty minute of color film made by Ray featuring an Allosaurus, a Brontosaurus, a Saber-toothed tiger, a Stegosaurus, a Triceratops, and a Woolly Mammoth were made.
Atlantis (1940):
Daphis and Chloe (1941)
Dante’s Inferno (1941)
Dinosaur Graveyard (1942): Only a handwritten pencil outline for this proposed film exists for this film. The plot would have involved the discovery of a dinosaur in a tunnel between Eastern Island and Peru.
R.U.R. Rossum’s Universal Robots (1945):
The Satyr (1946): A circus owner and a millionaire hear of a mythical underworld connected to Egyptian and Mexican pyramids and the promise of untapped oil deposits. They discover a griffin, a cyclops, a mermaid, a sphinx, Medusa, and a giant satyr, who controlled the underworld. They capture the satyr but it escapes and returns back tot he underworld.
The Mother Goose Stories (1945-1953): Ray animated shorts about fairy tales, nursery rhymes, and myths. He collected them all together under the title The Mother Goose Stories, which he distributed to schools with great success. Such episodes ranged from, Little Red Riding Hood, Rapunzel, and Hansel and Gretel. Potential episodes Ray wanted to do included Daniel in the lions' den, Hickory Dickory Dock, Jack Sprat, Mary Had a Little Lamb, The Night Before Christmas, Simple Simon, Wee Willie Winkie, Frog Prince, David and Goliath, Little Googie, Aesop's Fables, Beauty and the Beast, Rumpelstiltskin, Sleeping Beauty, and The Three Bears. However, none of these tales were made. One shelved short film project, The Tortoise and the Hare (1953), was resumed later and completed in 2002 by Harryhausen, in collaboration with animators Seamus Walsh and Mark Caballero (who had offered Harryhausen, long-retired since 1981, their services to help him finish the film).
The Fall of the House of Usher (1948): Based on the 1839 short story by Edgar Allan Poe, Ray wanted to do what he called an outrageous story, but it was never made.
War of the Worlds (1949): Based on the H.G. Wells novel of the same name, the plot involves Victorian England being invaded by Martians. In later drafts, the Martians invade earth in present day America. This would later on be made into a movie by Ray's friend George Pal in 1953.
Baron Munchausen (1950): Test footage was shot for the film, but it never made it to the silver screen.
The Visitation (1950) (A.K.A. The Thing from Beyond):
Lost City (1950): The basis is similar to Ray's Satyr (1946), but very little material remains of the project. The plot involved the discovery of a centaur statue and inscriptions leading to an underground kingdom of centaurs. The explorers encounter many strange creatures, such as a cyclops.
Fountain of Youth (1950): A millionaire has his own private museum. He abducts the hero of the story to aid him in finding the Fountain of Youth. Ray would incorporate idea's from this story in The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973) and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977).
Monster Story (1951): Only a typed two-page synopsis exists for this film. In the Rockies, a group of holidaymakers come across a professor with a new weapon called A-2, which is able to mutate animals at a molecular level, creating monsters. They find a valley full of his experiments, such as a giant ant, a giant spider, dinosaurs, and a Neanderthal man.
The Elementals (1952): Harryhausen wrote the original outline story about bat creatures that nest in the Eiffel Tower and terrorize Paris, France; he sold the idea for development to Jack Dietz in 1953, but the project, after several scripts—including one by Ray Bradbury—languished. Test footage, featuring Ray as a helpless victim was filmed.
Worm Men (1953): Only three brief pages of this idea were drafted. An American geophysicist boards a plane to do some detailed arial mapping and sees a spot in the desert reflecting in the bright sunlight. One closer investigation, he discovers a vast metal structure buried in the desert sands. The 'worm men' themselves were considered as possible aliens in Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956).
Ugala (1953): An alternate take on The Lost World (1925), the premise included giant men and giant spiders, as well as dinosaurs, discovered by scientists who fly into a valley in Mexico by helicopter.
The Time Machine (1954): Like War of the Worlds, Ray wanted to make his own version of this H. G. Wells story. In 1960, George Pal made his own version of the film.
Terror from Another World (1955): Only a three-page treatment written by Ray exists of this story. The coastguard find a man and a woman adrift on the sea for several days. Both are unconscious and amongst their belongings is a dairy detailing the discovery of a flying saucer in the ocean. The coastguard crew finds the saucer and brings it on board. The alien insides escapes and attacks them. Some of the crew along with the two passengers escape and are rescued.
Tarzan and the Ant Men (1960): Interested in the books by Edgar Rice Burroughs, the story involved Tarzan entering a country of Miniuni, populated by the Minunians, who are four times smaller than Tarzan. The project was dropped due to difficulties in obtaining rights to the franchise
Food of the Gods (1961): Based on the 1904 novel by H.G. Wells, the story involved scientists creating a food that accelerates the growth of animals and children, turning them into giants when they become adults. Originally developed as a project by Willis O'Brien in 1934.
Skin and Bones (1963): Based on the novel by Thorne Smith, it is a comedic tale about a photographer whose experiments with chemicals lead him to discover a form of invisibility, except for his skeleton.
Gilliver's Travels TV show (1963): After the success of The 3 Worlds of Gulliver (1960), Charles H. Schneer thought the episodic nature of the novel would make an ideal television series. But the idea was never picked up for syndication.
Breakout of the Loch Ness Monster (1963): Little is known about this project other then a script outline.
The Prince of Balsora (1965): An Arabian Nights type of adventure summited by Jan Read when asked by Ray and Charles H. Schneer.
King Kong (1966, 1971): Hammer films attempted twice to remake King Kong , but due to RKO's strict no remakes policy for its films with other studio's.
The Deluge (1967): A proposed Hammer Films remake of the 1933 film.
King of the Geniis (1969): Intended to bring two of Ray's most successful brands, Sinbad and dinosaurs, to he screen. Was dropped after the poor reception of The Valley of Gwangi (1969). Some of the ideas went into what would become The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973).
Conan (1969)
Sinbad and the King of Baba Roo (1969): Only a four-page treatment exists for this Sinbad adventure. Sinbad meets King Baba Roo, the Sultan of Kor, who looks fifty but is in fact 150 years old. He tells Sinbad about the Fountain of Youth on the island of Lemuria. The Sultan must drink the water once a year, but the vessels in which he brought the water back have nearly all been exhausted. he warns Sinbad that the island is populated by many dangerous and exotic creatures. Much of the story would eventually become The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973) and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977).
The Last of the Labyrinthodons (1969): Based off of a film idea by Willis O'Brien in 1954, the plot involved a group of explorers who discover a lost whale graveyard in an undersea land.
When the Earth Cracked Open (1971): A Hammer film concerning a tribe of civilized cavemen, the River People, being attacked by the Five Warriors, who kidnap their women. The River People have to endure their way through a swamp full of giant animals like a giant toad, giant soldier ants, and a tentacled creature. Dropped due to its similarities to One Million Years B.C. (1966).
Beowulf (1971)
Sinbad Goes to Mars (a.k.a. Sinbad on Mars and Sinbad's Voyage to Mars) (1978): The plot follows the Caliph of Alexandria's daughter, who is kidnapped near a pyramid. Sinbad is sent to rescue her, and within the pyramid he discovers that the princess has been spirited away to Mars. When Sinbad arrives there, he sees a planet overrun by giant moths and ruled by an evil queen obsessed with her search for the secret to immortality.
Sinbad and the Seven Wonders of the World (1981): The story would see Sinbad's fiance Princess Scherezade kidnapped, with her captors demanding the seven pillars of wisdom. When combined, the pillars would form a pyramid that revels the secret of eternal life. The journey would take Sinbad to the Pharos lighthouse of Alexandria, the pyramids of Ginza, Olympia and the Games, a fight with a dragon in Rhodes, the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the Warrior of Ashes with its skeletal horses, Ephesus, where he battles the Amazons and their goddess Hecate, and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, where he discovers the Book of the Dead. Dropped due to being considered too ambitious.
People of the Mist (1982): Based on an H. Rider Haggard story; the story begins in Victorian England, and follows two brothers as they travel from England to Africa seeking fortune. One Brother dies saving a woman from a lion, but the older brother discovers the Land of the Mist on a mountainous plateau populated by primitives and prehistoric creatures. There, he finds the secret of the mist: aliens controlling the very existence of evolution and mankind. Planned for British director Michael Winner; but dropped by Harryhausen due to Winner's insistence on radically changing the story
Force of the Trojans (1984): A version, with mythological creatures, of Aeneas and his journey after the fall of Troy; a sequel to Clash of the Titans The Story of Odysseus (1996–1998): Harryhausen was consultant on story development and character design for Carrington & Cosgrove Hall Productions
The 8th Voyage of Sinbad: Return to Colossa (2007):
In an interview with Dalya Alberge for The Observer, John Walsh said “he was taken aback by the scale of unrealized artwork that reveals new worlds, epic tales and fearsome creatures."
Turned down projects
Moby Dick (1956)
The Giant Claw (1957)
Night of the Demon (1957)
King Kong vs. Frankenstein (1958-1961)
John Carter of Mars (1959)
When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970)
The Land that Time Forgot (1974)
Ilya Muromets (1974)
The Hobbit (1974)
The Empire Strikes Back (1981)
X-Men (1984)
Dune (1984)
The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse (2005):
Notes
References
Sources
Starlog December 1977 no. 10, "Ray Harryhausen" by Richard Meyers
Starlog November 1985 no. 100, "Ray Harryhausen: The Man Who Works Miracles" by Steve Swires
Starlog February 1988 no. 127, " Ray Harryhausen: Farewell to Fantasy Films" by Steve Swires
Starlog Spectacular 1990 no. 1, "A Kind of Magic" interview by Stan Nicholls
Movie Star (Germany) February 1997 no. 25/26, "Ray Harryhausen Trickfilmzauberer" by Uwe Sommerlad
L'Eepress (France) December 2000 no. 2580, "Les effets speciaux doivent donner a rever. Rencontre avec Ray Harryhausen, maitre du genre dont "Jason et les Argonauts" ressort" by Arnaud Malherle
Filmfax Magazine March 2001 no. 83, "The Many Worlds of Ray Harryhausen" by Michael Stein
Pranke (Germany) March 2005 Vol. no. 27, "Interview with Ray Harryhausen" by Martin Stadler
Onion March 21, 2006, "Ray Harryhausen" interview by Christopher Bahn
Monster Bash Magazine December 2007 no. 7, "20 Million Miles to Harryhausen" by Lawrence Fultz Jr.
Van Helsing's Journal April, 2011 no. 12, "A Conversation with Harryhausen" by Lawrence Fultz Jr.
Further reading
Film Fantasy Scrapbook by Ray Harryhausen (1972)
From the Land Beyond Beyond: The Making of the Movie Monsters You've Known and Loved – The Films of Willis O' Brien and Ray Harryhausen by Jeff Rovin (1977)
Ray Harryhausen: An Animated Life by Ray Harryhausen and Tony Dalton, foreword by Ray Bradbury (2003)
The Dinosaur Films of Ray Harryhausen by Roy P. Webber, forewords by Jim Aupperle and Bill Maylone (2004)
The Art of Ray Harryhausen by Ray Harryhausen and Tony Dalton, foreword by Peter Jackson (2005)
A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman by Ray Harryhausen and Tony Dalton (2008)
Ray Harryhausen: A Life in Pictures by Tony Dalton, foreword by George Lucas, final word by Ray Bradbury (2010)
Ray Harryhausen's Fantasy Scrapbook by Ray Harryhausen and Tony Dalton, foreword by John Landis (2011)
Ray Harryhausen: Master of the Majicks by Mike Hankin, an exhaustive limited edition three-volume set of books showcasing Harryhausen and his films (the release of Volume 3 is currently pending)
Harryhausen: The Movie Posters by Richard Hollis (2018)
Harryhausen: The Lost Movies'' by John Walsh (2019)
External links
Original website (archived)
2003 interview at Netribution (archived)
2004 interview at Tail Slate (archived)
Unrealized War of the Worlds project (archived)
2011 exhibition at Luis Seoane Foundation in Spain
2008 interview at Edinburgh International Film Festival
1920 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
Animators from California
Film producers from California
American people of German descent
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
Artists from Los Angeles
Inkpot Award winners
Los Angeles City College alumni
Recipients of the Gordon E. Sawyer Award
Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees
Special effects people
Stop motion animators
USC School of Cinematic Arts alumni
USC School of Cinematic Arts faculty
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers | [
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226577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin%20Institute | Franklin Institute | The Franklin Institute is a science museum and the center of science education and research in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is named after the American scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin, and houses the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial. Founded in 1824, the Franklin Institute is one of the oldest centers of science education and development in the United States.
History
On February 5, 1824, Samuel Vaughan Merrick and William H. Keating founded the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts.
"With a view further to develop the resources of the union, increase the national independence, call forth the ingenuity and industry of the people, and thereby increase the comforts of the community at large." (Franklin Institute, opening day 1824, The Literary chronicle for the Year 1824, p. 524)
Begun in 1825, the institute was an important force in the professionalization of American science and technology through the nineteenth century, beginning with early investigations into steam engines and water power. In addition to conducting scientific inquiry it fostered research and education by running schools, publishing the influential Journal of The Franklin Institute, sponsoring exhibitions, and recognizing scientific advancement and invention with medals and awards.
In the late twentieth century the institute's research roles gave way to educating the general public through its museum. The Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, founded in 1924 to conduct research in the physical sciences, now is part of the University of Delaware and named Bartol Research Institute. The Franklin Institute Laboratories for Research and Development operated from the Second World War into the 1980s.
Many scientists have demonstrated groundbreaking new technology at the Franklin Institute. From September 2 to October 11, 1884, it hosted the International Electrical Exhibition of 1884, the first great electrical exposition in the United States. The world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system was later given by Philo Taylor Farnsworth on August 25, 1934.
The first female member, Elizabeth Skinner, was elected to membership in 1833. The Franklin Institute was integrated in 1870, when Philadelphia teacher and activist Octavius Catto was admitted as a member.
The institute's original building at 15 South 7th Street, later the home of the (now-defunct) Atwater Kent Museum, eventually proved too small for the institute's research, educational programs, and library. The Institute moved into its current home on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, near the intersection with 20th Street, in 1934. The new facility was intended from the start to educate visitors through hand-on interactions with exhibits: "Visitors to this museum would be encouraged to touch, handle, and operate the exhibits in order to
learn how things work." Funds to build the new Institute and Franklin Memorial came from the Poor Richard Club, the City Board of Trust, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, Inc., and the Franklin Institute. John T. Windrim's original design was a completely square building surrounding the Benjamin Franklin Statue, which had yet to be built. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, Inc. raised $5 million between December 1929 and June 1930. Only two of the four wings envisioned by Windrim were built; these face the Parkway and share design elements with other cultural and civic structures around Logan Circle.
On March 31, 1940, press agent William Castellini issued a press release stating that the world would end the next day. The story was picked up by KYW, which reported, "Your worst fears that the world will end are confirmed by astronomers of Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. Scientists predict that the world will end at 3 p.m. Eastern Standard Time tomorrow. This is no April Fool joke. Confirmation can be obtained from Wagner Schlesinger, director of the Fels Planetarium of this city." This caused a panic in the city which only subsided when the Franklin Institute assured people it had made no such prediction. Castellini was dismissed shortly thereafter.
On December 21, 2017, during a party hosted by the museum, a partygoer with his companions slipped into a closed-off exhibit of ten terracotta warriors on loan from China. After his companions left, the partygoer broke off and stole a thumb from one of the warriors. Law enforcement agents later recovered the stolen thumb. The vandalized cavalryman is valued at US$4.5 million, and is considered a "priceless part of China's cultural heritage". The vandalism stoked outrage in Chinese media such as Xinhua. The Franklin Institute blamed its external security contractor, and stated it has reviewed its security measures and procedures to prevent such situations from recurring. The defendant was charged both with theft, and with concealment of an item of cultural heritage. The defense argued that the defendant was being "overcharged" under statutes applicable to professional art thieves. An April 2019 trial ended in a hung jury, with seven of the twelve jurors in favor of acquittal. A February 2020 retrial was postponed due to travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, the institute housed the work of Dyymond Whipper-Young as she broke the Guinness world record for the "world's largest drawing by an individual".
Succession of presidents
James Ronaldson (1824–1841)
Samuel V. Merrick (1842–1854)
John C. Cresson (1855–1863)
William Sellers (1864–1866)
John Vaughan Merrick (1867–1869)
Coleman Sellers (1870–1874)
Robert Empie Rogers (1875–1878)
William Penn Tatham (1880–1885)
Joseph Miller Wilson (1887–1896)
Dr. Walton Clark (1907–1923)
Dr. W. Laurence LePage (1958-1967)
Dr. Athelstan F. Spilhaus (1967–1969)
Dr. Bowen C. Dees (1970-1981)
Dr. Joel N. Bloom (1969–1990)
Dr. James L. Powell (1991-1994)
Dr. Dennis M. Wint (1995–2014)
Larry Dubinski (2014–present)
Chair of the Board of Trustees
Donald Morel (2014–present)
Board of Trustees Emeriti Members
William J. Avery
Marsha R. Perelman
James A. Unruh
Capital campaign
In 2006, the Franklin Institute began fundraising activities for the Inspire Science! capital campaign, a $64.7 million campaign intended to fund the construction of a 53,000 square foot building addition, new exhibits, and upgrades and renovations to the existing Institute building and exhibits.
In 2011, the Franklin Institute received a $10 million gift from Athena and Nicholas Karabots towards the Inspire Science! capital campaign. This gift is the largest gift in the institute's history, and put the Franklin Institute within $6 million of the $64.7 million capital campaign goal. The Nicholas and Athena Karabots Pavilion will house not only a $10 million multiroom exhibit on neuroscience, but also a conference center, classroom space, and additional room for traveling exhibitions.
The Science Center
The most recognizable part of the Franklin Institute's Science Center is the Franklin Institute Science Museum. In the spirit of inquiry and discovery embodied by Benjamin Franklin, the mission of the Franklin Institute Science Museum serves to inspire an understanding of and passion for science and technology learning. Among other exhibits, the Science Museum holds the largest collection of artifacts from the Wright brothers' workshop.
Permanent exhibits
Electricity, which replaced Franklin...He's Electric in 2010, showcases Franklin's discovery of electricity and its use in the modern world, including elements such as a sustainable dance floor, and an array of LEDs that turn on in the presence of cell phone signals and other low-power electrical signals. (Electricity and Technology)
Changing Earth, which opened to the public, along with Electricity, on March 27, 2010, focuses on the powerful forces of air, water, and land and their effect upon the earth, as well as how humans respond to and interact with these forces.
The Franklin Airshow features The Wright Brothers Aeronautical Engineering Collection, their newly restored Wright Model B airplane, and a United States Air Force 1948 T-33 Shooting Star jet trainer. (Aviation and Technology)
The Giant Heart has been a Philadelphia icon since its opening in 1954. (Biology, Chemistry and Anatomy)
Joel N. Bloom Observatory, remodeled in 2006, features five telescopes, including a very large Zeiss Refractor and four Meade Reflectors.
SportsZone is an interactive exhibit that shows the science behind sports. (Physics and Technology)
The Train Factory has a real, once movable train: The Baldwin 60000 steam locomotive, which was rolled into the museum while the building's walls were still being constructed. (The 60000's track is itself the top level of a full-size exhibit on bridge engineering in the museum basement and long closed to the public.) (History, Engineering, and Technology)
Sir Isaac's Loft allows visitors to blend art and science into their own masterpiece. (Physics and Art)
Space Command features real space suits and allows visitors to track their houses, in real time, via satellite. (Astronomy, Technology, and Mathematics)
The Franklin Institute installed Foxtrot Papa, a former British Airways Boeing 707 airliner, as a permanent exhibit in the mid-1970s. Standing above an outdoor Science Park and connected to the second-floor aviation hall by skybridges, this aircraft could easily be seen from the outside of the building and was a remarkable sight in the middle of a major city. In the 1980s, however, the aircraft was sold for scrap, much to the dismay of local aviation enthusiasts.
Amazing Machine allows visitors to experience a machine-like environment featuring little-seen pieces from the Franklin Institute's priceless collection, including Maillardet's automaton.
"Your Brain" explores the physiology and neurology of our most remarkable organ. The exhibit includes an 18-foot-tall Luckey Climber climbing structure that simulates neural pathways sending messages, and an area to discuss questions of neuroscience ethics, in addition to 70 interactive learning experiences.
Other attractions
The Science Center includes many pertinent attractions that are not museum exhibits. The Budd BB-1 Pioneer flying boat, in front of the museum, was the first stainless steel airplane built by the Edward F. Budd Manufacturing Corporation and has been on display since 1935.
A mock-up which would eventually become the Lunar Module in the Apollo space program, first shown on display in the 1966–67 World's Fair, held in the New York Hall of Science, is also located on the grounds. (See photo.)
Theaters
In 1933, Samuel Simeon Fels contributed funds to build The Fels Planetarium, only the second built in the United States after Chicago's Adler Planetarium. Fully reconstructed in 2002, the Planetarium's new design includes replacement of the original 40,000-pound stainless steel dome, originally built in 1933. The new premium dome is lighter and is in diameter. It is the first of its kind in the United States. The planetarium is also outfitted for visitors who are hearing impaired.
The Tuttleman IMAX Theater is an IMAX dome theater that is 180° encompassing and tilted at 30 degrees. The seating places the audience up in the dome which is over across and 4.5 stories tall. In addition, the theater has 20,000 watts of amplifier power and over 50 speakers.
Early in 2008, extensive renovation of the museum's auditorium was completed. Previously a lecture hall, the space was renamed Franklin Theater, and features 3-D and hi-def Blu-ray digital projection capabilities. The Franklin Theater shows educational films during daytime hours while also including mass release feature-length films.
Traveling exhibits
In the past, the Science Center has hosted many traveling exhibits including Storms, Titanic, Grossology, Body Worlds, Darwin, and Robots. In the summer of 2007, the Franklin Institute hosted Tutankhamun and The Golden Age of The Pharaohs, in the Mandell Center of the Franklin Institute Science Museum. The exhibit began its United States Tour in Los Angeles, CA, and went to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Chicago, IL, before coming to Philadelphia for its final American appearance. When the exhibit left Philadelphia on September 30, 2007, it traveled to London, England.
This exhibit was nearly twice the size of the original Tutankhamun exhibit of the 1970s, and contained 50 objects directly from Tut's tomb, as well as nearly 70 object from the tombs of his ancestors in The Valley of the Kings. The show also featured a CAT Scan that revealed what the Boy King may have looked like.
The Franklin Institute is a member of the Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC) and the American Alliance of Museums (AAM).
The Franklin Institute is also a member of the Science Museum Exhibit Collaborative with the Fort Worth Museum of Science & History; the Museum of Science, Boston; COSI Columbus, formerly known as the Center of Science and Industry in Columbus, Ohio; OMSI in Portland, Oregon; the Science Museum of Minnesota in Saint Paul, Minnesota; and the California Science Center, formerly the California Museum of Science & Industry, in Los Angeles, California.
Benjamin Franklin National Memorial
The Benjamin Franklin National Memorial features a high marble statue, sculpted by James Earle Fraser. Originally opened in 1938, the Memorial was designed by architect John Windrim and modeled after the Pantheon in Rome. The Hall is in length, width, and height. The domed ceiling is self-supporting and weighs 1600 tons. The floors, walls, columns, pilasters, and cornices are made of marbles imported from Portugal, Italy, and France.
The United States Congress designated the Hall and statue as the official Benjamin Franklin National Memorial on October 25, 1972. The Memorial was dedicated by Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in 1976.
On December 30, 2005, Congress authorized the institute to receive up to $10 million in matching grants for the rehabilitation of the memorial and for the development of related exhibits.
In the fall of 2008, the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial was re-opened after a summer-long restoration that included multimedia enhancements. Philadelphia's most famous citizen is now featured in Benjamin Franklin Forever - an hourly 3.5-minute multimedia presentation utilizing the entire rotunda.
Also noteworthy is the Franklin Institute's Frankliniana Collection, some of which is on rotating display in the Pendulum Staircase. Highlights include Franklin's 1777 Nini Medallion, the scale model of the bust from the statue in the Memorial, the figurehead of Franklin's bust from the USS Franklin, his ceremonial sword used in the court of King Louis XVI, and the odometer that Franklin used to measure the postal routes in Philadelphia. Additionally, the institute's Electricity exhibition highlights one of Franklin's lightning rods, his electricity tube, a Franklin Electrostatic Generator, the 1751 publication of Franklin's Experiments and Observations on Electricity, and Thornton Oakley's two 1940 historical murals of Franklin and the "Kite and Key" experiment.
The Journal of The Franklin Institute
In 1826, The Journal of The Franklin Institute was established to publish US Patent information and to document scientific and technological achievements throughout the nation. It is the second oldest continuously published scientific journal in the country, and is now primarily devoted to applied mathematics.
Awards
Since 1824, the Franklin Institute has maintained the longest continuously awarded science and technology awards program in the United States, and one of the oldest in the world. The first issue of the Journal of The Franklin Institute, dated January 1826, makes the first written reference to these awards. Before 1998 several medals were awarded by the Franklin Institute, such as (year indicates when the award was first presented): the Elliott Cresson Medal (1875), the Edward Longstreth Medal (1890), the Howard N. Potts Medal (1911), the Franklin Medal (1915), the George R. Henderson Medal (1924), the Louis E. Levy Medal (1924), the John Price Wetherill Medal (1926), The Frank P. Brown Medal (first awarded per FI site is 1941), Stuart Ballantine Medal (1947), and the Albert A. Michelson Medal (1968). Past winners include Henry Ford, Frank Lloyd Wright, Marie Curie, and Thomas Edison.
In 1998 all of the endowed medals were reorganized as the Benjamin Franklin Medals. Multiple medals are given every year, for different fields of science and engineering. The fields awarded today are "Chemistry", "Computer and Cognitive Science", "Earth and Environmental Science", "Electrical Engineering", "Life Science", "Mechanical Engineering" and "Physics". In the past also the fields "Earth Science", "Engineering" and "Materials Science" were rewarded.
Additionally since 1990, the Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science (shortly the Bower Science Award) and the Bower Award for Business Leadership have been awarded annually. They are funded by a $7.5 million bequest in 1988 from Henry Bower, who was a chemical manufacturer in Philadelphia. The Bower Science Award contains $250,000 of cash, one of the largest amounts for a science award in the U.S.
The institute's Committee on Science and the Arts determines the winners of these awards. Recipients and related information can be found in the laureates database.
Informal science learning research
The Franklin Institute also undertakes research in informal science education. Areas of special strength are educational technology, school partnerships, and youth leadership. In addition, the center has built a substantial portfolio of unique online resources of the history of science, including online exhibits on Ben Franklin and the Heart, as well as resources on the Wright Aeronautical Engineering Collection.
The Franklin Institute is a member of the Nanoscale Informal Science Education Network (NISE Net).
Programs
Science Leadership Academy
Opening in September 2006, The Science Leadership Academy is a partnership between the Franklin Institute and the School District of Philadelphia.
Teacher professional development
The Franklin Institute offers summer institutes and school year mini-courses for K-8 teachers, in collaboration with the School District of Philadelphia and Curriculum & Instruction Office.
Partnerships for Achieving Careers in Technology and Science
Partnerships for Achieving Careers in Technology and Science, or PACTS, is a year-round program of science enrichment, career development, and leadership opportunities for diverse middle- and high-school students in the Philadelphia Region. PACTS students use hands-on science workshops, field based research, field trips, and laboratory experiments to learn how science affects their everyday lives.
Girls at the Center
Girls at the Center is a partnership between the Franklin Institute and the Girl Scouts of the USA provided girls and their families a chance to learn about science together. Over 100 sites participated in the program, with over 70 of the sites still active today. Girls at the Center provided activities for the girls to do with their families at home, as well as projects to be completed on site, all culminating in a year-end party.
See also
Academy of Natural Sciences
Children's museum
John Scott Award (City of Philadelphia)
Logan Square
Wagner Free Institute of Science
National Treasure
List of science museums
References
External links
Biographical museums in Pennsylvania
Museums in Philadelphia
Museums established in 1825
Science museums in Pennsylvania
IMAX venues
1824 establishments in Pennsylvania
Logan Square, Philadelphia
Association of Science-Technology Centers member institutions
National Register of Historic Places in Philadelphia
Railroad museums in Pennsylvania | [
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226590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerwaldkreis | Westerwaldkreis | The Westerwaldkreis ("District of Westerwald") is a district (Kreis) in the north-east of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighbouring districts are (from north clockwise) Altenkirchen, Lahn-Dill, Limburg-Weilburg, Rhein-Lahn, the district-free city Koblenz, Mayen-Koblenz and Neuwied.
History
When the area became part of Prussia in 1866 two districts covering the area were created. The northern part was covered by the Oberwesterwaldkreis with capital in Marienberg, the Unterwesterwaldkreis with capital in Montabaur covering the southern part. 1886 a third district was added with the Westerburg district with area from both of the other two districts. In 1932 the districts structure was reformed again, the Oberwesterwaldkreis and the Westerburg district were merged to a new Oberwesterwaldkreis with capital in Westerburg. In 1974 in another reform the districts Oberwesterwaldkreis and Unterwesterwaldkreis were merged to form the Westerwaldkreis.
Together with the neighboring Rhein-Lahn district a partnership with the English county Northamptonshire was started in 1981. As part of the partnership of Rhineland-Palatinate with Rwanda the district had a partnership with the municipality Mugesera since 1983. As in 2001 this municipality was included in the district Mirenge the partner changed.
Geography
The district is located in the Westerwald mountains. Its highest elevation is the Fuchskaute, at 657 m, the lowest is near Diez in the valley of the Gelbach, at 150 m.
Coat of arms
The bottom part of the coat of arms show basalt pillars, as the Westerwald is of volcanic origin. There are seven pillars representing the seven Verbandsgemeinden of the district which have basalt or quartzite in their area. The green band in the middle represents the forests, the jug in the upper part the traditional pottery industry in the district.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
(German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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226594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization%20development | Organization development | Organization development (OD) is the study and implementation of practices, systems, and techniques that affect organizational change. The goal of which is to modify an organization's performance and/or culture. The organizational changes are typically initiated by the group's stakeholders. OD emerged from human relations studies in the 1930s, during which psychologists realized that organizational structures and processes influence worker behavior and motivation. More recently, work on OD has expanded to focus on aligning organizations with their rapidly changing and complex environments through organizational learning, knowledge management, and transformation of organizational norms and values. Key concepts of OD theory include: organizational climate (the mood or unique “personality” of an organization, which includes attitudes and beliefs that influence members' collective behavior), organizational culture (the deeply-seated norms, values, and behaviors that members share) and organizational strategies (how an organization identifies problems, plans action, negotiates change and evaluates progress).
Overview
Organization development as a practice involves an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective organizational change. OD is both a field of applied science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, particularly industrial and organizational psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. Experts in systems thinking, in organizational learning, in the structure of intuition in decision-making, and in coaching (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but in a much more multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach, have emerged as OD catalysts or tools.
History
Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept became mainstream in the mid-1950s. From Lewin came the ideas of group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-groups and group-based OD emerged.
Kurt Lewin played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known today. As early as World War II (1939-1945), Lewin experimented with a collaborative change-process (involving himself as a consultant and a client group) based on a three-step process of planning, taking action, and measuring results. This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of OD, which will be discussed later. Lewin also initiated a learning method known as laboratory training, or T-groups. After Lewin's death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey-research methods at the University of Michigan. These procedures became important parts of OD as developments in this field continued at the National Training Laboratories and in growing numbers of universities and private consulting-firms across the country. Leading universities offering doctoral-level degrees in OD include Benedictine University and the Fielding Graduate University.
Douglas and Richard Beckhard, while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950s [...] coined the term organization development (OD) to describe an innovative bottom-up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112).
The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from a person's "here and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such groups usually meet without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their spontaneous "here and now" responses to an ambiguous situation. Problems of leadership, structure, status, communication, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members. Herbert A. Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development in the late fifties. He also founded the first doctoral program in organizational behavior at Case Western State University, and his colleague, Robert Blake, was also influential in making the term "organizational development" a more widely recognized field of psychological research.
As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory training was conducted in "stranger groups"—groups composed of individuals from different organizations, situations, and backgrounds. A major difficulty developed, however, in transferring knowledge gained from these "stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home". This required a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected environment of the T-group (or training group), and the give-and-take of the organizational environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to begin to apply it to "family groups"—that is, groups located within an organization. From this shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an important factor in influencing group members (along with some other developments in the behavioral sciences) emerged the concept of organization development.
Core values
Underlying Organization Development are humanistic values. Margulies and Raia (1972) articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows:
providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as resources in the productive process
providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the organization itself, to develop to their full potential
seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its goals
attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting and challenging work
providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in which they relate to work, the organization, and the environment
treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which are important to their work and their life
This is a separate concept from change efforts known as:
Operation management
Training and development
Technological innovations....etc.
Objectives
The objectives of OD are:
to increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees
to increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment
to confront problems instead of neglecting them
to effectively manage conflict
to increase cooperation and collaboration among employees
to increase organizational problem-solving
to put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of an organization on a continuous basis
As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific situations, they vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs are tailored to meet the requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all organizational development programs try to achieve the following objectives:
making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization. Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision of the organization
encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them
strengthening inter-personal trust, cooperation, and communication for the successful achievement of organizational goals
encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus making them feel responsible for the implementation of the plan
creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and participate enthusiastically
replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill
preparing members to align with changes and to break stereotypes
creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change
According to organizational-development thinking, organization development provides managers with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organizational effectiveness.
Change agent
A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed later). The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD. Beckhard reports several cases in which line people have been trained in OD and have returned to their organizations to engage in successful change-assignments. In the natural evolution of change mechanisms in organizations, this would seem to approach the ideal arrangement.
Researchers at the University of Oxford found that leaders can be effective change-agents within their own organizations if they are strongly committed to "knowledge leadership" targeted towards organizational development. In their three-year study of UK healthcare organizations, the researchers identified three different mechanisms through which knowledge leaders actively "transposed", "appropriated" or "contended" change concepts, effectively translating and embedding these in organizational practice.
The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organization who is schooled in OD theory and technique. In such a case, the "contractual relationship" is an in-house agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions involved except the fee.
Sponsoring organization
The initiative for OD programs often comes from an organization that has a problem or anticipates facing a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures the organization that management is actively concerned.
Applied behavioral science
One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship". Some believe that the change agent is a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine the "patient", make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does s/he try to teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences as industrial/organizational psychology, industrial sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organizational behavior, economics, and political science, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data, and taking action.
Systems context
The holistic and futuristic view of organization
OD deals with a total system—the organization as a whole, including its relevant environment—or with a subsystem or systems—departments or workgroups—in the context of the total system. Parts of systems—for example, individuals, cliques, structures, norms, values, and products—are not considered in isolation; the principle of interdependency—that change in one part of a system affects the other parts—is fully recognized. Thus OD interventions focus on the total cultures and cultural processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant behavior of individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of the influences of groups rather than of personalities.
Improved organizational performance
The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. This includes improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, and enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds. It also involves more effective decision processes, more appropriate leadership styles, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, as well as developing improved levels of trust and cooperation among organizational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of man—that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization development and effectiveness is the scientific method—inquiry, a rigorous search for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.
Self-managing workgroups allow the members of a work team to manage, control, and monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to deciding when to take rest breaks. An early analysis of the first-self-managing work groups yielded the following behavioral characteristics (Hackman, 1986):
Employees assume personal responsibility and accountability for the outcomes of their work.
Employees monitor their own performance and seek feedback on how well they are accomplishing their goals.
Employees manage their performance and take corrective action when necessary to improve their and the performance of other group members.
Employees seek guidance, assistance, and resources from the organization when they do not have what they need to do the job.
Employees help members of their workgroup and employees in other groups to improve job performance and raise productivity for the organization as a whole.
Organizational self-renewal
The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving the client organization with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a regulatory and corrective mechanism. To this end, OD scholars and practitioners use tools such as simulations with their clients, to be used in workshops and classroom settings. One example of a self-renewal simulation, authored by researchers from Cornell University and Indiana University, can be found here (see citation).
The study of organizational effectiveness and improving organizational performance has developed alongside the study of leadership development with a greater focus on leadership development programs that focus on the development of the individual. See .Emotional intelligence in relation to leadership development.
Understanding organizations
Weisbord presents a six-box model for understanding organizations:
Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organization's mission and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization's purpose.
Structure: How is the organization's work divided up? The question is whether there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.
Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs.
Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the organization formally rewarded or punished members for.
Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance among them.
Helpful mechanism: What must the organization attend to in order to survive and thrive—procedures such as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems.
Modern development
In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.
With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organizational development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. de Klerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss its meaning...
The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of organizational development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools. Bob Aubrey (2015) introduced KDIs (Key Development Indicators) to help organizations go beyond performance and align strategy, organizations, and individuals and argued that fundamental challenges such as robotics, artificial intelligence, and genetics prefigure a regeneration of the field.
Action research
Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point as "organization improvement through action research". If one idea can be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of action".
Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps:
"Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change.
"Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and tested.
"Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforced, adopted.
Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.
The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage.
The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see Figure 1). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first, or planning, a stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness. The action stage is a period of change, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.
Action research is problem-centered, client-centered, and action-oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.
OD interventions
"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see Figure 1) of organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention.
There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:
The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.
An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative condition.
Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.
Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial strategy.
One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication, mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.
People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change.
Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice.
One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new behavior, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited in organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization may also be constrained because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority, specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also discourage experimentation.
The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of the things which will help him are:
A real need in the client system to change
Genuine support from management
Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior
A sound background in the behavioral sciences
A working knowledge of systems theory
A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better ways to do things.
A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership development.
See also
Employee research
Facilitation
Georges Romme (involved in designing OD education)
Human relations movement
Large-group capacitation
Organizational communication
Organizational diagnostics
Organizational engineering
Performance improvement
References
Further reading
see also: The Fifth Discipline
Schultz, Diane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2006) Psychology and work today: and introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (9th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice Hall p262.
External links
Organization Development Network An international, professional association of educators and practitioners.
online certification programs for OD professionals.
www.instituteod.com The Institute of Organization Development: Online certification programs
Organizational theory
Change management | [
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226597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual%20fund | Mutual fund | A mutual fund is a professionally managed investment fund that pools money from many investors to purchase securities. The term is typically used in the United States, Canada, and India, while similar structures across the globe include the SICAV in Europe ('investment company with variable capital') and open-ended investment company (OEIC) in the UK.
Mutual funds are often classified by their principal investments: money market funds, bond or fixed income funds, stock or equity funds, or hybrid funds. Funds may also be categorized as index funds, which are passively managed funds that track the performance of an index, such as a stock market index or bond market index, or actively managed funds, which seek to outperform stock market indices but generally charge higher fees. Primary structures of mutual funds are open-end funds, closed-end funds, unit investment trusts.
Open-end funds are purchased from or sold to the issuer at the net asset value of each share as of the close of the trading day in which the order was placed, as long as the order was placed within a specified period before the close of trading. They can be traded directly with the issuer.
Mutual funds have advantages and disadvantages compared to direct investing in individual securities. The advantages of mutual funds include economies of scale, diversification, liquidity, and professional management. However, these come with mutual fund fees and expenses.
Mutual funds are regulated by governmental bodies and are required to publish information including performance, comparison of performance to benchmarks, fees charged, and securities held. A single mutual fund may have several share classes by which larger investors pay lower fees.
Hedge funds and exchange-traded funds are not mutual funds.
Market size
At the end of 2020, open-end mutual fund assets worldwide were $63.1 trillion. The countries with the largest mutual fund industries are:
United States: $23.9 trillion
Australia: $5.3 trillion
Ireland: $3.4 trillion
Germany: $2.5 trillion
Luxembourg: $2.2 trillion
France: $2.2 trillion
Japan: $2.1 trillion
Canada: $1.9 trillion
United Kingdom: $1.9 trillion
China: $1.4 trillion
At the end of 2019, 23% of household financial assets were invested in mutual funds. Mutual funds accounted for approximately 50% of the assets in individual retirement accounts, 401(k)s and other similar retirement plans.
Luxembourg and Ireland are the primary jurisdictions for the registration of UCITS funds. These funds may be sold throughout the European Union and in other countries that have adopted mutual recognition regimes.
At the end of 2018, the largest mutual fund managers in the United States based on assets under management were:
BlackRock: $9 trillion
The Vanguard Group: $7.2 trillion
Charles Schwab Corporation: $7 trillion
Fidelity Investments: $3.7 trillion
State Street Global Advisors: $3.6 trillion
PIMCO/Allianz: $2.892 trillion
JPMorgan Chase: $2.8 trillion
Capital Group Companies: $2.3 trillion
BNY Mellon (Dreyfus): $2.2 trillion
Amundi: $1.93 trillion
Prudential Financial: $1.72 trillion
T. Rowe Price: $1.7 trillion
Legal & General: $1.7 trillion
Franklin Templeton Investments: $1.498 trillion
Merrill Lynch: $1.4 trillion
Invesco: $1.391 trillion
Natixis: $1.387 trillion
Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association of America / Nuveen: $1.25 trillion
Sun Life Financial:$1.25 trillion
Goldman Sachs: $1.1 trillion
Ameriprise Financial: $1.1 trillion
History
Early history
The first modern investment funds, the precursor of mutual funds, were established in the Dutch Republic. In response to the Crisis of 1772, Amsterdam-based businessman Abraham (or Adriaan) van Ketwich formed a trust named Eendragt Maakt Magt ("unity creates strength"). His aim was to provide small investors with an opportunity to diversify.
Mutual funds were introduced to the United States in the 1890s. Early U.S. funds were generally closed-end funds with a fixed number of shares that often traded at prices above the portfolio net asset value. The first open-end mutual fund with redeemable shares was established on March 21, 1924, as the Massachusetts Investors Trust, which still in existence today and managed by MFS Investment Management.
In the United States, closed-end funds remained more popular than open-end funds throughout the 1920s. In 1929, open-end funds accounted for only 5% of the industry's $27 billion in total assets.
After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the United States Congress passed a series of acts regulating the securities markets in general and mutual funds in particular.
The Securities Act of 1933 requires that all investments sold to the public, including mutual funds, be registered with the SEC and that they provide prospective investors with a prospectus that discloses essential facts about the investment.
The Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 requires that issuers of securities, including mutual funds, report regularly to their investors. This act also created the Securities and Exchange Commission, which is the principal regulator of mutual funds.
The Revenue Act of 1936 established guidelines for the taxation of mutual funds. It allowed mutual funds to be treated as a flow-through or pass-through entity, where income is passed through to investors who are responsible for the tax on that income.
The Investment Company Act of 1940 established rules specifically governing mutual funds.
These new regulations encouraged the development of open-end mutual funds (as opposed to closed-end funds).
Growth in the U.S. mutual fund industry remained limited until the 1950s when confidence in the stock market returned. In the 1960s, Fidelity Investments began marketing mutual funds to the public, rather than only wealthier individuals or those working in the finance industry. The introduction of money market funds in the high-interest rate environment of the late 1970s boosted industry growth dramatically. The first retail index fund, First Index Investment Trust, was formed in 1976 by The Vanguard Group, headed by John Bogle; it is now called the "Vanguard 500 Index Fund" and is one of the largest mutual funds.
Beginning the 1980s, the mutual fund industry began a period of growth. According to Robert Pozen and Theresa Hamacher, growth was the result of three factors:
A bull market for both stocks and bonds,
New product introductions (including funds based on municipal bonds, various industry sectors, international funds, and target date funds) and
Wider distribution of fund shares. Among the new distribution channels were retirement plans. Mutual funds are now the a preferred investment option in certain types of retirement plans, specifically in 401(k), other defined contribution plans and in individual retirement accounts (IRAs), all of which surged in popularity in the 1980s.
The 2003 mutual fund scandal involved unequal treatment of fund shareholders whereby some fund management companies allowed favored investors to engage in prohibited late trading or market timing. The scandal was uncovered by former New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and led to an increase in regulation.
In a 2007 study about German mutual funds, Johannes Gomolka and Ralf Jasny found statistical evidence of illegal time zone arbitrage in trading of German mutual funds. Though reported to regulators, BaFin never commented on these results.
Features
Like other types of investment funds, mutual funds have advantages and disadvantages compared to alternative structures or investing directly in individual securities. According to Robert Pozen and Theresa Hamacher, these are:
Advantages
Increased opportunity for diversification: A fund diversifies by holding many securities. This diversification decreases risk.
Daily liquidity: In the United States, mutual fund shares can be redeemed for their net asset value within seven days, but in practice the redemption is often much quicker. This liquidity can create asset–liability mismatch which poses challenges, which in part motivated an SEC liquidity management rule in 2016.
Professional investment management: Open-and closed-end funds hire portfolio managers to supervise the fund's investments.
Ability to participate in investments that may be available only to larger investors. For example, individual investors often find it difficult to invest directly in foreign markets.
Service and convenience: Funds often provide services such as check writing.
Government oversight: Mutual funds are regulated by a governmental body
Transparency and ease of comparison: All mutual funds are required to report the same information to investors, which makes them easier to compare to each other.
Disadvantages
Mutual funds have disadvantages as well, which include:
Fees
Less control over the timing of recognition of gains
Less predictable income
No opportunity to customize
Regulation and operation
United States
In the United States, the principal laws governing mutual funds are:
The Securities Act of 1933 requires that all investments sold to the public, including mutual funds, be registered with the SEC and that they provide potential investors with a prospectus that discloses essential facts about the investment.
The Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 requires that issuers of securities, including mutual funds, report regularly to their investors; this act also created the Securities and Exchange Commission, which is the principal regulator of mutual funds.
The Revenue Act of 1936 established guidelines for the taxation of mutual funds. Mutual funds are not taxed on their income and profits if they comply with certain requirements under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code; instead, the taxable income is passed through to the investors in the fund. Funds are required by the IRS to diversify their investments, limit ownership of voting securities, distribute most of their income (dividends, interest, and capital gains net of losses) to their investors annually, and earn most of the income by investing in securities and currencies. The characterization of a fund's income is unchanged when it is paid to shareholders. For example, when a mutual fund distributes dividend income to its shareholders, fund investors will report the distribution as dividend income on their tax return. As a result, mutual funds are often called flow-through or pass-through vehicles, because they simply pass on income and related tax liabilities to their investors.
The Investment Company Act of 1940 establishes rules specifically governing mutual funds. The focus of this Act is on disclosure to the investing public of information about the fund and its investment objectives, as well as on investment company structure and operations.
The Investment Advisers Act of 1940 establishes rules governing the investment advisers. With certain exceptions, this Act requires that firms or sole practitioners compensated for advising others about securities investments must register with the SEC and conform to regulations designed to protect investors.
The National Securities Markets Improvement Act of 1996 gave rulemaking authority to the federal government, preempting state regulators. However, states continue to have the authority to investigate and prosecute fraud involving mutual funds.
Mutual funds are overseen by a board of directors if organized as a corporation, or by a board of trustees, if organized as a trust. The Board must ensure that the fund is managed in the interests of the fund's investors. The board hires the fund manager and other service providers to the fund.
The sponsor or fund management company often referred to as the fund manager, trades (buys and sells) the fund's investments in accordance with the fund's investment objective. Funds that are managed by the same company under the same brand are known as a fund family or fund complex. A fund manager must be a registered investment adviser.
European Union
In the European Union, funds are governed by laws and regulations established by their home country. However, the European Union has established a mutual recognition regime that allows funds regulated in one country to be sold in all other countries in the European Union, if they comply with certain requirements. The directive establishing this regime is the Undertakings for Collective Investment in Transferable Securities Directive 2009, and funds that comply with its requirements are known as UCITS funds.
Canada
Regulation of mutual funds in Canada is primarily governed by National Instrument 81-102 "Mutual Funds", which is implemented separately in each province or territory. The Canadian Securities Administrator works to harmonize regulation across Canada.
Hong Kong
In the Hong Kong market mutual funds are regulated by two authorities:
The Securities and Futures Commission (SFC) develops rules that apply to all mutual funds marketed in Hong Kong.
The Mandatory Provident Funds Schemes Authority (MPFA) rules apply only to mutual funds that are marketed for use in the retirement accounts of Hong Kong residents. The MPFA rules are generally more restrictive than the SFC rules.
Taiwan
In Taiwan, mutual funds are regulated by the Financial Supervisory Commission (FSC).
India
Mutual funds in India are regulated by Securities and Exchange Board of India, the regulator of the securities and commodity market owned by the Government of India. under the SEBI(Mutual Funds)
regulations 1996.
Fund structures
There are three primary structures of mutual funds: open-end funds, unit investment trusts, and closed-end funds. Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) are open-end funds or unit investment trusts that trade on an exchange.
Open-end funds
Open-end mutual funds must be willing to buy back ("redeem") their shares from their investors at the net asset value (NAV) computed that day based upon the prices of the securities owned by the fund. In the United States, open-end funds must be willing to buy back shares at the end of every business day. In other jurisdictions, open-end funds may only be required to buy back shares at longer intervals. For example, UCITS funds in Europe are only required to accept redemptions twice each month (though most UCITS accept redemptions daily).
Most open-end funds also sell shares to the public every business day; these shares are priced at NAV.
Open-end funds are often referred to simply as "mutual funds".
In the United States at the end of 2019, there were 7,945 open-end mutual funds with combined assets of $21.3 trillion, accounting for 83% of the U.S. industry.
Unit investment trusts
Unit investment trusts (UITs) are issued to the public only once when they are created. UITs generally have a limited life span, established at creation. Investors can redeem shares directly with the fund at any time (similar to an open-end fund) or wait to redeem them upon the trust's termination. Less commonly, they can sell their shares in the open market.
Unlike other types of mutual funds, unit investment trusts do not have a professional investment manager. Their portfolio of securities is established at the creation of the UIT.
In the United States, at the end of 2019, there were 4,571 UITs with combined assets of less than $0.1 trillion.
Closed-end funds
Closed-end funds generally issue shares to the public only once, when they are created through an initial public offering. Their shares are then listed for trading on a stock exchange. Investors who want to sell their shares must sell their shares to another investor in the market; they cannot sell their shares back to the fund. The price that investors receive for their shares may be significantly different from NAV; it may be at a "premium" to NAV (i.e., higher than NAV) or, more commonly, at a "discount" to NAV (i.e., lower than NAV).
In the United States, at the end of 2019, there were 500 closed-end mutual funds with combined assets of $0.28 trillion.
Classification of funds by types of underlying investments
Mutual funds may be classified by their principal investments, as described in the prospectus and investment objective. The four main categories of funds are money market funds, bond or fixed-income funds, stock or equity funds, and hybrid funds. Within these categories, funds may be sub-classified by investment objective, investment approach, or specific focus.
The types of securities that a particular fund may invest in are set forth in the fund's prospectus, a legal document that describes the fund's investment objective, investment approach and permitted investments. The investment objective describes the type of income that the fund seeks. For example, a capital appreciation fund generally looks to earn most of its returns from increases in the prices of the securities it holds, rather than from dividend or interest income. The investment approach describes the criteria that the fund manager uses to select investments for the fund.
Bond, stock, and hybrid funds may be classified as either index (or passively-managed) funds or actively managed funds.
Alternative investments which incorporate advanced techniques such as hedging known as "liquid alternatives".
Money market funds
Money market funds invest in money market instruments, which are fixed income securities with a very short time to maturity and high credit quality. Investors often use money market funds as a substitute for bank savings accounts, though money market funds are not insured by the government, unlike bank savings accounts.
In the United States, money market funds sold to retail investors and those investing in government securities may maintain a stable net asset value of $1 per share, when they comply with certain conditions. Money market funds sold to institutional investors that invest in non-government securities must compute a net asset value based on the value of the securities held in the funds.
In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in money market funds were $3.6 trillion, representing 14% of the industry.
Bond funds
Bond funds invest in fixed income or debt securities. Bond funds can be sub-classified according to:
The specific types of bonds owned (such as high-yield or junk bonds, investment-grade corporate bonds, government bonds or municipal bonds)
The maturity of the bonds held (i.e., short-, intermediate- or long-term)
The country of issuance of the bonds (such as the U.S., emerging market or global)
The tax treatment of the interest received (taxable or tax-exempt)
In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in bond funds (of all types) were $5.7 trillion, representing 22% of the industry.
Stock funds
Stock or equity funds invest in common stocks. Stock funds may focus on a particular area of the stock market, such as
Stocks from only a certain industry
Stocks from a specified country or region
Stocks of companies experiencing strong growth
Stocks that the portfolio managers deem to be a good value relative to the value of the company's business
Stocks paying high dividends that provide income
Stocks within a certain market capitalization range
In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in stock funds (of all types) were $15.0 trillion, representing 58% of the industry.
Funds which invest in a relatively small number of stocks are known as "focus funds".
Hybrid funds
Hybrid funds invest in both bonds and stocks or in convertible securities. Balanced funds, asset allocation funds, convertible bond funds, target date or target-risk funds, and lifecycle or lifestyle funds are all types of hybrid funds. The performance of hybrid funds can be explained by a combination of stock factors (e.g., Fama–French three-factor model), bond factors (e.g., excess returns of a Government bond index), option factors (e.g., implied stock-market volatility), and fund factors (e.g., the net supply of convertible bonds).
Hybrid funds may be structured as fund of funds, meaning that they invest by buying shares in other mutual funds that invest in securities. Many funds of funds invest in affiliated funds (meaning mutual funds managed by the same fund sponsor), although some invest in unaffiliated funds (i.e., managed by other fund sponsors) or some combination of the two.
In the United States, at the end of 2019, assets in hybrid funds were $1.6 trillion, representing 6% of the industry.
Other funds
Funds may invest in commodities or other investments.
Expenses
Investors in a mutual fund pay the fund's expenses. Some of these expenses reduce the value of an investor's account; others are paid by the fund and reduce net asset value.
These expenses fall into five categories:
Management fee
The management fee is paid by the fund to the management company or sponsor that organizes the fund, provides the portfolio management or investment advisory services, and normally lends its brand to the fund. The fund manager may also provide other administrative services. The management fee often has breakpoints, which means that it declines as assets (in either the specific fund or in the fund family as a whole) increase. The fund's board reviews the management fee annually. Fund shareholders must vote on any proposed increase, but the fund manager or sponsor can agree to waive some or all of the management fees in order to lower the fund's expense ratio.
Index funds generally charge a lower management fee than actively-managed funds.
Distribution charges
Distribution charges pay for marketing, distribution of the fund's shares as well as services to investors. There are three types of distribution charges.
Front-end load or sales charge. A front-end load or sales charge is a commission paid to a broker by a mutual fund when shares are purchased. It is expressed as a percentage of the total amount invested or the "public offering price", which equals the net asset value plus the front-end load per share. The front-end load often declines as the amount invested increases, through breakpoints. The front-end load is paid by the investor; it is deducted from the amount invested.
Back-end load. Some funds have a back-end load, which is paid by the investor when shares are redeemed. If the back-end load declines the longer the investor holds shares, it is called a contingent deferred sales charge (CDSC). Like the front-end load, the back-end load is paid by the investor; it is deducted from the redemption proceeds.
Distribution and services fee. Some funds charge an annual fee to compensate the distributor of fund shares for providing ongoing services to fund shareholders. In the United States, this fee is sometimes called a 12b-1 fee, after the SEC rule authorizing it. The distribution and services fee is paid by the fund and reduces net asset value.
Distribution charges generally vary for each share class.
Securities transaction fees incurred by the fund
A mutual fund pays expenses related to buying or selling the securities in its portfolio. These expenses may include brokerage commissions. These costs are normally positively correlated with turnover.
Shareholder transaction fees
Shareholders may be required to pay fees for certain transactions, such as buying or selling shares of the fund. A fund may charge a fee for maintaining an individual retirement account for an investor.
Some funds charge redemption fees when an investor sells fund shares shortly after buying them (usually defined as within 30, 60, or 90 days of purchase). Redemption fees are computed as a percentage of the sale amount. Shareholder transaction fees are not part of the expense ratio.
Fund services charges
A mutual fund may pay for other services including:
Board of directors or trustees fees and expenses
Custody fee: paid to a custodian bank for holding the fund's portfolio in safekeeping and collecting income owed on the securities
Fund administration fee: for overseeing all administrative affairs such as preparing financial statements and shareholder reports, SEC filings, monitoring compliance, computing total returns and other performance information, preparing/filing tax returns and all expenses of maintaining compliance with state blue sky laws
Fund accounting fee: for performing investment or securities accounting services and computing the net asset value (usually every day the New York Stock Exchange is open)
Professional services fees: legal and auditing fees
Registration fees: paid to the SEC and state securities regulators
Shareholder communications expenses: printing and mailing required documents to shareholders such as shareholder reports and prospectuses
Transfer agent service fees and expenses: for keeping shareholder records, providing statements and tax forms to investors and providing telephone, internet and or other investor support and servicing
Other/miscellaneous fees
The fund manager or sponsor may agree to subsidize some of these charges.
Expense ratio
The expense ratio equals recurring fees and expenses charged to the fund during the year divided by average net assets. The management fee and fund services charges are ordinarily included in the expense ratio. Front-end and back-end loads, securities transaction fees, and shareholder transaction fees are normally excluded.
To facilitate comparisons of expenses, regulators generally require that funds use the same formula to compute the expense ratio and publish the results.
No-load fund
In the United States, a fund that calls itself "no-load" cannot charge a front-end load or back-end load under any circumstances and cannot charge a distribution and services fee greater than 0.25% of fund assets.
Controversy regarding fees and expenses
Critics of the fund industry argue that fund expenses are too high. They believe that the market for mutual funds is not competitive and that there are many hidden fees so that it is difficult for investors to reduce the fees that they pay. They argue that the most effective way for investors to raise the returns they earn from mutual funds is to invest in funds with low expense ratios.
Fund managers counter that fees are determined by a highly competitive market and, therefore, reflect the value that investors attribute to the service provided. They also note that fees are clearly disclosed.
Definitions of key terms
Average annual total return
Mutual funds in the United States are required to report the average annual compounded rates of return for one-, five-and-ten year-periods using the following formula:
P(1+T)n = ERV
Where:
P = a hypothetical initial payment of $1,000
T = average annual total return
n = number of years
ERV = ending redeemable value of a hypothetical $1,000 payment made at the beginning of the one-, five-, or ten-year periods at the end of those periods (or fractional portion).
Market capitalization
Market capitalization equals the number of a company's shares outstanding multiplied by the market price of the stock. Market capitalization is an indication of the size of a company. Typical ranges of market capitalizations are:
Net asset value
A fund's net asset value (NAV) equals the current market value of a fund's holdings minus the fund's liabilities (this figure may also be referred to as the fund's "net assets"). It is usually expressed as a per-share amount, computed by dividing net assets by the number of fund shares outstanding. Funds must compute their net asset value according to the rules set forth in their prospectuses. Most compute their NAV at the end of each business day.
Valuing the securities held in a fund's portfolio is often the most difficult part of calculating net asset value. The fund's board typically oversees security valuation.
Share classes
A single mutual fund may give investors a choice of different combinations of front-end loads, back-end loads and distribution and services fee, by offering several different types of shares, known as share classes. All of them invest in the same portfolio of securities, but each has different expenses and, therefore, different net asset values and different performance results. Some of these share classes may be available only to certain types of investors.
Typical share classes for funds sold through brokers or other intermediaries in the United States are:
Class A shares usually charge a front-end sales load together with a small distribution and services fee.
Class B shares usually do not have a front-end sales load; rather, they have a high contingent deferred sales charge (CDSC) that gradually declines over several years, combined with a high 12b-1 fee. Class B shares usually convert automatically to Class A shares after they have been held for a certain period.
Class C shares usually have a high distribution and services fee and a modest contingent deferred sales charge that is discontinued after one or two years. Class C shares usually do not convert to another class. They are often called "level load" shares.
Class I are usually subject to very high minimum investment requirements and are, therefore, known as "institutional" shares. They are no-load shares.
Class R are usually for use in retirement plans such as 401(k) plans. They typically do not charge loads but do charge a small distribution and services fee.
No-load funds in the United States often have two classes of shares:
Class I shares do not charge a distribution and services fee
Class N shares charge a distribution and services fee of no more than 0.25% of fund assets
Neither class of shares typically charges a front-end or back-end load.
Portfolio turnover
Portfolio turnover is a measure of the volume of a fund's securities trading. It is expressed as a percentage of the average market value of the portfolio's long-term securities. Turnover is the lesser of a fund's purchases or sales during a given year divided by average long-term securities market value for the same period. If the period is less than a year, turnover is generally annualized.
See also
Active management
Fund derivative
Global assets under management
Index fund
Lipper average
List of mutual-fund families in Canada
List of mutual-fund families in the United States
List of US mutual funds by assets under management
Money fund
Collective trust fund
Mutual funds in India
Mutual-fund scandal (2003)
Operation Perfect Hedge
Retirement plans in the United States
Rights of accumulation
Separately managed account
Value investing
References
Further reading
External links
Mutual Funds and ETFs: A Guide for Investors, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
Mutual funds
Mutualism (movement)
Institutional investors
Dutch inventions
pt:Fundo de investimento | [
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226605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3dfx%20Interactive | 3dfx Interactive | 3dfx Interactive was an American technology company headquartered in San Jose, California, founded in 1994, that specialized in the manufacturing of 3D graphics processing units, and later, video cards. It was a pioneer in the field from the late 1990s until 2000.
The company's original product was the Voodoo Graphics, an add-in card that implemented hardware acceleration of 3D graphics. The hardware accelerated only 3D rendering, relying on the PC's current video card for 2D support. Despite this limitation, the Voodoo Graphics product and its follow-up, Voodoo2, were popular. It became standard for 3D games to offer support for the company's Glide API.
The success of the company's products led to renewed interest in 3D gaming, and by the second half of the 1990s, products combining a 2D output with reasonable 3D performance were appearing. This was accelerated by the introduction of Microsoft's Direct3D, which provided a single high-performance API that could be implemented on these cards, seriously eroding the value of Glide. While 3dfx continued to offer high-performance options, the value proposition was no longer compelling.
3dfx rapidly declined in the late 1990s and most of the company's assets were acquired by Nvidia Corporation on December 15, 2000, mostly for intellectual property rights. The acquisition was accounted for as a purchase by Nvidia and was completed by the first quarter of their fiscal year of 2002. 3dfx ceased supporting their products on February 15, 2001 and filed for bankruptcy on October 15, 2002.
History
Early history
The company was founded on August 24, 1994, as 3D/fx, Inc. Ross Smith, Gary Tarolli and Scott Sellers, all former employees of Silicon Graphics Inc. They were soon joined by Gordie Campbell of TechFarm. 3dfx released its first product, the Voodoo Graphics 3D chip, to manufacturing on November 6, 1995. The chip is a VGA 3D accelerator that features rendering methods such as point-sampled texture mapping, Z- and double buffering, Gouraud shading, subpixel correction, alpha compositing, and anti-aliasing. Alongside the chip came 3Dfx's Glide API, designed to take full advantage of the Voodoo Graphics' features. The company stated that Glide's creation was because it found that no existing APIs at the time could fully utilize the chip's capabilities. The DirectX 3.0 was deemed to be lacking, and the OpenGL was regarded as suitable only for CAD/CAM workstations. The first graphics card to use the chip was Orchid Technology's Righteous 3D, released on October 7, 1996. The company manufactured only the chips and some reference boards, and initially did not sell any product to consumers; rather, it acted as an OEM supplier for graphics card companies, which designed, manufactured, marketed, and sold their own graphics cards including the Voodoo chipset.
3dfx gained initial fame in the arcade market. The first arcade machine that 3dfx Voodoo Graphics hardware was used in was a 1996 baseball game featuring a bat controller with motion sensing technology called ICE Home Run Derby. Later that year it was featured in more popular titles, such as Atari's San Francisco Rush and Wayne Gretzky's 3D Hockey. 3dfx also developed MiniGL after id Software's John Carmack released a 1997 version of Quake that used the OpenGL API. The MiniGL translated OpenGL commands into Glide, and gave 3dfx the advantage as the sole consumer chip company to deliver a functional graphics library driver until 1998.
Voodoo Graphics PCI
Towards the end of 1996, the cost of EDO DRAM dropped significantly and 3dfx was able to enter the consumer PC hardware market with aggressive pricing compared to the few previous 3D graphics solutions for computers. Prior to affordable 3D hardware, games such as Doom and Quake had compelled video game players to move from their 80386s to 80486s, and then to the Pentium.
A typical Voodoo Graphics PCI expansion card consisted of a DAC, a frame buffer processor and a texture mapping unit, along with 4 MB of EDO DRAM. The RAM and graphics processors operated at 50 MHz. It provided only 3D acceleration and as such the computer also needed a traditional video controller for conventional 2D software. A pass-through VGA cable daisy-chained the video controller to the Voodoo, which was itself connected to the monitor. The method used to engage the Voodoo's output circuitry varied between cards, with some using mechanical relays while others utilized purely electronic components. The mechanical relays emitted an audible "clicking" sound when they engaged and disengaged.
By the end of 1997, the Voodoo Graphics was by far the most widely adopted 3D accelerator among both consumers and software developers. The Voodoo's primary competition was from PowerVR and Rendition. PowerVR produced a similar 3D-only add-on card with capable 3D support, although it was not comparable to Voodoo Graphics in either image quality or performance. 3dfx saw intense competition in the market from cards that offered the combination of 2D and 3D acceleration. While these cards, such as Matrox Mystique, S3 ViRGE and ATI 3D Rage, offered inferior 3D acceleration, their lower cost and simplicity often appealed to OEM system builders. Rendition's Vérité V1000 was an integrated (3D+VGA) single-chip solution, but it did not have comparable 3D performance, and its 2D capabilities were considered merely adequate relative to other 2D cards of the time.
Voodoo Rush
In August 1997, 3dfx released the Voodoo Rush chipset, combining a Voodoo chip with a 2D chip that lay on the same circuit board, eliminating the need for a separate VGA card. Most cards were built with an Alliance Semiconductor AT25/AT3D 2D component, but there were some built with a Macronix chip and there were initial plans to partner with Trident but no such boards were ever marketed.
The Rush had the same specifications as Voodoo Graphics, but did not perform as well because the Rush chipset had to share memory bandwidth with the CRTC of the 2D chip. Furthermore, the Rush chipset was not directly present on the PCI bus but had to be programmed through linked registers of the 2D chip. Like the Voodoo Graphics, there was no interrupt mechanism, so the driver had to poll the Rush in order to determine whether a command had completed or not; the indirection through the 2D component added significant overhead here and tended to back up traffic on the PCI interface. The typical performance hit was around 10% compared to Voodoo Graphics, and even worse in windowed mode. Later, Rush boards were released by Hercules featuring 8 MiB VRAM and a 10% higher clock speed, in an attempt to close this performance gap.
Some manufacturers bundled a PC version of Atari Games' racing game San Francisco Rush, the arcade version of which utilised a slightly upgraded Voodoo Graphics chipset with an extra texture mapping unit and additional texture memory.
Sales of the Voodoo Rush cards were very poor, and the cards were discontinued within a year. The Voodoo Rush was 3dfx's first commercial failure.
Voodoo2
The 3Dfx Voodoo2, the successor to the Voodoo Graphics chipset released in March 1998, was architecturally similar, but the basic board configuration added a second texturing unit, allowing two textures to be drawn in a single pass.
The Voodoo2 required three chips and a separate VGA graphics card, whereas new competing 3D products, such as the ATI Rage Pro, Nvidia RIVA 128, and Rendition Verite 2200, were single-chip products. Despite some shortcomings, such as the card's dithered 16-bit 3D color rendering and 800x600 resolution limitations, no other manufacturers' products could match the smooth framerates that the Voodoo2 produced. It was a landmark (and expensive) achievement in PC 3D-graphics. Its excellent performance, and the mindshare gained from the original Voodoo Graphics, resulted in its success. Many users even preferred Voodoo2's dedicated purpose, because they were free to use the quality 2D card of their choice as a result. Some 2D/3D combined solutions at the time offered quite sub-par 2D quality and speed.
The Voodoo2 introduced Scan-Line Interleave (SLI), in which two Voodoo2 boards were connected together, each drawing half the scan lines of the screen. SLI increased the maximum resolution supported to 1024×768. Because of the high cost and inconvenience of using three separate graphics cards (two Voodoo 2 SLI plus the general purpose 2D graphics adapter), the Voodoo2 SLI scheme had minimal effect on total market share and was not a financial success. SLI capability was not offered in subsequent 3dfx board designs, although the technology would be later used to link the VSA-100 chips on the Voodoo 5. It was on this technology that Nvidia based its own SLI, rebranded Scalable Link Interface, which debuted on the GeForce 6 series in 2004.
The arrival of the Nvidia RIVA TNT with integrated 2D/3D chipset would offer minor challenge to the Voodoo2's supremacy months later.
Banshee
Near the end of 1998, 3dfx released the Banshee, which featured a lower price achieved through higher component integration, and a more complete feature-set including 2D acceleration, to target the mainstream consumer market. A single-chip solution, the Banshee was a combination of a 2D video card and partial (only one texture mapping unit) Voodoo2 3D hardware. Due to the missing second TMU, in 3D scenes which used multiple textures per polygon, the Voodoo2 was significantly faster. However, in scenes dominated by single-textured polygons, the Banshee could match or exceed the Voodoo2 due to its higher clock speed and resulting greater pixel fillrate.
Banshee's 2D acceleration was the first such hardware from 3dfx and it was very capable. It rivaled the fastest 2D cores from Matrox, Nvidia, and ATI. It consisted of a 128-bit 2D GUI engine and a 128-bit VESA VBE 3.0 VGA core. The graphics chip capably accelerated DirectDraw and supported all of the Windows Graphics Device Interface (GDI) in hardware, with all 256 raster operations and tertiary functions, and hardware polygon acceleration. The 2D core achieved near-theoretical maximum performance with a null driver test in Windows NT.
3dfx announced in January 1998 that the Banshee had sold about one million units. While Nvidia had yet to launch a product in the add-in board market that sold as well as 3dfx's Voodoo line, the company was gaining steady ground in the OEM market. The Nvidia RIVA TNT was a similar, highly integrated product that had two major advantages in greater 3D speed and 32-bit 3D color support. 3dfx, by contrast, had very limited OEM sales, as the Banshee was adopted only in small numbers by OEMs.
Rampage
In early 1998, 3dfx embarked on a new development project. The Rampage development project was new technology for use in a new graphics card that would take approximately two years to develop, and would supposedly be several years ahead of the competition once it debuted. The company hired hardware and software teams in Austin, Texas to develop 2D and 3D Windows device drivers for Rampage in the summer of 1998. The hardware team in Austin initially focused on Rampage, but then worked on transform and lighting (T&L) engines and on MPEG decoder technology. (Later, these technologies were part of the Nvidia asset purchase in December 2000.) The software team developed both device drivers and a binary-compatible soft emulation of the Rampage function set. Thus, there were working Windows NT device drivers within a few days of the power on of the Rampage system on the 2nd week of December, 2000.
Dreamcast
In 1997, 3dfx was working with entertainment company Sega to develop a new video game console hardware platform. Sega solicited two competing designs: a unit code-named "Katana", developed in Japan using NEC and Imagination Technologies (then VideoLogic) technology, and "Blackbelt", a system designed in the United States using 3dfx technology.
However, on July 22, 1997, 3dfx announced that Sega was terminating the development contract. Sega chose to use NEC's PowerVR chipset for its game console, though it still planned to purchase the rights to 3dfx's technology in order to prevent competitors from acquiring it.
3dfx said Sega has still not given a reason as to why it terminated the contract or why it chose NEC's accelerator chipset over 3dfx's. According to Dale Ford, senior analyst at Dataquest, a market research firm based in San Jose, California, a number of factors could have influenced Sega's decision to move to NEC, including NEC's proven track record of supplying chipsets for the Nintendo 64 and the demonstrated ability to be able to handle a major influx of capacity if the company decided to ramp up production on a moment's notice.
"This is a highly competitive market with price wars happening all the time and it would appear that after evaluating a number of choices—and the ramifications each choice brings—Sega went with a decision that it thought was best for the company's longevity," said Mr. Ford.
"Sega has to make a significant move to stay competitive and they need to make it soon. Now whether this move is to roll out another home console platform or move strictly to the PC gaming space is unknown."
Sega quickly quashed 3dfx's "Blackbelt" and used the NEC-based "Katana" as the model for the product that would be marketed and sold as the Dreamcast. 3dfx sued Sega for breach of contract, accusing Sega of starting the deal in bad faith in order to take 3dfx technology. The case was settled out of court.
Voodoo3 and strategy shift
3dfx executed a major strategy change just prior to the launch of Voodoo3 by purchasing STB Systems for US $141 million on December 14, 1998. STB Systems was one of the larger graphics card manufacturers at the time; the intent was for 3dfx to start manufacturing, marketing, and selling its own graphics cards, rather than functioning only as an OEM supplier. Purchase of STB was intended to give 3dfx access to that company's considerable OEM resources and sales channels, but the intended benefits of the acquisition never materialized. The two corporations were vastly different entities, with different cultures and structures, and they never integrated smoothly.
STB prior to the 3dfx acquisition also approached Nvidia as a potential partner to acquire the company. At the time, STB was Nvidia's largest customer and was only minimally engaged with 3dfx. 3dfx management mistakenly believed that acquiring STB would ensure OEM design wins with their products and that product limitations would be overcome with STB's knowledge in supporting the OEM sales/design win cycles. Nvidia decided not to acquire STB and to continue to support many brands of graphics board manufacturers. After STB was acquired by 3dfx, Nvidia focused on being a virtual graphics card manufacturer for the OEMs and strengthened its position in selling finished reference designs ready for market to the OEMs. STB's manufacturing facility in Juarez, Mexico was not able to compete from either a cost or quality point of view when compared to the burgeoning original design manufacturers (ODMs) and Contract electronic manufacturers (CEMs) that were delivering solutions in Asia for Nvidia. Prior to the STB merger finalizing, some of 3dfx's OEMs warned the company that any product from Juarez will not be deemed fit to ship with their systems, however 3dfx management believed these problems could be addressed over time. Those customers generally became Nvidia customers and no longer chose to ship 3dfx products.
The acquisition of STB was one of the main contributors to 3dfx's downfall; the Voodoo 3 became the first 3dfx chip to be developed in-house rather than by third-party manufacturers, which were a significant source of revenue for the company. These third-party manufacturers turned into competitors and began sourcing graphics chips from Nvidia. This also further alienated 3dfx's remaining OEM customers, as they had a single source for 3dfx products and could not choose an OEM to provide cost flexibility. With the purchase of STB, 3dfx created two cards targeting the low-end market, the Velocity 100, which has 8 MB of SDRAM, and the Velocity 200, which has 16 MB of SGRAM. The cards both used a chipset based on the Voodoo3 2000, and it was claimed that they were "underclocked". However, it was revealed by testing that the Velocity 100 chipset has the same clock speed as a typical Voodoo3 2000—at 143 MHz—and that, while one of its two TMUs is disabled in OpenGL and Glide applications for memory management, it can be re-enabled to increase those applications' performance, and AnandTech found no side effects of enabling the component.
As 3dfx focused more on the retail graphics card space, further inroads into the OEM space were limited. A significant requirement of the OEM business was the ability to consistently produce new products on the six-month product refresh cycle the computer manufacturers required; 3dfx did not have the methodology nor the mindset to focus on this business model. In the end, 3dfx opted to be a retail distribution company manufacturing their own branded products.
The Voodoo 3 was hyped as the graphics card that would make 3dfx the undisputed leader, but the actual product was below expectations. Though it was still the fastest as it edged the RIVA TNT2 by a small margin, the Voodoo3 lacked 32-bit color and large texture support. Though at that time few games supported large textures and 32-bit color, and those that did generally were too demanding to be run at playable framerates, the features "32-bit color support" and "2048×2048 textures" were much more impressive on paper than 16-bit color and 256×256 texture support. The Voodoo3 sold relatively well, but was disappointing compared to the first two models and 3dfx lost the market leadership to Nvidia.
As 3dfx attempted to counter the TNT2 threat, it was surprised by Nvidia's GeForce 256. The GeForce was a single-chip processor with integrated transform, lighting, triangle setup/clipping (hardware T&L), and rendering engines, giving it a significant performance advantage over the Voodoo3. The 3dfx Voodoo3 2000 PCI was the highest-performance 2D/3D card available for the Apple Macintosh at the time of its release, though support from 3dfx was labeled as 'beta' and required a firmware reflash. As game developers switched to DirectX and OpenGL, which respectively had become the industry standard and were becoming increasingly popular, 3dfx released its Glide API under the General Public License on December 6, 1999.
Downfall
The company's final product was code-named Napalm. Originally, this was just a Voodoo3 modified to support newer technologies and higher clock speeds, with performance estimated to be around the level of the RIVA TNT2. However, Napalm was delayed, and in the meantime Nvidia brought out their landmark GeForce 256 chip, which shifted even more of the computational work from the CPU to the graphics chip. Napalm would have been unable to compete with the GeForce, so it was redesigned to support multiple chip configurations, like the Voodoo2 had. The end-product was named VSA-100, with VSA standing for Voodoo Scalable Architecture. 3dfx was finally able to have a product that could defeat the GeForce.
However, by the time the VSA-100 based cards made it to the market, the GeForce 2 and ATI Radeon cards had arrived and were offering higher performance for the same price. The only real advantage the Voodoo 5 5500 had over the GeForce 2 GTS or Radeon was its superior spatial anti-aliasing implementation, and the fact that, relative to its peers, it didn't suffer such a large performance hit when anti-aliasing was enabled. 3dfx was fully aware of the Voodoo 5's speed deficiency, so they touted it as quality over speed, which was a reversal of the Voodoo 3 marketing which emphasized raw performance over features. 5500 sales were respectable but volumes were not at a level to keep 3dfx afloat.
The Voodoo 5 5000, which had 32 MB of VRAM to the 5500's 64 MB, was never launched, as the smaller frame buffer didn't significantly reduce cost over the Voodoo 5 5500.
The only other member of the Voodoo 5 line, the Voodoo 4 4500, was as much of a disaster as Voodoo Rush, because it had performance well short of its value-oriented peers combined with a late launch. Voodoo 4 was beaten in almost all areas by the GeForce 2 MX—a low-cost board sold mostly as an OEM part for computer manufacturers—and the Radeon VE.
One unusual trait of the Voodoo 4 and 5 was that the Macintosh versions of these cards had both VGA and DVI output jacks, whereas the PC versions had only the VGA connector. Also, the Mac versions of the Voodoo 4 and 5 had a vulnerability in that they did not support hardware-based MPEG2 decode acceleration, which hindered the playback of DVDs on a Mac equipped with a Voodoo graphics card.
The Voodoo 5 6000 never made it to market, due to a severe bug resulting in data corruption on the AGP bus on certain boards, and was limited to AGP 2x. It was thus incompatible with the new Pentium 4 motherboards. Only a few more than one thousand units of the graphics card were ever produced. Later tests proved that the Voodoo 5 6000 outperformed not only the GeForce 2 GTS and ATI Radeon 7200, but also the faster GeForce 2 Ultra and Radeon 7500. In some cases it was shown to compete well with the GeForce 3, trading performance places with the card on various tests. However, the prohibitively high production cost of the card, particularly the 4 chip setup, external power supply and 128 MB of VRAM (which would have made it the first consumer card with that amount of memory), would have likely hampered its competitiveness.
Acquisition and bankruptcy
On March 28, 2000, 3dfx bought GigaPixel for US$186 million, in order to help launch its products to market quicker.
In late 2000, not long after the launch of the Voodoo 4, several of 3dfx's creditors decided to initiate bankruptcy proceedings. 3dfx, as a whole, would have had virtually no chance of successfully contesting these proceedings, and instead opted to be bought by Nvidia, thus ceasing to exist as a company. The history of and participants in the 3dfx/Nvidia deal making can be read in the respective companies' financial filings from that time period. The resolution and legality of those arrangements (with respect to the purchase, 3dfx's creditors and its bankruptcy proceedings) were still being worked through the courts , nearly 9 years after the sale. A majority of the engineering and design team working on "Rampage" (the successor to the VSA-100 line) that remained with the transition, were requested and remained in house to work on what became the GeForce FX series. Others accepted employment with ATI to bring their knowledge to the creation of the X series of video cards and the development of Crossfire, their own version of SLI, and yet another interpretation of 3dfx's SLI ideal.
After Nvidia acquired 3dfx, mainly for its intellectual property, they announced that they would not provide technical support for 3dfx products. As of 2019, drivers and support are still offered by community websites. However, while functional, the drivers do not carry a manufacturer's backing and are considered beta software. For a limited time, Nvidia offered a program under which 3dfx owners could trade in their cards for Nvidia cards of similar performance. On December 15, 2000 3dfx apologized to the customers with a final press release. In 2003, the source code for 3dfx drivers leaked, resulting in fan-made, updated drivers and further support.
The 3dfx bankruptcy is in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, appeal, Docket # 11–15189. Following is a clerk's order as filed in the docket:
Although 1997 was marked by analysts as a turning point for 3dfx due to the marketing led by the new CEO Greg Ballard, there was criticism of Ballard's understanding of R&D in the graphics industry. Single-card 2D/3D solutions were taking over the market, and although Ballard saw the need and attempted to direct the company there with the Voodoo Banshee and the Voodoo3, both of these cost the company millions in sales and lost market share while diverting vital resources from the Rampage project. Then 3dfx released word in early 1999 that the still-competitive Voodoo2 would support only OpenGL and Glide under Microsoft's Windows 2000 operating system, and not Direct3D. Many games were transitioning to Direct3D at this point, and the announcement caused many PC gamers – the core demographic of 3dfx's market – to switch to Nvidia or ATI offerings for their new machines.
Ballard resigned shortly after, in January 2000.
Products
1 Texture mapping units:render output units
References
Further reading
External links
Greg Ballard discusses some of the reasons for 3dfx's decline, Stanford University, November 2006
Interview with AVOC
Companies based in San Jose, California
Computer companies disestablished in 2002
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2002
Defunct companies based in California
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
Graphics hardware companies
Nvidia
Computer companies established in 1994
1994 establishments in California
2002 disestablishments in California | [
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226619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303%20FA%20Premier%20League | 2002–03 FA Premier League | The 2002–03 FA Premier League (known as the FA Barclaycard Premiership for sponsorship reasons) was the 11th season of the Premier League, the top division in English football. The first matches were played on 17 August 2002 and the last were played on 11 May 2003.
Manchester United ended the campaign as champions for the eighth time in eleven years – an achievement made all the more remarkable by the fact that defending champions Arsenal had been in the lead by eight points on 2 March. After defeating Birmingham at the start of the season, Arsenal equalled a top-flight record of fourteen straight wins but failed to extend it in their next game at West Ham United, being held to a 2–2 draw. They remained unbeaten for 30 Premier League games, 23 of which were played away, until late October, and scored in a record 55 consecutive league games, beating the previous record of 47 set by Chesterfield during the 1930-31 Third Division North season. This run ended at Old Trafford on 7 December 2002, when Manchester United won 2–0. Arsenal then threw away a priceless lead against Bolton Wanderers and finally surrendered the title with a 3–2 home defeat to Leeds United in their antepenultimate game of the season, a result that also saved Leeds from relegation. Newcastle United and Chelsea were the remaining Champions League qualifiers, at the expense of Liverpool who had to settle for the UEFA Cup; they would be joined in Europe by Blackburn Rovers for a second successive season, along with Southampton who were back in Europe for the first time since 1984.
At the bottom end of the table, West Ham United, West Bromwich Albion and Sunderland were relegated to the Football League First Division; West Ham's 42 points from a 38-game season was a record for a relegated team. Promoted to replace them were 2002–03 Football League First Division champions Portsmouth, runners-up Leicester City, and play-off winner Wolverhampton Wanderers.
Teams
Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the First Division. The promoted teams were Manchester City (immediately returning after a season's absence), West Bromwich Albion, and Birmingham City (both teams returning to the top flight after a sixteen-year absence). This was also both West Bromwich Albion's and Birmingham City's first seasons in the Premier League. They replaced Ipswich Town (relegated after two seasons in the top flight), Derby County, and Leicester City (both teams relegated after a six-year presence).
Stadiums and locations
Personnel and kits
Managerial changes
League table
Results
Overall
Most wins – Manchester United (25)
Fewest wins – Sunderland (4)
Most draws – Bolton Wanderers (14)
Fewest draws – Leeds United (5)
Most losses – Sunderland (27)
Fewest losses – Manchester United (5)
Most goals scored – Arsenal (85)
Fewest goals scored – Sunderland (21)
Most goals conceded – West Bromwich Albion and Sunderland (65)
Fewest goals conceded – Manchester United (34)
Season statistics
Top scorers
Hat-tricks
4 Player scored 4 goals
Scoring
First goal of the season: Michael Ricketts for Bolton Wanderers against Fulham (17 August 2002)
Fastest goal of the season:
Largest winning margin: 6 goals
West Bromwich Albion 0–6 Liverpool (26 April 2003)
Highest scoring game: 8 goals
Manchester United 5–3 Newcastle United (23 November 2002)
Newcastle United 2–6 Manchester United (12 April 2003)
Most goals scored in a match by a losing team: 3 goals
West Ham United 3–4 Leeds United (10 November 2002)
Manchester United 5–3 Newcastle United (23 November 2002)
Bolton Wanderers 4–3 Newcastle United (26 December 2002)
Tottenham Hotspur 4–3 Everton (12 January 2003)
Clean sheets
Most clean sheets: 15
Blackburn Rovers
Fewest clean sheets: 5
Tottenham Hotspur
Discipline
Worst overall disciplinary record (1 pt per yellow card, 3 pts per red card):
Best overall disciplinary record:
Most yellow cards (club):
Most yellow cards (player): 13 – Iván Campo (Bolton Wanderers)
Most red cards (club):
Most red card (player): 3
Franck Queudrue (Middlesbrough)
Most fouls (player):
Awards
Monthly awards
Annual awards
PFA Players' Player of the Year
The PFA Players' Player of the Year award for 2003 was won by Thierry Henry of Arsenal. This was the Frenchman's first award of the season and he beat off competition from the previous winner Ruud van Nistelrooy.
The shortlist for the PFA Players' Player of the Year award, in alphabetical order, was as follows:
PFA Young Player of the Year
The PFA Young Player of the Year award was won by Jermaine Jenas of Newcastle United. Wayne Rooney was voted runner-up, and John O'Shea finished third in one of his first full seasons as a United player.
The shortlist for the award was as follows:
PFA Team of the Year
Premier League Manager of the Year
The Premier League Manager of the Year award was won by Sir Alex Ferguson for winning his eighth title and regaining the league after a superb second half to the season, involving an 18-match unbeaten run.
Premier League Player of the Year
The Premier League Player of the Year award was given to Ruud van Nistelrooy, whose form, creativity and goals all helped Manchester United regain the league from Arsenal.
Premier League Golden Boot
The Premier League Golden Boot award was also won by Ruud van Nistelrooy who scored 25 goals in 38 league matches and 44 in all competitions. He also equalled his record of eight goals in eight successive matches at the beginning of the season, a milestone he had reached the previous season. Van Nistelrooy finished one goal ahead of Arsenal's Thierry Henry while James Beattie managed 23 league goals for Southampton.
Premier League Golden Gloves
The Premier League Golden Gloves award was given to Chelsea goalkeeper Carlo Cudicini, who proved vital in their quest for UEFA Champions League football. He kept twelve clean sheets – the most in the season – and only conceded 35 goals. Viewers of ITV's On the Ball voted Cudicini, ahead of Southampton keeper Antti Niemi, and Blackburn Rovers' Brad Friedel.
Goal of the Season
The annual award was won by a wonder goal from Thierry Henry against Tottenham Hotspur, on 16 November 2002, voted by viewers of ITV's The Premiership.
The French striker picked up the ball from his side of the pitch and ran almost , twisting and turning the Spurs defence to unleash a thunderous shot. In celebration, he ran the distance of the whole pitch and skidded in front of the Spurs faithful. The goal proved important as it helped them regain their position at the top of the Premiership from Liverpool.
Premier League Fair Play Award
The Premier League Fair Play Award was won by Manchester United.
See also
2002–03 in English football
2003–04 FA Premier League
References
External links
2002–03 Premier League Season at RSSSF
2002–03 FA Premier League Review
Soccerbot's 2002–03 Premier League Review
Barclaycard Premiership club-by-club Season Review
Premier League seasons
Eng
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226622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Modern%20Library | American Modern Library | American Modern Library may refer to:
Modern Library
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226626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala%20Sahitya%20Akademi | Kerala Sahitya Akademi | The Kerala Sahitya Akademi or Academy for Malayalam literature is an autonomous body established to promote the Malayalam language and literature. It is situated in City of Thrissur, Kerala in India.
History
The academy was inaugurated on 15 October 1956, by Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, the former king of Travancore, in Thiruvananthapuram. It was shifted to its present location at City of Thrissur in September, 1957. Though the Kerala Government provides the funding and support for the academy, the administration of the academy is autonomous according to its constitution. The academy recognises superior literary works through its annual literary awards for Poetry, Novel, Story, Drama, Literary criticism, Biography – autobiography, Travelogue, Humour, Translation, Children's literature etc.. the academy is headed by Malayalam short story writer Vaisakhan, who is serving as its president, Khadija Mumtaz as its vice president, and K P Mohanan as its secretary.
Activities
The Academy has one of the best libraries in Kerala. It is an approved doctoral research centre for the universities in Kerala. The Akademi also holds periodic book festivals to encourage reading among the masses. The Akademi has a picture gallery of writers of yester years. The Akademi regularly publishes three journals Sahithyalokam, Sahithya Chakravalam and Malayalam Literary Survey (in English). The Akademi awards the illustrious Ezhuthachan Puraskaram, which is named after the father of Malayalam literature Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, yearly to prominent literary figures.
See also
Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award
Sahitya Akademi
References
External links
Kerala Sahitya Academy
Kerala Sahitya Academy: Governing Body
Sahitya Akademy : India's National Academy of Letters
Culture of Kerala
Malayalam language
Indic literature societies
Organisations based in Thrissur
Non-profit organisations based in India
Language regulators
1956 establishments in Kerala
Organizations established in 1956 | [
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226628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanation | Emanation | Emanation may refer to:
Emanation (), a dated name for the chemical element radon
Emanation From Below, a concept in Slavic religion
Emanation in the Eastern Orthodox Church, a belief found in Neoplatonism
Emanation of the state, a legal term for a public service body
Emanationism, an idea in the cosmology or cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems
"Emanations" (Star Trek: Voyager), a 1995 episode of Star Trek: Voyager
Emanations (Penderecki), a 1958 composition by Krzysztof Penderecki
See also
Aeon (Gnosticism)
Emanate, a 1999 album by Penumbra | [
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226629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consideration%20under%20American%20law | Consideration under American law | Consideration is the central concept in the common law of contracts and is required, in most cases, for a contract to be enforceable. Consideration is the price one pays for another's promise. It can take a number of forms: money, property, a promise, the doing of an act, or even refraining from doing an act. In broad terms, if one agrees to do something he was not otherwise legally obligated to do, it may be said that he has given consideration. For example, Jack agrees to sell his car to Jill for $100. Jill's payment of $100 (or her promise to do so) is the consideration for Jack's promise to give Jill the car, and Jack's promise to give Jill the car is consideration for Jill's payment of $100.
Elements of consideration
The Restatement (Second) of Contracts states that the elements of consideration are as follows:
An example of this is renting of apartment. The landlord and tenant come together to discuss the terms of the exchange (most of the time, the leasing is outlined in a contract). Thus, they have fulfilled the first requirement of consideration. To meet the second element, there must be a mutual exchange. In this case, the landlord provides housing, while the tenant provides rent payment. Third, the bargain terms must be of value. The apartment is worth what the tenant hands over each month. Therefore, this contract has met its consideration requirement, because it fits all elements of consideration.
Lack of Consideration
Past consideration is not valid. Something that is already done is done, and it does not change the legal position of the promisor. Any goods or services to be exchanged must be exchanged at or after the time of contract formation.
Preexisting duty does not count as consideration.
An illusory promise, or one which the promisor actually has no obligation to keep, does not count as consideration. The promise must be real and unconditional. This doctrine rarely invalidates contracts; it is a fundamental doctrine in contract law that courts should try to enforce contracts whenever possible. Accordingly, courts will often read implied-in-fact or implied-in-law terms into the contract, placing duties on the promisor. For instance, if a promisor promises to give away a third of his earnings for the year and earns nothing, he has no actual obligation to do anything.
Exceptions to the Consideration Requirement
Modern contract theory has also permitted remedies on alternative theories such as promissory estoppel. Also, modifications to existing lease agreements (as opposed to the creation of a new lease agreement) do not require consideration, nor do modifications to existing sale contracts Furthermore a promise to perform a moral obligation—the classic example is of a promise to support a person injured while coming to the rescue of the promisor—is enforceable provided the promissee was harmed in conferring a benefit on the promisor and the promise is not disproportionate to the benefit. The promise to pay a debt discharged by bankruptcy, the promise to perform a conditional responsibility despite the nonoccurrence of the condition, and the promise to perform on a voidable contract form a category of moral obligations that can bind in the absence of consideration.
Contract modification
Service contracts and, in the United States, other contracts not governed by the Uniform Commercial Code, generally require consideration to modify a contract (because of what is called the pre-existing duty rule).
Theories of Consideration
There are two common theories that attempt to explain consideration. The first is "benefit-detriment theory," in which a contract must be either to the benefit of the promisor or to the detriment of the promisee to constitute consideration (though detriment to the promisee is the essential and invariable test of the existence of a consideration rather than whether it can be constituted by benefit to the promisor). The second is "bargain theory," in which the parties subjectively view the contract to be the product of an exchange or bargain. Bargain theory has largely replaced benefit-detriment theory in modern contract theory, but judges often cite both and may use both models in their decisions. These theories usually overlap; in standard contracts, such as a contract to buy a car, there will be both an objective benefit and detriment. However, there are certain contracts which satisfy one but not the other. For instance, a deal in which the promisee feels subjectively relieved, but has not actually gained any legal rights, might satisfy the bargain theory but not the benefit-detriment theory. Alternatively, a deal in which an actor takes detrimental actions possibly in reaction to an offer, without having viewed the deal as a bargain, would not be viewed as a contract under the law.
The main purpose of the shift from benefit-detriment to bargain theory is to avoid inquiries into whether consideration is adequate. For example, if a person promised you their car for $1.00 because they needed to get rid of it, then the $1.00 might seem adequate. However, if it were your birthday and your friend wrote down "I give you my car in consideration of one dollar," this same consideration would not seem adequate. Thus whether $1.00 is consideration does not depend on the benefit received but whether the $1.00 had actually been bargained for.
In some jurisdictions, contracts calling for such nominal or "peppercorn" consideration will be upheld unless a particular contract is deemed unconscionable. However, in other jurisdictions, the court will reject "consideration" that had not been truly bargained for. Occasionally the courts in these jurisdictions may refer to "adequate" or "valuable" consideration, but in reality the court is not examining the adequacy of consideration, but whether it had been bargained for. The traditional notion that courts won't look into the adequacy of consideration, an ancient notion in the English common law, doesn't square with the benefit-detriment theory (in which courts are implicitly analyzing if the parties are receiving a sufficient benefit) but does square with the bargain theory (in which only the subjective intentions of the parties are considered).
Purposes of Consideration
There are three main purposes cited for the consideration requirement. The first is the cautionary requirement - parties are more likely to look before they leap when making a bargain than when making an off-the-cuff promise of a gift. The second is the evidentiary requirement - parties are more likely to commemorate, or at least remember, a promise made due to a bargaining process. The third is the channeling requirement - parties are more likely to coherently stipulate their specific desires when they are forced to bargain for them. Each of these rationales ensure that contracts are made by serious parties and are not made in error.
See also
US contract law
English contract law
Consideration in English law
Notes
References
AL Corbin, 'The Effect of Options on Consideration' (1925) 34(6) Yale Law Journal 571-590
United States contract law | [
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226630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20English%20words%20without%20rhymes | List of English words without rhymes | The following is a list of English words without rhymes, called refractory rhymes—that is, a list of words in the English language that rhyme with no other English word. The word "rhyme" here is used in the strict sense, called a perfect rhyme, that the words are pronounced the same from the vowel of the main stressed syllable onwards. The list was compiled from the point of view of Received Pronunciation (with a few exceptions for General American), and may not work for other accents or dialects. Multiple-word rhymes (a phrase that rhymes with a word, known as a phrasal or mosaic rhyme), self-rhymes (adding a prefix to a word and counting it as a rhyme of itself), and identical rhymes (words that are identical in their stressed syllables, such as bay and obey) are often not counted as true rhymes and have not been considered. Only the list of one-syllable words can hope to be anything near complete; for polysyllabic words, rhymes are the exception rather than the rule.
Definition of perfect rhyme
Following the strict definition of rhyme, a perfect rhyme demands the exact match of all sounds from the last stressed vowel to the end of the word. Therefore, words with the stress far from the end are more likely to have no perfect rhymes. For instance, a perfect rhyme for discomBOBulate would have to rhyme three syllables, -OBulate. There are many words that match most of the sounds from the stressed vowel onwards and so are near rhymes, called slant rhymes. Ovulate, copulate, and populate, for example, vary only slightly in one consonant from discombobulate, and thus provide very usable rhymes for most situations in which a rhyme for discombobulate is desired. However, no other English word has exactly these three final syllables with this stress pattern. And since in most traditions the stressed syllable should not be identical—the consonant before the stressed vowel should be different—adding a prefix to a word, as be-elbow for elbow, does not create a perfect rhyme for it.
Words that rhyme in one accent or dialect may not rhyme in another. A commonplace example of this is the word of , which when stressed had no rhymes in British Received Pronunciation prior to the 19th century, but which rhymed with grave and mauve in some varieties of General American. In the other direction, iron has no rhyme in General American, but many in RP. Words may also have more than one pronunciation, one with a rhyme, and one without.
Words with obscure perfect rhymes
This list includes rhymes of words that have been listed as rhymeless.
aitch rhymes with dialectal nache (the bony point on the rump of an ox or cow), Rach, a hypocoristic for the name Rachel, and one pronunciation of obsolete rache (a streak down a horse's face).
angst rhymes with manxed and wangst, self-indulgent self-pity (a portmanteau of wank and angst); phalanxed is not a perfect rhyme because the stress is on the wrong syllable. The alternative American pronunciation has no rhymes.
arugula rhymes with Bugula, a genus of bryozoan, in American English.
beige rhymes with greige, a colour between grey and beige.
blitzed rhymes with spritzed, from spritz, to squirt with water or mist.
boing, -s rhymes with doing (etymology 2), the sound made by an elastic object when struck by or striking a hard object, and toing/toings, the sound of a metallic vibration.
bombed rhymes with glommed, American slang for 'attached'.
cairn rhymes with bairn, a Northern English and Scottish word meaning child.
chaos rhymes with naos, the inner chamber of a temple.
chocolate rhymes with auklet, any of the smaller species of auks, in General American, in which the vowel in the accented syllable is pronounced /ɑ/ in both words.
circle rhymes with hurkle, to pull in all one's limbs; novercal, like a stepmother; squircle, a geometric shape resembling a square with rounded edges (e.g., Lamé's special quartic); opercle, an opercular bone; and the surnames of Angela Merkel (as pronounced in English), Studs Terkel, and Steve Urkel.
circus rhymes with murcous, having cut off one's thumb.
cleansed rhymes with lensed, "provided with a lens or lenses".
coif rhymes with boyf, slang for "boyfriend".
cusp rhymes with , an acronym for "dual-specificity phosphatase enzyme".
doth rhymes with Cuth, a hypocoristic for the name Cuthbert, as in "Cuth's Day" at St. Cuthbert's Society.
else rhymes with wels, the fish Silurus glanis; and Chels, a hypocoristic for the name Chelsea.
eth rhymes with Castilian Spanish merced, 'gift', which is occasionally used in English.
fiends rhymes with teinds, Scottish word for the portion of an estate assessed for the stipend of the clergy, and archaic Scottish piends.
film, -s rhymes with pilm, Scottish word for dust. The plural films rhymes with Wilms, a German surname and a kidney tumor
flange rhymes with Ange, a hypocoristic for the name Angela.
fourths rhymes with North's, belonging to someone named North (such as Oliver North or Kanye West and Kim Kardashian's daughter North West).
grilse rhymes with fils (etymology 2), a hundredth or thousandth of the monetary units of many Arab countries.
gulf, -s rhymes with (pl. Sulfs), any of a number of sulfate-regulating enzymes.
kiln, -s, if pronounced , rhymes with the surname Milne. The plural rhymes with Milne's, belonging to someone with the surname Milne.
loge rhymes with the English pronunciation of Limoges, a city in France, and a kind of porcelain.
midst rhymes with didst, the archaic second-person singular for did (used with thou).
month rhymes with oneth, a mathematical term; also en-plus-oneth (n + 1)th and hundred-and-oneth (= hundred-and-first). This also appears in fractions and so takes the plural, as in twenty thirty-oneths.
music rhymes with anchusic, as in anchusic acid; dysgeusic, having a disorder that causes alterations in one's sense of taste; ageusic, lacking a sense of taste; and sheltopusik, a lizard of Europe and Central Asia.
neutron , in American English, rhymes with Lutron, an electronics company based in Coopersburg, Pennsylvania.
ninja, -s rhymes with Rohingya, a minority group in Myanmar, and Shinja, a Christian who practices martial arts (in rhotic accents such as General American; in non-rhotic accents such as RP, these words also rhyme with ginger, injure, etc.).
oblige rhymes with Nige, a hypocoristic for the name Nigel.
oink, -s rhymes with yoink/yoinks, a colloquial interjection expressing the stealing or sudden acquisition of something; boink/boinks, a slang word meaning "to have sex with"; and Spoink, a Pokémon species introduced in Generation III.
opus (with a short 0), , rhymes with Hoppus, a method of measuring timber and surname of Mark Hoppus, lead singer of Blink-182; and, in American English, one pronunciation of tapas, Mexican finger food.
orange , rhymes with "door hinge" in certain accents and Blorenge, a hill in Wales. Webster's Third gives two pronunciations for sporange, one of which rhymes. However, one is a spelling pronunciation based on orange, and the OED only has the non-rhyming pronunciation, with the stress on the ange : . The American pronunciation of orange with one syllable has no rhyme, even in non-rhotic accents.
pint rhymes with rynt, a word milkmaids use to get a cow to move.
plagued rhymes with vagued, meaning "wandered/roamed" or "became vague/acted vaguely".
plankton rhymes with Yankton, a member of a western branch of the Dakota people and several American place names named after the people.
plinth rhymes with synth, colloquial for synthesizer.
poem , in American English, rhymes with the Hebrew names Noam, Jeroboam and Rehoboam; no'm, a dialectal contraction for "no, ma'am"; or with phloem (/ˈfləʊ.əm/) (pronunciations vary).
poet rhymes with coit, to have sex.
purple rhymes with curple, the hindquarters of a horse or donkey, hirple, to walk with a limp, nurple, the act of roughly twisting a nipple (slang).
quaich rhymes with scraich/scraigh, Scots for "to screech", and one pronunciation of abeigh, a rare Scottish word meaning "cautiously aloof".
rhythm rhymes with smitham, fine malt or ore dust.
rouged rhymes with luged, having ridden on a luge.
silver rhymes with chilver, a female lamb.
siren rhymes with gyron, a type of triangle in heraldry; environ, meaning to encircle or surround; the given names Byron and Myron; and apeiron, meaning infinity.
soldier rhymes with the surnames Bolger and Folger sylph rhymes with MILF/milf, vulgar slang; and Wilf, a hypocorism for the name Wilfred.
thesp rhymes with hesp, a measure of two hanks of linen thread in Scotland; and Cresp, a French surname.
toilet rhymes with oillet, an eyelet.
torsk rhymes with Norsk, a rural locality in Russia
tufts rhymes with scufts, the third-person singular form of the dialectal verb scuft.
waltzed rhymes with schmaltzed, as in "schmaltzed up" (see schmaltz).
wasp rhymes with knosp, "an ornament in the form of a bud or knob".
wharves rhymes with dwarves, the variant of dwarfs usually used in fantasy of the Tolkienian model.
width rhymes with obsolete sidth, meaning length.
woman rhymes with toman (some pronunciations), a Persian coin and military division.
yttrium rhymes with liberum arbitrium, a legal term.
Non-rhyming English words
The majority of words with antepenultimate stress, such as ambulance, citizen, dangerous and obvious, and with preantepenultimate stress, such as (un)necessary, logarithm, algorithm and sacrificing, have no rhyme.
Masculine rhymes
Refractory one-syllable rhymes are uncommon; there may be fewer than a hundred in English. A great many end in a present or historical suffix -th, or are plural or participle forms. This list includes a few polysyllabic masculine rhymes such as obliged, which have one syllable in their rhyming part.
adzed
against (the word is also pronounced with , in which case it has rhymes like "sensed")
airt (rhymes with the Scots pronunciations of a number of other words, e.g. "pairt", a Scots variant of "part")
alb /-ælb/ (rhymes with some pronunciations of the proper noun "Kalb" in the name of Johann de Kalb)
amongst /-ʌŋst/ ("quincunxed" could qualify as a rhyme if its second syllable is given secondary stress and if secondary stress is considered sufficient for a perfect rhyme)
angsts
bilge
boinged
borscht (could rhyme with a dialectal North American pronunciation of "washed" as "worshed/warshed")
borshch /- ɔrʃtʃ/ (pronunciation variant of the above)
breadth, -s
bronzed
bulb, -s, -ed
calced (may rhyme with "valsed" in British English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary)
combs (combinations)
coolth
corpsed
culm
delft
depth, -s
dreamt (sometimes pronounced , causing "dreamt" to rhyme with exempt, tempt, etc.)
dumbth
eighth, -s
excerpts (verb)
false
fifth, -ed, -s
filmed
glimpsed
goonch
gouge(d)
(en)gulfed
kilned (but not when pronounced as )
kirsch
midsts
mulcts
ninth, -s
obliged
obvs
oomph
pierced
prompts or
scarce
sculpts
sixth, -s
sowthed, southed
spoilt
stilb
swoln
traipsed
twelfth, -s The "f" in "twelfth" is commonly elided in casual speech, causing "twelfth" to rhyme with "health" and "wealth".
unbeknownst
vuln, -ed, -s
warmth
whilst
with (the word is also pronounced with , in which case it has rhymes like "pith")
wolf, -ed, -s
wolve, -d, -s
worlds
wounds
yoicks, joik, -s pork and forge have no rhymes in conservative RP and GA. However, the distinction between horse and hoarse has been mostly lost in younger generations, and for them and many others pork which was an exception to the normal rule, now rhymes with fork, cork, etc. (). The OED no longer lists as an alternative pronunciation in its third edition.
Nonce words ending in -ed ('provided with') may produce other potentially refractory masculine rhymes. There are additional words which are only partially assimilated into English, such as Russian kovsh , which are refractory rhymes.
The contraction daren't has no known rhymes in any English dialect, however the legitimacy of contractions as a single word is disputed. Regardless of this, daren't lacks both perfect rhymes and phrasal rhymes.
Although not meant as a complete list, there are some additional refractory rhymes in GA. Some of these are due to RP being a non-rhotic accent, and having merged rhymes formerly distinguished by .
heighth, -s
iron
karsts
Feminine rhymes
For feminine rhymes, the final two syllables must match to count as a rhyme. Once the stress shifts to the penultimate syllable, rhymeless words are quite common, perhaps even the norm: there may be more rhymeless words than words with rhymes. The following words are representative, but there are thousands of others.
angel
angry
anxious
chimney
comment
elbow
empty
engine
foible
foyer hundred(th)
husband
liquid
luggage
monster
nothing
olive
penguin
polka
problem
sanction
sandwich
secret
something
zigzag''
See also
List of closed pairs of English rhyming words
Notes
External links
Slant rhymes for words without perfect rhymes
Rhyme
Rhyme | [
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226631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic%20regression | Logistic regression | In statistics, the logistic model (or logit model) is used to model the probability of a certain class or event existing such as pass/fail, win/lose, alive/dead or healthy/sick. This can be extended to model several classes of events such as determining whether an image contains a cat, dog, lion, etc. Each object being detected in the image would be assigned a probability between 0 and 1, with a sum of one.
Logistic regression is a statistical model that in its basic form uses a logistic function to model a binary dependent variable, although many more complex extensions exist. In regression analysis, logistic regression (or logit regression) is estimating the parameters of a logistic model (a form of binary regression). Mathematically, a binary logistic model has a dependent variable with two possible values, such as pass/fail which is represented by an indicator variable, where the two values are labeled "0" and "1". In the logistic model, the log-odds (the logarithm of the odds) for the value labeled "1" is a linear combination of one or more independent variables ("predictors"); the independent variables can each be a binary variable (two classes, coded by an indicator variable) or a continuous variable (any real value). The corresponding probability of the value labeled "1" can vary between 0 (certainly the value "0") and 1 (certainly the value "1"), hence the labeling; the function that converts log-odds to probability is the logistic function, hence the name. The unit of measurement for the log-odds scale is called a logit, from logistic unit, hence the alternative names. Analogous models with a different sigmoid function instead of the logistic function can also be used, such as the probit model; the defining characteristic of the logistic model is that increasing one of the independent variables multiplicatively scales the odds of the given outcome at a constant rate, with each independent variable having its own parameter; for a binary dependent variable this generalizes the odds ratio.
In a binary logistic regression model, the dependent variable has two levels (categorical). Outputs with more than two values are modeled by multinomial logistic regression and, if the multiple categories are ordered, by ordinal logistic regression (for example the proportional odds ordinal logistic model). The logistic regression model itself simply models probability of output in terms of input and does not perform statistical classification (it is not a classifier), though it can be used to make a classifier, for instance by choosing a cutoff value and classifying inputs with probability greater than the cutoff as one class, below the cutoff as the other; this is a common way to make a binary classifier. The coefficients are generally not computed by a closed-form expression, unlike linear least squares; see . The logistic regression as a general statistical model was originally developed and popularized primarily by Joseph Berkson, beginning in , where he coined "logit"; see .
Applications
Logistic regression is used in various fields, including machine learning, most medical fields, and social sciences. For example, the Trauma and Injury Severity Score (TRISS), which is widely used to predict mortality in injured patients, was originally developed by Boyd using logistic regression. Many other medical scales used to assess severity of a patient have been developed using logistic regression. Logistic regression may be used to predict the risk of developing a given disease (e.g. diabetes; coronary heart disease), based on observed characteristics of the patient (age, sex, body mass index, results of various blood tests, etc.). Another example might be to predict whether a Nepalese voter will vote Nepali Congress or Communist Party of Nepal or Any Other Party, based on age, income, sex, race, state of residence, votes in previous elections, etc. The technique can also be used in engineering, especially for predicting the probability of failure of a given process, system or product. It is also used in marketing applications such as prediction of a customer's propensity to purchase a product or halt a subscription, etc. In economics it can be used to predict the likelihood of a person ending up in the labor force, and a business application would be to predict the likelihood of a homeowner defaulting on a mortgage. Conditional random fields, an extension of logistic regression to sequential data, are used in natural language processing.
A simple example: one explanatory variable, two categories
As a very simple example of binary logistic regression, we wish to answer the following question:
A group of 20 students spends between 0 and 6 hours studying for an exam. How does the number of hours spent studying affect the probability of the student passing the exam?
The reason for using logistic regression for this problem is that the values of the dependent variable, pass and fail, while represented by "1" and "0", are not cardinal numbers. If the problem was changed so that pass/fail was replaced with the grade 0–100 (cardinal numbers), then simple regression analysis could be used.
The table shows the number of hours each student spent studying, and whether they passed (1) or failed (0).
We wish to fit a logistic function to the data consisting of the hours studied (xk) and the outcome of the test (yk =1 for pass, 0 for fail). The data points are indexed by the subscript k which runs from k=1 to k=K=20. The x variable is called the "explanatory variable", and the y variable is called the "categorical variable" consisting of two categories: "pass" or "fail" corresponding to the categorical values 1 and 0 respectively.
The logistic function is of the form:
where μ is a location parameter (the midpoint of the curve, where p(μ)=1/2 ) and s is a scale parameter. This expression may be rewritten as:
where β0 = -μ/s and is known as the intercept, and β1 = 1/s. We may define the "fit" to yk at a given xk as:
The pk are the probabilities that the corresponding yk will be unity and 1-pk are the probabilities that they will be zero (see Bernoulli distribution). We wish to find the values of β0 and β1 which give the "best fit" to the data. In the case of linear regression, the sum of the squared deviations of the fit from the data points (yk) is taken as a measure of the goodness of fit, and the best fit is obtained when that function is minimized. In the case of logistic regression, the measure of goodness of fit is given by the likelihood function, which is the probability that the given data set is produced by a particular logistic function:
and the best fit is obtained for those choices of β0 and β1 where L is maximized. The maximum of L will also be the maximum of the log-likelihood ℓ, defined as the logarithm of L:
Since ℓ is nonlinear in β0 and β1, determining their optimum values will require numerical methods. Note that one method of maximizing ℓ is to require the derivatives of ℓ with respect to β0 and β1 to be zero:
and the maximization procedure can be accomplished by solving the above two equations for β0 and β1, which again, will generally require the use of numerical methods.
The values of β0 and β1 which maximize ℓ and L using the above data are found to be:
which yields a value for μ of:
The logistic regression analysis gives the following output.
By the Wald test, the output indicates that hours studying is significantly associated with the probability of passing the exam (. The β0 and β1 coefficients may be entered into the logistic regression equation to estimate the probability of passing the exam.
For example, for a student who studies 2 hours, entering the value into the equation gives the estimated probability of passing the exam of 0.26:
Similarly, for a student who studies 4 hours, the estimated probability of passing the exam is 0.87:
This table shows the probability of passing the exam for several values of hours studying.
The output from the logistic regression analysis gives a p-value of , which is based on the Wald z-score. Rather than the Wald method, the recommended method to calculate the p-value for logistic regression is the likelihood-ratio test (LRT), which for this data gives . (see section #Error and significance of the fit below)
This simple model is an example of binary logistic regression, and has one explanatory variable and a binary categorical variable which can assume one of two categorical values. Multinomial logistic regression is the generalization of binary logistic regression to include any number of explanatory variables and any number of categories.
Many explanatory variables, two categories
The above example of binary logistic regression on one explanatory variable can be generalized to binary logistic regression on any number of explanatory variables x1, x2,... and any number of categorical values y=0,1,2,....
To begin with, we may consider a logistic model with M explanatory variables, x1, x2 ... xM and, as in the example above, two categorical values (y = 0 and 1). For the simple binary logistic regression model, we assumed a linear relationship between the predictor variable and the log-odds (also called logit) of the event that . This linear relationship may be extended to the case of M explanatory variables:
where t is the log-odds and are parameters of the model. An additional generalization has been introduced in which the base of the model (b) is not restricted to the Euler number e. In most applications, the base of the logarithm is usually taken to be e. However, in some cases it can be easier to communicate results by working in base 2 or base 10.
For a more compact notation, we will specify the explanatory variables and the β coefficients as (M+1)-dimensional vectors:
with an added explanatory variable x0 =1. The logit may now be written as:
Solving for the probability p that yields:
,
where is the sigmoid function with base . The above formula shows that once the are fixed, we can easily compute either the log-odds that for a given observation, or the probability that for a given observation. The main use-case of a logistic model is to be given an observation x, and estimate the probability p(x) that y=1. The optimum beta coefficients may again be found by maximizing the log-likelihood. For K measurements, defining xk as the explanatory vector of the k-th measurement, and yk as the categorical outcome of that measurement, the log likelihood may be written in a form very similar to the simple M=1 case above:
As in the simple example above, finding the optimum β parameters will require numerical methods. One useful technique is to equate the derivatives of the log likelihood with respect to each of the β parameters to zero yielding a set of equations which will hold at the maximum of the log likelihood:
where xmk is the value of the xm explanatory variable from the k-th measurement.
Consider an example with M=2 explanatory variables, , and coefficients , , and which have been determined by the above method. To be concrete, the model is:
,
where p is the probability of the event that . This can be interpreted as follows:
is the y-intercept. It is the log-odds of the event that , when the predictors . By exponentiating, we can see that when the odds of the event that are 1-to-1000, or . Similarly, the probability of the event that when can be computed as
means that increasing by 1 increases the log-odds by . So if increases by 1, the odds that increase by a factor of . Note that the probability of has also increased, but it has not increased by as much as the odds have increased.
means that increasing by 1 increases the log-odds by . So if increases by 1, the odds that increase by a factor of Note how the effect of on the log-odds is twice as great as the effect of , but the effect on the odds is 10 times greater. But the effect on the probability of is not as much as 10 times greater, it's only the effect on the odds that is 10 times greater.
Multinomial logistic regression: Many explanatory variable and many categories
In the above cases of two categories (binomial logistic regression), the categories were indexed by "0" and "1", and we had two probability distributions: The probability that the outcome was in category 1 was given by and the probability that the outcome was in category 0 was given by . The sum of both probabilities is equal to unity, as they must be.
In general, if we have M+1 explanatory variables (including x0) and N+1 categories, we will need N+1 separate probability distributions, one for each category, indexed by n, which describe the probability that the categorical outcome y for explanatory vector x will be in category y=n. It will also be required that the sum of these probabilities over all categories be equal to unity. Using the mathematically convenient base e, these probabilities are:
for n=1,2,...,N
Each of the probabilities except will have their own set of regression coefficients . It can be seen that, as required, the sum of the over all categories is unity. Note that the selection of to be defined in terms of the other probabilities is artificial. Any of the probabilities could have been selected to be so defined. This special value of n is termed the "pivot index", and the log-odds (tn) are expressed in terms of the pivot probability and are again expressed as a linear combination of the explanatory variables:
Note also that for the simple case of N=1, the two-category case is recovered, with and .
The log-likelihood that a particular set of K measurements or data points will be generated by the above probabilities can now be calculated. Indexing each measurement by k, let the k-th set of measured explanatory variables be denoted by and their categorical outcomes be denoted by which can be equal to any integer in [0,N]. The log-likelihood is then:
where is an indicator function which is equal to unity if yk = n and zero otherwise. In the case of two explanatory variables, this indicator function was defined as yk when n = 1 and 1-yk when n = 0. This was convenient, but not necessary.. Again, the optimum beta coefficients may be found by maximizing the log-likelihood function generally using numerical methods. A possible method of solution is to set the derivatives of the log-likelihood with respect to each beta coefficient equal to zero and solve for the beta coefficients:
where is the m-th coefficient of the vector and is the m-th explanatory variable of the k-th measurement. Once the beta coefficients have been estimated from the data, we will be able to estimate the probability that any subsequent set of explanatory variables will result in any of the possible outcome categories.
Error and significance of the fit
Deviance and likelihood ratio test - a simple case
In any fitting procedure, the addition of another fitting parameter to a model (e.g. the beta parameters in a logistic regression model) will almost always improve the ability of the model to predict the measured outcomes. This will be true even if the additional term has no predictive value, since the model will simply be "overfitting" to the noise in the data. The question arises as to whether the improvement gained by the addition of another fitting parameter is significant enough to recommend the inclusion of the additional term, or whether the improvement is simply that which may be expected from overfitting.
In short, for logistic regression, a statistic known as the deviance is defined which is a measure of the error between the logistic model fit and the outcome data. In the limit of a large number of data points, the deviance is chi-squared distributed, which allows a chi-squared test to be implemented in order to determine the significance of the explanatory variables.
Linear regression and logistic regression have many similarities. For example, in simple linear regression, a set of K data points (xk, yk) are fitted to a proposed model function of the form . The fit is obtained by choosing the b parameters which minimize the sum of the squares of the residuals (the squared error term) for each data point:
.
The minimum value which constitutes the fit will be denoted by
The idea of a null model may be introduced, in which it is assumed that the x variable is of no use in predicting the yk outcomes: The data points are fitted to a null model function of the form y=b0 with a squared error term:
.
The fitting process consists of choosing a value of b0 which minimizes of the fit to the null model, denoted by where the subscript denotes the null model. It is seen that the null model is optimized by where is the mean of the yk values, and the optimized is:
which is proportional to the square of the (uncorrected) sample standard deviation of the yk data points.
We can imagine a case where the yk data points are randomly assigned to the various xk, and then fitted using the proposed model. Specifically, we can consider the fits of the proposed model to every permutation of the yk outcomes. It can be shown that the optimized error of any of these fits will never be less than the optimum error of the null model, and that the difference between these minimum error will follow a chi-squared distribution distribution, with degrees of freedom equal those of the proposed model minus those of the null model which, in this case, will be 2-1=1. Using the chi-squared test, we may then estimate how many of these permuted sets of yk will yield an minimum error less than or equal to the minimum error using the original yk, and so we can estimate how significant an improvement is given by the inclusion of the x variable in the proposed model.
For logistic regression, the measure of goodness-of-fit is the likelihood function L, or its logarithm, the log-likelihood ℓ. The likelihood function L is analogous to the in the linear regression case, except that the likelihood is maximized rather than minimized. Denote the maximized log-likelihood of the proposed model by .
In the case of simple binary logistic regression, the set of K data points are fitted in a probabilistic sense to a function of the form:
where p(x) is the probability that y=1. The log-odds are given by:
and the log-likelihood is:
For the null model, the probability that y=1 is given by:
The log-odds for the null model are given by:
and the log-likelihood is:
Since we have at the maximum of L, the maximum log-likelihood for the null model is
The optimum is:
where is again the mean of the yk values. Again, we can conceptually consider the fit of the proposed model to every permutation of the yk and it can be shown that the maximum log-likelihood of these permutation fits will never be smaller than that of the null model:
Also, as an analog to the error of the linear regression case, we may define the deviance of a logistic regression fit as:
which will always be positive or zero. The reason for this choice is that not only is the deviance a good measure of the goodness of fit, it is also approximately chi-squared distributed, with the approximation improving as the number of data points (K) increases, becoming exactly chi-square distributed in the limit of an infinite number of data points. As in the case of linear regression, we may use this fact to estimate the probability that a random set of data points will give a better fit than the fit obtained by the proposed model, and so have an estimate how significantly the model is improved by including the xk data points in the proposed model.
For the simple model of student test scores described above, the maximum value of the log-likelihood of the null model is The maximum value of the log-likelihood for the simple model is so that the deviance is
Using the chi-squared test of significance, the integral of the chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom from 11.6661... to infinity is equal to 0.00063649...
This effectively means that about 6 out of a 10,000 fits to random yk can be expected to have a better fit (smaller deviance) that the given yk and so we can conclude that the inclusion of the x variable and data in the proposed model is a very significant improvement over the null model. In other words, we reject the null hypothesis with confidence.
Goodness of fit summary
Goodness of fit in linear regression models is generally measured using R2. Since this has no direct analog in logistic regression, various methods including the following can be used instead.
Deviance and likelihood ratio tests
In linear regression analysis, one is concerned with partitioning variance via the sum of squares calculations – variance in the criterion is essentially divided into variance accounted for by the predictors and residual variance. In logistic regression analysis, deviance is used in lieu of a sum of squares calculations. Deviance is analogous to the sum of squares calculations in linear regression and is a measure of the lack of fit to the data in a logistic regression model. When a "saturated" model is available (a model with a theoretically perfect fit), deviance is calculated by comparing a given model with the saturated model. This computation gives the likelihood-ratio test:
In the above equation, represents the deviance and ln represents the natural logarithm. The log of this likelihood ratio (the ratio of the fitted model to the saturated model) will produce a negative value, hence the need for a negative sign. can be shown to follow an approximate chi-squared distribution. Smaller values indicate better fit as the fitted model deviates less from the saturated model. When assessed upon a chi-square distribution, nonsignificant chi-square values indicate very little unexplained variance and thus, good model fit. Conversely, a significant chi-square value indicates that a significant amount of the variance is unexplained.
When the saturated model is not available (a common case), deviance is calculated simply as −2·(log likelihood of the fitted model), and the reference to the saturated model's log likelihood can be removed from all that follows without harm.
Two measures of deviance are particularly important in logistic regression: null deviance and model deviance. The null deviance represents the difference between a model with only the intercept (which means "no predictors") and the saturated model. The model deviance represents the difference between a model with at least one predictor and the saturated model. In this respect, the null model provides a baseline upon which to compare predictor models. Given that deviance is a measure of the difference between a given model and the saturated model, smaller values indicate better fit. Thus, to assess the contribution of a predictor or set of predictors, one can subtract the model deviance from the null deviance and assess the difference on a chi-square distribution with degrees of freedom equal to the difference in the number of parameters estimated.
Let
Then the difference of both is:
If the model deviance is significantly smaller than the null deviance then one can conclude that the predictor or set of predictors significantly improve the model's fit. This is analogous to the -test used in linear regression analysis to assess the significance of prediction.
Pseudo-R-squared
In linear regression the squared multiple correlation, ² is used to assess goodness of fit as it represents the proportion of variance in the criterion that is explained by the predictors. In logistic regression analysis, there is no agreed upon analogous measure, but there are several competing measures each with limitations.
Four of the most commonly used indices and one less commonly used one are examined on this page:
Likelihood ratio ²
Cox and Snell ²
Nagelkerke ²
McFadden ²
Tjur ²
²L is given by Cohen:
This is the most analogous index to the squared multiple correlations in linear regression. It represents the proportional reduction in the deviance wherein the deviance is treated as a measure of variation analogous but not identical to the variance in linear regression analysis. One limitation of the likelihood ratio ² is that it is not monotonically related to the odds ratio, meaning that it does not necessarily increase as the odds ratio increases and does not necessarily decrease as the odds ratio decreases.
²CS is an alternative index of goodness of fit related to the ² value from linear regression. It is given by:
where and are the likelihoods for the model being fitted and the null model, respectively. The Cox and Snell index is problematic as its maximum value is . The highest this upper bound can be is 0.75, but it can easily be as low as 0.48 when the marginal proportion of cases is small.
²N provides a correction to the Cox and Snell ² so that the maximum value is equal to 1. Nevertheless, the Cox and Snell and likelihood ratio ²s show greater agreement with each other than either does with the Nagelkerke ². Of course, this might not be the case for values exceeding 0.75 as the Cox and Snell index is capped at this value. The likelihood ratio ² is often preferred to the alternatives as it is most analogous to ² in linear regression, is independent of the base rate (both Cox and Snell and Nagelkerke ²s increase as the proportion of cases increase from 0 to 0.5) and varies between 0 and 1.
² is defined as
and is preferred over ² by Allison. The two expressions ² and ² are then related respectively by,
However, Allison now prefers ² which is a relatively new measure developed by Tjur. It can be calculated in two steps:
For each level of the dependent variable, find the mean of the predicted probabilities of an event.
Take the absolute value of the difference between these means
A word of caution is in order when interpreting pseudo-² statistics. The reason these indices of fit are referred to as pseudo ² is that they do not represent the proportionate reduction in error as the ² in linear regression does. Linear regression assumes homoscedasticity, that the error variance is the same for all values of the criterion. Logistic regression will always be heteroscedastic – the error variances differ for each value of the predicted score. For each value of the predicted score there would be a different value of the proportionate reduction in error. Therefore, it is inappropriate to think of ² as a proportionate reduction in error in a universal sense in logistic regression.
Hosmer–Lemeshow test
The Hosmer–Lemeshow test uses a test statistic that asymptotically follows a distribution to assess whether or not the observed event rates match expected event rates in subgroups of the model population. This test is considered to be obsolete by some statisticians because of its dependence on arbitrary binning of predicted probabilities and relative low power.
Coefficient significance
After fitting the model, it is likely that researchers will want to examine the contribution of individual predictors. To do so, they will want to examine the regression coefficients. In linear regression, the regression coefficients represent the change in the criterion for each unit change in the predictor. In logistic regression, however, the regression coefficients represent the change in the logit for each unit change in the predictor. Given that the logit is not intuitive, researchers are likely to focus on a predictor's effect on the exponential function of the regression coefficient – the odds ratio (see definition). In linear regression, the significance of a regression coefficient is assessed by computing a t test. In logistic regression, there are several different tests designed to assess the significance of an individual predictor, most notably the likelihood ratio test and the Wald statistic.
Likelihood ratio test
The likelihood-ratio test discussed above to assess model fit is also the recommended procedure to assess the contribution of individual "predictors" to a given model. In the case of a single predictor model, one simply compares the deviance of the predictor model with that of the null model on a chi-square distribution with a single degree of freedom. If the predictor model has significantly smaller deviance (c.f. chi-square using the difference in degrees of freedom of the two models), then one can conclude that there is a significant association between the "predictor" and the outcome. Although some common statistical packages (e.g. SPSS) do provide likelihood ratio test statistics, without this computationally intensive test it would be more difficult to assess the contribution of individual predictors in the multiple logistic regression case. To assess the contribution of individual predictors one can enter the predictors hierarchically, comparing each new model with the previous to determine the contribution of each predictor. There is some debate among statisticians about the appropriateness of so-called "stepwise" procedures. The fear is that they may not preserve nominal statistical properties and may become misleading.
Wald statistic
Alternatively, when assessing the contribution of individual predictors in a given model, one may examine the significance of the Wald statistic. The Wald statistic, analogous to the t-test in linear regression, is used to assess the significance of coefficients. The Wald statistic is the ratio of the square of the regression coefficient to the square of the standard error of the coefficient and is asymptotically distributed as a chi-square distribution.
Although several statistical packages (e.g., SPSS, SAS) report the Wald statistic to assess the contribution of individual predictors, the Wald statistic has limitations. When the regression coefficient is large, the standard error of the regression coefficient also tends to be larger increasing the probability of Type-II error. The Wald statistic also tends to be biased when data are sparse.
Case-control sampling
Suppose cases are rare. Then we might wish to sample them more frequently than their prevalence in the population. For example, suppose there is a disease that affects 1 person in 10,000 and to collect our data we need to do a complete physical. It may be too expensive to do thousands of physicals of healthy people in order to obtain data for only a few diseased individuals. Thus, we may evaluate more diseased individuals, perhaps all of the rare outcomes. This is also retrospective sampling, or equivalently it is called unbalanced data. As a rule of thumb, sampling controls at a rate of five times the number of cases will produce sufficient control data.
Logistic regression is unique in that it may be estimated on unbalanced data, rather than randomly sampled data, and still yield correct coefficient estimates of the effects of each independent variable on the outcome. That is to say, if we form a logistic model from such data, if the model is correct in the general population, the parameters are all correct except for . We can correct if we know the true prevalence as follows:
where is the true prevalence and is the prevalence in the sample.
Discussion
Logistic regression can be binomial, ordinal or multinomial. Binomial or binary logistic regression deals with situations in which the observed outcome for a dependent variable can have only two possible types, "0" and "1" (which may represent, for example, "pass" vs. "fail" or "win" vs. "loss"). Multinomial logistic regression deals with situations where the outcome can have three or more possible types (e.g., "disease A" vs. "disease B" vs. "disease C") that are not ordered. Ordinal logistic regression deals with dependent variables that are ordered.
In binary logistic regression, the outcome is usually coded as "0" or "1", as this leads to the most straightforward interpretation. If a particular observed outcome for the dependent variable is the noteworthy possible outcome (referred to as a "success" or an "instance" or a "case") it is usually coded as "1" and the contrary outcome (referred to as a "failure" or a "noninstance" or a "noncase") as "0". Binary logistic regression is used to predict the odds of being a case based on the values of the independent variables (predictors). The odds are defined as the probability that a particular outcome is a case divided by the probability that it is a noninstance.
Like other forms of regression analysis, logistic regression makes use of one or more predictor variables that may be either continuous or categorical. Unlike ordinary linear regression, however, logistic regression is used for predicting dependent variables that take membership in one of a limited number of categories (treating the dependent variable in the binomial case as the outcome of a Bernoulli trial) rather than a continuous outcome. Given this difference, the assumptions of linear regression are violated. In particular, the residuals cannot be normally distributed. In addition, linear regression may make nonsensical predictions for a binary dependent variable. What is needed is a way to convert a binary variable into a continuous one that can take on any real value (negative or positive). To do that, binomial logistic regression first calculates the odds of the event happening for different levels of each independent variable, and then takes its logarithm to create a continuous criterion as a transformed version of the dependent variable. The logarithm of the odds is the of the probability, the is defined as follows:
Although the dependent variable in logistic regression is Bernoulli, the logit is on an unrestricted scale. The logit function is the link function in this kind of generalized linear model, i.e.
is the Bernoulli-distributed response variable and is the predictor variable; the values are the linear parameters.
The of the probability of success is then fitted to the predictors. The predicted value of the is converted back into predicted odds, via the inverse of the natural logarithm – the exponential function. Thus, although the observed dependent variable in binary logistic regression is a 0-or-1 variable, the logistic regression estimates the odds, as a continuous variable, that the dependent variable is a ‘success’. In some applications, the odds are all that is needed. In others, a specific yes-or-no prediction is needed for whether the dependent variable is or is not a ‘success’; this categorical prediction can be based on the computed odds of success, with predicted odds above some chosen cutoff value being translated into a prediction of success.
The assumption of linear predictor effects can easily be relaxed using techniques such as spline functions.
Logistic Regression and maximum entropy
Of all the functional forms used for estimating the probabilities of a particular categorical outcome which optimize the fit by maximizing the likelihood function (e.g. probit regression, Poisson regression, etc.), the logistic regression solution is unique in that it is a maximum entropy solution.
In order to show this, we use the method of Lagrange multipliers. The Lagrangian is equal to the entropy plus the sum of the products of Lagrange multipliers times various constraint expressions. The general multinomial case will be considered, since the proof is not made that much simpler by considering simpler cases. Equating the derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to the various probabilities to zero yields a functional form for those probabilities which corresponds to those used in logistic regression.
As in the above section on multinomial logistic regression, we will consider M+1 explanatory variables denoted xm and which include x0=1. There will be a total of K data points, indexed by k={1,2,...,K}, and the data points are given by xmk and yk. The xmk will also be represented as a M+1-dimensional vector . There will be N+1 possible values of the categorical variable y ranging from 0 to N.
Let pn(x) be the probability, given explanatory variable vector x, that the outcome will be y=n. Define which is the probability that for the k-th measurement, the categorical outcome is n.
The Lagrangian will be expressed as a function of the probabilities pnk and will minimized by equating the derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to these probabilities to zero. An important point is that the probabilities are treated equally and the fact that they sum to unity is part of the Lagrangian formulation, rather than being assumed from the beginning.
The first contribution to the Lagrangian is the entropy:
The log-likelihood is:
Assuming the multinomial logistic function, the derivative of the log-likelihood with respect the beta coefficients was found to be:
A very important point here is that this expression is (remarkably) not an explicit function of the beta coefficients. It is only a function of the probabilities pnk and the data. Rather than being specific to the assumed multinomial logistic case, it is taken to be a general statement of the condition at which the log-likelihood is maximized and makes no reference to the functional form of pnk. There are then (M+1)(N+1) fitting constraints and the fitting constraint term in the Lagrangian is then:
where the λnm are the appropriate Lagrange multipliers. There are K normalization constraints which may be written:
so that the normalization term in the Lagrangian is:
where the αk are the appropriate Lagrange multipliers. The Lagrangian is then the sum of the above three terms:
Setting the derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to one of the probabilities to zero yields:
Using the more condensed vector notation:
and dropping the primes on the n and k indices, and then solving for yields:
where:
Imposing the normalization constraint, we can solve for the Zk and write the probabilities as:
The are not all independent. We can add any constant M+1 dimensional vector to each of the without changing the value of the probabilities so that there are only N rather than N+1 independent . In the multinomial logistic regression section above, the was subtracted from each which set the exponential term involving to unity, and the beta coefficients were given by .
Other approaches
In machine learning applications where logistic regression is used for binary classification, the MLE minimises the Cross entropy loss function.
Logistic regression is an important machine learning algorithm. The goal is to model the probability of a random variable being 0 or 1 given experimental data.
Consider a generalized linear model function parameterized by ,
Therefore,
and since , we see that is given by We now calculate the likelihood function assuming that all the observations in the sample are independently Bernoulli distributed,
Typically, the log likelihood is maximized,
which is maximized using optimization techniques such as gradient descent.
Assuming the pairs are drawn uniformly from the underlying distribution, then in the limit of large N,
where is the conditional entropy and is the Kullback–Leibler divergence. This leads to the intuition that by maximizing the log-likelihood of a model, you are minimizing the KL divergence of your model from the maximal entropy distribution. Intuitively searching for the model that makes the fewest assumptions in its parameters.
Model fitting issues
"Rule of ten"
A widely used rule of thumb, the "one in ten rule", states that logistic regression models give stable values for the explanatory variables if based on a minimum of about 10 events per explanatory variable (EPV); where event denotes the cases belonging to the less frequent category in the dependent variable. Thus a study designed to use explanatory variables for an event (e.g. myocardial infarction) expected to occur in a proportion of participants in the study will require a total of participants. However, there is considerable debate about the reliability of this rule, which is based on simulation studies and lacks a secure theoretical underpinning. According to some authors the rule is overly conservative in some circumstances, with the authors stating, "If we (somewhat subjectively) regard confidence interval coverage less than 93 percent, type I error greater than 7 percent, or relative bias greater than 15 percent as problematic, our results indicate that problems are fairly frequent with 2–4 EPV, uncommon with 5–9 EPV, and still observed with 10–16 EPV. The worst instances of each problem were not severe with 5–9 EPV and usually comparable to those with 10–16 EPV".
Others have found results that are not consistent with the above, using different criteria. A useful criterion is whether the fitted model will be expected to achieve the same predictive discrimination in a new sample as it appeared to achieve in the model development sample. For that criterion, 20 events per candidate variable may be required. Also, one can argue that 96 observations are needed only to estimate the model's intercept precisely enough that the margin of error in predicted probabilities is ±0.1 with a 0.95 confidence level.
Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE)
The regression coefficients are usually estimated using maximum likelihood estimation. Unlike linear regression with normally distributed residuals, it is not possible to find a closed-form expression for the coefficient values that maximize the likelihood function, so that an iterative process must be used instead; for example Newton's method. This process begins with a tentative solution, revises it slightly to see if it can be improved, and repeats this revision until no more improvement is made, at which point the process is said to have converged.
In some instances, the model may not reach convergence. Non-convergence of a model indicates that the coefficients are not meaningful because the iterative process was unable to find appropriate solutions. A failure to converge may occur for a number of reasons: having a large ratio of predictors to cases, multicollinearity, sparseness, or complete separation.
Having a large ratio of variables to cases results in an overly conservative Wald statistic (discussed below) and can lead to non-convergence. Regularized logistic regression is specifically intended to be used in this situation.
Multicollinearity refers to unacceptably high correlations between predictors. As multicollinearity increases, coefficients remain unbiased but standard errors increase and the likelihood of model convergence decreases. To detect multicollinearity amongst the predictors, one can conduct a linear regression analysis with the predictors of interest for the sole purpose of examining the tolerance statistic used to assess whether multicollinearity is unacceptably high.
Sparseness in the data refers to having a large proportion of empty cells (cells with zero counts). Zero cell counts are particularly problematic with categorical predictors. With continuous predictors, the model can infer values for the zero cell counts, but this is not the case with categorical predictors. The model will not converge with zero cell counts for categorical predictors because the natural logarithm of zero is an undefined value so that the final solution to the model cannot be reached. To remedy this problem, researchers may collapse categories in a theoretically meaningful way or add a constant to all cells.
Another numerical problem that may lead to a lack of convergence is complete separation, which refers to the instance in which the predictors perfectly predict the criterion – all cases are accurately classified and the likelihood maximized with infinite coefficients. In such instances, one should re-examine the data, as there may be some kind of error.
One can also take semi-parametric or non-parametric approaches, e.g., via local-likelihood or nonparametric quasi-likelihood methods, which avoid assumptions of a parametric form for the index function and is robust to the choice of the link function (e.g., probit or logit).
Iteratively reweighted least squares (IRLS)
Binary logistic regression ( or ) can, for example, be calculated using iteratively reweighted least squares (IRLS), which is equivalent to maximizing the log-likelihood of a Bernoulli distributed process using Newton's method. If the problem is written in vector matrix form, with parameters , explanatory variables and expected value of the Bernoulli distribution , the parameters can be found using the following iterative algorithm:
where is a diagonal weighting matrix, the vector of expected values,
The regressor matrix and the vector of response variables. More details can be found in the literature.
Logistic regression vs. other approaches
Logistic regression measures the relationship between the categorical dependent variable and one or more independent variables by estimating probabilities using a logistic function, which is the cumulative distribution function of logistic distribution. Thus, it treats the same set of problems as probit regression using similar techniques, with the latter using a cumulative normal distribution curve instead. Equivalently, in the latent variable interpretations of these two methods, the first assumes a standard logistic distribution of errors and the second a standard normal distribution of errors.
Logistic regression can be seen as a special case of the generalized linear model and thus analogous to linear regression. The model of logistic regression, however, is based on quite different assumptions (about the relationship between the dependent and independent variables) from those of linear regression. In particular, the key differences between these two models can be seen in the following two features of logistic regression. First, the conditional distribution is a Bernoulli distribution rather than a Gaussian distribution, because the dependent variable is binary. Second, the predicted values are probabilities and are therefore restricted to (0,1) through the logistic distribution function because logistic regression predicts the probability of particular outcomes rather than the outcomes themselves.
Logistic regression is an alternative to Fisher's 1936 method, linear discriminant analysis. If the assumptions of linear discriminant analysis hold, the conditioning can be reversed to produce logistic regression. The converse is not true, however, because logistic regression does not require the multivariate normal assumption of discriminant analysis.
Latent variable interpretation
The logistic regression can be understood simply as finding the parameters that best fit:
where is an error distributed by the standard logistic distribution. (If the standard normal distribution is used instead, it is a probit model.)
The associated latent variable is . The error term is not observed, and so the is also an unobservable, hence termed "latent" (the observed data are values of and ). Unlike ordinary regression, however, the parameters cannot be expressed by any direct formula of the and values in the observed data. Instead they are to be found by an iterative search process, usually implemented by a software program, that finds the maximum of a complicated "likelihood expression" that is a function of all of the observed and values. The estimation approach is explained below.
Logistic function, odds, odds ratio, and logit
Definition of the logistic function
An explanation of logistic regression can begin with an explanation of the standard logistic function. The logistic function is a sigmoid function, which takes any real input , and outputs a value between zero and one. For the logit, this is interpreted as taking input log-odds and having output probability. The standard logistic function is defined as follows:
A graph of the logistic function on the t-interval (−6,6) is shown in Figure 1.
Let us assume that is a linear function of a single explanatory variable (the case where is a linear combination of multiple explanatory variables is treated similarly). We can then express as follows:
And the general logistic function can now be written as:
In the logistic model, is interpreted as the probability of the dependent variable equaling a success/case rather than a failure/non-case. It's clear that the response variables are not identically distributed: differs from one data point to another, though they are independent given design matrix and shared parameters .
Definition of the inverse of the logistic function
We can now define the logit (log odds) function as the inverse of the standard logistic function. It is easy to see that it satisfies:
and equivalently, after exponentiating both sides we have the odds:
Interpretation of these terms
In the above equations, the terms are as follows:
is the logit function. The equation for illustrates that the logit (i.e., log-odds or natural logarithm of the odds) is equivalent to the linear regression expression.
denotes the natural logarithm.
is the probability that the dependent variable equals a case, given some linear combination of the predictors. The formula for illustrates that the probability of the dependent variable equaling a case is equal to the value of the logistic function of the linear regression expression. This is important in that it shows that the value of the linear regression expression can vary from negative to positive infinity and yet, after transformation, the resulting expression for the probability ranges between 0 and 1.
is the intercept from the linear regression equation (the value of the criterion when the predictor is equal to zero).
is the regression coefficient multiplied by some value of the predictor.
base denotes the exponential function.
Definition of the odds
The odds of the dependent variable equaling a case (given some linear combination of the predictors) is equivalent to the exponential function of the linear regression expression. This illustrates how the logit serves as a link function between the probability and the linear regression expression. Given that the logit ranges between negative and positive infinity, it provides an adequate criterion upon which to conduct linear regression and the logit is easily converted back into the odds.
So we define odds of the dependent variable equaling a case (given some linear combination of the predictors) as follows:
The odds ratio
For a continuous independent variable the odds ratio can be defined as:
This exponential relationship provides an interpretation for : The odds multiply by for every 1-unit increase in x.
For a binary independent variable the odds ratio is defined as where a, b, c and d are cells in a 2×2 contingency table.
Multiple explanatory variables
If there are multiple explanatory variables, the above expression can be revised to . Then when this is used in the equation relating the log odds of a success to the values of the predictors, the linear regression will be a multiple regression with m explanators; the parameters for all j = 0, 1, 2, ..., m are all estimated.
Again, the more traditional equations are:
and
where usually .
Formal mathematical specification
There are various equivalent specifications of logistic regression, which fit into different types of more general models. These different specifications allow for different sorts of useful generalizations.
Setup
The basic setup of logistic regression is as follows. We are given a dataset containing N points. Each point i consists of a set of m input variables x1,i ... xm,i (also called independent variables, predictor variables, features, or attributes), and a binary outcome variable Yi (also known as a dependent variable, response variable, output variable, or class), i.e. it can assume only the two possible values 0 (often meaning "no" or "failure") or 1 (often meaning "yes" or "success"). The goal of logistic regression is to use the dataset to create a predictive model of the outcome variable.
As in linear regression, the outcome variables Yi are assumed to depend on the explanatory variables x1,i ... xm,i.
Explanatory variables
The explanatory variables may be of any type: real-valued, binary, categorical, etc. The main distinction is between continuous variables and discrete variables.
(Discrete variables referring to more than two possible choices are typically coded using dummy variables (or indicator variables), that is, separate explanatory variables taking the value 0 or 1 are created for each possible value of the discrete variable, with a 1 meaning "variable does have the given value" and a 0 meaning "variable does not have that value".)
Outcome variables
Formally, the outcomes Yi are described as being Bernoulli-distributed data, where each outcome is determined by an unobserved probability pi that is specific to the outcome at hand, but related to the explanatory variables. This can be expressed in any of the following equivalent forms:
The meanings of these four lines are:
The first line expresses the probability distribution of each Yi: Conditioned on the explanatory variables, it follows a Bernoulli distribution with parameters pi, the probability of the outcome of 1 for trial i. As noted above, each separate trial has its own probability of success, just as each trial has its own explanatory variables. The probability of success pi is not observed, only the outcome of an individual Bernoulli trial using that probability.
The second line expresses the fact that the expected value of each Yi is equal to the probability of success pi, which is a general property of the Bernoulli distribution. In other words, if we run a large number of Bernoulli trials using the same probability of success pi, then take the average of all the 1 and 0 outcomes, then the result would be close to pi. This is because doing an average this way simply computes the proportion of successes seen, which we expect to converge to the underlying probability of success.
The third line writes out the probability mass function of the Bernoulli distribution, specifying the probability of seeing each of the two possible outcomes.
The fourth line is another way of writing the probability mass function, which avoids having to write separate cases and is more convenient for certain types of calculations. This relies on the fact that Yi can take only the value 0 or 1. In each case, one of the exponents will be 1, "choosing" the value under it, while the other is 0, "canceling out" the value under it. Hence, the outcome is either pi or 1 − pi, as in the previous line.
Linear predictor function
The basic idea of logistic regression is to use the mechanism already developed for linear regression by modeling the probability pi using a linear predictor function, i.e. a linear combination of the explanatory variables and a set of regression coefficients that are specific to the model at hand but the same for all trials. The linear predictor function for a particular data point i is written as:
where are regression coefficients indicating the relative effect of a particular explanatory variable on the outcome.
The model is usually put into a more compact form as follows:
The regression coefficients β0, β1, ..., βm are grouped into a single vector β of size m + 1.
For each data point i, an additional explanatory pseudo-variable x0,i is added, with a fixed value of 1, corresponding to the intercept coefficient β0.
The resulting explanatory variables x0,i, x1,i, ..., xm,i are then grouped into a single vector Xi of size m + 1.
This makes it possible to write the linear predictor function as follows:
using the notation for a dot product between two vectors.
As a generalized linear model
The particular model used by logistic regression, which distinguishes it from standard linear regression and from other types of regression analysis used for binary-valued outcomes, is the way the probability of a particular outcome is linked to the linear predictor function:
Written using the more compact notation described above, this is:
This formulation expresses logistic regression as a type of generalized linear model, which predicts variables with various types of probability distributions by fitting a linear predictor function of the above form to some sort of arbitrary transformation of the expected value of the variable.
The intuition for transforming using the logit function (the natural log of the odds) was explained above. It also has the practical effect of converting the probability (which is bounded to be between 0 and 1) to a variable that ranges over — thereby matching the potential range of the linear prediction function on the right side of the equation.
Note that both the probabilities pi and the regression coefficients are unobserved, and the means of determining them is not part of the model itself. They are typically determined by some sort of optimization procedure, e.g. maximum likelihood estimation, that finds values that best fit the observed data (i.e. that give the most accurate predictions for the data already observed), usually subject to regularization conditions that seek to exclude unlikely values, e.g. extremely large values for any of the regression coefficients. The use of a regularization condition is equivalent to doing maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation, an extension of maximum likelihood. (Regularization is most commonly done using a squared regularizing function, which is equivalent to placing a zero-mean Gaussian prior distribution on the coefficients, but other regularizers are also possible.) Whether or not regularization is used, it is usually not possible to find a closed-form solution; instead, an iterative numerical method must be used, such as iteratively reweighted least squares (IRLS) or, more commonly these days, a quasi-Newton method such as the L-BFGS method.
The interpretation of the βj parameter estimates is as the additive effect on the log of the odds for a unit change in the j the explanatory variable. In the case of a dichotomous explanatory variable, for instance, gender is the estimate of the odds of having the outcome for, say, males compared with females.
An equivalent formula uses the inverse of the logit function, which is the logistic function, i.e.:
The formula can also be written as a probability distribution (specifically, using a probability mass function):
As a latent-variable model
The above model has an equivalent formulation as a latent-variable model. This formulation is common in the theory of discrete choice models and makes it easier to extend to certain more complicated models with multiple, correlated choices, as well as to compare logistic regression to the closely related probit model.
Imagine that, for each trial i, there is a continuous latent variable Yi* (i.e. an unobserved random variable) that is distributed as follows:
where
i.e. the latent variable can be written directly in terms of the linear predictor function and an additive random error variable that is distributed according to a standard logistic distribution.
Then Yi can be viewed as an indicator for whether this latent variable is positive:
The choice of modeling the error variable specifically with a standard logistic distribution, rather than a general logistic distribution with the location and scale set to arbitrary values, seems restrictive, but in fact, it is not. It must be kept in mind that we can choose the regression coefficients ourselves, and very often can use them to offset changes in the parameters of the error variable's distribution. For example, a logistic error-variable distribution with a non-zero location parameter μ (which sets the mean) is equivalent to a distribution with a zero location parameter, where μ has been added to the intercept coefficient. Both situations produce the same value for Yi* regardless of settings of explanatory variables. Similarly, an arbitrary scale parameter s is equivalent to setting the scale parameter to 1 and then dividing all regression coefficients by s. In the latter case, the resulting value of Yi* will be smaller by a factor of s than in the former case, for all sets of explanatory variables — but critically, it will always remain on the same side of 0, and hence lead to the same Yi choice.
(Note that this predicts that the irrelevancy of the scale parameter may not carry over into more complex models where more than two choices are available.)
It turns out that this formulation is exactly equivalent to the preceding one, phrased in terms of the generalized linear model and without any latent variables. This can be shown as follows, using the fact that the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the standard logistic distribution is the logistic function, which is the inverse of the logit function, i.e.
Then:
This formulation—which is standard in discrete choice models—makes clear the relationship between logistic regression (the "logit model") and the probit model, which uses an error variable distributed according to a standard normal distribution instead of a standard logistic distribution. Both the logistic and normal distributions are symmetric with a basic unimodal, "bell curve" shape. The only difference is that the logistic distribution has somewhat heavier tails, which means that it is less sensitive to outlying data (and hence somewhat more robust to model mis-specifications or erroneous data).
Two-way latent-variable model
Yet another formulation uses two separate latent variables:
where
where EV1(0,1) is a standard type-1 extreme value distribution: i.e.
Then
This model has a separate latent variable and a separate set of regression coefficients for each possible outcome of the dependent variable. The reason for this separation is that it makes it easy to extend logistic regression to multi-outcome categorical variables, as in the multinomial logit model. In such a model, it is natural to model each possible outcome using a different set of regression coefficients. It is also possible to motivate each of the separate latent variables as the theoretical utility associated with making the associated choice, and thus motivate logistic regression in terms of utility theory. (In terms of utility theory, a rational actor always chooses the choice with the greatest associated utility.) This is the approach taken by economists when formulating discrete choice models, because it both provides a theoretically strong foundation and facilitates intuitions about the model, which in turn makes it easy to consider various sorts of extensions. (See the example below.)
The choice of the type-1 extreme value distribution seems fairly arbitrary, but it makes the mathematics work out, and it may be possible to justify its use through rational choice theory.
It turns out that this model is equivalent to the previous model, although this seems non-obvious, since there are now two sets of regression coefficients and error variables, and the error variables have a different distribution. In fact, this model reduces directly to the previous one with the following substitutions:
An intuition for this comes from the fact that, since we choose based on the maximum of two values, only their difference matters, not the exact values — and this effectively removes one degree of freedom. Another critical fact is that the difference of two type-1 extreme-value-distributed variables is a logistic distribution, i.e. We can demonstrate the equivalent as follows:
Example
As an example, consider a province-level election where the choice is between a right-of-center party, a left-of-center party, and a secessionist party (e.g. the Parti Québécois, which wants Quebec to secede from Canada). We would then use three latent variables, one for each choice. Then, in accordance with utility theory, we can then interpret the latent variables as expressing the utility that results from making each of the choices. We can also interpret the regression coefficients as indicating the strength that the associated factor (i.e. explanatory variable) has in contributing to the utility — or more correctly, the amount by which a unit change in an explanatory variable changes the utility of a given choice. A voter might expect that the right-of-center party would lower taxes, especially on rich people. This would give low-income people no benefit, i.e. no change in utility (since they usually don't pay taxes); would cause moderate benefit (i.e. somewhat more money, or moderate utility increase) for middle-incoming people; would cause significant benefits for high-income people. On the other hand, the left-of-center party might be expected to raise taxes and offset it with increased welfare and other assistance for the lower and middle classes. This would cause significant positive benefit to low-income people, perhaps a weak benefit to middle-income people, and significant negative benefit to high-income people. Finally, the secessionist party would take no direct actions on the economy, but simply secede. A low-income or middle-income voter might expect basically no clear utility gain or loss from this, but a high-income voter might expect negative utility since he/she is likely to own companies, which will have a harder time doing business in such an environment and probably lose money.
These intuitions can be expressed as follows:
This clearly shows that
Separate sets of regression coefficients need to exist for each choice. When phrased in terms of utility, this can be seen very easily. Different choices have different effects on net utility; furthermore, the effects vary in complex ways that depend on the characteristics of each individual, so there need to be separate sets of coefficients for each characteristic, not simply a single extra per-choice characteristic.
Even though income is a continuous variable, its effect on utility is too complex for it to be treated as a single variable. Either it needs to be directly split up into ranges, or higher powers of income need to be added so that polynomial regression on income is effectively done.
As a "log-linear" model
Yet another formulation combines the two-way latent variable formulation above with the original formulation higher up without latent variables, and in the process provides a link to one of the standard formulations of the multinomial logit.
Here, instead of writing the logit of the probabilities pi as a linear predictor, we separate the linear predictor into two, one for each of the two outcomes:
Two separate sets of regression coefficients have been introduced, just as in the two-way latent variable model, and the two equations appear a form that writes the logarithm of the associated probability as a linear predictor, with an extra term at the end. This term, as it turns out, serves as the normalizing factor ensuring that the result is a distribution. This can be seen by exponentiating both sides:
In this form it is clear that the purpose of Z is to ensure that the resulting distribution over Yi is in fact a probability distribution, i.e. it sums to 1. This means that Z is simply the sum of all un-normalized probabilities, and by dividing each probability by Z, the probabilities become "normalized". That is:
and the resulting equations are
Or generally:
This shows clearly how to generalize this formulation to more than two outcomes, as in multinomial logit.
Note that this general formulation is exactly the softmax function as in
In order to prove that this is equivalent to the previous model, note that the above model is overspecified, in that and cannot be independently specified: rather so knowing one automatically determines the other. As a result, the model is nonidentifiable, in that multiple combinations of β0 and β1 will produce the same probabilities for all possible explanatory variables. In fact, it can be seen that adding any constant vector to both of them will produce the same probabilities:
As a result, we can simplify matters, and restore identifiability, by picking an arbitrary value for one of the two vectors. We choose to set Then,
and so
which shows that this formulation is indeed equivalent to the previous formulation. (As in the two-way latent variable formulation, any settings where will produce equivalent results.)
Note that most treatments of the multinomial logit model start out either by extending the "log-linear" formulation presented here or the two-way latent variable formulation presented above, since both clearly show the way that the model could be extended to multi-way outcomes. In general, the presentation with latent variables is more common in econometrics and political science, where discrete choice models and utility theory reign, while the "log-linear" formulation here is more common in computer science, e.g. machine learning and natural language processing.
As a single-layer perceptron
The model has an equivalent formulation
This functional form is commonly called a single-layer perceptron or single-layer artificial neural network. A single-layer neural network computes a continuous output instead of a step function. The derivative of pi with respect to X = (x1, ..., xk) is computed from the general form:
where f(X) is an analytic function in X. With this choice, the single-layer neural network is identical to the logistic regression model. This function has a continuous derivative, which allows it to be used in backpropagation. This function is also preferred because its derivative is easily calculated:
In terms of binomial data
A closely related model assumes that each i is associated not with a single Bernoulli trial but with ni independent identically distributed trials, where the observation Yi is the number of successes observed (the sum of the individual Bernoulli-distributed random variables), and hence follows a binomial distribution:
An example of this distribution is the fraction of seeds (pi) that germinate after ni are planted.
In terms of expected values, this model is expressed as follows:
so that
Or equivalently:
This model can be fit using the same sorts of methods as the above more basic model.
Bayesian
In a Bayesian statistics context, prior distributions are normally placed on the regression coefficients, usually in the form of Gaussian distributions. There is no conjugate prior of the likelihood function in logistic regression. When Bayesian inference was performed analytically, this made the posterior distribution difficult to calculate except in very low dimensions. Now, though, automatic software such as OpenBUGS, JAGS, PyMC3, Stan or Turing.jl allows these posteriors to be computed using simulation, so lack of conjugacy is not a concern. However, when the sample size or the number of parameters is large, full Bayesian simulation can be slow, and people often use approximate methods such as variational Bayesian methods and expectation propagation.
History
A detailed history of the logistic regression is given in . The logistic function was developed as a model of population growth and named "logistic" by Pierre François Verhulst in the 1830s and 1840s, under the guidance of Adolphe Quetelet; see for details. In his earliest paper (1838), Verhulst did not specify how he fit the curves to the data. In his more detailed paper (1845), Verhulst determined the three parameters of the model by making the curve pass through three observed points, which yielded poor predictions.
The logistic function was independently developed in chemistry as a model of autocatalysis (Wilhelm Ostwald, 1883). An autocatalytic reaction is one in which one of the products is itself a catalyst for the same reaction, while the supply of one of the reactants is fixed. This naturally gives rise to the logistic equation for the same reason as population growth: the reaction is self-reinforcing but constrained.
The logistic function was independently rediscovered as a model of population growth in 1920 by Raymond Pearl and Lowell Reed, published as , which led to its use in modern statistics. They were initially unaware of Verhulst's work and presumably learned about it from L. Gustave du Pasquier, but they gave him little credit and did not adopt his terminology. Verhulst's priority was acknowledged and the term "logistic" revived by Udny Yule in 1925 and has been followed since. Pearl and Reed first applied the model to the population of the United States, and also initially fitted the curve by making it pass through three points; as with Verhulst, this again yielded poor results.
In the 1930s, the probit model was developed and systematized by Chester Ittner Bliss, who coined the term "probit" in , and by John Gaddum in , and the model fit by maximum likelihood estimation by Ronald A. Fisher in , as an addendum to Bliss's work. The probit model was principally used in bioassay, and had been preceded by earlier work dating to 1860; see . The probit model influenced the subsequent development of the logit model and these models competed with each other.
The logistic model was likely first used as an alternative to the probit model in bioassay by Edwin Bidwell Wilson and his student Jane Worcester in . However, the development of the logistic model as a general alternative to the probit model was principally due to the work of Joseph Berkson over many decades, beginning in , where he coined "logit", by analogy with "probit", and continuing through and following years. The logit model was initially dismissed as inferior to the probit model, but "gradually achieved an equal footing with the logit", particularly between 1960 and 1970. By 1970, the logit model achieved parity with the probit model in use in statistics journals and thereafter surpassed it. This relative popularity was due to the adoption of the logit outside of bioassay, rather than displacing the probit within bioassay, and its informal use in practice; the logit's popularity is credited to the logit model's computational simplicity, mathematical properties, and generality, allowing its use in varied fields.
Various refinements occurred during that time, notably by David Cox, as in .
The multinomial logit model was introduced independently in and , which greatly increased the scope of application and the popularity of the logit model. In 1973 Daniel McFadden linked the multinomial logit to the theory of discrete choice, specifically Luce's choice axiom, showing that the multinomial logit followed from the assumption of independence of irrelevant alternatives and interpreting odds of alternatives as relative preferences; this gave a theoretical foundation for the logistic regression.
Extensions
There are large numbers of extensions:
Multinomial logistic regression (or multinomial logit) handles the case of a multi-way categorical dependent variable (with unordered values, also called "classification"). Note that the general case of having dependent variables with more than two values is termed polytomous regression.
Ordered logistic regression (or ordered logit) handles ordinal dependent variables (ordered values).
Mixed logit is an extension of multinomial logit that allows for correlations among the choices of the dependent variable.
An extension of the logistic model to sets of interdependent variables is the conditional random field.
Conditional logistic regression handles matched or stratified data when the strata are small. It is mostly used in the analysis of observational studies.
Software
Most statistical software can do binary logistic regression.
SPSS
for basic logistic regression.
Stata
SAS
PROC LOGISTIC for basic logistic regression.
PROC CATMOD when all the variables are categorical.
PROC GLIMMIX for multilevel model logistic regression.
R
glm in the stats package (using family = binomial)
lrm in the rms package
GLMNET package for an efficient implementation regularized logistic regression
lmer for mixed effects logistic regression
Rfast package command gm_logistic for fast and heavy calculations involving large scale data.
arm package for bayesian logistic regression
Python
Logit in the Statsmodels module.
LogisticRegression in the Scikit-learn module.
LogisticRegressor in the TensorFlow module.
Full example of logistic regression in the Theano tutorial
Bayesian Logistic Regression with ARD prior code, tutorial
Variational Bayes Logistic Regression with ARD prior code , tutorial
Bayesian Logistic Regression code, tutorial
NCSS
Logistic Regression in NCSS
Matlab
mnrfit in the Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox (with "incorrect" coded as 2 instead of 0)
fminunc/fmincon, fitglm, mnrfit, fitclinear, mle can all do logistic regression.
Java (JVM)
LibLinear
Apache Flink
Apache Spark
SparkML supports Logistic Regression
FPGA
Logistic Regresesion IP core in HLS for FPGA.
Notably, Microsoft Excel's statistics extension package does not include it.
See also
Logistic function
Discrete choice
Jarrow–Turnbull model
Limited dependent variable
Multinomial logit model
Ordered logit
Hosmer–Lemeshow test
Brier score
mlpack - contains a C++ implementation of logistic regression
Local case-control sampling
Logistic model tree
References
Further reading
Published in:
External links
by Mark Thoma
Logistic Regression tutorial
mlelr: software in C for teaching purposes
Predictive analytics
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226636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMPLE%20%28instant%20messaging%20protocol%29 | SIMPLE (instant messaging protocol) | SIMPLE, the Session Initiation Protocol for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions, is an instant messaging (IM) and presence protocol suite based on Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) managed by the Internet Engineering Task Force.
Purpose
SIMPLE applies SIP to the problems of:
registering for presence information and receiving notifications when such events occur, for example when a user logs in or comes back from lunch;
sending short messages, analogous to SMS or two-way paging;
managing a session of real-time messages between two or more participants.
Implementations of the SIMPLE based protocols can be found in SIP Softphones and also in SIP Hardphones.
Technical description
Presence
The SIMPLE presence specifications can be broken up into:
The core protocol machinery. This provides the actual SIP extensions for subscriptions, notifications and publications. RFC 6665 defines the SUBSCRIBE and NOTIFY methods. SUBSCRIBE allows users to subscribe to an event on a server, the server responds with NOTIFY whenever the event occurs. RFC 3856 defines how to make use of SUBSCRIBE/NOTIFY for presence. Two models are defined: an end-to-end model in which each User Agent handles presence subscriptions itself; and a centralized model. The latter introduces the concept of a presence server; all subscriptions are handled by this server. The message PUBLISH (RFC 3903) allows User Agents to inform the presence server about their subscription states.
Presence documents. The presence information is coded in XML documents, that are carried in the bodies of the respective SIP messages. RFC 3863 and RFC 4479 describe this procedure, RFC 4480 (RPID), RFC 4481, RFC 4482 (CPID) and various drafts describe contents and formats of the presence documents.
Privacy, policy and provisioning. If the centralized model is used, the User Agents need a way to define who may subscribe to which amount of their presence information. RFC 4745 and RFC 5025 define a framework for authorization policies controlling access to application-specific data. The XCAP (RFC 4825), carried by HTTP, allows User Agents to communicate their presence rules to a XCAP server, which rules the information exposed by the presence server. RFC 3857 and RFC 3858 define a subscription event "watcher info". User Agents may subscribe to this event to be informed who is subscribing to their presence information.
IM
SIP defines two modes of instant messaging:
The Page Mode makes use of the SIP method MESSAGE, as defined in RFC 3428. This mode establishes no sessions.
The Session Mode. The Message Session Relay Protocol (RFC 4975, RFC 4976) is a text-based protocol for exchanging arbitrarily-sized content between users, at any time. An MSRP session is set up by exchanging certain information, such as an MSRP URI, within SIP and SDP signalling.
See also
Message Session Relay Protocol (MSRP)
Presence and Instant Messaging (PRIM)
References
External links
SIP for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions (simple) WG - IETF Datatracker
Rich Presence - A New User Communications Experience Technology White Paper
Instant messaging protocols
Application layer protocols
Working groups | [
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226644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%20cell | Unit cell | In geometry, biology, mineralogy, and solid state physics, a unit cell is a repeating unit formed by the vectors spanning the points of a lattice. Despite its suggestive name, the unit cell (unlike a unit vector, for example) does not necessarily have unit size, or even a particular size at all. Rather, the primitive cell is the closest analogy to a unit vector, since it has a determined size for a given lattice and is the basic building block from which larger cells are constructed.
The concept is used particularly in describing crystal structure in two and three dimensions, though it makes sense in all dimensions. A lattice can be characterized by the geometry of its unit cell. The unit cell is a section of the tiling (a parallelogram or parallelepiped) that generates the whole tiling using only translations.
There are two special cases of the unit cell: the primitive cell and the conventional cell. The primitive cell is a unit cell corresponding to a single lattice point, it is the smallest possible unit cell. In some cases, the full symmetry of a crystal structure is not obvious from the primitive cell, in which cases a conventional cell may be used. A conventional cell (which may or may not be primitive) is a unit cell with the full symmetry of the lattice and may include more than one lattice point. The conventional unit cells are parallelotope in n dimensions.
Primitive cell
A primitive cell is a unit cell that contains exactly one lattice point. For unit cells generally, lattice points that are shared by cells are counted as of the lattice points contained in each of those cells; so for example a primitive unit cell in three dimensions which has lattice points only at its eight vertices is considered to contain of each of them. An alternative conceptualization is to consistently pick only one of the lattice points to belong to the given unit cell (so the other lattice points belong to adjacent unit cells).
The primitive translation vectors , , span a lattice cell of smallest volume for a particular three-dimensional lattice, and are used to define a crystal translation vector
where , , are integers, translation by which leaves the lattice invariant. That is, for a point in the lattice , the arrangement of points appears the same from as from .
Since the primitive cell is defined by the primitive axes (vectors) , , , the volume of the primitive cell is given by the parallelepiped from the above axes as
Usually, primitive cells in two and three dimensions are chosen to take the shape parallelograms and parallelepipeds, with an atom at each corner of the cell. This choice of primitive cell is not unique, but volume of primitive cells will always be given by the expression above.
Wigner–Seitz cell
In addition to the parallelepiped primitive cells, for every Bravais lattice there is another kind of primitive cell called the Wigner–Seitz cell. In the Wigner–Seitz cell, the lattice point is at the center of the cell, and for most Bravais lattices, the shape is not a parallelogram or parallelepiped. This is a type of Voronoi cell. The Wigner–Seitz cell of the reciprocal lattice in momentum space is called the Brillouin zone.
Conventional cell
For each particular lattice, a conventional cell has been chosen on a case-by-case basis by crystallographers based on convenience of calculation. These conventional cells may have additional lattice points located in the middle of the faces or body of the unit cell. The number of lattice points, as well as the volume, of the conventional cell is an integer multiple (1, 2, 3, or 4) of that of the primitive cell.
Two dimensions
For any 2-dimensional lattice, the unit cells are parallelograms, which in special cases may have orthogonal angles, or equal lengths, or both. Four of the five two-dimensional Bravais lattices are represented using conventional primitive cells, as shown below.
The centered rectangular lattice also has a primitive cell in the shape of a rhombus, but in order to allow easy discrimination on the basis of symmetry, it is represented by a conventional cell which contains two lattice points.
Three dimensions
For any 3-dimensional lattice, the conventional unit cells are parallelepipeds, which in special cases may have orthogonal angles, or equal lengths, or both. Seven of the fourteen three-dimensional Bravais lattices are represented using conventional primitive cells, as shown below.
The other seven Bravais lattices (known as the centered lattices) also have primitive cells in the shape of a parallelepiped, but in order to allow easy discrimination on the basis of symmetry, they are represented by conventional cells which contain more than one lattice point.
See also
Wigner–Seitz cell
Bravais lattice
Wallpaper group
Space group
Notes
References
Crystallography
Mineralogy | [
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226647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunoon | Dunoon | Dunoon (; ) is the main town on the Cowal peninsula in the south of Argyll and Bute, Scotland. It is located on the western shore of the upper Firth of Clyde, to the south of the Holy Loch and to the north of Innellan. As well as forming part of the council area of Argyll and Bute, Dunoon also has its own community council. Dunoon was a burgh until 1976.
The early history of Dunoon often revolves around two feuding clans: the Lamonts and the Campbells. Dunoon was a popular destination when travel by steamships was common around the Firth of Clyde; Glaswegians described this as going doon the watter. This diminished, and many holidaymakers started to go elsewhere as roads and railways improved and the popularity of overseas travel increased.
In 1961, during the height of the Cold War, Dunoon became a garrison town to the United States Navy. In 1992, shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, they closed their Holy Loch base in Sandbank, and neighbouring Dunoon suffered an economic downturn. Since the base's closure, the town and surrounding area are again turning to tourism, marketing to outdoor enthusiasts and wildlife lovers, as well as promoting festivals and competitions. The largest annual event held in the town is the Cowal Highland Gathering, which has been held since 1894. The Royal National Mòd has been also been held in the town.
History
Dunoon Castle was built on a small, partly artificial, conical hill beside the Firth of Clyde in the 12th century, of which low walls remain. It eventually became a royal castle with the Earls of Argyll (Campbells) as hereditary keepers, paying a nominal rent of a single red rose to the sovereign. Mary, Queen of Scots visited Dunoon Castle on 26 July 1563 and granted several charters during her visit. In 1646 the Dunoon massacre of members of Clan Lamont by members of Clan Campbell took place. The castle was destroyed during Argyll's Rising, a rebellion in 1685 against James VII.
In the early 19th century, the town's main street, Argyll Street, stopped at Moir Street. Instead of continuing to Dunoon Pier, it turned right at today's Sinbad's Bar. Before Dunoon Burgh Hall was built, beginning in 1873, the land was an open field, owned by McArthur Moir, leading to an area known as the Gallowhill. There were no streets and houses between Argyll Street and Edward Street. Argyll Street, roughly as it is seen today, was completed by 1870. Moir donated some of his land for the building of the Burgh Hall, but he did not get to see its completion; he died by suicide in 1872.
The two banks mentioned above were the Union Bank of Scotland and the City of Glasgow Bank. The hydropathic spa, meanwhile, was "an elegant new baths building, named Ardvullin, erected a little to the north of the village as a hydropathic establishment, where baths - hot, cold, artificial salt, and Turkish — may be had at moderate charges."
Many of the town's early villas had their own private bathing ground or boxes.
The population of the united parishes of Dunoon and Kilmun in 1861 was 5,444; in 1866 the estimated population of Dunoon, from Baugie Burn to Hunters Quay, was 3,000.
During the Second World War, as the main part of the Firth of Clyde defences, an anti-submarine boom was anchored to the shore in Dunoon. A Palmerston Fort and camp at Ardhallow in the south of the town, provided one of the coastal defence gun emplacements that covered the anti-submarine boom and Firth of Clyde waters. There also was a gun emplacement on top of Castle Hill.
In 1961, as the Cold War intensified, the Holy Loch's importance grew when the U.S. Navy submarine tender USS Proteus brought Polaris ballistic missiles, nuclear submarines to the Firth of Clyde at Sandbank. Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament protesters drew this to the public's attention. Holy Loch was, for thirty years, the home port of US Navy Submarine Squadron 14 and Dunoon, therefore, became a garrison town.
In 1991, the Holy Loch base was deemed unnecessary following the demise of the Soviet Union and was subsequently withdrawn. The last submarine tender to be based there, the USS Simon Lake, left Holy Loch in March 1992, leading to a major and continuing downturn in the local economy.
In May 2012, Dunoon and Campbeltown were jointly named as the rural places in Scotland most vulnerable to a downturn in a report by the Scottish Agricultural College looking at 90 places.
Government and politics
Dunoon is represented in the Scottish Parliament by Jenni Minto of the Scottish National Party (SNP), who holds the Argyll and Bute seat. Dunoon also lies within the Highlands and Islands electoral region, from which a further seven additional members are elected to produce a form of proportional representation for the region as a whole.
In the House of Commons Dunoon is represented by the SNP's Brendan O'Hara, who holds a seat also entitled Argyll and Bute, although this seat has different boundaries from the one used for the Scottish Parliament.
Argyll and Bute Council is the Local Authority for the council area covering Dunoon. It is one of 32 such council areas across Scotland. Dunoon forms a single ward for elections to Argyll and Bute Council, electing three councillors via the single transferable vote system. At the last election, held in May 2017, one independent and one member from each of the SNP and the Conservatives was elected to represent the town.
Dunoon has a community council, whose primary role is to represent the views of the community to the Local Authority and other public bodies.
Religion
There is evidence of an episcopal seat at Dunoon from the latter part of the 15th century. No remains of the Bishop's Palace now exist, with the site now occupied by the playground of Dunoon Primary School, between Hillfoot and Kirk Streets.
Today, there are a number of churches in Dunoon, including:
Church of Scotland
High Kirk
St John's Church
Roman Catholic
Our Lady and St Mun's Church
Other churches
Cowal Baptist Church
Dunoon Baptist Church Centre
Dunoon Free Church (built 1843)
Holy Trinity Episcopal Church
Kingdom Hall
Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses
Culture
Architecture
Dunoon Pier
Dunoon's Victorian pier was extended to the current structure between 1896 and 1898. It was shortened to allow the building of a breakwater in 2005, just to the south of the pier. As well as protecting the pier and its architecture from storm surges, a new link span was installed alongside the breakwater. This was to allow the berthing and loading of roll-on/roll-off ferries instead of the side-loading ferries that used to serve the pier. A tender to serve the new link-span between two interested parties, Caledonian MacBrayne and Western Ferries, came to nothing. Prior to June 2011, the pier was in daily use by Caledonian MacBrayne, who ran a regular foot passenger and car-ferry service to Gourock. However, after June 2011, a renewed tendering process produced a passenger-only ferry service (Argyll Ferries, owned by Caledonian MacBrayne) using the breakwater for berthing. On 1 September 2004, during the construction of the breakwater, the cargo vessel Jackie Moon (82 metres in length) ran aground on the breakwater, with six people on board. Since the breakwater became operational in June 2011, Argyll Ferries operate from this docking facility. The Waverley struck the breakwater on 26 June 2009, with some 700 people on board. The pier was partially refurbished by Argyll and Bute Council during 2015. Now containing meeting rooms, it is purely a tourist attraction.
Burgh Hall
Dunoon Burgh Hall opened in 1874, the work of notable Glasgow architect Robert Alexander Bryden, who is buried in Dunoon Cemetery, a mile to the north. It is a Scottish baronial-style building that housed the municipal offices and had a hall accommodating 500 people. The Category B listed building re-opened in June 2017, and is a fully accessible venue for exhibitions, performances and gatherings. Alongside a gallery and theatre, the venue offers creative workshop space, a garden and a café.
Other buildings
On 20 August 2021, several Argyll Street buildings were destroyed in an arson attack.
Landmarks and attractions
Mary Campbell (1763–1786), also known as "Highland Mary" and "Bonny Mary O' Argyll", was born at Auchamore in Dunoon. She started an affair with the bard Robert Burns. The Highland Mary statue was erected in 1896; it is prominently sited on Castle Hill, overlooking the breakwater in Dunoon.
The war memorial of Dunoon is located in the Castle Gardens, overlooking the pier.
The Queen's Hall is the town's major multi-function hall complex. It is situated opposite the head of the Victorian pier and built in 1958. It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 11 August 1958. The building houses four function suites and a large main hall. The main hall has a stage with professional sound and lighting equipment, and attracted popular acts such as Pink Floyd, Blur, the Saw Doctors, David Gray. Morrissey, the Red Hot Chilli Pipers, Primal Scream and comedians Kevin Bridges, Bill Bailey and Roy Chubby Brown. In late 2015 the Queen's Hall was closed to enable a major refurbishment. In December 2016 it was announced that the refurbishment would not commence until January 2017. The Queens Hall reopened in August 2018.
Riverside, swim and health centre, including an indoor pool (25m long) and associated facilities, located in the centre of Dunoon, next to the Firth of Clyde on Alexandra Parade. Facilities include a main pool, teaching pool, gym including a sauna and a water flume.
Dunoon Library is situated in the rebuilt Queens Hall at the Castle Gardens.
A small group of rocks, known as the Gantocks, lie off the coast at Dunoon. The navigation beacon on the Gantocks in the Firth of Clyde is close to the coast at Dunoon. It was built in 1886.
The Clan Lamont Memorial, also known as the Dunoon Massacre Memorial, is on Tom-A-Mhoid Road close to Castle Hill. It was dedicated in 1906 and commemorates the Dunoon massacre of 1646, when the Campbell Clan attacked the Lamont Clan, killing over 200 people.
Local wildlife includes seals, otters, dolphins, basking sharks, roe deer, red deer, red squirrels, and many species of birds.
The Castle House Museum opens during the summer season. It holds historical information and displays for Dunoon and the Cowal peninsula.
Festivals
The Cowal Highland Gathering, established in 1894, attracts contestants and spectators from all over the world. It is held annually over the final weekend in August at Dunoon Stadium.
Cowal Open Studios, held over a fortnight in September, gives the opportunity to visit the studios of artists around Dunoon and Cowal.
Cowalfest, celebrates the outdoors activities like rambling around Dunoon for ten days in October.
Since the 1930s Dunoon has hosted the Royal National Mòd a number of times – 1930, 1950, 1968, 1994, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018.
In 2013, the first Dunoon Film Festival was held over three days and opened with first public screening of Your Cheatin' Heart, a series made by the BBC that had last been shown on television in 1990.
Transport
Dunoon is accessible by direct land and sea routes and indirectly by rail at Gourock. Dunoon lies towards the southern end of the A815 road. At its northernmost point, near Cairndow, this road joins the A83 and provides access to the town by road from Loch Lomond / Glasgow in the east, from Inveraray / Oban in the north and from Campbeltown in the west. Two ferry operators provide services to Dunoon, Cowal peninsula from Gourock, Inverclyde. The public service route provided by the Scottish Government-owned Caledonian MacBrayne, which is a foot passenger only service between Dunoon Breakwater and Gourock pier, giving easy access to the National Rail Network. Local company Western Ferries (Clyde) LTD, carries motor vehicles and foot passengers between McInroy's Point, (A770, Cloch Road) and Hunters Quay near Dunoon.
Modern Dunoon owes its existence to steam power; as late as 1822 there were only three or four slated houses, the rest of the residences being traditional Highland cottages. In the New Statistical Account, the MP James Ewing from Glasgow is named as beginning the expansion of the village when he built Castle House close to Dunoon Castle. The growth of the village increased from that time, paralleling the engineering-led growth of the steamers. Other infrastructural advances also helped like the construction of a jetty in 1835. From 1812 to the late 1960s, thousands of holiday-makers travelled doon the watter from Glasgow and industrial Lanarkshire to Dunoon and to numerous other town piers on the Firth of Clyde.
In 1868, the following summer excursions by water could be had from Dunoon (going and returning the same day):
Ardentinny, Chancellor, 11 A.M.
Ardrishaig, Iona, 9.30 A.M.
Arran, Hero, 10.30 A.M.
Arrochar, Chancellor, 11 A.M.
Ayr, Vale of Clyde, 9.15 A.M.
Blairmore, Chancellor, 11 A.M.
Brodick, Hero, 10.30 A.M.
Campbeltown, Gael, 9.15 A.M.
Carradale, Gael, 9.15 A.M.
Fairlie, Vale of Clyde, 9.15 A.M.
Gareloch, early steamer to Greenock, thence per Garelochhead steamer
Innellan, various during the day
Kyles of Bute, to Tighnabruaich or Colintraive, Iona; Kilchattan Bay, Bute, Hero
Lamlash, Hero, 10.30 A.M.
Largs, Vale of Clyde, or early steamer to Innellan, thence cross by Wemyss Bay Railway Steamer to Wemyss Bay
Lochgoil, Chancellor and Lochlong; change at Blairmore
Loch Lomond, Chancellor or early steamer to Bowling, thence by rail to Balloch, thence by steamer to Tarbert, where cross to Arrochar, and catch Chancellor returning. Or vice-versa
Loch Long, Chancellor
Millport, Vale of Clyde, 9.15 A.M.
Rothesay, various during the day
Tarbert, Iona
Troon, Vale of Clyde
Wemyss Bay, steamer to Innellan, thence cross by Wemyss Bay Railway Steamer to Wemyss Bay
Only one Clyde steamer, the Waverley, satisfies demand for this business today. It berths at the breakwater when visiting Dunoon during its summer season.
At Gourock Pier, an Abellio ScotRail train service provides access to the National Rail network via the Inverclyde Line at Glasgow Central. Public transport within Dunoon and the surrounding area is provided under government subsidy by bus and coach operator West Coast Motors.
West Coast Motors' route 486 provides a regular return journey from Dunoon town centre to Inveraray, where it connects with a Scottish Citylink service 926 and 976 onward to Campbeltown, Oban, Glasgow and points in-between.
Education
Dunoon is served by three primary schools. Dunoon Primary School is on Hillfoot Street; this building was the original 1641 location of Dunoon Grammar School. St Muns Primary School is on Pilot Street and Kirn Primary School is on Park Road.
Dunoon Grammar School is located on Ardenslate Road in Kirn.
The University of the Highlands and Islands' Argyll College has a campus in Dunoon, located in the West Bay, near to the breakwater and Castle Hill.
Sport and recreation
The town's sporting arena is Dunoon Stadium, which is located in the north of the town, near Dunoon Grammar School. When it hosted football matches, it had the largest capacity of any amateur ground in Scotland. It later became the focal point of the Cowal Highland Gathering. Motorcycle dirt track racing (or speedway) was staged at the stadium on 18 June 1932 as part of the annual Dunoon and Cowal Agricultural Show. A demonstration event had been staged in May 1932.
Fishing locations surround Dunoon, both fresh and sea water.
Mountain biking trails are available.
Dunoon Camanachd was established in 2015; the shinty team started competing in South Division 2, in 2016.
Cowal Golf Club is situated on the hillside above Kirn. It is an eighteen-hole, 6251-yard course with a par of seventy.
The two bowling clubs in Dunoon are Dunoon Argyll Bowling Club, on Mary Street, and Bogleha' Bowling Club, on Argyll Street.
In 2006 and 2007, the town hosted a six-a-side swamp football tournament that attracted around 500 players and 1000 spectators.
Cowal Rugby Club was formed in 1976. In 2008 it scored its first league victory in the Scottish Hydro Electric Western Regional League West Division 2.
Dunoon Amateurs F.C. was founded in 1975 and play football at Dunoon Stadium and Dunoon Grammar School.
The Dunoon Youth Football League (DYFL), founded in 1981, is a voluntary organisation that teaches football skills to all interested children with ages between 4 and 17. The DYFL have their own clubhouse and changing facilities at Dunoon Stadium. All coaches are parents who have received coaching certification through the Scottish Youth Football Association (SYFA), and the club has a PGA officer and coaches with Sports Injuries First Aid Certification. the club had a membership of over 125 children.
Castle Tennis Club is situated in the town's Castle Garden. The club has two concrete and two all-weather courts, all lighted.
Every year in June the town hosts the Argyll Rally, a motorsport event that takes place in the forests around the local area. The rally counts as a round of the Scottish Rally Championship and brings competitors from all over United Kingdom.
Walks
The town and surrounding area are becoming recognised as a destination for outdoor pursuits, including walking, running, golfing, kayaking, sailing, fishing, climbing, triathlon and mountain biking.
Trails (walks, running and mountain biking) thread through the hills surrounding Dunoon. Corlarach Hill has waymarked routes for walkers, mountain biking and horse riders. These trails are located next to the Bishop's Glen.
Puck's Glen is a popular short walk set in the hills close to Benmore Botanic Garden. (The arboretum at Benmore Botanic Garden, formerly a private garden for the Younger family, is now open to the public. It comprises and features some of the tallest trees in Britain, including the avenue of Giant Redwoods (Sequoia), some of which are over high. One of Dunoon's listed buildings is the Grade 2 Victorian fernery, which was reopened in 2009 after an 18-month restoration.) Part of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, the Garden is north of the town, just before Loch Eck. A tumbling burn, criss-crossed by bridges, is enclosed by rocky walls heavily hung with mosses and overshadowed by dense trees. The walk has clear, waymarked paths. The glen is named after Puck, from A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Morag's Fairy Glen is a short gorge walk, with trails alongside the Berry Burn, located on the hill behind the West Bay area of Dunoon.
Bishops Glen trail follows the shore of the remaining one of three reservoirs in the glen, that used to supply fresh water to Dunoon. The reservoir is damming the Balgaidgh Burn (Balgie) and is now a fresh water rod fly fishing location. Access to the hills behind Dunoon, including Corlarach Hill, is available from the Bishop's Glen Reservoir trails.
Media
Dunoon's local weekly newspaper is the Dunoon Observer and Argyllshire Standard, which was founded in 1871 in Sandbank by William Inglis, Sr., who was editor and proprietor. (The town once had three other newspapers, namely the Cowal Watchman (1876), Dunoon Herald and Cowal Advertiser and the Dunoon Telegraph.)
Dunoon Community Radio was launched in 2009. Broadcasting on 97.4 FM from the Dunoon Observer building, Dunoon Community Radio is an independent social business entirely staffed by volunteers. Often abbreviated to "DCR" by its presenters, the station has a variety of programming to meet the needs of people living in around Dunoon.
The town was the inspiration behind Damon Albarn's song "The Selfish Giant" on his 2014 solo album Everyday Robots. The song makes particular references to the town ("Walking down Argyll Street when the evening colours call").
Notable people
Dunoon's most notable resident was Sir Harry Lauder (1870–1950), whose Laudervale mansion stood just south of Dunoon on Bullwood Road. After a fire, which burnt over half of it, it stood ruinous until around 1980, when it and the stable blocks were demolished. Much of the grounds were subsequently sold for housing development. The development there today preserves the Laudervale name.
Virginia Bottomley, politician
Robert Alexander Bryden, architect
Mary Campbell, love interest of Robert Burns
MT Carney, businesswoman
Donald Caskie, minister
Peter Dorschel, spy
William Fraser, architect
Stewart Houston, footballer
Neil MacFarlane, footballer
Mackintosh MacKay, minister and Gaelic scholar
John McLellan DCM, composer
Sylvester McCoy, actor
Alexander Robertson, boatbuilder
George Robertson, politician
Arabella Scott, suffragette
Muriel Scott, suffragette (born in India)
John Smith, politician
Brian Wilson, politician
Tom Wisniewski, musician
Gallery
Geography
Dunoon is on the west coast of the Firth of Clyde, and on the east coast of the claw-shaped Cowal peninsula.
Much of the Cowal peninsula is covered with forest, particularly in the northern stretches and to the west and south with small patches in the south-east and east. To the north and north-west is the Argyll Forest Park that was established in 1935.
Climate
As with the rest of the British Isles, Dunoon has a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. It is an exceptionally wet part of the country, particularly so for a place near sea-level, with annual average rainfall totals nearing .
Recorded temperature extremes since 1960 range from during July 1983 to as low as during January 1982.
References
External links
Visit Scotland, Dunoon page
Webcam looking over the East Bay, towards Dunoon
Cowal
Firth of Clyde
Highlands and Islands of Scotland
Port cities and towns in Scotland
Ports and harbours of Scotland
Seaside resorts in Scotland
Towns in Argyll and Bute
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226650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn%20Shafer | Glenn Shafer | Glenn Shafer (born November 21, 1946) is an American mathematician and statistician. He is the co-creator of the Dempster-Shafer Theory. He is a University Professor and Board of Governors Professor at Rutgers University.
Early life and education
Shafer grew up on a farm near Caney, Kansas. He received a bachelor's degree in mathematics from Princeton University, then entered the Peace Corps, serving in Afghanistan. He returned to Princeton, earning a PhD in mathematical statistics in 1973.
Career
He taught at Princeton and the University of Kansas, joining the faculty of Rutgers Business School – Newark and New Brunswick in 1992. From 2011 to 2014 he served as dean of the school.
During the 1970s and 1980s he expanded a theory first introduced by Arthur P. Dempster to create the Dempster-Shafer Theory, also described as the theory of belief functions or evidence theory. It is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, allowing one to combine evidence from different sources and arrive at a degree of belief (represented by a mathematical object called belief function) that takes into account all the available evidence. The theory and its extensions have been of particular interest to the artificial intelligence community.
More recently he worked with Vladimir Vovk to develop a game-theoretic framework for probability. That work produced a 2001 book, Probability and Finance: It's Only a Game! A joint research group between Rutgers and Royal Holloway, University of London has produced more than 50 working papers on the subject.
Principal publications
Shafer, Glenn, A Mathematical Theory of Evidence, Princeton University Press, 1976.
Shafer, Glenn, and Vovk, Vladimir, Probability and Finance: It's Only a Game!, John Wiley and Sons, 2001.
Recognition
He is designated as a Board of Governors Professor at Rutgers. The University of Prague recognized him with an honorary doctorate. He has been a Fulbright Fellow and a Guggenheim Fellow.
Personal life
He is married to retired Princeton professor and artist Nell Irvin Painter.
References
External links
Personal website
Living people
Mathematicians from New Jersey
American statisticians
Rutgers University faculty
Princeton University alumni
People from Caney, Kansas
1946 births | [
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226651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic | Relic | In religion, a relic is an object or article of religious significance from the past, it usually consists of the physical remains of a saint or the personal effects of the saint or venerated person preserved for purposes of veneration as a tangible memorial. Relics are an important aspect of some forms of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, shamanism, and many other religions. Relic derives from the Latin reliquiae, meaning "remains", and a form of the Latin verb relinquere, to "leave behind, or abandon". A reliquary is a shrine that houses one or more religious relics.
In classical antiquity
In ancient Greece, a city or sanctuary might claim to possess, without necessarily displaying, the remains of a venerated hero as a part of a hero cult. Other venerable objects associated with the hero were more likely to be on display in sanctuaries, such as spears, shields, or other weaponry; chariots, ships or figureheads; furniture such as chairs or tripods; and clothing. The sanctuary of the Leucippides at Sparta claimed to display the egg of Leda.
The bones were not regarded as holding a particular power derived from the hero, with some exceptions, such as the divine shoulder of Pelops held at Olympia. Miracles and healing were not regularly attributed to them; rather, their presence was meant to serve a tutelary function, as the tomb of Oedipus was said to protect Athens.
The bones of Orestes and Theseus were supposed to have been stolen or removed from their original resting place and reburied. On the advice of the Delphic Oracle, the Spartans searched for the bones of Orestes and brought them home, without which they had been told they could not expect victory in their war against the neighboring Tegeans. Plutarch says that the Athenians were likewise instructed by the oracle to locate and steal the relics of Theseus from the Dolopians.
The body of the legendary Eurystheus was also supposed to protect Athens from enemy attack, and in Thebes, that of the prophet Amphiaraus, whose cult was oracular and healing. Plutarch narrates transferrals similar to that of Theseus for the bodies of the historical Demetrius I of Macedon and Phocion the Good. The bones or ashes of Aesculapius at Epidaurus, and of Perdiccas I at Macedon, were treated with the deepest veneration.
As with the relics of Theseus, the bones are sometimes described in literary sources as gigantic, an indication of the hero's "larger than life" status. On the basis of their reported size, it has been conjectured that such bones were those of prehistoric creatures, the startling discovery of which may have prompted the sanctifying of the site.
The head of the poet-prophet Orpheus was supposed to have been transported to Lesbos, where it was enshrined and visited as an oracle. The 2nd-century geographer Pausanias reported that the bones of Orpheus were kept in a stone vase displayed on a pillar near Dion, his place of death and a major religious center. These too were regarded as having oracular power, which might be accessed through dreaming in a ritual of incubation. The accidental exposure of the bones brought a disaster upon the town of Libretha, whence the people of Dion had transferred the relics to their own keeping.
According to the Chronicon Paschale, the bones of the Persian Zoroaster were venerated, but the tradition of Zoroastrianism and its scriptures offer no support of this.
Buddhism
In Buddhism, relics of the Buddha and various sages are venerated. After the Buddha's death, his remains were divided into eight portions. Afterward, these relics were enshrined in stupas wherever Buddhism was spread.
Some relics believed to be original remains of the body of the Buddha still survive, including the relic of the tooth of the Buddha in Sri Lanka.
A stupa is a building created specifically for the relics. Many Buddhist temples have stupas and historically, the placement of relics in a stupa often became the initial structure around which the whole temple would be based. Today, many stupas also hold the ashes or ringsel of prominent/respected Buddhists who were cremated. In rare cases the whole body is conserved, for example in the case of Dudjom Rinpoche, after his death his physical body was moved a year later from France and placed in a stupa in one of his main monasteries near Boudhanath, Nepal in 1988. Pilgrims may view his body through a glass window in the stupa.
The Buddha's relics are considered to show people that enlightenment is possible, to remind them that the Buddha was a real person, and to also promote good virtue.
Christianity
History
One of the earliest sources that purports to show the efficacy of relics is found in 2 Kings 13:20–21:
Also cited is the veneration of relics from the martyr and bishop Saint Polycarp of Smyrna recorded in the Martyrdom of Polycarp, written sometime from 150 to 160 AD. With regard to relics that are objects, an often cited passage is Acts 19:11–12, which says that Paul the Apostle's handkerchiefs were imbued by God with healing power. In the gospel accounts of Jesus healing the bleeding woman and again in the Gospel of Mark 6:56, those who touched Jesus' garment were healed.
The practice of venerating relics seems to have been taken for granted by writers like Augustine, St. Ambrose, Gregory of Nyssa, St. Chrysostom, and St. Gregory Nazianzen. Dom Bernardo Cignitti, O.S.B., wrote, "[T]he remains of certain dead are surrounded with special care and veneration. This is because the mortal remains of the deceased are associated in some manner with the holiness of their souls which await reunion with their bodies in the resurrection." Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) pointed out that it was natural that people should treasure what is associated with the dead, much like the personal effects of a relative. In an interview with Catholic News Service, Fr. Mario Conte, executive editor of the Messenger of St. Anthony magazine in Padua, Italy, said, "Saints' relics help people overcome the abstract and make a connection with the holy. ... Saints do not perform miracles. Only God performs miracles, but saints are intercessors."
In the early Church the disturbance, let alone the division, of the remains of martyrs and other saints was not practiced. They were allowed to remain in their often unidentified resting places such as in cemeteries and the catacombs of Rome. These places were always outside the walls of the city, but martyriums began to be built over the site of the burial. Since it was considered beneficial to the soul to be buried close to the remains of saints, several large "funerary halls" were built over the sites of martyr's graves, including Old Saint Peter's Basilica. These were initially not regular churches, but "covered cemeteries" crammed with graves, wherein was celebrated funerary and memorial services. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, it may have been thought that when the souls of the martyrs went to heaven on resurrection day they would be accompanied by those interred nearby, who would thus gain favour with God.
The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 drew on the teaching of St. John Damascene that homage or respect is not really paid to an inanimate object, but to the holy person, and indeed the veneration of a holy person is itself honour paid to God. The Council decreed that every altar should contain a relic, making it clear that this was already the norm, as it remains to the present day in Catholic and Orthodox churches. The veneration of the relics of the saints reflects a belief that the saints in heaven intercede for those on earth. A number of cures and miracles have been attributed to relics, not because of their own power, but because of the holiness of the saint they represent.
Many tales of miracles and other marvels were attributed to relics beginning in the early centuries of the church. These became popular during the Middle Ages, and were collected in books of hagiography such as the Golden Legend or the works of Caesarius of Heisterbach. These miracle tales made relics much sought-after during the period. By the Late Middle Ages, the collecting of, and dealing in, relics had reached enormous proportions, and had spread from the church to royalty, and then to the nobility and merchant classes.
The Council of Trent of 1563 enjoined bishops to instruct their flocks that "the holy bodies of holy martyrs ... are to be venerated by the faithful, for through these [bodies] many benefits are bestowed by God on men". The Council further insisted that "in the invocation of saints, the veneration of relics and the sacred use of images, every superstition shall be removed and all filthy lucre abolished." There are also many relics attributed to Jesus, perhaps most famously the Shroud of Turin, said to be the burial shroud of Jesus Christ.
The cult of Martin of Tours was very popular in Merovingian Gaul, and centered at a great church built just outside the walls of Tours. When Saint Martin died on November 8, 397, at a village halfway between Tours and Poitiers, the inhabitants of these cities were well ready to fight for his body, which the people of Tours managed to secure by stealth. Tours became the chief point of Christian pilgrimage in Gaul, a place for the healing of the sick. Gregory of Tours had travelled to the shrine when he had contracted a serious illness. Later, as bishop of Tours, Gregory wrote extensively about miracles attributed to the intercession of St Martin.
In his introduction to Gregory's History of the Franks, Ernest Brehaut analyzed the Romano-Christian concepts that gave relics such a powerful draw. He distinguished Gregory's constant usage of sanctus and virtus, the first with its familiar meaning of "sacred" or "holy", and the second as "the mystic potency emanating from the person or thing that is sacred. ... In a practical way the second word [virtus] ... describes the uncanny, mysterious power emanating from the supernatural and affecting the natural. ... These points of contact and yielding are the miracles we continually hear of".
Relics and pilgrimage
Rome became a major destination for Christian pilgrims as it was easier to access for European pilgrims than the Holy Land. Constantine the Great erected great basilicas over the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul. A distinction of these sites was the presence of holy relics. Over the course of the Middle Ages, other religious structures acquired relics and became destinations for pilgrimage. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, substantial numbers of pilgrims flocked to Santiago de Compostela in Spain, in which the supposed relics of the apostle James, son of Zebedee, discovered 830, are housed. Santiago de Compostela remains a significant pilgrimage site, with around 200,000 pilgrims, both secular and Christian, completing the numerous pilgrimage routes to the cathedral in 2012 alone.
By venerating relics through visitation, gifts, and providing services, medieval Christians believed that they would acquire the protection and intercession of the sanctified dead. Relics of local saints drew visitors to sites like Saint Frideswide's in Oxford, and San Nicola Peregrino in Trani.
Instead of having to travel to be near to a venerated saint, relics of the saint could be venerated locally. Relics are often kept on a circular decorated theca, made of gold, silver, or other metal.
Believers would make pilgrimages to places believed to have been sanctified by the physical presence of Christ or prominent saints, such as the site of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Economic effect
As holy relics attracted pilgrims and these religious tourists needed to be housed, fed, and provided with souvenirs, relics became a source of income not only for the destinations that held them, but for the abbeys, churches, and towns en route. Relics were prized as they were portable. They could be possessed, inventoried, bequeathed, stolen, counterfeited, and smuggled. They could add value to an established site or confer significance on a new location. Offerings made at a site of pilgrimage were an important source of revenue for the community who received them on behalf of the saint. According to Patrick Geary, "[t]o the communities fortunate enough to have a saint's remains in its church, the benefits in terms of revenue and status were enormous, and competition to acquire relics and to promote the local saint's virtues over those of neighboring communities was keen". Local clergy promoted their own patron saints in an effort to secure their own market share. On occasion guards had to watch over mortally ill holy men and women to prevent the unauthorized dismemberment of their corpses as soon as they died. Geary also suggests that the danger of someone murdering an aging holy man in order to acquire his relics was a legitimate concern.
Relics were used to cure the sick, to seek intercession for relief from famine or plague, to take solemn oaths, and to pressure warring factions to make peace in the presence of the sacred. Courts held relics since Merovingian times. St Angilbert acquired for Charlemagne one of the most impressive collections in Christendom. An active market developed. Relics entered into commerce along the same trade routes followed by other portable commodities. Matthew Brown likens a ninth-century Italian deacon named Deusdona, with access to the Roman catacombs, as crossing the Alps to visit monastic fairs of northern Europe much like a contemporary art dealer.
Canterbury was a popular destination for English pilgrims, who traveled to witness the miracle-working relics of St Thomas Becket, the sainted Archbishop of Canterbury who was assassinated by knights of King Henry II in 1170. After Becket's death, his successor and the Canterbury chapter quickly used his relics to promote the cult of the as-yet-uncanonized martyr. The motivations included the assertion of the Church's independence against rulers, a desire to have an English (indeed Norman English) saint of European reputation, and the desire to promote Canterbury as a destination for pilgrimage. In the first years after Becket's death, donations at the shrine accounted for twenty-eight percent of the cathedral's total revenues.
Counterfeits
In the absence of real ways of assessing authenticity, relic-collectors became prey to the unscrupulous, and some extremely high prices were paid. Forgeries proliferated from the very beginning. Augustine already denounced impostors who wandered around disguised as monks, making a profit from the sale of spurious relics. In his Admonitio Generalis of 789, Charlemagne ordered that "the false names of martyrs and the uncertain memorials of saints should not be venerated". The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) of the Catholic Church condemned abuses such as counterfeit relics and exaggerated claims.
Pieces of the True Cross were one of the most highly sought-after of such relics; many churches claimed to possess a piece of it, so many that John Calvin famously remarked that there were enough pieces of the True Cross to build a ship from. A study in 1870 found that, put together, the claimed relics of the cross at that much later time weighed less than 1.7 kg. By the middle of the 16th century, the number of relics in Christian churches became enormous, and there was practically no possibility to distinguish the authentic from the falsification, since both of them had been in the temples for centuries and were objects for worship. In 1543, John Calvin wrote about fake relics in his Treatise on Relics, in which he described the state of affairs with relics in Catholic churches. Calvin says that the saints have two or three or more bodies with arms and legs, and even a few extra limbs and heads.
Due to the existence of counterfeit relics, the Church began to regulate the use of relics. Canon Law required the authentication of relics if they were to be publicly venerated. They had to be sealed in a reliquary and accompanied by a certificate of authentication, signed and sealed by someone in the Congregation for Saints, or by the local Bishop where the saint lived. Without such authentication, relics are not to be used for public veneration. The Congregation for Saints, as part of the Roman Curia, holds the authority to verify relics in which documentation is lost or missing. The documents and reliquaries of authenticated relics are usually affixed with a wax seal.
Classifications and prohibitions in the Catholic Church
In Catholic theology, sacred relics must not be worshipped, because only God is worshipped and adored. Instead, the veneration given to them was "dulia". Saint Jerome declared, "We do not worship, we do not adore, for fear that we should bow down to the creature rather than to the Creator, but we venerate the relics of the martyrs in order the better to adore Him whose martyrs they are."
The Catholic church divides relics into three classes:
First-class relics: items directly associated with the events of Christ's life (manger, cross, etc.) or the physical remains of a saint (a bone, a hair, skull, a limb, etc.). Traditionally, a martyr's relics are often more prized than the relics of other saints. Parts of the saint that were significant to that saint's life are more prized relics. For instance, King St. Stephen of Hungary's right forearm is especially important because of his status as a ruler. A famous theologian's head may be his most important relic; the head of St. Thomas Aquinas was removed by the monks at the Cistercian abbey at Fossanova where he died. If a saint travelled often, then the bones of his feet may be prized. Catholic teaching prohibits relics to be divided up into small, unrecognizable parts if they are to be used in liturgy (i.e., as in an altar; see the rubrics listed in Rite of Dedication of a Church and an Altar).
Second-class relics: items that the saint owned or frequently used, for example, a crucifix, rosary, book, etc. Again, an item more important in the saint's life is thus a more important relic. Sometimes a second-class relic is a part of an item that the saint wore (a shirt, a glove, etc.) and is known as ex indumentis ("from the clothing").
Third-class relics: any object that has been in contact with a first- or second-class relic. Most third-class relics are small pieces of cloth, though in the first millennium oil was popular; the Monza ampullae contained oil collected from lamps burning before the major sites of Christ's life, and some reliquaries had holes for oil to be poured in and out again. Many people call the cloth touched to the bones of saints "ex brandea". But ex brandea strictly refers to pieces of clothing that were touched to the body or tombs of the apostles. It is a term that is used only for such; it is not a synonym for a third-class relic.
The sale or disposal by other means of "sacred relics" (meaning first and second class) without the permission of the Apostolic See is nowadays strictly forbidden by canon 1190 of the Code of Canon Law. However, the Catholic Church permits the sale of third class relics. Relics may not be placed upon the altar for public veneration, as that is reserved for the display of the Blessed Sacrament (host or prosphora and Eucharistic wine after consecration in the sacrament of the Eucharist).
Eastern Orthodoxy
The importance of relics in the Byzantine world can be seen from the veneration given to the pieces of the True Cross. Many great works of Byzantine enamel are staurothekes, or relics containing fragments of the True Cross. Other significant relics included the girdle worn by the Virgin, and pieces of the body or clothing of saints. Such relics (called contact relics, or secondary relics) were, however, scarce and did not provide most believers with ready access to proximity to the holy. The growth in the production and popularity of reproducible contact relics in the fifth and sixth centuries testifies to the need felt for more widespread access to the divine. These contact relics usually involved the placing of readily available objects, such as pieces of cloth, clay tablets, or water then bottled for believers, in contact with a relic. Alternatively, such objects could be dipped into water which had been in contact with the relic (such as the bone of a saint). These relics, a firmly embedded part of veneration by this period, increased the availability of access to the divine but were not infinitely reproducible (an original relic was required), and still usually required believers to undertake pilgrimage or have contact with somebody who had.
The earliest recorded removal, or translation of saintly remains was that of Saint Babylas at Antioch in 354, but, partly perhaps because Constantinople lacked the many saintly graves of Rome, they soon became common in the Eastern Empire, though still prohibited in the West. The Eastern capital was therefore able to acquire the remains of Saints Timothy, Andrew and Luke, and the division of bodies also began, the 5th century theologian Theodoretus declaring that "Grace remains entire with every part". In the West, a decree of Theodosius only allowed the moving of a whole sarcophagus with its contents, but the upheavals of the barbarian invasions relaxed the rules, as remains needed to be relocated to safer places.
The veneration of relics continues to be of importance in the Eastern Orthodox Church. As a natural outgrowth of the concept in Orthodox theology of theosis, the physical bodies of the saints are considered to be transformed by divine grace—indeed, all Orthodox Christians are considered to be sanctified by living the mystical life of the Church, and especially by receiving the Sacred Mysteries (Sacraments). In the Orthodox service books, the remains of the departed faithful are referred to as "relics", and are treated with honour and respect. For this reason, the bodies of Orthodox Christians are traditionally not embalmed.
The veneration of the relics of the saints is of great importance in Orthodoxy, and very often churches will display the relics of saints prominently. In a number of monasteries, particularly those on the semi-autonomous Mount Athos in Greece, all of the relics the monastery possesses are displayed and venerated each evening at Compline. As with the veneration of icons, the veneration (Greek; δουλια, dulia) of relics in the Orthodox Church is clearly distinguished from adoration (λατρεια, latria); i.e., that worship which is due to God alone. Thus Orthodox teaching warns the faithful against idolatry and at the same time remains true to scriptural teaching (vis. 2 Kings 13:20–21) as understood by Orthodox Sacred Tradition.
The examination of the relics is an important step in the glorification (canonization) of new saints. Sometimes, one of the signs of sanctification is the condition of the relics of the saint. Some saints will be incorrupt, meaning that their remains do not decay under conditions when they normally would (natural mummification is not the same as incorruption). Sometimes even when the flesh does decay the bones themselves will manifest signs of sanctity. They may be honey-coloured or give off a sweet aroma. Some relics will exude myrrh. The absence of such manifestations is not necessarily a sign that the person is not a Saint.
Relics play a major role in the consecration of a church. The consecrating bishop will place the relics on a diskos (paten) in a church near the church that is to be consecrated, they will then be taken in a cross procession to the new church, carried three times around the new structure and then placed in the Holy Table (altar) as part of the consecration service.
The relics of saints (traditionally, always those of a martyr) are also sewn into the antimension which is given to a priest by his bishop as a means of bestowing faculties upon him (i.e., granting him permission to celebrate the Sacred Mysteries). The antimens is kept on the High Place of the Holy Table (altar), and it is forbidden to celebrate the Divine Liturgy (Eucharist) without it. Occasionally, in cases of fixed altars, the relics are built in the altar table itself and sealed with a special mixture called wax-mastic.
The necessity of provide relics for antimensions in new churches often necessitates continuous division of relics. An account of this process can be found in a treatise of the pre-revolutionary Russian church historian . According to Romansky, the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church operated a special office, located in the Church of Philip the Apostle in the Moscow Kremlin, where bones of numerous saints, authenticated by the church's hierarchs, were stored, and pieces of them were prayerfully separated to be sent to the dioceses that needed to place them into new antimensions.
While Orthodoxy does not make use of the strict classification system of the Roman Catholic Church, it too recognizes and venerates relics which may pertain to Jesus Christ or a saint, such as a relic of the True Cross, the Chains of Saint Peter (feast day, 16 January), the grapevine cross of Saint Nino of Georgia, etc. Places can also be considered holy. When one makes a pilgrimage to a shrine he may bring back something from the place, such as soil from the Holy Land or from the grave of a saint.
In art
Many churches were built along pilgrimage routes. A number in Europe were either founded or rebuilt specifically to enshrine relics, (such as San Marco in Venice) and to welcome and awe the large crowds of pilgrims who came to seek their help. Romanesque buildings developed passageways behind the altar to allow for the creation of several smaller chapels designed to house relics. From the exterior, this collection of small rooms is seen as a cluster of delicate, curved roofs at one end of the church, a distinctive feature of many Romanesque churches. Gothic churches featured lofty, recessed porches which provided space for statuary and the display of relics.
Historian and philosopher of art Hans Belting observed that in medieval painting, images explained the relic and served as a testament to its authenticity. In Likeness and Presence, Belting argued that the cult of relics helped to stimulate the rise of painting in medieval Europe.
Reliquaries
Reliquaries are containers used to protect and display relics. While frequently taking the form of caskets, they have many other forms including simulations of the relic encased within (e.g., a gilded depiction of an arm for a relic consisting of arm bones). Since the relics themselves were considered valuable, they were enshrined in containers crafted of or covered with gold, silver, gems, and enamel. Ivory was widely used in the Middle Ages for reliquaries; its pure white color an indication of the holy status of its contents. These objects constituted a major form of artistic production across Europe and Byzantium throughout the Middle Ages.
List of claimed relics
Relics of the True Cross of Jesus are claimed by many churches around the world. The same applies to Holy Nails, Holy Sponges, Holy Lances, Holy Thorns and other Instruments of the Passion. Famous examples are the Holy Nail in the Iron Crown of Lombardy in Monza Cathedral, the Holy Lance that was part of the Crown Jewels of the Holy Roman Empire in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, and the Holy Thorn Reliquary in the British Museum in London.
The Seamless robe of Jesus is kept in a purpose-built chapel in Trier Cathedral.
The Sandals of Jesus Christ were donated to Prüm Abbey, Germany, by popes Zachary and Stephen II in the 8th century.
The Marienschrein in Aachen Cathedral contains four important relics: the nappy and loin cloth of Jesus, the dress of Mary and the decapitation cloth of John the Baptist. The Karlsschrein in the same church contains the remains of Charlemagne, who was locally venerated at a saint.
The Girdle of Mary is kept in the Basilica of Our Lady in Maastricht, Netherlands.
The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral contains the remnants of the biblical Magi.
St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican contains Saint Peter's relics.
St Paul's relics are allegedly contained in the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Wall, in Rome.
St James' relics are reputedly held at the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
St Luke the Evangelist's body is held at the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua, Italy; his head, in the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague; and a rib, at his tomb in Thebes, Greece.
St Mark the Evangelist's relics are held at St Mark's Basilica in Venice.
St Matthew the Evangelist's relics are purported to be in the Cathedral of Salerno, Italy.
St John the Evangelist's tomb is purported to be in the Basilica of St. John at Ephesus in Turkey, whereas his skull, or parts of it, are venerated at the Amiens Cathedral in France, at the Church of San Silvestre in Capite in Rome and at the Munich Residenz Palace. Other relics claimed to be those of John the Baptist were discovered in a Bulgarian monastery in 2010.
St Andrew's relics are contained in the Basilica of St Andrew in Patras, Greece.
Reliquary arms of Saint Thomas the Apostle can be found in churches around the globe. Most contain only a fragment of the arm that allegedly touched Christ's side wound after the Resurrection.
Saint Thomas Aquinas' relics are contained in the Church of the Jacobins, Toulouse, France.
Saint Francis of Assisi's relics are enshrined in the Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi, Italy.
Saint Catherine of Siena's head is stored in San Domenico church, Siena, with her body in Santa Maria sopra Minerva Church in Rome.
Saint George's arm is kept in Lod, Poland.
Saint Servatius' relics are largely kept in a gilded chest and bust in the Basilica of Saint Servatius in Maastricht, Netherlands. Some of his relics are in Tongeren, Belgium, and Quedlinburg, Germany.
Saint Lambert's skull is contained in a reliquary bust in Liège Cathedral, Belgium.
Saint Hubert's remains were enshrined in the Abbey of Saint-Hubert, Belgium.
Saint Willibrord's remains are in Echternach, Luxemburg.
Nun Maria Droste zu Vischering's (known as Mary of the Divine Heart) relics are exposed in the Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Ermesinde, Portugal.
The shin of Pope Saint Clement I is kept in the Church of the Conception of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.
Hinduism
In Hinduism, relics are less common than in other religions since the physical remains of most saints are cremated. The veneration of corporal relics may have originated with the śramaṇa movement or the appearance of Buddhism, and burial practices became more common after the Muslim invasions. One prominent example is the preserved body of Swami Ramanuja in a separate shrine inside Srirangam Temple.
Islam
The veneration of the relics of saints became an incredibly important part of devotional piety in both Sunni and Shia Islam throughout the classical and medieval periods, with "the ubiquity of relics and ritual practices associated with them" becoming a mainstay of "the devotional life of the Muslims ... [all over the world but particularly in] the Near East and North Africa." With the latter-day influence of the reformist movements of Salafism and Wahhabism, there is, according to some scholars, an erroneous perception which persists both among some modern Muslims and Western observers opining that "the Islamic experience['s relationship with relic-veneration] is marginal, because of the perceived absence of relics
in Islam." It is, however, evident that "the historical reality of relics in Islam" was very different, and that the classical Islamic thinkers posed various reasons for why the veneration of the relics of prophets and saints was permissible.
Relics of the prophets
In Istanbul
While various relics are preserved by different Muslim communities, the most important are those known as The Sacred Trusts, more than 600 pieces treasured in the Privy Chamber of the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul.
Muslims believe that these treasures include:
Hair from Prophet Muhammad's beard and footprint
Sword of Ali
Staff of Moses
Turban of Joseph
Sword of David
Pot of Abraham
Forearm and hand of Yahya
Most of the trusts can be seen in the museum, but the most important of them can only be seen during the month of Ramadan. The Qur'an has been recited next to these relics uninterruptedly since they were brought to the Topkapı Palace, but Muslims do not worship these relics.
Sacred Cloak of the Prophet
A cloak (kherqa) believed to have belonged to the prophet Mohammed is kept in the central mosque in Kandahar, Afghanistan. According to local history, it was given to Ahmad Shah by Mured Beg, the Emir of Bokhara. The Sacred Cloak is kept locked away, taken out only at times of great crisis. In 1996 Mullah Omar, leader of the Afghan Taliban, took it out, displayed it to a crowd of ulema (religious scholars) and was declared Amir-ul Momineen ("Commander of the Faithful"). Prior to this, the last time it had been removed had been when the city was struck by a cholera epidemic in the 1930s.
Contact relics
A contact relic, or secondary relic, is a physical object which has acquired the status of a relic due to a physical closeness to the body of a holy figure.
Marxism-Leninism
While Marxism–Leninism is an ideology rather than a religion, many communist states placed importance on the preservation of the remains of their respective founders, and making them available for veneration by citizens, in "secular cathedrals" of sorts. In both the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China the mausolea of, respectively, Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong were the focal points of the two nations' capitals. The communists did not rely on the natural incorruptibility of the remains, but used an elaborate embalming process to preserve the lifelike appearance of the bodies.
Minor communist nations would often seek the help of the USSR or PRC to preserve the remains of their own founders in a similar way to how it was done in Moscow or Beijing. See Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum (Bulgaria, 1949), Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum (Vietnam, 1973), Kumsusan Memorial Palace (North Korea, 1994). The bodies of the founders of the socialist Czechoslovakia, Mongolia, and Angola were also at some point made available for display and veneration in similar mausolea.
Even though Soviet Communism is commonly viewed as anti-religious in general, and anti-Christian in particular, parallels between the veneration of Lenin's body in his mausoleum (and, for a while, that of Stalin's body as well) and that of the relics of Christian saints in their reliquaries have not been lost on many observers.
It is said that in the 1940s, some visitors to the mausoleum would cross themselves, as if entering a church. Even decades after the fall of communism, Russia's president would on occasion compare Lenin's body to the relics of Christian saints found in various monasteries.
Cultural relics
Relic is also the term for something that has survived the passage of time, especially an object or custom whose original culture has disappeared, but also an object cherished for historical or memorial value (such as a keepsake or heirloom).
"Cultural relic" is a common translation for "Wenwu" (文物), a common Chinese word that usually means "antique" but can be extended to anything, including object and monument, that is of historical and cultural value. However, this has some issues since 文物 has little resemblance to the English usage of "relic". In most cases, artifact, archaeological site, monument, or just plain archaeology would be a better translation.
Relics in fiction
The Relic by Eça de Queiroz, Dedalus Ltd, UK 1994.
The Translation of Father Torturo by Brendan Connell, Prime Books, 2005.
See also
Catacomb saints
Hazratbal Shrine
Relick Sunday
Relics associated with Buddha
Relics associated with Jesus
Shrine of the Three Kings
Translation (relic)
References
Further reading
Brown, Peter; Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity; University of Chicago Press; 1982
Vauchez, Andre; Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages; Cambridge University Press; 1997
Mayr, Markus; Geld, Macht und Reliquien; Studienverlag, Innsbruck, 2000
Mayr, Markus (Hg); Von goldenen Gebeinen; Studienverlag, Innsbruck, 2001
Fiore, Davide; Human variation of a relic (original title: Variazione Umana di una reliquia); StreetLib, Italy; 2017
External links
The First-class Relics of St. Maximilian Kolbe
Relics in the Church of St Charles Borromeo, Wrocław, Poland
World tour of the relics of St. Therese of Lisieux
Keeping Relics in Perspective
A Place for Relics
Relics and Reliquaries Collection, University of Dayton Special Collections
Introduction by Earnest Brehaut (from his 1916 translation), pp. ix–xxv to: Medieval Sourcebook, Gregory of Tours (539–594), History of the Franks, Books I–X (on the 6th century meaning of sanctus and virtus)
Head, Thomas. "The Cult of the Saints and Their Relics", The On-line Reference Book for Medieval Studies (the ORB), College of Staten Island, City University of New York
Smith, Judith M. H., "Portable Christianity: Relics in the Medieval West (c.700–1200)", Raleigh Lecture on History 2010
Butterfield, Andrew. "What Remains", New Republic, July 28, 2011
Treasures of Heaven: Saints, Relics, and Devotion in Medieval Europe—joint exhibition of the British Museum, Cleveland Museum of Art, and the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
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226660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dempster%E2%80%93Shafer%20theory | Dempster–Shafer theory | The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer theory (DST), is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. First introduced by Arthur P. Dempster in the context of statistical inference, the theory was later developed by Glenn Shafer into a general framework for modeling epistemic uncertainty—a mathematical theory of evidence. The theory allows one to combine evidence from different sources and arrive at a degree of belief (represented by a mathematical object called belief function) that takes into account all the available evidence.
In a narrow sense, the term Dempster–Shafer theory refers to the original conception of the theory by Dempster and Shafer. However, it is more common to use the term in the wider sense of the same general approach, as adapted to specific kinds of situations. In particular, many authors have proposed different rules for combining evidence, often with a view to handling conflicts in evidence better. The early contributions have also been the starting points of many important developments, including the transferable belief model and the theory of hints.
Overview
Dempster–Shafer theory is a generalization of the Bayesian theory of subjective probability. Belief functions base degrees of belief (or confidence, or trust) for one question on the subjective probabilities for a related question. The degrees of belief themselves may or may not have the mathematical properties of probabilities; how much they differ depends on how closely the two questions are related. Put another way, it is a way of representing epistemic plausibilities but it can yield answers that contradict those arrived at using probability theory.
Often used as a method of sensor fusion, Dempster–Shafer theory is based on two ideas: obtaining degrees of belief for one question from subjective probabilities for a related question, and Dempster's rule for combining such degrees of belief when they are based on independent items of evidence. In essence, the degree of belief in a proposition depends primarily upon the number of answers (to the related questions) containing the proposition, and the subjective probability of each answer. Also contributing are the rules of combination that reflect general assumptions about the data.
In this formalism a degree of belief (also referred to as a mass) is represented as a belief function rather than a Bayesian probability distribution. Probability values are assigned to sets of possibilities rather than single events: their appeal rests on the fact they naturally encode evidence in favor of propositions.
Dempster–Shafer theory assigns its masses to all of the subsets of the propositions that compose a system—in set-theoretic terms, the power set of the propositions. For instance, assume a situation where there are two related questions, or propositions, in a system. In this system, any belief function assigns mass to the first proposition, the second, both or neither.
Belief and plausibility
Shafer's formalism starts from a set of possibilities under consideration, for instance numerical values of a variable, or pairs of linguistic variables like "date and place of origin of a relic" (asking whether it is antique or a recent fake). A hypothesis is represented by a subset of this frame of discernment, like "(Ming dynasty, China)", or "(19th century, Germany)".
Shafer's framework allows for belief about such propositions to be represented as intervals, bounded by two values, belief (or support) and plausibility:
belief ≤ plausibility.
In a first step, subjective probabilities (masses) are assigned to all subsets of the frame; usually, only a restricted number of sets will have non-zero mass (focal elements). Belief in a hypothesis is constituted by the sum of the masses of all subsets of the hypothesis-set. It is the amount of belief that directly supports either the given hypothesis or a more specific one, thus forming a lower bound on its probability. Belief (usually denoted Bel) measures the strength of the evidence in favor of a proposition p. It ranges from 0 (indicating no evidence) to 1 (denoting certainty). Plausibility is 1 minus the sum of the masses of all sets whose intersection with the hypothesis is empty. Or, it can be obtained as the sum of the masses of all sets whose intersection with the hypothesis is not empty. It is an upper bound on the possibility that the hypothesis could be true, i.e. it "could possibly be the true state of the system" up to that value, because there is only so much evidence that contradicts that hypothesis. Plausibility (denoted by Pl) is defined to be Pl(p) = 1 − Bel(~p). It also ranges from 0 to 1 and measures the extent to which evidence in favor of ~p leaves room for belief in p.
For example, suppose we have a belief of 0.5 for a proposition, say "the cat in the box is dead." This means that we have evidence that allows us to state strongly that the proposition is true with a confidence of 0.5. However, the evidence contrary to that hypothesis (i.e. "the cat is alive") only has a confidence of 0.2. The remaining mass of 0.3 (the gap between the 0.5 supporting evidence on the one hand, and the 0.2 contrary evidence on the other) is "indeterminate," meaning that the cat could either be dead or alive. This interval represents the level of uncertainty based on the evidence in the system.
The null hypothesis is set to zero by definition (it corresponds to "no solution"). The orthogonal hypotheses "Alive" and "Dead" have probabilities of 0.2 and 0.5, respectively. This could correspond to "Live/Dead Cat Detector" signals, which have respective reliabilities of 0.2 and 0.5. Finally, the all-encompassing "Either" hypothesis (which simply acknowledges there is a cat in the box) picks up the slack so that the sum of the masses is 1. The belief for the "Alive" and "Dead" hypotheses matches their corresponding masses because they have no subsets; belief for "Either" consists of the sum of all three masses (Either, Alive, and Dead) because "Alive" and "Dead" are each subsets of "Either". The "Alive" plausibility is 1 − m (Dead): 0.5 and the "Dead" plausibility is 1 − m (Alive): 0.8. In other way, the "Alive" plausibility is m(Alive) + m (Either) and the "Dead" plausibility is m(Dead) + m(Either). Finally, the "Either" plausibility sums m(Alive) + m(Dead) + m(Either). The universal hypothesis ("Either") will always have 100% belief and plausibility—it acts as a checksum of sorts.
Here is a somewhat more elaborate example where the behavior of belief and plausibility begins to emerge. We're looking through a variety of detector systems at a single faraway signal light, which can only be coloured in one of three colours (red, yellow, or green):
Events of this kind would not be modeled as disjoint sets in probability space as they are here in mass assignment space. Rather the event "Red or Yellow" would be considered as the union of the events "Red" and "Yellow", and (see probability axioms) P(Red or Yellow) ≥ P(Yellow), and P(Any) = 1, where Any refers to Red or Yellow or Green. In DST the mass assigned to Any refers to the proportion of evidence that can not be assigned to any of the other states, which here means evidence that says there is a light but does not say anything about what color it is. In this example, the proportion of evidence that shows the light is either Red or Green is given a mass of 0.05. Such evidence might, for example, be obtained from a R/G color blind person. DST lets us extract the value of this sensor's evidence. Also, in DST the Null set is considered to have zero mass, meaning here that the signal light system exists and we are examining its possible states, not speculating as to whether it exists at all.
Combining beliefs
Beliefs from different sources can be combined with various fusion operators to model specific situations of belief fusion, e.g. with Dempster's rule of combination, which combines belief constraints that are dictated by independent belief sources, such as in the case of combining hints or combining preferences. Note that the probability masses from propositions that contradict each other can be used to obtain a measure of conflict between the independent belief sources. Other situations can be modeled with different fusion operators, such as cumulative fusion of beliefs from independent sources which can be modeled with the cumulative fusion operator.
Dempster's rule of combination is sometimes interpreted as an approximate generalisation of Bayes' rule. In this interpretation the priors and conditionals need not be specified, unlike traditional Bayesian methods, which often use a symmetry (minimax error) argument to assign prior probabilities to random variables (e.g. assigning 0.5 to binary values for which no information is available about which is more likely). However, any information contained in the missing priors and conditionals is not used in Dempster's rule of combination unless it can be obtained indirectly—and arguably is then available for calculation using Bayes equations.
Dempster–Shafer theory allows one to specify a degree of ignorance in this situation instead of being forced to supply prior probabilities that add to unity. This sort of situation, and whether there is a real distinction between risk and ignorance, has been extensively discussed by statisticians and economists. See, for example, the contrasting views of Daniel Ellsberg, Howard Raiffa, Kenneth Arrow and Frank Knight.
Formal definition
Let X be the universe: the set representing all possible states of a system under consideration. The power set
is the set of all subsets of X, including the empty set . For example, if:
then
The elements of the power set can be taken to represent propositions concerning the actual state of the system, by containing all and only the states in which the proposition is true.
The theory of evidence assigns a belief mass to each element of the power set. Formally, a function
is called a basic belief assignment (BBA), when it has two properties. First, the mass of the empty set is zero:
Second, the masses of all the members of the power set add up to a total of 1:
The mass m(A) of A, a given member of the power set, expresses the proportion of all relevant and available evidence that supports the claim that the actual state belongs to A but to no particular subset of A. The value of m(A) pertains only to the set A and makes no additional claims about any subsets of A, each of which have, by definition, their own mass.
From the mass assignments, the upper and lower bounds of a probability interval can be defined. This interval contains the precise probability of a set of interest (in the classical sense), and is bounded by two non-additive continuous measures called belief (or support) and plausibility:
The belief bel(A) for a set A is defined as the sum of all the masses of subsets of the set of interest:
The plausibility pl(A) is the sum of all the masses of the sets B that intersect the set of interest A:
The two measures are related to each other as follows:
And conversely, for finite A, given the belief measure bel(B) for all subsets B of A, we can find the masses m(A) with the following inverse function:
where |A − B| is the difference of the cardinalities of the two sets.
It follows from the last two equations that, for a finite set X, one needs to know only one of the three (mass, belief, or plausibility) to deduce the other two; though one may need to know the values for many sets in order to calculate one of the other values for a particular set. In the case of an infinite X, there can be well-defined belief and plausibility functions but no well-defined mass function.
Dempster's rule of combination
The problem we now face is how to combine two independent sets of probability mass assignments in specific situations. In case different sources express their beliefs over the frame in terms of belief constraints such as in case of giving hints or in case of expressing preferences, then Dempster's rule of combination is the appropriate fusion operator. This rule derives common shared belief between multiple sources and ignores all the conflicting (non-shared) belief through a normalization factor. Use of that rule in other situations than that of combining belief constraints has come under serious criticism, such as in case of fusing separate belief estimates from multiple sources that are to be integrated in a cumulative manner, and not as constraints. Cumulative fusion means that all probability masses from the different sources are reflected in the derived belief, so no probability mass is ignored.
Specifically, the combination (called the joint mass) is calculated from the two sets of masses m1 and m2 in the following manner:
where
K is a measure of the amount of conflict between the two mass sets.
Effects of conflict
The normalization factor above, 1 − K, has the effect of completely ignoring conflict and attributing any mass associated with conflict to the null set. This combination rule for evidence can therefore produce counterintuitive results, as we show next.
Example producing correct results in case of high conflict
The following example shows how Dempster's rule produces intuitive results when applied in a preference fusion situation, even when there is high conflict.
Suppose that two friends, Alice and Bob, want to see a film at the cinema one evening, and that there are only three films showing: X, Y and Z. Alice expresses her preference for film X with probability 0.99, and her preference for film Y with a probability of only 0.01. Bob expresses his preference for film Z with probability 0.99, and his preference for film Y with a probability of only 0.01. When combining the preferences with Dempster's rule of combination it turns out that their combined preference results in probability 1.0 for film Y, because it is the only film that they both agree to see.
Dempster's rule of combination produces intuitive results even in case of totally conflicting beliefs when interpreted in this way. Assume that Alice prefers film X with probability 1.0, and that Bob prefers film Z with probability 1.0. When trying to combine their preferences with Dempster's rule it turns out that it is undefined in this case, which means that there is no solution. This would mean that they can not agree on seeing any film together, so they do not go to the cinema together that evening. However, the semantics of interpreting preference as a probability is vague: if it is referring to the probability of seeing film X tonight, then we face the Fallacy of the excluded middle: the event that actually occurs, seeing none of the films tonight, has a probability mass of 0.
Example producing counter-intuitive results in case of high conflict
An example with exactly the same numerical values was introduced by Zadeh in 1979,
to point out counter-intuitive results generated by Dempster's rule when there is a high degree of conflict. The example goes as follows:
Suppose that one has two equi-reliable doctors and one doctor believes a patient has either a brain tumor, with a probability (i.e. a basic belief assignment—bba's, or mass of belief) of 0.99; or meningitis, with a probability of only 0.01. A second doctor believes the patient has a concussion, with a probability of 0.99, and believes the patient suffers from meningitis, with a probability of only 0.01. Applying Dempster's rule to combine these two sets of masses of belief, one gets finally m(meningitis)=1 (the meningitis is diagnosed with 100 percent of confidence).
Such result goes against the common sense since both doctors agree that there is a little chance that the patient has a meningitis. This example has been the starting point of many research works for trying to find a solid justification for Dempster's rule and for foundations of Dempster–Shafer Theory or to show the inconsistencies of this theory.
Example producing counter-intuitive results in case of low conflict
The following example shows where Dempster's rule produces a counter-intuitive result, even when there is low conflict.
Suppose that one doctor believes a patient has either a brain tumor, with a probability of 0.99, or meningitis, with a probability of only 0.01. A second doctor also believes the patient has a brain tumor, with a probability of 0.99, and believes the patient suffers from concussion, with a probability of only 0.01. If we calculate m (brain tumor) with Dempster's rule, we obtain
This result implies complete support for the diagnosis of a brain tumor, which both doctors believed very likely. The agreement arises from the low degree of conflict between the two sets of evidence comprised by the two doctors' opinions.
In either case, it would be reasonable to expect that:
since the existence of non-zero belief probabilities for other diagnoses implies less than complete support for the brain tumour diagnosis.
Dempster–Shafer as a generalisation of Bayesian theory
As in Dempster–Shafer theory, a Bayesian belief function has the properties and . The third condition, however, is subsumed by, but relaxed in DS theory:
Either of the following conditions implies the Bayesian special case of the DS theory:
For finite X, all focal elements of the belief function are singletons.
As an example of how the two approaches differ, a Bayesian could model the color of a car as a probability distribution over (red, green, blue), assigning one number to each color. Dempster–Shafer would assign numbers to each of (red, green, blue, (red or green), (red or blue), (green or blue), (red or green or blue)). These numbers do not have to be coherent; for example, Bel(red)+Bel(green) does not have to equal Bel(red or green).
Thus, Bayes' conditional probability can be considered as a special case of Dempster's rule of combination. However, it lacks many (if not most) of the properties that make Bayes' rule intuitively desirable, leading some to argue that it cannot be considered a generalization in any meaningful sense . For example, DS theory violates the requirements for Cox's theorem, which implies that it cannot be considered a coherent (contradiction-free) generalization of classical logic -- specifically, DS theory violates the requirement that a statement be either true or false (but not both). As a result, DS theory is subject to the Dutch Book argument, implying that any agent using DS theory would agree to a series of bets that result in a guaranteed loss.
Bayesian approximation
The Bayesian approximation reduces a given bpa to a (discrete) probability distribution, i.e. only singleton subsets of the frame of discernment are allowed to be focal elements of the approximated version of :
It's useful for those who are only interested in the single state hypothesis.
We can perform it in the 'light' example.
Criticism
Judea Pearl (1988a, chapter 9; 1988b and 1990) has argued that it is misleading to interpret belief functions as representing either "probabilities of an event," or "the confidence one has in the probabilities assigned to various outcomes," or "degrees of belief (or confidence, or trust) in a proposition," or "degree of ignorance in a situation." Instead, belief
functions represent the probability that a given proposition is provable from a set of other propositions, to which probabilities are assigned. Confusing probabilities of truth with probabilities of provability may lead to counterintuitive results in reasoning tasks such as (1) representing incomplete knowledge, (2) belief-updating and (3) evidence pooling. He further demonstrated that, if partial knowledge is encoded and updated by belief function methods, the resulting beliefs cannot serve as a basis for rational decisions.
Kłopotek and Wierzchoń proposed to interpret the Dempster–Shafer theory in terms of statistics of decision tables (of the rough set theory), whereby the operator of combining evidence should be seen as relational joining of decision tables. In another interpretation M. A. Kłopotek and S. T. Wierzchoń propose to view this theory as describing destructive material processing (under loss of properties), e.g. like in some semiconductor production processes. Under both interpretations reasoning in DST gives correct results, contrary to the earlier probabilistic interpretations, criticized by Pearl in the cited papers and by other researchers.
Jøsang proved that Dempster's rule of combination actually is a method for fusing belief constraints. It only represents an approximate fusion operator in other situations, such as cumulative fusion of beliefs, but generally produces incorrect results in such situations. The confusion around the validity of Dempster's rule therefore originates in the failure of correctly interpreting the nature of situations to be modeled. Dempster's rule of combination always produces correct and intuitive results in situation of fusing belief constraints from different sources.
Relational measures
In considering preferences one might use the partial order of a lattice instead of the total order of the real line as found in Dempster–Schafer theory. Indeed, Gunther Schmidt has proposed this modification and outlined the method.
Given a set of criteria C and a lattice L with ordering E, Schmidt defines a relational measure μ from the power set on C into L that respects the order Ω on (C): The tools of the calculus of relations, including composition of relations, are used to express this respect:
μ takes the empty subset of (C) to the least element of L, and takes C to the greatest element of L.
Schmidt compares μ with the belief function of Schafer, and he also considers a method of combining measures generalizing the approach of Dempster (when new evidence is combined with previously held evidence). He also introduces a relational integral and compares it to the Choquet integral and Sugeno integral. Any relation m between C and L may be introduced as a "direct valuation", then processed with the calculus of relations to obtain a possibility measure μ.
See also
Imprecise probability
Upper and lower probabilities
Possibility theory
Probabilistic logic
Bayes' theorem
Bayesian network
G. L. S. Shackle
Transferable belief model
Info-gap decision theory
Subjective logic
Doxastic logic
Linear belief function
References
Further reading
Yang, J. B. and Xu, D. L. Evidential Reasoning Rule for Evidence Combination, Artificial Intelligence, Vol.205, pp. 1–29, 2013.
Yager, R. R., & Liu, L. (2008). Classic works of the Dempster–Shafer theory of belief functions. Studies in fuzziness and soft computing, v. 219. Berlin: Springer. .
Joseph C. Giarratano and Gary D. Riley (2005); Expert Systems: principles and programming, ed. Thomson Course Tech.,
Beynon, M., Curry, B. and Morgan, P. The Dempster–Shafer theory of evidence: an alternative approach to multicriteria decision modelling, Omega, Vol.28, pp. 37–50, 2000.
External links
BFAS: Belief Functions and Applications Society
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226664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About%20Schmidt | About Schmidt | About Schmidt is a 2002 American comedy-drama film co-written and directed by Alexander Payne and starring Jack Nicholson in the title role. The film also stars Hope Davis, Dermot Mulroney, and Kathy Bates. It is very loosely based on the 1996 novel of the same title by Louis Begley. About Schmidt was theatrically released on December 13, 2002 by New Line Cinema. The film was both a commercial and a critical success and it earned $105,834,556 on a $30 million budget. About Schmidt was released on DVD and VHS formats. It was released on Blu-ray for the first time on February 3, 2015.
Plot
Warren Schmidt is retiring from his position as an actuary with Woodmen of the World, a life insurance company in Omaha, Nebraska. After a retirement dinner, Schmidt finds it hard to adjust to his new life, feeling useless. He sees a television advertisement about a foster program for African children, Plan USA, and decides to sponsor a child. He soon receives an information package with a photo of his foster child, a small Tanzanian boy named Ndugu Umbo, to whom he relates his life in a series of candid, rambling letters.
Schmidt visits his young successor at the life insurance company to offer his help, but the offer is politely declined. As he leaves the building, Schmidt sees the contents and files of his office, the sum of his entire career, set out for garbage collectors.
He describes to Ndugu his longtime alienation from Helen, his wife, who suddenly dies from a blood clot in her brain just after their purchase of a Winnebago Adventurer motor home. Jeannie, his only daughter, and her fiancé, Randall Hertzel, arrive from Denver. They console him at the funeral, but Jeannie later berates him for taking his wife for granted, such as by refusing to fully pay for the Winnebago (he wanted the cheaper Minnie Winnie) and burying her in a cheap casket. He asks her to move back to take care of him, but she refuses. Meanwhile, Randall tries to entice him into a pyramid scheme.
Schmidt feels his daughter could do better than Randall, a waterbed salesman. After the couple leaves, Schmidt is overcome by loneliness. He stops showering, sleeps in front of the television, and goes shopping with a coat over pajamas to load up on frozen foods. In his wife's closet he discovers some hidden love letters disclosing her long-ago affair with Ray, a mutual friend. In a rage, Schmidt collects all her possessions, donating them to charity. He then angrily confronts Ray for his betrayal.
He decides to take a journey alone in his new Winnebago to visit his daughter and convince her not to marry Randall. He tells Jeannie he is leaving early for the wedding, but she makes it clear she does not want him there until right before the ceremony. Schmidt decides to visit places from his past, including his college campus and fraternity at University of Kansas and his hometown in Nebraska. His childhood home has been replaced by a tire shop. While at a trailer campground, he is invited to dinner by a friendly and sympathetic couple. When the man leaves to buy some beer, Schmidt makes a pass at the wife, and flees in terror when she adamantly rejects his advance.
Sitting on the roof of his RV on a starry night, Schmidt forgives his departed wife for her affair and apologizes to her for his own failings as a husband. At that moment, he is amazed to see a bright meteor streak across the sky as a possible sign from Helen that she forgives him.
Feeling full of purpose and energetic renewal, Schmidt arrives in Denver, where he stays at the home of Roberta, Randall's mother. He is appalled by Randall's eccentric, socially odd, and lower-middle-class family (compared to Schmidt's background as an upper middle class corporate executive) and tries unsuccessfully to dissuade Jeannie from the marriage. Schmidt throws out his back after sleeping on Randall's waterbed, infuriating Jeannie. Roberta assures Schmidt that a soak in her hot tub will help his back, but he flees after a nude Roberta makes a pass at him in the tub. The next day, Schmidt, exhausted from a restless night, attends the wedding and delivers a kind speech at the reception, hiding his disapproval.
On his way home from Denver, Schmidt composes a letter to Ndugu. Schmidt questions what he has accomplished in life, lamenting that he will soon be dead, that his life has made no difference to anyone, and that eventually it will be as if he has never existed at all.
A pile of mail is waiting for him at home. Schmidt opens a letter from Tanzania. It is from a nun, who writes that Ndugu is six years old and unable to read and reply to Schmidt's letters on his own, but appreciates them and Schmidt's financial support very much. Ndugu's enclosed crayon drawing, depicting Ndugu and Schmidt holding hands on a sunny day, moves Schmidt to tears.
Cast
Production
Payne's script to About Schmidt was initially an original screenplay written years before Begley's novel was published. According to Payne, his script was about "an old guy who retires, and realizes how much he’s wasted his life, and wants somehow to start anew— The Graduate at age sixty-five." Payne completed the script in 1991 and offered it to Universal Pictures, but the studio rejected it. Following the publication of Begley's novel in 1996, Payne decided to combine his script with the plot of the novel, thus making it an adaptation.
Filming took place for two months in several Nebraska cities, including Omaha, Nebraska City, Minden, Kearney, and Lincoln. Omaha was chosen because it was where Payne grew up. At least one scene was filmed in Denver where Nicholson's character is driving in front of the famous Ogden Theater located at 935 E Colfax. Filming concluded in May 2001.
Before agreeing to the nude hot tub scene, Kathy Bates said she hashed out with director Alexander Payne exactly what part of her anatomy would be shown and what wouldn't. "I battled to make myself comfortable, and he battled to get what he wanted. We met in the middle."
Reception
Box office
In the United States, the film grossed $8,533,162 on its opening weekend. Its total U.S. box office gross stands at $65,005,217, while total worldwide gross totals $107,054,484.
Critical response
About Schmidt drew praise from a number of critics, who singled out the performances of Jack Nicholson and Kathy Bates. Film website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 85% based on 203 reviews, with an average rating of 7.71/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "In this funny, touching character study, Nicholson gives one of the best performances of his career." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert wrote for the Chicago Sun-Times that About Schmidt "is essentially a portrait of a man without qualities, baffled by the emotions and needs of others. That Jack Nicholson makes this man so watchable is a tribute not only to his craft, but to his legend: Jack is so unlike Schmidt that his performance generates a certain awe. Another actor might have made the character too tragic or passive or empty, but Nicholson somehow finds within Schmidt a slowly developing hunger, a desire to start living now that the time is almost gone." Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It's a commanding Jack Nicholson lead performance that puts it into a sublime league of its own." Paul Clinton of CNN.com wrote: "About Schmidt is undoubtedly one of the finest films of the year. If you're not deeply touched by this movie, check your pulse."
Awards and nominations
Upon accepting his Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Drama, Nicholson stated, "I'm a little surprised. I thought we made a comedy."
It was also part of the Official Competition Selection at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.
Home media
About Schmidt was released on DVD and VHS on June 3, 2003. It was released on Blu-ray for the first time on February 3, 2015.
See also
Fictional actuaries
References
External links
American films
2000s road comedy-drama films
American road comedy-drama films
Films about old age
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Alexander Payne
Films scored by Rolfe Kent
Films featuring a Best Drama Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films set in Colorado
Films set in Nebraska
Films shot in Nebraska
New Line Cinema films
Films with screenplays by Alexander Payne
Films with screenplays by Jim Taylor (writer)
Father and daughter films
American black comedy films | [
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226666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chucho%20Castillo | Chucho Castillo | Jesús Castillo Aguilera (June 17, 1944 – January 15, 2013) was a Mexican professional boxer. Better known as Chucho Castillo, he was the Lineal, WBA and WBC Bantamweight world champion in 1970.
Castillo and Rubén Olivares sustained one of the most important rivalries in the history of Mexican boxing. Castillo was described by the boxing book The Ring: Boxing In The 20th Century as quiet and sullen, while Olivares was more of an outgoing partygoer, according to the book. The personality contrast made fans very interested in their matches.
Early career
Castillo was born in Nuevo Valle de Moreno, a small town in the municipality of León, Guanajuato, Mexico. He made his professional debut on 26 April 1962 against Carlos Navarrete, suffering his first loss by a decision after six rounds. His next bout was his first win, outpointing Arnulfo Daza in eight rounds. Castillo built a record of 24 wins and 7 losses, with 11 knockout wins, before facing José Medel for the Mexican Bantamweight title on 29 April 1967. He won the title on points after the twelve rounds, retaining it twice and also winning an additional seven non-title bouts before his first world title challenge. Among the fighters he beat during that streak were Jesus Pimentel and Memo Tellez, who had beaten Castillo twice before.
Lineal, WBC & WBA Bantamweight Championship
Castillo made his first world title attempt against Australia's Lionel Rose, the first Aborigine ever to win a world title. The fight was held on 6 December 1968 at the Forum in Inglewood, where Rose won a very unpopular fifteen-round decision in front of a decidedly pro-Castillo crowd, causing a riot. Castillo had eight bouts in 1969, going 5-1-2 during that period. He beat future world champion Rafael Herrera to defend his Mexican title, had a ten-round draw in Tokyo with Ushiwakamaru Harada, drew with Medel, and split two decisions with Raul Cruz.
Castillo vs. Olivares
In 1970, Castillo was given a second world title chance when he and Olivares clashed to begin their three fight rivalry, with all three fights taking place at the Forum in Inglewood. On 18 April, Olivares retained the crown by outpointing over Castillo. However, a rematch between the two fighters took place on 16 October. Castillo cut Olivares in round one, and when it was determined that Olivares could not continue in Round 14, Castillo was declared winner by a technical knockout, winning the world bantamweight championship. After one non-title win, Castillo met Olivares for a third time on 3 April 1971, when Olivares recovered the crown by outpointing Castillo despite suffering an early knockdown.
Later in career
Castillo went on fighting until 1975, but his record from the third Olivares fight until his retirement was a rather ordinary one of 5 wins and 7 losses. He lost to former or future world champions Enrique Pinder, Bobby Chacon, and Danny "Little Red" Lopez. After losing to Ernesto Herrera on 12 December 1975, he retired.
Professional boxing record
|- style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%;"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="8"|47 Wins (23 knockouts, 23 decisions, 1 disqualification), 17 Losses (6 knockouts, 11 decisions), 2 Draws
|- style="text-align:center; margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; background:#e3e3e3;"
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Res.
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Record
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Opponent
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Type
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Round
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Date
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Location
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Notes
|-align=center
| Loss
|47–17–2
|align=left| Ernesto Herrera
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1975-12-12
|align=left| Laredo
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|47–16–2
|align=left| Danny Lopez
|align=left|TKO
|2 (10)
|1975-04-24
|align=left| Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|47–15–2
|align=left| Rafael Ortega
|align=left|UD
|10
|1974-09-14
|align=left| Arena México, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|46–15–2
|align=left| Vicente Blanco
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1974-06-22
|align=left| Estadio Metropolitano, León
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|46–14–2
|align=left| Victor Rodrigo
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1974-05-14
|align=left| Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|45–14–2
|align=left| Bobby Chacon
|align=left|TKO
|10 (10)
|1973-04-28
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|45–13–2
|align=left| Jose Luis Soto
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1973-03-02
|align=left| Culiacán
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|45–12–2
|align=left| Enrique Pinder
|align=left|MD
|10
|1972-11-14
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|45–11–2
|align=left| Earl Large
|align=left|UD
|10
|1972-06-06
|align=left| Plaza de Toros, Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|44–11–2
|align=left| Jose Lopez
|align=left|KO
|1 (10)
|1972-01-01
|align=left| Mexico
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|43–11–2
|align=left| Rafael Herrera
|align=left|SD
|12
|1971-08-23
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|For NABF bantamweight title.
|-align=center
| Win
|43–10–2
|align=left| Earl Large
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1971-08-04
|align=left| Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|42–10–2
|align=left| Rubén Olivares
|align=left|UD
|15
|1971-04-02
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|Lost WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal bantamweight titles.
|-align=center
| Win
|42–9–2
|align=left| Felipe Ursua
|align=left|TKO
|6 (10)
|1971-02-28
|align=left| Monterrey
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|41–9–2
|align=left| Rubén Olivares
|align=left|TKO
|14 (15)
|1970-10-16
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|Won WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal bantamweight titles.
|-align=center
| Win
|40–9–2
|align=left| Rogelio Lara
|align=left|UD
|12
|1970-08-14
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|Won inaugural NABF bantamweight title. Castillo later vacated the title.
|-align=center
| Loss
|39–9–2
|align=left| Rubén Olivares
|align=left|UD
|15
|1970-04-18
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|For WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal bantamweight titles.
|-align=center
| Win
|39–8–2
|align=left| Raul Cruz
|align=left|UD
|10
|1969-12-12
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|Originally a 12-round title eliminator, but Cruz missed weight.
|-align=center
| Loss
|38–8–2
|align=left| Raul Cruz
|align=left|MD
|12
|1969-10-17
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|Originally a title eliminator bout, but a rematch was booked instead.
|-align=center
| Draw
|38–7–2
|align=left| José Medel
|align=left|PTS
|12
|1969-09-30
|align=left| Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|Retained Mexican bantamweight title.
|-align=center
| Win
|38–7–1
|align=left| Alberto Jangalay
|align=left|TKO
|5 (10)
|1969-07-26
|align=left| Arena México, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|37–7–1
|align=left| Ernie Cruz
|align=left|KO
|5 (10)
|1969-06-29
|align=left| Plaza de Toros México, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|36–7–1
|align=left| Seiichi Watanuki
|align=left|KO
|4 (10)
|1969-06-10
|align=left| Plaza de Toros, Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Draw
|35–7–1
|align=left| Ushiwakamaru Harada
|align=left|MD
|10
|1969-04-16
|align=left| Tokyo
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|35–7
|align=left| Rafael Herrera
|align=left|TKO
|3 (12)
|1969-02-15
|align=left| Plaza de Toros Monumental, Monterrey
|align=left|Retained Mexican bantamweight title.
|-align=center
| Loss
|34–7
|align=left| Lionel Rose
|align=left|SD
|15
|1968-12-06
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|For WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal bantamweight titles.
|-align=center
| Win
|34–6
|align=left| Evan Armstrong
|align=left|TKO
|2 (10)
|1968-08-28
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|33–6
|align=left| Jesús Pimentel
|align=left|UD
|12
|1968-06-14
|align=left| The Forum, Inglewood
|align=left|WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal bantamweight titles eliminator.
|-align=center
| Win
|32–6
|align=left| Guillermo Tellez
|align=left|TKO
|11 (12)
|1968-05-14
|align=left| Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|Retained Mexican bantamweight title.
|-align=center
| Win
|31–6
|align=left| Yoshio Nakane
|align=left|UD
|12
|1968-03-31
|align=left| Plaza de Toros, Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|30–6
|align=left| Jose Valdez
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1968-03-06
|align=left| León
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|29–6
|align=left| Miguel Castro
|align=left|TKO
|6 (12)
|1967-11-26
|align=left| Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|Retained Mexican bantamweight title.
|-align=center
| Win
|28–6
|align=left| Bernardo Caraballo
|align=left|RTD
|7 (10)
|1967-10-14
|align=left| Estadio Azteca, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|27–6
|align=left| Pornchai Poprai-ngam
|align=left|KO
|5 (10)
|1967-08-14
|align=left| Tijuana
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|26–6
|align=left| José Medel
|align=left|UD
|12
|1967-04-29
|align=left| Arena México, Mexico City
|align=left|Won Mexican bantamweight title.
|-align=center
| Win
|25–6
|align=left| Miguel Castro
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1966-12-17
|align=left| El Toreo de Cuatro Caminos, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|24–6
|align=left| Waldemiro Pinto
|align=left|KO
|3 (10)
|1966-11-13
|align=left| Plaza de Toros, Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|23–6
|align=left| Jerry Stokes
|align=left|KO
|2 (10)
|1966-08-27
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|22–6
|align=left| Edmundo Esparza
|align=left|TKO
|3 (10)
|1966-07-27
|align=left| Plaza de Toros, Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|21–6
|align=left| Guillermo Tellez
|align=left|TKO
|6 (10)
|1966-06-06
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|21–5
|align=left| Jesus Hernandez
|align=left|TKO
|7 (10)
|1966-05-22
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|20–5
|align=left| Miguel Castro
|align=left|TKO
|5 (10)
|1966-03-19
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|20–4
|align=left| Lenny Brice
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1965-11-20
|align=left| Arena Coliseo, Guadalajara
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|19–4
|align=left| Guillermo Tellez
|align=left|TKO
|5 (10)
|1965-09-25
|align=left| Arena Coliseo, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|19–3
|align=left| Jesus Hernandez
|align=left|TKO
|6 (10)
|1965-08-07
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|18–3
|align=left| Edmundo Esparza
|align=left|TKO
|2 (10)
|1965-06-15
|align=left| Plaza de Toros, Ciudad Juárez
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|17–3
|align=left| Daniel Valdez
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1965-03-24
|align=left| Arena Coliseo, Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|16–3
|align=left| Goyo Sanchez
|align=left|KO
|1 (10)
|1965-03-03
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|15–3
|align=left| Salvador Reyes
|align=left|PTS
|4
|1964-11-25
|align=left| Arena Puebla, Puebla
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|14–3
|align=left| Jose Gonzalez
|align=left|TD
|7 (10)
|1964-11-11
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|14–2
|align=left| Zorrito Castanon
|align=left|TKO
|10 (10)
|1964-10-17
|align=left| Oaxaca City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|14–1
|align=left| Adalberto Martinez
|align=left|TKO
|8 (10)
|1964-09-30
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|13–1
|align=left| Genaro Gaytan
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1964-07-08
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|12–1
|align=left| Emiliano Olvera
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1964-06-13
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|11–1
|align=left| Jose Gonzalez
|align=left|TKO
|8 (10)
|1964-05-23
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|10–1
|align=left| Samuel Castillo
|align=left|PTS
|8
|1964-03-18
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|9–1
|align=left| Chucho Cardenas
|align=left|DQ
|3 (8)
|1964-01-01
|align=left| Acapulco
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|8–1
|align=left| Juan Carlos Villanueva
|align=left|PTS
|8
|1963-11-21
|align=left| Mexico
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|7–1
|align=left| Felipe Silva
|align=left|PTS
|6
|1963-10-20
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|6–1
|align=left| Catarino Lopez
|align=left|PTS
|6
|1963-09-14
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|5–1
|align=left| Samuel Castillo
|align=left|TKO
|9 (10)
|1963-09-02
|align=left| Oaxaca City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|4–1
|align=left| Eduardo Torres
|align=left|PTS
|6
|1963-06-12
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|3–1
|align=left| Pichon Contreras
|align=left|KO
|10 (10)
|1963-03-02
|align=left| Oaxaca City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|2–1
|align=left| Zurdo Suarez
|align=left|PTS
|10
|1962-10-20
|align=left| Oaxaca City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Win
|1–1
|align=left| Arnulfo Daza
|align=left|PTS
|8
|1962-08-11
|align=left| Oaxaca City
|align=left|
|-align=center
| Loss
|0–1
|align=left| Carlos Navarrete
|align=left|PTS
|6
|1962-04-25
|align=left| Mexico City
|align=left|
|-align=center
See also
List of WBC world champions
List of WBA world champions
List of bantamweight boxing champions
List of Mexican boxing world champions
List of undisputed world boxing champions
References
External links
Chucho Castillo - CBZ Profile
|-
|-
|-
|-
1944 births
2013 deaths
Sportspeople from León, Guanajuato
Boxers from Guanajuato
Bantamweight boxers
World boxing champions
World bantamweight boxing champions
World Boxing Association champions
World Boxing Council champions
Mexican male boxers | [
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226669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket%20veto | Pocket veto | A pocket veto is a legislative maneuver that allows a president or other official with veto power to exercise that power over a bill by taking no action (keeping it in their pocket), thus effectively killing the bill without affirmatively vetoing it. This depends on the laws of each country; the common alternative is that if the president takes no action a bill automatically becomes law.
Barbados
Similarly to India, section 58 of the Constitution of Barbados, as amended by the Constitution Amendment Act 2021 (which transitioned the country from a Commonwealth realm to a parliamentary republic with its own head of state) states that the President shall declare his assent to a bill passed by Parliament or withhold his assent. However, much like in India, the Barbadian Constitution does not give a specific time frame for presidential action on a bill sent by the Parliament. Thus, by indefinitely postponing action on a bill, and not sending it back to Parliament, the president could effectively veto it.
Finland
The President of Finland has the power to pocket-veto bills passed by the parliament; however, such vetoes are temporary in effect.
India
Article 111 of the Indian constitution states that the President shall declare his assent to a bill passed by both houses of Parliament or withhold his assent, provided that may he return the bill to Parliament for reconsideration. If the President returns the bill, and Parliament passes it once again, with or without any amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent. However, the Indian Constitution does not give a specific time frame for presidential action on a bill sent by the Parliament. Thus, by indefinitely postponing action on a bill, and not sending it back to Parliament, the president effectively vetoes it. Zail Singh, the President of India from 1982 until 1987, exercised a pocket veto to prevent the Indian Post Office (Amendment) Bill from becoming law.
United States
Normally if a president does not sign a bill, it becomes law after ten days as if they had signed it. A pocket veto occurs when a bill fails to become law because the president does not sign it within the ten-day period and cannot return the bill to Congress because Congress is no longer in session. Article 1, Section 7 of the U.S. Constitution states:
If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a Law.
The Constitution limits the president's period for decision on whether to sign or return any legislation to ten days (not including Sundays) while the United States Congress is in session. A return veto happens when the president sends a bill, along with their objections, back to the house of Congress from which it originated. Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both chambers, whereupon the bill becomes law. If Congress prevents the bill's return by adjourning during the 10-day period, and the president does not sign the bill, a "pocket veto" occurs and the bill does not become law. Congress can adjourn and designate an agent to receive veto messages and other communications so that a pocket veto cannot happen, an action Congresses have routinely taken for decades. If a bill is pocket vetoed while Congress is out of session, the only way for Congress to circumvent the pocket veto is to reintroduce the legislation as a new bill, pass it through both chambers, and present it to the President again for signature. James Madison became the first president to use the pocket veto in 1812.
Of presidents throughout United States history, Franklin D. Roosevelt had an outstanding number of pocket vetoes, more than anyone before or after him. During his presidency from 1933 to 1945 Roosevelt had vetoed 635 bills, 263 of which were pocket vetoes. All presidents after him until George W. Bush had pocket vetoes while they were in office; the most after Roosevelt was Dwight D. Eisenhower who had 108. George W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald J. Trump are the only modern presidents to not use pocket vetoes. Ten presidents from founding to 1886 did not use this tactic.
Legal status
Courts have never fully clarified when an adjournment by Congress would "prevent" the president from returning a vetoed bill. Some presidents have interpreted the Constitution to restrict the pocket veto to the adjournment sine die of Congress at the end of the second session of the two-year congressional term, while others interpreted it to allow intersession and intrasession pocket vetoes. In 1929, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the Pocket Veto Case that a bill had to be returned to the chamber while it is in session and capable of work. While upholding President Calvin Coolidge's pocket veto, the court said that the "determinative question is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment but whether it is one that 'prevents' the President from returning the bill". In 1938, the Supreme Court reversed itself in part in Wright v. United States, ruling that Congress could designate agents on its behalf to receive veto messages when it was not in session, saying that the Constitution "does not define what shall constitute a return of a bill or deny the use of appropriate agencies in effecting the return". A three-day recess of the Senate was considered a short enough time that the Senate could still act with "reasonable promptitude" on the veto. However, a five-month adjournment would be a long enough period to enable a pocket veto. Within those constraints, there still exists some ambiguity. Presidents have been reluctant to pursue disputed pocket vetoes to the Supreme Court for fear of an adverse ruling that would serve as a precedent in future cases.
George W. Bush
In December 2007, President George W. Bush claimed that he had pocket vetoed , the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008, even though the House of Representatives had designated agents to receive presidential messages before adjourning. The bill had been previously passed by veto-proof majorities in both the House and the Senate. If the president had chosen to veto the bill, he would have been required to return it to the chamber in which it originated, in this case the House of Representatives. The House then could have voted to override the veto, and the Senate could have done likewise. If each house had voted to override the veto, then the bill would have become law.
Then House Speaker Nancy Pelosi (Democratic representative for California) stated: "Congress vigorously rejects any claim that the president has the authority to pocket veto this legislation and will treat any bill returned to the Congress as open to an override vote." On January 1, 2008, Deputy Assistant to the President and White House Deputy Press Secretary Scott Stanzel stated: "A pocket veto, as you know, is essentially putting it in your pocket and not taking any action whatsoever. And when Congress – the House is out of session – in this case it's our view that bill then would not become law."
Louis Fisher, a constitutional scholar at the Library of Congress indicated: "The administration would be on weak grounds in court because they would be insisting on what the Framers decidedly rejected: an absolute veto." By "absolute veto" Fisher was referring to the fact that a bill that has been pocket vetoed cannot have its veto overridden. Instead, the bill must be reintroduced into both houses of Congress, and again passed by both houses, an effort which can be very difficult to achieve.
In the end, the House of Representatives did not attempt to override the veto. Instead, in January 2008, the House effectively killed H.R. 1585 by referring the pocket veto message to the Armed Services Committee and passing , a bill nearly identical to H.R. 1585 but slightly modified to meet the President's objection, which subsequently became law.
This was not the first time that a president has attempted to pocket veto a bill despite the presence of agents to receive his veto message. Both George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton made similar attempts, and Abraham Lincoln used it against the Wade–Davis Bill in 1864.
State legislatures
Across the country, pocket veto powers are not uncommon in committees of state legislatures, which allows a committee to "kill" a bill, sometimes without even a public vote; in Colorado, the power was notably repealed in a citizen initiative constitutional amendment in 1988 driven by various reform groups.
When a committee refuses to vote a bill out of committee, a discharge petition can be passed by the broader membership. The specifics vary from state to state; for example, in 2004, a report found that New York State places more restrictions than any other state legislature on motions to discharge a bill from a committee, which led to subsequent reforms.
Indiana
After nearly a century of pocket vetoes, the Indiana Supreme Court ruled pocket vetoes unconstitutional in 1969. Governor Edgar Whitcomb requested that the General Assembly pass an act repealing all laws that were enacted because of the Supreme Court decision, some of which were nearly a century old. The assembly complied with the request and passed a blanket repeal.
Other use
Because a pocket veto cannot be overridden, it is sometimes used to describe situations where either one person, or a small group, can override the will of a much larger group without consequence. For example, when the California Supreme Court was answering the certified question of intervenor standing in the case of Perry v. Brown (known as the Proposition 8 case), one of the justices expressed concern that denying appellate standing to initiative proponents would mean that the governor and state attorney general would "essentially get a 'pocket veto.
See also
List of United States presidential vetoes
Recess appointment
References
United States law
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226673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null%20hypothesis | Null hypothesis | In inferential statistics, the null hypothesis (often denoted H0) is that two possibilities are the same. The null hypothesis is that the observed difference is due to chance alone. Using statistical tests, it is possible to calculate the likelihood that the null hypothesis is true.
Basic definitions
The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are types of conjectures used in statistical tests, which are formal methods of reaching conclusions or making decisions on the basis of data. The hypotheses are conjectures about a statistical model of the population, which are based on a sample of the population. The tests are core elements of statistical inference, heavily used in the interpretation of scientific experimental data, to separate scientific claims from statistical noise.
"The statement being tested in a test of statistical significance is called the null hypothesis. The test of significance is designed to assess the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis. Usually, the null hypothesis is a statement of 'no effect' or 'no difference'." It is often symbolized as H0.
The statement that is being tested against the null hypothesis is the alternative hypothesis. Symbols include H1 and Ha.
Statistical significance test: "Very roughly, the procedure for deciding goes like this: Take a random sample from the population. If the sample data are consistent with the null hypothesis, then do not reject the null hypothesis; if the sample data are inconsistent with the null hypothesis, then reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the alternative hypothesis is true."
The following adds context and nuance to the basic definitions.
Given the test scores of two random samples, one of men and one of women, does one group differ from the other? A possible null hypothesis is that the mean male score is the same as the mean female score:
H0: μ1 = μ2
where
H0 = the null hypothesis,
μ1 = the mean of population 1, and
μ2 = the mean of population 2.
A stronger null hypothesis is that the two samples are drawn from the same population, such that the variances and shapes of the distributions are also equal.
Terminology
Simple hypothesis Any hypothesis which specifies the population distribution completely. For such a hypothesis the sampling distribution of any statistic is a function of the sample size alone.
Composite hypothesis Any hypothesis which does not specify the population distribution completely. Example: A hypothesis specifying a normal distribution with a specified mean and an unspecified variance.
The simple/composite distinction was made by Neyman and Pearson.
Exact hypothesis Any hypothesis that specifies an exact parameter value. Example: μ = 100. Synonym: point hypothesis.
Inexact hypothesis Those specifying a parameter range or interval. Examples: μ ≤ 100; 95 ≤ μ ≤ 105.
Fisher required an exact null hypothesis for testing (see the quotations below).
A one-tailed hypothesis (tested using a one-sided test) is an inexact hypothesis in which the value of a parameter is specified as being either:
above or equal to a certain value, or
below or equal to a certain value.
A one-tailed hypothesis is said to have directionality.
Fisher's original (lady tasting tea) example was a one-tailed test. The null hypothesis was asymmetric. The probability of guessing all cups correctly was the same as guessing all cups incorrectly, but Fisher noted that only guessing correctly was compatible with the lady's claim.
Examples
Are boys taller than girls at age eight? The null hypothesis is "they are the same average height."
Do teens use restaurant locator apps more than adults? The null hypothesis is "they use these apps the same average amount."
Does eating an apple a day reduce visits to the doctor? The null hypothesis is "apples do not reduce doctor visits."
Are small states more densely populated than large states? The null hypothesis is "small states have the same population density as large states."
Are large states more densely populated than small states? The null hypothesis is "large states have the same population density as small states."
Does the size of a state affect population density? The null hypothesis is "all states have the same population density."
Do large dogs prefer large food kibbles? The null hypothesis is "large dogs have no preference for large kibble size."
Do cats prefer fish or milk? The null hypothesis is "cats have no preference; they like them the same."
Technical description
The null hypothesis is a default hypothesis that a quantity to be measured is zero (null). Typically, the quantity to be measured is the difference between two situations. For instance, trying to determine if there is a positive proof that an effect has occurred or that samples derive from different batches.
The null hypothesis states that a quantity (of interest) is larger or equal to zero and smaller or equal to zero. If either requirement can be positively overturned, the null hypothesis is "excluded from the realm of possibilities".
The null hypothesis is generally assumed to remain possibly true. Multiple analyses can be performed to show how the hypothesis should either be rejected or excluded e.g. having a high confidence level, thus demonstrating a statistically significant difference. This is demonstrated by showing that zero is outside of the specified confidence interval of the measurement on either side, typically within the real numbers. Failure to exclude the null hypothesis (with any confidence) does not logically confirm or support the (unprovable) null hypothesis. (When it is proven that something is e.g. bigger than x, it does not necessarily imply it is plausible that it is smaller or equal than x; it may instead be a poor quality measurement with low accuracy. Confirming the null hypothesis two-sided would amount to positively proving it is bigger or equal than 0 and to positively proving it is smaller or equal than 0; this is something for which infinite accuracy is needed as well as exactly zero effect, neither of which normally are realistic. Also measurements will never indicate a non-zero probability of exactly zero difference.) So failure of an exclusion of a null hypothesis amounts to a "don't know" at the specified confidence level; it does not immediately imply null somehow, as the data may already show a (less strong) indication for a non-null. The used confidence level does absolutely certainly not correspond to the likelihood of null at failing to exclude; in fact in this case a high used confidence level expands the still plausible range.
A non-null hypothesis can have the following meanings, depending on the author a) a value other than zero is used, b) some margin other than zero is used and c) the "alternative" hypothesis.
Testing (excluding or failing to exclude) the null hypothesis provides evidence that there are (or are not) statistically sufficient grounds to believe there is a relationship between two phenomena (e.g., that a potential treatment has a non-zero effect, either way). Testing the null hypothesis is a central task in statistical hypothesis testing in the modern practice of science. There are precise criteria for excluding or not excluding a null hypothesis at a certain confidence level. The confidence level should indicate the likelihood that much more and better data would still be able to exclude the null hypothesis on the same side.
The concept of a null hypothesis is used differently in two approaches to statistical inference. In the significance testing approach of Ronald Fisher, a null hypothesis is rejected if the observed data are significantly unlikely to have occurred if the null hypothesis were true. In this case, the null hypothesis is rejected and an alternative hypothesis is accepted in its place. If the data are consistent with the null hypothesis statistically possibly true, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. In neither case is the null hypothesis or its alternative proven; with better or more data, the null may still be rejected. This is analogous to the legal principle of presumption of innocence, in which a suspect or defendant is assumed to be innocent (null is not rejected) until proven guilty (null is rejected) beyond a reasonable doubt (to a statistically significant degree).
In the hypothesis testing approach of Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson, a null hypothesis is contrasted with an alternative hypothesis, and the two hypotheses are distinguished on the basis of data, with certain error rates. It is used in formulating answers in research.
Statistical inference can be done without a null hypothesis, by specifying a statistical model corresponding to each candidate hypothesis, and by using model selection techniques to choose the most appropriate model. (The most common selection techniques are based on either Akaike information criterion or Bayes factor).
Principle
Hypothesis testing requires constructing a statistical model of what the data would look like if chance or random processes alone were responsible for the results. The hypothesis that chance alone is responsible for the results is called the null hypothesis. The model of the result of the random process is called the distribution under the null hypothesis. The obtained results are compared with the distribution under the null hypothesis, and the likelihood of finding the obtained results is thereby determined.
Hypothesis testing works by collecting data and measuring how likely the particular set of data is (assuming the null hypothesis is true), when the study is on a randomly selected representative sample. The null hypothesis assumes no relationship between variables in the population from which the sample is selected.
If the data-set of a randomly selected representative sample is very unlikely relative to the null hypothesis (defined as being part of a class of sets of data that only rarely will be observed), the experimenter rejects the null hypothesis, concluding it (probably) is false. This class of data-sets is usually specified via a test statistic, which is designed to measure the extent of apparent departure from the null hypothesis. The procedure works by assessing whether the observed departure, measured by the test statistic, is larger than a value defined, so that the probability of occurrence of a more extreme value is small under the null hypothesis (usually in less than either 5% or 1% of similar data-sets in which the null hypothesis does hold).
If the data do not contradict the null hypothesis, then only a weak conclusion can be made: namely, that the observed data set provides insufficient evidence against the null hypothesis. In this case, because the null hypothesis could be true or false, in some contexts this is interpreted as meaning that the data give insufficient evidence to make any conclusion, while in other contexts, it is interpreted as meaning that there is not sufficient evidence to support changing from a currently useful regime to a different one. Nevertheless, if at this point the effect appears likely and/or large enough, there may be an incentive to further investigate, such as running a bigger sample.
For instance, a certain drug may reduce the chance of having a heart attack. Possible null hypotheses are "this drug does not reduce the chances of having a heart attack" or "this drug has no effect on the chances of having a heart attack". The test of the hypothesis consists of administering the drug to half of the people in a study group as a controlled experiment. If the data show a statistically significant change in the people receiving the drug, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Goals of null hypothesis tests
There are many types of significance tests for one, two or more samples, for means, variances and proportions, paired or unpaired data, for different distributions, for large and small samples; all have null hypotheses. There are also at least four goals of null hypotheses for significance tests:
Technical null hypotheses are used to verify statistical assumptions. For example, the residuals between the data and a statistical model cannot be distinguished from random noise. If true, there is no justification for complicating the model.
Scientific null assumptions are used to directly advance a theory. For example, the angular momentum of the universe is zero. If not true, the theory of the early universe may need revision.
Null hypotheses of homogeneity are used to verify that multiple experiments are producing consistent results. For example, the effect of a medication on the elderly is consistent with that of the general adult population. If true, this strengthens the general effectiveness conclusion and simplifies recommendations for use.
Null hypotheses that assert the equality of effect of two or more alternative treatments, for example, a drug and a placebo, are used to reduce scientific claims based on statistical noise. This is the most popular null hypothesis; It is so popular that many statements about significant testing assume such null hypotheses.
Rejection of the null hypothesis is not necessarily the real goal of a significance tester. An adequate statistical model may be associated with a failure to reject the null; the model is adjusted until the null is not rejected. The numerous uses of significance testing were well known to Fisher who discussed many in his book written a decade before defining the null hypothesis.
A statistical significance test shares much mathematics with a confidence interval. They are mutually illuminating. A result is often significant when there is confidence in the sign of a relationship (the interval does not include 0). Whenever the sign of a relationship is important, statistical significance is a worthy goal. This also reveals weaknesses of significance testing: A result can be significant without a good estimate of the strength of a relationship; significance can be a modest goal. A weak relationship can also achieve significance with enough data. Reporting both significance and confidence intervals is commonly recommended.
The varied uses of significance tests reduce the number of generalizations that can be made about all applications.
Choice of the null hypothesis
The choice of the null hypothesis is associated with sparse and inconsistent advice. Fisher mentioned few constraints on the choice and stated that many null hypotheses should be considered and that many tests are possible for each. The variety of applications and the diversity of goals suggests that the choice can be complicated. In many applications the formulation of the test is traditional. A familiarity with the range of tests available may suggest a particular null hypothesis and test. Formulating the null hypothesis is not automated (though the calculations of significance testing usually are). Sir David Cox said, "How [the] translation from subject-matter problem to statistical model is done is often the most critical part of an analysis".
A statistical significance test is intended to test a hypothesis. If the hypothesis summarizes a set of data, there is no value in testing the hypothesis on that set of data. Example: If a study of last year's weather reports indicates that rain in a region falls primarily on weekends, it is only valid to test that null hypothesis on weather reports from any other year. Testing hypotheses suggested by the data is circular reasoning that proves nothing; It is a special limitation on the choice of the null hypothesis.
A routine procedure is as follows: Start from the scientific hypothesis. Translate this to a statistical alternative hypothesis and proceed: "Because Ha expresses the effect that we wish to find evidence for, we often begin with Ha and then set up H0 as the statement that the hoped-for effect is not present." This advice is reversed for modeling applications where we hope not to find evidence against the null.
A complex case example is as follows: The gold standard in clinical research is the randomized placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial. But testing a new drug against a (medically ineffective) placebo may be unethical for a serious illness. Testing a new drug against an older medically effective drug raises fundamental philosophical issues regarding the goal of the test and the motivation of the experimenters. The standard "no difference" null hypothesis may reward the pharmaceutical company for gathering inadequate data. "Difference" is a better null hypothesis in this case, but statistical significance is not an adequate criterion for reaching a nuanced conclusion which requires a good numeric estimate of the drug's effectiveness. A "minor" or "simple" proposed change in the null hypothesis ((new vs old) rather than (new vs placebo)) can have a dramatic effect on the utility of a test for complex non-statistical reasons.
Directionality
The choice of null hypothesis (H0) and consideration of directionality (see "one-tailed test") is critical.
Tailedness of the null-hypothesis test
Consider the question of whether a tossed coin is fair (i.e. that on average it lands heads up 50% of the time) and an experiment where you toss the coin 5 times.
A possible result of the experiment that we consider here is 5 heads.
Let outcomes be considered unlikely with respect to an assumed distribution if their probability is lower than a significance threshold of 0.05.
A potential null hypothesis implying a one-tail test is "this coin is not biased toward heads".
Beware that, in this context, the word "tail" takes two meanings: either as outcome of a single toss, or as region of extremal values in a probability distribution.
Indeed, with a fair coin the probability of this experiment outcome is 1/25 = 0.031, which would be even lower if the coin were biased in favour of tails.
Therefore, the observations are not likely enough for the null hypothesis to hold, and the test refutes it.
Since the coin is ostensibly neither fair nor biased toward tails, the conclusion of the experiment is that the coin is biased towards heads.
Alternatively, a null hypothesis implying a two-tailed test is "this coin is fair".
This one null hypothesis could be examined by looking out for either too many tails or too many heads in the experiments.
The outcomes that would tend to refuse this null hypothesis are those with a large number of heads or a large number of tails, and our experiment with 5 heads would seem to belong to this class.
However, the probability of 5 tosses of the same kind, irrespective of whether these are head or tails, is twice as much as that of the 5-head occurrence singly considered.
Hence, under this two-tailed null hypothesis, the observation receives a probability value of 0.063.
Hence again, with the same significance threshold used for the one-tailed test (0.05), the same outcome is not statistically significant.
Therefore, the two-tailed null hypothesis will be preserved in this case, not supporting the conclusion reached with the single-tailed null hypothesis, that the coin is biased towards heads.
This example illustrates that the conclusion reached from a statistical test may depend on the precise formulation of the null and alternative hypotheses.
Discussion
Fisher said, "the null hypothesis must be exact, that is free of vagueness and ambiguity, because it must supply the basis of the 'problem of distribution,' of which the test of significance is the solution", implying a more restrictive domain for H0. According to this view, the null hypothesis must be numerically exact—it must state that a particular quantity or difference is equal to a particular number. In classical science, it is most typically the statement that there is no effect of a particular treatment; in observations, it is typically that there is no difference between the value of a particular measured variable and that of a prediction.
Most statisticians believe that it is valid to state direction as a part of null hypothesis, or as part of a null hypothesis/alternative hypothesis pair. However, the results are not a full description of all the results of an experiment, merely a single result tailored to one particular purpose. For example, consider an H0 that claims the population mean for a new treatment is an improvement on a well-established treatment with population (known from long experience), with the one-tailed alternative being that the new treatment's . If the sample evidence obtained through x-bar equals −200 and the corresponding t-test statistic equals −50, the conclusion from the test would be that there is no evidence that the new treatment is better than the existing one: it would not report that it is markedly worse, but that is not what this particular test is looking for. To overcome any possible ambiguity in reporting the result of the test of a null hypothesis, it is best to indicate whether the test was two-sided and, if one-sided, to include the direction of the effect being tested.
The statistical theory required to deal with the simple cases of directionality dealt with here, and more complicated ones, makes use of the concept of an unbiased test.
The directionality of hypotheses is not always obvious. The explicit null hypothesis of Fisher's Lady tasting tea example was that the Lady had no such ability, which led to a symmetric probability distribution. The one-tailed nature of the test resulted from the one-tailed alternate hypothesis (a term not used by Fisher). The null hypothesis became implicitly one-tailed. The logical negation of the Lady's one-tailed claim was also one-tailed. (Claim: Ability > 0; Stated null: Ability = 0; Implicit null: Ability ≤ 0).
Pure arguments over the use of one-tailed tests are complicated by the variety of tests. Some tests (for instance the χ2 goodness of fit test) are inherently one-tailed. Some probability distributions are asymmetric. The traditional tests of 3 or more groups are two-tailed.
Advice concerning the use of one-tailed hypotheses has been inconsistent and accepted practice varies among fields. The greatest objection to one-tailed hypotheses is their potential subjectivity. A non-significant result can sometimes be converted to a significant result by the use of a one-tailed hypothesis (as the fair coin test, at the whim of the analyst). The flip side of the argument: One-sided tests are less likely to ignore a real effect. One-tailed tests can suppress the publication of data that differs in sign from predictions. Objectivity was a goal of the developers of statistical tests.
It is a common practice to use a one-tailed hypothesis by default. However, "If you do not have a specific direction firmly in mind in advance, use a two-sided alternative. Moreover, some users of statistics argue that we should always work with the two-sided alternative."
One alternative to this advice is to use three-outcome tests. It eliminates the issues surrounding directionality of hypotheses by testing twice, once in each direction and combining the results to produce three possible outcomes. Variations on this approach have a history, being suggested perhaps 10 times since 1950.
Disagreements over one-tailed tests flow from the philosophy of science. While Fisher was willing to ignore the unlikely case of the Lady guessing all cups of tea incorrectly (which may have been appropriate for the circumstances), medicine believes that a proposed treatment that kills patients is significant in every sense and should be reported and perhaps explained. Poor statistical reporting practices have contributed to disagreements over one-tailed tests. Statistical significance resulting from two-tailed tests is insensitive to the sign of the relationship; Reporting significance alone is inadequate. "The treatment has an effect" is the uninformative result of a two-tailed test. "The treatment has a beneficial effect" is the more informative result of a one-tailed test. "The treatment has an effect, reducing the average length of hospitalization by 1.5 days" is the most informative report, combining a two-tailed significance test result with a numeric estimate of the relationship between treatment and effect. Explicitly reporting a numeric result eliminates a philosophical advantage of a one-tailed test. An underlying issue is the appropriate form of an experimental science without numeric predictive theories: A model of numeric results is more informative than a model of effect signs (positive, negative or unknown) which is more informative than a model of simple significance (non-zero or unknown); in the absence of numeric theory signs may suffice.
History of statistical tests
The history of the null and alternative hypotheses is embedded in the history of statistical tests.
Before 1925: There are occasional transient traces of statistical tests for centuries in the past, which provide early examples of null hypotheses. In the late 19th century statistical significance was defined. In the early 20th century important probability distributions were defined. Gossett and Pearson worked on specific cases of significance testing.
1925: Fisher published the first edition of Statistical Methods for Research Workers which defined the statistical significance test and made it a mainstream method of analysis for much of experimental science. The text was devoid of proofs and weak on explanations, but it was filled with real examples. It placed statistical practice in the sciences well in advance of published statistical theory.
1933: In a series of papers (published over a decade starting in 1928) Neyman & Pearson defined the statistical hypothesis test as a proposed improvement on Fisher's test. The papers provided much of the terminology for statistical tests including alternative hypothesis and H0 as a hypothesis to be tested using observational data (with H1, H2... as alternatives). Neyman did not use the term null hypothesis in later writings about his method.
1935: Fisher published the first edition of the book The Design of Experiments which introduced the null hypothesis (by example rather than by definition) and carefully explained the rationale for significance tests in the context of the interpretation of experimental results; see quotations regarding the null hypothesis.
Following: Fisher and Neyman quarreled over the relative merits of their competing formulations until Fisher's death in 1962. Career changes and World War II ended the partnership of Neyman and Pearson. The formulations were merged by relatively anonymous textbook writers, experimenters (journal editors) and mathematical statisticians without input from the principals. The subject today combines much of the terminology and explanatory power of Neyman & Pearson with the scientific philosophy and calculations provided by Fisher. Whether statistical testing is properly one subject or two remains a source of disagreement. Sample of two: One text refers to the subject as hypothesis testing (with no mention of significance testing in the index) while another says significance testing (with a section on inference as a decision). Fisher developed significance testing as a flexible tool for researchers to weigh their evidence. Instead testing has become institutionalized. Statistical significance has become a rigidly defined and enforced criterion for the publication of experimental results in many scientific journals. In some fields significance testing has become the dominant and nearly exclusive form of statistical analysis. As a consequence the limitations of the tests have been exhaustively studied. Books have been filled with the collected criticism of significance testing.
See also
Bayes factor
Burden of proof
Counternull
Estimation statistics
Likelihood-ratio test
Presumption of innocence
Statistical hypothesis testing
P-value
References
Further reading
The application of significance testing in this paper is an outlier. Tests to find a null hypothesis? Not trying to show significance, but to find interesting cases?
Directed tests combine the attributes of one-tailed and two-tailed tests. "...directed tests should be used in virtually all applications where one-sided tests have previously been used, excepting those cases where the data can only deviate from H0, in one direction."
External links
HyperStat Online: Null hypothesis
Design of experiments
Statistical hypothesis testing
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226675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Today%20%28American%20TV%20program%29 | Today (American TV program) | Today (also called The Today Show or informally, NBC News Today) is an American news and talk morning television show that airs on NBC. The program debuted on January 14, 1952. It was the first of its genre on American television and in the world, and after 70 years of broadcasting it is fifth on the list of longest-running United States television series.
Originally a weekday two-hour program from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m., it expanded to Sundays in 1987 and Saturdays in 1992. The weekday broadcast expanded to three hours in 2000, and to four hours in 2007 (though over time, the third and fourth hours became distinct entities). Todays dominance was virtually unchallenged by the other networks until the late 1980s, when it was overtaken by ABC's Good Morning America.
Today retook the Nielsen ratings lead the week of December 11, 1995, and held onto that position for 852 consecutive weeks until the week of April 9, 2012, when Good Morning America topped it again. Today maintained its No. 2 status behind GMA from the summer of 2012 until it regained the lead in the aftermath of anchor Matt Lauer's departure in November 2017. In 2002, Today was ranked No. 17 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.
The entertainment magazine Variety reported the 2016 advertising revenue during the first two hours of the show was $508.8 million.
On July 15, 2020, NBC launched Today All Day, a 24-hour digital streaming extension of the program available through its website and Peacock.
History
Founding
The show's first broadcast aired on January 14, 1952 as the brainchild of television executive Sylvester Weaver, who was then vice president of NBC. Weaver was president of the company from 1953 to 1955, during which time Todays late-night companion The Tonight Show premiered. In pre-production, the show's proposed working title was The Rise and Shine Revue. The show was first supervised by Jerome Alan Danzig.
Today was the first program of its genre when it premiered with original host Dave Garroway. The program blended national news headlines, interviews with newsmakers, lifestyle features, other light news and gimmicks (including the presence of the chimpanzee J. Fred Muggs who served as the show's mascot during the early years), and local news updates from the network's stations. It has spawned several other shows of a similar type, including ABC's Good Morning America, and CBS' now-defunct The Early Show. In other countries, the format was copied – most notably in the United Kingdom with the BBC's Breakfast Time and TV-am's Good Morning Britain, and in Canada with Canada AM on CTV Television Network.
Scheduling history
When Today debuted, it was seen live only in the Eastern Time Zone and Central Time Zone, broadcasting for three hours each morning but seen for only two hours in each time zone. Since 1958, Today has only broadcast live on the Eastern Time Zone, and has been on broadcast delay for the five other U.S. time zones (Central, Mountain Time Zone, Pacific Time Zone, Alaska Time Zone and Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone). Partly to accommodate host Dave Garroway's declining health, the program ceased live broadcasts in September 1959, opting instead to broadcast an edition taped the previous afternoon punctuated with live newscasts each half-hour. The experiment, which drew criticism from many sides, ended when John Chancellor succeeded Garroway in July 1961.
Today was a two-hour program for many years, airing from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. in all time zones except for Alaska, Hawaii, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, until NBC expanded the program to three hours (extending the program until 10:00 a.m.) on October 2, 2000. A fourth hour (which extended the program until 11:00 a.m.) was eventually added on September 10, 2007.
In August 2013, Today released a mobile app for smartphones and tablets.
Current weekday showtimes and arrangements
The program airs live in the Eastern Time Zone and on tape delay beginning at 7:00 a.m. in each of the remaining time zones. The remaining three feeds are frequently updated with minor fixes and repairs, and often, correspondents will tape updates that are then edited into the delayed feeds. NBC affiliates in some markets including in the east coast, such as WYFF in Greenville, South Carolina, air the third and fourth hours of Today on tape delay to accommodate live syndicated programmes airing at such times.
When breaking news stories warrant, Today will produce a West Coast edition by broadcasting parts of the show live for viewers there. In such an event, the live portion does not typically go beyond the 7:00 a.m. (Pacific Time) half-hour or the bloc before the first set of advertisements. Once completed, the remaining blocs/segments taped from the East Coast edition will follow. Throughout the live segment, the presenters will explicitly make some reference to the show being live on the west coast from time to time until the tape-delayed segments resume.
In some instances, when an NBC News Special Report of breaking news or a live event occurs during the Today show time slot in the eastern time zone, the show's anchors will assume hosting responsibilities and the show will go live across all time zones until such time when the Special Report segment finishes. At that point, viewers outside the Eastern Time Zone will return to regularly-scheduled programming (i.e. the segment of the Today show feed already in progress in their corresponding time zone or their local newscast).
Local cut-ins
During the first two hours of the program, local network affiliates are offered a four-minute window at 26 and 56 minutes past the hour to insert a local newsbreak (which usually also includes a local forecast, and in large and mid-sized markets, a brief traffic report) and local advertisements. Certain NBC affiliates that produce an additional morning newscast for a sister station or digital subchannel may prerecord the local inserts aired during the first one to two hours of Today to focus production responsibilities on just one of their local channels.
Satellite radio simulcast
Starting in June 2014, SiriusXM began simulcasting Today on a new channel called Today Show Radio, Channel 108, with The Best of Today starting at 6am (Eastern) and the Today Shows live broadcast from Studio 1A at Rockefeller Center in New York City starting at 7:00 a.m. (Eastern), with a tape delayed broadcast at beginning 7:00 a.m. Pacific time. On Mondays The Hoda Show with Hoda Kotb is broadcast exclusive on the Today Show Radio channel. On Tuesdays Off the Rails with Al Roker, Dylan Dreyer and Sheinelle Jones airs at 1:00 p.m. (Eastern). On Wednesdays The Happy Hour with the producers of Kathie Lee and Hoda airs, and on Thursdays Today Show Confidential with the producers of TODAY airs. The channel also simulcasts NBC Nightly News with Lester Holt at 6:30 p.m. (Eastern) The Today Show Radio service is not currently available on SiriusXM's sister service in Canada and Channel 108 is locked out for Canadian subscribers.
Studio
RCA Exhibition Hall (original studio)
The Today program first originated from the RCA Exhibition Hall on 49th Street in Manhattan in a space now occupied by the Christie's auction house, just down the block from the present-day studio. The first set placed a functional newsroom in the studio, which Garroway called "the nerve center of the world.” The barrier between backstage and on-stage was virtually nonexistent. Garroway and the on-air staff often walked through the newsroom set. Glimpses of the camera crew and technicians were a frequent occurrence, as were off-screen voices conversing with Garroway. Gradually, machines and personnel were placed behind the scenes to assemble the news and weather reports, and the newsroom was gone by 1955.
Studio 3K, Florida Showcase, Studio 8G, and Studio 3B
In the summer of 1958, television manufacturer Philco complained to NBC that staging Today in a studio explicitly called the RCA Exhibition Hall was unfair (RCA owned NBC at the time). The network bowed to the pressure, and on July 7, 1958, Today moved across the street to Studio 3K in the RCA Building, where it remained through the early 1960s.
On July 9, 1962, the program returned to a street-side studio in the space then occupied by the Florida Showcase. Each day, the Today production crew would have to move the Florida-related tourism merchandise off the floor and wheel in the Today news set, desks, chairs and cameras. When the show wrapped at 9:00 a.m. Eastern Time, the news set would be put away and the tourism merchandise returned to the floor.
After three years in the Florida Showcase, Today moved back to the RCA Building on September 13, 1965. The network converted its news programming to all-color broadcasts at that time, and NBC could not justify allocating four (then-expensive) color cameras to the Florida Showcase studio. For the next 20 years, the show occupied a series of studios on the third, sixth, and eighth floors of NBC's headquarters; most notably Studio 3K in the 1970s, Studio 8G (adjacent to Studio 8H, home to Saturday Night Live) in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and finally Studio 3B from 1983 to 1994.
Studio 1A
Today moved to the new street-side studio on June 20, 1994, providing a link to the show's 1950s origin.
Since the debut of the 1990s set, the national morning news programs of each of the major broadcast and cable-news networks have moved street-side – including two of Todays Rockefeller Center neighbors, Fox News' Fox & Friends (at Sixth Avenue) and CNN's since-cancelled American Morning (in the summer of 2005, CNN reversed the trend, abandoning its street-level studio and moving upstairs in the Time Warner Center at Columbus Circle). ABC's Good Morning America broadcasts from Times Square Studios, although only a portion of its studio is street side.
In 2006, Studio 1A underwent a major renovation to prepare for the upgrade to high-definition television broadcasts. After the departure of Katie Couric and while a new set was readied (during the summer of 2006), the program was broadcast from a temporary outdoor studio in Rockefeller Plaza, the same set that NBC used at the Olympic Games since 2004. During the week of August 28, 2006, the show was moved to a temporary location outside of Studio 1A because MTV was converting the outdoor studio into their red carpet booth for the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. A mock set was set up in Dateline NBCs studio, which was also used during inclement weather. The program also used a temporary outdoor set at NBC Studios, and MSNBC's Countdown with Keith Olbermann (which joined at Studio 1A in 30 Rock on October 22, 2007).
On September 13, 2006, Today moved back into the revamped Studio 1A space. The new studio was divided into five different sections on the lower level including an interview area, the couch area, the news desk, the performance/interview/extra space area, and home base, which is where the anchors start the show. A gigantic Panasonic 103-inch plasma display monitor is often used for graphic display backgrounds. A kitchen set is located upstairs from the main studio. The blue background that is seen in the opening of the show in home base moves up and down to allow a view of the outside from the home base.
Some minor changes were implemented throughout the early and middle part of 2013, not only in the way that things are presented, but also with modified graphics and minor updates to the set. That year, a new, larger anchor desk was introduced with space to seat all four main anchors (Guthrie, Lauer, Morales and Roker). The new desk brought an end to the "news desk," as the third "news reader" (Morales) now sits at the main anchor desk. Other minor changes included a new larger desk for the third hour. After the August 16, 2013, broadcast, the program vacated Studio 1A, while the space underwent a remodeling with a more modern look with (as stated by executive producer Don Nash) "a lot more bells and whistles to play with.”
On September 16, 2013, Today debuted a new set and graphics package (it was originally set to debut on September 9, 2013, but was delayed one week to complete final design details. The "home base" is located on a platform that can spin 360°, therefore allowing the view and direction of the camera to change depending on the half-hour. A new couch and background was added in the "sofa area" (where the anchors sit and discuss topics). A social media area known as the "Orange Room,” was also added to Studio 1A, which contains screens that display Twitter comments or trending topics, Carson Daly was hired to present segments from the room during the broadcast. Six screens that also connect to one 6' x 16' screen were added in the fashion/special topic area. During its first two days of use, the show transitioned away from its news and entertainment format to a format that emphasized the social interaction of the anchors, Roker and newsreader.
The graphics were also overhauled with introduction of the new set (a slightly modified version of this package and the revised logo debuted on Early Today that November, further integrating the early-morning news program's branding with Today). The logo-to-peacock animation was moved from the left corner to the bottom right side corner of the screen. The logo that was first previewed on September 13, 2013, pared down the number of circular arches from five to three with its coloring switching from different variations – generally shades of red, orange and yellow to depict a sunrise – to entirely orange.
In September 2015 Today updated the set once again, the update included new floors, a new couch, and a new anchor desk. The new set retains the 360 home base used in the previous design. The new set replaced much of the dark wood colors with lighter colors and removed the emphasis of orange in previous design in favor of orange accents.
In February 2018, while Guthrie and Kotb were at the 2018 Winter Olympics, the studio received minor changes including new screens and flooring in the former screen area; and by November of the same year, the Orange Room got a minor change that included a triangular-pattern wall and wooden flooring.
On-air staff
Weekdays
Main show
During the week, the flagship hours of Today (7:00 a.m. – 9:00 a.m.) are co-anchored by Savannah Guthrie (2012–present) and Hoda Kotb (2018–present) alongside co-hosts Al Roker (weather anchor, 1996–present), Craig Melvin (news anchor, 2018–present) and Carson Daly (entertainment anchor, 2013–present)
Third hour
Sheinelle Jones and Dylan Dreyer – who appear on the main show as contributors – serve as the co-hosts (with Roker and Melvin) of 3rd Hour Today at 9:00 a.m.
Fourth hour
Kotb and Jenna Bush Hager co-host the fourth hour – titled Today with Hoda & Jenna – at 10:00 a.m.
Note: 3rd Hour and Hoda & Jenna – while part of the Today show – are their own distinct entities and are listed as such.
Weekends
Saturday editions are anchored by Peter Alexander and Kristen Welker from Washington, D.C.
Sunday editions are anchored by Willie Geist from New York City.
Former staff
Today anchors started out as "Communicators." Creator Pat Weaver envisioned a person whose responsibilities would go beyond the bounds of traditional sit-down news anchors. The Communicator would interview, report, moderate dialogue and generally tie the show together into a coherent whole. Garroway and his successors have all followed that model, with little variation. Now, the hosts are expected to do much the same, and on any given day will talk with correspondents, newsmakers and lifestyle experts; introduce and close each half-hour, conduct special segments (such as cooking or fashion) and go on-assignment to host the program from different locations. Although the "Communicator" nomenclature has since dropped out of favor, the job remains largely the same.
Anchors
Including Hoda Kotb and Savannah Guthrie, eight men and eight women have served as primary Today hosts since the program's inception:
Dave Garroway (January 14, 1952 – June 16, 1961)
John Chancellor (July 17, 1961 – September 7, 1962)
Hugh Downs (September 10, 1962 – October 8, 1971)
Barbara Walters (September 16, 1966 – June 4, 1976)
Frank McGee (October 11, 1971 – April 17, 1974)
Jim Hartz (July 29, 1974 – August 23, 1976)
Tom Brokaw (August 30, 1976 – December 18, 1981)
Jane Pauley (October 11, 1976 – December 29, 1989)
Bryant Gumbel (January 4, 1982 – January 3, 1997)
Deborah Norville (January 8, 1990 – February 22, 1991)
Katie Couric (April 5, 1991 – May 31, 2006)
Matt Lauer (January 6, 1997 – November 28, 2017)
Meredith Vieira (September 13, 2006 – June 8, 2011)
Ann Curry (June 9, 2011 – June 28, 2012)
Savannah Guthrie (July 9, 2012 – present)
Hoda Kotb (January 2, 2018 – present)
Notes:
Walters was hired as a Today writer and researcher in 1961, making her first appearance that August with a segment on the Paris fashion show. She was appointed as a "Today Girl" and reporter in October 1964; a Today panelist in September 1966, and became the program's first female co-anchor upon Frank McGee's death in April 1974.
Pauley was hired as a Today panelist in 1976, and was promoted to co-anchor when Bryant Gumbel joined the program in 1982.
Curry served as the show's Anchor at Large from 2012 to 2015, after her time as a primary host.
Guthrie first joined Today as co-host of the third hour, in 2012 she was promoted as co-anchor replacing Ann Curry.
News anchors
From the show's inception, the idea of providing the latest news headlines has been critical to the function of the program. In that vein, there has always been at least one person on set whose job it is to prepare and deliver newscasts. In 1952, that person was called the "news editor" or (informally) "news chief." In modern parlance, the term "newsreader" or "news anchor" is preferred. Under the two-hour format, four newscasts were delivered, once every half-hour. Presently, there are only two newscasts, delivered at the top of each of the first two hours. Some anchors, including Jim Fleming, Lew Wood, Floyd Kalber and John Palmer, were seasoned journalists before joining the program. Others, including Ann Curry, have used the position to increase their journalistic acumen, at times leaving the newsdesk behind to venture into the field. News anchors have included the following:
Jim Fleming (1952–1953)
Merrill Mueller (1953)
Frank Blair (1953–1975)
Lew Wood (1975–1976)
Floyd Kalber (1976–1979)
Tony Guida (1979)
No separate news anchor (1979–1981, Tom Brokaw and Jane Pauley read headlines)
Chris Wallace and Pauley (1982)
John Palmer (1982–1989)
Deborah Norville (1989)
Faith Daniels (1990–1992)
Margaret Larson (1992–1994)
Matt Lauer (1994–1997)
Ann Curry (1997–2011)
Natalie Morales (2011–2016)
No separate news anchor (2016–2018, co-anchors read headlines)
Craig Melvin (2018–present)
Weather anchors
For the program's first 25 years, weather reports were delivered by the host or newsreader. Dave Garroway illustrated the day's forecast by drawing fronts and areas of precipitation on a big chalkboard map of the United States, based on information gathered earlier in the morning from the National Weather Service in Washington, D.C. Subsequent hosts John Chancellor and Hugh Downs dropped the chalkboard weather map concept, and instead read a prepared weather summary over a still image of a weather map. When the show converted to all-color broadcasts in 1965, weather maps were prepared and projected on a screen behind Frank Blair, who delivered the forecast immediately after his news summaries. Following Blair's retirement on March 14, 1975, Lew Wood took over the newsreader and weather reporting duties (using Blair's format). When Floyd Kalber became newsreader in 1976, Wood was relegated to weather, sports, roving reporter assignments, and presenting live on-air commercials until his departure in 1978.
The weather is reported every half-hour during the program's first two hours, though since Al Roker was named weather reporter on January 26, 1996, an interview is conducted by him in place of the national weather forecast at least once during the show, leaving only the local weather inserts by NBC stations.
Prior to Roker, Today weather reporters were Bob Ryan (1978–1980) and Willard Scott (1980–1996). Until Ryan's hiring, no one on the show had practical experience or academic credentials in meteorology. With NBC's purchase of The Weather Channel in 2008, personnel from that network frequently participate in Today forecast segments, at the site of a weather event or from the cable channel's suburban Atlanta headquarters, or as a fill-in for Roker. This lasted until ten years later when TWC was later acquired by Entertainment Studios.
NBC owned-and-operated stations and network affiliates are given a 30-second window to insert a local forecast segment into the program following the national weather report; Roker's outcue for the local break is "That's what's going on around the country, here's what's happening in your neck of the woods," although in recent years, this outcue was used during only starting the second half-hour. During the first half hour, Roker simply uses "your local forecast" which appears after a 30-second commercial. Those not watching on an affiliate which provides local weather segments following the outcue (including international viewers, as well as NBC stations that do not have a news department) see a national summary of temperatures on a weather map.
The semi-retired Scott, who gained fame through his antics that included costumes and props, still appeared on-air to continue his tradition of wishing "happy birthday" to centenarian. Scott's traditional local cue was "Here's what's happening in your world, even as we speak." He retired completely from television on December 15, 2015.
Regular panelists
The job of "panelist" has no set definition. Panelist duties can range from conducting interviews to reporting on a number of topics in-studio and in the field. Regular panelists on the program include the following:
Jack Lescoulie (1952–1965)
Edwin Newman (1952–1984)
Barbara Walters (1966–1974, officially titled "co-host" in 1974)
Judith Crist (1964–1973)
Joe Garagiola Sr. (1967–1973 and 1990–1992)
Gene Shalit (1973–2010)
Today Girls
From 1952 to 1964, a notable member of the cast was a woman, often an entertainer, the Today Girl. Usually, she discussed fashion and lifestyle, reported the weather, covered lighter-fare stories or engaged in verbal jousting with Garroway. Estelle Parsons was the first to hold the job, though her title at the time was "Women's Editor." Upon her departure in 1955, the Today Girl name was adopted. The last to hold the position, Barbara Walters, discussed the job in her autobiography Audition: A Memoir. She wrote that the era was before the feminism, and it was believed that nobody would take a woman seriously reporting "infotainment," Walters described the position as a "tea pourer." In 1966, Walters was promoted to co-anchor alongside Hugh Downs, and the Today Girl position was eliminated. Those who held the position were:
Estelle Parsons (official title: "Women's Editor," 1952–1955)
Lee Meriwether (1955–1956)
Helen O'Connell (1956–1958)
Betsy Palmer (1958)
Florence Henderson (1959–1960)
Joyce Davidson (1960)
Pat Fontaine (1962-1963)
Maureen O'Sullivan (1964)
J. Fred Muggs
From 1953 to 1957, the program featured J. Fred Muggs, a chimpanzee whose antics entertained viewers, but frustrated the program's staff, especially Dave Garroway. Also occasionally appearing was J. Fred's "girlfriend" Phoebe B. Beebe.
Transitions
Pauley to Norville
In 1989, Deborah Norville (then anchor of the network's early-morning news program at the time, NBC News at Sunrise) replaced John Palmer at the Today newsdesk, at which point he assumed her previous role on Sunrise. She also began substituting for Tom Brokaw on NBC Nightly News. Shortly after Norville's appointment as Todays news anchor, the decision was made to feature her as an unofficial third host. Whereas Palmer had read the news from a desk separate from where Gumbel and Pauley sat, Norville was seated alongside the program's hosts at the opening and closing of every show. Before long, gossip columns and media observers predicted that NBC would remove Jane Pauley from the program and replace her with Norville in an effort to improve the program's recently declining viewership among young women, the demographic most coveted by morning shows. During this period, Saturday Night Live featured a sketch titled "All About Deborah Norville" (a takeoff on the classic film All About Eve), which depicted Norville as ruthlessly scheming to take Pauley's place as Today co-host.
In October 1989, it was announced that 13-year veteran Pauley would leave Today at the end of the year. NBC, as expected, announced that Norville would become co-host. An emotional Norville hugged Pauley on the air after the announcement was made, and many at the network hoped the negative press generated by Norville's increased presence on the program would end. However, this turned out not to be the case. Prior to the announcement of Pauley's departure, much of the criticism had focused on Norville's youth and beauty, with many branding her "the other woman" and a "home wrecker," in a reference to what some felt seemed like her intent on "breaking up" the television marriage of Gumbel and Pauley.
The negative press only heightened after the announcement of Pauley's resignation, and Norville was put under a gag order by NBC brass, which prevented her from defending herself from the widespread and erroneous reports that she somehow orchestrated her rise on Today. In January 1990, the new anchor team of Bryant Gumbel and Deborah Norville, minus Jane Pauley, debuted with disastrous results. Nielsen ratings for the program began to plummet. Critics felt that Gumbel and Norville lacked chemistry and many loyal viewers began turning to rival ABC's Good Morning America (GMA).
Norville to Couric
By the end of 1990, Today, the longtime dominant program, was officially the second-place morning show behind GMA, and most of the blame was pinned on Norville. By the outbreak of the Gulf War in 1991, Norville saw her role as co-host continually minimized. Today aired special editions of the program called "America at War," with Gumbel anchoring most of the show alone. It was not uncommon for Norville not even to appear until the two-hour show's second half-hour. In addition, she was directed not to initiate conversation on the show and only speak when asked a question by Gumbel. Norville left the show for parental leave in February 1991. It was announced that Katie Couric would substitute co-host during Norville's absence. Ratings for the program rose immediately following Norville's departure and Couric's arrival.
Midway though her maternity leave, Norville was interviewed by People. In the story, she avoided conversation about her recent trouble on Today, and instead focused on her newborn baby boy. She was photographed breastfeeding her son, a seemingly innocuous event, but NBC management was said to be greatly displeased by this, believing the photo to be "in poor taste". By April 1991, in light of improved ratings on Today and NBC's displeasure at the People photograph, it was announced that Norville would not return to Today and that Katie Couric had been named the program's co-host. Norville, it was disclosed, would continue to be paid in accordance with her contract, although she would no longer appear on any NBC News programs.
Couric to Vieira
On April 5, 2006, Katie Couric announced on her 15th anniversary as co-host of Today that she would leave the program and NBC News at the end of May to become the new anchor and managing editor of the CBS Evening News. Couric's final broadcast, on May 31, 2006, was dedicated to her 15 years as one of the show's co-hosts, and celebrated her move to the anchor chair at CBS, where she also became a correspondent for the network's Sunday night newsmagazine program 60 Minutes. Couric said during the show, "It's been a pleasure hosting this program, and thank you for fifteen great years." A special video presentation was broadcast, recapping her best moments and news stories on Today during her 15 years with the show.
The day after Couric's announcement, Meredith Vieira, then a host of ABC's The View announced on that show that she would take over as Lauer's co-anchor in September. Lauer and Vieira began co-hosting together on September 13, 2006.
On June 1, 2006 (the day after Couric's departure), NBC News announced that for the summer of 2006, Today would move to a temporary outdoor studio as Studio 1A was going through renovations to prepare for its switch to high-definition. On that same day, NBC News launched a new advertisement promoting Vieira's arrival. That summer, Couric's anchor seat was filled by various hosts, consisting of Curry, Morales and Campbell Brown (all of whom were considered candidates to replace Couric), until Vieira took over that fall.
In March 2010, Vieira signed a contract to keep her with the program until at least September 2011. However, she announced on May 9, 2011, that she would depart as co-host in the following month, but would remain at NBC News as a special correspondent.
Vieira to Curry
After announcing her resignation, Meredith Vieira departed the program on June 8, 2011. Vieira's spot was filled by the program's longtime news anchor Ann Curry, appearing alongside Matt Lauer as co-host. Correspondent Natalie Morales replaced Curry as news anchor in turn, with Al Roker remaining as the weather anchor. Savannah Guthrie joined Morales and Roker as co-host of the third (9:00 a.m.) hour.
Almost a year after her departure, Vieira returned briefly to Today as a special correspondent for events relating to Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Celebration. On June 5, 2012, she co-presented the show with Lauer from London.
Curry to Guthrie
NBC revealed on June 28, 2012, that Ann Curry would no longer co-host Today, and would continue to work for NBC News (where she remained until her departure in January 2015), including continuing to appear on Today. Curry's title was changed to "Today Anchor at Large and NBC News National & International Correspondent," with responsibilities including leading a seven-person unit producing content for NBC Nightly News, Dateline NBC, Rock Center with Brian Williams and Today, with occasional anchor duties for Nightly News. Curry also reported for NBC's coverage of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. On July 9, 2012, Savannah Guthrie succeeded Curry as co-anchor alongside Lauer, Roker and Morales.
Ann Curry's final show as co-anchor was subdued compared to the earlier departures of Katie Couric and Meredith Vieira, as it did not include retrospectives of Curry's 15-year run on the program or goodbye to messages from colleagues and celebrities, although Curry – seated alongside Lauer, Natalie Morales and Al Roker in the couch area of the Studio 1A set – gave a tear-filled farewell message to viewers. Rumors of Curry's departure from Today began weeks before NBC formally announced that she would no longer be co-host, spurring negative press similar to that resulting from the departure of Jane Pauley and her replacement by Deborah Norville 23 years earlier, as early reports suggested that Matt Lauer had a hand in the program's decision to let Curry go. Viewership declines for the program that began in the months following Curry becoming co-host precipitated in part due to public criticism over Lauer's alleged involvement in Curry's departure; loyal viewers once again began turning to the competing Good Morning America, which toppled Todays 16-year consecutive run as the top-rated morning news program during the week of April 9, 2012. The public relations problems for Lauer that resulted from the accusations, led then-executive producer Jim Bell to admit responsibility for the negative press, in defense of Lauer, in a series of interviews with The New York Times, The Hollywood Reporter and the Associated Press.
Lauer to Kotb
On November 29, 2017, Hoda Kotb became the interim co-anchor after Matt Lauer was terminated. Prior to that, she has been a featured co-anchor of Today, sitting alongside Lauer and Guthrie at the beginning of the second half-hour. She held that position on April 17, 2017, after her return from maternity leave until Lauer's termination on November 29, 2017. On January 2, 2018, her interim status became permanent, making her and Savannah Guthrie the first all-female anchor duo in Today's history and the second all-female anchor duo overall.
NBC News Chairman Andrew Lack said in an email that Kotb has "seamlessly stepped" into the position, and with Guthrie, "quickly hit the ground running". "They have an undeniable connection with each other and most importantly, with viewers, a hallmark of Today," Lack added.
Just before the holidays, NBC executives offered the job to Kotb. She also continued to co-host the fourth hour of the show, a role she has held since 2007.
Controversies
Gumbel's memo
In 1989, Bryant Gumbel wrote a memo to the program's then-executive producer Marty Ryan, which was critical of other Today personalities, and was leaked to the press. In the memo, Gumbel commented that Willard Scott "holds the show hostage to his assortment of whims, wishes, birthdays and bad taste... This guy is killing us and no one's even trying to rein him in." He commented that Gene Shalit's movie reviews "are often late and his interviews aren't very good".
There was enough negative backlash in regard to Gumbel's comments toward Scott that Gumbel was shown reconciling with Scott on Today.
Selective editing of George Zimmerman 9-1-1 call
After the killing of Trayvon Martin, Today ran a selectively edited version of the 9-1-1 call that George Zimmerman made prior to shooting and killing Martin (which he defended as being committed in self-defense while standing trial for the shooting, for which he was acquitted on charges of murder in July 2013), which had the effect of making Zimmerman appear racist. In a March 2012 edition of the program, Today played a recording of Zimmerman saying, "This guy looks like he's up to no good. He looks black." However, several seconds of the call were cut from the 911 tape, removing Zimmerman's description of Martin, and a question asked to him about the teenager by the 911 operator. In the original, unedited tape, Zimmerman said, "This guy looks like he's up to no good. Or he's on drugs or something. It's raining and he's just walking around, looking about." The operator then asked, "OK, and this guy – is he black, white or Hispanic?", to which Zimmerman answered, "He looks black."
The Washington Post wrote that Todays alteration "would more readily paint Zimmerman as a racial profiing. In reality's version, Zimmerman simply answered a question about the race of the person whom he was reporting to the police. Nothing prejudicial at all in responding to such an inquiry... it's a falsehood with repercussions. Much of the public discussion over the past week has settled on how conflicting facts and interpretations call into question whether Zimmerman acted justifiably or criminally... To portray that exchange in a way that wrongs Zimmerman is high editorial malpractice..."
Following an internal investigation into the production of the segment, NBC News fired two employees who were involved in the piece, including a producer based at the division's Miami bureau, in April 2012. In December 2012, George Zimmerman filed a defamation lawsuit against NBC for the editing of the 911 call. Florida Circuit Court Judge Debra Nelson dismissed the suit on June 30, 2014, citing that there were "no genuine issues of material fact upon which a reasonable jury could find that the Defendants [NBCUniversal] acted with actual malice," but although Zimmerman could not prove that he was the victim of "actual malice", stated that the malice standard was appropriate since Zimmerman is a public figure.
9/11 Moment of Silence omission
On September 11, 2012, Today sparked outrage after the program neglected to interrupt an interview with Keeping Up with the Kardashians co-star Kris Jenner to broadcast the 11th anniversary remembrance ceremonies of the September 11 attacks at 8:46 a.m. Eastern. NBC was the only national television news outlet in the United States that did not interrupt regular programming to broadcast the moment of silence live. While the coverage of the ceremonies was not seen on the NBC network feed in most of the country, the network's New York City flagship owned-and-operated station WNBC interrupted the Today broadcast to run locally produced special coverage of the entire ceremony.
Matt Lauer termination
On November 29, 2017, NBC terminated Lauer following allegations of "inappropriate sexual behavior". NBC News chairman Andrew Lack announced Lauer's termination, stating: "It represented, after serious review, a clear violation of our company's standards. As a result, we've decided to terminate his employment. While it is the first complaint about his behavior in the over twenty years he's been at NBC News, we were also presented with reason to believe this may not have been an isolated incident. Our highest priority is to create a workplace environment where everyone feels safe and protected, and to ensure that any actions that run counter to our core values are met with consequences, no matter who the offender." Lauer would eventually be replaced by the long-time anchor of Today's 4th Hour, Hoda Kotb.
Although NBC did not publicly report or comment on the specifics of the allegations, the entertainment industry publication Variety ran a two-month long investigation involving interviews with Lauer's former NBC colleagues on his behavior towards them, which included lurid accusations of making verbal and typed lewd comments, as well as making suggestive references to a colleague's sexual performance.
Megyn Kelly blackface controversy
During the episode of October 23, 2018, Megyn Kelly participated in a panel discussion on the appropriateness of blackface in Halloween costume on her morning show Megyn Kelly Today. During the segment, Kelly recollected that "when I was a kid, that was okay as long as you were dressing up as like a character", and added that "[Luann de Lesseps] wants to look like Diana Ross for one day, and I don't know how that got racist on Halloween." Her comments were widely criticized for being interpreted as defense of the practice, which is generally considered to be a derogatory caricature of African-Americans. Critics likened Kelly's remarks to a previous incident during her tenure at Fox News Channel, where Kelly asserted that Jesus and Santa Claus were white.
Later that day, Kelly issued an internal email apologizing for the remarks, stating that "I realize now that such behavior is indeed wrong, and I am sorry", and that "I've never been a 'pc' kind of person — but I understand that we do need to be more sensitive in this day and age. Particularly on race and ethnicity issues which, far from being healed, have been exacerbated in our politics over the past year. This is a time for more understanding, love, sensitivity and honor, and I want to be part of that. I look forward to continuing that discussion."
Kelly opened the October 24 episode with a public apology, as well as a follow-up discussion with African-American commentators Amy Holmes and Roland Martin on why blackface is considered controversial. The same day, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Kelly had left the Creative Artists Agency, and had hired an attorney. It was also reported that, prior to the incident, Kelly and NBC had been discussing cancelling the program so she could focus more on serving as a correspondent, but that the comments may have an impact on her future at the network. The week's remaining episodes were replaced by encores.
On October 26, 2018, NBC News confirmed the cancellation of Megyn Kelly Today and announced that the show's existing anchors would temporarily fill the third hour.
Expansion
Current
Weekend Today
Today first expanded to weekends on September 20, 1987, with the debut of the Sunday edition. Five years later on August 1, 1992, the Saturday edition made its debut, expanding the program to seven days a week. The Sunday broadcast was originally 90 minutes in length, until the third half-hour being dropped with the expansion of Meet the Press to an hour-long broadcast in 1992; it now airs for one hour, while the Saturday broadcast airs for two hours.
The weekend broadcasts continue the Today format of covering breaking news, interviews with newsmakers, reports on a variety of popular-culture and human-interest stories, covering health and finance issues, and national weather reports. NBC feeds the Saturday edition from 7:00 a.m. – 9:00 a.m. (although it is often shortened to air the network's kids' block in full when there is an early start to sports) and the Sunday edition from 8:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. (both in the Eastern Time Zone), although many of the network's affiliates air local newscasts in those time slots and carry the network broadcast earlier or later in the morning; many NBC affiliates also bookend the Sunday edition with local morning newscasts that immediately precede and follow the program. NBC's New York City, Chicago, San Francisco and Los Angeles owned-and-operated stations air Weekend Today simultaneously (but not live) at 9:00 a.m Eastern, 8:00 a.m. Central and 6:00 a.m. Pacific Time.
Weekend editions are tailored to the priorities and interests of weekend viewers – offering special series such as "Saturday Today on the Plaza", featuring live performances by major music acts and Broadway theatrical productions outside the studio throughout the summer.
During NBC Olympic broadcasts, the weekday anchors and staff present the majority of the program on both Saturday and Sunday throughout the two weeks to maintain promotional momentum, with limited contributions from the weekend team from New York.
Early Today
The first brand extension of Today was created in 1982. The early morning news program Early Today was conceived as a lead-in for Today, featuring the same anchors as the main program at the time, Bryant Gumbel and Jane Pauley. The half-hour program was fed twice to allow affiliates to carry one or both broadcasts. NBC canceled the program after a year, and replaced it with NBC News at Sunrise, originally anchored by Connie Chung.
In April 1999, NBC canceled Sunrise for two brand extensions of Today. One was Early Today which was revived September 7, 1999; the revived program originally was produced by CNBC and focused on business and financial news before switching to general news under the same production staff as MSNBC First Look in 2004. Early Today continues to air on the network, airing live each weekday morning at 3:00 a.m. Eastern Time (with an updated telecast for viewers in the Pacific Time Zone), and on tape delay until 10:00 a.m. Eastern – corresponding with the start time of Today in the Pacific Time Zone – to allow for adjustment in airtimes for other time zones and for certain NBC stations without a local morning newscast to air Early Today in lieu of one.
3rd Hour Today 3rd Hour Today (sometimes called The 3rd), the current name for the third hour of Today, features anchors who appear in the first two hours of the program. After Megyn Kelly Today was cancelled on October 26, 2018, NBC announced that Today anchors would host the third hour. The new third hour premiered on October 29, 2018, with Hoda Kotb, Craig Melvin and Al Roker anchoring for the first 20 minutes from Studio 1A, reporting on the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, with Savannah Guthrie anchoring live from Pittsburgh. At the top of the program, Kotb said:
After 20 minutes, the program continued with Jenna Bush Hager from Studio 6A, the former home of Megyn Kelly Today, where broadcasts of the third hour would begin to be based. Since its debut, the third hour has used a modified nameless opening title sequence compared to the other editions of Today. Various other Today and NBC News personalities filled in until January, when it was announced that the official hosts would be Al Roker, Sheinelle Jones, Dylan Dreyer and Craig Melvin. On December 4, 2018, an NBC News spokesperson confirmed that the third hour would move to Studio 1A to streamline the production process and create a more seamless broadcast. The last day at Studio 6A was January 4, 2019, with new broadcasts in Studio 1A beginning on January 7.
Today with Hoda & Jenna
Today with Hoda & Jenna premiered on April 8, 2019, as the fourth hour of Today, succeeding Kathie Lee & Hoda. The program is hosted by Hoda Kotb and Jenna Bush Hager, and continues to follow a similar format as its predecessor as its own distinct entity.
Today All Day
On July 15, 2020, NBC launched a digital extension of Today known as Today All Day, which is a streaming video channel on the program's website and Peacock. It features blocks of soft news and lifestyle segments drawn from the program, as well as original content hosted by the program's personalities. NBC plans to eventually widen its distribution via third-party internet TV services in addition to its own.
Former
Later Today
On September 7, 1999, NBC launched Later Today, a talk show that was intended to air immediately following the then two-hour Today. Replacing Leeza (which would continue in first-run syndication for one more year) on the network's morning schedule, Later Today was hosted by Jodi Applegate, Florence Henderson and Asha Blake. The program was cancelled on August 11, 2000, due to lackluster ratings; it was replaced two months later by the third hour of Today, later known as Today's Take.
Today's TakeToday's Take (sometimes called The Take) was the third-hour segment of Today. This "show-within-a-show" had its own anchors (although featuring on-air staff that appears during the first two hours of the program), opening title sequence and theme music.
On October 2, 2000, NBC expanded Today to three hours, with the addition of an hour from 9:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. For its first twelve years, the format of the third hour was originally structured similarly to Todays first two hours, using the same anchors as that portion of the broadcast; separate anchors began to be used for the third hour over time, with only the news anchor (Ann Curry until 2011, then Natalie Morales) and the weather anchor (Al Roker) being shared with the main 7:00 a.m. – 9:00 a.m. block – this was particularly the case during instances where Matt Lauer or his co-host (Katie Couric, then Meredith Vieira from 2006 to 2011, Ann Curry from 2011 to 2012, and finally Savannah Guthrie during the final months of the original format) could not be present for the entire hour due to reporting assignments or personal commitments. Vieira, outside of breaking news situations, was specifically disallowed by contract from any duties in the third hour due to her hosting commitments to the syndicated version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire by Disney–ABC Domestic Television.
The network revamped the format of the third hour on November 12, 2012, and gave it the in-program title Today's Take. Roker was joined during the revamped third hour by Natalie Morales and Willie Geist (who had recently joined Today after ending his run as the original anchor of MSNBC's Way Too Early); MSNBC anchor and Today correspondent Tamron Hall was added as a co-host for that hour of the program on February 24, 2014, and Ellie Kemper joined the program on June 29, 2015, as a temporary co-host (until July 17, 2015).
With the change, traditional news segments at the beginning of the hour were abandoned in favor of a topical "host chat" format similar to the opening segment of the succeeding fourth hour of the program (with the only difference being that top general news events are discussed somewhat more often, in addition to featuring topical discussions on offbeat and pop culture-related stories and periodic clips from television programs aired the previous night and viral video). Instead, the news segment (titled News with Natalie, anchored by Morales, and alternately titled Today's News on days when Morales is off) is featured prior to the local update cutaways near the end of the first half-hour; national weather segments are also retained following the host chat segments in both half-hours. Beginning in May 2015, the News with Natalie/Today's News segment moved to 9:30 a.m. and the national weather segment to follow and the host chat at 9:30 a.m. was discontinued.
On August 22, 2016, both Morales and Geist left Today's Take and former Access Hollywood host Billy Bush officially joined the set. Bush was later suspended and eventually fired from the segment as well as the program following Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape during U.S. Republican and presidential candidate Donald Trump's campaign in October 2016.
On February 1, 2017, Hall left Today's Take. Weekend co-anchor Sheinelle Jones and weekend meteorologist Dylan Dreyer filled in as co-hosts alongside Roker until a new morning lineup began in the fall.Today's Take aired its final episode on September 22, 2017, and Megyn Kelly Today replaced it on September 25, 2017.
Megyn Kelly TodayMegyn Kelly Today premiered on September 25, 2017, as a replacement for Today's Take. It was hosted by former Fox News anchor Megyn Kelly, and was structured as a daytime talk show.
In the wake of stable but lower viewership in comparison to the timeslot's predecessor, a desire by Kelly to focus more on her overall role at NBC News, and in the wake of controversy over a recent segment discussing blackface, the show was officially cancelled on October 26, 2018. Kelly never again appeared on NBC and departed the network three months later.
Today with Kathie Lee and HodaToday with Kathie Lee and Hoda was the fourth-hour segment of Today hosted by Kathie Lee Gifford and Hoda Kotb, which aired from April 7, 2008 to April 5, 2019. It replaced the original fourth hour that debuted earlier that fall on September 10, 2007, originally hosted by Ann Curry, Natalie Morales, and Hoda Kotb. The program was its own distinct entity, with its own website and social media presence. The fourth hour does not have news or weather segments or input from the earlier hosts and is structured virtually as a standalone talk show, with an opening "host chat" segment reminiscent of the one popularized by Gifford and Regis Philbin on Live! with Regis and Kathie Lee (which aired on ABC between 1987 and 2000), as well as interviews and features focusing on entertainment, fashion and other topics aimed at female viewers.
On December 11, 2018, NBC and Gifford announced that she will be retiring from her position of anchoring the fourth hour in April 2019, her 11th anniversary since joining Today. Kotb continues co-anchoring the fourth hour. On February 26, 2019, NBC announced that Jenna Bush Hager, the daughter of former U.S. President George W. Bush would replace Gifford.
MusicToday host Dave Garroway selected Les Brown's "Sentimental Journey" as the program's original theme music, which was used during Garroway's entire run from 1952 to 1961. In 1962, when Hugh Downs became host, Django Reinhardt's "Melodie au Crepuscule" was chosen as the new theme; it was replaced in 1963 by "Misty", an instrumental ballad composed by Erroll Garner and performed by Bobby Hackett and John B. Seng.
"Misty" served as Todays theme until 1971, when NBC News correspondent Frank McGee joined the show. Composer Ray Ellis penned an instrumental theme entitled "This is Today", a jazzy, up-tempo piece that served as the program's main theme until 1978. Because This is Today closely resembled Stephen Schwartz's song "Day by Day" from the musical Godspell, Schwartz successfully sued for copyright infringement. "This is Today" was revised as a result, with the second version of the piece incorporating the familiar NBC chimes was used until 1981, at the close of the Tom Brokaw–Jane Pauley era. The chimes were also used throughout the program to introduce and conclude segments, usually in combination with the familiar Today sunburst logo.
By the time Bryant Gumbel was appointed co-anchor of the program in 1982, a new version of Ellis' "This is Today" theme was introduced, using a looser, more relaxed arrangement that continued to feature the NBC chimes in its melody. A shorter arrangement of "This is Today" was used for the show open (featuring a rotating globe and the Today sunburst) from 1983 to 1985. The main theme was used until 1985, and due to its popularity with viewers was resurrected as the show's secondary theme in January 1993. The 1982 theme later served as the program's official "anniversary" music, used to open and close retrospective segments in the leadup to Todays 60th anniversary in 2012.
1985 saw the end of the synthesizer era at NBC as composer John Williams wrote a series of themes for all NBC News programs, with a cut entitled "The Mission," serving as the principal theme for NBC Nightly News with Tom Brokaw. Williams also composed two themes for Today: an opening fanfare for the program that was derived from the opening of "The Mission," and a two-minute closing theme for the show entitled "Scherzo for Today", a dramatic arrangement that made heavy use of strings and flutes. In the late 1980s, "Scherzo" was played in its entirety multiple times daily during the weather scrolls that ran during local commercial breaks; however, most NBC affiliates preempted these segments with locally slotted advertising. The new Today themes – used in tandem with the show's new opening sequence featuring the Statue of Liberty and a new living room studio set – gave the program a distinctly modern look and sound beginning in September 1985. A series of Williams-penned bumpers featuring "The Mission" signature were also used to open and close segments. "Scherzo for Today" was used as the program's closing theme until 1990, and "The Mission" bumpers were used until 1993 (one of them could be heard as a station break lead-in on NBC's Meet The Press until 2004).
Meanwhile, Williams' opening fanfare had opened the program ever since its 1985 introduction, with two brief interruptions; new opening themes were briefly introduced and quickly discarded in the summer of 1994 (to mark the debut of Studio 1A) and in 2004. The fanfare was iconically accompanied by Fred Facey announcing "From NBC News, this is Today… with (anchor) and (anchor)" (with "Live from Studio 1A in Rockefeller Plaza" being added to the introduction on June 20, 1994, when the show moved to its new studio). Although Facey died in April 2003, his introduction of the Couric–Lauer team was used for the duration of Couric's era (except for special editions requiring special introductions). Weekend Today announcer Les Marshak became the new voice of the weekday program on September 13, 2006. A lighter theme employing the NBC chimes was used to open the show's 7:30 a.m. through 9:30 a.m. half-hour segments, and was also used as a closing theme.
In March 2013, "The Mission" was replaced with a theme composed by Adam Gubman for Non-Stop Music. Along with Non-Stop Music, Gubman's rebranding could be heard dating back to Todays coverage of the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton in April 2011. Gubman went on to write music for the network's 2012 election coverage, and continues to provide audio content for Today.
Ratings
From 1995 to 2012, Today generally beat ABC rival Good Morning America in the Nielsen ratings among all network morning programs. By the week of September 11, 2006, the program earned 6.320 million total viewers, 1.6 million more than the 4.73 million viewers earned by Good Morning America. This gap eventually decreased, as by the week of June 30, 2008, Today was watched by an average of 4.9 million viewers, compared to Good Morning Americas 3.8 million.
Furthermore, by the week of October 12, 2008, Todays total viewership had gone up to 4.910 million viewers, compared to second place Good Morning Americas total viewership of 4.25 million (and significantly above the 2.66 million viewers earned by CBS' The Early Show). For the week above, the third hour (referred as "Today II" by NBC exclusively for Nielsen ratings counts) drew 2.9 million viewers and the fourth hour (referred in Nielsen ratings as "Today III"), delivered 1.7 million.
For the week of January 4, 2009, the 8:00 a.m. hour of Today averaged 5.998 million viewers; the 9:00& a.m. hour, meanwhile, averaged 4.447 million total viewers and a 1.4 rating among adults aged 25–54, marking that hour's best ratings since the week of August 11, 2008. The 10:00 a.m. hour averaged 2.412 million total viewers and a .8 rating in the demographic, the highest total viewership for that portion of the program since the week of December 31, 2007.
For the week of April 11, 2011, the program passed its 800th consecutive week as the No. 1 rated network morning news program, with 5.662 million total viewers (ahead of Good Morning America by approximately 1.2 million viewers).
During the week of April 25, 2011, Today averaged 6.424 million viewers, marking its best weekly total viewership since August 11, 2008, during the 2008 Summer Olympics. This was largely buoyed by the April 29 coverage of the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, which earned 9.628 million viewers (beating Good Morning Americas coverage by more than 1.6 million viewers), and was also the best single day rating since November 8, 2000, the day after the 2000 presidential election.
International broadcasts
NBC News programs, including the live broadcast of Today, are shown daily on the 24-hour news network OSN News in MENA Region.
In Australia, NBC Today (the title used in that country to avoid confusion with the local Nine Network program Today) airs an edited 42-minute version of the first two hours from 4:00 a.m. Tuesday to Saturday on the Seven Network (rerun at 9:00 a.m. on sister network 7two). The Today's Take hour (which is abbreviated to the same runtime) only airs Saturdays on the primary channel and Tuesday to Saturday on 7two; while Seven broadcasts the Sunday edition at 5:00 a.m. on Mondays, following Meet The Press. The program was originally trimmed to 63 minutes, with the local news cutaway removed. However, a news ticker appears at the bottom of the screen, containing national headlines, as well as information on the next edition of Seven's morning program Sunrise. A national weather map of Australia is inserted during local affiliate cutaways during the weather segment. Today does not air on the primary regional affiliates Prime7 and GWN7, which instead air infomercial.
In the Philippines, Today aired on 9TV (formerly called as Talk TV and Solar News Channel) from 2011 to August 2014; an edited 90-minute version of the weekday editions aired Tuesdays through Saturdays at 5:30 a.m., with a two-hour abbreviated broadcast of the Friday editions airing at 10:00 a.m. local time on Saturdays. Weekend Today airs Saturdays for two hours at 10:00 p.m. and Sundays at 11:00 p.m. local time. The local affiliate cutaways during the weather segment were removed only from the weekday editions. Today with Kathie Lee and Hoda (titled Today's Talk for the TalkTV/SNC/9TV broadcasts) aired Tuesdays to Saturdays at 3:00 a.m. Both shows were removed from the schedule since then, particularly with the relaunch of 9TV as CNN Philippines. Starting November 2, 2020, The show returns to Philippine TV and airs live on TAP TV.
In the United Kingdom and Europe, Today originally aired on Sky News from 1989 to 1993, and on NBC Europe from 1993 to 1998. The show was initially aired live in the afternoon until 1995, when NBC Europe began airing it on a one-day delay the morning after the original U.S. broadcast.
In Indonesia, NBC Today is aired on NBC-US at 5:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. WIB (6:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m. WIB from March to November) with WNBC local weather exclusively for SVICLOUD TV Box. Aimed for U.S. expatriates in Indonesia.
See also
List of special editions of Today (American TV program), for editions of the program marking major news events or breaking news coverage
References
Notes
1.Walters was women's editor and contributor from 1961 through 1964. In 1964, her role was titled "Today Girl" and panelist. In 1966, she began regularly co-anchoring alongside Downs. In 1974, following the death of McGee, she was titled "co-host".
Citations
External links
Today music history page
1952 American television series debuts
1950s American television news shows
1960s American television series
1960s American television news shows
1970s American television series
1970s American television news shows
1980s American television news shows
1990s American television news shows
2000s American television news shows
2010s American television news shows
2020s American television news shows
Television morning shows in the United States
Black-and-white American television shows
English-language television shows
American live television series
NBC original programming
Sirius XM Radio channels
Television shows filmed in New York City | [
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226676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson%27s%20chi-squared%20test | Pearson's chi-squared test | Pearson's chi-squared test () is a statistical test applied to sets of categorical data to evaluate how likely it is that any observed difference between the sets arose by chance. It is the most widely used of many chi-squared tests (e.g., Yates, likelihood ratio, portmanteau test in time series, etc.) – statistical procedures whose results are evaluated by reference to the chi-squared distribution. Its properties were first investigated by Karl Pearson in 1900. In contexts where it is important to improve a distinction between the test statistic and its distribution, names similar to Pearson χ-squared test or statistic are used.
It tests a null hypothesis stating that the frequency distribution of certain events observed in a sample is consistent with a particular theoretical distribution. The events considered must be mutually exclusive and have total probability 1. A common case for this is where the events each cover an outcome of a categorical variable.
A simple example is the hypothesis that an ordinary six-sided is "fair" (i. e., all six outcomes are equally likely to occur.)
Definition
Pearson's chi-squared test is used to assess three types of comparison: goodness of fit, homogeneity, and independence.
A test of goodness of fit establishes whether an observed frequency distribution differs from a theoretical distribution.
A test of homogeneity compares the distribution of counts for two or more groups using the same categorical variable (e.g. choice of activity—college, military, employment, travel—of graduates of a high school reported a year after graduation, sorted by graduation year, to see if number of graduates choosing a given activity has changed from class to class, or from decade to decade).
A test of independence assesses whether observations consisting of measures on two variables, expressed in a contingency table, are independent of each other (e.g. polling responses from people of different nationalities to see if one's nationality is related to the response).
For all three tests, the computational procedure includes the following steps:
Calculate the chi-squared test statistic, , which resembles a normalized sum of squared deviations between observed and theoretical frequencies (see below).
Determine the degrees of freedom, df, of that statistic.
For a test of goodness-of-fit, , where Cats is the number of observation categories recognized by the model, and Parms is the number of parameters in the model adjusted to make the model best fit the observations: The number of categories reduced by the number of fitted parameters in the distribution.
For a test of homogeneity, , where Rows corresponds to the number of categories (i.e. rows in the associated contingency table), and Cols corresponds to the number of independent groups (i.e. columns in the associated contingency table).
For a test of independence, , where in this case, Rows corresponds to the number of categories in one variable, and Cols corresponds to the number of categories in the second variable.
Select a desired level of confidence (significance level, p-value or the corresponding alpha level) for the result of the test.
Compare to the critical value from the chi-squared distribution with df degrees of freedom and the selected confidence level (one-sided, since the test is only in one direction, i.e. is the test value greater than the critical value?), which in many cases gives a good approximation of the distribution of .
Sustain or reject the null hypothesis that the observed frequency distribution is the same as the theoretical distribution based on whether the test statistic exceeds the critical value of . If the test statistic exceeds the critical value of , the null hypothesis ( = there is no difference between the distributions) can be rejected, and the alternative hypothesis ( = there is a difference between the distributions) can be accepted, both with the selected level of confidence. If the test statistic falls below the threshold value, then no clear conclusion can be reached, and the null hypothesis is sustained (we fail to reject the null hypothesis), though not necessarily accepted.
Test for fit of a distribution
Discrete uniform distribution
In this case observations are divided among cells. A simple application is to test the hypothesis that, in the general population, values would occur in each cell with equal frequency. The "theoretical frequency" for any cell (under the null hypothesis of a discrete uniform distribution) is thus calculated as
and the reduction in the degrees of freedom is , notionally because the observed frequencies are constrained to sum to .
One specific example of its application would be its application for log-rank test.
Other distributions
When testing whether observations are random variables whose distribution belongs to a given family of distributions, the "theoretical frequencies" are calculated using a distribution from that family fitted in some standard way. The reduction in the degrees of freedom is calculated as , where is the number of parameters used in fitting the distribution. For instance, when checking a three-parameter Generalized gamma distribution, , and when checking a normal distribution (where the parameters are mean and standard deviation), , and when checking a Poisson distribution (where the parameter is the expected value), . Thus, there will be degrees of freedom, where is the number of categories.
The degrees of freedom are not based on the number of observations as with a Student's t or F-distribution. For example, if testing for a fair, six-sided , there would be five degrees of freedom because there are six categories or parameters (each number); the number of times the die is rolled does not influence the number of degrees of freedom.
Calculating the test-statistic
The value of the test-statistic is
where
= Pearson's cumulative test statistic, which asymptotically approaches a distribution.
= the number of observations of type i.
= total number of observations
= the expected (theoretical) count of type i, asserted by the null hypothesis that the fraction of type i in the population is
= the number of cells in the table.
The chi-squared statistic can then be used to calculate a p-value by comparing the value of the statistic to a chi-squared distribution. The number of degrees of freedom is equal to the number of cells , minus the reduction in degrees of freedom, .
The result about the numbers of degrees of freedom is valid when the original data are multinomial and hence the estimated parameters are efficient for minimizing the chi-squared statistic. More generally however, when maximum likelihood estimation does not coincide with minimum chi-squared estimation, the distribution will lie somewhere between a chi-squared distribution with and degrees of freedom (See for instance Chernoff and Lehmann, 1954).
Bayesian method
In Bayesian statistics, one would instead use a Dirichlet distribution as conjugate prior. If one took a uniform prior, then the maximum likelihood estimate for the population probability is the observed probability, and one may compute a credible region around this or another estimate.
Testing for statistical independence
In this case, an "observation" consists of the values of two outcomes and the null hypothesis is that the occurrence of these outcomes is statistically independent. Each observation is allocated to one cell of a two-dimensional array of cells (called a contingency table) according to the values of the two outcomes. If there are r rows and c columns in the table, the "theoretical frequency" for a cell, given the hypothesis of independence, is
where is the total sample size (the sum of all cells in the table), and
is the fraction of observations of type i ignoring the column attribute (fraction of row totals), and
is the fraction of observations of type j ignoring the row attribute (fraction of column totals). The term "frequencies" refers to absolute numbers rather than already normalized values.
The value of the test-statistic is
Note that is 0 if and only if , i.e. only if the expected and true number of observations are equal in all cells.
Fitting the model of "independence" reduces the number of degrees of freedom by p = r + c − 1. The number of degrees of freedom is equal to the number of cells rc, minus the reduction in degrees of freedom, p, which reduces to (r − 1)(c − 1).
For the test of independence, also known as the test of homogeneity, a chi-squared probability of less than or equal to 0.05 (or the chi-squared statistic being at or larger than the 0.05 critical point) is commonly interpreted by applied workers as justification for rejecting the null hypothesis that the row variable is independent of the column variable.
The alternative hypothesis corresponds to the variables having an association or relationship where the structure of this relationship is not specified.
Assumptions
The chi-squared test, when used with the standard approximation that a chi-squared distribution is applicable, has the following assumptions:
Simple random sample The sample data is a random sampling from a fixed distribution or population where every collection of members of the population of the given sample size has an equal probability of selection. Variants of the test have been developed for complex samples, such as where the data is weighted. Other forms can be used such as purposive sampling.
Sample size (whole table) A sample with a sufficiently large size is assumed. If a chi squared test is conducted on a sample with a smaller size, then the chi squared test will yield an inaccurate inference. The researcher, by using chi squared test on small samples, might end up committing a Type II error. For small sample sizes the Cash test is preferred.
Expected cell count Adequate expected cell counts. Some require 5 or more, and others require 10 or more. A common rule is 5 or more in all cells of a 2-by-2 table, and 5 or more in 80% of cells in larger tables, but no cells with zero expected count. When this assumption is not met, Yates's correction is applied.
Independence The observations are always assumed to be independent of each other. This means chi-squared cannot be used to test correlated data (like matched pairs or panel data). In those cases, McNemar's test may be more appropriate.
A test that relies on different assumptions is Fisher's exact test; if its assumption of fixed marginal distributions is met it is substantially more accurate in obtaining a significance level, especially with few observations. In the vast majority of applications this assumption will not be met, and Fisher's exact test will be over conservative and not have correct coverage.
Derivation
The null distribution of the Pearson statistic with j rows and k columns is approximated by the chi-squared distribution with
(k − 1)(j − 1) degrees of freedom.
This approximation arises as the true distribution, under the null hypothesis, if the expected value is given by a multinomial distribution. For large sample sizes, the central limit theorem says this distribution tends toward a certain multivariate normal distribution.
Two cells
In the special case where there are only two cells in the table, the expected values follow a binomial distribution,
where
p = probability, under the null hypothesis,
n = number of observations in the sample.
In the above example the hypothesised probability of a male observation is 0.5, with 100 samples. Thus we expect to observe 50 males.
If n is sufficiently large, the above binomial distribution may be approximated by a Gaussian (normal) distribution and thus the Pearson test statistic approximates a chi-squared distribution,
Let O1 be the number of observations from the sample that are in the first cell. The Pearson test statistic can be expressed as
which can in turn be expressed as
By the normal approximation to a binomial this is the squared of one standard normal variate, and hence is distributed as chi-squared with 1 degree of freedom. Note that the denominator is one standard deviation of the Gaussian approximation, so can be written
So as consistent with the meaning of the chi-squared distribution, we are measuring how probable the observed number of standard deviations away from the mean is under the Gaussian approximation (which is a good approximation for large n).
The chi-squared distribution is then integrated on the right of the statistic value to obtain the P-value, which is equal to the probability of getting a statistic equal or bigger than the observed one, assuming the null hypothesis.
Two-by-two contingency tables
When the test is applied to a contingency table containing two rows and two columns, the test is equivalent to a Z-test of proportions.
Many cells
Broadly similar arguments as above lead to the desired result, though the details are more involved. One may apply an orthogonal change of variables to turn the limiting summands in the test statistic into one fewer squares of i.i.d. standard normal random variables.
Let us now prove that the distribution indeed approaches asymptotically the distribution as the number of observations approaches infinity.
Let be the number of observations, the number of cells and the probability of an observation to fall in the i-th cell, for . We denote by the configuration where for each i there are observations in the i-th cell. Note that
Let be Pearson's cumulative test statistic for such a configuration, and let be the distribution of this statistic. We will show that the latter probability approaches the distribution with degrees of freedom, as
For any arbitrary value T:
We will use a procedure similar to the approximation in de Moivre–Laplace theorem. Contributions from small are of subleading order in and thus for large we may use Stirling's formula for both and to get the following:
By substituting for
we may approximate for large the sum over the by an integral over the . Noting that:
we arrive at
By expanding the logarithm and taking the leading terms in , we get
Pearson's chi, , is precisely the argument of the exponent (except for the -1/2; note that the final term in the exponent's argument is equal to ).
This argument can be written as:
is a regular symmetric matrix, and hence diagonalizable. It is therefore possible to make a linear change of variables in so as to get new variables so that:
This linear change of variables merely multiplies the integral by a constant Jacobian, so we get:
Where C is a constant.
This is the probability that squared sum of independent normally distributed variables of zero mean and unit variance will be greater than T, namely that with degrees of freedom is larger than T.
We have thus shown that at the limit where the distribution of Pearson's chi approaches the chi distribution with degrees of freedom.
Examples
Fairness of dice
A 6-sided die is thrown 60 times. The number of times it lands with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 face up is 5, 8, 9, 8, 10 and 20, respectively. Is the die biased, according to the Pearson's chi-squared test at a significance level of 95% and/or 99%?
n = 6 as there are 6 possible outcomes, 1 to 6. The null hypothesis is that the die is unbiased, hence each number is expected to occur the same number of times, in this case, = 10. The outcomes can be tabulated as follows:
The number of degrees of freedom is n − 1 = 5. The Upper-tail critical values of chi-square distribution table gives a critical value of 11.070 at 95% significance level:
As the chi-squared statistic of 13.4 exceeds this critical value, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the die is biased at 95% significance level.
At 99% significance level, the critical value is 15.086. As the chi-squared statistic does not exceed it, we fail to reject the null hypothesis and thus conclude that there is insufficient evidence to show that the die is biased at 99% significance level.
Goodness of fit
In this context, the frequencies of both theoretical and empirical distributions are unnormalised counts, and for a chi-squared test the total sample sizes of both these distributions (sums of all cells of the corresponding contingency tables) have to be the same.
For example, to test the hypothesis that a random sample of 100 people has been drawn from a population in which men and women are equal in frequency, the observed number of men and women would be compared to the theoretical frequencies of 50 men and 50 women. If there were 44 men in the sample and 56 women, then
If the null hypothesis is true (i.e., men and women are chosen with equal probability), the test statistic will be drawn from a chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom (because if the male frequency is known, then the female frequency is determined).
Consultation of the chi-squared distribution for 1 degree of freedom shows that the probability of observing this difference (or a more extreme difference than this) if men and women are equally numerous in the population is approximately 0.23. This probability is higher than conventional criteria for statistical significance (0.01 or 0.05), so normally we would not reject the null hypothesis that the number of men in the population is the same as the number of women (i.e., we would consider our sample within the range of what we would expect for a 50/50 male/female ratio.)
Problems
The approximation to the chi-squared distribution breaks down if expected frequencies are too low. It will normally be acceptable so long as no more than 20% of the events have expected frequencies below 5. Where there is only 1 degree of freedom, the approximation is not reliable if expected frequencies are below 10. In this case, a better approximation can be obtained by reducing the absolute value of each difference between observed and expected frequencies by 0.5 before squaring; this is called Yates's correction for continuity.
In cases where the expected value, E, is found to be small (indicating a small underlying population probability, and/or a small number of observations), the normal approximation of the multinomial distribution can fail, and in such cases it is found to be more appropriate to use the G-test, a likelihood ratio-based test statistic. When the total sample size is small, it is necessary to use an appropriate exact test, typically either the binomial test or, for contingency tables, Fisher's exact test. This test uses the conditional distribution of the test statistic given the marginal totals, and thus assumes that the margins were determined before the study; alternatives such as Boschloo's test which do not make this assumption are uniformly more powerful.
It can be shown that the test is a low order approximation of the test. The above reasons for the above issues become apparent when the higher order terms are investigated.
See also
Chi-squared nomogram
Cramér's V – a measure of correlation for the chi-squared test
Degrees of freedom (statistics)
Deviance (statistics), another measure of the quality of fit
Fisher's exact test
G-test, test to which chi-squared test is an approximation
Lexis ratio, earlier statistic, replaced by chi-squared
Mann–Whitney U test
Median test
Minimum chi-square estimation
Notes
References
Statistical tests for contingency tables
Normality tests
Statistical approximations | [
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226678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic%20languages | Pontic languages | Pontic is a proposed language family or macrofamily, comprising the Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian language families, with Proto-Pontic being its reconstructed proto-language.
History of the proposal
The internal reconstruction of the Indo-European proto-language done by Émile Benveniste and Winfred P. Lehmann has set Proto-Indo-European (PIE) typologically quite apart from its daughters. In 1960, Aert Kuipers noticed the parallels between a Northwest Caucasian language, Kabardian, and PIE. It was Paul Friedrich in 1964, however, who first suggested that PIE might be phylogenetically related to Proto-Caucasian.
In 1981, John Colarusso examined typological parallels involving consonantism, focusing on the so-called laryngeals of PIE and in 1989, he published his reconstruction of Proto-Northwest Caucasian (PNWC). Eight years later, the first results of his comparative work on PNWC and PIE were published in his article Proto-Pontic: Phyletic Links Between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Northwest Caucasian, an event which may be considered the actual beginning of the hypothesis.
Evidence
Examples of similarities that have been noted include:
Nasal negating particles in both families:
PIE *n-: Germanic un-, Romance in-, Russian ne-.
NWC: Ubykh m-, Abkhaz m-.
A case variously named "accusative", "oblique" or "objective", marked with nasal suffixes:
PIE accusative *-m, reflected e.g. in Latin luna 'moon' (nom.) vs lunam (acc.), or Ancient Greek ἄνθρωπος (anthropos, nom.) vs. ἄνθρωπον (anthropon, acc.).
NWC: Ubykh kwæy 'well (water source)' (abs.) vs kwæyn (obl.).
References
Proposed language families
Indo-European linguistics
Pre-Indo-Europeans
Indo-European languages | [
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226680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi-squared%20test | Chi-squared test | A chi-squared test (also chi-square or test) is a statistical hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test statistic is chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof. Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more categories of a contingency table.
In the standard applications of this test, the observations are classified into mutually exclusive classes. If the null hypothesis that there are no differences between the classes in the population is true, the test statistic computed from the observations follows a frequency distribution. The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the observed frequencies would be assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Test statistics that follow a distribution occur when the observations are independent. There are also tests for testing the null hypothesis of independence of a pair of random variables based on observations of the pairs.
Chi-squared tests often refers to tests for which the distribution of the test statistic approaches the distribution asymptotically, meaning that the sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test statistic approximates a chi-squared distribution more and more closely as sample sizes increase.
History
In the 19th century, statistical analytical methods were mainly applied in biological data analysis and it was customary for researchers to assume that observations followed a normal distribution, such as Sir George Airy and Mansfield Merriman, whose works were criticized by Karl Pearson in his 1900 paper.
At the end of the 19th century, Pearson noticed the existence of significant skewness within some biological observations. In order to model the observations regardless of being normal or skewed, Pearson, in a series of articles published from 1893 to 1916, devised the Pearson distribution, a family of continuous probability distributions, which includes the normal distribution and many skewed distributions, and proposed a method of statistical analysis consisting of using the Pearson distribution to model the observation and performing a test of goodness of fit to determine how well the model really fits to the observations.
Pearson's chi-squared test
In 1900, Pearson published a paper on the test which is considered to be one of the foundations of modern statistics. In this paper, Pearson investigated a test of goodness of fit.
Suppose that observations in a random sample from a population are classified into mutually exclusive classes with respective observed numbers (for ), and a null hypothesis gives the probability that an observation falls into the th class. So we have the expected numbers for all , where
Pearson proposed that, under the circumstance of the null hypothesis being correct, as the limiting distribution of the quantity given below is the distribution.
Pearson dealt first with the case in which the expected numbers are large enough known numbers in all cells assuming every may be taken as normally distributed, and reached the result that, in the limit as becomes large, follows the distribution with degrees of freedom.
However, Pearson next considered the case in which the expected numbers depended on the parameters that had to be estimated from the sample, and suggested that, with the notation of being the true expected numbers and being the estimated expected numbers, the difference
will usually be positive and small enough to be omitted. In a conclusion, Pearson argued that if we regarded as also distributed as distribution with degrees of freedom, the error in this approximation would not affect practical decisions. This conclusion caused some controversy in practical applications and was not settled for 20 years until Fisher's 1922 and 1924 papers.
Other examples of chi-squared tests
One test statistic that follows a chi-squared distribution exactly is the test that the variance of a normally distributed population has a given value based on a sample variance. Such tests are uncommon in practice because the true variance of the population is usually unknown. However, there are several statistical tests where the chi-squared distribution is approximately valid:
Fisher's exact test
For an exact test used in place of the 2 × 2 chi-squared test for independence, see Fisher's exact test.
Binomial test
For an exact test used in place of the 2 × 1 chi-squared test for goodness of fit, see Binomial test.
Other chi-squared tests
Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel chi-squared test.
McNemar's test, used in certain tables with pairing
Tukey's test of additivity
The portmanteau test in time-series analysis, testing for the presence of autocorrelation
Likelihood-ratio tests in general statistical modelling, for testing whether there is evidence of the need to move from a simple model to a more complicated one (where the simple model is nested within the complicated one).
Yates's correction for continuity
Using the chi-squared distribution to interpret Pearson's chi-squared statistic requires one to assume that the discrete probability of observed binomial frequencies in the table can be approximated by the continuous chi-squared distribution. This assumption is not quite correct and introduces some error.
To reduce the error in approximation, Frank Yates suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for Pearson's chi-squared test by subtracting 0.5 from the absolute difference between each observed value and its expected value in a contingency table. This reduces the chi-squared value obtained and thus increases its p-value.
Chi-squared test for variance in a normal population
If a sample of size is taken from a population having a normal distribution, then there is a result (see distribution of the sample variance) which allows a test to be made of whether the variance of the population has a pre-determined value. For example, a manufacturing process might have been in stable condition for a long period, allowing a value for the variance to be determined essentially without error. Suppose that a variant of the process is being tested, giving rise to a small sample of product items whose variation is to be tested. The test statistic in this instance could be set to be the sum of squares about the sample mean, divided by the nominal value for the variance (i.e. the value to be tested as holding). Then has a chi-squared distribution with degrees of freedom. For example, if the sample size is 21, the acceptance region for with a significance level of 5% is between 9.59 and 34.17.
Example chi-squared test for categorical data
Suppose there is a city of 1,000,000 residents with four neighborhoods: , , , and . A random sample of 650 residents of the city is taken and their occupation is recorded as "white collar", "blue collar", or "no collar". The null hypothesis is that each person's neighborhood of residence is independent of the person's occupational classification. The data are tabulated as:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;"
|-
! !! !! !! !! !! Total
|-
|style="text-align: left;"| White collar || 90 || 60 || 104 || 95 || 349
|-
|style="text-align: left;"| Blue collar || 30 || 50 || 51 || 20 || 151
|-
|style="text-align: left;"| No collar || 30 || 40 || 45 || 35 || 150
|-
!style="text-align: left;"| Total || 150 || 150 || 200 || 150 || 650
|}
Let us take the sample living in neighborhood , 150, to estimate what proportion of the whole 1,000,000 live in neighborhood . Similarly we take to estimate what proportion of the 1,000,000 are white-collar workers. By the assumption of independence under the hypothesis we should "expect" the number of white-collar workers in neighborhood to be
Then in that "cell" of the table, we have
The sum of these quantities over all of the cells is the test statistic; in this case, . Under the null hypothesis, this sum has approximately a chi-squared distribution whose number of degrees of freedom is
If the test statistic is improbably large according to that chi-squared distribution, then one rejects the null hypothesis of independence.
A related issue is a test of homogeneity. Suppose that instead of giving every resident of each of the four neighborhoods an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, we decide in advance how many residents of each neighborhood to include. Then each resident has the same chance of being chosen as do all residents of the same neighborhood, but residents of different neighborhoods would have different probabilities of being chosen if the four sample sizes are not proportional to the populations of the four neighborhoods. In such a case, we would be testing "homogeneity" rather than "independence". The question is whether the proportions of blue-collar, white-collar, and no-collar workers in the four neighborhoods are the same. However, the test is done in the same way.
Applications
In cryptanalysis, the chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of plaintext and (possibly) decrypted ciphertext. The lowest value of the test means that the decryption was successful with high probability. This method can be generalized for solving modern cryptographic problems.
In bioinformatics, the chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of certain properties of genes (e.g., genomic content, mutation rate, interaction network clustering, etc.) belonging to different categories (e.g., disease genes, essential genes, genes on a certain chromosome etc.).
See also
Chi-squared test nomogram
G-test
Minimum chi-square estimation
Nonparametric statistics
Wald test
Wilson score interval
References
Further reading
Statistical tests for contingency tables
Nonparametric statistics | [
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226682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties%20of%20War | Casualties of War | Casualties of War is a 1989 American war drama film directed by Brian De Palma and written by David Rabe, based primarily on an article written by Daniel Lang for The New Yorker in 1969, which was later published as a book. The film stars Michael J. Fox and Sean Penn, and is based on the events of the 1966 incident on Hill 192 during the Vietnam War, in which a Vietnamese woman was kidnapped from her village by a squad of American soldiers, who raped and murdered her. For the film, all names and some details of the true story were altered.
Plot
The story is presented as a flashback of Max Eriksson, a Vietnam veteran.
Lieutenant Reilly leads his platoon of American soldiers on a nighttime patrol. They are attacked by the Viet Cong (VC) after a panicked soldier exposes their position. While guarding the platoon's flank, Eriksson falls as the top of a VC tunnel gives way beneath him. Eriksson's squad leader, Sergeant Tony Meserve, pulls Eriksson out of the hole and eventually, the platoon retreats out of the jungle.
The platoon takes a break outside a river village in the Central Highlands. While relaxing and joking around, one of Meserve's friends, Specialist 4 "Brownie" Brown, is killed when the Viet Cong ambushes them. Brownie's death has a major impact on Meserve. The platoon is sent back to their base. Private First Class Antonio Dìaz arrives as the replacement radio operator.
Frustrated because his squad has been denied leave for an extended period, Meserve orders the squad to kidnap a Vietnamese girl. Eriksson strenuously objects, but Meserve, Corporal Thomas E. Clark and Private First Class Herbert Hatcher ignore him. Before the quintet disembarks, Eriksson voices his concerns to his closest friend, Rowan. At nightfall, the squad enters a village and kidnaps a Vietnamese girl, Tran Thi Oanh.
As the squad treks through the mountains, Dìaz begins to reconsider raping Tran and begs Eriksson to back him up. The squad and Tran eventually take refuge in an abandoned hooch, where Eriksson is confronted and threatened by Meserve, Clark, and Hatcher. Dìaz suddenly gives in to the pressure, leaving Eriksson alone in opposing the act. Meserve forces Eriksson to stand guard outside while the other men sequentially rape Tran.
At daybreak, Eriksson is ordered to guard Tran while the rest of the squad takes up a position near a railroad bridge overlooking a Viet Cong river supply depot. Through his acts of kindness, Eriksson manages to earn Tran's trust and prepares to go AWOL and return Tran to her family. However, Meserve sends Clark to get Eriksson and Tran to go to the bridge before Eriksson can carry out his plan.
Meserve has Dìaz order close air support for an assault on the depot and then orders Dìaz to kill Tran with a knife. Before Dìaz can kill her, Eriksson fires his rifle into the air, exposing them to the nearby Viet Cong. Amidst the firefight, Tran tries to escape. Eriksson tries to save her but Meserve stops him and knocks him down with the butt of his gun. Eriksson watches helplessly as the entire squad shoots Tran numerous times until she falls off the bridge to her death.
After the battle, Eriksson wakes up in a field hospital at the base. He eventually bumps into Rowan and tells him everything that happened. Rowan suggests that Eriksson see Reilly and company commander Captain Hill. Reilly and Hill both prefer to bury the matter but Hill, infuriated at Eriksson's determination to press the issue, resolves to get rid of Eriksson and orders him transferred to a tunnel rat unit. The other men in Meserve's squad will all be reassigned as well.
After narrowly escaping an attempt to kill him in the latrine with a grenade (made by Clark), Eriksson storms into a tent and smacks Clark in the face with a shovel, reminding Meserve that killing him is unnecessary because no one cares about what they did. Meserve shakily attempts a joke, and Eriksson leaves.
Eriksson then meets an Army chaplain at a bar and describes what happened during the patrol. The chaplain in turn reports it, launching an investigation. The four men who participated in the rape and murder are court martialed: Meserve receives 10 years hard labor and a dishonorable discharge, Clark receives life in prison, and Hatcher and Diaz receive 15 and 8 years of hard labor, respectively.
At the end of the film, Eriksson wakens from a nightmare to find himself on a J-Church transit line in San Francisco, just a few seats from a Vietnamese-American student who resembles Tran. She disembarks at Dolores Park and forgets her scarf, prompting Eriksson to run after her to return it. As she thanks him and turns away, he calls after her in Vietnamese. She surmises that she reminds him of someone, and adds that he has had a bad dream. They go their separate ways, and Eriksson is somewhat comforted.
Cast
The film continued the pseudonyms Lang used in his article, even though the soldiers' real names had since become public. Only the victim Tran Thi Oahn was referred to by her real name.
Michael J. Fox as Private First Class Max Eriksson (based on Robert M. Storeby)
Sean Penn as Sergeant Tony Meserve (based on David Edward Gervase)
Don Patrick Harvey as Corporal Thomas E. Clark
John C. Reilly as Private First Class Herbert Hatcher
John Leguizamo as Private First Class Antonio Dìaz
Thuy Thu Le as Tran Thi Oanh / Asian Student On The Train
Erik King as Specialist 4 'Brownie' Brown
Jack Gwaltney as Rowan
Ving Rhames as Lieutenant Reilly
Dale Dye as Captain Hill
Holt McCallany as Lieutenant Kramer
Dan Martin as Sergeant Hawthorne
Wendell Pierce as MacIntire
Sam Robards as Chaplain Captain Kirk
Steve Larson as Agent
Vyto Ruginis as Prosecutor
Maris Valainis as Streibig
Darren E. Burrows as 'Cherry'
Sherman Howard as Court Martial President
John Marshall Jones as Military Policeman
Amy Irving as Voice of Girl On The Train (uncredited)
Production
Development
The film was based on the real-life incident on Hill 192, and on Daniel Lang's lengthy New Yorker article, "Casualties of War," published in October 1969 and released as a book, with the same title, a month later. Film rights were bought by David Susskind who was to produce the film for Warner Bros. Pete Hamill wrote a script and Jack Clayton was to direct. However the film was not made. In the meantime, Michael Verhoeven made his film based on the incident, titled o.k.. Verhoeven's film was entered to the Berlin Film Festival in 1970, causing so much controversy among the judges, that the festival was shut down for that year with no awards given. De Palma was at that festival with his film Dionysus in '69.
In the late 1970s Susskind announced he would make the film for ABC. This did not happen.
In 1979 David Rabe mentioned the project to Brian De Palma, who was interested but was unable to raise the money to finance it. Some years later Rabe had written a script, and De Palma attached Michael J. Fox and Sean Penn as actors. They almost succeeded in getting the film financed at Paramount Pictures, but ultimately decided not to proceed when the budget went from $17 million to $20 million. De Palma then went on to make The Untouchables which was a big hit; Dawn Steel had liked the project at Paramount, and when she became head of production at Columbia Pictures, Casualties of War was the first film she green-lit.
"Historically Vietnam War movies have been very profitable," said Steel. "All of them. Platoon, Full Metal Jacket, Apocalypse Now, The Deer Hunter. You're looking at movies that have never been not pretty successful, but very successful. The foreign numbers have been extraordinary."
Shooting
The film was shot in April–May 1988, mostly on location in Thailand, with some filming in San Francisco. The bridge location was filmed in Kanchanaburi, Thailand, which was the same as the famous Bridge on the River Kwai.
This film was Fox's third major dramatic role. He had previously starred in Light of Day and Bright Lights, Big City. John C. Reilly and John Leguizamo make their screen debuts in the film, with the former working with Penn again in We're No Angels and State of Grace. Leguizamo would again star with Penn in another picture by De Palma, 1993's Carlito's Way.
"Let's be honest," said Fox at the time. "If this movie makes a buck and a half it's going to be things like Bikini's Away for me. But to fail doing something unexpected is no disgrace. To fail doing the ordinary is a disaster. This movie is about how much you will risk if you have nothing to gain."
Release
Casualties of War opened in 1,487 theatres, and ranked number 4 in box office for the first week of its release. It went on to gross $18.7 million.
The theatrical cut of the film was released on DVD in 2001. This version has the original 113 minute running time.
An extended cut of the film was released on DVD in 2006, that contains two scenes cut from the original release. One has Eriksson being interrogated by the two investigators, and the other is the defense attorney (played by uncredited Gregg Henry) trying to discredit Eriksson during the trial. This extended version has a running time of 119 minutes.
Reception
Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four and wrote, "More than most films, it depends on the strength of its performances for its effect – and especially on Penn's performance. If he is not able to convince us of his power, his rage and his contempt for the life of the girl, the movie would not work. He does, in a performance of overwhelming, brutal power." Vincent Canby of The New York Times stated, "'Casualties of War' moves toward its climax so inevitably and surely that the courts-martial, which are the film's penultimate sequence, are no less riveting for the theatrical way in which they have been compressed." He also called Penn's performance "extremely fine" and wrote of Fox that he "remains firmly in character" in a "difficult" role. Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote, "A powerful metaphor of the national shame that was America's orgy of destruction in Vietnam, Brian DePalma's film is flawed by some punch-pulling but is sure to rouse strong audience interest, even if the Columbia release will be a bitter pill for many." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three stars out of four and called it "a major effort in a minor key because of the limitations of the simple story." Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Casualties of War is DePalma's 19th movie and easily his best. His detractors saw his Hitchcock-pastiche thrillers as manipulative and sadistic, but here he's not dealing with stylish slashers or bloody set-pieces. He doesn't have to reach for a shock. He's dredging up a deeper horror: the hell that lies beneath every man's skin, waiting to erupt." Hal Hinson of The Washington Post praised it as "a film of great emotional power" and "one of the most punishing, morally complex movies about men at war ever made."
Valerie Wieskamp cites the film as an example of the whitewashing of U.S. military war crimes in popular culture. She highlights how the few changes made to the real story serve to support a narrative of the military as a flawed, but ultimately just and heroic institution. Among the details she highlights is its failure to mention that the sentences imposed at trial were later severely cut down, with the last of the perpetrators being freed after only four years. While Eriksson/Storeby is the hero whose bravery is suggested to represent U.S. national and military identity, even the rapists and murderers on his squad are granted an imaginary backstory of a recently fallen squadmate to "explain" their acts.
De Palma invited Steven Spielberg to a private screening of the film, and after the screening ended, Spielberg said to Columbia Pictures executive Dawn Steel, "You'll be thinking about this for a week." David Rabe disassociated himself from the film, saying that De Palma had not been faithful to his script. It was also criticized by Vietnam veterans' groups. Quentin Tarantino has hailed the film as "the greatest film about the Vietnam War." The film holds an 83% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Casualties of War takes a harrowing plunge into the Vietnam War with a well-acted ensemble piece that ranks among director Brian De Palma's more mature efforts." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Awards
Wins
Political Film Society: PFS Award; Peace; 1990.
Nominations
Golden Globes: Golden Globe; Best Original Score - Motion Picture Ennio Morricone; 1990.
Motion Picture Sound Editors: Golden Reel Award; Best Sound Editing - Sound Effects; Maurice Schell; 1990.
See also
o.k., a 1970 film also depicting the Incident on Hill 192
The Visitors, a 1972 film also depicting the Incident on Hill 192
Redacted, a 2007 film also directed by Brian DePalma depicting similar war crimes carried out by U.S. soldiers in Iraq
References
External links
1980s crime drama films
1980s legal films
1980s war drama films
1989 films
American films
American legal drama films
American war drama films
American crime drama films
Anti-war films about the Vietnam War
Columbia Pictures films
Crime films based on actual events
Drama films based on actual events
English-language films
Films scored by Ennio Morricone
Films about kidnapping
Films about murderers
Films about war crimes trials
Films directed by Brian De Palma
Films produced by Art Linson
Films set in San Francisco
Films set in the 1960s
Films shot in Thailand
Gang rape in fiction
Military courtroom films
Films about rape
War films based on actual events
Wartime sexual violence
Films about the United States Army
1989 drama films | [
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226686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.%20M.%20Trevelyan | G. M. Trevelyan | George Macaulay Trevelyan (16 February 1876 – 21 July 1962) was a British historian and academic. He was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1898 to 1903. He then spent more than twenty years as a full-time author. He returned to the University of Cambridge and was Regius Professor of History from 1927 to 1943. He served as Master of Trinity College from 1940 to 1951. In retirement, he was Chancellor of Durham University.
Trevelyan was the third son of Sir George Otto Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet, and great-nephew of Thomas Babington Macaulay, whose staunch liberal Whig principles he espoused in accessible works of literate narrative avoiding a consciously dispassionate analysis, that became old-fashioned during his long and productive career. The noted historian E. H. Carr considered Trevelyan to be one of the last historians of the Whig tradition.
Many of his writings promoted the Whig Party, an important aspect of British politics from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, and its successor, the Liberal Party. Whigs and Liberals believed the common people had a more positive effect on history than did royalty and that democratic government would bring about steady social progress.
Trevelyan's history is engaged and partisan. Of his Garibaldi trilogy, "reeking with bias", he remarked in his essay "Bias in History", "Without bias, I should never have written them at all. For I was moved to write them by a poetical sympathy with the passions of the Italian patriots of the period, which I retrospectively shared."
Early life
Trevelyan was born into late Victorian Britain in Welcombe House, Stratford-on-Avon, the large house and estate owned by his maternal grandfather, Robert Needham Philips, a wealthy Lancashire merchant and the Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Bury. Today Welcombe is a hotel and spa for tourists visiting Shakespeare's birthplace. On his paternal side, he was the son of Sir George Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet, who had served as Secretary for Scotland, under Liberal Prime Ministers William Gladstone, and the Earl of Rosebery, and the grandson of Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet, who had served as a civil servant and had faced considerable criticism for his and the British government's handling of the Great Famine of Ireland.
Trevelyan's parents used Welcombe as a winter resort after they inherited it in 1890. They looked upon Wallington Hall, the Trevelyan family estate in Northumberland, as their real home. George traced his father's steps to Harrow School and then Trinity College, Cambridge. After attending Wixenford and Harrow, where he specialised in history, Trevelyan studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a member of the secret society, the Cambridge Apostles and founder of the still existing Lake Hunt, a hare and hounds chase where both hounds and hares are human. In 1898, he won a fellowship at Trinity with a dissertation that was published the following year as England in the Age of Wycliffe. One professor at the university, Lord Acton, enchanted the young Trevelyan with his great wisdom and his belief in moral judgement and individual liberty.
Garibaldi
Trevelyan made his own reputation by depicting Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi as a great hero who stood for British ideals of liberty. According to David Cannadine:
[Trevelyan's] great work was his Garibaldi trilogy (1907–11), which established his reputation as the outstanding literary historian of his generation. It depicted Garibaldi as a Carlylean hero—poet, patriot, and man of action—whose inspired leadership created the Italian nation. For Trevelyan, Garibaldi was the champion of freedom, progress, and tolerance, who vanquished the despotism, reaction, and obscurantism of the Austrian empire and the Neapolitan monarchy. The books were also notable for their vivid evocation of landscape (Trevelyan had himself followed the course of Garibaldi's marches), for their innovative use of documentary and oral sources, and for their spirited accounts of battles and military campaigns.
Historian Lucy Voakes argues that his Garibaldi project was part of a larger movement among English intellectuals to consolidate, celebrate and sometimes to critique liberal culture and politics. She sees Trevelyan's conception of the hero, and his study of the Italian Risorgimento emerging from his promotion of a distinctly 'English' patriotism based upon Whig gradualism, parliamentary monarchy and a hierarchical anti-republicanism.
Role in education
Trevelyan lectured at Cambridge until 1903 at which point he left academic life to become a full-time writer. In 1927 he returned to the University to take up a position as Regius Professor of Modern History, where the single student whose doctorate he agreed to supervise was J. H. Plumb (1936). During his Professorship he was also familiar with Guy Burgess – he gave a positive reference for Burgess when he applied for a post at the BBC in 1935, describing him as a "first rate man", but also stating that "He has passed through the communist measles that so many of our clever young men go through, and is well out of it". In 1940 he was appointed as Master of Trinity College and served in the post until 1951 when he retired.
Trevelyan declined the presidency of the British Academy but served as chancellor of Durham University from 1950 to 1958. Trevelyan College at Durham University is named after him. He won the 1920 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for the biography Lord Grey of the Reform Bill, was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1925, made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1950, and was an honorary doctor of many universities including Cambridge.
Place in British ideas
Shocked by the horrors of the Great War he saw as an ambulance driver just behind the front lines, Trevelyan became more appreciative of conservatism as a positive force, and less insistent that progress was inevitable. In History of England (1926), he searched for the deepest meaning of English history. Cannadine says he reported they were "the nation's evolution and identity: parliamentary government, the rule of law, religious toleration, freedom from continental interference or involvement, and a global horizon of maritime supremacy and imperial expansion".
Cannadine concluded in G.M. Trevelyan: A Life in History (1992):
During the first half of the twentieth century Trevelyan was the most famous, the most honored, the most influential and the most widely read historian of his generation. He was a scion of the greatest historical dynasty that (Britain) has ever produced. He knew and corresponded with many of the greatest figures of his time... For fifty years, Trevelyan acted as a public moralist, public teacher and public benefactor, wielding unchallenged cultural authority among the governing and the educated classes of his day.
Once called "probably the most widely read historian in the world; perhaps in the history of the world." Trevelyan saw how two world wars shook the belief in progress. Historiography has changed and the belief in progress has declined. Historian Roy Jenkins argues:
On the other hand, historian J. H. Plumb argues:
Other activities
During World War I he commanded a British Red Cross ambulance unit on the Italian front; his defective eyesight meant he was unfit for military service. On december 24th, 1915, he was personally decorated from king Victor Emmanuel III of Italy with the Silver Medal of Military Valor for having bravely cleared out a military hospital made target of Austro-Hungarian fire.
In 1919 he delivered the British Academy's Italian Lecture.
Trevelyan was the first president of the Youth Hostels Association and the YHA headquarters are called Trevelyan House in his honour. He worked tirelessly through his career on behalf of the National Trust, in preserving not merely historic houses, but historic landscapes.
Trevelyan's works
G.M. Trevelyan was a prolific author:
England in the Age of Wycliffe, 1368–1520 (1899). His first book, based on his PhD thesis. The title of this work is somewhat misleading, since it concentrates on the political, social and religious conditions of England during the later years of Wycliffe's life only. Six of the nine chapters are devoted to the years 1377–1385, while the last two treat the history of the Lollards from 1382 until the Reformation. The work is critical of Roman Catholicism in favor of Wycliffe.
England Under the Stuarts (1904). Covers 1603 to 1714.
The Poetry and Philosophy of George Meredith (1906).
Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic (1907). This volume marks the entry of a new foreign historian in the field of Italian Risorgimento, a period much neglected, or, unworthily treated, outside of Italy.
Garibaldi and the Thousand (1909).
Garibaldi and the Making of Italy (1911).
The Life of John Bright (1913).
Clio, A Muse and Other Essays (1913).
Scenes From Italy's War (1919).
The Recreations of an Historian (1919).
Lord Grey of the Reform Bill (1920).
British History in the Nineteenth Century, 1782–1901 (1922).
Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848 (1923).
History of England (1926; 3rd edition, 1945).
Select Documents for Queen Anne's Reign, Down to the Union with Scotland 1702-7 (ed., 1929)
England Under Queen Anne (3 vols.) (1930–4) His magnum opus in 3 volumes: "Blenheim" (1930), "Ramillies and the Union with Scotland" (1932), "Peace and the Protestant Succession" (1934).
Sir George Otto Trevelyan: A Memoir (1932).
Grey of Fallodon (1937).
The English Revolution, 1688–1689 (1938). Portrays James II as a tyrant whose excesses led directly to the Glorious Revolution, becoming a standard work.
A Shortened History of England (1942).
English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries: Chaucer to Queen Victoria (1942 US and Canada, 1944 UK). . Published during the darkest days of World War Two, it painted a nostalgic picture of England's glorious past as the beacon of liberty and progress, stirring patriotic feelings and becoming his best selling book, also his last major history book.
Trinity College: An Historical Sketch (1943).
History and the Reader (1945).
An Autobiography and Other Essays (1949).
Carlyle: An Anthology (1953).
A Layman's Love of Letters (1954).
See also
Historiography of the United Kingdom
Liberalism in the United Kingdom
References
Further reading
Adams, Edward. Liberal Epic: The Victorian Practice of History from Gibbon to Churchill (U of Virginia Press, 2011).
Cannadine, David. G. M. Trevelyan: A Life in History, 1998.
Cannadine, David. GM Trevelyan: a historian in tune with his time, and ours (21 July 2012)
Hernon, Joseph M. "The Last Whig Historian and Consensus History: George Macaulay Trevelyan, 1876-1962." American Historical Review 81.1 (1976): 66–97. online
Rowse, A. L. Historians I Have Known. London: Duckworth, 1995, 1–11.
Voakes, Lucy Turner. "The Risorgimento and English literary history, 1867–1911: the liberal heroism of Trevelyan's Garibaldi." Modern Italy 15.4 (2010): 433–450. online
Winkler, Henry R. "George Macaulay Trevelyan" in E. William Helperin, ed., Some 20th-Century Historians (1961) pp 31–56.
External links
Mitchell McNaylor, "G.M. Trevelyan"
The Master of Trinity at Trinity College, Cambridge, Internet website .
1876 births
1962 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Chancellors of Durham University
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English autobiographers
English biographers
English historians
English memoirists
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Royal Society (Statute 12)
Historians of England
Historians of Italy
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
Macaulay family of Lewis
Masters of Trinity College, Cambridge
Members of the Order of Merit
Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of history
People educated at Harrow School
People educated at Wixenford School
Social historians
Trevelyan College
Younger sons of baronets | [
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226689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Hacienda%20%28Milpitas%20Ranchhouse%29 | The Hacienda (Milpitas Ranchhouse) | The Hacienda is the current name for a hotel in Monterey County, California, that was completed in 1930 for use by William Randolph Hearst as temporary housing for his employees and guests and headquarters for activities taking place on the surrounding land. The lodge building, designed by architect Julia Morgan, replaced and expanded upon an earlier wooden structure known as the Milpitas Ranch House which was destroyed by fire in the 1920s. The 1930 hotel has also been known as Milpitas Hacienda, Hacienda Guest Lodge and Milpitas Ranchhouse, under which name the property was placed in the National Register of Historic Places on December 2, 1977.
The lodge includes a restaurant, a lounge, a cantina, offices, public assembly rooms, guest rooms, a swimming pool and a tennis court. Hearst sold the structure and its surrounding property to the United States Army in 1940 for use as a training facility. The land and buildings were established by the Army as Fort Hunter Liggett. Today, the Army owns the building and a concessionaire operates it as a public hotel within the military base.
History
The fertile valley surrounding The Hacienda was documented by Spanish explorer Gaspar de Portolà in 1769. Based on his recommendation, Father Junípero Serra established Mission San Antonio de Padua in the valley in 1771, and it thrived. Of all the California missions, San Antonio de Padua converted the highest number of Native Americans, peaking at 1,300 Salinan converts in 1805. In the 1830s, the mission was secularized and its holdings were divided into at least ten land grants (including Rancho Milpitas, or Little Corn Fields Ranch) given to soldiers and civilians supportive of Mexican government. English-speaking settlers began arriving in significant numbers in 1849 with the discovery of gold in California. Nearby Jolon was established as a gold mining town on an old Salinan village site in 1860, astride El Camino Real, the old road connecting all the Spanish missions in California.
Hearst
At the beginning of the 20th century, gold mining had petered out and Hearst began buying up property in the area. Over the next two decades, he amassed land holdings covering the entirety of four of the ten Mexican land grants and most of Jolon. On top of the old Rancho Milpitas main ranch house site, at the edge of a small bluff less than a mile from and overlooking the old mission, Hearst hired Morgan to build a new ranch headquarters. Construction on the Mission Revival-styled building complex began in 1929, using poured concrete instead of adobe. A smoothly domed north tower was built in Moorish Revival style above the main living quarters. Original plans for the building were for it to include housing for 20 employees but this was expanded to 30 during construction. A proposed southern wing for Hearst's private quarters was never completed. Materials were carried from Santa Cruz in a Fageol truck. Construction costs totaled $200,000.
The building was not originally supplied with electricity. Wires for a single telephone line were run from Hearst Castle away. Wood stoves and fireplaces supplied heat, candles and lanterns provided light, and a well near the San Antonio River fed a cistern positioned a short distance uphill to the east to supply water pressure for a modern plumbing system. Those staying at The Hacienda year-round included the ranch manager, mechanics, gardeners, cooks and a ranch foreman who supervised cowboys tending cattle and farmhands harvesting wheat, barley, oats and alfalfa.
Hearst's guests could drive in, fly in and land at an adjacent landing strip, or they could arrive by horseback after a full day's ride from San Simeon. Guests included Spencer Tracy, Dick Powell, Will Rogers, Clark Gable, Herbert Hoover, Jean Harlow, Leslie Howard and Errol Flynn. Hearst's paramour, Marion Davies, stayed in one of the four tower suites when she visited. Californio-style fiestas were thrown in the guests' honor, complete with mariachis playing from the dining room balcony.
Although hunting in the area was enjoyed by sportsmen both before and after Hearst's ownership, Hearst did not allow any hunting on his property, and the California State Military Museum has concluded that The Hacienda was not built as a hunting lodge. Other observers have described the building as Hearst's hunting lodge.
Army
On December 12, 1940, Hearst sold , including the old Milpitas Ranch, to the United States government. Neighboring landowners sold another to form a training base for the War Department. The US Army used The Hacienda as housing for the base commander, for visiting officers and for the officers' club.
In 1957, a serviceman named Bill Runyan painted heroic murals depicting Spanish settlement of the area on selected interior walls of The Hacienda. Runyan started the large murals when he was a soldier at the fort but stayed on as a civil service carpenter to complete the task. Smaller ornamental paintings in the hotel date from the Hearst decade and were touched up or repainted by the Army.
National Park Service study
In November 1999, Congress authorized a study of Fort Hunter Liggett partly in response to a 1995 recommendation made by a Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) commission which listed certain structures within the base as excess to the Army's needs. In 2004, the National Park Service (NPS) released an environmental assessment draft which identified for further study the Julia Morgan-designed Milpitas Hacienda complex including the swimming pool, tennis court and outbuildings as well as a number of other historic structures on the base and in the area. The NPS wrote that inclusion of the Milpitas Hacienda in the national park system would offer an opportunity to enhance visitor experience and expand their understanding of the lives and work of Morgan and Hearst. The NPS described the Milpitas Hacienda as representing the themes "expressing cultural values" and "developing the American economy" for its connection to Hearst and his media empire. Two alternatives were put forward: one where no action would be taken, and one where title to the Milpitas Hacienda and nearby bungalows would be transferred to California State Parks to be managed as an addition to the Hearst San Simeon State Historical Monument.
The US Army sent NPS a letter on May 27, 2005, stating that the BRAC property was no longer excess to the Army and was now required in order to support the Army's mission. This reversal in status for The Hacienda caused the NPS to re-evaluate its study of title transfer and management options, and to cease environmental assessment. On September 19, 2006, NPS submitted to Congress its final report which concluded that a number of national resources in and around Fort Hunter Liggett including the Milpitas Hacienda complex were suitable for inclusion in the national park system but that such an action was not currently feasible because none of the land or buildings were excess to the Army's needs. The NPS encouraged the Army "to continue its protection and management of the natural and cultural resources in a manner that retains their national significance."
Today, the United States Army Reserve operates the base, and a civilian concessionaire is allowed to run The Hacienda as a hotel open both to the public and to the military. Visitor access to the base, the hotel and the old Spanish mission is monitored through an Army checkpoint.
See also
Cultural landscape
Historic preservation
History of the National Register of Historic Places
List of heritage registers
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
State Historic Preservation Office
United States National Register of Historic Places listings
World Heritage Site
References
External links
Hearst Hacienda Facebook page
TripAdvisor page
National Park Service Special Resource Study of Fort Hunter Liggett
Photograph of the NRHP plaque
History of Monterey County, California
Julia Morgan buildings
Buildings and structures in Monterey County, California
Hotel buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Mission Revival architecture in California
Moorish Revival architecture in California
Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in California
Hearst family residences
National Register of Historic Places in Monterey County, California | [
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226691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication | Publication | To publish is to make content available to the general public. While specific use of the term may vary among countries, it is usually applied to text, images, or other audio-visual content, including paper (newspapers, magazines, catalogs, etc.). The word publication means the act of publishing, and also any printed copies issued for public distribution.
Legal definition and copyright
"Publication" is a technical term in legal contexts and especially important in copyright legislation. An author of a work generally is the initial owner of the copyright on the work. One of the copyrights granted to the author of a work is the exclusive right to publish the work.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, publication is defined as:
any reading, broadcasting, exhibition of works using any means, either electronically or nonelectronically, or performing in any way so that works can be read, heard, or seen by others.
—Article 1, Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 28 of 2014
United States
In the United States, publication is defined as:
the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of people for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display, constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of itself constitute publication.
To perform or display a work "publicly" means –
(1) to perform or display it at a place open to the public or at any place where a substantial number of people outside a normal circle of a family and its social acquaintances is gathered; or
(2) to transmit or otherwise communicate a performance or display of the work to a place specified by clause (1) or to the public, by means of any device or process, whether the members of the public capable of receiving the performance or display receive it in the same place or in separate places and at the same time or at different times.
—17 USC 101
The US Copyright Office provides further guidance in Circular 40 , which states: "When the work is reproduced in multiple copies, such as in reproductions of a painting or castings of a statue, the work is published when the reproductions are publicly distributed or offered to a group for further distribution or public display".
Generally, the right to publish a work is an exclusive right of copyright owner (17 USC 106), and violating this right (e.g. by disseminating copies of the work without the copyright owner's consent) is a copyright infringement (17 USC 501(a)), and the copyright owner can demand (by suing in court) that e.g. copies distributed against their will be confiscated and destroyed (17 USC 502, 17 USC 503). Exceptions and limitations are written into copyright law, however; for example, the exclusive rights of the copyright owner eventually expire, and even when in force, they don't extend to publications covered by fair use or certain types of uses by libraries and educational institutions.
The definition of "publication" as "distribution of copies to the general public with the consent of the author" is also supported by the Berne Convention, which makes mention of "copies" in article 3(3), where "published works" are defined. In the Universal Copyright Convention, "publication" is defined in article VI as "the reproduction in tangible form and the general distribution to the public of copies of a work from which it can be read or otherwise visually perceived." Many countries around the world follow this definition, although some make some exceptions for particular kinds of works. In Germany, §6 of the Urheberrechtsgesetz additionally considers works of the visual arts (such as sculptures) "published" if they have been made permanently accessible by the general public (i.e., erecting a sculpture on public grounds is publication in Germany). Australia and the UK (as the U.S.) do not have this exception and generally require the distribution of copies necessary for publication. In the case of sculptures, the copies must be even three-dimensional.
Biological classification
In biological classification (taxonomy), the publication of the description of a taxon has to comply with some rules. The definition of the "publication" is defined in nomenclature codes. Traditionally there were the following rules:
The publication must be generally available.
The date of publication is the date the published material became generally available.
Electronic publication with some restrictions is permitted for publication of scientific names of fungi since 1 January 2013.
Types
Material types
There is an enormous variety of material types of publication, some of which are:
Book: Pages attached together between two covers, to allow a person to read from or write in.
Bulletin: Information written in short on a flyer or inside another publication for public viewing. Bulletins are also brief messages or announcements broadcast to a wide audience by way of television, radio, or internet.
Booklet: Leaflet of more than one sheet of paper, usually attached in the style of a book.
Broadside: A large single sheet of paper printed on one side, designed to be plastered onto walls. Produced from 16th - 19th cent. Became obsolete with the development of newspapers and cheap novels.
Flyer or handbill: A small sheet of paper printed on one side, designed to be handed out free
Leaflet: Single sheet of paper printed on both sides and folded.
Journal: A book with blank pages inside, to allow you to write down any personal information. Another word for a newspaper or similar publication.
Newsletter: A bulletin, leaflet, pamphlet, or newspaper distributed to a specific audience.
Newspaper: A publication of several pages printed with news, sports, information, and advertising. Newspapers may be published and distributed daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually.
Magazine: A book with front and back paper covers, printed with information and advertising. Some magazines are published and distributed every week or every month.
Pamphlet: Can be a leaflet, booklet or saddle-stapled booklet.
Electronic publishing
Electronic publishing (also referred to as e-publishing or digital publishing or online publishing) includes the digital publication of e-books, digital magazines, and the development of digital libraries and catalogues. Electronic publishing has become common. It is also becoming common to distribute books, magazines, and newspapers to consumers through digital devices, by online sources.
Content types
Types of publication can also be distinguished by content:
Brochure: an informative document made for advertising products or services, usually in the form of a pamphlet or leaflet.
Tract: a religious or political argument written by one person and designed to be distributed free, usually in the form of a booklet or pamphlet, but sometimes longer.
Monograph: a long research publication written by one person.
Unpublished works
A work that has not undergone publication, and thus is not generally available to the public, or for citation in scholarly or legal contexts, is called an unpublished work. In some cases unpublished works are widely cited, or circulated via informal means. An author who has not yet published a work may also be referred to as being unpublished.
The status of being unpublished has specific significance in the legal context, where it may refer to the non-publication of legal opinions in the United States
References
External links
RayMing Chang, Publication Does Not Really Mean Publication: The Need to Amend the Definition of Publication in the Copyright Act, 33 AM. INTELL. PROP. L. ASS'N Q.J. 225: This article analyzes the definition of publication in the US Copyright Act of 1976 and finds strong support for the proposition that electronic dissemination (e.g., "Internet publishing") of works does not result in publication under American copyright law. This article argues that the definition of publication needs to be amended to explicitly include electronic dissemination.
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] |
226692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug%20use | Drug use | Drug use may refer to any drug use; or:
Entheogen
Performance-enhancing drugs
Pharmaceutical drug
Poly drug use
Polysubstance dependence
Recreational drug use
Self-medication
Substance abuse
Substance dependence
See also
Drug injection
Drug policy of Portugal
Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)
History of United States drug prohibition
Illegal drug trade
Prohibition of drugs
War on Drugs
East African drug trade | [
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226693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Muhlenberg | Henry Muhlenberg | Henry Melchior Muhlenberg (an anglicanization of Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg) (September 6, 1711 – October 7, 1787), was a German Lutheran pastor sent to North America as a missionary, requested by Pennsylvania colonists.
Integral to the founding of the first Lutheran church body or denomination in North America, Muhlenberg is considered the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in the United States. Muhlenberg and his wife Anna Maria had a large family, several of whom had a significant impact on colonial life in North America as pastors, military officers, and politicians. His and Anna Maria's descendants continued to be active in Pennsylvania and national political life.
Early life in Germany
Muhlenberg was born in 1711 to Nicolaus Melchior Mühlenberg and Anna Maria Kleinschmid at Einbeck, in the German Electorate of Hanover. He studied theology at the University of Göttingen. As a student, Muhlenberg came under the influence of the Pietist movement through fellow students from Einbeck who had worked at the Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), an important Pietist institution. With two other men, Muhlenberg started a charity school in Göttingen that eventually became an orphanage.
After completing his studies in spring 1738, Muhlenberg secured a teaching position at the Francke Foundation's Historic Orphanage. Its director, the theologian Gotthilf August Francke was the son and successor of the Foundation's founder, August Hermann Francke and a professor at the University of Halle.
Muhlenberg was ordained in Leipzig in 1739, and served as assistant minister and director of the orphanage at Grosshennersdorf from 1739 to 1741. In 1741, Gotthilf August Francke encouraged Muhlenberg to accept a call from German-speaking Lutherans in Pennsylvania. Accordingly, in 1742 Muhlenberg emigrated across the Atlantic Ocean, where he essentially organized the Lutheran Church as an institution in North America.
Lutheran Church in Pennsylvania and New Jersey
The Lutheran churches in Pennsylvania had largely been founded by lay ministers. As Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf was successful in winning a number of converts to the Moravian Church, the Lutherans asked German churches for formally trained clergy.
In 1742, Muhlenberg immigrated to Philadelphia, responding to the 1732 request by Pennsylvania Lutherans. He took charge of the congregation at Providence (Augustus Lutheran Church), in what is now Trappe, Pennsylvania. He also provided leadership to a series of congregations from Maryland to New York, working to secure control over less qualified pastors and starting new congregations among the settlers of the region. In 1748, he called together The Ministerium of Pennsylvania, the first permanent Lutheran synod in America. He helped to prepare a uniform liturgy that same year, and also wrote basic tenets for an ecclesiastical constitution, which most of the churches adopted in 1761. He did much work on a hymnal, published by the Ministerium in 1786.
The dedication stone of the Augustus Lutheran Church, above its door, is dedicated to Muhlenberg and its other founders. It reads, in Latin, translated into English: "Under the auspices of Christ, Henry Melchior Muhlenberg with his Council, J.N.Crosman, F.Marsteller, A.Heilman, J.Mueller, H.Haas, and H.Rebner, erected from the very foundation this building dedicated by the Society of the Augsburg Confession. A.D.1743." This is the only known church building bearing an inscription that designates the confessional document of the congregation instead of the name Lutheran by which it is popularly known. The name of the first church—Augustus—was adopted in honor of Herman Augustus Francke, founder of the Halle Institutions, whose son, Gotthilf, had persuaded Muhlenberg to accept the call of the three United Congregations in America.
Muhlenberg frequently traveled beyond the three congregations assigned to him. During his 45-year ministry, he reached from New York to Georgia. He ministered not only to the German-language populations he was assigned to, but also to colonists from the Netherlands and Britain as well, in their native languages. His colleagues requested his help in arbitrating disputes among Lutherans, or in some cases with other religious groups.
Muhlenberg also worked to recruit new ministers from Europe and to develop more ministers from the colonists. In Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey, the Old Stone Union Church (built 1774) of German Valley (later renamed Long Valley) housed a congregation said to have been organized by Muhlenberg. His eldest son, the Reverend Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, also served as pastor there and served as a major general in the Continental Army.
Poor health forced him into limited activity and retirement. He eventually died at his home in Trappe, Pennsylvania, at age 76. He was interred in the rear of Augustus Lutheran Church with his wife Anna Maria, followed by their son Peter. By request, he was buried next to the grave of his good friend, sponsor, and Augustus Church co-founder, Frederick Ludwig Marsteller.
Dynasty
Soon after arriving in Pennsylvania, in 1745, Muhlenberg married Anna Maria Weiser, the daughter of colonial leader Conrad Weiser. The couple had eleven children and founded the Muhlenberg Family dynasty, where generations were active in the US military, politics, academia and ministry.
Of their children, three sons entered the ministry and became prominent in other fields as well. Their son Peter became a Major General in the Continental Army and later was elected to the U.S. Congress. Frederick served as the first Speaker of the House in the U.S. Congress after his election to office. Henry, Jr. became pastor of the Zion Lutheran Church at Oldwick, New Jersey. Henry Ernst was an early scientist, and the first president of Franklin College (now Franklin & Marshall).
Their daughter Elisabeth married future general Francis Swaine. Maria Salome ("Sally") married the future US Congressman, Matthias Richards. Eve married Emmanuel Shulze, and their son John Andrew Schulze was elected Governor of Pennsylvania.
Legacy and honors
Henry Melchior Muhlenberg is commemorated on October 7 in the Calendar of Saints in worship books, hymnals (e.g., Lutheran Book of Worship, Lutheran Worship, Evangelical Lutheran Worship, and Lutheran Service Book), and supplementary ecumenical common liturgies and lectionaries used by most Lutheran congregations in the United States and Canada.
Muhlenberg is also honored with a feast day on the Ecumenical Common Liturgical Calendar of The Episcopal Church (USA) in the most recent version, 1979 Book of Common Prayer on October 7.
Muhlenberg College, an ELCA affiliated institution, in Allentown, Pennsylvania is named in his honor.
The "Muhlenberg Monument" entitled "Man of Vision," sculpted by American artist Stanley Wanlass is located on the campus of Muhlenberg College.
Lake Muhlenberg, located near the college in Allentown is also named in his honor.
The Henry Melchior Muhlenberg House was added to the National Register of Historic Places (maintained by the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior) in 2000.
The Muhlenberg Building, at 2900 Queens Lane, a distinctive U-shaped two-story structure of Georgian / Federal style of architecture with red brick and white wood / limestone trim - served as the headquarters of the former Muhlenberg Press (and editorial offices of "The Lutheran" bi-monthly magazine) of the former United Lutheran Church in America (1918-1962) ànd its successor of Fortress Press, the Board of Publication of the Lutheran Church in America (1962-1987) in northwest Philadelphia. Both the ULCA and later, the LCA, had their denominational offices at the Church House on Madison Avenue in Manhattan, New York City. Upon merger in 1988 into the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, publishing operations were moved to Minneapolis and combined with Augsburg Publishing House of The American Lutheran Church there and continuing as Augsburg Fortress. ELCA headquarters are in suburban Chicago.
See also
Muhlenberg family
Johann Christopher Kunze
References
Other sources
Mann, William J. Life and Times of Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, Philadelphia: G.W. Frederick. 1888
Wolf, Edmund Jacob. The Lutherans in America; a story of struggle, progress, influence and marvelous growth, New York: J.A. Hill. 1889
Frick, William K. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, Patriarch of the Lutheran Church in America, Lutheran Publication Society, 1902
Hermann Wellenreuther / Thomas Müller-Bahlke / A. Gregg Roeber: The Transatlantic World of Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg in the Eighteenth Century. Publisher: Otto Harrassowitz (January 9, 2013),
Further reading
External links
Biographical Sketches of memorable Christians of the Past, Anglican Church
Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium
Early Evangelical Lutheran Heroes in America, Holy Trinity, New Rochelle, NY
1711 births
1787 deaths
People from Einbeck
Muhlenberg family
University of Göttingen alumni
German emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
People from the Electorate of Hanover
People from Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey
American Lutheran clergy
German Lutheran missionaries
Anglican saints
Lutheran missionaries in the United States
18th-century American clergy | [
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226694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce%20foil | Bruce foil | A Bruce foil is a variant of the leeboard, consisting of a foil typically mounted on an outrigger and always set at an angle to provide both lateral and vertical force. It was invented by Edmond Bruce in the early 1960s, and first published in the Amateur Yacht Research Society publication in April 1965.
Theory
Nearly all methods that increase resistance to sideways movement also cause heeling, the leaning produced by the imbalance of the forces on the sails, high above the waterline, and the sideways resistance, generated by the centerboard or other foil below the waterline. The resulting torque causes the hull to heel until the buoyancy of the hull provides sufficient torque to balance the heeling force. The limited buoyancy of the hull therefore limits the amount of force that the sail can effectively produce.
One solution to dealing with this limit is to bring the forces generated by the sail and the underwater foil into alignment, canceling as much of the torque as possible and thus reducing the amount of heeling. Two approaches to this have surfaced one being the inclined rig, and the other the Bruce foil.
Implementation
A Bruce foil reduces torque by moving the foil far out from the centerline of the hull, and angling it so that a perpendicular line through the center of the underwater portion of the foil will intersect the center of pressure of the sails. Like a traditional centerboard, the Bruce foil is generally a symmetric design, such as the NACA 00xx series, which relies on the leeward slip of the hull to provide the angle of attack needed to generate lift. When mounted on the lee side, the Bruce foil generates an upwards lift in addition to lateral force, and when mounted on the windward side, it generates a downwards force.
Bruce foils can be mounted in pairs, one on each side, as used in some trimaran designs. In this case, the leeward foil works in conjunction with the leeward ama to provide lift, and the windward foil can be retracted to reduce drag.
At equilibrium, the force from the foil and the sail will always be balanced, so capsize should be impossible, but in practice that is not the case. Since the foil's force is relative to the hull's movement through the water, and the sail's force is relative to the wind moving past the sail, sudden changes in wind speed or direction can unbalance the foil and cause heeling. In addition, a foil on the windward side presents an unstable situation, since any lifting of the foil out of the water, by mechanisms such as heeling or wave action, will result in reduced downwards force, potentially leading to capsize. A lee foil provides more stability, as loss of lift will force the foil back into the water.
Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantages over a typical centerboard or leeboard is that the Bruce foil allows the sails to remain nearly upright and keep the full force of the wind available to drive movement without the crew needing to move their weight. The main disadvantage is that the sails remain upright and keep the full force of the wind available, rather than depowering with increasing angle of heel as happens with traditional foils. The Bruce foil also produces increased drag as a result of the vertical component of force, as well as a yawing force due to the off-center placement of the foil, which may require alteration of the steering system to compensate.
References
A Primer on Proas at The Proa File discusses Bruce foils
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226700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid%20Davis | Sid Davis | Sidney Davis (April 1, 1916 – October 16, 2006) was an American director and producer who specialized in social guidance films.
Early life
Davis was born on April 1, 1916 in Chicago, Illinois. He was born to a housepainter father and a seamstress mother. He moved to Los Angeles in 1920. The family moved to Hollywood, California when Davis was four years old. In 1920 he began working as a child actor for a comedy made by Harold Lloyd. He began working in the film industry as a child, landing bit parts. He dropped out of junior high school to help support his parents. When he was older he often worked as a stand-in for Leif Erickson and John Wayne. Peter L. Stein of the San Francisco Chronicle said "as a young man, because of his strapping stature, he earned steady work as a stand-in for John Wayne."
Filmmaking career
In November 1949 Linda Joyce Glucoft, a six-year-old girl in Los Angeles, California, was molested and murdered by a man named Fred Stroble. The story made front-page news in the Los Angeles Times for a week as police and the FBI searched for Stroble. The story was picked up by Time Magazine and other national media, and led to a flurry of reported rapes and attempted rapes. Some media began to speculate that the supposed epidemic of rape was simply media manipulation of public perception.
Davis stated that the tragedy particularly disturbed him because his then-six-year-old daughter Jill did not seem to pay attention to his warnings about strangers. Davis talked to John Wayne saying that a film about this should be made, and Wayne suggested that Davis make the film. Wayne gave Davis $1,000 ($ when adjusted for inflation) and used the money to make his first film, The Dangerous Stranger, a film he would remake at least twice over the next 30 years. The film tells the story of several young children—some of the children are kidnapped and eventually saved, others are kidnapped and never seen again. Davis used schoolchildren and police officers instead of professional actors. Peter L. Stein of the San Francisco Chronicle said "[t]he film was a success among schools and police departments".
Davis sold copies of the film to schools and police departments, reaping a $250,000 profit. He used the money to make more than 150 films over the next few decades. Davis' films are typically 10 to 30 minutes long; he prided himself on making each one for $1,000, a minuscule film budget even at that time. Due to the content of his films, people referred to him as the "King of Calamity".
His films cover topics such as driver safety, marijuana use, heroin addiction, and gang warfare. Live and Learn (1956), a fairly famous Davis film, features Jill cutting out paper dolls in her room. When her father comes home she jumps up to greet him, trips on the carpet, and impales herself on the scissors. Other children in the film are equally unlucky—falling off cliffs, being run over by cars, or losing vision in one eye from flying shards of glass.
One of Davis' most notorious films, Boys Beware (1961), produced with the cooperation of the Inglewood, California Police Department and the Inglewood Unified School District, warns boys of the perceived dangers of male homosexuals, predatory pedophiles. The film includes the line "What Jimmy didn't know was that Ralph was sick—a sickness that was not visible like smallpox, but no less dangerous and contagious—a sickness of the mind. You see, Ralph was a homosexual: a person who demands an intimate relationship with members of their own sex." The same year, Davis made Girls Beware, warning girls not to put themselves into situations where they would be defenseless, a topic that Davis had covered at least 10 years earlier in his film Name Unknown, in which a man used a gun to accost a couple in isolated surroundings, forcing the boy into the trunk of the car and raping the girl.
Also in 1961, Davis made the film Seduction of the Innocent, targeting teenagers with the message that marijuana use leads to heroin addiction, a message that many marijuana activists dispute as an example of a slippery slope fallacy. The film follows a teenage girl through her use of "reds", "pep pills", and 7-Up, to her first puff of marijuana, to her addiction to heroin, to her fate as a prostitute arrested on her twentieth birthday, "lost to society". The film promises that "she'll continue her hopeless, degrading existence until she escapes in death."
In 1964 his company Sid Davis Productions distributed his film Too Tough to Care, aimed at undermining teenage resistance to anti-smoking education. The film used satire and humor, in a short story with no narration, to illustrate the misleading claims of cigarette advertising – an unconventional approach for its genre. The film garnered positive reviews in the mainstream press as well as coverage in academic journals.
Davis' work is consistently about a relatively small group of themes: that strangers must be treated with caution, that the world itself is an unfriendly place, regardless of the presence of strangers, and that children must think before acting. His films typically feature monotonous narration suffused with what Mental Hygiene author Ken Smith calls a "sledgehammer morality." His work is anecdotal and unsupported by evidence, and is notorious among social guidance films because Davis covered topics that scholarly film producers such as Coronet Films and Encyclopædia Britannica did not address. Coronet, Centron Corporation, and Britannica typically had teams of scholars with PhDs in sociology who guided development of their films. Davis, when he used consultants, rarely used anyone with a degree in a relevant field, instead he used policemen and detectives for their anecdotal advice.
Aside from his social warning films generally known for their bleakness, inaccuracy and simplistic presentations, Davis made some police training films such as Shotgun or Sidearm? (explaining which situations call for which firearms) and military films such as LAPES and PLADS (explaining delivery systems developed to allow planes to drop supplies onto exact locations in generally hostile territory in Vietnam).
Two atypical films in his social warning film canon are Gang Boy (1954) and Age 13 (1955). Both were written and directed by Art Swerdloff. In Gang Boy, Mexican and Anglo gangs in southern California declare a truce and begin working together to make a better world for their younger siblings. The film was based on a true story that happened in Pomona, California in the 1950s.
After a few years of directing films, Davis continued as a cinematographer for his company, Sid Davis Productions, hiring others such as Art Swerdloff, Robert D. Ellis, and Ib Melchior to write and direct. Later he hired cinematographers to lens the films as well as office workers to distribute them, and spent his time enjoying his hobby of mountain climbing.
Davis became involved in the real estate market in Los Angeles during the 1950s, at a time when it was booming due to development resulting from the influx of people to work in the defense industry. Through income from his films, work as a stand-in, and real estate investments, Davis became a multimillionaire.
Later in his life, Davis became famous among mountain climbers, securing the world record for climbing California's Mt. San Jacinto, climbing it 643 times over his life, the last time on September 1, 1998, at age 82.
Filmography
Margalit Fox of The New York Times wrote "Mr. Davis lost count of all the films he made, but there seem to have been at least 150, perhaps as many as 200." Fox, in the year 2006, said "[t]o modern audiences, Mr. Davis's work can look like high camp. Some of his films have aged strikingly badly, in particular Boys Beware,[...]" Rick Prelinger, a historian specializing in nontheatrical films, stated that some of Davis's works had, in 2006, artistic merit, citing Age 13 and Gang Boy.
Availability of his films
Davis' films Age 13, Gang Boy, The Terrible Truth (another anti-drug film), and The Dropout are available on Volume 5 of Rick Prelinger's CD-ROM set Our Secret Century. His films The Terrible Truth and Boys Beware, are available online at archive.org here and here, respectively. His Film, The ABC of Walking Wisely, and a short, Santa and the Fairy Snow Queen, are available in digital form, with humorous commentary, from Rifftrax, an entertainment group made of performers previously with the similar Mystery Science Theater 3000.
Personal life
In 1941 he met Norma Henkins, who worked as a film extra. Six months later, the two married. He had a daughter, Jill. Norma Henkins died in 1996.
Death
Davis died in his house on October 16, 2006 in Palm Desert, California at age 90. The cause of death was lung cancer. At the time of his death, he had a companion, Shirley Friesen, and a grandson.
References
External links
Nelson, Valerie J. "Sid Davis, 90; producer of cautionary films for classrooms in '50s, '60s". (Information) Los Angeles Times. November 8, 2006. California Metro; Part B; Metro Desk B8.
"Sid Davis, producer of 1950s school films, dies". Associated Press at NBC News. November 8, 2006.
Proffitt, Steve. "Sid Davis, Cautionary Kid-Film Producer". NPR. November 9, 2006.
Sid Davis Comedian
1916 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American male actors
Film producers from Illinois
American male child actors
American male film actors
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from lung cancer
Film directors from California
Film directors from Illinois
Film producers from California
Male actors from Chicago
Male actors from Hollywood, Los Angeles
Propaganda film directors
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