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226907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1556%20in%20literature | 1556 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1556.
Events
Unknown dates
The first printing press in India is introduced by Jesuits at Saint Paul's College, Goa.
The first written evidence of Yakshagana dance-drama is found on an inscription at the Lakshminarayana Temple, Hosaholalu in India.
Augustus, Elector of Saxony, establishes a royal state library in Dresden, predecessor of the Saxon State and University Library Dresden.
New books
Prose
Georg Bauer – De re metallica
John Ponet – A Short Treasure of Politic Power
Poetry
Pierre de Ronsard – Les Hymnes
Births
March 7 – Guillaume du Vair, French lawyer and philosopher (died 1621)
April 27 – François Béroalde de Verville, French novelist and poet (died 1626)
July 25 (baptised) – George Peele, English dramatist and poet (died 1596)
August 10 – Philipp Nicolai, German poet and composer (died 1608)
November 15 – Jacques Davy Duperron, French poet, cardinal and politician (died 1618)
November 25 (baptised) – John Heminges, English actor and editor of the First Folio (died 1630)
Unknown date – John Paul Nazarius, Italian theologian (died 1645)
Deaths
April 26 – Valentin Friedland, German scholar and teacher (born 1490)
May 7 – Hieronymus Andreae, German printer and publisher (date of birth unknown)
July 31 – Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish theologian, founder of the Jesuits (born 1491)
October 21 – Pietro Aretino, Italian satirist (born 1492)
October 31 – Johannes Sleidanus, Luxembourgeois historian (born 1506)
November 14 – Giovanni della Casa, Florentine poet (born 1503)
December 23 – Nicholas Udall, English dramatist (born 1504)
Unknown dates
Fuzûlî, Ottoman poet and philosopher (born c.1483)
Oddur Gottskálksson, Icelandic translator (born 1514/1515)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1555%20in%20literature | 1555 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1555.
Events
unknown dates
The Portuguese humanist writer Achilles Statius relocates to Rome.
Roger Taverner is elected to the Parliament of England.
John Hooker becomes Chamberlain of Exeter.
The Facetious Nights of Straparola, a story collection by the Italian writer Giovanni Francesco Straparola originally published in 1550–1553, appears for the first time in a single volume.
The French humanist Christophe Plantin establishes the Plantin Press in Antwerp.
New books
Prose
Edmund Bonner –
Gjon Buzuku – (first book published in the Albanian language).
John Fisher (posthumously) –
Fracastoro – Naugerius
Iacob Heraclid –
Alonso de Molina –
Olaus Magnus – Historia de Gentibus SeptentrionalibusJacques Peletier du Mans – (The Art of Poetry)
Nicholas Ridley – A Brief Declaration of the Lorde's SupperWilliam Turner – A New Book of Spiritual PhysickGeorg Wickram –
Drama
Étienne Jodelle – Didon se sacrifiantPoetry
Joachim du Bellay – Les RegretsBirths
June 11 – Lodovico Zacconi, Italian theologian and music writer (died 1627)
December 27 – Johann Arndt, German theologian (died 1621)Unknown datesLancelot Andrewes, English scholar and bishop (died 1626)
Richard Carew, English translator and antiquary (died 1620)
John Doddridge, English antiquary, lawyer and writer (died 1628)
Moderata Fonte, Venetian writer and poet (died 1592)
François de Malherbe, French poet, critic and translator (died 1628)
Thomas Watson, English poet writing in English and Latin (died 1592)
Deaths
February 9 – Christian Egenolff, German printer and publisher (born 1502)
April 18 – Polydore Vergil, English Tudor historian (born c. 1470)
July 2 – Girolamo dai Libri, Italian illuminator (born c. 1475)
October 9 – Justus Jonas, Lutheran theologian and hymn-writere (born 1493)Unknown date'' – Petrus Gyllius, French natural scientist and translator (born 1490)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Gush | George Gush | George Gush (as of 1980) was the head of the history section of West Kent College's "Social and Academic Studies Department", and is now retired. He is most notable for his work on wargaming.
He is the founder of the Tunbridge Wells Wargames Society and was its chairman until 2007. In its early days the society had met at George Gush's house
Writings by George Gush
Renaissance Armies 1480 - 1650 Patrick Stephens, 1975.
A Guide to Wargaming with Andrew Finch, 1980.
See also
Don Featherstone
Charles Grant
References
British historians
Miniature wargames
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | [
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226911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1554%20in%20literature | 1554 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1554.
Events
January 25 – Missionary, writer and poet José de Anchieta is one of the founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil.
unknown date – Publication of Menno Simons' begins the Dutch Golden Age of literature.
New books
Prose
Matteo Bandello
Novelle
Prima Parte
Edmund Bonner – Profitable and Necessary Doctryne
Charles Estienne – Praedium Rusticum
Johannes Magnus – Historia de omnibus gothorum sueonumque regibus (History of all Kings of Goths and Swedes)
Tepetlaoztoc Codex
Lazarillo de Tormes (anonymous)
Adrianus Turnebus's edition of Corpus Hermeticum
Approximate year:
Título de Totonicapán (anonymous K'iche' language document)
Poetry
Anacreontea (Greek poems of 1st century BC – 6th century AD, published for first time by Henri Estienne)
Births
October 20 – Bálint Balassi, Hungarian poet (died 1594)
November 11 – Luis de la Puente, Spanish theologian (died 1624)
November 30 – Sir Philip Sidney, English soldier and poet (died 1586)
Unknown date – Anrakuan Sakuden, Japanese poet (died 1642)
probable – Sir Walter Raleigh, writer, poet, soldier, courtier, spy, and explorer (died 1618)
Deaths
January 16 – Christiern Pedersen, Danish scholar, writer and printer (born c. 1480)
April 23 – Gaspara Stampa, Italian poet (born 1523)
June 24 – Feliciano de Silva, Spanish writer (born c. 1491)
September 8 – Johann Wild, German Bible commentator (born 1497)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1553%20in%20literature | 1553 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1553.
Events
Early – William Baldwin writes Beware the Cat (first published 1561), an early example of extended fiction (and specifically of horror fiction) in English and including an account of a printing house with which the author is familiar.
unknown dates
The xiii Bukes of Eneados of the famose Poete Virgill appears in London as the first published complete translation of any major work of classical antiquity into one of the English languages, based posthumously on Gavin Douglas's Eneados, a translation of Virgil's Aeneid from Latin into Middle Scots completed in 1513.
Construction of the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice is completed to the design of Jacopo Sansovino.
New books
Prose
Francesco Patrizi – La Città felice (The Happy City)
Drama
António Ferreira – Bristo
Approximate year
Nicholas Udall – 'Respublica (probable author)
Mr. S. – Gammer Gurton's NeedlePoetrySee 1553 in poetryBirths
March 29 – Vitsentzos Kornaros, Cretan poet (died 1613 or 1614)
October 8 – Jacques Auguste de Thou, French historian (died 1617)
c. December – John Chamberlain, English correspondent (died 1628)Unknown datesJohn Florio, English lexicographer (died 1625)
Richard Hakluyt, English travel writer (died 1616)
George Wyatt, English biographer of Anne Boleyn (died 1624)
Deaths
March 17 – Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian scholar and poet (born 1478) (executed)
April 9 – François Rabelais, French writer and satirist (born c. 1494)
May 28 – Johannes Aal, Swiss theologian and dramatist (born c. 1500)
October 27 – Michael Servetus, Spanish theologian and humanist (born 1511) (executed)
December 14 – Hanibal Lucić, Croatian poet and playwright (born c. 1485)unknown date'' – Yamazaki Sōkan, Japanese poet (born 1465)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1552%20in%20literature | 1552 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1552.
Events
June – Sir David Lyndsay's Middle Scots satirical morality play A Satire of the Three Estates first performed publicly in full, at Cupar in Fife.
unknown dates
Giachem Bifrun produces the first printed book in the Swiss Romansh language (Putèr), Christiauna fuorma, a catechism.
Belgrade printing house is established.
Ralph Roister Doister, the first known comedy in the English, is written by London schoolmaster Nicholas Udall for his pupils to perform.
New books
Prose
Book of Common Prayer (revised)
Bartolomé de las Casas – A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias) (written 1542)
François Rabelais – Le Quart Livre
Gerónimo de Santa Fe (posthumously) – Hebræomastix
Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians), composed in Nahuatl by Martín de la Cruz and translated into Latin by Juan Badiano.
Drama
David Lyndsay – A Satire of the Three Estates (first public performance)
Hans Sachs – Der Bauer im Fegefeuer
Poetry
See 1552 in poetry
Births
February 8 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French Protestant poet (died 1630)
unknown dates
Jean Bertaut, French poet (died 1611)
Philemon Holland, English translator and schoolmaster (died 1637)
Edmund Spenser, English poet (died 1599)
probable – Cvijeta Zuzorić, Croatian poet (died 1648)
Deaths
June 10 – Alexander Barclay, probably Scottish-born English writer, cleric and translator (born c. 1476)
October 17 – Andreas Osiander, German theologian (born 1498)
December 11 – Paolo Giovio, Italian historian and biographer (born 1483)
December 30 – Francisco de Enzinas, Spanish-born Netherlandish scholar and humanist (born c. 1518)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1551%20in%20literature | 1551 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1551.
Events
June 27 – Edict of Châteaubriant prohibits possessing any books listed on the University of Paris's Index, translating the Bible or works of the Church Fathers, importing books from Geneva or other places not under the Catholic Church's control, or printing or selling any religious books written in the last 40 years.
unknown dates
Juan de Betanzos begins to write his "Narrative of the Incas".
An edition of the Book of Common Prayer printed by Humphrey Powell, de facto King's Printer in Dublin, becomes the first book printed in Ireland.
The first English language translation of Thomas More's Utopia (first published in Latin 1516), made by Ralph Robinson, is published in London.
New books
Prose
Bishop Mikael Agricola – Abckiria (second edition)
John Calvin – De Scandalis
Bartolomé de las Casas – Historia general de las Indias
Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski – Commentariorum De Republica emendanda libri quinque (Five Books of Commentaries on the Improvement of Commonwealth)
Stoglav (Стоглав, Book of One Hundred Chapters), collection of decisions of the Stoglavy Synod that regulated canon law etc. in the Tsardom of Russia, especially everyday life and mores of the clergy.
Drama
Ludovico Ariosto (died 1533) – I suppositi (first publication in verse)
Marin Držić – Dundo Maroje
Hans Sachs – Das heiss Eisen
Georg Wickram – Tobias
Poetry
Lorenzo de Sepúlveda –
See also 1551 in poetry
Births
May 2 – William Camden, historian (died 1623)
Unknown dates
Nikollë Bardhi, Albanian writer (died 1617)
Bhai Gurdas, Punjabi Sikh writer and preacher (died 1636)
Abdul-Haqq Dehlavi, Islamic scholar (died 1642)
Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, historian of the Mughal emperor Akbar (died 1602)
Deaths
January 17 – Pedro Mexía, Spanish Humanist philosopher and historian (born 1497)
May 6 – Johannes Baptista Montanus, Italian medical writer (born 1498)
May 17 – Shin Saimdang, Korean artist, calligraphist and poet (born 1504)
Unknown date – Ludovico Pasquali, Dalmatian Italian poet (born c.1500)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1550%20in%20literature | 1550 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1550.
Events
June – Robert Estienne leaves Paris for Geneva, where he sets up a printing press.
July 17 – King Edward VI of England gives Humphrey Powell a grant to start printing in Ireland.
unknown dates
The first book in Slovene, Catechismus, is written by Protestant reformer Primož Trubar and printed in Schwäbisch Hall, Holy Roman Empire, followed by his Abecedarium.
Nostradamus' first almanac is printed.
The Chinese shenmo fantasy novel Fengshen Yanyi is first published in book form.
New books
Prose
Leandro Alberti – Istoria di Bologna
Martin Bucer – De regno Christi
Thomas Cranmer – Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ
Doddayya – Chandraprabha Purana
Louis Maigret – Traité de la Grammaire française (the first grammatical description of French)
Ramamatya – Svaramelakalanidhi (treatise on music)
Richard Sherry – A Treatise of Schemes and Tropes
Primož Trubar
Catechismus
Abecedarium
The Facetious Nights of Straparola (the first European storybook of fairy tales)
Giorgio Vasari – Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects
Rosary of the Philosophers
Drama
Thomas Naogeorgus – Agricultura sacra
Hans Sachs
Der fahrende Schüler im Paradies
Das Wildbad
Poetry
See 1550 in poetry
Births
December 22 – Cesare Cremonini, Italian philosopher (died 1631)
unknown dates
Wacker von Wackenfels, German diplomat, scholar and author (died 1619)
Zang Maoxun, Chinese playwright (died 1620)
Probable year of birth – Philip Henslowe, Elizabethan theatrical entrepreneur and impresario (died 1616)
Deaths
February – Marcantonio Flaminio, Latin-language poet (born c. 1498)
July 9 (probable date) – Jacopo Bonfadio, Italian historian, executed for sodomy (born c. 1508)
December 8 – Gian Giorgio Trissino, Italian poet, dramatist and grammarian (born 1478)
unknown date
Eguinaire Baron, French legal writer (born 1495)
William Lamb alias Paniter, Scottish writer, cleric and lawyer (born c. 1493)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulbene%20District | Gulbene District | Gulbene District () was an administrative division of Latvia, located in the Vidzeme region, in the country's north-east. It was organized into a city and thirteen parishes, each with a local government authority. The main city in the district was Gulbene.
In Gulbene, a Baltic single passage narrow-gauge railroad, Gulbene-Aluksne, was renovated and started to operate in 2005.
Gulbene has a basketball team, ASK/Buki-Gulbene.
Districts were eliminated during the administrative-territorial reform in 2009.
Cities and parishes of the Gulbene District
Beļava Parish
Dauksti Parish
Druviena Parish
Galgauska Parish
Gulbene city
Litene Parish
Lizums Parish
Līgo Parish
Lejasciems Parish
Jaungulbene Parish
Stāmeriena Parish
Ranka Parish
Stradi Parish
Tirza Parish
References
Districts of Latvia | [
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226920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302%20FA%20Premier%20League | 2001–02 FA Premier League | The 2001–02 FA Premier League (known as the FA Barclaycard Premiership for sponsorship reasons) was the tenth season of the competition. It began with a new sponsor, Barclaycard, and was titled the FA Barclaycard Premiership, replacing the previous sponsor, Carling. The title race turned into a battle among four sides – Arsenal, Manchester United, Liverpool and Newcastle United.
Arsenal clinched the title on 8 May 2002 after a convincing win against Manchester United at Old Trafford, in the penultimate game of the season. This new attacking Arsenal side had won the FA Cup five days before and made history by accomplishing their third double, their second under the reign of Arsène Wenger, who showed his commitment by signing a new four-year deal with Arsenal.
The season started on 18 August 2001 and ended on 11 May 2002.
Season summary
At the start of 2002 the title race was wide open, with the likes of Newcastle United and Leeds United contesting at the top of the table along with the usual likes of Arsenal and Manchester United. Newcastle, after back-to-back away wins at Arsenal and Leeds during the Christmas period, confirmed themselves as genuine title challengers and led the league at the turn of the year. Leeds had topped the table at Christmas prior to losing at Elland Road to Newcastle.
Despite being top of the table at the start of December – eleven points clear of Manchester United – Liverpool underwent a severe slump, falling to fifth place, five points behind United. Would-be contenders Chelsea, Newcastle United and Leeds United had by this point disappeared into the chasing pack.
January saw Liverpool travelling to both Highbury and Old Trafford in the space of a fortnight. Liverpool's Danny Murphy scored a late winner to give the Merseyside club all three points against United, and John Arne Riise then salvaged a point for Liverpool against Arsenal, allowing Manchester United to top the table for the first time that season.
In March, Arsenal were installed as strong favourites for the Premiership title after Liverpool's defeat to Tottenham Hotspur. Arsenal's April triumph against Bolton Wanderers brought them to within three points of a second Premier League title under Arsène Wenger.
Fittingly, the Premiership title would be decided at Old Trafford as Arsenal and Manchester United faced one another in a decisive encounter. Arsenal only required a draw to guarantee their second title in five seasons to go with their FA Cup victory against London rivals Chelsea four days previously; United had to win to take the title race to the last day. In the end, Arsenal emerged victorious as their record signing Sylvain Wiltord scored the only goal of the game as Arsenal was confirmed Premiership champions with a game to spare. Manchester United's disappointment was compounded by Liverpool leapfrogging them into second place by virtue of their 4–3 victory against Blackburn Rovers.
On the final day of the season Liverpool confirmed second place by trashing soon to be relegated Ipswich Town 5–0 at Anfield. Arsenal rounded off their successful league campaign in style, beating Everton 4–3 at Highbury. Manchester United limped to a poor draw against Charlton Athletic, completing a disappointing campaign for the deposed league champions.
For the first time in the history of the Premier League, all three promoted teams avoided relegation – Fulham, Bolton Wanderers and Blackburn Rovers. Blackburn Rovers and Bolton Wanderers avoided relegation until 2011–12, when the three promoted teams of 2010–11 coincidentally avoided relegation again, whilst Fulham avoided relegation until the 2013–14 season.
Fulham had splashed out £34 million on new players during the close season, with their owner Mohamed Al-Fayed being one of the wealthiest benefactors in English football. He even boasted that they would win the Premiership title in 2001–02, and most pundits tipped Fulham, managed by former French international Jean Tigana, to push for a place in Europe. However, Fulham finished thirteenth, 47 points away from Arsenal.
Bolton Wanderers went top of the Premiership after winning their first three fixtures of the season, causing an upset by beating Gérard Houllier's Liverpool in the latter stage of the game. Manager Sam Allardyce was boasting that his side were good enough to win their first ever league title, but Bolton's league form slumped after the first two months of the season and they finished 16th place – their survival confirmed in the penultimate game of the season.
Blackburn Rovers were the most successful of the promoted sides. Graeme Souness' men beat Tottenham Hotspur 2–1 in the League Cup final to lift the trophy for the first time, and then climbed from 18th place in the Premiership in late February to finish in a secure 10th place – higher than any other newly promoted team that season. Blackburn secured a UEFA Cup place for 2002–03.
Leicester City was the first team officially relegated from the Premiership, finishing bottom of table with just five Premiership wins in their last season at 111-year-old Filbert Street before relocation to the new 32 000-seat Walkers Stadium. The club went through the regime of two managers during the season – Peter Taylor was replaced by Dave Bassett in early October; six months later Bassett joined the club's board to be replaced by former assistant manager Micky Adams.
Just after the start of the 2002–03 season, Leicester's relegation (which cost them extensive television revenue) and the cost of their new stadium had created debts in excess of £30 million, and the club went into administration before being taken over by a new owner. Despite this setback, Leicester gained promotion back to the Premiership at the first time of asking, although they slipped back down again after just one season and Adams had since resigned to make way for new manager Craig Levein.
Next to go down were Derby County, who had been promoted alongside Leicester six years earlier. Manager Jim Smith resigned in early October to be replaced by assistant manager Colin Todd, who was sacked three months later after Derby were knocked out of the FA Cup by Division Three strugglers Bristol Rovers.
The last team to be relegated were Ipswich Town, who had qualified for the UEFA Cup and earned manager George Burley the Manager of the Year award the previous season after finishing fifth. Ipswich made a terrible start to the season, winning just one of their first 18 Premiership games. They then went on a strong run of form, winning seven out of eight games, which looked to have secured their Premiership survival, but they then suffered another setback which George Burley's men were unable to reverse, and their relegation was confirmed on the final day of the season by a 5–0 thrashing at Liverpool.
Teams
Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the First Division. The promoted teams were Fulham, Blackburn Rovers and Bolton Wanderers, returning after a top flight absence of thirty-three, two and three years respectively. This was also Fulham's first season in the Premier League. They replaced Manchester City, Coventry City and Bradford City, ending their one, thirty-four and two-year top flight spells respectively.
Stadiums and locations
Personnel and kits
1 The Dreamcast logo appeared on Arsenal's home and third shirts while the Sega logo appeared on their away shirt
Managerial changes
League table
Results
Season statistics
Scoring
Top scorers
Hat-tricks
Note: P Player scored a perfect hat-trick; (H) – Home; (A) – Away
Top assists
Awards
Monthly awards
Annual awards
See also
2001–02 in English football
References
External links
2001–02 FA Premier League Season at RSSSF
2001/02 FA Premier League Review
Premier League seasons
Eng
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226921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Baptist%20Churches%20USA | American Baptist Churches USA | The American Baptist Churches USA (ABCUSA) is a mainline Baptist Christian denomination within the United States. The denomination maintains headquarters in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The organization is usually considered mainline, although varying theological and mission emphases may be found among its congregations, including modernist, charismatic and evangelical orientations. It traces its history to the First Baptist Church in America (1638) and the Baptist congregational associations which organized the Triennial Convention in 1814. From 1907 to 1950, it was known as the Northern Baptist Convention, and from 1950 to 1972 as the American Baptist Convention.
History
Colonial New England Baptists
American Baptist Churches USA have their origins in the First Baptist Church in Providence, Rhode Island, now the First Baptist Church in America, founded in 1638 by the minister Roger Williams. Regarded by the more dogmatic Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony as a heretic for his religious separatism, Williams was banished into the New England wilderness where he and his followers created the settlement of Providence and later, the colony of Rhode Island. Williams is credited with being the founder of the Baptist movement in America, the founder of the state of Rhode Island, and the first highly visible public leader in America to call for the separation of church and state.
Triennial Convention
Having a congregational polity, early Baptist churches in America operated independently from one another, following an array of Protestant theological paths, but were often unified in their mission to evangelize. In the 18th century, they sometimes created local congregational associations for support, fellowship, and work (such as the founding of Brown University in 1764). The evangelical mission led to the establishment of the national Triennial Convention in 1814, a collaborative effort by local churches to organize, fund, and deploy missionaries. The ABCUSA descends from this Triennial Convention. Through the Triennial Convention structure a number of mission-oriented societies were formed, including the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society (1814), American Baptist Home Mission Society (1832), American Baptist Publication Society (1841), and the American Baptist Education Society (1888).
In 1845, a majority of Baptists in the South withdrew support from the Triennial Convention – largely in response to the decision of its delegates to ban slave holders from becoming ordained missionaries – and formed the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC). The Triennial Convention was loosely structured, and the SBC offered Baptists a more centralized organizational structure for carrying on missionary and benevolent work. In contrast, however, the Triennial Convention afforded local churches a higher degree of local autonomy, a more traditional characteristic of Baptist polity. The majority of churches in the North continued to work through these separate cooperating societies for missions and benevolence. The societies were united under the umbrella of a unified convention in 1907.
Northern Baptist Convention
The Northern Baptist Convention was founded in Washington, D.C. on May 17, 1907.Charles Evans Hughes, then Governor of New York and later Chief Justice of the United States, served the body as its first president. The purpose of the Northern Baptist Convention was to bring about a consistent cooperation among the separate Baptist bodies then existing. It was the first step in bringing together Baptists in the North "with ties to the historic American Baptist mission societies in the nineteenth century." These had contributed to establishing many schools for freedmen in the South after the American Civil War, as well as working on issues of health and welfare. Many of their missionaries and members had worked as teachers in the South. In 1911, most of the churches of the Free Will Baptist General Conference merged with it.
American Baptist Convention
The name of the Convention was changed in 1950 to the American Baptist Convention (ABC), and it operated under this name until 1972. It was the second step at bringing together on a national level Baptists with ties to the mission societies. The ABC was characterized from 1950–66 with annual resolutions at its conventions having to do with the Civil Rights Movement and race relations.
As in many cases, the rhetoric of the annual conventions was sometimes ahead of local activity, but the denomination gradually made progress. In 1964, it created the Baptist Action for Racial Brotherhood (BARB), which early the next year produced a pamphlet outlining actions for change in local churches. In 1968, the national convention was challenged by "Black American Baptist Churchmen Speak To the American Baptist Convention," demands that challenged how the denomination had "conducted its business relative to black American Baptists." The black churchmen said the Convention had excluded them from decisionmaking positions, even while working with good intentions on behalf of black American Baptists. The following year, Dr. Thomas Kilgore Jr., pastor of the Second Baptist Church of Los Angeles, was elected the first black president of the Convention. The 1968 Convention also voted to create the Study Commission on Denominational Structure (SCODS). Its recommendations changed the denomination in a variety of ways, after being adopted at the 1972 Convention.
American Baptist Churches USA
To reflect its new structure, the Convention in 1972 changed its name to the American Baptist Churches USA. Rather than relying on decisionmaking at the annual Convention by whichever churches happened to send delegates, the SCODS restructuring resulted in the following:
Theology and practice
American Baptists share the same theological beliefs with Protestant churches which believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God and the final authority in matters of faith. The ABCUSA affirms the Trinity, that the one God exists as three persons in complete unity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. They confess Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord through whom those who believe can have fellowship with God. He died, taking on the sins of the world, and was resurrected, triumphing over sin and death.
ABCUSA churches recognize two ordinances: Believer's baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is by immersion, and those being baptized must be of an age to understand its significance. Believing in the priesthood of all believers, the ABCUSA avoids using creeds, affirming the freedom of individual Christians and local churches to interpret scripture as the Holy Spirit leads them. The ABCUSA affirms the ordination of women.
LGBTQ issues
LGBTQ issues have been a point of contention in the ABCUSA since the 1987 Biennial Meeting. In 1992, the General Board adopted a resolution that stated, “We affirm that the practice of homosexuality is incompatible with Christian teaching.”
So far, at least seven regions in the ABCUSA – Evergreen, Wisconsin, Rochester-Genesee, Metro Chicago, Metropolitan New York, Massachusetts, and Philadelphia – support full inclusion of LGBTQ persons into Baptist life. Many ABCUSA churches have also partnered with the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists, which formed at the 1993 Biennial Meeting.
However, several other ABCUSA regions and churches have opposed affirmation of homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender identity. In 2004, the ABC Central Region reaffirmed the 1992 resolution. At its 2005 annual meeting, the West Virginia Baptist Convention, which had a history of proposing resolutions opposing liberal views on LGBTQ inclusion, narrowly rejected a proposal to withdraw from the ABCUSA over its refusal to discipline those regions that have supported LGBTQ-friendly policies. The Indiana-Kentucky region has also proposed a change in the denomination’s bylaws that would prohibit the transfer of churches into another region if removed from the region because of the issue of homosexuality. In 2006, the American Baptist Churches of the Pacific Southwest, believing that "the practice of homosexuality is incompatible with Christian teaching", split from the ABCUSA, and was renamed Transformation Ministries.
Each local congregation is autonomous and permitted to perform same-sex marriages if they opt to do so. For example, Calvary Baptist Church (Washington, D.C.), affiliated with the ABCUSA, performs same-sex marriages. In 2013, an ABCUSA congregation in Washington, DC, ordained the denomination's first openly transgender pastor.
The ABCUSA has consistently allowed each congregation to determine whether or not to perform same-sex marriages, or ordain LGBT clergy. The ABCUSA General Board voted in 2005 to amend the declaration We are American Baptists to define marriage as "between one man and one woman" and maintain that "the practice of homosexuality is incompatible with Biblical teaching." However, the denomination has never officially adopted the board's statement, and has also stated that it will "respect and will continue to respect congregational freedom on this issue".
Organization
The American Baptists Churches USA has a congregationalist polity emphasizing local church autonomy. Local churches are organized into 33 regions. The General Board makes policy for the denomination's national agencies. However, General Board resolutions are not binding on local congregations. Three-fourths of the representatives to the General Board are nominated and elected by the regions. One-fourth of the representatives are nominated by the Nominating Committee and are elected by the regions. The General Secretary executes the policies and decisions of the General Board. Rev. Dr. Lee B. Spitzer was called as ABCUSA General Secretary on May 8, 2017.
A substantial portion of the ABCUSA consists of African-American churches that may have joint affiliations with the ABCUSA and historic bodies such as the National Baptist Convention or the Progressive National Baptist Convention.
Regions
The ABCUSA consists of 33 regional associations and conventions:
Membership trends
In 2009, the ABCUSA reported 1,310,505 members in 5,402 churches. Membership remained fairly steady during the 20th century. In 1925, there were just over 1.4 million members. Membership peaked in the early 1980s at around 1.6 million. Lately, membership has begun to decline again, with the ABCUSA reporting 1,145,647 members in 5,057 churches at the end of 2017. According to a denomination census released in 2020, it claimed 5,025 churches and 1,126,527 members. Congregations are concentrated in the Midwest and Northeast United States.
Affiliated seminaries
There are a number of universities and colleges affiliated with the ABCUSA. There are ten seminaries affiliated with the American Baptist Churches USA:
Andover Newton Theological School, Newton, Massachusetts now part of Yale Divinity from 2018
Berkeley School of Theology (formerly called the American Baptist Seminary of the West), Berkeley, California
Central Baptist Theological Seminary, Shawnee, Kansas
Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School, Rochester, New York
Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
Morehouse School of Religion, Atlanta, Georgia
Northern Baptist Theological Seminary, Lisle, Illinois
Palmer Theological Seminary, Wayne, Pennsylvania
Shaw University Divinity School, Raleigh, North Carolina
The Samuel DeWitt Proctor School of Theology, Virginia Union University, Richmond, Virginia
Notable members
Includes Northern Baptists (1907–1950) and American Baptists (1950–present)
Wayland Hoyt (1838–1910), minister and author
John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), oil magnate and philanthropist
Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948), 36th Governor of New York, 11th Chief Justice of the United States, and first president of the Northern Baptist Convention
John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874–1960), financier and philanthropist
Tony Campolo (b. 1935) American sociologist, pastor, author
Kamala Harris (b. 1964), Vice President of the United States
See also
Born again
Baptist beliefs
Worship service (evangelicalism)
Believers' Church
Christianity in the United States
References
External links
American Baptist Historical Society
Jessie M. Bright Collection at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, & Rare Book Library, Emory University
Baptist denominations in North America
Members of the World Council of Churches
Christian organizations established in 1907
Baptist denominations established in the 20th century
Members of the National Council of Churches
1907 establishments in the United States | [
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226924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweener | Tweener | Tweener may refer to:
In sports:
Tweener (basketball), a basketball player able to play two different positions
Tweener (tennis), a tennis shot where the player hits the ball between his legs
Tweener racket, a mid-size, mid-weight tennis racket for intermediate players
Tweener, a professional wrestler portrayed as morally neutral or ambiguous
Tweener, a bowler whose bowling form falls between accurate stroking and powerful cranking
Other:
"Tweener", a person in between a child and a teenager.
David "Tweener" Apolskis, a character from the U.S. television series Prison Break
"Tweener" (Prison Break episode), the 9th episode from season 1 of Prison Break
Generation Jones
See also
Tween (disambiguation) | [
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226926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan%20FlipStart | Vulcan FlipStart | The Vulcan FlipStart was a super compact PC, weighing 1.5 pounds (with standard high capacity battery) and the size of a paperback novel (4.5 by 5.9 by 1.6 inches with high capacity battery). FlipStart was the release name for the concept PC Paul Allen showed at CES 2003 and 2004, specifically FlipStart V1.0. The original concept name was Mini-PC.
Its main competition at the time of release was the OQO Model 02. OQO had released the Model 01 at the time the FlipStart was announced 4 years earlier. They were both equipped with QWERTY keyboards and wireless capabilities but the FlipStart was a clamshell (flipped open) versus the OQO which slid up to reveal the keyboard.
Specifications
The FlipStart has a folding 5.9-inch screen with 1024×700 resolution, a 30GB hard drive, built-in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and batteries capable of running one to three on a charge with extended battery life offering up to four hours. The CPU is a Pentium M ULV processor running at 1.1 GHz, and it has a non-expandable memory of 512MiB. The chipset is the Intel GMA915. A VGA resolution (640 x 480) camera is built in below the screen. The FlipStart also has built in speakers and a microphone.
The devices run the Windows XP and Windows Vista operating systems and as such can run standard PC applications such as Microsoft Office.
It also has a small secondary color display in the lid similar to, but not, Windows SideShow. This is only compatible with Office/Outlook 2003 currently. Its small QWERTY keyboard has backlit buttons, and additional input devices are provided in the form of a touchpad and thumbstick located above the keyboard, a scrollwheel and media navigation buttons on the right side of the unit.
Expansion is possible via a dock connector which connects to a port replicator, offering two USB ports (blocking the single port on the unit), VGA, audio, AC power and Ethernet. A sliding cover on the lid provides access to a "snap on" expansion system. There is one expansion option provided for this, a 3.2Mp (5Mp marketed) add-on camera. The expansion cover also provides access to the built in SIM socket.
Launch
The FlipStart was launched in the US on March 27, 2007 at the FlipStart web page for a price of $1999.
The FlipStart (CE marked version) was launched in the UK via distributor Blazepoint on September 10, 2007, for £1449 (excluding VAT).
The US price was reduced to $1499 in September 2007. On January 16, 2008, this price was reduced to $699 (£339.00 ex. VAT in the UK).
In the US the FlipStart primarily shipped with Sierra Sprint Broadband EVDO communications.
In Spring of 2008, FlipStart sold out and no new units were manufactured. The company provided support for one year after that, stopping on March 31, 2009 "due to the low volume of support request and expiration of all warranties."
References
Further reading
CNET review and comparison to other devices
Remembering the FlipStart
WI-FI Planet Review of the FlipStart
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226928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobra | Cobra | Cobra is the common name of various elapid snakes, most of which belong to the genus Naja.
Biology
All of the known cobras are venomous and many are capable of rearing upwards and producing a hood when threatened.
Other snakes known as "cobras"
Other "cobra" genera and species are as follows:
The rinkhals, ringhals or ring-necked spitting cobra (Hemachatus haemachatus) so-called for its neck band as well as its habit of rearing upwards and producing a hood when threatened
The king cobra or hamadryad (Ophiophagus hannah)
The two species of tree cobras, Goldie's tree cobra (Pseudohaje goldii) and the black tree cobra (Pseudohaje nigra)
The two species of shield-nosed cobras, the Cape coral snake (Aspidelaps lubricus) and the shield-nosed cobra (Aspidelaps scutatus)
The two species of black desert cobras or desert black snakes, Walterinnesia aegyptia and Walterinnesia morgani, neither of which rears upwards and produces a hood when threatened
The eastern coral snake or American cobra (Micrurus fulvius), which also does not rear upwards and produce a hood when threatened
The false water cobra (Hydrodynastes gigas) is the only "cobra" species that is not a member of the Elapidae. It does not rear upwards, produces only a slight flattening of the neck when threatened, and is only mildly venomous.
References
Snakes
Predators | [
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226930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancuronium%20bromide | Pancuronium bromide | Pancuronium (trademarked as Pavulon) is an aminosteroid muscle relaxant with various medical uses. It is used in euthanasia and is used in some states as the second of three drugs administered during lethal injections in the United States.
Mechanism of action
Pancuronium is a typical non-depolarizing curare-mimetic muscle relaxant. It competitively inhibits the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor at the neuromuscular junction by blocking the binding of acetylcholine. It has slight vagolytic activity, causing an increase in heart rate, but no ganglioplegic (i.e., blocking ganglions) activity. It is a very potent muscle relaxant drug, with an ED95 (i.e., the dose that causes 95% depression of muscle twitch response) of only 60 µg/kg body weight. Onset of action is relatively slow compared to other similar drugs, in part due to its low dose: an intubating dose takes 3–6 minutes for full effect. Clinical effects (muscle activity lower than 25% of physiological) last for about 100 minutes. The time needed for full (over 90% muscle activity) recovery after single administration is about 120–180 minutes in healthy adults.
The effects of pancuronium can be at least partially reversed by anticholinesterasics, such as neostigmine, pyridostigmine, and edrophonium.
Development
Workers at Organon were inspired by the structure of the aminosteroid alkaloid malouetine to develop a series of aminosteroid neuromuscular blockers based on an androstane nucleus, culminating in the development of pancuronium bromide.
Pancuronium is designed to mimic the action of two molecules of acetylcholine with the quaternary nitrogen atoms spaced rigidly apart by the steroid rings at a distance of ten atoms (interonium distance).
Decamethonium and suxamethonium also have this same interonium distance.
Uses in medicine
Pancuronium is used with general anesthesia in surgery for muscle relaxation and as an aid to intubation or ventilation. It does not have sedative or analgesic effects.
Side-effects include moderately raised heart rate and thereby arterial pressure and cardiac output, excessive salivation, apnea and respiratory depression, rashes, flushing, and sweating. The muscular relaxation can be dangerous in the seriously ill and it can accumulate leading to extended weakness. Pancuronium is not preferable in long-term use in ICU-ventilated patients.
In Belgium and the Netherlands, pancuronium is recommended in the protocol for euthanasia. After administering sodium thiopental to induce coma, pancuronium is delivered in order to stop breathing.
Uses in execution and suicide
Procedure
Pancuronium is also used as one component of a lethal injection in administration of the death penalty in some parts of the United States.
Controversy
Like all non-depolarising muscle relaxants, pancuronium has no effect on level of consciousness. Therefore, if the anaesthetic used is insufficient, the individual may be awake but unable to cry out or move due to the effect of the pancuronium. There have been several civil lawsuits alleging similar failures of adequate anaesthesia during general surgical procedures. These have been largely due to improper or insufficient dosages of anaesthetic in concert with normal dosages of muscle relaxants such as pancuronium.
In 2007, Michael Munro, a Scottish neonatologist at Aberdeen Maternity Hospital, was cleared of malpractice by the GMC Fitness to Practice panel after giving 23 times the standard dose of pancuronium to two dying neonates. Terminally ill, both dying babies were suffering from agonal gasping and violent body spasms, which was highly distressing for the parents to witness. Munro then administered pancuronium to the babies after advising the parents that this would ease their suffering and could also hasten death. It is on record that neither of the children's parents were unhappy with Dr Munro's treatment of their babies.
Amnesty International has objected to its use in lethal injections on the grounds that it "may mask the condemned prisoner's suffering during the execution," thereby leading observers to conclude that lethal injection is painless, or less cruel than other forms of execution.
Export limitations
The United Kingdom bans the export of pancuronium bromide to the United States due to its use in lethal injections, but not to Netherlands or Belgium.
Uses in crime
Pancuronium was used in Efren Saldivar's killing spree. It was also used by the Skin Hunters to kill patients in the Polish city of Łódź. Pavulon was also used by Richard Angelo in 1987 to kill at least 10 patients under his care at the Good Samaritan Hospital in New York.
References
Acetate esters
Androstanes
Bromides
Schering-Plough brands
Lethal injection components
Muscle relaxants
Nicotinic antagonists
Piperidines
Quaternary ammonium compounds
Neuromuscular blockers
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226932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion%20G.%20Duca | Ion G. Duca | Ion Gheorghe Duca (; 20 December 1879 – 29 December 1933) was Romanian politician and the Prime Minister of Romania from 14 November to 29 December 1933, when he was assassinated for his efforts to suppress the fascist Iron Guard movement.
Early life
Duca was born in Bucharest in 20 December 1879. He was initiated into Freemasonry while he was studying in France. He completed his studies at the University of Paris, earning a doctorate in law in 1902. As part of a group of professors, physicians, soldiers and other professions, he helped bring scouting to Romania (see also Cercetașii României).
Political career
Duca entered Romania's Chamber of Deputies for the National Liberal Party in 1907. He served in the cabinet from 1914, and was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1922. He was an avid supporter of the Little Entente, formed between Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia to fend off Hungarian irredentist claims (Hungary claimed Transylvania and the Banat, which Romania gained after World War I) and prevent the House of Habsburg from returning to power in Central Europe.
In November 1933, King Carol II asked Duca to head the government as prime minister in preparation for the December elections.
In this capacity, Duca worked to keep in check the rising support for the Iron Guard, also known as Legion of the Archangel Michael, a fascist movement led by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, even outlawing the Everything For the Country Party, its political arm. What followed was a time of violence when police on orders from Duca sometimes attacked Iron Guard members (which led to the deaths of 18 of the members), and jailed thousands of them. Shortly after, many of the Iron Guard members were released from jail.
Assassination
On 29 December 1933, just 45 days into his prime ministership, Duca was summoned to Peleș Castle, in Sinaia, for consultations with the king. On the return trip, at night, Duca was shot to death on the platform of the Sinaia train station. This was done in revenge for the actions taken by Duca against the Iron Guard, and because he had allowed for increased Jewish immigration while blocking that of Aromanians to Dobrudja. Duca’s assassination was the first major political assassination in Romania since 1862.
Duca was assassinated by three Iron Guard members, that formed the Nicadori Iron Guard death squad, comprising Nicolae Constantinescu, Ion Caranica, and Doru Belimace. All three were arrested straight away and sentenced to hard labour for life. They were all killed, as were many other Iron Guard leaders, on 30 November 1938 while being transported to Jilava prison.
Legacy
Duca wrote extensive memoirs about his experiences as a cabinet minister during World War I. His son, George, edited Duca and George's memoirs while at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in the 1970s and 1980s.
There are streets named after him in Bucharest, Constanța, Craiova, Eforie, Mediaș, and Otopeni, as well as a gymnasium in Petroșani.
References
External links
Hoover article 1
Hoover article 2
1879 births
1933 deaths
Anti-fascists
Politicians from Bucharest
National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875) politicians
Prime Ministers of Romania
Romanian Ministers of Agriculture
Romanian Ministers of Culture
Romanian Ministers of Education
Romanian Ministers of Foreign Affairs
Romanian Ministers of Interior
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania)
Romanian memoirists
Romanian Freemasons
Scouting pioneers
Scouting and Guiding in Romania
People assassinated by the Romanian Iron Guard
Deaths by firearm in Romania
People murdered in Romania
Assassinated heads of government
University of Paris alumni
Romanian expatriates in France | [
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226933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT%C3%892 | RTÉ2 | RTÉ2 is an Irish free-to-air television channel operated by public service broadcaster RTÉ. It was launched in 1978 becoming the Republic of Ireland's second television channel.
History
In the 1970s the Irish government considered three options for the introduction of a second television service: the re-transmission of BBC1 Northern Ireland; authorisation of an independent commercial service; or charging RTÉ with the establishment of a second national channel. It was the last of these that was finally chosen.
The channel, the Republic's second, began transmissions at 20:00 on 2 November 1978 with an opening broadcast of a gala ceremony from Cork Opera House. Owing to a technical fault, audio from BBC2 was played during the countdown instead of the proper soundtrack, and when the channel commenced programmes, there was no audio for the initial 15 seconds or so. At first the new channel broadcast in the evenings only. The first broadcast on RTÉ 2 was on 6 June 1978, it was largely aimed at those in "single channel land". Programmes included The Streets of San Francisco and Duchess of Duke Street.
The opening night's line up was as follows:
20:00 – RTÉ 2 presenters Bernadette Ni Ghallchoir, Roisin Harkin and Raymond Maxwell introduce viewers to Ireland's second national television channel. The National Anthem followed.
20.05 – The President of Ireland, Patrick Hillery introduces the new service.
20.06 – First Night, a gala performance aired live from the Cork Opera House in Cork City, hosted by Mike Murphy. Guest stars included The Chieftains, Gemma Craven, Val Doonican, The George May Dancers, The Irish Ballet Company, The Montford Singers, John O'Connor, Maureen Potter, Colm C.T. Wilkinson and Lena Zavoroni. There were specially recorded inserts from British and American stars such as Bruce Forsyth, Ronnie Barker, Liberace, Sammy Davis Jr, Michael Parkinson, Andy Williams, Dana and Eamonn Andrews.
21.30 – The first movie to be shown on RTÉ 2, Bullitt, starring Steve McQueen, Robert Vaughan and Jacqueline Bisset.
23.30 – Newsnight, a late night summary of the national and international news headlines.
23.35 – The channel closed down, ending the first night on air.
RTÉ 2 (1978–1988)
Up to 60% of the Republic of Ireland could receive UK channels via spillover or via cable. Cable in the republic was only permitted in areas of spillover up to the mid-1980s, to provide viewers with better reception of channels they could already receive over the air. Hence RTÉ 2 was aimed at those that did not have the UK channels. To this end one of their main remits was the re-broadcasting of UK programming to Irish audiences, that would not otherwise be seen on RTÉ 1.
On the opening night of RTÉ 2, one of the channels announcers said "From ten to seven each weekday, three o'clock on Saturdays and six o'clock on Sundays, RTÉ 2 will be bringing you the best of BBC, ITV and other first rate programming". In the first two years of the channel, it would normally close down for the night at 11.30pm.
British soap drama Coronation Street aired on the channel simultaneously with ITV's broadcasts of the programme (this continued until 1992 when it was put on RTÉ 1 due to the Olympic Games coverage). It broadcast much live programming from the BBC and ITV including Top of the Pops. However, the channel in its initial format was not considered a success. It was on air from 18:00 until 23:30 during the week, with an earlier start around 15:30 at weekends.
However, by 1987, RTÉ 2 rebranded, and RTÉ relaunched with a new logo and idents. While the rebrand was a small success for the channel it was felt that RTÉ 2 and RTÉ 1 needed more specific audiences. RTÉ 2 at this stage was becoming more and more associated with youth orientated programming and sports programming (especially as UK and other international channels were becoming more and more available across the country). In 1988, the majority of sporting and children's programming was moved to Network 2, the new name for RTÉ 2.
Network 2 (1988–2004)
In September 1988, RTÉ 2 was given a major revamp and became Network Two. In addition to the launch of a new vivid red, blue, and green logo, the channel now came on air at 14:30. The Den was moved to the channel, along with most youth and children's programming. Jo Maxi was launched as the youth strand. Sports Stadium took up the entire Saturday afternoon schedule, and all sports programming was aired on the channel, along with Irish language programming. A late night news bulletin, Network News, was followed by the controversial but highly successful chat show / soap opera Nighthawks presented by Shay Healy, and produced by David Blake-Knox.
This relaunch was a big success, and Network Two remained stable until the mid-1990s. A new logo - referring to the channel as RTÉ Network 2 (though the "RTÉ" part was not referred to by announcers) - was launched with the new RTÉ logo in 1995. By this time, RTÉ Network 2 broadcast from mid-morning onwards, with educational programmes during the day. Also during this era, the channel experimented with late night broadcasts at weekends, under The End brand, anchored by Barry Murphy and Sean Moncrieff. Broadcast hours were extended to 03:00 every day with a new service called The Night Shift.
There was another major revamp in 1997, and the channel was visually rebranded as "N2", though announcers continued to refer to "Network 2". N2 brought about perhaps as big a change as the original relaunch, RTÉ branding was dropped from the station almost completely, with home produced programmes now being referred to as "N2 Productions" (foreign imports were "N2 Presentations"). A futuristic logo along with a series of unusual graphical idents were developed. In-vision announcing returned. More importantly, the channel's line-up was completely refreshed. The late night schedule was completely revamped, with the launch of News 2—a tailored bulletin for young people—followed by a talk show, Later on 2. Monday nights became comedy nights, with the launch of home-produced comedy such as Don't Feed The Gondolas. Elsewhere theme nights became a regular fixture, particularly on Fridays and Saturdays. The Den was now broadcast all day until 18:00 and was renamed Den 2.
Not all the changes were universally welcomed, with the "N2" era, RTÉ cancelled its long running Saturday sports programme, Sports Stadium in 1997. Since then, RTÉ has not regularly aired live sports (or at least, as part of a regular schedule) on Saturday afternoons, though major events are still covered.
Many of the innovations of the N2 era had faded out by 2003. The idents had been replaced by simpler creations, the in-vision continuity had been scrapped again. Later on 2 had more-or-less ended (one of the strands continues as The View on RTÉ One). In September 2003, News 2 reverted to the regular RTÉ News format (as RTÉ News on Two).
From September 2003, continuity announcers and trailers began to refer to the channel by the fuller title of "RTÉ Network Two", in line with a new RTÉ initiative to promote the corporate branding. The main channel idents never changed, and said merely "N2" (although a newly introduced on-screen DOG said "RTÉ N2".). And finally in 2004 Network 2 was relaunched as RTÉ Two, in line with its sister channel RTÉ One.
RTÉ Two (2004–2014)
RTÉ decided the channel needed another revamp to keep it fresh. The channel's name reverted to RTÉ Two on the morning of 2 October 2004, with a themed evening of programmes called "Farewell Network 2" beginning at 20:00, featuring Podge and Rodge. The new logo is similar in style to the current RTÉ One logo. The new branding is designed to promote the Irishness of the station, green is the dominant colour. New strands were developed. In particular, the number of Irish made programmes has increased, though some of this is made up of a new strand of early evening repeats. The idents from this time were based on a Green Room theme.
The latest change has been a complete rebrand and relaunch of The Den, on Saturday 17 September 2005, with the id Two strand becoming TTV on the following Monday. In September 2009, TTV relaunched as Two Tube.
RTÉ Two got a new look on 17 September 2009. The new idents were created by RTÉ Graphic Design. Programme cutbacks saw the end of 24-hour broadcasting on the channel, with Euronews filling the down-time. Teleshopping was also introduced for the first time.
Continuing with the corporate branding of RTÉ radio and Television stations RTÉ Two's iconic children's brand The Den ended on 20 September 2010. The Den was replaced by TRTÉ, while Den Tots was replaced by RTÉjr; this was due mainly to the onset of digital TV on which RTÉjr is available as a separate channel. Two Tube remains as the teenage block of programming.
RTÉ2 (2014–present)
From 22 September 2014 RTÉ Two became RTÉ2 and presented a new schedule of programming. The channel established itself as the "voice for the under 35s" where the new schedule continued with new seasons of New Girl, The Big Bang Theory, Grey's Anatomy, Brooklyn Nine-Nine, Masters of Sex, Devious Maids, The Americans, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the final season run of Mad Men. Brand new imported shows included Outlander, Gotham, Resurrection, iZombie and CSI Cyber. RTÉ2 confirmed it had secured broadcasting rights for two Danish drama series 1864 and The Saboteurs: The Heavy Water War, both broadcasting in 2015. In terms of home-produced Irish programming RTÉ2 confirmed the return of Other Voices (Season 13), Maia Dunphy's What Women Want (Season 2), Second Captains Live, Savage Eye (final series), The Republic of Telly, Damo & Ivor, The Fear and the newly created youth orientated news service News Feed. RTÉ2 also confirmed new Irish reality programmes including Holding Out for a Hero, Connected, Full Frontal, Bressie's Teenage Kicks, and Drunk and #Trending.
RTÉ2 will also focus on major sporting events and the channel will showcase the best and freshest Irish films in association with the Irish Film Board. TRTÉ will play a major role in the daytime schedule on the channel. Two Tube will continue to air from 17:30 until 19:00. It is proposed by RTÉ to launch RTÉ2+1 in efforts to raise much needed revenue. In spring 2015 the broadcaster again plans to put forward a policy removing RTÉjr content from the channel and replace it with other programming yet to be confirmed, the government will have to give approval of such a move.
By 2015; RTÉ2 began to focus on imported programming from Denmark, Iceland and Germany. The channel increased its output of Irish themed reality series.
On 3 November 2018 RTÉ2 celebrated its 40th Anniversary and began to offer vintage clips of shows from RTÉ2 archives.
RTÉ2 HD
The HD channel launched on Saorview on 27 May 2011. The service broadcasts sporting programming from national to international events, documentaries, movies and American, Canadian, and Australian programming in high-definition 1080i.
On 15 March 2012, RTÉ2 HD was added to UPC Ireland.
RTÉ2 HD was added to Sky on 16 May 2012. RTÉ2 HD was due to launch on Sky on 14 May 2012, but was delayed by two days due to technical problems.
Format
The channel simulcasts content from RTÉ2 SD and upscales SD content into HD. All other content on the channel is made available entirely in HD, this includes Gaelic Athletic Association, Champions League, World Cup, Olympic Games, Pro14 sporting content, USA television series and movies.
RTÉ2 +1
RTÉ2 +1 launched on 19 February 2019, and it broadcasts daily from 19:00 until 02:00 Monday to Friday and 12:00 until 02:00 Saturday and Sunday. The channel launched only on Saorview and it will eventually roll out onto other platforms such as Sky Ireland and Virgin Media Ireland.
The development of RTÉ2 +1 has been a long process however in May 2018, it was reported by The Irish Times that RTÉ have requested permission from the Department of Communications to launch RTÉ2 +1.
Astra 2F (Sky)
On 13 December 2018, RTÉ2 +1 began test broadcasts on Astra 2F under the label 5493 using frequency 11914 H 27500 5/6 DVB-S QPSK. Testing included showing Sky Sports channels and a previously aired weather forecast on repeat. This frequency is the same used by RTÉ One SD, RTÉ One +1, RTÉ2 SD and others. Astra 2F is a satellite that Sky and Freesat (in the UK) use.
On 19 February 2019, RTÉ2 +1 launched on Saorsat (and Saorview) only. From 19 February to 20 July 2019, RTÉ2 +1 broadcast the same on Astra 2F as on Saorsat and Saorview. On 20 July 2019, RTÉ2 +1 stopped broadcasting on Astra 2F showing a "No signal" message.
On 24 February 2021, RTÉ2 +1 reappeared on Astra 2F on the same frequency as before using the same label (5493).
On Wednesday 10 March 2021, RTÉ2 +1 was added to Sky on channel 202.
Logos
Budget
The following figures were issued by RTÉ as part of their annual reports in 2008 and 2012:
Total costs
Profit and loss
Breakdown of Irish productions
The table below outlines RTÉ2's total in-house and commissioned programming by genre in 2008 and 2012:
Programming
RTÉ2 provides a broad range of programming which is mainly targeted towards young people up to 45-year-olds. Between 06:00 to 18:30 kids and teens programming is served by RTÉjr (separate to the channel) and the teenage strands TRTÉ and Two Tube. From 19:00 onwards, RTÉ2 provides a wide range of programming from Irish produced content, sports, comedy, dramas, films and acquisitions from North America, Australia, the UK and Central Europe. RTÉ2 has a strong tradition of broadcasting many US TV shows prior to other European broadcasters, though this has slightly changed in recent years.
Films are also regularly aired on the channel especially Irish-European cinema and International cinema. Until September 2014, RTÉ2 had stands such asTwo Wild (nature documentaries), Two Extreme (extreme sports/adventure documentaries), and RTÉ Sport on Two, these strands were axed in 2014 but the strands contents play an important role in the current schedule.
RTÉ 2 Controller
Dick Hill was RTÉ 2's first controller until 1994.
During the time of the 1997 rebrand of the channel as N2 they had placed the Head of Schedule as "controller" of the channel. Up until then, the channel was run side by side RTÉ One under RTÉ Television. N2 was a successful relaunched of the channel in the late 1990s.
Andrew Fitzpatrick was poached to take control of RTÉ scheduling from TV3; however, N2 basically reverted to being part of the overall RTÉ Television structure.
With no dedicated channel controller until then, in May 2011 it was announced by RTÉ that Eddie Doyle had been given the position of commissioning editor at RTÉ Two. Eddie Doyle was RTÉ Commission Editor of Entertainment.
In May 2013 RTÉ announced Bill Malone as RTÉ Two's controller. Eddie Doyle became Head of Comedy, Talent Development and Music at RTÉ.
In July 2016 Bill Malone moved to rival channel TV3 (now Virgin Media Television) as Head of Programming. Channel Control at RTÉ One, Adrian Lynch, took over the role at RTÉ2 and eventual became Director of Channels and Marketing at the broadcaster in 2018.
Imported programming
1978–1988
RTÉ 2 was original set up to provide Irish viewers with retransmission of BBC and ITV programming. In 1978 it introduced a simulcast of many British programmes including Top of the Pops. Other UK shows included Coronation Street (which began simulcasting from 1983), Porridge, Mastermind, Never the Twain, Treasure Hunt and Wogan and American shows such as The Dick Cavett Show, Tales of the Unexpected, My Friend Rabbit, Crazy Like a Fox and The Tracey Ullman Show. They also broadcast the Australian soap opera A Country Practice. In 1988 RTÉ did a major revamp of the service, focusing more on Sports, Children's TV, Irish Programming as RTÉ 2 was still behind both UTV and BBC One NI in the ratings.
1988–1993
As Network 2 the service still focused strongly on imported programming, RTÉ would now look to have first runs of US programming before other European networks. In the early years Network 2 broadcast US sit-coms Monday to Friday at 21:00 such as The Golden Girls, Cheers, The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd, Check It Out and Murphy Brown. They also broadcast Knots Landing and Falcon Crest. They also began broadcasting the long running Australian soap opera Home and Away, while A Country Practice moved to RTÉ One. In 1992 Coronation Street moved to RTÉ One. Other US shows at this time included Head of the Class, Ferris Bueller and Eerie Indiana.
1993–1997
During the 1990s Network 2 began to expand it schedule to cover morning and late night television. Imports still played a major part of the schedule with first showings of popular 1990s TV such as Friends, The X Files, Nowhere Man, My So-Called Life, but also Late Night and Daytime repeats of Yes Minister, The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin, Cheers, The Beverly Hillbillies, Peyton Place, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, MacGyver and also the morning strand of Open University. At 18:00 they began showing many US teen sitcoms such as California Dreams, Saved by the Bell and Harry and the Hendersons, and The Fashion Show.
1997–2004
During the late 1990s the schedules began to increase in size again. All of the daytime repeat programmes were replaced by Children's television while Late Night TV was extended until 2 am each morning with shows like, Profiler, Millennium, Star Trek: Voyager (only airing the first season), Stargate SG1 and some Australian serials including Water Rats and Murder Call. In 2001 they began broadcasting the Australian teen soap Neighbours. Popular prime time US programmes included Friends, The Parkers, Ally McBeal, 24, Dawson's Creek, Smallville, Jessie, Frasier and Boston Public. In 2000 Network 2 broadcast all episodes of the cult favourite Freaks and Geeks and finished the series before NBC did in the US. During this time they also began airing The Simpsons (also airing on Sky1) which had not been seen on the channel since The Tracey Ullman Show in the late 1980s.
2004–2013
Renamed in 2004 as RTÉ Two, the channel still had a heavy emphasis on imported programming. It’s late night schedule contained imports including Rules of Engagement, 24, Rescue Me and Smallville. During this time, the channel also showed Cougar Town, Flash Forward, Lost, The Good Wife, CSI, Criminal Minds, Desperate Housewives, Grey's Anatomy, Sons of Anarchy, Life with Boys and Mr. Young.
RTÉ2 also airs American programmes such as The Simpsons (currently airing Season 20 weekdays at 18:00), 90210, Revenge, Law & Order, Criminal Minds, The Big Bang Theory, Greys Anatomy, Worst Week and Private Practice. Australian soaps Neighbours and Home and Away air along with Irish programmes such as Katherine Lynch's Wonderwomen, The Podge and Rodge Show. Other well known US shows on RTÉ Two include Lost, Ugly Betty, Prison Break, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, Desperate Housewives, The Americans, New Girl and 2 Broke Girls. It also airs Smallville, Sons of Anarchy, Eli Stone, Mr. Sunshine after midnight on weekends, and British shows such as Shameless and The Thick of It.
It has also aired Seasons 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of NCIS and also Season 2 of Hawaii Five-0. It is currently showing NCIS Season 10 on Saturdays at midnight and Hawaii Five-0 Season 3 on Sunday nights. The Walking Dead, Under The Dome and Person of Interest are other US shows added to the channel's schedule.
2014–2016
In 2014, RTÉ Two began to focus more on Irish music programming for the first time in its history the annual Choice Music Prize was aired on television, previously only available on radio. It continued to air the critically acclaimed music series Other Voices for an eleventh season. In August 2014, RTÉ Two televised over 8 hours of Electric Picnic coverage from Stradbally, Co. Laois, this was the first time that the channel aired the annual music festival. On 2 September 2014, RTÉ began to air new comedy series Mom. Additional shows to begin airing in 2014 include Gotham. A new fashion and entertainment series produced in-house by RTÉ called #Trending will be hosted by Darren Kennedy.
As part of the autumn 2014 schedule RTÉ Two began airing Mom. Vikings premiered on the channel in early January 2014 and series 2 aired from October 2014. In 2015, RTÉ2 returned to broadcasting non-English speaking content; these included Nordic dramas The Saboteurs and 1864. American Odyssey was added to the summer 2015 line-up, since axed by ABC. News shows included CSI Cyber. Season 3 of The Americans was added to the summer schedule. Other non-English speaking programming were added to the RTÉ2 schedule in late 2015, including the critically acclaimed German drama Deutschland 83.
2016–
The summer 2016 schedule was largely made up of sports programming such as GAA, Euro 2016 and Summer Olympics 2016.
In early 2016, the broadcaster confirmed it would air the mini-series The X-Files, which began airing on 26 January. iZombie was another addition to their schedule, along with Icelandic crime drama Trapped. In Spring 2016, the channel debuted First Dates Ireland to positive reception.
Irish-produced programming
Reality TV
During the last decade like many other TV channels RTÉ2 have had several reality based TV shows.
In 2003, Network 2 set out to find their news TV presenter in a reality show called The Selection Box; the eventual winner was Caroline Morahan.
RTÉ2 also produced two series of the employment reality show No Experience Required, three prospective candidates are evaluated over the course of a week for a vacant position in a top company, the show follows them through interview stages and tasks set out by their prospective employees.
In 2008, RTÉ Two broadcast Hollywood Trials. It follow a group of young actors travelling to make it big in LA. The actors where selected by Hollywood acting guru Margie Haber. Those selected to travel with Margie to LA included Chris Newman from the RTÉ Two drama Love is the Drug, George McMahon from RTÉ One soap opera Fair City and Michael Graham of Boyzone fame. Nelvana
Hollywood Trials was then followed by The Model Agent. The model agent in question was Ellis and with help of Erin O'Connor as the girls mentor she picked Carrie-Anne Burton for a contract with Independent Models, one of the world's leading modelling agencies and a cover for Image magazine, one of the Ireland's most high profile and respected fashion titles. A similar series called The Model Scouts is currently in production.
Do the Right Thing, another reality series, began in September 2010 and was presented by Lucy Kennedy and Baz Ashmawy, in search of Ireland's ultimate volunteer.
In 2011 Masterchef Ireland began airing on the channel on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 21:30.
RTÉ2 also ran spin-off serials to RTÉ One's reality shows, such as You're a Star Uncut, Cabin Fever, and Treasure Island Uncovered.
Drama
In the first two decades of RTÉ2, little original drama was produced for the channel; often RTÉ would just repeat their dramas on the channel such as Fair City and Glenroe. RTÉ did place some emphasis on short film in the RTÉ series Short Cuts. Short films remain on RTÉ2 most Monday nights at 11:30; these shorts are not just taken from RTÉ co-financed productions but also from independent producers around the world.
RTÉ2's most successful drama was a drama/comedy/chat show entitled Nighthawks presented by Shay Healy. This was produced as a pseudo-documentary about the behind the scenes of the television production, it featured many well known Irish comedians, however unlike the mockumentary The Larry Sanders Show, Nighthawks featured real interviews and was created by David Blake Knox, who went on to be controller of Network 2 until 1998. Gerry Ryan had a similar format show called Gerry Ryan Tonight during the 1990s.
2000–2008
From 2000 to 2008, RTÉ were committed to providing new and original drama on RTÉ2 each Monday night each autumn. The dramas had mixed reviews but they included Paths to Freedom (2000), Bachelors Walk (2001–2003), The Big Bow Wow (2003), Pure Mule (2004), Love is the Drug (2004) and Prosperity (2007). Raw was RTÉ2's last Monday night drama; it received mixed reviews but it reached on average 250,000 viewers each week against RTÉ One's Prime Time Investigates and TV3's The Apprentice; Raw's second series ran on RTÉ One. Most of RTÉ2's drama output was aimed at a younger audience than that of RTÉ One's and it often contained bad language and sex scenes.
RTÉ ended their RTÉ2 drama's in 2008 with the first series of Raw, choosing to air its second series on RTÉ One. RTÉ are not currently looking for drama specifically for RTÉ2 which brings to an end a significant amount of work brought to the channel from RTÉ's drama department and independent producers. Many of the dramas of this era on RTÉ were seen as experimental but also highly modern and innovative.
Comedy
Monday night has been comedy night on RTÉ2 since its 1997 re-launch. Many US sitcoms were intermixed with live Irish comedy such as Don't Feed The Gondolas (DFTG), The Panel, The Podge and Rodge Show, A Scare at Bedtime with Podge and Rodge, @LastTV, The Liffey Laughs, The Blizzard of Odd, The Byrne Ultimatum and Night Live.
RTÉ Young Peoples
RTÉ Young People's department oversees programming for under-5s, 5- to 12-year-olds and teenage audiences. As part of RTÉ2's redevelopment in 1988 as Network 2, most of RTÉ's young people's programming moved from RTÉ One to Network 2.
Children's television
Dempsey's Den was hosted by Ian, Zig, Zag and Zuppy. It moved to Network 2 from RTÉ One, and broadcasting for an extra hour from 15:00 to 18:00. Network 2 would start the day 14:30 with Bosco a pre-school television show. All children's television moved to Network 2 when it rebranded in 1988. When Ian Dempsey left Dempsey's Den the show was renamed The Den, with a new presenter, Ray D'Arcy. D'Arcy presented the show from 1990 to 1997 when the strand began to expand it schedule into the early hours of the morning. From 1997 to 2010 The Den ran for 10 hours a day starting at 07:00 to 17:00 followed by a strand which was given various titles and targeted at a teenage audience. When RTÉ rebranded their children's strands in 2010, this effectively axed the country's longest-running children's TV show.
Saturday programming came from RTÉ Cork in form the mid-1990s to the late-2000s, starting with The Swamp which took the place of classic Irish children's TV such as Pajo's Jukebox, Scratch Saturday and Anything Goes (which broadcast on RTÉ One). Satitude was RTÉ Cork's main TV show for children and was broadcast on The Den on RTÉ2 on Saturday mornings. Satitude was cancelled in 2009.
Den Tots was The Den's pre-school strand. It is replaced by RTÉjr; RTÉ do not advertise during these selected hours.
Teenage television
Shows for young people in the 1970s and 1980s included:
MT USA, a pop video music programming presented from New York by pioneering Irish radio DJ and television presenter Vincent Hanley
Youthline, a series which looked at new and upcoming artists such as U2
In the late 1980s, RTÉ began simulcasting The Beatbox with 2FM as a replacement for MT USA. Presenters included Barry Lang, Electric Eddie (Doug Murray), Simon Young, Peter Collins, Ian Dempsey. It was replaced in 1995 with Dave Fanning's 2TV. 2TV spawned several spin offs: late night videos hosted by Jon Slattery, and RTÉ's only attempt at a morning show in 1999 with Bianka Luykx.
In 1988, Jo Maxi appeared for the first time until 1993, a daily teen show airing at 18:00, which was later replaced by Echo Island and in the early 2000s by ID, followed by ID2, TTV and now Two Tube. Within the programming block, contains The Big Bang Theory, Neighbours (repeated from RTÉ One), The Simpsons and Home and Away (repeated from RTÉ One).
Space Station Video's – Late 1985/1986 – music video show presented by people from the world of music, sport & entertainment, including chris de burgh & phil lynnot – Set on a space station – time on – unknown.
News and current affairs
Since January 2017 RTÉ2 provides no regular prime time news or current affairs programme. Children's news programme News2day remains part of their line up, however this programme only airs until the end of May, with it finishing up in Mid-March in 2020 due to the Covid Crisis.
From 1978 to 2014, RTÉ2 provided late night news. The first such news programme was called NewsNight. The programme was a wide international news service which provided news stories from US and UK broadcasters the show also included a national news bulletin, the final late night news on the channel was called RTÉ News on Two.
On 22 September 2014 the late night news was dropped in favour of two bulletins at 18:55 and 19:55 called News Feed.
With the relaunch of RTÉ Two as Network 2 the news was renamed Network News. The news was now similar in style to the newly launched Six One news and Nine News on RTÉ One.
In 1997, with the possibility of competition from a new local broadcaster Network 2 relaunch again known on screen as N2. Late night news was renamed News2 and was hosted by Sharon Ní Bheoláin and Anthony Murnane and aimed at a much younger audience. Its content was customised for a younger audience, and presenters and journalists tend to use more informal language on the programme.
RTÉ News on Two is RTÉ's late evening news programme. The program is broadcast Monday-Thursday on the channel. It does not have a regular time slot, but is usually broadcast at some point between 22:45 and 23:30. Since October 2006 the bulletin has been presented by Eileen Whelan, following the departure of Anthony Murnane who was with the programme from the beginning. John O'Driscoll is the programme Editor. Since the launch of RTÉ's Morning Edition on RTÉ One RTÉ News on Two has been reduced to a 10-minute bulletin.
From March 2007 until September 2014, RTÉ News on Two is available streamed live on the internet and archive shows where available to view through the RTÉ website. On Fridays an extended late summary on RTÉ One was broadcast instead of RTÉ News on Two. There are no weekend news programmes on RTÉ Two other than summaries.
Current affairs programming on the channel included Market Place a business news show and Later on 2, but presently, RTÉ2 do not cover current affairs. On Budget Day, RTÉ broadcast Opposition speeches on RTÉ2, while both RTÉ One and RTÉ News Now cover analysis of the budget, In 2018 due to an Irish Soccer match on the same night the Budget speeches moved to RTÉ News Now.
Sport
In 2019 it was announced that RTÉ planned to move all major sporting events to RTÉ One.
RTÉ2 broadcasts the majority of RTÉ's sports content. Since RTÉ own rights to several competitions any fixtures clashing with RTÉ2's schedule will often be provided on RTÉ One, however RTÉ One rarely provides sporting events on weekdays hence most soccer matches are shown on RTÉ2. These include UEFA Champions league and the League of Ireland and competitive Ireland National Football Team matches. George Hamilton is the station's main sports commentator. RTÉ2 also covers some smaller sports such as athletics, cycling, extreme sports, golf, field hockey, racquet sports, scuba diving, target shooting, triathlon, and water sports. RTÉ2 also covers the Olympic Games.
RTÉ used to cover basketball which has moved to TG4, combat sports, snooker, pool and used to cover the annual International Rules Series between Ireland and Australia; however, this has moved to TG4. RTÉ also used to cover Wimbledon and the Tour de France which is now on TG4.
RTÉ main sporting rights are UEFA Champions League Live & Highlights, Ireland International qualifying matches Live & Highlights, League of Ireland Live & Highlights, FIFA World Cup Live & Highlights, European Championship Live & Highlights, FAI Cup Live & Highlights, Women's FAI Cup Live & Highlights, 6 Nations Championship Live & Highlights, Ireland Autumn Internationals Live & Highlights, Women's 6 Nations Live & Highlights, Olympic Games, GAA Championship Live & Highlights, GAA League Highlights, Grand National, The Derby, Galway Races, Punchentown and the Cheltenham Festival which take commentary and coverage from Channel 4 with RTÉ's own presenter and analysis.
RTÉ2's sports coverage is its most popular programming strand, it often tops RTÉ2's most watch shows, significantly out doing other all other programming. RTÉ plan to provide most sporting events in High Definition on RTÉ2.
GAA
RTÉ2 provides most of the GAA championship coverage for hurling and football, in 2008, RTÉ lost its monopoly on the championship games to TV3 for the first time in its 10-year history took an interest in the games having mainly bought in soccer and bought live rights for 10 of the matches for three seasons, this forced the Sunday Game Live off air some weekends with live coverage only on TV3 however TV3 lost these rights to Sky Sports for Summer 2014 therefore Sky have 14 live exclusive matches and share semi-finals and finals of the All Ireland Series with RTÉ, RTÉ continue to show the Sunday Game at 9:30 pm on RTÉ2 throughout these month.
The main GAA show is called The Sunday Game it is a review of the weekend's action and it is presented by Michael Lyster and Des Cahill, The Sunday Game Live is broadcast earlier in the day. While The Saturday Game Live only provides live coverage of the games. Setanta Sports also holds rights for the GAA Championships however these are delayed rights as Setanta Sports is a pay television service. RTÉ2 also provides live coverage of the Camogie All-Ireland finals. RTÉ was one of three sponsors for the Hurling Championships.
Soccer
League of Ireland rights are owned by RTÉ and eir Sport. They each take turns on showing live matches each Friday night. RTÉ also show FAI Cup games and the final in HD. Every Monday at 7 pm, RTÉ produce a domestic soccer show called Monday Night Soccer (MNS) presented by Peter Collins which provides a roundup of the weekend of League of Ireland and international team news with regular guests, this was axed in 2014 and replaced by Soccer Republic which airs around 11 pm every Monday night. RTÉ have held rights to the 15:00 Premier League match from the English league between 2004–2007, this was hosted by Bill O'Herlihy, Darragh Maloney, Michael Lyster and Des Cahill with commentary by George Hamilton, Peter Collins and Darragh Maloney, however these are now owned by Setanta Sports. In June 2013, RTÉ decided not to renew their highlights package for the Premier League as part of cost-cutting measures and to concentrate on national sporting interests and live sporting rights. This package has been since taken up by eir Sport. The currently have the rights to the 2016 UEFA European championships and 2018 FIFA World Cup. They currently hold the rights to Wednesday nights soccer from the UEFA Champions League with both Setanta and TV3 all other hold rights and signed a new deal in December 2014 to continue broadcasting Champions League to 2018. They also broadcast games of the Republic of Ireland national football team competitive matches in qualifying for European Championships and World Cups and matches in these tournaments should they qualify, though the games were formerly broadcast by RTÉ One. After successfully broadcasting the men's tournament a year ago, in 2019 RTÉ also aired the FIFA Women's World Cup with TG4. RTÉ broadcasts 23 of 52 matches in English and TG4 with 29 of 52 matches in Irish respectively. The presenter for big matches such as the Champions League and Ireland matches is Darragh Maloney who is usually joined by Eamonn Dunphy, John Giles and Liam Brady while commentary comes from George Hamilton and Jim Beglin or Ray Houghton. Other pundits used by RTÉ are Kenny Cunningham, Richie Sadlier and Ronnie Whelan. Other commentators are Adrian Eames, Stephen Alkin and Peter Collins.
Men's and Women's World Cup coverage
RTÉ have had exclusive rights to the World Cup tournament; coverage is on RTÉ2 while rte.ie provides coverage of clashing games. Having been the only national service until the arrival of TG4 and TV3 in the mid-1990s. In 1990 RTÉ made a major investment into the coverage of the tournament which coincided with Ireland's successful campaign under the management of Jack Charlton. The main panel of pundits appeared for the first time consisting of presenter Bill O'Herlihy and pundits John Giles and Eamon Dunphy. For their coverage of 1998 World Cup, RTÉ introduced the comedy Apres Match, a mock of the panel of pundits. The Apres Match pundits first appeared on RTÉ's late night comedy show The End with Barry Murphy. In 1998 the Apres Match pundits for the first time took control of the punditry of the third place play-off and in 2006 surprised themselves and audiences when Barry Murphy playing the part of Liam Brady accurately guess the result – Germany 3 and Portugal 1. In 2006 RTÉ also introduced Graeme Souness as a panellist. Other panellists include Ronnie Whelan, Richie Sadlier, Liam Brady and Denis Irwin. In 2010 Ossie Ardiles, Dietmar (Didi) Hamann and Kevin Kilbane joined the team of panellists. Darragh Maloney, Peter Collins and Con Murphy also present live matches and highlights of the games each night. The matches commentary is provided by George Hamilton, Ray Houghton, Gabriel Egan, Trevor Steven, Stephen Alkin, Damian Richardson, Adrian Eames, Matt Holland and Jimmy Magee.
2014 was Bill O'Herlihy's final World Cup for RTÉ and he has been replaced by Darragh Maloney who was number 2 during the World Cup. Guest pundits used for the World Cup in 2014 were Ossie Ardilles, Didi Hamann, Neil Lennon, Brad Friedel, Paul Clement and Michael O'Neill alongside the existing RTÉ Team of Dunphy, Brady, Giles, Sadlier, Cunningham and Whelan. Commentators were George Hamilton, Stephen Alkin, Peter Collins and Adrian Eames while co-commentators were Ray Houghton, Jim Beglin, Trevor Steven and Brian Kerr.
Rugby
RTÉ currently holds the rights to the RBS Six Nations Championship until 2017. They previously held the rights to all Ireland games in the tournament until 1998, when BSkyB had the rights to home England games until 2003. Since 2003 the tournament has been broadcast in its entirety live on RTÉ2, since 2010 RTÉ have been host broadcaster for Ireland home games. Ireland's Autumn International Series is also broadcast live on RTÉ, with the station holding the rights until 2017.
RTÉ had shown every Rugby World Cup until 2007 when Setanta Ireland secured the full rights to the 2007 and 2011 editions. With Ireland games at the tournament an A listed event, terrestrial rights went to TV3 for the 2007 edition, the 2011 tournament returned to RTÉ with the station broadcasting 11 games live, including the opening match, all Ireland's games and every game from the quarter finals on. RTÉ and Setanta Sports lost the rights to RWC in 2015 to TV3.
The Heineken Cup was broadcast live on RTÉ from its inception until 2006. In 2006, BSkyB secured the exclusive Irish broadcast rights, highlights remained on RTÉ until the 2011/12 season when TG4 obtained the highlights package in a three-year deal. The Rabo Direct Pro 12 has been broadcast on RTÉ since 2010, previously coverage was on TG4 and Setanta Ireland. Ireland continues to cover Ireland Autumn Internationals signing a deal alongside Sky Sports from 2014–2018, Sky replaced BBC as the Nationwide broadcaster for Irish Autumn Internationals.
RTÉ presenter for Rugby is Tom McGurk who usually hosts alongside George Hook, Brent Pope and Conor O'Shea. Other presenters used by RTÉ are Joanne Cantwell and Daire O'Briain while other pundits include Shane Horgan, Ronan O'Gara, Alan Quinlan, Frankie Sheahan, Bernard Jackman, Scott Hastings and Ben Kay. RTÉ's main commentator is Ryle Nugent while George Hamilton and Hugh Cahill also work on the 6 Nations. Co-commentators include Donal Lenihan, Ralph Keyes and Tony Ward.
Entertainment
RTÉ2's entertainment content is generally aimed at a young audience to that of its sister channel RTÉ One. Since 1988 RTÉ2 has been successful with a number of entertainment shows aimed at the 15- to 35-year-old age group.
In the early years of RTÉ2 music shows on the channel consisted of Music TV USA every Friday night, which was then repeated on Sunday afternoons at 3 pm. In the mid-1980s this was replaced by The Beatbox presented by Ian Dempsey. From 1995, Dave Fanning presented a near identical programme under the new name of 2TV. The Beatbox and 2TV were both broadcast on 2FM RTÉ's popular music radio station.
No Disco was an alternative music show for late night TV from 1993 to 2003, it was hosted by initially by Donal Dineen who left to present radio on Radio Ireland in 1997. Uaneen Fitzsimons took his place on the show, seen as a major upcoming television talent. Fitzsimons died in a road accident in 2000. She had made a significant name for herself on the show, and her knowledge of the music industry, her love of the music and her respect for her guests was apparent throughout the show.
When Under Ether is a music magazine show launched in 2009 and focuses on alternative, indie and electronica music.
In 1997, Later on 2, aired on Tuesday nights, was the arts review show presented by John Kelly who now presents a similar show on RTÉ One called The View. Also in 1997, RTÉ introduced a set of comedy television shows on the newly re-launched N2 service. Don't Feed The Gondolas or DFTG was presented by Sean Moncreiff and later by Brendan O'Connor. In the initial years Brendan O'Connor was one of the main team captains, during the final season Brendan O'Connor became the main host with only three guests. Other shows to begin that year included Rodge and Podge: A Scare at Bedtime and @LastTV, a fast-paced review show with interviews, comedy sketches and music.
In 2009, RTÉ2 revamped its entertainment season with critics and fans still undecided about new titles which included The Byrne Ultimatum, Maeve Higgins' Fancy Vittles, The Republic of Telly and Podge & Rodge's Stickit Inn.
RTÉ2's schedule is carefully made so as to maximise the viewing figures for RTÉ2 but not at the expense of its sister channel, RTÉ One.
Cláracha Gaelige
As part of RTÉ Two's re-brand to Network 2 some emphasises was put on Irish language programming including a daily current affairs show called Cursaí. The series ran from 1988 to 1996 at 19:00 Monday to Friday. The series was later moved around both RTÉ channels. RTÉ retained the arts spin-off programme, Cursaí Ealaíona, into the late 1990s on RTÉ One. RTÉ also broadcast a daily news service in Irish at 20:00 each night, this later moved to RTÉ One.
RTÉ provides Irish language children's programming on both RTÉjr and TRTÉ, much of its Irish language programming has moved to either RTÉ One or TG4. In the early 1990s RTÉ suggested using RTÉ Two's evening schedule for Irish Language programming, rather than starting a new service.
Other Irish language programming on RTÉ Two included school's quiz Eureka and light entertainment show Seán Bán in a Shuí.
References in media
Saturday Night Live has mentioned this station on two occasions:
The recurring sketch "Top O'The Morning" hosted by two barflies Patrick Fitzwilliam (Jimmy Fallon) and William Fitzpatrick (Seth Meyers) is said to have broadcast on RTÉ2.
A one-off sketch parodying reality shows that focus on remodelling houses called "You Call This A House, Do Ya?" is also said to have broadcast on RTÉ2.
See also
List of programmes broadcast by RTÉ
RTÉ One
References
External links
RTÉ2
2
Television channels and stations established in 1978
1978 establishments in Ireland | [
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226935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yates%27s%20correction%20for%20continuity | Yates's correction for continuity | In statistics, Yates's correction for continuity (or Yates's chi-squared test) is used in certain situations when testing for independence in a contingency table. It aims
at correcting the error introduced by assuming that the discrete probabilities of frequencies in the table can be approximated by a continuous distribution (chi-squared). In some cases, Yates's correction may adjust too far, and so its current use is limited.
Correction for approximation error
Using the chi-squared distribution to interpret Pearson's chi-squared statistic requires one to assume that the discrete probability of observed binomial frequencies in the table can be approximated by the continuous chi-squared distribution. This assumption is not quite correct, and introduces some error.
To reduce the error in approximation, Frank Yates, an English statistician, suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for Pearson's chi-squared test by subtracting 0.5 from the difference between each observed value and its expected value in a 2 × 2 contingency table. This reduces the chi-squared value obtained and thus increases its p-value.
The effect of Yates's correction is to prevent overestimation of statistical significance for small data. This formula is chiefly used when at least one cell of the table has an expected count smaller than 5. Unfortunately, Yates's correction may tend to overcorrect. This can result in an overly conservative result that fails to reject the null hypothesis when it should (a type II error). So it is suggested that Yates's correction is unnecessary even with quite low sample sizes, such as:
The following is Yates's corrected version of Pearson's chi-squared statistics:
where:
Oi = an observed frequency
Ei = an expected (theoretical) frequency, asserted by the null hypothesis
N = number of distinct events
2 × 2 table
As a short-cut, for a 2 × 2 table with the following entries:
we can write N=a+b+c+d
In some cases, this is better.
See also
Continuity correction
Wilson score interval with continuity correction
References
Statistical tests for contingency tables | [
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226938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlton | Carlton | Carlton may refer to:
People and fictional characters
Carlton (name), a list of those with the given name or surname
Carlton (singer), English soul singer Carlton McCarthy
Carlton, a pen name used by Joseph Caldwell (1773–1835), American educator, Presbyterian minister, mathematician and astronomer
Places
Australia
Carlton, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney
Carlton, Tasmania, a locality in Tasmania
Carlton, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne
Canada
Carlton, Edmonton, Alberta, a neighbourhood
Carlton, Saskatchewan, a hamlet
Fort Carlton, a Hudson's Bay Company fur trading post built in 1810, near present-day Carlton, Saskatchewan
Carlton Trail, a historic trail near Fort Carlton
Carlton Street, Toronto, Ontario
England
Carlton, Bedfordshire, a village
Carlton, Cambridgeshire, a village
Carlton, County Durham, a village and civil parish
Carlton, Leicestershire, a village
Carlton, Nottinghamshire, a suburb to the east of Nottingham
The Carlton Academy
Carlton (UK Parliament constituency), abolished in 1983
Carlton in Lindrick, Nottinghamshire
Carlton-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire
Carlton, Suffolk, a village near Saxmundham
Carlton, Yorkshire
Carlton, a hamlet in the parish of Helmsley, North Yorkshire
Carlton, Hambleton, North Yorkshire, a civil parish
Carlton, Richmondshire, North Yorkshire, a village
Carlton, Selby, North Yorkshire, a village and civil parish
Carlton, South Yorkshire, a village in the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley
Carlton, Rothwell, West Yorkshire, a village
Carlton, Wharfedale, West Yorkshire, a civil parish
United States
Carlton, Alabama, an unincorporated community
Carlton, Georgia, a city
Carlton Township, Tama County, Iowa
Carlton, Kansas, a city
Carlton County, Minnesota
Carlton, Minnesota, a city and the county seat
Carlton Peak, Cook County, Minnesota
Carlton, New York, a town
Carlton, Oregon, a city
Carlton, Texas, an unincorporated community
Carlton, U.S. Virgin Islands, a settlement
Carlton, Washington, an unincorporated community
Carlton, Wisconsin, a town
Businesses and brands
Carlton Car Company, whose output was four cars constructed in Gisborne, New Zealand, in the 1920s
Carlton Carriage Company, a defunct English coachbuilder from Willesden, North London, UK
Carlton Cards, a subsidiary of American Greetings, the world's largest greeting card company
Carlton Cinema, Dublin, Ireland
Carlton Communications, a former media company in the United Kingdom
Carlton Cycles, an English bicycle maker in Nottinghamshire, absorbed by Raleigh Bicycle Company in 1960
Carlton Hotel (disambiguation)
Carlton Hotels & Suites, a multinational hospitality company in the Middle East
Carlton Publishing Group, a UK book publishing company, with three imprints
Carlton Records, American record label between 1957 and 1964
Carlton Screen Advertising, an Irish cinema screen advertising brand, now called Wide Eye Media
Carlton Sports, a manufacturer of badminton racquets and shuttlecocks
Carlton Television, a television broadcasting company in the United Kingdom
Carlton Theatre, a former West End theatre in London, now a cinema
Carlton Ware, English Stoke-on-Trent commercial pottery
Carlton Draught, an Australian beer
Carlton, a brand of cigarettes produced by American company Brown & Williamson
In sports
Carlton Cricket Club (Barbados)
Carlton Football Club, Australian Football League
Carlton S.C., a defunct Australian association football (soccer) club
The Carlton (LPGA Tour), a golf tournament
Other uses
Vauxhall Carlton, an executive car produced by Vauxhall Motors
Lotus Carlton, a modified version of the Vauxhall Carlton
Carlton Centre, a skyscraper and shopping centre located in downtown Johannesburg, South Africa
Carlton Club, a members-only club in London
Carlton Dramatic Society, an amateur dramatics group in Wimbledon, London
Carlton House (disambiguation)
Carlton Towers, a country house in Carlton, North Yorkshire
The Carlton, a dance routine by Carlton Banks in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air
See also
Carlton Hill (disambiguation)
Carleton (disambiguation)
Charlton (disambiguation) | [
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226939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Weekend%20Television | London Weekend Television | London Weekend Television (LWT) (now part of the non-franchised ITV London region) was the ITV network franchise holder for Greater London and the Home Counties at weekends, broadcasting from Fridays at 5.15 pm (7:00 pm from 1968 until 1982) to Monday mornings at 6:00. From 1968 until 1992, when LWT's weekday counterpart was Thames Television, there was an on-screen handover to LWT on Friday nights (there was no handover back to Thames on Mondays, as from 1968 to 1982 there was no programming in the very early morning, and from 1983, when a national breakfast franchise was created, LWT would hand over to TV-am at 6:00am, which would then hand over to Thames at 9:25am). From 1993 to 2002, when LWT's weekday counterpart was Carlton Television, the transfer usually occurred invisibly during a commercial break, for Carlton and LWT shared studio and transmission facilities (although occasionally a Thames-to-LWT-style handover would appear).
Like most ITV regional franchises, including Carlton's, the London weekend franchise is now operated by ITV plc. The "London Weekend" franchise was renewed by Ofcom in 2015 for ten years and is still separately licensed, but is no longer distinguished on air. LWT is now managed with Carlton Television as a single entity (ITV London), although the name for the London Weekend licence on the Ofcom site is still "LWT". London Weekend Television Ltd is now (along with most other former regional companies owned by ITV plc) listed at Companies House as a "dormant company".
Early years
Creation
The London Television Consortium (LTC) was created and led by television presenter David Frost, who, at the time, was working for the London weekday ITV station Rediffusion. The consortium also included three ex-BBC members of staff: Michael Peacock (controller of BBC1), Frank Muir (assistant head of BBC comedy) and Doreen Stephens (head of children's output). Rediffusion's Controller of Programmes, Cyril Bennett, also joined the consortium, along with Clive Irving, theatre director Peter Hall and, for financial backing, Arnold Weinstock, managing director of GEC.
Frost had originally considered applying for the new Yorkshire region franchise, but the expected high number of applicants led to a change of plans. The second choice was to take on Rediffusion for their contract but, although it held the largest and most profitable licence, it was felt that the company was too powerful to challenge; equally, as an employee of the station, he felt it would be seen as an act of betrayal. Changes elsewhere in the system (notably the decision to make the Midlands licence a seven-day operation) led Frost to believe that the existing Midlands weekday broadcaster ATV had a significant risk of losing its London weekend contract.
The consortium's application promised a variety of highbrow arts and drama productions. It accordingly caught the attention of the regulator, the Independent Television Authority (ITA), and it seemed to address concerns and criticisms raised in the Pilkington Report. The authority had been worried by criticism of the network's output, which was seen as downmarket and the LTC plans were viewed by the ITA as being serious contenders to the quality educational programming of the BBC. So keen was the ITA that it was quoted at the time as saying the LTC had to have its chance, whatever the repercussions.
The new company, renamed London Weekend Television, benefited from a slight extension in broadcasting hours, as they were allocated Fridays from 7 p.m., as well as Saturday and Sunday. The LTC had planned on buying the superior Teddington Studios of former contractor ABC Weekend TV, but following ABC's merger with Rediffusion to form Thames Television, the LTC were forced by the ITA to purchase Rediffusion's Wembley Studios and legally obliged to employ all members of staff, although the workforce was slightly larger than LWT had wanted. Having previously worked weekdays for Rediffusion, transmission staff now had to work at weekends, and, as a result, wanted extra pay for the unsocial hours. This led to threats of industrial action, and, with the dispute still unresolved, fifteen seconds into their opening night of 2 August 1968, technicians went on strike and the screens went blank. An emergency service was provided by management from the transmission centre of ATV at Foley Street, London.
Near collapse
Upon resolving the dispute, LWT suffered poor rating figures, as the station's evening viewing schedule included a Stravinsky musical drama, an avant-garde drama from French film director Jean-Luc Godard, a tribute to Belgian singer-songwriter Jacques Brel, and Georgia Brown Sings Kurt Weill. As a consequence, viewers deserted its primetime offerings in favour of the more mainstream Saturday night viewing on BBC1. Other ITV stations refused to show LWT productions because of the poor ratings. ATV, now the seven-day Midlands franchise holder after losing their London contract to LWT, refused to transmit any of their programmes in peak time; elsewhere, the powerful sales department at Thames Television, who provided London with a Monday to Friday service, took advantage of LWT's ratings crisis by adopting a "beggar thy neighbour" strategy, encouraging advertisers to use Thames during the week by heavily discounting their airtime.
The situation came to a head during a meeting of the Network Programme Committee on 9 September 1968. The NPC was being chaired by Lew Grade, ATV's managing director, and he is quoted as saying on this occasion: "I've succeeded in business by knowing exactly what I hate", he told them. "And I know I hate David Frost." Frost was present, but no one else spoke out against LWT's programming policy. Meanwhile, the £6.5 million it had initially put up for the franchise began to drain away more quickly than its audience figures. Michael Peacock, the architect in David Frost's vision for the future of television, wanted to stick to the principles of their contract with the ITA. ATV dropped Frost's major Saturday night slot altogether and replaced him with comedian Dave Allen, while Yorkshire and Granada relegated the show to the late evening.
In September 1969, Michael Peacock was sacked by the board while six executives resigned from LWT in support. The ITA made it clear that LWT's franchise proposals must be retained. As the crisis at LWT deepened, staff members held a protest outside the offices of the ITA, complaining about the changes happening at the station. An 800-strong petition was handed in to the ITA, to ask for an inquiry about the crisis at LWT. The ITA started to make emergency plans in the event of the company collapsing, and MPs asked questions in Parliament. At the same time, Thames started making enquiries about a seven-day contract in such an event – an offer quickly rebuffed by the ITA. In the general panic that followed, the General Electric Company withdrew financial backing and sold its 7.5% share to Rupert Murdoch's News International in November 1970. By December 1970, Murdoch become a part-time executive and injected £500,000 of new capital, increasing his share to 30% as part of the deal, also insisting on terminating Frost and his Paradine Productions, an action that was carried out at once. He continued to increase his stake further and, by the end of 1971, he possessed 39.7%.
Rupert Murdoch became managing director in February 1971. When Dr Tom Margerison left the company, he stated "there is no question of personal animosity between Rupert and myself. It's just one of those things: you cannot have two people running a ship." He had believed Murdoch was to become a non-executive director, but it was clear that he was going further than this.
Murdoch started restructuring LWT, but within weeks five other board members left. The ITA was unhappy at how Murdoch was able to buy his way into the company, because foreign nationals were legally blocked from owning the ITV contractors. It also demanded assurances that LWT's original programme policies and operations were sound. As a result, the ITA, concerned about Murdoch owning both a television station and significant newspaper interests, forced Murdoch from the chairmanship of LWT, and, on 9 March 1971, John Freeman, best known for presenting Face to Face for the BBC, became chairman and chief executive of LWT. He said "I expect many people are thinking I need my head examining, but I decided to take it up all the same. The public should have the kinds of programmes it wants, which means you must take into account minority interests as well as majority ones". Freeman made it quite clear that he expected to have full control within the company without any interference from Murdoch.
By early May, Freeman reappointed Cyril Bennett as Controller of Programmes, along with many of the original personnel who helped start up the company in 1967.
With these changes, LWT became influenced by the same character Murdoch's newspapers had. In time the station became regarded as a populist, conservative counterpart to the more highbrow and liberal Thames; hardly the BBC2-like ideal that Frost and Peacock had envisioned.
Audience share grew, and, in 1975, the company won seven BAFTA awards – more than the rest of ITV put together. Although the programming had changed from their original remit, LWT still produced shows which were considered more upmarket, in particular Upstairs, Downstairs. Unlike earlier offerings these attracted high audiences. LWT continued to show arts programming, mainly Aquarius and its successor The South Bank Show.
Improving fortunes
1970s
LWT's fortunes improved, which helped increase profits, and more money was made available for new programming. In 1972, Weekend World was launched; a weekly current affairs programme broadcast on Sundays at noon, presented by journalist Peter Jay. In 1974, the Director of Programmes at Thames, Brian Tesler, left to become Deputy Chief Executive to John Freeman. In the autumn of 1974, LWT challenged the BBC by spending £3.75 million on what it believed represented the biggest range of talent and varied scheduling for viewers, including Stanley Baxter, Danny La Rue, a number of new dramas and another current affairs show, which helped push up profits to nearly £4 million.
In May 1976, LWT was reorganised to form a new company, LWT (Holdings) Limited which allowed the company to expand into a number of new ventures, including Hutchinson Publishing. The LWT Chairman & Chief Executive John Freeman said "an important factor was the deal would provide revenue from a wholly different source thus in part insulating LWT from the effects of any future adverse fluctuations in advertising revenue". In the same month he stood down as Chief Executive, and the Board appointed Brian Tesler as the company's managing director. Cyril Bennett died later that year, and Tesler doubled as the company's Director of Programmes until he appointed Michael Grade to that role in February 1977. Three decades later the official history of ITV, Independent Television in Britain, observed "Under Brian Tesler's Managing Directorship LWT was to become the success for which its founders (almost all of whom had by that time left the company) had so earnestly striven."
In November 1978, News International sold off 16% of its LWT holding, reducing its shares from 39.7% to 25%, as it believed this was going to be one of the outcomes from the Annan Report on Broadcasting. LWT also warned shareholders that heavy spending on programmes would continue to reduce chances of increased profits. News International sold its remaining 25% stake on 13 March 1980, bringing an end to LWT's connection with the Australian tycoon.
After the 1979 ITV strike, LWT was hit hard. During November 1979 LWT believed it had managed to only lose around £200,000 over the course of the dispute. Its acquisition of specialist travel and tour operator Page & Moy and its Hutchinson publishing operations helped offset the losses made during the strike. Interim reports in April 1980 highlight LWT profits reducing by £2 million. By November it became clear that LWT profits had remained roughly the same as in the previous year, even with turnover increasing from £70.5 million to £80.5 million.
1980s
The 1982 franchise round was the first time LWT had to re-apply for its licence. The original 1968 contract was supposed to have ended in 1974. Instead, the new Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) had elected to extend all franchise contracts to 1981, owing to the enormous costs of introducing colour television. While it is debatable whether the licence would have been renewed if LWT had had to re-apply in 1973, by 1982, the company was in good health, and it easily beat off weak competition to secure a second contract – although it lost the Bluebell Hill transmitter near Maidstone to the new Television South, known as TVS, as part of a reorganisation prompted by the creation of the South and South East dual region. However, due to the recession, the company still had to tighten its belt. LWT had developed a reputation in many fields, including co-ordination of the ITV network's sport productions and presentation.
In January 1982, John Birt became LWT's new Director of Programmes when Michael Grade left to accept the post of Company President at Tandem Productions in the US, while Barry Cox became Head of Current Affairs. Birt's time as Programme Director resulted in a change of direction. He started overhauling the schedules, to maximise audience numbers: his measures to achieve this included moving some niche shows back out of peak time, and putting Cilla Black under contract. He criticised how ITV companies were spending huge amounts of money on local programmes and post-watershed dramas, which left a funding gap for shows broadcast between the two periods, which did not help LWT as it only had a two-and-a-half-day franchise period.
John Birt also started reviewing spending budgets for all departments to provide the best returns which resulted in The Stanley Baxter Show being cancelled. LWT also postponed and shelved a number of other productions during the early 1980s, due to cost and frustration with other ITV companies' ideas for the weekend schedules.
In 1983, Birt published a document with proposals for an additional £50 million to be spent every year on peak time programmes: shows concerning religion, the arts and current affairs would be pruned to free up cash. His argument for doing this was that ITV made 75% of its money in peak time, but the peak time was riddled with a number of weak slots which reduced the maximum amount of revenue; again, LWT was at a disadvantage compared with the other ITV franchise holders. Birt believed that LWT and others should transfer more of its public service broadcasting commitments to the new Channel 4.
LWT finally found a solution in 1985, when an agreement was reached with TVS, which wished to expand its own output for the ITV network. However, as TVS was not one of the 'Big 5' ITV companies, it had no real influence on the Network Programming Committee. Under the control of Greg Dyke as Director of Programmes, TVS started to move away from its original philosophy of niche arts and science programming, and began producing more entertainment programmes. The deal helped LWT to fill its schedules with appropriate, domestically-produced programming while not having to increase its budget, while TVS was able to get more of its programmes onto the ITV network slots. TVS retained its original philosophy for its regional and children's programmes.
On October 29, 1986, London Weekend Television had acquired a majority stake in the new company, The Silverbach-Lazarus Group, which is a Los Angeles-based home video and television company, which fueled the expansion of SLG's syndication activities and the Regency Home Video branch of the Silverbach-Lazarus Group, distributing product including Entertainment Partners, Gaylord Production Company, Glen-Warren Productions, Newmark Productions, Phoenix Entertainment Group, Schaefer/Karpf Productions and Visual Productions, and decided to add offices for the Chicago branch.
In April 1987, Greg Dyke moved from TVS to LWT again to be Director of Programmes (replacing John Birt) – having originally worked at LWT in 1978, before moving to TV-am in 1983 and TVS in 1985. At the same time, LWT started re-sectioning the company in a bid to cut costs and overhaul the working practices within the company ahead of a new franchise period.
As part of the cost-cutting review, the idea was floated that LWT could become a "commissioning" organisation – similar to Channel 4 – with its programme production operations being sold off to a new company, in a bid to "sharpen up its competitiveness". Consultancy company NERA was brought in to investigate the matter. The plan was halted in early 1988, as LWT chairman Christopher Bland, along with Greg Dyke, started to streamline operations; over four years, more than 690 people were made redundant, whole layers of management were scrapped and working practices were overhauled. But with the plan still a possibility, Dyke was able to offer lavish redundancy payments, ultimately getting the changes through.
Greg Dyke explained: "To completely restructure your business for less than a year's profits is a good deal. I have no problem with that." Another change was to make production operations a profit centre, with studios to rent – and with various uses from Jonathan Ross shows to sales conferences. These operations continue to earn millions a year for ITV.
1990s and takeover
In 1990 LWT created the second ITV Sales company Laser Sales, to deal with its own and TVS's advertising operations. The Broadcasting Act 1990 brought changes to the way ITV contracts were awarded. No longer a 'beauty-contest', but rather a blind auction, where the winner was to be the applicant who bid the most. LWT threatened not to bid for its franchise again, as opposition to the new franchise bidding process gathered momentum. LWT chairman Christopher Bland stated: "We have the programme power into satellite" – it cost both LWT and Thames £43 million for the licence, yet on satellite television would only cost £2 million. LWT denied it was trying to blackmail the government, but admitted the threat of some of the largest contractors packing their bags might make government think again.
The controversy led to the introduction of a 'quality threshold' which allowed that, in exceptional circumstances, a bid could be rejected if it were deemed excessive, or that an incumbent could be chosen against a higher-bidding applicant if it were felt that incumbent's programming was 'exceptional'. As described by LWT's managing director Greg Dyke, the franchise round, "became a crapshoot. You had to work out [in the franchise round] who was bidding against you. Of those, would they pass the quality threshold and would they pass the financial test". Scottish Television and Central Television both discovered that nobody was bidding against them—and both bid only a token amount.
It was the 'quality threshold' that saved LWT. Despite streamlining, and a successful conflict with trade unions, LWT knew that if it were to keep on making quality programmes, it could not over-bid. It had to rely on the quality of its programmes and submit the best offer it could, knowing it could be far less than a rival bid; the strategy worked, and LWT won a third contract with an annual bid of £7.5 million, against a rival who bid £36 million but whose plans were deemed by the new Independent Television Commission to be unsatisfactory.
LWT's weekday rival, Thames Television, lost its licence, outbid by Carlton. It was told it could not fall back on its long history of programme-making. After 24 years of existence, LWT survived the station that was its biggest rival. LWT would have a much better relationship with Carlton, and shared many operations including transmission facilities and studio space, and each owning 20% of GMTV, but most notably creating a joint news service, London News Network, to provide regional news programming across the whole week.
From 1993, LWT's low bid made it attractive to others wishing to take it over. Originally, Greg Dyke had planned to use LWT as a springboard to start acquiring companies to build a united ITV. On 6 December 1993, the north-west England franchise-holder Granada Television launched a hostile takeover for the company, worth £600 million. The takeover bid came about owing to the relaxation of the rules governing the ITV network. LWT tried to outstep the takeover bid with talks being held with Yorkshire Television and Scottish Television. A week later a conflict of words had broken out between LWT and Granada, with Granada claiming the YTV-LWT deal was "Something cobbled together by desperate men". Gerry Robinson, the Chairman of Granada plc, was also surprised if LWT went ahead with a bid for YTV, especially since it had made £10 million losses that week and was already paying much of its revenue to the government. Reports also suggested if LWT bid for Yorkshire Television it would also form an alliance with Anglia who would takeover Tyne Tees Television. By New Year's Eve, Granada had increased its bid to £658 million.
By 7 January 1994, the merger talks between Yorkshire-Tyne Tees Television had collapsed because it had proved impossible to reach an agreement on a suitable structure for the new company. A few days earlier Anglia had withdrawn from the proposed alliance, making an LWT takeover of YTV impossible. By 7 February 1994, Granada had increase its takeover bid again to £774 million, but the LWT board once again rejected the offer. Granada's Chief Executive, Gerry Robinson, said: "We are obviously disappointed that having evidently accepted the commercial argument in favour of scale, the board of LWT has not been able to recommend what is a generous offer." Sir Christopher Bland rejected this statement, claiming "the Granada offer is inadequate and still fails to reflect the true value of LWT". On Friday 25 February 1994, LWT had succumbed to Granada's £770 million bid for the company. This resulted in Greg Dyke and Sir Christopher Bland leaving LWT.
ITV London
By 2001, Carlton and Granada controlled all of the franchises in England and Wales, and in 2002 took the decision to unify the playout and branding of all of the companies to become ITV1, with regional references used only in accordance with regional programming. LWT marked its final day on air with a series of tributes to LWT's past, with long-serving continuity announcers Glen Thompsett and Trish Bertram appearing in-vision in LWT's playout centre in the London Television Centre. When GMTV handed over to the weekday franchise the following morning, the national ITV1 brand was on-air, with the new team of network continuity announcers announcing for the first time; former Meridian Broadcasting announcer Paul Seed was the first network voice.
The operations of LWT and Carlton Television were merged to become ITV London, a 7-day service. Unlike the other English and Welsh franchises, ITV London did not receive regional idents featuring the London name until the 2003 refresh; only one of these idents was ever used at a single junction from launch. Apart from this rare occasion, the channel was only known verbally as "ITV1 London" prior to regional programmes only. In February 2004 Granada and Carlton completed their merger to become ITV plc, owning eleven of the fifteen ITV regional franchises.
The LWT logo continued to appear at the end of its programmes until 31 October 2004. However, from 1 November, it was replaced by the new Granada Productions endcap, with programmes either credited as "A Granada London Production", or "A Granada Production" instead. On 16 January 2006, all network productions produced by any ITV plc-owned company were branded as "ITV Productions", which since 2009 has been re-branded as "ITV Studios".
Studios
As already mentioned, LWT's first studio base was the former home of Associated-Rediffusion, the previous London Weekday franchise holder in Wembley (see Fountain Studios). The Wembley studios were problematic, as their costly conversions to colour was imminent. Fortunately, LWT only had to use Wembley until its new purpose-built studios were opened in 1972.
The new studios, called South Bank Television Centre, included a large tower block named Kent House after the Duchess of Kent who officially opened the complex. It was built on a plot of land named King's Reach. The studios' network ident was KRS, for King's Reach Studios. These facilities were considered at the time the best colour studios in Europe. In 1992 the complex was renamed London Television Centre, and became the centre of ITV plc's studio operations and the chief production centre until closing in 2018.
Continuity announcers
Ruth Anders, Sue Peacock, Trish Bertram, Keith Harrison, Robin Houston, Glen Thompsett, Annie St John and Peter Lewis served as continuity announcers for LWT.
Presentation
LWT's initial on-screen look featured the name London Weekend Television in white zooming in on a black background accompanied by an electronic jingle; some shows, such as On the Buses, used only a still caption "From London Weekend Television", either in silence, or over the start of the show's theme music. This was replaced the following year by an ident featuring a rotating disc (a stylised laurel wreath) on screen against a grey (later orange) background with the caption in the centre accompanied by a simple acoustic ident theme. The '"Television" part of the name was dropped on-screen, with LWT merely called "London Weekend".
LWT's most recognisable identity – the 'River' – was introduced on Friday 18 September 1970, featuring a stripe made up of blue, white and red moving across the black background in the shape of an 'L' and 'W'; the 'Television' part of the name remained absent. Designed by graphics designer Terry Griffiths, his modified version introduced in early 1978 revived the full name; at the end, the river sections snapped down into the striped LWT logo. The ident jingle, composed by Harry Rabinowitz, was also remixed.
LWT dropped in-vision announcers in January 1983, and on Friday 9 September that year, introduced a new local CGI ident, bearing the company slogan 'Your Weekend ITV', with an additional ident appearing in 1984.
On Friday 29 August 1986, a new set of CGI idents by The Computer Film Company aired for the first time:
Genesis, in which the stripes fold on letter by letter, seen on networked productions until December 1987.
Solari, a vertical venetian blind effect seen in the London region only.
A separate cel-animated ident for children's programmes was also used, accompanied by a different version of the station's ident theme.
On 1 September 1989, LWT adopted the first ITV generic look and retained it until 30 August 1992, with their three coloured stripes featuring in their segment of the corporate ITV logo. The 1986 'Solari' ident returned during 1991/1992 to introduce local programming.
LWT replaced the 1989 ITV generic ident on 4 September 1992 with a large 3D logo forming from the left to a remixed version of the generic music, with two versions: 'Flying Blocks' and 'Flare'. On 30 August 1996, an updated ident and logo was introduced, splitting the river colours of red, white and blue on the individual respective letters, L, W and T, with six different versions. On 12 November 1999, LWT adopted the second ITV generic look, based on the theme of hearts. LWT was the only company to drop this look on 24 March 2000, replacing it with the theme of a video wall. The first version of the ident had two problems: the colour scheme was in essence primarily red, and the soundtrack theme consisted of electronic beeps. This ident was altered from July 2000, reducing the red colour scheme and featuring a significantly remixed soundtrack, and another revision on 11 August 2001 included the new ITV1 logo and, from November that year, the itv.com website as well.
By 2001, Carlton and Granada controlled all of the franchises in England and Wales, and in 2002 took the decision to unify the playout and branding of all of the companies to become ITV1, with regional references used only in accordance with regional programming. LWT marked its final day on air with a series of tributes to LWT's past, beginning with an authentic startup routine leading into the ITN Morning News. All elements of the startup were recreated in Macromedia Flash and in the 16:9 aspect ratio, created by Dave Jeffery. Later that day, a recreation of LWT's famous River ident would lead into The South Bank Show, which would be the last programme broadcast under the LWT name. The show was followed by a final signoff featuring continuity announcers Glen Thompsett and Trish Bertram appearing 'in-vision' to toast the departing station, and a montage of LWT presentation across the years, assembled by senior ITV presentation producer Gareth Randall.
When GMTV handed over to the weekday franchise the following morning, the national ITV1 brand was on-air, with the new team of announcers announcing for the first time; former Meridian announcer Paul Seed was the first network voice. The operations of LWT and Carlton Television were merged to become ITV London, a seven-day service. Unlike the other English and Welsh franchises, ITV London did not receive regional idents featuring the London name until the 2003 refresh; only one of these idents was ever used at a single junction from launch. Apart from this rare occasion, the channel was only known verbally as "ITV1 London" prior to regional programmes only.
On 2 February 2004, Granada and Carlton completed their merger to become ITV plc, holding eleven of the fifteen ITV regional franchises. The LWT logo continued to appear at the end of its programmes until 31 October 2004. From 1 November, the end caption (endcap) was replaced by a Granada endcap, with programmes either credited as "A Granada London Production", or "A Granada Production" instead. From 16 January 2006, all network productions produced by any ITV plc-owned company carried an "ITV Productions" endcap, and then from the start of 2009 adopted the "ITV Studios" brand.
Programmes
Programmes
Other notable early shows included We Have Ways of Making You Laugh (a sketch show starring Frank Muir which was due to be the first programme scheduled to be aired on LWT, but industrial action blacked it out early in the first show); the children's fantasy Catweazle; and several sitcoms, including the popular No, Honestly, On the Buses, Please Sir!, Me and My Girl and Mind Your Language, and cult favourites such as End of Part One, Whoops Apocalypse and Hot Metal. The channel also created the comedy-clips format with It'll Be Alright on the Night, Clive James on Television and Game for a Laugh; the latter in turn spawned Beadle's About and You've Been Framed!.
Although as a weekend station, LWT tended to concentrate on lighter material than its weekday neighbours Thames and Carlton, it did produce a number of successful drama series too. Within These Walls was a prison drama starring Googie Withers; Lillie was based on the real-life story of Lillie Langtry (with Francesca Annis reprising the role from ATV's Edward the Seventh); and The Gentle Touch, starring Jill Gascoine, was the UK's first drama series with a female police detective as the lead role. However, by far the station's most successful drama was Upstairs, Downstairs, a successful attempt to produce a costume drama comparable in scale to BBC1's The Forsyte Saga.
Neither did LWT neglect other responsibilities; it established the long-running Sunday lunchtime political series Weekend World and a variety of regional programmes including award-winning current affairs series The London Programme and the light-hearted magazine show The Six O'Clock Show. It also pioneered multicultural programming via the work of the in-house London Minorities Unit, which produced Gay Life, the world's first gay television series, and the youth documentary series Twentieth Century Box. The company also became heavily involved in social action with the use of on-air and off-air campaigns by the London Community Unit (LCU), later relaunched as LWT Action.
The Sports Department at LWT featured programmes such as World of Sport which ran for 20 years on a Saturday afternoon and was billed as ITV's answer to BBC1's Grandstand. Other shows included Saint and Greavsie, On the Ball, and The Big Match (renamed The Match between 1988 and 1992). The latter two shows were hosted for many years by ITV's main football commentator Brian Moore.
Major programmes on LWT included most of ITV's weekend line-up, which included gameshows and comedies like Friday- and Saturday-night favourites Play Your Cards Right, The Two of Us, Square Deal, Close to Home, The Piglet Files, Second Thoughts, Faith in the Future, Popstars: The Rivals, Surprise Surprise, You Bet!, The Moment of Truth, Blind Date, Gladiators, Barrymore, My Kind of Music and Don't Try This at Home, and long-running Sunday night drama series Agatha Christie's Poirot, Forever Green, The Knock and London's Burning. Nigel Lythgoe, who won infamy as a judge on ITV's pop talent show Popstars and now appears on the BBC's So You Think You Can Dance, is a former controller of entertainment at the company, working as an executive producer on many of the station's top-rating programmes during the 1990s and early 2000s. LWT also owned 50% of London News Network Limited, producers until February 2004 of the news programmes London Today and London Tonight; regional news for London is now produced by ITN and known as ITV News London.
Regional news programmes
From 1982 until it launched a proper news service of its own in 1988, LWT also showed Thames Weekend News, produced by Thames Television, on Friday evenings, until December 1987.
LWT News Headlines (1982–1988)
LWT News (1988–1993)
London Tonight (1993–2002; continues on ITV London)
See also
Carlton Television
GMTV
London News Network
Rutland Weekend Television
Thames Television
References
Further reading
Docherty, David, Running The Show: 21 Years of London Weekend Television, Boxtree (1990),
External links
LWT ident parade, YouTube
The Ultimate LWT Website (unofficial) History of London Weekend Television and downloadable video clips.
ScreenOnline: London Weekend Television A history from the British Film Institute
LWT at TV Ark
Original LWT animated black and white logo, mid-1969 (Requires Macromedia Flash version 4 or later).
Original LWT new first animated colour logo, late 1969 (Requires Macromedia Flash version 6 or later).
Original animated old LWT "River" logo of 1971 (Requires Macromedia Flash version 6 or later).
Original animated ending LWT start logo of 1978 (Requires Macromedia Flash version 4 or later).
London Weekend Television Label, Discodogs
Television channels and stations established in 1968
ITV franchisees
Peabody Award winners
Television in London
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2002 | [
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226940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharfedale | Wharfedale | Wharfedale ( ) is the valley of the upper parts of the River Wharfe and one of the Yorkshire Dales. It is situated within the districts of Craven and Harrogate in North Yorkshire, and the cities of Leeds and Bradford in West Yorkshire. It is the upper valley of the River Wharfe. Towns and villages in Wharfedale (downstream, from west to east) include Buckden, Kettlewell, Conistone, Grassington, Hebden, Bolton Abbey, Addingham, Ilkley, Burley-in-Wharfedale, Otley, Pool-in-Wharfedale, Arthington, Collingham and Wetherby. Beyond Wetherby, the valley opens out and becomes part of the Vale of York.
The section from the river's source to around Addingham is known as Upper Wharfedale and lies in North Yorkshire and in the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The first or so is known as Langstrothdale, including the settlements of Beckermonds, Yockenthwaite and Hubberholme, famous for its church, the resting place of the writer J. B. Priestley. As it turns southwards, the Wharfe then runs through a green and lush valley, with limestone outcrops, such as Kilnsey Crag, and woodland, generally quite unusual in the Dales.
Below Addingham, the dale broadens and turns to the east. This section is shared between North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire and includes the towns of Ilkley, Otley and Wetherby. The northern side of Lower Wharfedale, opposite Ilkley, Burley-in-Wharfedale and Otley, is in the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.
The Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust has a remit to conserve the ecological condition of Wharfedale, Wensleydale, Swaledale and Nidderdale catchments from their headwaters to the Humber Estuary.
History
The Wharfedale valley was cut into the shape we know today during the last ice age (the Devensian Glaciation). The valley was transformed into its classic U-shaped state between 18,000 and 12,000 years ago by the Wharfedale Glacier, though this was cutting through a channel that had already had a river draining water away to the east through what is now Wharfedale, and also to the north through what is now Bishopdale and then Wensleydale. Evidence of human settlement has been found dating back to Neolithic times and the valley has plenty of artefacts relating to the Celtic, Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods. The Romans built a road over Stake Moss into what is now the village of Bainbridge in Wensleydale. The Anglo-Saxon influence remains in modern times, with most settlements in Upper Wharfedale having Anglo-Saxon derived names.
The name of the valley is derived from the principal river that flows through it: the Wharfe, which comes from the Old English Weorf or Old Norse Hverfr, with both taken as meaning winding river. The River Wharfe starts at the confluence (at the hamlet of Beckermonds) of the Oughtershaw Beck and the Green Field Beck, each of which originates at the Pennine watershed, some north-east of Ribblehead. The valley roughly follows a south-easterly direction, providing a border between West Yorkshire (on the south side) and North Yorkshire. Between Oughtershaw Moss and Wetherby, the valley runs for . The uppermost part of the valley is known as Langstrothdale. Below Beckermonds the river is known as the River Wharfe. Wetherby is traditionally seen as the foot of Wharfedale, even though the river continues on through the Vale of York.
The valley has been used largely for agriculture, and is now criss-crossed with stone walls and stone barns that evidence its use down the centuries.
Geology
The geology of the valley is split, with Upper Wharfedale consisting of carboniferous limestone of the Yoredale series. In the lower part of Wharfedale, around Ilkley and Otley, the underlying stone is mostly millstone grit, which can be seen best at the Cow and Calf rocks on the south side of the valley on Ilkley Moor.
Wharfedale Ward
As an electoral subdivision Wharfedale is a ward in the north east of the City of Bradford metropolitan borough. It consists of the settlements of Burley-in-Wharfedale, Burley Woodhead and Menston along with surrounding moorland. The population of the ward taken at the 2011 Census was 11,836.
Deanery of South Craven and Wharfedale
In 2017, in consideration of regional geography, the Church of England changed its subdivisions and re-grouped the Deanery of Wharfedale with that of South Craven, in order that the similar regions can work together more effectively.
Wharfedale in culture
One of the most renowned painters of the Victorian era, John Atkinson Grimshaw, portrayed the area in his piece, "Moonlight, Wharfedale" (1871 – oil on card 17½" x 13½"). He is known as one of the best and most accomplished nightscape and townscape artists of all time, and this painting is a prime example of his mastery. JMW Turner also visited and painted scenes around Otley and Ilkley. Turner was commissioned to paint Kilnsey Crag, which he created as an oil painting in 1816.
The valley was featured in episode three of the BBC Two series, The Yorkshire Dales.
References
External links
Upper Wharfedale School Website
Kilnsey Crag by JMW Turner
Valleys of North Yorkshire
Valleys of West Yorkshire
River Wharfe | [
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226941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCdliche%20Weinstra%C3%9Fe | Südliche Weinstraße | Südliche Weinstraße (; ) is a district (Kreis) in the south of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Südwestpfalz, Bad Dürkheim, the district-free city Neustadt (Weinstraße), Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis, Germersheim, and the French département Bas-Rhin. The district-free city Landau is surrounded by the district.
History
On May 27, 1832 the Hambacher Fest took place in the castle of Hambach, an event which marks the beginning of the German democracy. The district was formed in 1969 by merging the districts Landau and Bergzabern. At first the name of the new district was Landau-Bad Bergzabern, it was renamed to Südliche Weinstraße in 1978.
Geography
The district is named after the first touristic route built in Germany in the 1930s, the German Wine Route (Deutsche Weinstraße). It starts in Bockenheim an der Weinstraße, goes through Bad Dürkheim, Deidesheim, and after 85 kilometers ends in Schweigen-Rechtenbach (near Bad Bergzabern).
The river Lauter forms part of the boundary with France in the south.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms is very similar to the one of the previous district Landau. In the top-left is the lion of the Electorate of the Palatinate. The white bar in the middle symbolizes the Weinstraße, the touristic route which gave the district its name. The bottom-right show two bunches of grapes, again symbolizing the route. The cross stands for Speyer, as the diocese of Speyer owned land in the district historically. The crown in the middle is taken from the coat of arms of the Bad Bergzabern district, symbolizing the Trifels and Annweiler areas.
Towns and municipalities
See also
Südliche Weinstraße Wildlife Park
References
External links
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate
South Palatinate
Anterior Palatinate | [
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226943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency%20distribution | Frequency distribution | In statistics, a frequency distribution is a list, table (i.e.: frequency table) or graph (i.e.: bar plot or histogram) that displays the frequency of various outcomes in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of the occurrences of values within a particular group or interval.
Example
Here is an example of a univariate (=single variable) frequency table. The frequency of each response to a survey question is depicted.
A different tabulation scheme aggregates values into bins such that each bin encompasses a range of values. For example, the heights of the students in a class could be organized into the following frequency table.
A frequency distribution shows us a summarized grouping of data divided into mutually exclusive classes and the number of occurrences in a class. It is a way of showing unorganized data notably to show results of an election, income of people for a certain region, sales of a product within a certain period, student loan amounts of graduates, etc. Some of the graphs that can be used with frequency distributions are histograms, line charts, bar charts and pie charts. Frequency distributions are used for both qualitative and quantitative data.
Construction
Decide the number of classes. Too many classes or too few classes might not reveal the basic shape of the data set, also it will be difficult to interpret such frequency distribution. The ideal number of classes may be determined or estimated by formula: (log base 10), or by the square-root choice formula where n is the total number of observations in the data. (The latter will be much too large for large data sets such as population statistics.) However, these formulas are not a hard rule and the resulting number of classes determined by formula may not always be exactly suitable with the data being dealt with.
Calculate the range of the data (Range = Max – Min) by finding the minimum and maximum data values. Range will be used to determine the class interval or class width.
Decide the width of the classes, denoted by h and obtained by (assuming the class intervals are the same for all classes).
Generally the class interval or class width is the same for all classes. The classes all taken together must cover at least the distance from the lowest value (minimum) in the data to the highest (maximum) value. Equal class intervals are preferred in frequency distribution, while unequal class intervals (for example logarithmic intervals) may be necessary in certain situations to produce a good spread of observations between the classes and avoid a large number of empty, or almost empty classes.
Decide the individual class limits and select a suitable starting point of the first class which is arbitrary; it may be less than or equal to the minimum value. Usually it is started before the minimum value in such a way that the midpoint (the average of lower and upper class limits of the first class) is properly placed.
Take an observation and mark a vertical bar (|) for a class it belongs. A running tally is kept till the last observation.
Find the frequencies, relative frequency, cumulative frequency etc. as required.
Joint frequency distributions
Bivariate joint frequency distributions are often presented as (two-way) contingency tables:
The total row and total column report the marginal frequencies or marginal distribution, while the body of the table reports the joint frequencies.
Applications
Managing and operating on frequency tabulated data is much simpler than operation on raw data. There are simple algorithms to calculate median, mean, standard deviation etc. from these tables.
Statistical hypothesis testing is founded on the assessment of differences and similarities between frequency distributions. This assessment involves measures of central tendency or averages, such as the mean and median, and measures of variability or statistical dispersion, such as the standard deviation or variance.
A frequency distribution is said to be skewed when its mean and median are significantly different, or more generally when it is asymmetric. The kurtosis of a frequency distribution is a measure of the proportion of extreme values (outliers), which appear at either end of the histogram. If the distribution is more outlier-prone than the normal distribution it is said to be leptokurtic; if less outlier-prone it is said to be platykurtic.
Letter frequency distributions are also used in frequency analysis to crack ciphers, and are used to compare the relative frequencies of letters in different languages and other languages are often used like Greek, Latin, etc.
See also
Count data
Cross tabulation
Cumulative frequency analysis
Cumulative distribution function
Empirical distribution function
Notes
External links
Learn 7 ways to make frequency distribution table in Excel | [
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] |
226944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon%20%28disambiguation%29 | Pentagon (disambiguation) | A pentagon is a five-sided polygon.
Pentagon may also refer to:
Places
United States
The Pentagon, the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense in Arlington County, Virginia, US
United States Department of Defense, as a metonym
Pentagon station, a Washington Metro station
Sanford Pentagon, an indoor sports arena in Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Elsewhere
Pentagon (Brussels), the historical city centre of Brussels, delimited by the "small ring"
Pentagon (Wiesbaden), the historical city centre of Wiesbaden, Germany
Pentagon Shopping Centre, a shopping centre in Chatham, Kent, England
Pentagon bus station, a defunct bus station located within the Pentagon Shopping Centre
Pentagono del Buontalenti, in Livorno, Italy
Music
Pentagon (Japanese band)
Pentagon (South Korean band)
The Pentagon (album), a 1976 album by pianist Cedar Walton
People
Pentagón, a professional wrestling character in lucha libre
Pentagón Jr. (born 1985), Mexican masked professional wrestler
Other uses
Pentagon (computer), a Soviet clone of the ZX Spectrum computer
See also
Bamboo Pentagon, a mythical secret headquarters of the Viet Cong | [
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] |
226945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon%20%28computer%29 | Pentagon (computer) | The Pentagon (Пентагон) home computer was a clone of the British-made Sinclair ZX Spectrum 128.
It was manufactured by amateurs in the former Soviet Union, following freely distributable documentation. Its PCB was copied all over the ex-USSR in 1991-1996, which made it a widespread ZX Spectrum clone.
The name "Pentagon" derives from the shape of the original PCB (Pentagon 48), with a diagonal cut in one of the corners.
Many simple devices (upgrades) were invented to connect to the Pentagon with some soldering.
Versions
Pentagon 48K (1989 by Vladimir Drozdov)
Pentagon 128K (1991)
Pentagon 128K 2+ (1991 by ATM)
Pentagon 128K 3+ (1993 by Solon)
Pentagon 1024SL v1.x (2005 by Alex Zhabin)
Pentagon-1024SL v2.x (2006 by Alex Zhabin)
Pentagon ver.2.666 (2009 by Alex Zhabin)
The Pentagon 1024SL v2.3 included most of the upgrades of the standard Spectrum architecture, including 1024 KB RAM, Beta 128 Disk Interface and ZX-BUS slots (especially for IDE and General Sound cards). This model also featured a "turbo" mode (7 MHz instead of the original's 3.50 MHz).
Upgrades from the original ZX Spectrum
Extra RAM ranging from 256 KB to 4 MB
Several sound card possibilities such as Covox (usually named as SounDrive) or DMA UltraSound
Additional video modes: 512x192 monochrome, 384x304, 256x192x15 (with no Attribute clash)
CMOS with persistent real-time clock
IDE Controller for hard drives
"Turbo Mode" that clocks the CPU up to 7 MHz
References
External links
Russian most popular Spectrum models
Pentagon 1024 official site
Schematic diagram of the Pentagon 48K and drive controller (DjVu)
128K Schematic diagram of the Pentagon (the DjVu)
Schematic and wiring diagrams Pentagon 128K 1991, revised and enlarged version (PNG)
Wiring diagram 128K the Pentagon (the PNG)
NEW English FaceBook Group
ZX Spectrum clones
Computer-related introductions in 1989
1989 establishments in the Soviet Union
Soviet computer systems | [
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226947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC%20Europe | CNBC Europe | CNBC Europe (referred to on air simply as CNBC) is a business and financial news television channel which airs across Europe. The station is based in London, where it shares the Adrian Smith-designed 10 Fleet Place building with organisations including Dow Jones & Company. Along with CNBC Asia, the channel is operated by the Singapore-headquartered CNBC subsidiary company CNBC International, which is in turn wholly owned by NBCUniversal.
As the most viewed pan-European financial TV channel according to the 2010 EMS survey, the broadcaster reaches over 100 million households across the continent. CNBC Europe produces four hours of live programming each weekday and airs reports and content for its global sister stations and the outlets of NBC News.
History
1990s
CNBC Europe began broadcasts in March 1996, as a wholly owned subsidiary of NBC. On 9 December 1997, the channel announced that it would merge with the Dow Jones news channel in Europe, European Business News (EBN), which had been on air since 1995. The merger took place in February 1998, upon which the channel then became known officially as "CNBC Europe – A Service of NBC and Dow Jones".
2000s
CNBC Europe has leaned generally on the U.S. CNBC on-air graphical look in the past. However, in June 2003, it revamped a number of its programmes, taking many of them away from the U.S. formats. CNBC Europe re-launched its on-air image in September 2004, but instead of adapting the U.S. title sequences for programmes, designed all of its title sequences itself from scratch (while still using the U.S. music adopted in September 2003).
In July 2005, NBC Universal announced that it would be acquiring the Dow Jones stake in CNBC Europe, subject to required regulatory clearances. On 30 December 2005, CNBC Europe became a wholly owned subsidiary of NBC Universal. Dow Jones continues to provide content to the channel. On 1 January 2006, in line with this, the channel dropped the "A Service of NBC Universal and Dow Jones" tagline.
On 18 September 2006, CNBC Europe debuted a new graphics package, which is similar to that used by its U.S. counterpart (first seen in the United States on 19 December 2005). Like CNBC Asia (which debuted a new graphics package similar to CNBC U.S. and Europe on 30 October 2006), it elected to keep the previous theme music (CNBC Asia did so until March 2007). In addition, CNBC Europe also elected to keep its September 2004 opening titles for most programmes.
The channel adopted a new schedule on 26 March 2007 which included a new pan-regional programme, Capital Connection. New title sequences were given to Power Lunch Europe and Europe Tonight to coincide with changes to the form and content of those programmes, but unlike CNBC Asia, no other changes were made to the channel's on air look on this date (although Capital Connection uses CNBC Asia's new graphics as it is produced by that channel).
On 7 January 2008, the channel unveiled a revamped studio and new "lower thirds". The lower-third style was distinct to CNBC Europe, but adopted some elements of the CNBC U.S. style.
On 29 September 2008 the channel dropped "Europe" from its on-screen name, returning to the CNBC brand it had previously used for a spell in the 1990s. This positioned the station in-line with its U.S. and Asian counterparts, which are also referred to simply as CNBC. Some minor on-screen changes were introduced to coincide with the rebrand.
On 1 December 2008 the channel relaunched its flagship programme Squawk Box Europe, with a new look not derived from CNBC U.S. at all. At the same time a third line was added to the ticker detailing general news stories.
On 15 December 2008 the channel announced that long running show Power Lunch Europe would be removed from the schedule and be replaced, in both Ireland and the United Kingdom only, with a 12-week run of Strictly Money, a new programme focussing specifically on UK issues. This marks the creation of a new UK/Ireland opt-out for CNBC Europe. The new schedule aired from 12 January 2009, with Strictly Money remaining in the schedule until its cancellation in March 2011.
CNBC Europe debuted a new lower thirds, which were completely different from its sister U.S. and Asian channels, on 27 July 2009.
2010s - 2020s
On 22 January 2010, the station ended its encryption on digital satellite television in the UK to increase its viewer footprint to an estimated 11 million households. The channel was subsequently added to Freesat on 23 February 2010.
A significantly revamped studio was unveiled in May 2011 along with a new format for various programmes.
The network was formally merged with CNBC Asia in December 2011 to form a new Singapore-based company, CNBC International, to manage the two stations. As a result of the merger CNBC Asia managing director Satpal Brainch was appointed to lead the new company, with his European counterpart Mick Buckley leaving his post.
On 31 March 2014, CNBC Europe launched in widescreen (16:9) and changed its lower thirds to match the on-air style of its sister CNBC Asia channel, which also launched in widescreen on the same day. The new look also saw the removal of the on-screen clock, which CNBC Europe had shown during live European and American programming since the channel was launched. This new on-air style did not carry over to CNBC US, which continued to use the old on-air style. CNBC US would ultimately follow with its own launch in 16:9 widescreen on 13 October 2014. An on-screen clock returned on this day (13 October) but it was a world clock with the time from various financial capitals shown on a rotating basis. CNBC Europe's current on-air style (which is based on the US design used since 13 October 2014) was launched 9 March 2015, exactly a month after its sister Asia channel.
On 10 November 2015, CNBC announced cutbacks to its international television operation, including the closure of its Paris and Tokyo bureaus, and a two-hour reduction in local programming from London (which will be filled with more programming from the U.S. feed). The cuts, which will result in the layoff of 15 employees, comes as part of a wider focus on providing European market coverage via digital platforms, such as the CNBC website. The programming cutbacks from London took effect on 4 January 2016. Only two programmes, Squawk Box Europe and the European version of Street Signs (the latter debuted on the same day), are produced out of CNBC Europe's Fleet Place studios in London.
On 1 February 2019, CNBC Europe launched free-to-air in HD on Astra 28.2°E.
and 19 June 2021, change frequency free-to-air in HD on Astra 28.2°E to 12,168 GHz.
On 12 November 2020, CNBC Europe also launched channel free-to-air in HD on Hot Bird 13°E.
Ratings
Unlike its American sister station, CNBC Europe does not have its ratings measured on a daily basis: the channel resigned its membership of the UK's Broadcasters' Audience Research Board in September 2004 in protest at its refusal to incorporate out-of-home viewing into its audience figures. The network instead focuses its viewership measure strictly towards the top 20% income bracket, where figures are compiled as part of Synovate's European Media and Marketing Survey (EMS). CNBC Europe's monthly viewership grew steadily from 1.7 million to 6.7 million in the decade after its 1998 merger with European Business News, with annual growth coming in at around 10%. In the EMS survey covering 2010, the network's monthly reach was reported to be 6.8 million.
Programming
European Business Day
Current programming
CNBC Europe produces live business day programming from 7h to 11h CET. The major business day programmes, all broadcast from London, on CNBC Europe are:
Squawk Box Europe – Geoff Cutmore, Steve Sedgwick & Karen Tso
Street Signs – Joumanna Bercetche
Decision Time (for live coverage of UK and European Central Bank lender rate announcements) – Joumanna Bercetche
In addition, CNBC Europe produces other business-related programmes. These programmes are premiered at 23h CET and repeated at various times over the weekend. These are:
Access: Middle East
The Edge
Marketing Media Money
The CNBC Conversation
During the business day, the CNBC Europe Ticker is displayed during both programmes and commercials, providing information on share prices from the leading European stock exchanges (this means that advertisements on CNBC Europe are formatted differently from those on most television channels, taking up only part of the screen). When programming from CNBC Asia is shown, that network's ticker is displayed. A stack (or bug) providing index and commodity prices was displayed in the bottom right hand corner of the screen until December 2005, when it was replaced with a strip across the top of the screen (in line with the other CNBC channels). The ticker was decreased in size at the same time. The bug was moved back to the bottom right hand corner of the screen on 13 October 2014.
Past programming
Rebroadcasts of CNBC U.S. and CNBC Asia
In addition to its own programming, CNBC Europe also broadcasts live almost all of the business day programming from CNBC U.S.. Worldwide Exchange, Squawk on the Street, TechCheck, Fast Money Half Time Report, Power Lunch and Closing Bell are all broadcast in their entirety. Squawk Box is also now shown in full right across Europe, but prior to March 2011 only the final two hours of the show were available to viewers in the UK and Ireland because CNBC Europe broadcast Strictly Money to UK and Irish viewers. However, on the day when CNBC Europe broadcasts its coverage of the monthly announcements of the UK and European Central Bank lender rates, only the first hour of Squawk Box is shown on CNBC Europe. Squawk Alley was originally not shown because it clashed with European Closing Bell, until the latter show was cancelled on 18 December 2015 (Squawk Alley has since been replaced by TechCheck, which debuted 12 April 2021). Fast Money is occasionally seen on CNBC Europe, such as during major events as a way of providing the channel with continued live programming, Mad Money has yet to be seen on CNBC Europe and The News with Shepard Smith is currently being shown between November and March on a four-hour tape delay to fill the one-hour gap between the end of Street Signs and the start of Capital Connection, created by Europe not being on Daylight Saving Time.
While the U.S. markets are open, the CNBC Europe Ticker is modified to carry U.S. share prices. A break filler, consisting of HotBoards (CNBC's custom stock price graphs) is often broadcast during U.S. programming, owing to the increased number of advertising breaks. In addition, for many years, during the evening a recorded Europe Update, a 90-second run down of the European closing prices, and for a time in 2013 this concept was extended into daytime when CNBC Europe broadcast brief European updates twice an hour when the network was broadcasting CNBC U.S.'s Squawk programmes. These segments were broadcast live and, as with the recorded evening updates, were inserted into commercial breaks. Europe Update has now been discontinued and has been replaced with an insert detailing current items on CNBC Europe's website.
The channel also broadcasts live the majority of CNBC Asia's output. However broadcasts of CNBC Asia's live programming had been scaled back in the late 2000s as the channel had broadcast teleshopping and, latterly, poker programming overnight. During the period when poker was shown CNBC Europe only broadcast the final hour (final two hours between April and October) of Asian programming, apart from late Sunday night/early Monday morning when the channel broadcast CNBC Asia's full morning line-up. In 2009, the majority of Asian programming was reinstated although the entire broadcast day of CNBC Asia is still only shown on Sunday night/early Monday morning.
Other programmes
For two hours each weeknight and all weekend the channel does not air live business programming. The weeknight non-business output runs from 10 pm until midnight UK time and consists of an edition of a weekly business magazine show, an edition of Late Night With Seth Meyers and a live broadcast of NBC Nightly News with Lester Holt. At the weekend, programming consists of weekly business magazine programmes such as On The Money and Managing Asia, news and current affairs, sport, several editions of chat show Late Night With Seth Meyers, paid religious programming and special programmes, such as CNBC on Assignment, dedicated to the world of financial news and politics.
The channel also broadcasts four hours of sports programming under the banner of CNBC Sports. The block airs on Saturday and Sunday between 10 am and 2 pm UK time. The middle two hours are devoted to highlights of the US PGA Golf Tour with the rest made up of other highlights and of magazine show Mobil 1 The Grid.
The channel airs some programmes from sister network NBC. These include NBC talk show Late Night With Seth Meyers and NBC Nightly News with Lester Holt. The channel also airs NBC's Sunday morning political talk show Meet The Press, showing it a few hours after its live broadcast.
Paid programming
CNBC Europe carries paid religious programmes. They are shown in a two-hour block on Sundays, between 7am and 9am, with one 30-minute programme broadcast on Saturday mornings.
Previously, the channel had given over much of the overnight hours to teleshopping. Most teleshopping output was broadcast at the weekend although for a time in the mid-2000s, teleshopping was broadcast overnight during the week. Teleshopping ended on CNBC Europe in the early 2010s.
Former programming
CNBC Life
In February 2008 a weekend nine-hour CNBC Life strand, was launched. This slot, which ran during the afternoon and evening, incorporated the already established weekend afternoon sporting coverage of sports such as PGA Tour golf, tennis and yachting with new programming which included travel programmes produced by the Travel Channel, output from The Luxury Channel, news and current affairs broadcasts as well as the airing of programs from sister channels, such as The Tonight Show and Meet the Press. In September 2010 CNBC Europe began airing a series of operas and ballets on Sunday afternoons under the title of CNBC Performance. The 20-part series began in September 2010 and ran until the end of January 2011. This programming was repeated during the rest of 2011.
Since 2012 CNBC Life began to be wound down in favour of a schedule more focused on its core remit of business programming and the lifestyle, travel and CNBC Performance elements started to be removed from the schedule. The CNBC Life branding finally disappeared in 2018.
Simulcasts of MSNBC
The channel used to air American news channel MSNBC during weekend overnights and during the afternoon on American public holidays. CNBC Europe also carried MSNBC during major non-business related breaking news.
By the end of the 2000s, CNBC Europe had stopped showing MSNBC. Standard weekend programming replaced the overnight broadcasts and on American bank holidays CNBC Europe now broadcasts replays of its weekly magazine programmes. Coverage of non-business related breaking news now comes from either CNBC U.S. or NBC News.
Extended programming
In the past CNBC Europe has broadcast extended European programming on U.S. bank holidays. In the mid 2000s, this took the form of an extended edition of Power Lunch Europe, during 2009 and 2010 CNBC had broadcast Strictly Money to the whole of Europe and in 2012 and 2013 the network broadcast a three-hour edition of Worldwide Exchange and a two-hour edition of European Closing Bell. In 2014 and 2015, CNBC Europe did not broadcast any extended programming on U.S. bank holidays, although on many of the 2016 American bank holidays, CNBC Europe broadcast two-hour editions of Street Signs.
Since the start of 2016, CNBC Europe has broadcast almost all of the CNBC US live business day schedule. Previously, the full schedule had only been seen on Europe-wide bank holidays which were regular working days in the United States (CNBC Asia produced Worldwide Exchange on those days) and between Christmas and the new year as CNBC Europe produces less European programming at this time.
On the day each month when the bank lending rates are announced, CNBC Europe broadcasts Decision Time, which airs between 1300 CET and 1500 CET.
The channel provides extra programming during the annual January gathering in Davos of the World Economic Forum. In addition to coverage during its regular programmes, the channel broadcasts a daily one-hour special programme beginning at 1600 CET.
The channel also occasionally opts out of American programming for one-off interviews and/or special coverage of a specific event.
Simulcasts outside Europe
All of CNBC Europe's live programming is broadcast in their entirety in the U.S. on CNBC World and Squawk Box Europe and Street Signs are shown on CNBC Asia.
The CNBC Europe ticker is seen on CNBC World but not on CNBC Asia and CNBC U.S.
Presenters
Current anchors and correspondents
Staff are based in London unless otherwise stated.
Joumanna Bercetche
Geoff Cutmore
Hadley Gamble (Abu Dhabi)
Rosanna Lockwood
Steve Sedgwick – also CNBC Europe's OPEC reporter
Julianna Tatelbaum
Karen Tso
Annette Weisbach (Frankfurt) – also CNBC's European Central Bank reporter
Contributors
Tania Bryer
Past anchors and reporters
Becky Anderson (now with CNN International)
Beccy Barr (formerly Rebecca Meehan; later with BBC North West; left television industry in July 2019, now a firefighter)
Louisa Bojesen (left 28 April 2017)
Julia Chatterley (later with Bloomberg Television and now with CNN International)
Ros Childs (now with Australia's ABC News Channel)
Emma Crosby (now with Sky News)
Anna Edwards (now with Bloomberg Europe)
Raymond Frenken (was Amsterdam Market Reporter and EU Correspondent)
Wilfred Frost (later with CNBC US; left 16 February 2022)
Yousef Gamal El-Din (now with Bloomberg)
Aaron Heslehurst (now with BBC World News)
Simon Hobbs (later with CNBC US; left in July 2016)
John Holland (was Frankfurt Bureau Chief)
Guy Johnson (now with Bloomberg Europe)
Shellie Karabell (Paris Bureau Chief 1999-2004; Time Warner Cable , Forbes.com)
Susan Li (moved to CNBC US; left in August 2017, now with Fox Business Network)
Willem Marx (now with NBC News as a London-based correspondent)
Ed Mitchell
Seema Mody (rejoined CNBC US in September 2015)
Stéphane Pedrazzi (now at BFM Business)
Nigel Roberts
Carolin Roth
Patricia Szarvas (now a moderator, media coach, writer)
Silvia Wadhwa
Ross Westgate (now with Infinity Creative Media)
Affiliate channels and partnerships
There is a feed of CNBC Europe for Scandinavian countries called CNBC Nordic. It shows identical programmes to CNBC Europe but has a ticker focussing on Scandinavian stock exchanges.
The channel also operates a separate feed for the United Kingdom. Before late 2008 this was used only occasionally, usually for advertising purposes. The network has since begun to actively market the feed to potential advertisers, and at the start of 2009 its first UK-specific programming, Strictly Money, began, initially as a 12-week experiment but the programme continued to air until March 2011. Now the only UK-specific programming is the occasional weekend teleshopping broadcast. Viewers in Ireland also receive this feed.
The following European channels also fall under the CNBC brand:
CNBC-e, the defunct Turkish version of CNBC. This is unique in the CNBC family, in that after business day hours, it broadcasts popular general entertainment programmes and films, plus children's programming from Nickelodeon. Owned and operated under license by Doğuş Holding. NBCUniversal's share was acquired in 2015 by Discovery Communications and renamed TLC.
Class CNBC (formerly CFN-CNBC), the Italian version of the network, operated in conjunction with Class Editori and Mediaset.
CNBC Arabiya, the Arabic version of the channel. Owned and operated under license by Middle East Business News.
On 10 July 2007, CNBC Europe announced the creation of a new Polish business channel, TVN CNBC Biznes, operated under license by TVN. The channel launched on 3 September, and shares resources with CNBC Europe through a permanent link to their London headquarters.
In December 2003, CNBC Europe signed an agreement with German television news channel N24 to provide regular updates from the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. Correspondents Silvia Wadhwa, Patricia Szarvas and Annette Weisbach report throughout the day in German. In June 2008 the channel also began producing thrice-daily video reports in German for the website of Focus magazine.
Other services
CNBC Europe is narrowcast in London's black cabs on the Cabvision network. Since 2005, CNBC Europe also produces the monthly magazine CNBC Business (formerly named CNBC European Business) in conjunction with Ink Publishing. The magazine is aimed at senior business people and business travellers.
References
External links
CNBC global channels
Television channels in the Netherlands
Television channels in Flanders
Television channels in Belgium
Television channels in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations established in 1996 | [
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226949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC%20Asia | CNBC Asia | CNBC Asia is a pay television business channel. A subsidiary of NBCUniversal, it is the Asian service of CNBC (Consumer News and Business Channel). Its programmes originate from Singapore, Hong Kong and Sydney.
History
1995–1997: pre-ABN merger
CNBC Asia was launched on 20 June 1995 along with sister channel NBC Asia. It was originally based in Hong Kong. Anchors such as Rico Hizon, Bernard Lo, Lorraine Hahn, Sumire Sugimoto, Dalton Tanonaka and Bill Hartley were part of the original CNBC Asia team. It adopted similar programmes from its US counterpart like The Money Wheel and Business Tonight and had a few of its own programmes as well. In addition, the channel has broadcast programmes from CNBC US and CNBC Europe on a live and repeat basis.
Post-ABN merger
In December 1997, Dow Jones & Company and NBC announced the merger of their international business news channels. This resulted in a merger of CNBC Asia with Dow Jones' Asia Business News (ABN), and likewise of CNBC Europe with European Business News. The merged channel launched on 1 February 1998 and was named CNBC Asia Business News but it was simply referred to as CNBC Asia in mid-1998. As a result of the merger, there were massive employee lay-offs and programme cancellations at CNBC's Asia original headquarters in Hong Kong (which since has been took over by rival channel Bloomberg Television for its Asia Pacific operations) but Rico Hizon, Geoff Cutmore and Bernard Lo joined the newly merged channel whose operations have been based in Singapore ever since. Programmes and personalities came mostly from ABN and were for the most part retained in their original form (i.e., title and graphics scheme). CNBC Asia also mainly used ABN's own graphics scheme rather than adopt those in use by CNBC US and CNBC Europe. In addition, there was no regional ticker for most audiences until 26 October 1998 and simulcasts of US and European programmes were very limited.
From then (until January 2006) the international CNBC services carried the tagline "A Service of NBC (Universal) and Dow Jones" (or depending on other local partners, a variation of this tagline) when introducing regional programmes (including magazine programmes) and airing general channel promotions.
Mid-1998–2002
On 1 June 1998, CNBC Asia added CNBC Sports which it aired weekend afternoons and in October 1998, it also started airing selected episodes of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Late Night with Conan O'Brien on weekend evenings as NBC Asia was replaced by the National Geographic Channel. When CNBC Asia launched its regional ticker in 1998, it introduced new shows such as Lunch Money (later replaced by Power Lunch Asia in 1999) and Market Watch (later renamed Global Market Watch) where the latter was produced by CNBC Europe but anchored from both London and Singapore. In addition, the channel substantially increased CNBC Europe programming in the afternoon by airing Europe Today in its entirety.
In October 1999, CNBC Asia had a partnership with the Australian Financial Review to present The Australian Financial Review Market Wrap, a daily round-up of market news from the Australian region hosted by James Walker and Grace Phan.
Major programming changes occurred on 30 October 2000 with CNBC Asia expanding Asia Squawk Box to two hours, Asia Market Watch to two hours in the morning and 1½ hours in the afternoon and Power Lunch Asia to one full hour. CNBC Asia's ticker was also reformatted on that day to include colours reflecting change in the stock prices (green for an increase and red for a decrease) and a stock's ticker symbol.
In 2001, CNBC Asia introduced localised tickers to audiences in Australia, Hong Kong and Singapore and has since kept the ticker on the screen during commercial breaks.
In July 2001, Asia Squawk Box was further extended to three hours and more programming hours from CNBC US and CNBC Europe were added to the line-up. This was further extended in 2002 when US programming started at 20.00 SIN time uninterrupted on weeknights.
2006: full control by NBC Universal
In July 2005, it was announced that NBC Universal would take full control of CNBC Asia from 31 December 2005, subject to clearance. The channel's main sequences reverted from "CNBC Asia - A Service of NBC Universal and Dow Jones" to simply "CNBC Asia" on 1 January 2006. But, on 30 October 2006, to further distinguish itself between its other counterparts, "CNBC Asia" simply rebranded itself as "CNBC", and adopting CNBC's new general slogan, "First in Business Worldwide".
2007 programming revamp
During the week of 19 March 2007, CNBC Asia commenced promotions for Squawk Australia, hosted by James, which debuted on 26 March 2007 from a studio in Sydney. It aired from 9.00 Sydney time/6.00 SIN/HK time weekdays. A revamped Asia Squawk Box, anchored by Amanda Drury and Martin Soong, followed at 7.00 SIN/HK time weekdays.
CNBC also launched two brand new shows that replaced Market Watch and the CNBC Europe programme Today's Business. CNBC's Cash Flow, anchored by Maura Fogarty (first hour) and Amanda Drury (second hour), was originally intensely trader and investor based. Following on from the success of Worldwide Exchange, another joint production, Capital Connection was launched. It was originally anchored by Maura Fogarty in Singapore, and Steve Sedgwick in London. Unlike Worldwide Exchange, which was originally produced by CNBC Europe (until production of that show was relocated to CNBC US on 4 January 2016), Capital Connection is produced by CNBC Asia.
On 27 September 2007, CNBC Asia announced strategic initiatives to push into the Australian market. Two new shows were introduced to the network: Trading Matters, a wrap-up of the day's market action, and Australia This Week, a concise show summarizing the week's highlights. Both shows are anchored by then-newly appointed CNBC anchor Oriel Morrison, formerly of Channel Nine and Bloomberg Television. The shows debuted on 2 and 6 October 2007 respectively at 17.30 Sydney time/15.30 SIN time as the channel moved its Sydney bureau into a new studio situated across from the Australian Stock Exchange building. The move has also seen CNBC Australia re-introduce opt-outs from the pan-Asian feed for additional airings of Trading Matters and Australia This Week.
2007: return to Sydney
It was announced on 5 March 2007 that CNBC Asia would be opening a bureau in Sydney to track the Australian markets. This was in light of the recent global market correction. Squawk Box has had reports from Jeffrey James (a former Business Presenter with Deutsche Welle DW-TV) who was also the original anchor of Squawk Australia. James was the first on-camera presence from CNBC since Mark Laudi returned to Singapore from Sydney. James anchored Squawk Australia from a temporary location on the 11th floor of Sydney's General Electric headquarters (NAB House) from early 2007 whilst a new studio was being constructed in nearby Bridge Street. He left the show in October 2008. In 2007, Oriel Morrison also joined the Sydney bureau to give reports during the afternoon session there. She anchored a 30-minute afternoon show for CNBC called Trading Matters.
On 7 January 2008, Foxtel spun off a business channel from Sky News Australia called Sky News Business Channel (named after Fox Business Network in the United States).
In August 2008, The Daily Telegraph reported that Channel Nine's finance reporter Karen Tso, would be joining the network in October 2008. She became the network's Sydney-based correspondent and anchored Squawk Australia, thus replacing Jeffrey James.
In mid-2009, CNBC launched a new personal finance show, The Barefoot Investor, with Australian personal finance expert Scott Pape. This is similar to The Suze Orman Show and is seen on the Australian feed during weekends.
2010: new studio new look
On 14 June 2010, CNBC Asia moved to a new studio inside the Singapore Exchange. The new studio features a rear projection wall that principally gives an overview of regional market action (very similar to what CNBC Europe has). The left side of the studio has three LCD screens where a reporter stands beside to feature one story or highlight per screen. CNBC Asia also adopted the graphics package that CNBC US and CNBC Europe have been using since 2 March 2010. CNBC also premièred another production hub in Bahrain. This hub is used by presenters to report on Middle East business and is one of the three locations from which Capital Connection is presented.
2014: new studio in Hong Kong and picture format change to 16:9
Started from 30 March 2014, CNBC Asia changed its picture format to 16:9 as a standard broadcast format. CNBC Europe followed suit on 31 March 2014. Both networks debuted a then-new, updated graphics package, including new lower-thirds. This on-air style did not carry over to CNBC US, which still had the old on-air style used from 1 March 2010 to 10 October 2014. CNBC US also switched its own picture format to 16:9 on 13 October 2014.
2015–present
On 9 February 2015, CNBC Asia once again updated its graphics package, this time with new titles and new theme music that was based on the US version used since 13 October 2014. Exactly a month later (9 March 2015), its sister network in Europe followed suit. This new on-air style, which is designed by Magoo 3D Studios, matched its US counterpart. Except for Asia Squawk Box and Capital Connection, all of the programmes share the same theme music, which is different from US and Europe versions (each of their programmes have their individual music). CNBC also was added to Dialog TV in Sri Lanka.
On 29 October 2018, Street Signs was expanded to three hours due to the cancellation of The Rundown, which also resulted in Asia Squawk Box returning to the previous 6-9am SIN/HK timeslot.
Programming
2014 programming revamp
During the week of 31 March 2014, CNBC launched two brand new shows that replaced The Call and Cash Flow. These were early morning show The Rundown and Street Signs replaced Cash Flow. CNBC also unveiled a redesigned studio in Hong Kong for Squawk Box. CNBC also premiered another production hub in Beijing.
Weekday line-up
CNBC Asia produces live business day programming from 6 am to 1 pm SIN/HK time during DST or 6 am to 2 pm without DST (also SIN/HK time). The channel's weekday business day programmes (pan-Asian feed) are
Asia Squawk Box – Sri Jegarajah and Martin Soong
Street Signs – Tanvir Gill
Capital Connection – Matthew Taylor and Hadley Gamble
In addition, CNBC Asia produces a weekly show - Managing Asia, presented by Christine Tan (Friday only)
Weekends
CNBC Asia broadcasts lifestyle and sporting programmes, branded under CNBC Life, showings of CNBC US documentaries and weekly business shows such as Managing Asia, Investing Asia, Investing Edge, Access: Middle East, Suze Orman, Inside China and On the Money. Back-to-back editions of The Tonight Show starring Jimmy Fallon are shown during the evening.
End-of-year programming
On trading days over the Christmas and new year period, CNBC Asia massively cuts back its regional programming, replacing it with pre-taped specials with live output restricted to a two-hour edition of Asia Squawk Box. Simulcasts of programmes originating from CNBC US and CNBC Europe remain unaffected. Regular programming resumes immediately after the New Year's Day holiday.
Former programmes
Among the shows that have been cancelled are:
Weekdays
Lunch Money (2 February 1998 – 29 October 1999, replaced by Power Lunch Asia on 1 November 1999)
Breakfast Briefing (2 February 1998 – 31 March 2000, replaced by CNBC Today on 3 April 2000)
Trading Day (2 February 1998 – 31 March 2000, replaced by Asia Market Watch and European Market Watch on 3 April 2000)
Asia Nightly News (2 February 1998 – 30 June 2000, replaced by e on 3 July 2000)
Global Market Watch (3 April 2000 – 27 October 2000, replaced by Business Center on 30 October 2000)
The Australian Financial Review Market Wrap (1 November 1999 – 29 December 2000, replaced by Australia Market Wrap)
CNBC Today (3 April 2000 – 15 March 2002, replaced by Asia Wake Up Call on 18 March 2002)
Wake Up Call (18 March 2002 – 28 March 2003, replaced by Asia Squawk Box on 31 March 2003)
Power Lunch Asia (1 November 1999 – 28 March 2003, replaced by Meet The Press and US Business Center on 31 March 2003 after Rico Hizon's leave)
Australia Market Wrap (1 January 2001 – 2 January 2004)
Australia Market Week (6 April 2001 – 2 January 2004)
Business Centre Australia (January 2001 – 2 January 2004)
Business Center (30 October 2000 – 15 February 2005, replaced by CNBC Tonight)
e (5 April 2000 – 15 February 2005, replaced by CNBC Tonight)
The Asian Wall Street Journal (2 February 1998 – 15 February 2005, replaced by CNBC Tonight)
Asia Market Wrap (2 February 1998 – 2 December 2005, replaced by Squawk Box Europe then Worldwide Exchange on 19 December 2005)
CNBC Tonight (16 February 2005 – 16 December 2005, replaced by Worldwide Exchange)
Market Watch (3 April 2000 – 23 March 2007, replaced by CNBC's Cash Flow and Asia Squawk Box on 26 March 2007)
Cash Flow (originally CNBC's Cash Flow, then Cash Flow From Australia; 26 March 2007 – 28 March 2014, replaced by Street Signs)
The Call (14 June 2010 – 28 March 2014)
The Rundown (31 March 2014 – 26 October 2018)
Primetime and weekends
Generation e (replaced by CNBC Tonight)
CEO Australia
dot.commerce (replaced by e in April 2000)
Far Eastern Economic Review or Review On Air (cancelled in April 2001)
Driven (cancelled in 2000)
Over Asia (cancelled in 1999)
New Company
Lo & Company
Asian Working Woman (cancelled in April 2001)
Smart Money (cancelled in 2000)
Challenging Asia (cancelled in 2000)
Storyboard (cancelled 29 October 2000)
Asia This Week (cancelled in March 2003 after Rico Hizon's leave)
Inside China
Sports coverage
PGA Tour
World Match Racing Tour
Simulcasts outside the region
In the US, all of CNBC Asia's daytime programmes are seen on CNBC World.
In Europe, during the mid to late 2000s CNBC Europe had chosen to scale back simulcasts of CNBC Asia programming overnight in favour of teleshopping and later poker games and CNBC Asia's entire morning line-up had only been seen on Monday mornings. During the rest of the week, only the second hour of Street Signs and Capital Connection were seen on CNBC Europe. However, in 2009, CNBC Europe began showing almost the entire CNBC Asia schedule throughout the week.
Since 23 April 2007, a free live and commercial-free stream of CNBC Asia has been available on CNBC.com every Monday, from 6AM to 4PM SIN/HK/TWN time (Sundays 6PM to 4AM ET with DST). At other times, the stream can be accessed by subscribing to CNBC Plus, which costs $9.95/month or $99.95/year.
From 4 January 2016 to 31 December 2020, Worldwide Exchange was not shown on Fridays due to clashing with weekend shows (Inside China, The Edge) and Managing Asia.
CNBC Asia ticker
During the trading day, CNBC Asia runs a ticker providing information from major Asian stock exchanges, as well as US and Europe recaps. The top bar usually features the Most Active shares in the region while the bottom bar gives the latest data on indices, currencies, commodities and the treasury market. At night, the old CNBC US ticker is simulated where only the ticker symbols are displayed instead of the companies' full names. The ticker is shown continuously during commercial breaks and most of the data for the Asian ticker is supplied by Reuters.
Viewers in Singapore and Australia are treated to a more localised ticker with the top bar featuring trades from their respective local stock markets exclusively.
Outside Asia, the ticker can be seen alongside CNBC Asia programmes simulcasted on CNBC Europe and CNBC World. However, the ticker is not available on CNBC Asia's live stream at CNBC.com (both freeview and CNBC Plus) and is instead replaced by a similar looking static strip which says "CNBC" on the top bar and its tagline "First in Business Worldwide" on the lower bar.
Notable on-air staff
Staff are based in Singapore unless stated otherwise.
Current
Amanda Drury (Sydney)
Tanvir Gill
Sri Jegarajah
Chery Kang (Hong Kong) correspondent
Arjun Kharpal (Guangzhou, China) – Asia technology correspondent
Will Koulouris (Sydney) – Australia correspondent
Martin Soong
Emily Tan (Hong Kong) – Senior correspondent
Christine Tan
Matthew Taylor
Eunice Yoon (Beijing) – China correspondent
Former
Anchors/presenters
Andrea Catherwood (now presenting and contributing to programmes in the UK)
Rico Hizon (formerly with BBC World News, now with CNN Philippines)
Nancy Hungerford (left CNBC on July 2, 2021)
Fauziah Ibrahim (now with ABC News (Australia))
Jeffrey James (now based in China)
May Lee (her "Oprah"-style talk show on STAR World premiered in May 2008)
Susan Li (moved to CNBC Europe and later to CNBC US; left in August 2017, now with Fox Business)
Teymoor Nabili (formerly with Australian Broadcasting Corporation, now with Channel NewsAsia)
Dalton Tanonaka (now with Metro TV)
Karen Tso (now based at CNBC Europe as co-anchor of Squawk Box Europe)
Correspondents
Tracey Chang (now with CCTV)
Geoff Cutmore (now with CNBC Europe, hosting Squawk Box Europe)
Betty Liu (now with Bloomberg Television, New York studios)
Colette Wong (now with Fox Sports Asia and Fox Sports News Asia)
Other CNBC Asia Services and partnerships
CNBC-based channels
In conjunction with local partners it provides the following local channels:
CNBC TV18 (in India, formerly CNBC India)
CNBC Infinitey (in India)
CNBC Awaaz (in India)
CNBC Bajar (in India)
CNBC Prime (in India)
CNBC Tamilin (in India)
Nikkei CNBC (in Japan)
CNBC Pakistan (now closed)
SBS-CNBC (in Korea)
CNBC Indonesia (in Indonesia)
JKN-CNBC (in Thailand)
Other TV and print partners
Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS) (in South Korea)
Formerly MBN CNBC was also provided in Korea. However CNBC Asia and MBN agreed to dissolve their partnership in July 2005.
From January 2010. SBS CNBC is provided. This channel is managed with Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS).
In the Philippines, the second hour of CNBC's Street Signs is simulcasted on ANC. Managing Asia is also shown on ANC at 8.30 local time on Saturdays. However, ANC and CNBC ended their partnership in 2016. In 2001-2002 CNBC on ZOE TV (now A2Z) in 24/7 Business News Channel on Free TV.
Even after Dow Jones Newswires had sold its stake to NBC Universal, correspondents from Dow Jones Newswires and The Wall Street Journal Asia continued contributing to the channel.
Airline partners
Managing Asia can be seen on Singapore Airlines and Jet Airways.
Mobile services and podcasts
CNBC Asia also delivers financial news to mobile phone users by keying in https://web.archive.org/web/20080807115257/http://asia.cnbc.com/. Subscribers in Singapore's M1, Indonesia's Telkomsel and Cambodia's Mobitel can see live streaming of the channel and selected on-demand clips from its shows.
The channel also offers podcasts free-of-charge.
Taglines
"Capitalize On It" (January 2015 – present)
"First in Business Worldwide" (1996–1998, 28 October 2006 – present)
"The World Leader in Business News" (1 January 2006 – 27 October 2006)
"Now more than ever" (July 2002 – December 2002)
"Profit from it" (30 October 2000 – 31 December 2005)
"The World is Asia Business" (circa 1999)
"Business Intelligence" (1998 – 29 October 2000)
"A Service of NBCUniversal and Dow Jones" (1998 – 31 December 2005, 2007–present)
References
External links
CNBC Asia official site
CNBC global channels
Television channels and stations established in 1994
English-language television stations
Cable television in Hong Kong
1994 establishments in Singapore | [
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226958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-native%20pronunciations%20of%20English | Non-native pronunciations of English | Non-native pronunciations of English result from the common linguistic phenomenon in which non-native users of any language tend to carry the intonation, phonological processes and pronunciation rules from their first language or first languages into their English speech. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds not found in the speaker's first language.
Overview
The speech of non-native English speakers may exhibit pronunciation characteristics that result from their imperfectly learning the sound system of English, either by transferring the phonological rules from their mother tongue into their English speech ("interference") or through implementing strategies similar to those used in primary language acquisition. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds not found in the speaker's first language.
The age at which speakers begin to immerse themselves into a language (such as English) is linked to the degree to which native speakers are able to detect a non-native accent; the exact nature of the link is disputed amongst scholars and may be affected by "neurological plasticity, cognitive development, motivation, psychosocial states, formal instruction, language learning aptitude", and the usage of their first (L1) and second (L2) languages.
English is unusual in that speakers rarely produce an audible release between consonant clusters and often overlap constriction times. Speaking English with a timing pattern that is dramatically different may lead to speech that is difficult to understand.
More transparently, differing phonological distinctions between a speaker's first language and English create a tendency to neutralize such distinctions in English, and differences in the inventory or distribution of sounds may cause substitutions of native sounds in the place of difficult English sounds and/or simple deletion. This is more common when the distinction is subtle between English sounds or between a sound of English and of a speaker's primary language. While there is no evidence to suggest that a simple absence of a sound or sequence in one language's phonological inventory makes it difficult to learn, several theoretical models have presumed that non-native speech perceptions reflect both the abstract phonological properties and phonetic details of the native language.
Non-native pronunciations may be transmitted to the children of learners, who will then exhibit a number of the same characteristics despite being native speakers themselves. For example, this process has resulted in many of the distinctive qualities of Irish English and Highland English which were heavily influenced by a Goidelic substratum.
Examples
Arabic
General features among most or all Arabic speakers:
Confusion between as in sit and as in set , pronouncing both vowels as , , or .
Difficulty distinguishing low sounds, as in bam and as in balm may both be realized as , , or depending on the speaker's dialect.
Confusion between as in called and caught with as in cold and coat, both being realized as or depending on the speaker's dialect.
Difficulty distinguishing /b/ and /p/ as in "people", pronounced as /biː.bəl/ depending on the speaker's dialect.
Tendency to monophthongize as in saint into or .
Speakers tend to speak with a rhotic accent and pronounce as or .
Catalan
Devoicing of final consonants: to .
E.g. phase can be pronounced like face (even though Catalan has both and phonemes).
Vowel length confusions.
Confusion of , usually realized as
Confusion of , usually realized as .
Confusion of , usually realized as .
Confusion of , usually realized as or .
Confusion of , usually realized as ( are only distinguished in Valencian and Balearic).
Rhotic pronunciation, with pronounced as a trill or a flap .
Difficulties with word-initial clusters involving , where an epenthetic e is usually added.
E.g. stop being pronounced estop.
Simplification of some word consonant clusters.
E.g. instant being pronounced instan
Narrower pitch range, with emphasis marked with extra length instead of extra pitch variation.
Problems with variable stress.
E.g. the blackbird vs. the black bird.
Problems with contrastive stress.
E.g. with sugar or without sugar? (the second sugar is more heavily stressed)
Cantonese
tends to be [d], so this is [dis],
/ə/ tends to be [a], so whether is .
There is less vowel reduction in unstressed syllables, and some variation in the placement of stress. For example, chocolate may be pronounced instead of .
Czech
These are the most common characteristics of the Czech pronunciation of English:
Final devoicing of voiced consonants (e.g. "bet" and "bed" are both pronounced ), since non-sonorant consonants are always voiceless at the end of words in Czech. Some speakers may pronounce consonant-final English words with a strong vocalic offset, especially in isolated words (e.g. "dog" can be ).
Czech is alveolar trill. There is a tendency to pronounce the trill in English and in all positions where is written.
Final -er (-or) pronounced as syllabic alveolar trill (e.g. "water" sounds ). Stressed tends to be realized as (e.g. "bird" ).
Tendency to realize both and as , since does not exist in Czech.
Tendency to pronounce the initial cluster as (e.g. "write" ).
Tendency to realize as or , since does not exist in Czech.
Tendency to substitute as or , since does not exist in Czech.
Tendency to pronounce as voiced (e.g. "how" ).
Tendency not to aspirate the stops (e.g. "keep" sounds instead of ), since these stop consonants are not aspirated in Czech.
is often realised as , so that "had" sounds like "head" , homophonous with "hat".
Schwa does not exist in Czech. Speakers tend to pronounce it as (e.g. "a table" ) or (e.g. "China" ).
Tendency to realise as or (e.g. "singing" ), because Czech is an allophone of before velar stops.
Tendency to isolate all words in speech, because the liaison is unusual in Czech. For instance, "see it" tends to be pronounced , rather than .
The melody of the Czech language is not so strong as in English. Czech speakers may sound monotonous to an English ear.
Dutch
These are some of the most significant errors a Dutch speaker might have:
Pronunciation of consonants
Speakers have difficulty with dental fricatives, often pronouncing as (failing to contrast then and den) or (especially between vowels). Similarly, the dental fricative is replaced by or , though Belgian speakers may pronounce both and as in word-final position.
The voiced stops and fricatives undergo terminal devoicing, especially in stressed syllables, causing feed and feet to be pronounced as the latter. Similarly, Dutch voicing assimilation patterns may be applied to English utterances so that, for example, iceberg is pronounced as , and if I as .
Speakers have difficulty with the glottalization of , either not pronouncing it or applying it in the wrong contexts so that good morning is pronounced .
The voiceless stops lack aspiration in stressed syllable-initial context.
Medial /t/ is replaced by /d/ so that better is pronounced as .
The postalveolar sibilants tend to be pronounced as their alveolo-palatal equivalents in Dutch: ; beginners may pronounce them as alveolar (and voiceless) or in syllable-final positions, leading to wish being pronounced as .
may be confused with and with in initial position.
may be strongly pharyngealized, even in contexts where dark l doesn't normally appear in English. Beginners may insert an epenthetic schwa between and a following , leading to milk being pronounced as .
could pose difficulties for certain regional dialects which lack /h/, such as in Zeelandic and West Flemish.
is replaced by , which English listeners may perceive as .
The alveolar consonants /t, d, n, s, z, l/ are articulated with the blade of the tongue, rather than the tip as in English.
Pronunciation of vowels
Speakers have difficulty distinguishing between and , so that man and men are both pronounced as the latter.
Speakers have difficulty distinguishing between and , so that pool and pull are both pronounced with . Some advanced speakers may employ a glide [ʉy].
/iː/ is pronounced closer, tenser, and sometimes shorter than usual. Some advanced speakers might over-compensate for the length with a diphthong like [ëi].
/ʌ/ is replaced by [ʉ]. Spelling might cause confusion with /ɒ/ in words like wonder, nothing and lovely.
British English /ɒ/ is replaced by [ɔ].
British English /ɜː/ is replaced by the sequence in Dutch /ør/, with significant lip-rounding and r-insertion.
/eɪ/ is replaced by [eː].
/əʊ/ is replaced by [oː]. More advanced speakers might use the Dutch diphthong [eːu].
/aɪ/ tends to be overly long before fortis consonants, giving the impression of a following lenis consonant.
Finnish
Finnish speakers may have difficulty pronouncing English , as the sound is not native to the Finnish language and appears only in loanwords. Speakers often substitute this sound with .
French
Because of the phonetic differences between English and French rhotics, speakers may perceive English , allophonically labialized to , as -like and have trouble distinguishing between and .
French speakers have difficulty with and many delete it, as most French dialects do not have this sound.
French speakers have difficulty with dental fricatives and (since these sounds do not exist in French). In France they may be pronounced as and , while in Quebec, Canada, the usual substitution is and .
Speakers tend not to make a contrast between (as in ship) and . (as in sheep).
German
Speakers may not velarize in coda positions as most native speakers do.
German has a smaller pitch range, less consonant cluster reduction, and less vowel reduction.
German features terminal devoicing, which is often carried over to English (creating homophones in cub/cup, had/hat, etc.)
German features neither ("the") nor ("think"), and both are often realised as either /s/ or /f/ (think/sink, thought/fought, etc.)
German speakers tend to realise (written in English) as (also written in German) when speaking English.
The German /r/ is realised differently from the English /r/. Whereas in the former case the tongue touches the soft palate, in the latter case it does not.
Greek
Greek speakers tend to struggle with the difference between and .
and can be replaced by or .
tend to be unaspirated.
Greek speakers may pronounce the English rhotic as a flap .
The closest sound to English in Greek is , and speakers may substitute this sound in words like house.
Hebrew
The lack of discrimination in Hebrew between tense and lax vowels makes correctly pronouncing English words such as hit/heat and cook/kook difficult.
The dental fricatives (as in "the") and (as in "think") are often mispronounced.
Hebrew speakers may confuse and .
Initial vowels (as in I/aɪ/, and /ˈænd/, option/ˈɒp.ʃən/, onion /ˈʌn.jən/, envelope /ˈen.və.ləʊp/ tend to be pronounced with initial /h/: /haɪ/, /ˈhænd/, /ˈhɒp.ʃən/, /ˈhʌn.jən/, /ˈhen.və.ləʊp/ etc.) On the other hand, initial /h/ can be deleted by the same speakers: hi, hand, hope, human, hello are pronounced /aɪ/, /ænd/, /əʊp/, /juː.mən/, /eˈləʊ/.
In Hebrew, word stress is usually on the last (ultimate) or penultimate syllable of a word; speakers may carry their stress system into English, which has a much more varied stress system. Hebrew speakers may also use Hebrew intonation patterns which mark them as foreign speakers of English.
Hungarian
The dental fricatives and may be realised as and respectively.
Since Hungarian lacks the phoneme , many Hungarian speakers substitute for when speaking in English. A less frequent practice is hypercorrection: substituting for in instances where the latter is actually correct.
Italian
Studies on Italian speakers' pronunciation of English revealed the following characteristics:
Tendency to realise as ("singer" rhymes with "finger") or as because Italian is an allophone of before velar stops.
Difficulty with English vowels
and are pronounced (ship and sheep are homophones);
(in certain words) and are pronounced (bad and bed are homophones);
(in certain words), , and are pronounced (bat, but, and bath are homophones);
and are pronounced (cook and kook are homophones);
Speakers tend to have little difficulty with , though some might pronounce it as or ).
The pronunciation of , , and are variable, pronounced as or .
The sequence in words like bottle is realized as , , or .
Tendency to realise word-initial with , e.g. small . This voicing also applies to and . The main reason is that the letter "s" is always pronounced as before a voiced consonant in Italian.
Italian does not have dental fricatives:
Voiceless may be realised as or .
Voiced may be realised as .
Since and are typically pronounced as dental stops anyway, words like there and dare can become homophones.
Tendency to pronounce , , as unaspirated stops.
Schwa does not exist in Italian; speakers tend to give the written vowel its full pronunciation, e.g. lemon , television , parrot , intelligent , water , sugar .
Italian speakers may pronounce consonant-final English words with a strong vocalic offset, especially in isolated words, e.g. dog .
Tendency to realise as ; a trill rather than the native approximant ~, even when the dialect of English they are learning is nonrhotic.
In addition, Italians learning English have a tendency to pronounce words as they are spelled, so that walk is , guide is , and boiled is . This is also true for loanwords borrowed from English as water (water closet), which is pronounced instead of .
Japanese
Speakers tend to confuse and both in perception and production, since the Japanese language has only one liquid phoneme /r/, whose possible realizations include central and lateral . Speakers may also hear English as similar to the Japanese .
Portuguese
Various pronunciation mistakes are bound to happen among Brazilian L2 speakers of English, among which:
Pronunciation of vowels
Confusion of and , usually realized as , and of and , usually realized as .
Especially in a British context, confusion of and . The Brazilian is equivalent to RP English , and English orthography rarely makes a clear demarcation between the phonemes, thus cold (ideally ) might be homophone with called . The North American equivalent of British , , may be easier to perceive as it closely resembles the Portuguese diphthong . Speakers may also have trouble distinguishing between schwa and .
In a British context, the diphthong might also be pronounced as the Portuguese diphthong eu, .
Persistent preference for over (even if the target pronunciation is England's prestige accent), and use of within the IPA space (Portuguese is often , what makes it even more due to confusion in production and perception), so that can't, even in RP, might sound like an American pronunciation of Kent. Some might even go as far as having instead of for last
Pronunciation of consonants
Difficulty with dental fricatives and . These may be instead fronted , stopped or hissed .
Speakers may pronounce word-initial r as a guttural ar pronunciations or a trill). These often sound to English speakers as , leading to confusion between ray and hay, red and head, height and right, etc.
Neutralization of coda , giving preference to a multitude of nasal vowels (often forming random diphthongs with , or also randomly losing them, so that sent and saint, and song and sown, are homophonous) originating from their deletion. Vowels are also often strongly nasalized when stressed and succeeded by a nasal consonant, even if said consonant starts a full syllable after it.
Fluctuation of the levels of aspiration of voiceless stops , that might sound like .
Loss of contrast between coronal stops and post-alveolar affricates due to palatalization of the earlier, before vowels such as , , , and .
Epenthetic to break up consonant clusters.
Palatalization due to epenthetic , so that night sounds slightly like nightch ( rather than ) and light sounds like lightchie ( rather than ).
Loss of unstressed, syllable-final to palatalization, so that city sounds slightly like sitch ( rather than ).
Post-alveolar affricates are easily confused with their fricative counterparts , often merging chip and ship, cheap and sheep, and pledger and pleasure.
Absence of contrast of voice for coda fricatives. He's, hiss and his are easily homophonous. Spelling pronunciations, with all words with historical schwas left in the orthography being pronounced even when the usual would be , are also possible.
English is less prone to perfect liaison-style sandhi than Portuguese, Spanish and French might be. Often, two identical or very similar consonants follow each other within a row, each in a different word, and both should be pronounced. Brazilians might either perform epenthesis or delete one of them. As such, this stop is produced either or , instead of the native
In Portuguese, the semivowels and may be vocalized to their corresponding vowels ( and , respectively). so that I love you is pronounced . These semivowels may also be epenthetically inserted between vowels of very dissimilar qualities.
With the exception of (here represented with a loss of contrast at the end of a word) and , consonants tend to not elide corresponding to or assimilate to the next word's phoneme, even in connected speech. This means, for example, occasional epenthesis even if the following word starts in a vowel, as in their native language (not really).
Russian
There is no in Russian; speakers typically substitute .
Native Russian speakers tend to produce an audible release for final consonants and in consonant clusters and are likely to transfer this to English speech, creating inappropriate releases of final bursts that sound overly careful and stilted and even causing native listeners to perceive extra unstressed syllables.
Word-initial voiceless stops , , may not aspirated by Russian speakers (following the pattern in Russian), which may sound to native English speakers as , , instead. However, at least one study challenges this, with Russian-accented English speakers in the study aspirating the voiceless consonants just as much as General American English speakers, and even more than General American speakers.
Word-final obstruents are pronounced voiceless in Russian even if spelled with letters otherwise denoting their voiced counterparts, and speakers may fail to pronounce word-final voiced obstruents in English correctly, substituting for etc.
There are no dental fricatives ( and ) in Russian, and native Russian speakers may pronounce them respectively as or or and as or .
Difficulty with English vowels. Russian speakers may have difficulty distinguishing and , and , and and ; similarly, speakers' pronunciation of long vowels may sound more like their close counterpart (e.g. may sound closer to )
Speakers typically realise English as a trilled , the native Russian rhotic.
Likewise, may be pronounced like its closest Russian equivalent, .
Since there is no in Russian, speakers typically produce or instead.
The palato-alveolar affricate may be realised as a sequence of a stop and a fricative: .
The "clear" alveolar may be realised as Russian , sounding closer to English "dark" velarised .
Consonants written twice in English may be pronounced geminated by Russian speakers.
Spanish
Vowel length confusions.
Confusion of , usually realized as
Confusion of , usually realized as .
Confusion of , usually realized as .
Confusion of , usually realized as .
Since Spanish does not make voicing contrasts between its fricatives (and its one affricate), speakers may neutralize contrasts between and ; likewise, fricatives may assimilate the voicing of a following consonant.
Rhotic pronunciation, with /r/ pronounced as a trill [r] or a flap [ɾ].
Cuban and Central American speakers tend to merge with , and with .
and often have a fluctuating degree of closure.
For the most part (especially in colloquial speech), Spanish allows only five (or six) word-final consonants: , , , , and ; speakers may omit word-final consonants other than these, or alter them (for example, by turning to or ).
In Spanish, must immediately precede or follow a vowel; often a word beginning with + consonant will obtain an epenthetic vowel (typically ) to make stomp pronounced rather than .
In Spanish, the phoneme exists only in (most dialects of) Spain; where this sound appears in English, speakers of other Spanish dialects replace with , or .
Speakers tend to merge and , pronouncing both as a plosive unless they occur in intervocalic position, in which case they are pronounced as a fricative. A similar process occurs with and , because does not exist in Spanish.
The three nasal phonemes of Spanish neutralize in coda-position; speakers may invariably pronounce nasal consonants as homorganic to a following consonant; if word-final (as in welcome) common realizations include , deletion with nasalization of the preceding vowel, or .
Devoicing of final consonants.
Narrower pitch range, with emphasis marked with extra length instead of extra pitch variation.
Problems with variable stress.
E.g. the blackbird. vs. the black bird.
Problems with contrastive stress.
E.g. with sugar or without sugar?
(the second sugar is more heavily stressed)
Vietnamese
Note: There are three main dialects in Vietnamese, a northern one centered on Hanoi, a central one whose prestige accent is centered on Huế, and a southern one centered on Ho Chi Minh City.
Speakers may not produce final consonants since there are fewer final consonants in Vietnamese and those that do exist differ in their phonetic quality:
Final is likely to be confused with .
Final is likely to be confused with .
Final is likely to be omitted.
Final is likely to be confused with , but some Vietnamese pronounce the word bell as
Final is likely to be confused with by southern Vietnamese.
Speakers also have difficulty with English consonant clusters, with segments being omitted or epenthetic vowels being inserted.
Speakers may not aspirate initial , , and , native English-speakers think that they pronounce as and . For example, when Vietnamese people pronounced the word tie, native English-speakers think that they say the word die or dye.
Speakers often have difficulty with the following phonemes and confuse them, which may depend in some cases upon where in Vietnam they are originally from:
with , .
with , .
with (especially in southern dialects).
with .
with .
with or .
with by northern Vietnamese.
with , , or by northern Vietnamese.
with by southern Vietnamese.
with .
with or .
with .
Vietnamese is a tonal language and speakers may try to use the Vietnamese tonal system or use a mid tone with English words, but they pronounce with a high tone when the closed syllable is followed by . They may also associate tones onto the intonational pattern of a sentence and become confused with such inflectional changes.
See also
Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages
Pronunciation of English
Non-native speech database
International Dialects of English Archive
Accent reduction
Koiné language
Shibboleth
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Speech Accent Archive (most recordings also have an IPA transcription)
International Dialects of English Archive
Articles, Determiners, and Quantifiers
English as a second or foreign language
Non-native pronunciations of English
English phonology
Dialects of English
Language acquisition
Language comparison | [
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226959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoscyamine | Hyoscyamine | Hyoscyamine (also known as daturine or duboisine) is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid and plant toxin. It is a secondary metabolite found in certain plants of the family Solanaceae, including henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), mandrake (Mandragora officinarum), angel's trumpets (Brugmansia spp.), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), the sorcerers' tree (Latua pubiflora), and deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). It is the levorotary isomer of atropine (third of the three major nightshade alkaloids) and thus sometimes known as levo-atropine.
Brand names for hyoscyamine include Symax, HyoMax, Anaspaz, Egazil, Buwecon, Cystospaz, Levsin, Levbid, Levsinex, Donnamar, NuLev, Spacol T/S, and Neoquess.
Uses
Hyoscyamine is used to provide symptomatic relief of spasms caused by various lower abdominal and bladder disorders including peptic ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis, pancreatitis, colic, and interstitial cystitis. It has also been used to relieve some heart problems, control some of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, as well as for control of abnormal respiratory symptoms and "hyper-mucus secretions" in patients with lung disease.
It is also useful in pain control for neuropathic pain, chronic pain and palliative care – "comfort care" – for those with intractable pain from treatment resistant, untreatable, and incurable diseases. When combined with opioids it increases the level of analgesia (pain relief) obtained. Several mechanisms are thought to contribute to this effect. The closely related drugs atropine and hyoscine and other members of the anticholinergic drug group like cyclobenzaprine, trihexyphenidyl, and orphenadrine are also used for this purpose. When hyoscyamine is used along with opioids or other anti-peristaltic agents, measures to prevent constipation are especially important given the risk of paralytic ileus.
Adverse effects
Side effects include dry mouth and throat, increased appetite leading to weight gain, eye pain, blurred vision, restlessness, dizziness, arrhythmia, flushing, and faintness. An overdose will cause headache, nausea, vomiting, and central nervous system symptoms including disorientation, hallucinations, euphoria, sexual arousal, short-term memory loss, and possible coma in extreme cases. The euphoric and sexual effects are stronger than those of atropine but weaker than those of Hyoscine, as well as dicycloverine, orphenadrine, cyclobenzaprine, trihexyphenidyl, and ethanolamine antihistamines like phenyltoloxamine.
Pharmacology
Hyoscyamine is an antimuscarinic; i.e., an antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. It blocks the action of acetylcholine at parasympathetic sites in sweat glands, salivary glands, stomach secretions, heart muscle, sinoatrial node, smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract, and the central nervous system. It increases cardiac output and heart rate, lowers blood pressure and dries secretions. It may antagonize serotonin. At comparable doses, hyoscyamine has 98 per cent of the anticholinergic power of atropine. The other major belladonna-derived drug hyoscine (known in the United States as Scopolamine) has 92 per cent of the antimuscarinic potency of atropine.
Biosynthesis in plants
Hyoscyamine can be extracted from plants of the family Solanaceae, notably Datura stramonium. As hyoscyamine is a direct precursor in the plant biosynthesis of hyoscine, it is produced via the same metabolic pathway.
The biosynthesis of hyoscine begins with the decarboxylation of L-ornithine to putrescine by ornithine decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.17). Putrescine is methylated to N-methylputrescine by putrescine N-methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.53).
A putrescine oxidase (EC 1.4.3.10) that specifically recognizes methylated putrescine catalyzes the deamination of this compound to 4-methylaminobutanal which then undergoes a spontaneous ring formation to N-methylpyrrolium cation. In the next step, the pyrrolium cation condenses with acetoacetic acid yielding hygrine. No enzymatic activity could be demonstrated that catalyzes this reaction. Hygrine further rearranges to tropinone.
Subsequently, tropinone reductase I (EC 1.1.1.206) converts tropinone to tropine which condenses with phenylalanine-derived phenyllactate to littorine. A cytochrome P450 classified as Cyp80F1 oxidizes and rearranges littorine to hyoscyamine aldehyde.
Bush medicine basis
A bush medicine developed by Aboriginal peoples of the eastern states of Australia from the soft corkwood tree, or Duboisia myoporoides, was used by the Allies in World War II to stop soldiers getting seasick when they sailed across the English Channel during the Invasion of Normandy. Later, it was found that the same substance could be used in the production of scopolamine and hyoscyamine, which are used in eye surgery, and a multi-million dollar industry was built in Queensland based on this substance.
References
Tropane alkaloids
Muscarinic antagonists
Antispasmodics
Oneirogens
Tropane alkaloids found in Solanaceae
Carboxylate esters
Entheogens
Plant toxins | [
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226964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20wigeon | Eurasian wigeon | The Eurasian wigeon or European wigeon, also known as the widgeon or the wigeon (Mareca penelope) is one of three species of wigeon in the dabbling duck genus Mareca. It is common and widespread within its Palearctic range.
Taxonomy
The Eurasian wigeon was described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under the binomial name Anas penelope. Anas is the Latin word for "duck", and penelope refers to a duck that was supposed to have rescued Penelope when she was thrown into the sea. Her name derives from Ancient Greek πήνη pene, "braid" and ὤψ ops "appearance", from the ruse she used to deter suitors while her husband Ulysses was absent.
Description
This dabbling duck is long with a wingspan, and a weight of . The breeding male has grey flanks and back, with a black rear end, a dark green speculum and a brilliant white patch on upper wings, obvious in flight or at rest. It has a pink breast, white belly, and a chestnut head with a creamy crown. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage, the drake looks more like the female. The female is light brown, with plumage much like a female American wigeon. It can be distinguished from most other ducks, apart from American wigeon, on shape. However, that species has a paler head and white axillaries on its underwing. The female can be a rufous morph with a redder head, and a gray morph with a more gray head.
Distribution
It breeds in the northernmost areas of Europe and the Palearctic. It is the Old World counterpart of North America's American wigeon. It is strongly migratory and winters further south than its breeding range. It migrates to southern Asia and Africa. In Great Britain and Ireland, the Eurasian wigeon is common as a winter visitor, but scarce as a breeding bird in Scotland, the Lake District, the Pennines and occasionally further south, with only a handful of breeding pairs in Ireland. It can be found as an uncommon winter visitor in the United States on the mid-Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It is a rare visitor to the rest of the United States except for the Four Corners and the southern Appalachians.
Behaviour and habitat
The Eurasian wigeon is a bird of open wetlands, such as wet grassland or marshes with some taller vegetation, and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing, which it does very readily. It nests on the ground, near water and under cover. It is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large flocks. They will join with flocks of the American wigeon in the United States, and they also hybridize with them. This is a noisy species. The male has a clear whistle that sounds like: "pjiew pjiew", whereas the female has a low growl: "rawr".
The Eurasian wigeon is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Its conservation status is least concern.
Footnotes
References
Identification
Gallery
External links
Wigeon at RSPB's Birds by Name
Feathers of Eurasian wigeon (Anas penelope)
Eurasian wigeon
Birds of Eurasia
Eurasian wigeon
Eurasian wigeon
Wigeons | [
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226965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20wigeon | American wigeon | The American wigeon (Mareca americana), also known as the baldpate, is a species of dabbling duck found in North America. Formerly assigned to Anas, this species is classified with the other wigeons in the dabbling duck genus Mareca. It is the New World counterpart of the Eurasian wigeon. Mareca is from the Brazilian-Portuguese word Marréco for a small duck and americana refers to America.
Description
The American wigeon is a medium-sized bird; it is larger than a teal, but smaller than a pintail. In silhouette, the wigeon can be distinguished from other dabblers by its round head, short neck, and small bill. It is long, with a wingspan and a weight of . This wigeon has two adult molts per year and a juvenile molt in the first year, as well.
The breeding male (drake) is a striking bird with a mask of green feathers around its eyes and a cream colored cap running from the crown of its head to its bill. This white patch gives the wigeon its other common name, baldpate (pate is another word for head). Their belly is also white. In flight, drakes can be identified by the large white shoulder patch on each wing. These white patches flash as the birds bank and turn. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage, the drake looks more like the female.
The hens are much less conspicuous, having primarily gray and brown plumage. Both sexes have a pale blue bill with a black tip, a white belly, and gray legs and feet. The wing patch behind the speculum is gray. They can be distinguished from most ducks, apart from Eurasian wigeon, by shape. However, that species has a darker head and all grey underwing. The head and neck coloring of the female is different as opposed to the Eurasian wigeon. It nests on the ground, near water and under cover. It lays 6–12 creamy white eggs. Flocks will often contain American coots.
The American wigeon is a noisy species, and in the field can often be identified by their distinctive calls. Drakes produce a three note whistle, while hens emit hoarse grunts and quacks. The male whistle makes a wheezy , whereas the female has a low growl .
Distribution and habitat
It is common and widespread, breeding in all but the extreme north of Canada and Alaska and also in the Interior West through Idaho, Colorado, the Dakotas, and Minnesota, as well as eastern Washington and Oregon. The conservation status of this bird is Least Concern. The majority of the population breeds on wetlands in the Boreal Forest and subarctic river deltas of Canada and Alaska. Although wigeon are found in each flyway, they are most numerous in the Pacific Flyway. Key wintering areas here include the Central Valley of California and Washington's Puget Sound. Farther east, the Texas Panhandle, the Gulf Coast of Louisiana and Texas, and the Caribbean also support large numbers of wintering wigeon.
This dabbling duck is migratory and winters farther south than its breeding range, in the southern half of the United States, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and the Mid-Atlantic coastal region, and further south into Central America, the Caribbean, and northwestern South America. It is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe, and has been observed in significant numbers in Great Britain and Ireland since at least 1958.
In 2009, an estimated 2.5 million breeding wigeon were tallied in the traditional survey area—a level just below the 1955–2009 average. In recent decades, wigeon numbers have declined in the Prairie Pothole Region of Canada and increased in the interior and west coast of Alaska. The American wigeon is often the fifth most commonly harvested duck in the United States, behind the mallard, green-winged teal, gadwall, and wood duck.
Behavior
The American wigeon is a bird of open wetlands, such as wet grassland or marshes with some taller vegetation, and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing, which it does very readily. While on the water, wigeon often gather with feeding coots and divers, and are known to grab pieces of vegetation brought to the surface by diving water birds. For this reason, they are sometimes called "poacher" or "robber" ducks. Wigeon also commonly feed on dry land, eating waste grain in harvested fields and grazing on pasture grasses, winter wheat, clover, and lettuce. Having a largely vegetarian diet, most wigeon migrate in the fall well before northern marshes begin to freeze.
The American wigeon is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large flocks.
References
Notes
External links
American Wigeon Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
American Wigeon - Anas americana - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Mareca
Wigeons
Wigeon, American
Birds of the United States
Birds of Hispaniola
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of Haiti
Birds described in 1789
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin | [
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226975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meagre%20set | Meagre set | In the mathematical fields of general topology and descriptive set theory, a meagre set (also called a meager set or a set of first category) is a set that, considered as a subset of a (usually larger) topological space, is in a precise sense small or negligible.
A topological space is called meagre if it is a meager subset of itself; otherwise, it is called nonmeagre.
The meagre subsets of a fixed space form a σ-ideal of subsets; that is, any subset of a meagre set is meagre, and the union of countably many meagre sets is meagre.
General topologists use the term Baire space to refer to a broad class of topological spaces on which the notion of meagre set is not trivial (in particular, the entire space is not meagre).
Descriptive set theorists mostly study meagre sets as subsets of the real numbers, or more generally any Polish space, and reserve the term Baire space for one particular Polish space.
The complement of a meagre set is a comeagre set or residual set.
A set that is not meagre is called nonmeagre and is said to be of the second category.
Note that the notions of a comeagre set and a nonmeagre set are equivalent.
Definition
Throughout, will be a topological space.
A subset of a topological space is called and in if its closure has empty interior. Equivalently, is nowhere dense in if for each open set the set is not dense in
A closed subset of is nowhere dense in if and only if its topological interior in is empty.
A subset of a topological space is said to be a of and of the in if it is a countable union of nowhere dense subsets of
A subset that is not of first category in is said to be a of and of the in
A topological space is said to be (respectively, ) if it is a meagre (respectively, nonmeagre) subset of itself.
Warning: If is a subset of then being a "meagre sub" of means that when is endowed with the subspace topology (induced on it by ) then is a meagre topological space (that is, is a meagre subset of ). In contrast, being a "meagre sub" of means that is equal to a countable union of nowhere dense subsets of The same warning applies to nonmeagre subs versus nonmeagre subs. More details on how to tell these notions apart (and why the slight difference in these terms is reasonable) are given in this footnote.
For example, if is the set of all positive integers then is a meager sub of but not a meager sub of If is not an isolated point of a T1 space (meaning that is not an open subset of ) then is a meager sub of but not a meager sub of
A subset is called a of and is said to be in if its mplement is meagre in (this use of the prefix "" is consistent with its use in other terms such as "finite").
A subset is comeagre in if and only if it is equal to an intersection of countably many sets, each of whose topological interior is a dense subset of
Importantly, being of the second category is the same as being comeagre — a set may be neither meagre nor comeagre (in this case it will be of second category).
Sufficient conditions
Every Baire space is nonmeagre but there exist nonmeagre spaces that are not Baire spaces. Since complete (pseudo)metric spaces as well as Hausdorff locally compact spaces are Baire spaces, they are also nonmeagre spaces.
Any subset of a meagre set is a meagre set, as is the union of countably many meagre sets.
If is a homeomorphism then a subset is meagre if and only if is meagre.
Every nowhere dense subset is a meagre set. Consequently, any closed subset of whose interior in is empty is of the first category of (that is, it is a meager subset of ). Thus a closed subset of that is of the second category in must have non-empty interior in
Any topological space that contains an isolated point (such as any non-empty discrete space) is nonmeagre.
Comeagre subset
Any superset of a comeagre set is comeagre, as is the intersection of countably many comeagre sets (because countable union of countable sets is countable).
Examples
Every non-empty discrete space is nonmeagre because this is true of any topological space that contains one or more isolated points.
Meagre sub and sub
The empty set is always a closed nowhere dense (and thus meagre) subset of every topological space and it is also a meagre subspace.
A singleton subset is always a nonmeagre subspace of (that is, it is a nonmeagre topological space). If is an isolated point of (meaning that is an open subset) then is also a nonmeagre subset of ; the converse holds if is a T1 space.
The set is a meagre sub of even though is a nonmeagre sub (that is, is not a meagre topological space).
A countable Hausdorff space without isolated points is meagre, whereas any topological space that contains an isolated point is nonmeagre.
Because the rational numbers are countable, they are meagre as a subset of the reals and as a space—that is, they do not form a Baire space.
The Cantor set is meagre as a subset of the reals, but as a subset of itself, since it is a complete metric space and is thus a Baire space, by the Baire category theorem.
The Smith–Volterra–Cantor set is a closed nowhere dense (and thus meagre) subset of the unit interval that has positive Lebesgue measure.
There is a subset of the real numbers such that for every nonempty open set , neither nor is meager in .
Function spaces
The set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meagre set in the space of all continuous functions.
Properties
If is of the second category in and if are subsets of such that then at least one is of the second category in
A closed subset of that is of the second category in must have non-empty interior in (because otherwise it would be nowhere dense and thus of the first category).
A nonmeagre locally convex topological vector space is a barreled space.
Meagre subsets and Lebesgue measure
A meagre set need not have measure zero.
There exist nowhere dense subsets (which are thus meagre subsets) that have positive Lebesgue measure.
Relation to Borel hierarchy
Just as a nowhere dense subset need not be closed, but is always contained in a closed nowhere dense subset (viz, its closure), a meagre set need not be an set (countable union of closed sets), but is always contained in an set made from nowhere dense sets (by taking the closure of each set).
Dually, just as the complement of a nowhere dense set need not be open, but has a dense interior (contains a dense open set), a comeagre set need not be a set (countable intersection of open sets), but contains a dense set formed from dense open sets.
Banach–Mazur game
Meagre sets have a useful alternative characterization in terms of the Banach–Mazur game.
Let be a topological space, be a family of subsets of that have nonempty interiors such that every nonempty open set has a subset belonging to and be any subset of
Then there is a Banach–Mazur game corresponding to
In the Banach–Mazur game, two players, and alternately choose successively smaller elements of to produce a sequence
Player wins if the intersection of this sequence contains a point in ; otherwise, player wins.
See also
, for analogs to residual
, for analogs to meagre
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Is there a measure zero set which isn't meagre?
General topology
Descriptive set theory | [
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226980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20Cortina | Ford Cortina | The Ford Cortina is a compact car that was built initially by Ford of Britain, and then Ford of Europe in various guises from 1962 to 1982, and was the United Kingdom's best-selling car of the 1970s.
The Cortina was produced in five generations (Mark I through to Mark V, although officially the last one was only the Cortina 80 facelift of the Mk IV) from 1962 until 1982. From 1970 onward, it was almost identical to the German-market Ford Taunus (being built on the same platform), which was originally a different car model. This was part of Ford's attempt to unify its European operations. By 1976, when the revised Taunus was launched, the Cortina was identical. The new Taunus/Cortina used the doors and some panels from the 1970 Taunus. It was replaced in 1982 by the Ford Sierra. In Asia and Australasia, it was replaced by the Mazda 626–based Ford Telstar, though Ford New Zealand did import British-made complete knock-down kits of the Ford Sierra estate for local assembly from 1984. Cortinas were also assembled in South Africa until 1984, with the pick-up version remaining in production in that country until 1987.
The name was inspired by the name of the Italian ski resort Cortina d'Ampezzo, site of the 1956 Winter Olympics. Several Cortinas were driven down the Cortina Olympic bobsled run at that resort, a publicity stunt which Ford called "Cortina Auto-Bobbing."
Mark I (1962–1966)
Using the project name of "Archbishop", management at Ford of Britain in Dagenham created a family-sized car that they could sell in large numbers. The chief designer was Roy Brown Jr., the designer of the Edsel, who had been banished to Dagenham following the failure of that car. The Cortina, aimed at buyers of the Morris Oxford Farina and Vauxhall Victor, was launched on 20 September 1962. The car was designed to be economical to buy, cheap to run, and easy and inexpensive to produce in Britain. The front-wheel drive configuration used by Ford of Germany for the new Ford Taunus P4, a similar-sized model, was rejected in favour of traditional rear-wheel drive layout. Originally to be called Ford Consul 225, the car was launched as the Consul Cortina until a modest facelift in 1964, after which it was sold simply as the Cortina.
The Cortina was available with 1200 cc and (from early 1963) 1500 ccfour-cylinder engines with all synchromesh gearbox, in two-door and four-door saloon, as well as in five-door estate (from March 1963) forms. Standard, Deluxe, Super, and GT trims were offered, but not across all body styles. Early Standard models featured a simple body-coloured front grille, earning it the nickname 'Ironbar', and large, round, 'Ban the Bomb' taillight clusters. Since this version cost almost the same as the better-equipped Deluxe, it sold poorly and is very rare today. Options included heater and bench seat with column gearchange (shifter). Super versions of the estates offered the option of simulated wood side and tailgate trim. In an early example of product placement, many examples of the new Cortina featured as "Glamcabs" in the comedy film Carry On Cabby.
Two main variations of the Mark 1 were produced. The Mark 1a possessed elliptical front side-lights, whereas the Mark 1b had a redesigned front grille incorporating the more rectangular side-light and indicator units. A notable variant was the Ford Cortina Lotus.
The Cortina was launched a few weeks before the London Motor Show of October 1962 with a 1198 cc, three-bearing engine, which was an enlarged version of the 997 cc engine then fitted in the Ford Anglia. A few months later, in January 1963, the Cortina Super was announced with a five-bearing, 1498 cc engine. Versions of the larger engine found their way into subsequent variations, including the Cortina GT, which appeared in spring 1963 with lowered suspension and engine tuned to give a claimed output of ahead of the claimed for the Cortina 1500 Super. The engines used across the Mark I range were of identical design, differing only in displacement and setup. The formula used was a four-cylinder pushrod (overhead valve) design that came to be known as the "pre-crossflow" version, as both inlet and exhaust ports were located on the same side of the head. The most powerful version of this engine (used in the GT Cortina) was 1498 cc (1500) and produced . This engine contained a different camshaft profile, a different cylinder-head casting featuring larger ports, tubular exhaust headers, and a Weber 32 DFM twin-choke carburettor made under licence by Ford.
Advertising of the revised version, which appeared at the London Motor Show in October 1964, made much of the newly introduced "Aeroflow" through-flow ventilation, evidenced by the extractor vents on the rear pillars. A subsequent test on a warm day involving the four different Cortina models manufactured between 1964 and 1979 determined that the air delivery from the simple eyeball outlets on the 1964 Mark I Cortina was actually greater than that on the Mark II, Mark III, or Mark IV. The dashboard, instruments, and controls were revised, for the second time, having already been reworked in October 1963, when round instruments replaced the oblong speedometer with which the car had been launched; Twelve years later, however, the painted steel dashboard, its "knobs scattered all over the place and its heater controls stuck underneath as a very obvious afterthought" on the 1964 Mark I Cortina was felt to have aged much less well than the car's ventilation system. Also in 1964, front disc brakes became standard across the range.
Ford Cortina Lotus was offered only as a two-door saloon all in white with a contrasting green side flash down each flank. It had a unique 1558 cc twin-cam engine by Lotus, but based on the Cortina's Kent OHV engine. Aluminium was used for some body panels. For a certain time, it also had a unique A-frame rear suspension, but this proved fragile, so the model soon reverted to the standard Cortina semielliptical rear end.
Mark II (1966–1970)
The second incarnation of the Cortina, designed by Roy Haynes, was launched on 18 October 1966, four years after the original Cortina. It had some styling elements in common with the third-generation US Ford Falcon. Although the launch was accompanied by the slogan "New Cortina is more Cortina", the car, at long, was fractionally shorter than before. Its of extra width and curved side panels provided more interior space. Its other improvements included a smaller turning circle, softer suspension, self-adjusting brakes and clutch, and the availability on the smaller-engined models, for the UK and some other markets, of a new five-bearing 1300 cc engine.
A stripped-out, 1200 cc version running the engine of the Ford Anglia Super was also available for certain markets, where the 1300 cc engine attracted a higher tax rate. The 1500 cc engines were at first carried over, but were discontinued in July 1967, as a new engine was on its way. A month later, in August, the 1300 received a new crossflow cylinder head design, making it more efficient, while a crossflow 1600 replaced the 1500. The new models carried additional "1300" or "1600" designations at the rear. An 1100 cc crossflow engine from the Escort was also offered for markets such as Greece, where higher capacities were taxed heavily. The Cortina Lotus continued with its own unique engine, although for this generation it was built in-house by Ford.
The Cortina was Britain's most popular new car in 1967, achieving the goal that Ford had been trying to achieve since it set out to create the original Cortina back in 1962. This interrupted the long run of BMC's 1100/1300 range as Britain's best-selling car.
Period reviews were favourable concerning both the styling and performance.
Again, two- and four-door saloons were offered with base, Deluxe, Super, GT, and later, 1600E trims available, but again, not across all body styles and engine options. A few months after the introduction of the saloon versions, a four-door estate was launched, released on the UK market on 15 February 1967: much was made at the time of its class-topping load capacity.
The four-door Cortina 1600E, a higher-trim version, was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in October 1967, a year after the arrival of the Cortina Mark II. It combined the lowered suspension of the Cortina Lotus with the high-tune GT 1600 Kent engine and luxury trim featuring a burr walnut woodgrain-trimmed dashboard and door cappings, bucket seating, leather-clad aluminium sports steering wheel, and full instrumentation inside, while a black grille, tail panel, front fog lights, and plated Rostyle wheels on radial tyres featured outside. According to author and Cortina expert Graham Robson, the 1600E would be the first Cortina recognized as a classic.
For 1969, the Mark II range was given subtle revisions, with separate "FORD" block letters mounted on the bonnet and boot lids, a blacked-out grille and chrome strips on top and below the taillights running the full width of the tail panel marking them out.
Export markets
Ford New Zealand developed its own variant of this model called the GTE, since the GT and Lotus Cortinas were not assembled there. The four-door only GTE had a wooden dash, a vinyl roof, and special stripes and badging.
A 3.0 L Essex V6 engined variant was developed privately in South Africa by Basil Green Motors, and was sold through the Grosvenor Ford network of dealers as the Cortina Perana; a similar model appeared later in Britain and was known as the Cortina Savage, which was available with 1600E trim in all three body styles, while its South African stablemate was offered only as a four-door saloon initially with GT and later E trim.
The Cortina was Canada's second-most popular imported car during the 1960s, second only to the Volkswagen Beetle. Canada had two- and four-door sedans, the higher-performance GT sedan, and a DeLuxe wagon. The Lotus Cortina was also available, albeit in limited numbers.
Ford in the United States imported both the Mark I and Mark II Cortina models. The Mark II was sold in the United States from 1967, achieving 16,193 cars sold in its first year. Sales of the Mark II in 1968 were 22,983. Sales in 1969 reached 21,496. Sales slumped in 1970, to almost half their 1969 peak, at 10,216 units. Ford USA dropped the model in 1970 and was effectively replaced with the introduction of the US-produced 1971 Ford Pinto subcompact. Ford sold 352,402 Ford Pintos for model year 1971 and no more English Fords were sold in the United States thereafter.
TC Mark III (1970–1976)
In the late 1960s, Ford set about developing the third-generation Cortina, the Mark III, which would be produced in higher volumes than before following the merger of Ford of Britain and Ford of Germany into the modern-day Ford of Europe. The car marked the convergence of the German Taunus and British Cortina platforms with only minor differences between the two, hence the car's internal name TC1, standing for Taunus-Cortina. It was also the last European car engineered by Harley Copp as vice president of engineering and head of Brentwood, before he returned to Detroit.
Ford UK originally wanted to call it something other than Cortina, but the name stuck. Although the Mark III looked significantly larger than the boxier Mark II Cortina, it was actually the same overall length, but wider. Within the overall length, a wheelbase lengthened by more than also contributed to the slightly more spacious interior.
The Mark III Cortina was inspired by the contemporary "coke bottle" design language which had emanated from Detroit – the car sported similar fluted bonnet and beltline design elements to the North American Mercury Montego and Ford LTD of the same era. It replaced both the Mark II Cortina and the larger, more expensive Ford Corsair, offering more trim levels and the option of larger engines than the Mark II Cortina. The Mark III's continental European sister car – the Taunus TC – was subtly different in appearance, with longer front indicators, different door skins, and rear-wing pressings that toned down the drooping beltline, lessening the "coke-bottle" appearance of the Cortina.
The MacPherson strut front suspension was replaced with more conventional double A-arm suspension (also known as double wishbone suspension), which gave the Mark III a much softer ride on the road, but did give cars fitted with the larger, heavier engines distinct understeer.
Trim levels for the Mark III Cortina were Base, L (Luxury), XL (Xtra Luxury), XLE (Xtra Luxury Edition - Australia and South Africa only), GT (Grand Touring), and GXL (Grand Xtra Luxury).
The early Mark III Cortinas came with the same 1300 and 1600 cc engines as the Mark II Cortinas, except for the 1600 cc GXL. These engines are known as the Kent, crossflow engine or overhead valve (OHV) engine. Also, the 2000 cc engine, the single overhead cam engine, now known as the Pinto engine, was introduced. The OHV Kent' unit was fitted with a single-choke carburetor and was used for the early models up to GT trim, the SOHC twin-choke carburetor Pinto engine was used for the GT and GXL models. The GXL was also offered in 1600 in the later Cortina Mark IIIs.
In left-hand drive markets, the 1600 OHC was replaced by a twin-carb OHV (Kent) unit not offered in the home market, to distinguish it from the competing Taunus, which only came with the OHC Pinto engine. The 2.0-litre variants used a larger version of the 1600 cc Pinto unit and were available in all trim levels except base. Base, L, and XL versions were available as a five-door estate.
Although no longer than its predecessor, the Mark III was a heavier car, reflecting a trend towards improving secondary safety by making car bodies more substantial. Weight was also increased by the stout cross-member incorporated into the new simplified front suspension set-up, and by the inclusion of far more sound-deadening material, which insulated the cabin from engine and exhaust noise, making the car usefully quieter than its predecessor, though on many cars. the benefit was diminished by high levels of wind noise apparently resulting from poor door fit around the windows. Four-speed manual transmissions were by now almost universally offered in the UK for this class of car, and contemporary road tests commented on the rather large gap between second and third gear, and the resulting temptation to slip the clutch when accelerating through the gears in the smaller-engined cars: it was presumably in tacit acknowledgment of the car's marginal power-to-weight ratio that Ford no longer offered the automatic transmission option with the smallest 1298 cc-engined Cortina.
Four headlights and Rostyle wheels marked out the GT and GXL versions. The GXL also had bodyside rub strips, a vinyl roof, and a brushed aluminum and black boot lid panel on the GXLs, while the GT had a black-painted section of the boot with a chrome trim at either side of it. All prefacelift models featured a downward-sloping dashboard with deeply recessed dials, and coil suspension all round. In general styling and technical make up, the Mark III Cortina aped the Vauxhall Victor FD of 1967.
The Cortina went on sale on 23 October 1970, but sales got off to a particularly slow start because of production difficulties that culminated with a 10-week strike at Ford's plant between April and June 1971, which was at the time reported to have cost production of 100,000 vehicles, equivalent to almost a quarter of the output for a full year.
During 1971, the spring rates and damper settings were altered along with the front suspension bushings, which reduced the bounciness of the ride and low-speed ride harshness, which had generated press criticism at the time of the Mark III's launch.
Volumes recovered, and with the ageing Austin/Morris 1100/1300 now losing out to various newer models, the Cortina was Britain's top-selling car in 1972, closely followed by the Escort. It remained the UK's top-selling car until 1976, when overtaken by the Mk2 Escort.
In late 1973, the Cortina Mark III was given a facelift, and was redesignated TD. The main differences were the dashboard and clocks, which no longer sloped away from the driver's line of sight, but introduced the flatter dash and clocks also found in the later Mark IV and Mark V Cortinas, upgraded trim levels, revised grilles, revised rear lights, rectangular headlights for the XL, GT, and the new 2000E (the "E" standing for executive), which replaced the GXL. The 1.3-litre Kent engine was carried over but 1.6-litre models now used the more modern 1.6-litre Pinto SOHC engine. Whilst the TD Cortina still had double A-arm suspension with coils at the front and a four-link system at the rear, handling was improved. The 2000E reverted to the classy treatment offered by the MkII 1600E (and carried over to later Mark IV/V Ghia) models instead of the faux woodgrain trim of the GXL. The 2000E was also available as an estate version.
Export markets
The Mark III was sold in Canada until 1973.
For South Africa, the Mark III was available as the 'Big Six' L and GL with the Essex V6 2.5-litre engine and Perana, GT, and XLE with the Essex V6 3.0-litre engine. A pick-up truck version also was available. In addition to the 1.6-litre inline-four, a version unique to South Africa was a locally built version of the 2.0-litre Essex V4. The Cortina 2000 V4 arrived during 1972, and also became available as a station wagon and pick-up later in the year. Maximum power was SAE. The shorter engine required a radiator shroud to compensate. The Cortina GT, however, received an OHC inline-four in South Africa, as well.
Ford Australia built its own versions using both the UK four-cylinder engines (1.6 and 2.0) and locally made inline six-cylinder engines (3.3- and 4.1-litre) from its Falcon line.
Ford New Zealand introduced the Mk3 as a four-door sedan and also reintroduced wagon versions not assembled during the Mk2's run. Initially, the 1.3 OHV engine came with base trim, the 1600 with L. and 2000 OHC as a sedan-only GT. Later base models were upgraded to the 1.6 OHV and a 2.0 L specification was added, set to become the default "rep's spec" until the Cortina's Kiwi demise in 1984. A 1973 update brought new paint colours and black, rather than colour-matched, dashboards and carpet. Facelifted Mk3s received the 1.6 OHC replacement for the base 1.6 engine and, during the run, a specially trimmed base 1.3 OHC "economy" version was reintroduced, but actually achieved worse fuel economy than larger engine models. A 2.0XL sedan version was also added around the same time. The Kiwi 2000E sedan initially lacked the cloth seats of the UK version, and a radio was never standard; wagons were only ever offered in base or L trim.
Ford Lio Ho in Taiwan began local production of the Cortina in March 1973.
For Japan, the cars were narrowed by a few millimetres on arrival in the country to fit into a lower tax bracket determined by exterior dimensions, which impose a maximum width of . The Cortina was joined by the Ford Capri in Japan and was imported by Kintetsu Motors, an exclusive retailer of Ford products.
Mark IV (1976–1979)
The fourth-generation Cortina was a more conventional design than its predecessor, and this was largely appreciated by fleet buyers. Generally, it was a rebody of the Mark III with little mechanical change as an integration of Ford's model range, and as a result, the Cortina and Taunus now differed only in badging. Although the updated Taunus was introduced to Continental Europe in January 1976, Ford were able to continue selling the Cortina Mark III in undiminished numbers in the UK until they were ready to launch its successor as the Dagenham-built Cortina Mark IV, which went on sale on 29 September 1976.
Many parts were carried over, most notably the running gear. The raised driving position and the new instrument panel had, along with some of the suspension upgrades, already been introduced to the Cortina Mark III in 1975, so that from the driving position, the new car looked much more familiar to owners of recent existing Cortinas than from the outside. Cinema audiences saw the new Cortina (or Taunus) chasing James Bond in his Lotus Esprit in the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me.
The most obvious change was the new, squarer body in line with contemporary "folded paper" fashion of the time (which nevertheless retained a very subtle "Coke-bottle" belt line as a reference to the Mk III), which achieved the marketing department objective of larger windows giving a better view out and a brighter feel to the cabin, but at the expense of body weight, which was increased, albeit only marginally, by about . Ford claimed an overall increase in window area of some 15%, with "40% better visibility" through the wider, deeper back window. Regardless of how these figures were computed, substantial weight-saving gains must have been made through reduced steel usage in the design, given the unavoidable extra weight of glass.
This series spawned the first Ghia top-of-the-range model, which replaced the 2000E. The 2.3-litre Ford Cologne V6 engine was introduced in 1977 as an engine above the 2.0-litre Pinto engine, already a staple of the Capri and Granada ranges. However, 2.3-litre Cortinas never sold particularly well in the UK. The Cologne V6 was certainly a much smoother and more refined power unit than the Pinto, but the V6 models were more expensive to fuel and insure, and were only slightly faster, being about 0.5 seconds faster from 0–60 and having a top speed of about 109 mph compared to the 104 mph of the 2.0-litre models. The 2.0-litre Cologne V6 engine continued to be offered on Taunus-badged cars in parallel with the Pinto unit, and offers here an interesting comparison with the similarly sized in-line four-cylinder Pinto engine. The V6 with a lower compression ratio offered less power and less performance, needing over an extra second to reach . It did, however, consume 12½% less fuel and was considered by motor journalists to be a far quieter and smoother unit. The 2.3-litre was available to the GL, S, and Ghia variants. A 1.6-litre Ghia option was also introduced at the same time as the 2.3-litre V6 models in response to private and fleet buyers who wanted Ghia refinements with the improved fuel economy of the smaller 1.6-litre Pinto engine. Few cars were sold with the 1.6-litre engine, though; the 2.0-litre Pinto was always by far the most common engine option for Ghia models.
Two-door and four-door saloons and a five-door estate were offered with all other engines being carried over. At launch, though, only 1.3-litre-engined cars could be ordered in the UK with the two-door body, and then only with "standard" or "L" equipment packages. In practice, relatively few two-door Mark IV Cortinas were sold. In some markets, the two-door saloon was marketed as a coupe, but this was not the case in Britain. Ford already competed in the coupe sector in Europe with the Capri, which was particularly successful on the British market.
A choice of base, L, GL, S (for Sport) and Ghia trims was available, again not universal to all engines and body styles. Rostyle wheels were fitted as standard to all Mark IV GL, S, and Ghia models, with alloy wheels available as an extra-cost option. The dashboard was carried over intact from the last of the Mark III Cortinas, while the estate used the rear body pressings of the previous 1970-release Taunus.
Despite its status as Britain's best-selling car throughout its production run, the Mark IV is now the rarest Cortina, with poor rustproofing and the model's popularity with banger racers cited as being the main reasons for its demise. Particularly scarce are the 2.0 and 2.3S models, which were discontinued when the Mark V was introduced in August 1979.
Ford Australia built its own version, known as the TE, with the 2.0-litre Inline-four engine Pinto unit and the Falcon's 3.3-litre and 4.1-litre straight-six engine. The six-cylinder versions were rather nose heavy and did not handle as well as the fours or the European V6 models. Interior door hardware and steering columns were shared with the Falcons, and the Australian versions also had their own instrument clusters, optional air conditioning, and much larger bumpers. They also had side indicators. The Cortina wagon was assembled by Renault Australia at its plant in Heidelberg in Victoria.
A considerable number were exported to New Zealand under a free-trade agreement where they were sold alongside locally assembled models similar to those available in the UK.
In South Africa, the Mark IV was built with the Kent 1.6-litre and the 3.0-litre Essex V6. Beginning in mid-1978, the Cologne-built 2.0-litre Pinto four also became available in place of the old Essex V4. They were sold as L (1600), GL (2000), and Ghia (V6) with four-door saloon or estate bodywork.
Mark V (1979–1982)
The Mark V was announced on 24 August 1979. Officially, the programme was code named Teresa, although externally it was marketed as "Cortina 80", but the Mark V tag was given to it immediately on release by the press, insiders, and the general public. Prices started at £3,475 for a basic 1.3-litre-engined model.
Largely an update of the Mark IV, it was really a step between a facelift and a rebody. The Mark V differed from the Mark IV by having revised headlights with larger turn indicators incorporated (which were now visible on the side, too), a wider, slatted grille said to be more aerodynamically efficient, a flattened roof, larger glass area, slimmer C-pillars with revised vent covers, larger slatted taillights (on saloon models), and upgraded trim. The styling upgrades were done primarily to bring the Cortina into line with Ford's current design language seen on the Fiesta MkI, Capri MkIII, and the forthcoming Escort MkIII.
Improvements were also made to the engine range, with slight improvements to both fuel economy and power output compared to the Mark IV. The 2.3-litre V6 engine was given electronic ignition and a slight boost in power output to , compared to the of the Mark IV. Ford also claimed improved corrosion protection on Mark V models; as a result, more Mark Vs have survived, but corrosion was still quite a problem.
The estate models combined the Mark IV's bodyshell (which was initially from the 1970 Ford Taunus) with the Mark V front body pressings. A pick-up ("bakkie") version was also built in South Africa. In 1982, the Cortina Pickup received a longer bed and was from then on marketed as the Ford P100.
Variants included the Base, L, GL, and Ghia (all available in saloon and estate forms), together with Base and L specification two-door saloon versions (this body style was available up to Ghia V6 level on overseas markets). The replacement for the previous Mark IV S models was an S package of optional extras, which was available as an upgrade on most Mark V models from L trim level upwards. For the final model year of 1982, this consisted of front and rear bumper overriders, sports driving lamps, an S badge on the boot, tachometer, four-spoke steering wheel, revised suspension settings, front gas shock absorbers, Sports gear-lever knob, Sports road wheels, 185/70 SR x 13 tyres, and fishnet Recaro sports seats (optional). Various "special editions" were announced, including the Calypso and Carousel. The final production model was the Crusader special edition, which was available as a 1.3-litre, 1.6-litre, and 2.0-litre saloons or 1.6-litre and 2.0-litre estates. The Crusader was a final run-out model in 1982, along with the newly introduced Sierra. It was the best-specified Cortina produced to date, and 30,000 were sold, which also made it Ford's best-selling special edition model. Another special edition model was the estate Cortina Huntsman, of which 150 were produced. By this time, the Cortina was starting to feel the competition from a rejuvenated (and Opel-influenced) Vauxhall, which with the 1981 release Cavalier J-Car, was starting to make inroads on the Cortina's traditional fleet market, largely helped by the front-wheel drive benefits of weight.
The Mk V Cortina was released in Australia in April 1980, where it was known as the TF Cortina. It sold poorly and was dropped in 1982.
Up to and including 1981, the Cortina was the best-selling car in Britain. Even during its final production year, 1982, the Cortina was Britain's second-best selling car and most popular large family car. On the Continent, the Taunus version was competing with more modern and practical designs like the Talbot Alpine, Volkswagen Passat, and Opel Ascona.
The last Cortina – a silver Crusader – rolled off the Dagenham production line on 22 July 1982 on the launch of the Sierra, though a few were still leaving the forecourt as late as 1987, with one final unregistered Cortina GL leaving a Derbyshire dealership in 2005. The last Cortina built remains in the Ford Heritage Centre in Dagenham, Essex, not far from the factory where it was assembled.
Sales success
In 1967, the Ford Cortina interrupted the Austin/Morris 1100/1300s reign as Britain's best-selling car. It was Britain's best-selling car for nine out of ten years between 1972 and 1981, narrowly being outsold by the Ford Escort in 1976.
The final incarnation of the Cortina was Britain's best-selling car in 1980 and 1981, also topping the sales charts for 1979 when the range was making the transition from the fourth-generation model to the fifth - in that year it achieved a British record of more than 193,000 sales. Even in 1983, when during its final year of production, it was second only to the Ford Escort.
The Cortina was also a very popular-selling car in New Zealand throughout its production and continued to be sold new until 1984.
Although the Sierra went on sale in October 1982, thousands of Cortinas were still unsold at this point. More than 11,000 were sold in 1983, with five examples being sold as late as 1987 when the Sierra Sapphire eventually launched.
Its demise left Ford without a traditional four-door saloon of this size, as the Sierra was initially available only as a hatchback or estate. Ford later addressed this by launching a saloon version of the Sierra (the Sierra Sapphire) at the time of a major facelift in early 1987. It also added an Escort-based four-door saloon, the Orion, to the range in 1983 - attracting many former Cortina buyers.
More than 2.8 million Cortinas were sold in Britain during its 20-year, five-generation production run, and in March 2009, the Cortina was still the third-most popular car ever sold there, despite having been out of production for nearly three decades. Such was its popularity that though it was only produced for three years of the 1980s, the Cortina was still Britain's seventh-best selling car of that decade with almost 500,000 sales. It remained a popular buy on the used market and a common sight on British roads until well into the 1990s.
As of December 2019, 3,826 Cortinas are still registered on the road, with a further 3,480 currently SORN. With the supply of good European built examples dwindling, enthusiasts have increasingly imported South African and New Zealand-built Cortinas into the UK. The warm, dry climate of these countries means that fewer cars have succumbed to corrosion and they have the added benefit of being right-hand drive.
The BBC Two documentary series Arena had a segment about the car and its enthusiasts, aired in January 1982, six months before the end of production, by which time Ford had confirmed that the Cortina name would be axed in favour of Sierra, which prompted a notable backlash from comedian Alexi Sayle.
British punk rock band The Clash referenced the car in the song "Janie Jones", singing "He's just like everyone, he's got a Ford Cortina that just won't run without fuel."
British indie band Arctic Monkeys put to music a poem "I Wanna Be Yours" by John Cooper Clarke in 2013, which contains the line "I want to be your Ford Cortina, I will never rust."
Irish Rock band The Saw Doctors released a song called "Red Cortina" in 1991 in which they sing "Your father used to drop you off, You'd step out of a Red Cortina"
Racing and rallying
During the 1960s and 1970s, the Ford Cortina Lotus was a successful rally and racing car in a wide variety of competitions across Europe and North America. The standard Cortina was rarely used in competition of any sort, but benefited from the publicity generated by the Lotus versions.
At the end of their lives, however, many Cortinas did see action on oval racing circuits in the UK, as their rigidity and ready availability during the 1980s and 1990s made them a popular choice for banger racing. Although Cortinas are now relatively rare, they remain coveted by the banger racing fraternity and all-Cortina meetings are still occasional fixtures on the racing calendar.
Ian Geoghegan won the 1964 Australian Touring Car Championship driving a Ford Cortina GT.
Other cars using Cortina engines
The Kent engines used in the Cortina (popularly known as the "Crossflow"), being lightweight, reliable, and inexpensive, were popular with several low-volume sports-car manufacturers, including Morgan, which used them in the 1962–81 4/4 (and continue to use Ford engines in most of their current models). The engines are also found in a number of British kit cars, and until recently, were the basis of Formula Ford racing, until replaced by "Zetec" engines.
The Kent engines were also used in several smaller Fords, most notably the Escort, lower end Capris and Fiesta.
The Pinto OHC engines used in the Mk.III onwards, as well as being fitted to contemporary Capris, Granadas, and Transits, were carried over to the Sierra for its first few years of production, before gradually being phased out by the newer CVH and DOHC units. Like the Kent Crossflow, they were also extensively used in kit cars; as a result, many Cortinas were scrapped solely for their engines, with the 2.0-litre Pintos being the most popular.
In recent years, the opposite phenomenon has become popular among enthusiasts, where classic Cortinas have been retrofitted with modern Ford engines – the most popular unit being the Zetec unit from the Mondeo and Focus. The Zetec, although originally intended only for front-wheel drive installation, can be adapted fairly easily owing to the engine's use as a replacement for Kent units in Formula Ford.
Sales and manufacture outside the United Kingdom
The Cortina was also sold in other right-hand drive markets, such as Ireland (where it was assembled locally), Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand (local production 1961-76 as a joint venture with Anglo-Thai Motor Company, Ford's import distributor), Malta, and South Africa. Mark III Cortina estates were adopted as police cars in Hong Kong. The Cortina was also assembled in left-hand drive in the Philippines, South Korea (by Hyundai as its first model), and Taiwan (by Ford Lio Ho) until the early 1980s.
The first two generations of the car were also sold through American Ford dealers in the 1960s. The Cortina competed fairly successfully there against most of the other small imports of its day, including GM's Opel Kadett, the Renault Dauphine, and the just-appearing Toyotas and Datsuns, although none of them approached the phenomenal success of the Volkswagen Beetle. The Cortina was withdrawn from the US market when Ford decided to produce a domestic small car in 1971, the Ford Pinto, though it continued in Canada (with the Cortina Mark III) until the end of the 1973 model year. Subsequent European Ford products after the Cortina for the USA market (with the exception of the Fiesta Mk I circa 1978-80) were sold through Lincoln-Mercury dealerships (most notably the Ford Capri (MkI and II) and Ford Sierra - the latter of which was marketed in the USA under the Merkur marque).
The Cortina was also sold in some Continental European markets, such as Scandinavia, alongside the Taunus, as well as Portugal, being assembled in Ford's factory in Amsterdam from the launch in 1962 until 1975. Production was for the Dutch market, but also for export to non-EC countries and even for export to the UK if the demand there was higher than the UK production capacity.
New Zealand
The New Zealand Cortina range generally followed that of Britain. Overall complete knock-down assembly ran from 1962 to June 1983, at Ford's Lower Hutt (Seaview) plant.
The Mark IV Cortina range, introduced into local assembly early in 1977, was very similar to that offered in the UK – a main specification difference, however, was the use of metric instrumentation, and that a two-door sedan was not offered. Engine sizes of 1.6 litres and 2.0 litres were available. The 2.0-litre was a very popular fleet vehicle and the transport of thousands of sales representatives in New Zealand over the years.
Additionally, limited imports were made of Australian Mark IV Cortinas, equipped with both 2.0-litre four-cylinder engines which featured more emissions control equipment than the UK-sourced cars, and the Falcon's 4.1-litre six-cylinder engines.
The Mark V range was introduced early in 1980, a range that featured 1.6 base, 2.0 L, 2.0 GL, 2.0 Ghia, 2.3 V6 Ghia, and wagon variants for the 1.6 base and 2.0 L. The 2.0, unencumbered by emissions regulations, has at 5200 rpm. In 1982 the 2.0 GL model was discontinued and replaced with a 2.0 S (Sport) model, and unlike in the UK, it was a model in its own right. The "S" received a black, two-piece front spoiler and a rear spoiler. Two halogen extra lights were standard, as was a body-coloured grille. Most of the chrome trim was blacked out, while the steel wheels received a chrome band. A 2.0 commercial van was also introduced – essentially a Cortina estate without rear seats, aimed towards fleet buyers.
All 2.0-litre models had the option of automatic transmission, and with the 2.3-litre V6, it was the only transmission offered. The 2.3 also received power steering and additional sound-deadening material. A five-speed box was not available. A unique option, offered under guarantee by a dealership, South Auckland Ford, was a turbocharger.
The Ghia models were equipped similarly to UK models, but only the 2.3-litre V6 models featured imported Ford alloy wheels. Ford Rostyle steel rims were fitted to all 2.0 GL, Ghia, and S models, optionally on the other models. New Zealand Ghia models, however, did not feature a steel sliding sunroof (fitted as standard on UK Ghia models), although some models did feature an aftermarket sunroof.
The Cortina was a popular car in New Zealand, being the most sold car in seven years with over 100,000 assembled in total. It was missed by many when it ceased production in June 1983, notably after Ford New Zealand had scoured the globe for surplus assembly kits, a number of which came from Cork in Ireland. Station wagons (estate models) remained available until 1984. The Cortina range was finally replaced by the 1983 Ford Telstar range and the 1984 Ford Sierra station wagon. Sales had been dropping in the early 1980s, though, with the average age of buyers in 1981 being between 45 and 54. Quality and fitment were also issues of concern, with the local assembler welcoming the Cortina's Mazda-built replacement.
Compared with Britain and many other countries where the Cortina was originally exported, in New Zealand, it has a far superior survival rate due to the climate being far drier and more favourable to the preservation of rust-free classic cars. Seeing examples in everyday use, especially New Zealand's rural areas, is not uncommon, and obtaining spare parts to keep them on the roads has yet to become a significant problem. New Zealand has been a popular source of good-condition Cortinas to export back to the UK, where rust has condemned the majority.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Cortina range included V6 Essex-engined variants, in both 2.5-litre and 3.0-litre forms.
From July 1971, a locally designed pick-up truck version (known in Afrikaans as a "bakkie") was also offered, and this remained in production even after the Cortina was replaced by the Sierra. The Mark V-based Cortina Pickup was exported to the UK, in a lengthened wheelbase form, as the Ford P100. This pick-up was launched in the UK in 1982, the year that the standard Cortina was being replaced by the Sierra. This version of the P100 was sold until 1988, when Ford divested from South Africa, and a Portuguese-built Sierra pick-up was introduced in its place, still using the P100 name.
The Mark V model range, introduced in 1980 for the South African market, included 1.3-litre L (1980–1982), 1.6-litre L, GL (1980–1983), 2.0-litre GL, Ghia, (1980–1984), 3.0-litre XR6 (1980–1983), 1.6-litre L Estate (1980–1983), 2.0-litre GL Estate (1980–1983), 3.0-litre GLS (1980–1984), 1.6-litre One-Tonner (1980–1985), and 3.0-litre One-Tonner (1980–1985).
The XR6 was a sports version that used the Essex V6 and featured body aerofoils and sport seats.
In 1981, a version called the XR6 Interceptor was released as a homologation special made to compete in production car racing. They featured triple Weber DCNF carburetors, aggressive camshaft, tubular exhaust manifold, suspension revisions, and wider Ronal 13-inch wheels. They produced 118 kW and were only available in red; 250 were produced.
Later on, a special-edition XR6 TF was released to celebrate 'Team Fords' racing success with the XR6. They were essentially XR6s in exterior and interior Team Ford colours, which were blue and white.
In 1983, a special version was created by Simpson Ford to appease the demand for an Interceptor-like Cortina and was sold through Ford dealerships countrywide. It was called the XR6 X-ocet and featured a Holley carbureter, aggressive camshaft and tuned exhaust. They came in red with a white lower quarter and did 0– in 8.5 seconds with a top speed of .
South African Mark V models differed slightly from UK models with different wheels, bumpers, and interior trim.
The last brand new Cortina was sold in South Africa by mid-1984. It was often the country's top-selling car, being far more popular than the Sierra, Telstar, and Mondeo models that followed it.
South Korea
The newly established Hyundai Motor Company began assembling the Mk2 Cortina under licence at its Ulsan plant in 1967. The later Hyundai Pony and Stellar, although not directly based on the Cortina/Taunus still used common componentry - most notably the rear suspension and axle which were interchangeable with the Ford car.
Pakistan
In the early 1960s, Cortinas were assembled by Ali Automobiles in Karachi.
References
External links
Ford Cortina community
Cortina MK 1 page
Cortina
Mid-size cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Rally cars
Sedans
Cars introduced in 1962
1970s cars
1980s cars | [
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226981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite%20mathematics | Finite mathematics | In mathematics education, Finite Mathematics is a syllabus in college and university mathematics that is independent of calculus. A course in precalculus may be a prerequisite for Finite Mathematics.
Contents of the course include an eclectic selection of topics often applied in social science and business, such as finite probability spaces, matrix multiplication, Markov processes, finite graphs, or mathematical models. These topics were used in Finite Mathematics courses at Dartmouth College (home of Tuck School of Business) as developed by John G. Kemeny, Gerald L. Thompson, and J. Laurie Snell and published by Prentice-Hall. Other publishers followed with their own topics. With the arrival of software to facilitate computations, teaching and usage shifted from a broad-spectrum Finite Mathematics with paper and pen, into development and usage of software.
Textbooks
1957: Kemeny, Thompson, Snell, Introduction to Finite Mathematics, (2nd edition 1966) Prentice-Hall
1959: Hazelton Mirkil & Kemeny, Thompson, Snell, Finite Mathematical Structures, Prentice-Hall
1962: Arthur Schliefer Jr. & Kemeny, Thompson, Snell, Finite Mathematics with Business Applications, Prentice-Hall
1969: Marvin Marcus, A Survey of Finite Mathematics, Houghton-Mifflin
1970: Guillermo Owen, Mathematics for Social and Management Sciences, Finite Mathematics, W. B. Saunders
1970: Irving Allen Dodes, Finite Mathematics: A Liberal Arts Approach, McGraw-Hill
1971: A.W. Goodman & J. S. Ratti, Finite Mathematics with Applications, Macmillan
1971: J. Conrad Crown & Marvin L. Bittinger, Finite Mathematics: a modeling approach, (2nd edition 1981) Addison-Wesley
1977: Robert F. Brown & Brenda W. Brown, Applied Finite Mathematics, Wadsworth Publishing
1980: L.J. Goldstein, David I. Schneider, Martha Siegel, Finite Mathematics and Applications, (7th edition 2001) Prentice-Hall
1981: John J. Costello, Spenser O. Gowdy, Agnes M. Rash, Finite Mathematics with Applications, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich
1982: James Radlow, Understanding Finite Mathematics, PWS Publishers
1984: Daniel Gallin, Finite Mathematics, Scott Foresman
1984: Gary G. Gilbert & Donald O. Koehler, Applied Finite Mathematics, McGraw-Hill
1984: Frank S. Budnick, Finite Mathematics with Applications in Management and the Social Sciences, McGraw Hill
2015: Chris P. Tsokos & Rebecca D. Wooton, The Joy of Finite Mathematics, Academic Press
See also
Discrete mathematics
Finite geometry
Finite group, Finite ring, Finite field
Finite topological space
References
Mathematics education | [
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226985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermiculite | Vermiculite | Vermiculite is a hydrous phyllosilicate mineral which undergoes significant expansion when heated. Exfoliation occurs when the mineral is heated sufficiently, and commercial furnaces can routinely produce this effect. Vermiculite forms by the weathering or hydrothermal alteration of biotite or phlogopite.
Large commercial vermiculite mines currently exist in the United States, Russia, South Africa, China, and Brazil.
Occurrence
Vermiculite was first described in 1824 for an occurrence in Millbury, Massachusetts. Its name is from Latin , "to breed worms", for the manner in which it exfoliates when heated.
It typically occurs as an alteration product at the contact between felsic and mafic or ultramafic rocks such as pyroxenites and dunites. It also occurs in carbonatites and metamorphosed magnesium-rich limestone. Associated mineral phases include: corundum, apatite, serpentine, and talc. It occurs interlayered with chlorite, biotite and phlogopite.
Structure
Vermiculite is a 2:1 clay, meaning it has two tetrahedral sheets for every one octahedral sheet. It is a limited-expansion clay with a medium shrink–swell capacity. Vermiculite has a high cation-exchange capacity (CEC) at 100–150 meq/100 g. Vermiculite clays are weathered micas in which the potassium ions between the molecular sheets are replaced by magnesium and iron ions.
Commercial uses
Molded shapes: this process involves mixing exfoliated vermiculite with inorganic bonding agents such as sodium silicate, cement (specific quantities), and other compounds, such as potassium ones, to produce an 'earth damp' mixture. This material is then hydraulically pressed into shape in a mold and then heat cured at temperatures up to 180 °C for up to 24 hours, depending upon the thickness of the moulded part. Such parts can withstand service temperatures of up to 1150 °C and are often used in the aluminium smelting industry as back-up insulation behind the carbon cathode in the pot cells which contain the molten mixture of cryolite and alumina. The moulded shapes and boards are used in:
Open fireplaces
High-temperature or refractory insulation
Acoustic panels
Fireproofing of structural steel and pipes
Calcium silicate boards: exfoliated vermiculite is added to a calcium silicate slurry. This is then dewatered by pressing or by using one of the Fourdriner/Magnani/Hatschek processes to form a flat board which is then heat cured under pressure (typically 10–15 bar) for periods of up to 24 hours.
Brake linings: finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite are being used in brake linings primarily for the automotive market. The properties of vermiculite that make it an appropriate choice for use in brake linings include its thermal resistance, ease of addition to other raw materials to achieve a homogeneous mix, and its shape and surface characteristics.
Roof and floor screeds and insulating concretes: exfoliated vermiculite (typically the finer grades) can be added at site to Portland cement and other aggregates, rheological aids, and water to produce roof and floor concrete screeds which are lightweight and insulating. In many cases, vermiculite-based roof screeds are used in conjunction with other insulation materials, such as polystyrene board, to form a total roofing system. A bituminous binder can also be used with exfoliated vermiculite to produce a dry, lightweight roof screed which has the advantages of low thermal conductivity, low moisture content, and ease of placement (by pouring from the bag and then tamping).
Soilless growing medium: exfoliated vermiculite is combined with other materials such as peat or composted pine bark to produce soilless growing medium for the professional horticulturalist and for the home gardener. These mixes promote faster root growth and give quick anchorage to young roots. The mixture helps retain air, plant food, and moisture, releasing them as the plant requires them. These mixes were pioneered by Boodley and Sheldrake. Exfoliated vermiculite is also used as a growing medium for hydroponics.
Seed germination: vermiculite, alone or mixed with soil or peat, is used to germinate seeds; very little watering is required. When vermiculite is used alone, seedlings should be fed with a weak fertilizer solution when the first true leaves appear. Start with one teaspoon of 5-10-5 soluble fertilizer per gallon of water, gradually increasing to one tablespoon (1:256 ratio) when transplanting.
Storing bulbs and root crops: pour vermiculite around bulbs placed in container. If clumps are dug, allow to dry for a few hours in the sun and then place in cartons or bushel baskets and cover with vermiculite. The absorptive power of vermiculite acts as a regulator that prevents mildew and moisture fluctuation during the storage period. It will not absorb moisture from the inside of stored tubers, but it does take up free water from the outside, preventing storage rot.
As a soil conditioner: Where the native soil is heavy or sticky, gentle mixing of vermiculite—up to one half the volume of the soil—is recommended. This creates air channels and allows the soil mix to breathe. Mixing vermiculite in flower and vegetable gardens or in potted plants will provide the necessary air to maintain vigorous plant growth. Where soils are sandy, mixing of vermiculite into the soil will allow the soil to hold the water and air needed for growth.
As loose-fill insulation: Exfoliated vermiculite treated with a water repellent is used to fill the pores and cavities of masonry construction and hollow blockwork to enhance fire ratings (e.g. Underwriters Laboratories Wall and Partition designs), thermal insulation, and acoustic performance. Expanded vermiculite has also been used as thermal insulation in the attics and walls of houses and in water heaters, fire safes, stoves, furnaces, and refrigerators.
Refractory/Insulation gunning and castable mixes: exfoliated vermiculite can be combined with high alumina (also known as calcium aluminate) cements and other aggregates such as expanded shale, clay, and slate to produce refractory/insulation concretes and mortars. In the early days of their use, these products were batched at or very close to the place of installation. This continues to be the case in some limited circumstances; however, more and more use is being made of pre-batched, proprietary mixes. Mixes containing vermiculite are used in areas where strength and corrosion/abrasion resistance are of secondary importance, the most important factor being the insulation performance of the in-place refractory lining. These mixes are used in industries including iron/steel, cement, and hydrocarbon processing
Cementitious fireproofing products: Exfoliated vermiculite is one of the ingredients in the manufacture of cementitious and gypsum-based spray-grade fireproofing material, generally used as Passive Fire Protection products on structural steel and concrete.
As a constituent of a coating: vermiculite dispersions are typically either chemically or physically very finely delaminated vermiculite in a fluid medium. These dispersions can be used to make vermiculite 'paper' sheets by pouring them onto a piece of smooth, low surface-energy plastic, and allowing to dry. The resulting sheet can then be peeled off the plastic. Typical end-uses for vermiculite dispersions include inclusion in high temperature coatings or binders for construction materials, gaskets, specialty papers/textiles, oxidation-resistant coating on carbon based composites, and as barrier coatings for films.
As a packing material, valued for its high absorbency.
Waste treatment: the cation exchange capacity (up to 1,000 milliequivalents per kg) of vermiculite allows it to be used in fluid purification processes for waste water, chemical processing, and the pollution-control of air in mines and gases in industrial processes. In addition to its ion exchange properties, exfoliated vermiculite can retain liquids within the inter-laminar voids of the individual particles, as well as between the particles themselves.
As a substrate for various animals and/or a medium for incubation of eggs.
As a lightweight aggregate for plaster, proprietary concrete compounds, firestop mortar, and cementitious spray fireproofing: Exfoliated vermiculite is used in both hand and spray-applied general building plasters to improve coverage, ease of handling, adhesion to a wide variety of substrates, fire resistance, and resistance to chipping/cracking/shrinkage.
As an additive to fireproof wallboard.
As a component of the interior fill for firestop pillows, along with graphite.
As a carrier for dry handling and slow release of agricultural chemicals.
As a hot topping: both exfoliated and crude vermiculite have been used for hot topping in the steel industry. When poured onto molten metal, crude vermiculite exfoliates immediately and forms an insulating layer, allowing the material to be transported to the next production process without losing too much heat.
Used to permit slow cooling of hot pieces in glassblowing, lampwork, steelwork, and glass beadmaking.
Used in in-ground swimming pools to provide a smooth pool base: Finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite plus Portland cement may be combined either on-site or in a factory premix to provide a base for swimming pool vinyl liners. These mixes are pumped into place using a rotor stator pump, or hand poured.
Used in commercial hand warmers.
Used in AGA cookers as insulation.
Used in explosives storage as a blast mitigant.
Used to absorb hazardous liquids for solid disposal.
Used in gas fireplaces to simulate embers.
Used as part of a substrate for cultivation of fungi.
Commercial manufacture of exfoliated vermiculite
In 2014, South Africa, Brazil, the US, and China were the top producers of mined, concentrated and unexfoliated vermiculite, with about 90% world share. South Africa's production is decreasing, while Brazil's is significantly increasing.
While some end processors and exfoliators of vermiculite specialize, with proprietary products sold in a wide variety of industries, some have more varied end products, with less stringent technical requirements. Some vermiculite exfoliators blend with lower-cost perlite also. Vermiculite exfoliators have an international trade association called The Vermiculite Association to represent the industry's interests and to exchange information.
Fireproofing
Today spray-applied fireproofing materials use vermiculite, other industrial minerals, and expanded polystyrene, depending upon the exact commercial product. The ingredients for these products all have to meet stringent regulatory requirements, particularly in the US and Europe. In the past, vermiculite from the W. R. Grace mines in Libby, Montana, have been associated with asbestos. Therefore, old spray-applied fireproofing, pre-1991, may contain small quantities of asbestos. In August 2014, the NYSDoH qualified two, more exact, test methods, better designed to identify materials with this potential problem, and assist in safely dealing with any issues associated with its removal. Modern spray applied fireproofing today is made with various light weight aggregates that does not contain asbestos and is carefully monitored at all stages of mining and production to ensure this is the case.
Asbestos contamination
Although not all vermiculite contains asbestos, some products were made with vermiculite that contained asbestos until the early 1990s. Vermiculite mines throughout the world are now regularly tested for it and are supposed to sell products that contain no asbestos. The former vermiculite mine in Libby, Montana, did have tremolite asbestos as well as winchite and richterite (both fibrous amphiboles)—in fact, it was formed underground through essentially the same geologic processes as the contaminants.
Pure vermiculite does not contain asbestos and is non-toxic. Impure vermiculite may contain, apart from asbestos, also minor diopside or remnants of the precursor minerals biotite or phlogopite.
Controversy over health risks
The largest and oldest vermiculite mine in the United States was started in the 1920s, at Libby, Montana, and the vermiculite was sold under the commercial name Zonolite. The Zonolite brand and the mine were acquired by the W. R. Grace and Company in 1963. Mining operations at the Libby site stopped in 1990 in response to asbestos contamination. While in operation, the Libby mine may have produced 80% of the world's supply of vermiculite.
The United States government estimates that vermiculite was used in more than 35 million homes, but does not recommend its removal. Nevertheless, homes or structures containing vermiculite or vermiculite insulation dating from before the mid-1990s—and especially those known to contain the "Zonolite" brand—may contain asbestos, and therefore may be a health concern.
An article published in The Salt Lake Tribune on December 3, 2006, reported that vermiculite and Zonolite had been found to contain asbestos, which had led to cancers such as those found in asbestos-related cases. The article stated that there had been a cover-up by W. R. Grace and Company and others regarding the health risks associated with vermiculite and that several sites in the Salt Lake Valley had been remediated by the EPA when they were shown to be contaminated with asbestos. W. R. Grace and Company has vigorously denied these charges.
The vermiculite deposit at the mine in Libby, Montana, was (and is) heavily contaminated with asbestos. Numerous people were knowingly exposed to the harmful dust of vermiculite that contained asbestos. Unfortunately, the mine had been operating since the 1920s, and environmental and industrial controls were virtually non-existent until the mine was purchased by the W. R. Grace and Company in 1963. Yet, knowing the human health risks, the mining company still continued to operate there until 1990. Consequently, many of the former miners and residents of Libby have been affected and continue to suffer health problems. Over 400 people in the town have died from asbestos-related disease due to contamination from vermiculite mining from nearby Zonolite Mountain, where soil samples were found to be loaded with fibrous tremolite (known to be a very hazardous form of asbestos), and countless others there who insulated their homes with Zonolite have succumbed to asbestos-related diseases, most of whom never were employed in environments where asbestos was an issue.
After a 1999 Seattle Post-Intelligencer story claimed that asbestos-related disease was common in the town, the EPA, in response to political pressure, made cleanup of the site a priority and called Libby the worst case of community-wide exposure to a toxic substance in U.S. history. The EPA has spent $120 million in Superfund money on cleanup. In October 2006, W. R. Grace and Company tried to appeal the fines ($54.5 million) levied on them from the EPA, but the Supreme Court rejected the appeal. The United States government is also pursuing criminal charges against several former executives and managers of the mine for allegedly disregarding and covering up health risks to employees. They are also accused of wire fraud, and of obstructing the government's cleanup efforts. As of the indictment date, about 1,200 residents of the Libby area had been identified as suffering from some kind of asbestos-related abnormality. Jury selection was to have been completed in February 2009. The case ended in acquittals on May 8, 2009. On June 17, 2009, the EPA issued a public health emergency in and near Libby, thereby allowing federal agencies to provide funding for health care, and for removal of contaminated insulation from affected homes.
See also
References
External links
The Vermiculite Association
Cornell Boodley and Sheldrake General Chemistry II Laboratory: Some Examples of Chemical Equilibria: Le Châtelier's Principle
US Geological Survey Vermiculite Section
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Petition for writ of certiorari to U.S. Supreme Court (April 27, 2006)
Aluminium minerals
Asbestos
Industrial minerals
Iron(II,III) minerals
Magnesium minerals
Mica group
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 12
Passive fire protection
Soil improvers | [
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226986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Copyright%20Office | United States Copyright Office | The United States Copyright Office (sometimes abbreviated USCO), a part of the Library of Congress, is the official U.S. government body that maintains records of copyright registration in the United States including a Copyright Catalog. It is used by copyright title searchers who are attempting to clear a chain of title for copyrighted works.
The head of the Copyright Office is the Register of Copyrights. the position is held by Shira Perlmutter, who took office October 26, 2020.
The Copyright Office is housed on the fourth floor of the James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress, at 101 Independence Avenue, SE, in Washington, DC.
History
The United States Constitution gives Congress the power to enact laws establishing a system of copyright in the United States. The first federal copyright law, called the Copyright Act of 1790, was enacted in May 1790 (with the first work being registered within two weeks). Originally, claims were recorded by Clerks of U.S. district courts. In 1870, copyright functions were centralized in the Library of Congress under the direction of the then Librarian of Congress Ainsworth Rand Spofford. The Copyright Office became a separate department of the Library of Congress in 1897, and Thorvald Solberg was appointed the first Register of Copyrights.
In the 1930s, the Copyright Office moved to new quarters in what is now the John Adams Building and in the 1970s it moved again, to its present quarters in the James Madison Memorial Building.
Functions
The mission of the Copyright Office is to promote creativity by administering and sustaining an effective national copyright system. While the purpose of the copyright system has always been to promote creativity in society, the functions of the Copyright Office have grown to include the following:
Administering the copyright law
The Office examines all applications and deposits presented for registration of original and renewal copyright claims to determine their acceptability for registration under the provisions of the copyright law. The Office also records documents related to copyright ownership. However, the Copyright Act of 1976 made registration largely optional for copyright ownership. Under the 1976 Act, federal copyright only requires fixation of an original work of authorship in a tangible medium of expression. Renewal is unnecessary, and a copyright owner can register at any time. The 1976 Act does make registration a prerequisite for an infringement action.
The Copyright Office records the bibliographic descriptions and the copyright facts of all works registered. The archives maintained by the Copyright Office are an important record of America's cultural and historical heritage. Containing nearly 45 million individual cards, the Copyright Card Catalog housed in the James Madison Memorial Building comprises an index to copyright registrations in the United States from 1870 through 1977. Records after 1977 are maintained through an online database of more than 16 million entries.
As a service unit of the Library of Congress, the Copyright Office is part of the legislative branch of government. The Office provides copyright policy advice to Congress. At the request of Congress, the Copyright Office advises and assists the Congress in the development of national and international copyright policy; drafts legislation; and prepares technical studies on copyright-related matters.
The Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices manual documents the Copyright Office's practices in its administration of copyright law.
A new fee schedule for certain Office services is effective as of May 1, 2014. The Copyright office's fees were last updated in 2009. Fees increased for certain registration and recordation and associated services, as well as certain search and review services for FOIA requests Freedom of Information Act (United States). In May 2014, the Office also reduced some renewal application and addendum fees in an effort to "encourage the filing of more renewal claims" and thereby help improve public records about copyright ownership.
Providing information services to the public
The Copyright Office provides public information and reference services concerning copyrights and recorded documents. The public can keep up on developments in the Copyright Office by subscribing to U.S. Copyright Office NewsNet, a free electronic mailing list that issues periodic email messages to alert subscribers to hearings, deadlines for comments, new and proposed regulations, new publications, and other copyright-related subjects of interest.
Library of Congress
In 1870, Congress passed a law that centralized the copyright system in the Library of Congress. This law required all owners of copyrights of publicly distributed works to deposit in the Library two copies of every such work registered in the United States, whether it is a book, pamphlet, map, print, or piece of music. Supplying the information needs of the Congress, the Library of Congress has become the world's largest library and the de facto national library of the United States. This repository of more than 162 million books, photographs, maps, films, documents, sound recordings, computer programs, and other items has grown largely through the operations of the copyright system, which brings deposits of every copyrighted work into the Library.
Duties
The Copyright Office consults with interested copyright owners, industry and library representatives, bar associations, and other interested parties on issues related to the copyright law.
The Copyright Office promotes improved copyright protection for U.S. creative works abroad through its International Copyright Institute. Created within the Copyright Office by Congress in 1988, the International Copyright Institute provides training for high-level officials from developing and newly industrialized countries and encourages development of effective intellectual property laws and enforcement overseas.
The website has information about new copyright relevant legislation and a list of designated agents under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA) and information about Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel (CARP) system of ad hoc copyright royalty arbitrators (now being phased out and replaced by the Copyright Royalty Board).
See also
Copyright Catalog
References
External links
Copyright Office in the Federal Register
United States Copyright Office, A Brief Introduction and History
Early Copyright Records Collection at the Library of Congress
Copyright Office
Copyright agencies
Copyright Office
United States copyright law
Government agencies established in 1897
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226988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken%20language | Spoken language | A spoken language is a language produced by articulate sounds, as opposed to a written language. An oral language or vocal language is a language produced with the vocal tract, as opposed to a sign language, which is produced with the hands and face. The term "spoken language" is sometimes used to mean only vocal languages, especially by linguists, making all three terms synonyms by excluding sign languages. Others refer to sign language as "spoken", especially in contrast to written transcriptions of signs.
In spoken language, much of a speaker's meaning is determined by the context. That contrasts with written language in which more of the meaning is provided directly by the text. In spoken language, the truth of a proposition is determined by common-sense reference to experience, but in written language, a greater emphasis is placed on logical and coherent argument. Similarly, the spoken language tends to convey subjective information, including the relationship between the speaker and the audience. (Conversation, in formal or informal settings is an example.) Written language, on the other hand, is the common mode used to convey objective information.
The relationship between spoken language and written language is complex. Within the fields of linguistics, the current consensus is that speech is an innate human capability, and written language is a cultural invention. However some linguists, such as those of the Prague school, argue that written and spoken language possess distinct qualities which would argue against written language being dependent on spoken language for its existence.
Both vocal and sign languages are composed of words. In vocal languages, words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants, and often tone. In sign languages, words are made up from a limited set of shapes, orientations, locations movements of the hands, and often facial expressions; in both cases, the building blocks are called phonemes. In both vocal and sign languages, words are grammatically and prosodically linked into phrases, clauses, and larger units of discourse.
Hearing children acquire as their first language the language that is used around them, whether vocal, cued (if they are sighted), or signed. Deaf children can do the same with Cued Speech or sign language if either visual communication system is used around them. Vocal language are traditionally taught to them in the same way that written language must be taught to hearing children. (See oralism.) Teachers give particular emphasis on spoken language with children who speak a different primary language outside of the school. For the child it is considered important, socially and educationally, to have the opportunity to understand multiple languages.
See also
References
Language | [
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226990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written%20language | Written language | A written language is the representation of a spoken or gestural language by means of a writing system. Written language is an invention in that it must be taught to children, who will pick up spoken language or sign language by exposure even if they are not formally instructed.
A written language exists only as a complement to a specific spoken language, and no natural language is purely written.
Compared to spoken language
Written languages change more slowly than corresponding spoken languages. When at least one register of a language is strongly divergent from spoken language, the resulting situation is called diglossia. However, that is still often considered one language between literary language and other registers, especially if the writing system reflects its pronunciation.
Native readers and writers of English are often unaware that the complexities of English spelling make written English a somewhat artificial construct. The traditional spelling of English, at least for inherited words, preserves a late Middle English phonology that is never used as a speech dialect. The artificial preservation of that form of the language, in writing, might make much of what is now written intelligible to Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400) even if the medieval writer's speech could no longer be understood.
See also
Graphocentrism
Foreign language writing aid
History of writing
History of writing ancient numbers
List of languages by first written accounts
List of language disorders
List of writing systems
Literary language
Standard language
Text linguistics
Writing
References
Further reading
Writing
Language varieties and styles | [
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226991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright%20collective | Copyright collective | Copyrights can either be licensed or assigned by the owner of the copyright. A copyright collective (also known as a copyright society, copyright collecting agency, licensing agency or copyright collecting society or collective management organization) is a non-governmental body created by copyright law or private agreement which licenses copyrighted works on behalf of the authors and engages in collective rights management. Copyright societies track all the events and venues where copyrighted works are used and ensure that the copyright holders listed with the society are remunerated for such usage. The copyright society publishes its own tariff scheme on its websites and collects a nominal administrative fee on every transaction.
Copyright societies evolved out of the need to have an organised body for licensing and managing copyrighted works. Without copyright societies, it would be impossible for users like restaurants, malls and large events to collect licenses from individual copyright holders and negotiate terms with them. Copyright societies negotiate prices and create tariffs on behalf of the authors that they represent and offset the imbalance of power between the users and the copyright holders. The lobbying power of copyright societies is especially important in industries like the music industry, where authors and owners of copyright are often placed at a disadvantage. The music streaming revolution was also projected as an attack on the power imbalance in the music industry. The evolution of technology and influence of music aggregators like Spotify, Apple Music and Pandora are changing the existing system of copyright licensing and might make copyright societies obsolete.
While the system of copyright societies is similar in all countries, their influence over the industry and mode of operation varies from country to country.
Functions
Copyright societies operate by acquiring the right to license works from the owners and then negotiating and licensing the works to others. They usually operate in one particular industry and try to acquire the works of all the authors dealing in that particular industry. The tariffs decided by copyright societies are based on the kind of event or venue of the licensee and usually allow the licensee to access the entire repertoire of works available with the copyright society. The royalty distributed to the owners is based on their market influence and demand for their works. Reduction of transaction costs and other benefits of collective management can be realised only when the copyright society has control over all or most of the copyrighted works in a particular industry.
In countries
Copyright law is territorial in nature, but copyrights are protected in multiple countries through international instruments such as the Berne Convention and the TRIPS Agreement. Along with licensing, copyright societies monitor the use of copyrighted works assigned to them and ensure that the copyright holders are fairly remunerated for such use. In order to monitor the use of copyrighted works abroad, societies enter into MoUs or international licensing agreements with their foreign counterparts in the industry and exchange information regarding the use of copyrighted materials.
Collecting societies can sell blanket licences, which grant the right to perform their catalogue for a period of time. Such a licence might for example provide a broadcaster with a single annual authorisation encompassing thousands of songs owned by thousands of composers, lyricists and publishers. The societies also sell individual licenses for users who reproduce and distribute music. For example, Apple must submit the download reports for the iTunes Store, which are used to determine their royalty payments.
This acquisition is guided by the legal regime of the country. Some jurisdictions, such as Hungary, create legal monopolies, and de facto monopolies arise in others. Once rights are acquired, the copyright collective then has to collect data of uses of copyrighted works. The processing of this data will enable the copyright collective to discharge its functions, including the detection of unauthorized use, negotiation of licenses, collection of remuneration and distribution of collected remuneration amongst the members of the copyright collective on the basis of collected data.
European Union
Copyright collecting societies in the European Union usually hold monopolies in their respective national markets. Some countries create a statutory monopoly, while others recognise effective monopolies through regulations.
Austria
In Austria the Society of Authors, Composers and Publishers (, AKM) has a statutory monopoly.
Germany
German law recognizes GEMA as an effective monopoly, and the burden of proof is on an accused infringer that a work is not managed by GEMA. GEMA has one of the most effective and lucrative music copyright administration systems.
Hungary
Hungary operates a legal monopoly.
India
Copyright Societies in India have to register themselves under section 33 of the Copyright Act of 1957. In order to do the business of issuing or granting license in respect of literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works incorporated in a cinematograph films or sound recordings it is necessary that the organization be registered as a copyright society under Section 33. The proviso to section 33 sub clause 3 states ‘Provided that the Central Government shall not ordinarily register more than one copyright society to do business in respect of the same class of works’. This effectively creates a monopoly and mandates that only one copyright society can exist in a particular industry. This ensures concentration of bargaining power and equal terms of royalty in an industry.
Copyright societies have to renew their registration under section 33 every five years and its registration can be cancelled at any time if the central government feels like it is being managed in a manner detrimental to the interests of the authors and other owners of the copyright. The major copyright societies in India are The Indian Performing Right Society Limited [IPRS] (for composers and publishers), Indian Reprographic Right Organisation [IRRO] (for literary organisations) and Indian Singers Rights Association [ISRA] (for performers). Phonographic Performance Limited [PPL] (for producers) was previously registered as a copyright society under S.33 of the Copyright Act but now mentions on its website that it licenses and transfers copyrights under S.18 and S.30 and functions as a company registered under the Companies Act 2013. PPL represents producers and record companies and is a major licensor of music to events and establishments. The ISRA and IPRS are registered copyright societies under S. 33 of the Copyright Act 1957. ISRA represents the interests of singers and aims to protect performer's rights as enshrined in S.38 and S.38A of the Copyrights Act 1957. IPRS represents composers, lyricists and publishers of music in India and is a registered copyright society under S.33 of the Copyright Act 1957.
The Screenwriters Association of India [SRAI] earlier known as Film Writers Association represents the interests of lyricists, screenwriters and novelists. It applied for becoming a copyright society in 2017 but is currently operating as a trade union representing its members. Recently an application for registration under S.33 was made by the Recorded Music Performance ltd which controls public performance and broadcasting rights of sound recordings of its member companies. RMPL has applied for registration as PPL is no longer operating as a copyright society under S.33 of the Copyrights Act 1957. The validity of PPL operating as a company has been debated and was considered by the 2014 case of Leopold cafe v. Novex Communication in which the Bombay High Court that s.30 of the Copyright Act 1957 allows a duly authorised agent to issue licenses on behalf of authors and other owners, therefore organisations can perform the activities of a copyright society without being registered under S.33 but it will not be referred to as a copyright society and cannot issue licenses in its own name. PPL now operates as a Copyrights Organisation [CRO] and can only issue licenses as an agent, therefore it must issue licenses in the name of the copyright owners and not itself.
United States and Canada
In the U.S. and Canada, groups that provide intermediary functions between copyright holders and performers of works such as music are called performance rights organisations or PROs. Other organizations such as artists' rights groups license and collect royalties for the reproduction of works such as paintings by living or recently deceased artists whose work has not yet entered the public domain. There are also collectives that collect royalties for copies from magazines and scholarly journals such as Access Copyright in Canada.
In the US, PROs ensure that rights holders are paid their share of public performance royalties, by issuing licenses to different companies and establishments and tracking where and how often the songs of their affiliates are performed at these public venues. An author can only be part of one PRO, as the five existing PROs in the US have distinct systems for tariffs and payment of royalty as they compete with each other in the market. The five major PROs in the music industry in the US are ASCAP, SESAC, BMI,
AllTrack, and SoundExchange. In the US copyright collectives are registered companies that act as agents of the owners of the copyright. The websites of the PROs have their Memorandum of association and Articles of association and their tariff policies.
The validity of PROs was challenged in the 1979 anti-trust suit of Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS, Inc. in which CBS BMI and said that the tariffs decided by BMI were for blanket licenses and therefore amounted to price fixing. The court held in this case that the actions of PROs were not anti competitive as there was no bar on obtaining licenses from individual copyright holders.
Digitisation and internet based music streaming services have majorly changed the music industry and the US copyright law has changed majorly to accommodate such innovation. Music Modernization Act (MMA) was signed by President Donald Trump on 11 October 2018 as the Orrin G. Hatch-Bob Goodlatte Music Modernization Act of 2018. The MMA streamlines the music licensing process in order to make it easier for copyright holders to get paid when their music is streamed online through services like Spotify, Pandora and Apple Music. Songwriters and artists will receive royalties on songs recorded before 1972 and this will ensure that songwriters are paid by streaming services with a single mechanical licensing database overseen by music publishers and songwriters. The cost of creating and maintaining this database will be paid for by digital streaming services and the database and tariff will be determined by an authority created under the MMA. The mechanism provided under the act will determine unclaimed royalties due to music professionals and provide a consistent legal process to receive them. Previously, these unclaimed royalties were held by digital service providers like Spotify to the detriment of the authors. All of this will also ensure that artists are paid more and have a fair mechanism to approach for getting the money they are owed. This changes the scheme of S.115 of the US which governs compulsory licensing and allows the authority created under the act to issue blanket licenses for music to streaming services. While this does take away some agency of artists, there has been overwhelming support for this legislation from the music industry as it will ensure that licensing and royalty payments are transferred on a fair basis.
The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers [ASCAP] has direct or indirect connections with copyright societies in over 30 countries. Once it receives information regarding unauthorised use of copyrighted works, the affiliated foreign copyright society collects the royalty on behalf of the copyright society representing the owner, and forwards payments to it.
See also
Copyright
List of copyright collection societies
Private copying levy
Voluntary Collective Licensing
Copyright collection societies (category)
References
Bibliography
Thomas Gergen: Die Verwertungsgesellschaft VG WORT: Genese und neue Herausforderungen In: Journal on European History of Law, London: STS Science Centre, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 14 – 19, (ISSN 2042-6402). | [
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226999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan%20language | Moldovan language | Moldovan (Latin alphabet: limba moldovenească; Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet: лимба молдовеняскэ), also known historically as Moldavian, is one of the two names of the Romanian language in Moldova. "Moldovan" is declared the official language in Article 13 of the constitution adopted in 1994, while the 1991 Declaration of Independence of Moldova uses the name "Romanian." In 2003, the Moldovan parliament adopted a law defining "Moldovan" and "Romanian" as designations for the same language (glottonyms). In 2013, the Constitutional Court of Moldova interpreted that Article 13 of the constitution is superseded by the Declaration of Independence, thus giving official status to the name "Romanian." The breakaway region of Transnistria continues to recognize "Moldovan" as one of its official languages, alongside Russian and Ukrainian.
The language of the Moldovans had historically been identified by both terms, however during the Soviet Union, Moldovan, or, as it was called at the time, "Moldavian," was the only term officially recognized. Soviet policy emphasized distinctions between Moldavians and Romanians based on their allegedly different histories. Its resolution declared Moldavian a distinct Romance language from Romanian.
While a majority of inhabitants of the capital city of Chișinău and, according to surveys, people with higher education call their language "Romanian," most rural residents indicated "Moldovan" as their native language in the 2004 census. In schools in Moldova, the term "Romanian language" has been used since independence.
The variety of Romanian spoken in Moldova is the Moldavian subdialect, which is spread approximately within the territory of the former Principality of Moldavia (now split between Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine). Moldavian is considered one of the five major spoken varieties of Romanian. However, all five are written identically, and Moldova and Romania share the same literary language.
The standard alphabet used in Moldova is equivalent to the Romanian alphabet, which is based on the Latin alphabet. Until 1918, varieties of the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet were used. The Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet (derived from the Russian alphabet and standardised in the Soviet Union) was used in 1924–1932 and 1938–1989 and remains in use in Transnistria.
History and politics
The history of the Moldovan language refers to the historical evolution of the glottonym Moldavian/Moldovan in Moldova and beyond. It is closely tied to the region's political status, as during long periods of rule by Russia and the Soviet Union, officials emphasized the language's name as part of separating the Moldovans from those people who began to identify as Romanian in a different nation-building process. Cyrillic script was in use. From a linguistic perspective, "Moldovan" is an alternative name for the varieties of the Romanian language spoken in the Republic of Moldova (see History of the Romanian language).
Before 1918, during the period between the wars, and after the union of Bessarabia with Romania, scholars did not have consensus that Moldovans and the Romanians formed a single ethnic group. The Moldovan peasants had grown up in a different political entity and missed the years of creating a pan-Romanian national political consciousness. They identified as Moldovans speaking the language "Moldovan". This caused reactions from pan-Romanian nationalists. The concept of the distinction of Moldovan from Romanian was explicitly stated only in the early 20th century. It accompanied the raising of national awareness among Moldovans, with the Soviets emphasizing distinctions between Moldavians and Romanians. "Moldavian" has also been recorded by the 1960s' Romanian Linguistic Atlas as the answer to the question "What [language] do you speak?" in parts of Western Moldavia (Galați and Iași counties).
Major developments since the fall of the Soviet Union include resuming use of a Latin script rather than Cyrillic letters in 1989, and several changes in the statutory name of the official language used in Moldova. At one point of particular confusion about identity in the 1990s, all references to geography in the name of the language were dropped, and it was officially known simply as — "the state language".
Moldovan was assigned the code mo in ISO 639-1 and code mol in ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3. Since November 2008, these have been deprecated, leaving ro and ron (639-2/T) and rum (639-2/B), the language identifiers to be used for the variant of the Romanian language also known as Moldavian and Moldovan in English, the ISO 639-2 Registration Authority said in explaining the decision.
In 1989, the contemporary Romanian version of the Latin alphabet was adopted as the official script of the Moldavian SSR.
Since independence
The Declaration of Independence of Moldova (27 August 1991) named the official language as "Romanian." The 1994 constitution, passed under a Communist government, declared "Moldovan" as the state language.
When in 1993 the Romanian Academy changed the official orthography of the Romanian language, the Institute of Linguistics at the Academy of Sciences of Moldova did not initially make these changes, which however have since been adopted.
In 1996, the Moldovan president Mircea Snegur attempted to change the official name of the language back to "Romanian"; the Moldovan Parliament, Communist-dominated, dismissed the proposal as promoting "Romanian expansionism."
In 2003, a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary (Dicționar Moldovenesc–Românesc (2003)) by Vasile Stati was published aiming to prove that there existed two distinct languages. Reacting to this, linguists of the Romanian Academy in Romania declared that all the Moldovan words are also Romanian words, although some of its contents are disputed as being Russian loanwords. In Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics, , described the dictionary as "an absurdity, serving political purposes". Stati, however, accused both of promoting "Romanian colonialism". At that point, a group of Romanian linguists adopted a resolution stating that promotion of the notion of a distinct Moldovan language is an anti-scientific campaign.
In 2003, the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova adopted a law defining "Moldovan" and "Romanian" as designations for the same language (glottonyms).
In the 2004 census, 16.5% (558,508) of the 3,383,332 people living in Moldova declared Romanian as their native language, whereas 60% declared Moldovan. Most of the latter responses were from rural populations. While the majority of the population in the capital city of Chișinău gave their language as "Romanian", in the countryside more than six-sevenths of the Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated "Moldovan" as their native language, reflecting historic conservatism.
In schools in Moldova, the term "Romanian language" has been used since independence.
In December 2007, Moldovan president Vladimir Voronin asked for the term to be changed to "Moldovan language", but due to public pressure against that choice, the term was not changed.
In December 2013, the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence takes precedence over the Constitution and that the state language should be called Romanian.
As of March 2017, the presidential website under Igor Dodon has seen the Romanian language option changed to "Moldovan", which is described to be "in accordance with the constitution" by said president. The change was reverted on 24 December 2020, the day Maia Sandu assumed office.
In June 2021, during a meeting between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Romania Bogdan Aurescu and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine Dmytro Kuleba, the former asked Ukraine to recognize the inexistence of the Moldovan language to improve the situation of the Romanians in Ukraine. Kuleba responded to this saying that they were trying to do the paperwork for this as soon as possible.
Controversy
The matter of whether or not "Moldovan" is a separate language continues to be contested politically within and beyond the Republic of Moldova. The 1989 Language Law of the Moldavian SSR, which is still in effect in Moldova, according to the Constitution, asserts a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". Article 13 of the Moldovan Constitution names it "the national language of the country" (the original uses the phrase , which literally means the language of the state).
In the breakaway region of Transnistria, Moldovan is declared an official language, together with Ukrainian and Russian.
Standard "Moldovan" is widely considered to be identical to standard Romanian. Writing about "essential differences", Vasile Stati, supporter of Moldovenism, is obliged to concentrate almost exclusively on lexical rather than grammatical differences. Whatever language distinctions may once have existed, these have been decreasing rather than increasing. King wrote in 2000 that "in the main, Moldovan in its standard form was more Romanian by the 1980s than at any point in its history".
In 2002, the Moldovan Minister of Justice Ion Morei said that Romanian and Moldovan were the same language and that the Constitution of Moldova should be amended to reflect this—not by substituting "Romanian" for the word "Moldovan", but by adding that "Romanian and Moldovan are the same language". The education minister said: "I have stated more than once that the notion of a Moldovan language and a Romanian language reflects the same linguistic phenomenon in essence." The President of Moldova Vladimir Voronin acknowledged that the two languages are identical, but said that Moldovans should have the right to call their language "Moldovan".
In the 2004 census, of the 3.38 million people living in Moldova, 60% identified Moldovan as their native language; 16.5% chose Romanian. While 37% of all urban Romanian/Moldovan speakers identified Romanian as their native language, in the countryside 86% of the Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Moldovan, a historic holdover. Independent studies found a Moldovan linguistic identity asserted in particular by the rural population and post-Soviet political class. In a survey conducted in four villages near the border with Romania, when asked about their native language the interviewees identified the following: Moldovan 53%, Romanian 44%, Russian 3%.
In November 2007, when reporting on EU Council deliberations regarding an agreement between the European Community and Moldova, the Romanian reporter Jean Marin Marinescu included a recommendation to avoid formal references to the 'Moldovan language.' The Romanian press speculated that the EU banned the usage of the phrase "Moldovan language". However, the European Commissioner for External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy, Benita Ferrero-Waldner, denied these allegations. She said that the Moldovan language is referred to in the 1998 Cooperation Agreement between the EU and Moldova, and hence it is considered a part of the acquis, binding to all member states.
Orthography
The language was generally written in a Romanian Cyrillic alphabet (based on the Old Church Slavonic alphabet) before the 19th century. Both Cyrillic and, rarely, Latin, were used until after World War I; after Bessarabia was included in Romania in 1918, the Cyrillic alphabet was officially forbidden in the region. In the interwar period, Soviet authorities in the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic alternately used Latin or Cyrillic for writing the language, mirroring the political goals of the moment. Between 1940 and 1989, i.e., during Soviet rule, the new Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet replaced Latin as the official alphabet in Moldova (then Moldavian SSR). In 1989, the Latin script was once again adopted in Moldova by Law 3462 of 31 August 1989, which provided rules for transliterating Cyrillic to Latin, along with the orthographic rules used in Romania at the time. Transnistria, however, uses the Cyrillic alphabet.
Though not immediately adopting these, the Academy of Sciences of Moldova acknowledged both the Romanian Academy's decision of 1993 and the orthographic reform of 2005. In 2000, the Moldovan Academy recommended adopting the spelling rules used in Romania, and in 2010 launched a schedule for the transition to the new rules that was completed in 2011 (regarding its publications). However, these changes were not implemented by Moldova's Ministry of Education, so the old orthographic conventions were maintained in the education sector such as in school textbooks.
On 17 October 2016, Minister of Education Corina Fusu signed Order No. 872 on the application of the revised spelling rules as adopted by the Moldovan Academy of Sciences, coming into force on the day of signing. Since then the spelling used by institutions subordinated to the Ministry of Education is in line with the spelling norms used in Romania since 1993. This order, however, has no application to other government institutions, nor has Law 3462 been amended to reflect these changes; thus, those institutions continue to use the old spelling.
Phonology
Consonants
Vowels
Distinguishing features
See also
Eastern Romance substratum
Legacy of the Roman Empire
Moldova–Romania relations
Thraco-Roman
The Balkan language area
Notes
References
Further reading
– About the identity of the contemporary Moldovans in the context of debates about their language.
External links
Chase Faucheux, "Language classification and manipulation in Romania and Moldova", thesis, 2006, Louisiana State University
Eleonora Rusnac, "Translation of Russian loans and irregularities of the spoken language in the Republic of Moldova", Association of Professional Translators of Moldova
"Moldova", Ethnologue report
Academy of Sciences of Moldova
Eastern Romance languages
Romanian language
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227000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidos | Leidos | Leidos, formerly known as Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), is an American defense, aviation, information technology (Lockheed Martin IS&GS), and biomedical research company headquartered in Reston, Virginia, that provides scientific, engineering, systems integration, and technical services. Leidos merged with Lockheed Martin's IT sector in August 2016 for Information Systems & Global Solutions business to create the defense industry’s largest IT services provider. The Leidos-Lockheed Martin merger is one of the biggest transactions thus far in the consolidation of a defense sector. Leidos works extensively with the United States Department of Defense, the United States Department of Homeland Security, and the United States Intelligence Community, including the NSA, as well as other U.S. government civil agencies and selected commercial markets.
History
As SAIC
The company was founded by J. Robert "Bob" Beyster in 1969 in the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego, California, as Science Applications Incorporated (SAI). Beyster, a former scientist for the Westinghouse Atomic Power Division, and Los Alamos National Laboratory, who became the chairman of the Accelerator Physics Department of General Atomics in 1957, raised the money to start SAI by selling stock he had received from General Atomics, combined with funds raised from the early employees who bought stock in the young enterprise.
Initially the company's focus was on projects for the U.S. government related to nuclear power and weapons effects study programs. The company was renamed Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) as it expanded its operations. Major projects during Beyster's tenure included work on radiation therapy for the Los Alamos National Laboratory; technical support and management assistance to the development of the cruise missile in the 1970s; the cleanups of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station after its major accident, and of the contaminated community of Love Canal; design and performance evaluation of the Stars & Stripes 87, the winning ship for the 1987 America's Cup; and the design of the first luggage inspection machine to pass new Federal Aviation Administration tests following the terrorist bombing of Pan American flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland.
Contrary to traditional business models, Beyster originally designed SAIC as an employee-owned company. This shared ownership was accompanied by shared responsibility and freedom in business development, and allowed SAIC to attract and retain highly educated and motivated employees that helped the company to grow and diversify. After Beyster's retirement in 2003, SAIC conducted an initial public offering of common stock on October 17, 2006. The offering of 86,250,000 shares of common stock was priced at $15.00 per share. The underwriters, Bear Stearns and Morgan Stanley, exercised overallotment options, resulting in 11.25 million shares. The IPO raised US$1.245B. Even then, employee shares retained a privileged status, having ten times the voting power per share over common stock.
In September 2009 SAIC relocated its corporate headquarters to their existing facilities in Tysons Corner in unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, near McLean.
In 2012 SAIC was ordered to pay $550 million to the City of New York for overbilling the city over a period of seven years on the CityTime contract. In 2014 Gerard Denault, SAIC's CityTime program manager, and his government contact were sentenced to 20 years in prison for fraud and bribery related to that contract.
As Leidos
In August 2012, SAIC announced its plans to split into two publicly traded companies. The company spun off about a third of its business, forming an approximately $4 billion-per-year service company focused on government services, including systems engineering, technical assistance, financial analysis, and program office support. The remaining part became a $7 billion-per-year IT company specializing in technology for the national security, health, and engineering sectors. The smaller company was led by Tony Moraco, who beforehand was leading SAIC's Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance group, and the bigger one was led by John P. Jumper. The split has allowed both companies to pursue more business, which it could not pursue as a single company which would have resulted in conflicts of interest. In February 2013, it was announced that the smaller spin-off company would get the name "Science Applications International Corporation" and stay in the current headquarters, while the larger company would change its name to Leidos, (created by clipping the word kaleidoscope) and would move its headquarters to Reston. The split was structured in a way that SAIC changed its name to Leidos, then spun off the new SAIC as a separate publicly traded company. However, Leidos is the legal successor of the original SAIC and retains SAIC's pre-2013 stock price and corporate filing history.
On September 27, 2013, SAIC changed its name to Leidos and spun off a new and independent $4 billion government services and information technology company which retained the Science Applications International Corporation name; Leidos is the direct successor to the original SAIC. Before the split, Leidos employed 39,600 employees and reported $11.17 billion in revenue and $525 million net income for its fiscal year ended January 31, 2013, making it number 240 on the Fortune 500 list. In 2014, Leidos reported US$5.06 billion in revenue.
In August 2016, the deal to merge with the entirety of Lockheed Martin's Information Systems & Global Solutions (IS&GS) business came to a close, more than doubling the size of Leidos and its portfolio, and positioning the company as the global defense industry's largest enterprise in the federal technology sector. As of February 2019, the company has 32,000 employees. In 2018, Leidos reported US$10.19 billion in revenue. It ranked 311 on the 2019 Fortune 500 list.
In January 2020, Leidos purchased defense contractor Dynetics for approximately $1.65 billion. In May 2020 it purchased the Security Detection and Automation Systems division of L3Harris (notable for providing the detection screeners that all airport travelers pass through when flying).
Structure
Leidos has four central divisions: Civil, Health, Advanced Solutions, and Defense & Intelligence. The Civil Division focuses on integrating aviation systems, securing transportation measures, modernizing IT infrastructure, and engineering energy efficiently. The Health Division focuses on optimizing medical enterprises, securing private medical data, and improving collection and data entry methods. The Advanced Solutions Division is centered around data analysis, integrating advanced defense and intelligence systems, and increasing surveillance and reconnaissance efficiency. The Defense & Intelligence Division focuses on providing air service systems, geospatial analysis, cybersecurity, intelligence analysis, and supporting operations efforts.
Management
CEO: Roger Krone
After more than 30 years of Beyster's leadership, Kenneth C. Dahlberg was named the CEO of SAIC in November 2003. In May 2005, the company changed its external tagline from An Employee-Owned Company to From Science to Solutions.
The third CEO was Walt Havenstein, who pushed for tighter integration of the company's historically autonomous divisions, which led to lower profit and revenue. The strategy was reversed by the fourth CEO, retired Air Force general John P. Jumper, appointed in 2012. On July 1, 2014, Leidos announced that Roger Krone would become its CEO on July 14, 2014. As of 2019, Krone is the Chairman and CEO of Leidos.
Headquarters
In January 2018, Leidos announced it would move within Reston, VA, a quarter mile from 11951 Freedom Drive to 1750 Presidents Street. The new building was completed in early 2020.
Operations
The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) transitioned a Remote Viewing Program to SAIC in 1991 which was renamed Stargate Project.
In March 2001, SAIC defined the concept for the NSA Trailblazer Project. In 2002, NSA contracted SAIC for $280 million to produce a "technology demonstration platform" for the agency's project, a "Digital Network Intelligence" system to analyze data carried on computer networks. Other project participants included Boeing, Computer Sciences Corporation, and Booz Allen Hamilton. According to science news site PhysOrg.com, Trailblazer was a continuation of the earlier ThinThread program. In 2005, NSA director Michael Hayden told a Senate hearing that the Trailblazer program was several hundred million dollars over budget and years behind schedule.
In fiscal year 2003, SAIC did more than $2.6 billion in business with the United States Department of Defense, making it the ninth-largest defense contractor in the United States. Other large contracts included a bid for information technology for the 2004 Olympics in Greece.
From 2001 to 2005, SAIC was the primary contractor for the FBI's unsuccessful Virtual Case File project.
During fiscal year 2012 (latest figure available), SAIC had more than doubled its business with the DoD to $5,988,489,000, and was the 4th-largest defense contractor on the annual list of the top 100. Leidos ranked 292 on the 2017 Fortune 500 list.
Subsidiaries
Dynetics, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of Leidos since Jan 2020.
Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., formerly SAIC - Frederick, a wholly owned subsidiary of Leidos manages Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research.
Gibbs & Cox, a wholly owned subsidiary of Leidos since May 7, 2021.
MEDPROTECT, LLC supports US government health-payer organizations
Reveal, develops dual-energy X-ray computed tomography systems for explosives-detection at airports and similar facilities
CloudShield Technologies a wholly owned subsidiary, specializing in cyber-security
Varec, Inc., liquid petroleum asset management company
Leidos Health
Leidos Canada, formerly SAIC Canada, wholly owned subsidiary, works with Canadian government.
Leidos Australia (Leidos Pty Ltd), wholly owned subsidiary, specializing in document technologies and cyber-security. Produces TeraText software.
Leidos UK (Leidos Innovations UK Ltd, Leidos Europe Ltd, Leidos Supply Ltd & Leidos Ltd), wholly owned subsidiary, specializing in managed IT Services, developing of bespoke products. Produces, supports & maintains the Chroma Airport Suite, also responsible for the MOD's Supply Chain.
Leidos Engineering, LLC, formerly SAIC Energy, Environment & Infrastructure LLC, assembles the legacy of engineering capabilities of Benham Investment Holdings, LLC, R. W. Beck Group, Inc., and Patrick Energy Services.
QTC Management, Inc., acquired by merging with Lockheed Martin IS&GS.
Systems Made Simple (SMS), acquired by merging with Lockheed Martin IS&GS.
Former subsidiaries
AMSEC LLC, a business partnership between SAIC and Northrop Grumman subsidiary Newport News Shipbuilding divested on July 13, 2007. Network Solutions was acquired by SAIC in 1995, and subsequently was acquired by VeriSign, Inc. for $21 billion.Leidos Cyber, Inc., formerly Lockheed Martin Industrial Defender, acquired by merging with Lockheed Martin IS&GS, was sold to Capgemini in 2018.
Controversies
As SAIC
Then-SAIC had as part of its management and on its board of directors, many well-known ex-government personnel including Melvin Laird, Secretary of Defense in the Nixon administration; William Perry, Secretary of Defense for Bill Clinton; John M. Deutch, Director of Central Intelligence under President Clinton; Admiral Bobby Ray Inman who served in various capacities in the National Security Agency (NSA) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for the Ford, Carter and Reagan administrations; and David Kay who led the search for weapons of mass destruction after the 1991 Gulf War and served under the Bush administration after the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In 2012, 26 out of 35 SAIC Inc. lobbyists previously held government jobs.
In June 2001, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) paid SAIC $122 million to create a Virtual Case File (VCF) software system to speed up the sharing of information among agents. But the FBI abandoned VCF when it failed to function adequately. Robert Mueller, FBI Director, testified to a congressional committee, "When SAIC delivered the first product in December 2003 we immediately identified a number of deficiencies – 17 at the outset. That soon cascaded to 50 or more and ultimately to 400 problems with that software ... We were indeed disappointed."
In 2005, then-SAIC executive vice president Arnold L. Punaro claimed that the company had "fully conformed to the contract we have and gave the taxpayers real value for their money." He blamed the FBI for the initial problems, saying the agency had a parade of program managers and demanded too many design changes. He stated that during 15 months that SAIC worked on the program, 19 different government managers were involved and 36 contract modifications were ordered. "There were an average of 1.3 changes every day from the FBI, for a total of 399 changes during the period," Punaro said.
In 2011–2012, then-SAIC was among the 8 top contributors to federal candidates, parties, and outside groups with $1,209,611 during the 2011–2012 election cycle according to information from the Federal Election Commission. The top candidate recipient was Barack Obama.
As Leidos
In a heavily redacted report dated January 3, 2018, the Inspector General for the Department of Defense determined that a supervisor at Leidos made “inappropriate sexual and racial comments to” a female contractor, and that when she complained of a hostile work environment, Leidos retaliated by excluding her from further work on an additional contract. The report found that Leidos's claim that the contract employee “exhibited poor performance throughout her employment" lacked supporting evidence. It recommended that U.S. Secretary of Defense Jim Mattis “consider appropriate action against Leidos” such as “compensatory damages, including back pay, employee benefits and other terms and conditions of employment” that the contractor would have received under the additional contract.
In 2018, Leidos donated to the Senate campaign of Cindy Hyde-Smith. However, after a video was released showing Hyde-Smith speaking fondly of participating in "public hangings", Leidos said the company would never have made the donation if it had known about the comment. During Hyde-Smith's 2020 re-election bid, Leidos again donated to her.
See also
Top 100 Contractors of the U.S. federal government
References
Further reading
External links
Defense companies of the United States
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Engineering companies of the United States
Companies based in San Diego
American companies established in 1969
Consulting firms established in 1969
Technology companies established in 1969
1969 establishments in California
Companies based in Reston, Virginia
Information technology consulting firms of the United States
International information technology consulting firms
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227001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K.%20Satchidanandan | K. Satchidanandan | K. Satchidanandan (1946) is an Indian poet and critic, writing in Malayalam and English. A pioneer of modern poetry in Malayalam, a bilingual literary critic, playwright, editor, columnist and translator, he is the former editor of Indian Literature journal and the former secretary of Sahitya Akademi. He is also social advocate for secular anti-caste views, supporting causes like environment, human rights and free software and is a well known speaker on issues concerning contemporary Indian literature. He is the festival director of Kerala Literature Festival.
Life and career
Koyamparambath Satchidanandan was born in 1946 in Pulloot, a village in Kodungallur in the Thrissur District of Kerala. After his early education in the village school, he studied biology at Christ College, Irinjalakuda, and had his Masters in English from Maharaja's College, Ernakulam. He obtained his PhD in post-structuralist poetics from the University of Calicut. He joined as a lecturer in English at K.K.T.M. Govt. College, Pulloot in 1968, and moved to Christ College, Irinjalakuda, in 1970 where he became a Professor of English. He voluntarily retired from this post in 1992 to take up the editorship of Indian Literature, the English journal of the Indian National Academy in Delhi. In 1996 he was nominated Secretary, the chief executive, of the Academy, a post from which he retired in 2006. Later he served as a Consultant to the Indian Government's Department of Higher Education and to the National Translation Mission. He also worked as Director, School of Translation Studies and Training at the Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi. He edited 'The Katha Library of Indian Literature', 'The Library of South Asian Literature' and Beyond Borders, a journal of South Asian literature and ideas.
Satchidanandan's literary career began with the publication of 'Kurukshetram', a collection of essays on poetry (1970) and 'Anchusooryan', a collection of poems(1971). Since then he has published several books of poetry, criticism, plays, travelogues and translations of poetry and plays and edited several magazines like 'Jwala', 'Uttaram' and 'Pachakkutira' besides many anthologies of poetry and essays in Malayalam, English, Hindi and Slovenian. He has represented India at several national and international literary events like Valmiki World Poetry Festival (Delhi,1985), Sarajevo Poetry Days (1985), Festival of India in the USSR (1988), Printemps des Poetes, France(2003), Berlin Literary Festival (2005), Frankfurt Book fair (2005, 2006), Paris Book fair (2007), Jaipur International Literary Festival (2008, 9, 10, 11,12), London Book fair (2009), Indo-Arab Literary Festival, Abu Dhabi (2008), Blue Metropolis Literary Festival, Montreal (20110, Hay Festival, Trivandrum, 2011) Rotterdam Poetry Festival (2012), Medellin Poetry Festival (2013), Festival of India in Latin America (2013), Sharjah Book fair (2013) and Vilenica Literary Festival, Slovenia (2014, 2015). This is besides readings in Lahore, Manchester, Dubai, Damascus, Aleppo, Bonn, Rome, Madrid, Avila, Segovia and all major cities in India. One of the most widely anthologised and translated of modern poets in India, he has 32 books of poems in 18 languages. He was given the Indo-Polish Friendship Medal by the Government of Poland in 2005 and the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic in 2006. He was in the Ladbroke list of Nobel probables in 2011.[3] A film on him, 'Summer Rain' was released in 2007.
Satchidanandan is a National Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Study, Simla. He co-edits two on-line journals, Guftugu and 1 Over the 8th. His poems appeared in many prestigious poetry anthologies like Anthology of Contemporary Indian Poetry, The Dance of the Peacock,.
He worked from 1996 to 2006, as the secretary of Sahitya Akademi. He returned to teaching after retiring from Sahitya Akademi, and worked as Director and Professor of the School of Translation Studies and Training at the Indira Gandhi National Open University in New Delhi until 2011. Satchidanandan is married, and has two daughters.
Awards and honours
Akademi awards
1984: Kerala Sahitya Akademi C.B. Kumar Award for Prose for Kavitayum Janatayum
1989: Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Poetry for Ivanekkoodi
1999: Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Drama -for Gandhi
2000: Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Travelogue for Pala Lokam Pala Kaalam
2009: Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Translation for Padinjaran Kavithakal
2010: Kerala Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
2012: Sahitya Akademi Award for Marannu Vecha Vasthukkal
Other major awards and fellowships
1990: Srikant Verma Fellowship, Govt of Madhya Pradesh.
1993: Oman Cultural Centre Award, Oman.
1997: Mahakavi P. Kunjiraman Nair Award, Kerala.
1998: Bharatiya Bhasha Parishad Award, Kolkata
1999: Senior Research Fellowship, Govt of India
2001: Asan Smaraka Kavitha Puraskaram, Chennai.
2002: Baharain Keraleeya Samajam Award, Baharain
2002: Gangadhar Meher Award, Sambalpur, Orissa
2005: Pandlam Keralavarma Award, Kerala
2005: Bappu Reddy National Award, Andhra Pradesh.
2005: Vayalar Award, Kerala
2007: K. Kuttikrishnan Award, Kerala
2008: Subramanya Shenoi Award, Kerala
2009: Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan Award, Kuwait
2009: N T Rama Rao National Award, Andhra Pradesh
2009: Birla Fellowship for Comparative Literature, Delhi
2009: Padmaprabha Award, Kerala
2010: C P Menon Award, Kerala
2012: Kusumagraj National Award, Maharashtra
2012: Samastha Kerala Sahitya Parishad Award
2013: Kamala Surayya Award, Dubai
2014: Kuvempu National Award, Karnataka
2014: Manapuram V C Patmanabhan Award, Kerala
2014: Kala Award for Lifetime Achievement in Literature, London
2014: Muttathu Varkey Award
2014: SBT Suvarna Mudra Award
2015: National Fellowship, IIAS, Shimla
2016: UAE International Award for Poets of Peace, Dubai, Government of UAE
2016: V. Aravindakshan Memorial Award for Total Contribution
2016: Kanhangad Kavyavedi Award for Poetry
2017: Kamala Surayya Award for Total Contribution
2017: Vengayil Kunhirman Nayanar Kesari Award for Total Contribution
2017: P. Govinda Pillai Award for Total Contribution to Society and Literature
2017. U R Ananthamurhy Awards for Total Literary Contribution
2017: Ezhuthachan Puraskaram
2018: E K Divakaran Potti Memorial Award for Literary Translation
2018: ChiranatanaKalasamiti Award, Dubai, UAE
2019: Sahityolsav Award (Sunni Students Federation), Kerala
2019: Kavisamrat Upendra Bhanja National Award for poetry, Orissa
2019: Navamalayali Cultural Award, Kerala
2019: Kaliayachhan Poetry Award, Kerala
2019: Tata Literature Festival Poet Laureate Award, Bombay
2020: Mathrubhumi Literary Award
2021: ONV Award instituted by the University of Kerala
Works in Malayalam
Poetry
Anchu Sooryan (Five Suns, 1971)
Aathmagita (The Song of the Self, 1974)
Kavita (Poetry, 1977, 82, 84)
Indian Sketchukal (Indian Sketches, 1978)
Ezhuthachan Ezhutumbol (When the Poet Writes, 1979, 85, 87, 89)
Peedana Kalam (Times of Torment, 1981, 89)
Venal Mazha (The Summer Rain, 1982)
Randu Deergha Kavyangal (Two Long Poems, 1983)
Satchidanandante Kavithakal 1962–82 (Poems 1962–82, 1983,87)
Socrateesum Kozhiyum (Socrates and the Cock, 1984)
Ivanekkoodi (Him, too, 1987, 89, 90, 95, 97)
Veedumattam (Changing House, 1988)
Kayattam (The Ascent, 1990)
Kavibuddhan (The Poet as Buddha, 1992)
Enta Satchidanandan Kavitakal, Ed. Balachandran Chullikkad (Selected poems 1993)
Desatanam (Going Places, 1994, 1995)
Malayalam (1996, 1998, 2003))
Apoornam (Imperfect, 1998)
Theranjedutha Kavitakal (Selected Poems, 1999)
Sambhashanathinu Oru Sramam (An Attempt to Converse, 2000)
Vikku, (Stammer, 2002)
Sakshyangal (Witness, 2004)
Ghazalukal, Geetangal (Ghazals and Geets, 2005)
Satchidanandante Kavithakal (Poems 1965–2005, 2006)
Anantam (Infinite, 2006)
Onnaam Padham (The First Lesson, 2006)
Ente Kavita (My Poems, 2008)
Marannunacha Vasthukkal (Misplaced Objects,2009)
Bahuroopi (The Shape-shifter, 2011)
Tathagatham(2013)
Nilkkunna Manushyan ( The Standing Man, 2015)
Sachidanandante Kavithakal 1965–2015 (Poems, 2016)
Samudrangalkku Matramalla (Not only the Oceans, 2017)
"Pakshikal ente Pirake Varunnu"( Birds Come afrter Me, 2018)
" Pashuvum Puliyum" ( The Cow and the Tiger, Poems for Children, 2019)
" Pakshikkavitakal" ( Bird Poems, Poems for Children, 2019)
"Dukham enna Veedu ( The House called Sorrow, 2020)
" Oru Cheriya Vasantam" ( A Small Spring", 2020)
Plays
Saktan Thampuran (One-act Plays, 1983)
Gandhi (Full-length Play, 1995)
Prose
Kurukshetram (Studies in Modern Poetry, 1970)
Janatayum Kavitayum ((Poetry and the People, 1982, 84)
Marxian Soundarya Sastram (Marxian Aesthetics, 1983, 90)
Thiranjedutha Lekhanangal (Selected Essays, 1985)
Pablo Neruda (A Lecture on Pablo Neruda, 1985, 1990, Revised, 2007))
Samvadangal (Dialogues: on society, culture, politics, religion education, ecology and literature, 1986)
Sameepananangal (Approaches, 1986)
Samskarathinte Rashtreeyam (The Politics of Culture, 1989)
Sambhashanangal (Conversations: a collection of Interviews given, 1989)
Brechtinte Kala (The Art of Bertolt Brecht, 1989, Revised, 2007)
Padavukal (Steps: Early articles, 1990)
Kazhchakal, Kazhachappadukal (Sights and Visions: Travelogues, 1991)
Anveshanangal (Enquiries, 1991)
Veenduvicharangal (Rethinkings, 1992)
Soundaryavum Adhikaravum (Beauty and Power: on Aesthetics and Politics, 1993)
Muhurtangal (Moments, selected Essays on Malayalam Literature, 1996)
Pala Lokam, Pala Kalam (Many Times, Many Worlds, Travel Writings, 1998)
Kalayum Nishedhavum (Art and Dissent, 1999)
Bharateeya Kavitayile Pratirodha Paramparyam (The Tradition of Dissent of Indian Poetry, 2002)
Moonnu Yatra (Three Travels, Travelogues, 2004)
Kizhakkum Padinjarum (East and West, Travelogues, 2005)
Adithattukal (Foundations, Essays, 2006)
Mukhamukham (Face to Face, Interviews, 2006)
Darshanathinte Ritubhedangal (Seasons of Vision, Articles, 2010)
Malayalakavitha Patanangal (Studies in Malayalam Poetry, 2009, 2011)
Sahityavum Pratirodhavum (Literature and Resistance, Criticism, 2013)
Anubhavam, Orma, Yatra ( Experience, Memory, Travel, Autobiographical Essays, 2013)
Vithum Vrikshavum (The Seed and the Tree, Selected Essays on Literature, 2013)
Varoo, Ee Theruvile Raktham Kaanoo ( Come and See the Blood in the Streets, 2017)
Kavithayude Lokangal ( The Many Worlds of Poetry, Essays, and Columns on Poetry, 2018)
" Atmagatangal" ( Monologues, Talks, 2018)
"Dakshinam" ( Travelogue, 2018)
"Thiranjedutha Lkehanangal " ( Selected Esasays, 2018)
" Chinthayude Mananagal" ( The Dimensions of Thought, 2018)
" Oru Pratisamskaarathinu Vendi"( For a Counter-Culture, 2020)
" Anantaram" ( Shortstories, 2020)
Poetry translations in other languages
Andha Admi Jisne Soorya Khoja (Selected Poems, Hindi, Delhi, 1987)
Selected Poems (Gujarati, Ahmedabad 1989)
Irachasakshigal (Selected Poems, Tamil, Coimbatore, 1990)
Summer Rain: Three Decades of Poetry (English, Delhi, 1995)
Voh Jise Sab Yad Tha (Selected Poems, Hindi, Delhi, 1996)
Nanna Mai Nagara (Selected Poems, Kannada, Bangalore, 1996)
How To Go To The Tao Temple (New Poems, English, Delhi, 1998)
Sachidanandan Kavitaikal (Selected Poems, Tamil, Madras, 1998)
Sareeram Oru Nagaram (Selected Poems, Tamil, Madras, 1999)
Apoorna Aura Anya Kavitayem (Poems, Hindi, Delhi, 2000)
Imperfect and Other New Poems (Poems, English, Calicut, 2000)
Sagar Teerer Kavita (Poems, Assamese, Guwahati, 2001)
Matra Ata Sparsatei Barasun Diya Megh (Poems, Assamese Language, Compiled and translated by Utpal Datta, published by Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati, 2013
Herai Jowa Bastubor aru ananya kabita (Poems, Assamese Language, translated by Utpal Datta, published by Sahitya akademi, 2019, translation of his akademi award winning book Misplaced Objects and other poems.
Sachidanandaner Kavita (Poems, Bengali, Calcutta, 2001)
So Many Births (Poems, English, Delhi, 2001)
Kavitai Meendum Varum (Poems, Tamil, Madras, 2002)
Peele Pathe Da Supna (Poems, Punjabi, Delhi, 2002)
Ghar O Anyanya Kabita (Poems, Odia, Cuttack, 2002)
Tant De Vies: L’Incomplet et autres poemes (Poems, French, Paris, 2002)
Haklahat (Poems, Hindi, Delhi, 2004)
Ham Jazeeraun Mein Rahte Hein (Poems, Urdu, Hyderabad, 2004)
Sareeram Oka Nagaram (Poems, Telugu, Hyderabad, 2004)
I Riti Della Terra (Poems, Italian, Rome, 2004)
Suruatem (Poems, Hindi, 2005)
Stammer and Other Poems (Poems, English, 2005)
Ich Glaube Nicht An Grenzen (Poems, German, 2006)
Luknat (Poems, Urdu, 2008)
How Did Mayakovsky Commit Suicide (Poems, Arabic, 2009)
While I Write (Poems, English, 2011)
Rogha Danta (Selected Poems, Irish, 2012)
K Satchidanandanyanchi Kavita (Marathi, 2013)
Misplaced Objects and Other Poems (English, 2014)
While I Write (Poems, Chinese, 2015)
The Missing Rib ( Poems, English, 1965–2015, 2016)
" Not Only the Oceans" ( Poems, English,2018)
"The Whispering Tree " ( Love Poems, English, 2020)
"The Duet" ( Poems in Japanese, tr. Miki Starfield)
"The Duet" ( Poems in Spanish, with Miki Starfield)
Prose translation in other languages
Marxiya Azagiyar (Marxian Aesthetics, Tamil, 1986)
Bharatiya Sahitya: Sthapanayem Aur Prasthavanayem (Indian Literature : Positions and Propositions, 2003)
Original works in English
Indian Literature: Positions and Propositions (Essays in Indian Literature, Delhi, 1999)
Authors, Texts, Issues (Essays in Indian Literature, Delhi 2002)
Indian Literature Paradigms and Perspectives (Essays in Indian Literature, Delhi, 2008)
Readings, Indian Literature and Beyond (Essays in Indian Literature, Delhi, 2009)
" Positions: Essays on Indian Literature" ( Delhi, 2019)
Translations into Malayalam
Poetry
Thiranjedutha Kavithakal (Selected Poems of Kazi Nazrul Islam), Trichur, 1976
Nerudayude Kavithakal (Selected Poems of Pablo Neruda, Trivandrum, 1976; Reissued with more poems from Calicut, 1985, 1987, 1998)
Jail Diary (Ho Chi Minh’s Prison Diary, Trivandrum, 1976, Kottayam 1982, Calicut, 1998)
Brechtinte Nooru Kavithakal (100 poems of Bertolt Brecht, Calicut, 1985)
Naleyude Kavitha (Poems by Alexander Blok, Vladimir Mayakovsky and Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Irinjalakuda, 1982)
Karutha Kavitha (Black Poetry from Three Continents, Badagara, 1982, 2012)
Latin American Kavithal (Poetry from Latin America, Guruvayur, 1982)
Maoyude Kavithakal (Mao Zedong’s Poems, Kottayam, 1984)
Kavithaparyadanangal (Poetry from Across the World, Ernakulam, 1986)
Pathu Naveena Kavikal (Ten Modern Poets: Cesar Vallejo, Federico García Lorca, Giuseppe Ungaretti, Eugenio Montale, Yehuda Amichai, Chairil Anwar, Zbigniew Herbert, Attila József, Nazim Hikmet, Lu Hsun – Payyannur, 1989, Reissued as Oliyum Palunkum with two more poets, Wisława Szymborska and Mahmoud Darwish, Trivandrum, 2009)
Nooru Russian Kavithakal (100 Russian Poems, Calicut, 1989)
Samakaleena Hindi Kavitha (Contemporary Hindi Poetry, Calicut, 1989)
Magadha (Shrikant Verma’s Long Hindi Poem, Magadh, Calicut, 1990)
Muppathu Indian Kavayathrikal (30 Indian Women Poets, calicut, 1990)
Vakkukalude Akasham (Sitakant Mahapatra’s Oriya poems, Sabdara Akash, Delhi,1999)
Urangunnavarkkulla Kathukal (Modern Swedish Poetry, Kottayam, 2007)
Padinjaran Kavitha (Collected Translations, Vol 1. European Poetry, Calicut, 2008)
Kettiyitta Koladu (The Last Poems of Kamala Das from Closure, Kottayam, 2010)
Maram (Translation of Safdar Hashmi’s Tree, Poetry for children, Trivandrum, 2010)
Moonnam Loka Kavitha (Collected Translations, Vol. 2. Third World Poetry, Calicut), 2012
Indian Kavitha (Collected Poems, Vol.3. Indian Poetry, Calicut, 2014)
Palaloka Kavitha (Collected Poems, Vol. 4. Poetry from Around the World, Calicut, 2014)
" Nerudayude Pranayakavithakavithakal " (Pablo Neruda's Love poems, 2020)
" Daivavumayulla Sambhashanangal" (Conversations with God, Kabir Poems, 2021)
Plays
Lukkallassinte Vicharana (Bertolt Brecht’s The Trial of Lucullus, in TWO BRECHT PLAYS, Trichur, 1978)
Ezhu Laghunadakangal (Seven Short Plays by W. B. Yeats, Bertolt Brecht and Ben Caldwell, Delhi, 2010)
Works on K. Satchidanandan
In Malayalam
Satchidanandante Lokangal : (The Worlds of Satchidanandan): Essays on the poet's works
Navasargam M. Leelavathy (A Chapter on the Poet)
Haritha Niroopanam Malayalathil – Ed. G. Madhusudanan (An eco-aesthetic study on the poem, Ezhimala)
Bible Adhunika Kavithayil – Fr. Joseph Cheeran (A l00-page Chapter on Bible and Satchidanandan’s Poetry)
Sambhashanangal Conversations with Satchidanandan
Mukhamukham Collection of Interviews with Satchidanandan
Grandhalokam a festschrift on Satchidanandan
" Mathrubhumi" Weekly, a festschrift on Satchidanandan
" Alilayum Nelkkatirum" (The Banyan Leaf and the Cornstalk), Studies on Sachidanandan's Poetry ed. P. Suresh
In English
Malayalam Literary Survey : Kerala Sahitya Akademi, Trichur (Article ‘Under the Bodhi Tree : A Study of the Images of Thathagatha in Satchidanandan's poems’ by A. R. Vijayaraghavan
Making it New : IIAS, Shimla 1995 : E.V. Ramakrishnan (Chapter ‘Living on the Faultline : The Poetry of Satchidanandan; with Interview)
Indian Review of Books, Chennai, 8 Dec–Jan.1998–99. Review Article, ‘Sensitive Reflections’ by Pramod Menon
The Book Review, Delhi, April 2001, Review Article, ‘The Dialectic of Poetry’ by E. V. Ramakrishnan
World Literature Today, Minnesota, Spring 2002, Review Article, ‘So Many Births’ by John Oliver Perry
Deccan Herald, Bangalore, 4 Oct 2003, Article ‘Reminiscences of a Poet’ by Lakshmee Rajeev
GBD’s of Assam Letters, Guwahati, 2004, Article ‘Reflection’s on Life’ by Jaykanta Sharma
How To Go To The Tao Temple, Delhi, 1998, ‘Modernism and Beyond’, Interview by Makarand Paranjape
The Gulf Today, Dubai, 24 May 2001, ‘Packaging Exotic Life’, Article by Rajeev Poduval
The Creative Mind, Delhi, July–Sept. 2004, ‘Master Magician in Literature’, Interview and article by Sujata Chowdhuri
About Poetry, About Life, Author's essay on his life and work in While I Write (Harper-Collins, Delhi, 2011)
A Conversation with Satchidanandan (Interview with Rizio Raj) in Misplaced Objects and Other Poems (Sahitya Akademi, Delhi, 2014)
In German
Literatur Nachrichten, Frankfurt, February 2006 ‘Auch nach Tagore line Mange intelligentes Schariben’, Interview
Ich Glaube Nicht An Grenzen, Frankfurt, 2006, Introduction, Interview
In French
Visions et révisions (Introduction); Genèse; L'homme qui se souvenait de tout; in Digraphe no. 80/81, 1997
Les survivants; in Europe vol. 80, no. 883-884, 2002
Tant de vies: L’incomplet et autres poèmes, Editions Caractères, Paris, 2002, introd. et trad. Martine Chemana
Ragmala – Anthologie, Anne Cestaing (ed.) L'Asiathèque – Langues & Mondes, Paris, 2005: Introd. article and Extract
In Italian
India, Rome, 2002, 2 Article, ‘Poesia di Satchidanandan’ by Antonio Menniti Ippolito
I Riti Della Terra, Castelvecchi, Rome, Feb. 2005, Introduction ‘Tradurre Versi’ by Giulia Gatti
References
Further reading
External links
www.ksatchidanandan.com ( The writer's Website)
1946 births
Living people
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Malayalam
Recipients of the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award
Recipients of the Gangadhar National Award
Dramatists and playwrights from Kerala
Malayalam poets
20th-century Indian translators
People from Thrissur district
University of Calicut alumni
Malayalam-language writers
Malayalam-language dramatists and playwrights
Malayalam literary critics
Maharaja's College, Ernakulam alumni
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
Indian male poets
20th-century Indian poets
English-language poets from India
Poets from Kerala
20th-century Indian male writers | [
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227007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettrism | Lettrism | Lettrism is a French avant-garde movement, established in Paris in the mid-1940s by Romanian immigrant Isidore Isou. In a body of work totaling hundreds of volumes, Isou and the Lettrists have applied their theories to all areas of art and culture, most notably in poetry, film, painting and political theory. The movement has its theoretical roots in Dada and Surrealism. Isou viewed his fellow countryman Tristan Tzara as the greatest creator and rightful leader of the Dada movement, and dismissed most of the others as plagiarists and falsifiers. Among the Surrealists, André Breton was a significant influence, but Isou was dissatisfied by what he saw as the stagnation and theoretical bankruptcy of the movement as it stood in the 1940s.
In French, the movement is called Lettrisme, from the French word for letter, arising from the fact that many of their early works centred on letters and other visual or spoken symbols. The Lettristes themselves prefer the spelling 'Letterism' for the Anglicised term, and this is the form that is used on those rare occasions when they produce or supervise English translations of their writings: however, 'Lettrism' is at least as common in English usage. The term, having been the original name that was first given to the group, has lingered as a blanket term to cover all of their activities, even as many of these have moved away from any connection to letters. But other names have also been introduced, either for the group as a whole or for its activities in specific domains, such as 'the Isouian movement', 'youth uprising', 'hypergraphics', 'creatics', 'infinitesimal art' and 'excoördism'.
History
1925. Isidore Goldstein is born at Botoșani, Romania, on January 31, to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. During the early 1950s, Goldstein would be signing himself 'Jean-Isidore Isou'; otherwise, it has always been 'Isidore Isou'. 'Isou' is standardly taken to be a pseudonym, but Isou/Goldstein himself resists this interpretation.
My name is Isou. My mother called me Isou, only it's written differently in Romanian. And Goldstein: I'm not ashamed of my name. At Gallimard, I was known as Isidore Isou Goldstein. Isou, it's my name! Only in Romanian it's written Izu, but in French it's Isou.
1940s
1942–1944. Isou develops the principles of Lettrism, and begins writing the books that he would subsequently publish after his relocation to Paris.
1945. Aged twenty, Isou arrives in Paris on August 23 after six weeks of clandestine travel. In November, he founds the Letterist movement with Gabriel Pomerand.
1946. Isou and Pomerand disrupt a performance of Tzara's La Fuite at the Vieux-Colombier. Publication of La Dictature Lettriste: cahiers d'un nouveau régime artistique (The Letterist Dictatorship: notebooks of a new artistic regime). Although announced as the first in a series, only one such notebook would appear. A subtitle proudly boasts of Letterism that it is 'the only contemporary movement of the artistic avant-garde'.
1947. Isou's first two books are published by Gallimard: Introduction à une nouvelle poésie et à une nouvelle musique (Introduction to a New Poetry and a New Music) and L'Agrégation d'un nom et d'un messie (Aggregation of a Name and a Messiah). The former sets out Isou's theory of the 'amplic' and 'chiselling' phases, and, within this framework, presents his views on both the past history and the future direction of poetry and music. The latter is more biographical, discussing the genesis of Isou's ideas, as well as exploring Judaism. Isou and Pomerand are joined by François Dufrêne.
1949. Isou publishes Isou, ou la mécanique des femmes (Isou, or the mechanics of women), the first of several works of erotology, wherein he claims to have bedded 375 women in the preceding four years, and offers to explain how (p. 9). The book is banned and Isou is briefly imprisoned. Also published, the first of several works on political theory, Isou's Traité d'économie nucléaire: Le soulèvement de la jeunesse (Treatise of Nuclear Economics: Youth Uprising).
1950s
1950. Maurice Lemaître, Jean-Louis Brau, Gil J. Wolman and Serge Berna join the group. Isou publishes first metagraphic novel, Les journaux des dieux (The Gods' Diaries), followed soon afterwards by Pomerand's Saint Ghetto des Prêts (Saint Ghetto of the Loans) and Lemaître's Canailles (Scoundrels). Also, the first manifestos of Letterist painting. Some of the younger Letterists invade Nôtre Dame cathedral at Easter mass, aired live on national TV, to announce to the congregation that God is dead. In a Letterist FAQ published in the first issue of Lemaître's journal, Ur, CP-Matricon explains: 'The letterists do not create scandals: they break the conspiracy of silence set up by pusillanimous show-offs (journalists) and smash the faces of those who don't please them.' (p. 8).
1951. Isou completes his first film, Traité de bave et d'éternité (Treatise on Slime and Eternity), which will soon be followed by Lemaître's Le film est déjà commencé? (Has the film already started?), Wolman's L'Anticoncept (The Anticoncept), Dufrêne's Tambours du jugement premier (Drums of the First Judgment) and Guy Debord's Hurlements en faveur de Sade (Howls for de Sade). Debord joins the group in April when they travel down to Cannes (where he was then living) to show Traité de bave et d'éternité at the Cannes Film Festival. Under the auspices of Jean Cocteau, a prize for 'best avant-garde' is specially created and awarded to Isou's film.
1952. Publication of the first (and only) issue of Ion, devoted to Letterist film. This is significant for including Debord's first appearance in print, alongside work from Wolman and Berna who, following an intervention at a Charlie Chaplin press conference at the Hotel Ritz in October, would join him in splitting from Isou's group to form the Letterist International.
1953. Isou moves into photography with Amos, ou Introduction à la métagraphologie (Amos, or Introduction to Metagraphology), theatre with Fondements pour la transformation intégrale du théâtre (The Foundations of the Integrated Transformation of the Theatre), painting with Les nombres (The Numbers), and dance with Manifeste pour une danse ciselante (Manifesto for Chiselling Dance).
1955. Dufrêne develops his first Crirhythmes.
1956. Isou introduces the concept of infinitesimal art in Introduction à une esthétique imaginaire (Introduction to Imaginary Aesthetics).
1958. Columbia Records release the first audio recordings of Letterist poetry, Maurice Lemaître presente le lettrisme.
1960s
1960. Isou introduces the concept of supertemporal art in L'Art supertemporel. Asger Jorn publishes a critique of Letterism, Originality and Magnitude (on the system of Isou) in issue 4 of Internationale Situationniste. Isou replies at length in L'Internationale Situationniste, un degré plus bas que le jarrivisme et l'englobant. This is only the first of many works that Isou will write against Debord (his former protégé) and the Situationist International, which Isou regards as a neo-Nazi organisation. However, as Andrew Hussey reports, his attitude does eventually mellow: 'Now Isou forgave them and he saw (it was crucial, Isou said, that I should understand this!) that they were all on the same side after all.'
In the sixties, several new members join group, including Jacques Spacagna (1961), Aude Jessemin (1962), Roberto Altmann (1962), Roland Sabatier (1963), Alain Satié (1964), Micheline Hachette (1964), Francois Poyet (1966), Jean-Paul Curtay (1967), Anton Perich (1967), Gérard-Philippe Broutin (1968).
1964. Definitive split with Dufrêne and the Ultraletterists, as well as with Wolman who, despite his participation from 1952 to 1957 with the Letterist International (who were forbidden by internal statute from any involvement in Isouian activities), had retained links with Isou's group. Dufrêne and Wolman with Brau form the Second Letterist International (Deuxième internationale lettriste).
1967. Lemaître stands for election to the local Parisian legislature, representing the 'Union of Youth and Externity'. He loses.
1968. First work on architecture, Isou's Manifeste pour le bouleversement de l'architecture (Manifesto for the Overhaul of Architecture).
1970s and 1980s
General continuation of existing currents, together with new research into psychiatry, mathematics, physics, and chemistry.
1972 Mike Rose (painter), a German painter, set designer, and writer made acquaintance with the Lettrists and became part of them. He participated in their exhibitions until the 1980s.
Other members to join the lettrism during the seventies : Woody Roehmer, Anne-Catherine Caron, and during the eighties : Frédérique Devaux, Michel Amarger ...
1990s
Development of excoordism. Uncomfortable with the direction the group is going in, Lemaître—Isou's right-hand man for nearly half a century—begins to distance himself from it. He still continues to pursue traditional Letterist techniques, but now in relative isolation from the main group.
2000s
2007 Isou dies and The End of the Age of Divinity is published by an anonymous Situationist International member, which claims Isou was the real Mashiach (Messiah).
Key concepts
The Amplic (amplique) and the Chiselling (ciselante) phases
Isou first invented these phases through an examination of the history of poetry, but the conceptual apparatus he developed could very easily be applied to most other branches of art and culture. In poetry, he felt that the first amplic phase had been initiated by Homer. In effect, Homer set out a blueprint for what a poem ought to be like. Subsequent poets then developed this blueprint, investigating by means of their work all of the different things that could be done within the Homeric parameters. Eventually, however, everything that could be done within that approach had been done. In poetry, Isou felt that this point was reached with Victor Hugo (and in painting with Eugène Delacroix, in music with Richard Wagner.). When amplic poetry had been completed, there was simply nothing to be gained by continuing to produce works constructed according to the old model. There would no longer be any genuine creativity or innovation involved, and hence no aesthetic value. This then inaugurated a chiselling phase in the art. Whereas the form had formerly been used as a tool to express things outside its own domain—events, feelings, etc.--it would then turn in on itself and become, perhaps only implicitly, its own subject matter. From Charles Baudelaire to Tristan Tzara (as, in painting, from Manet to Kandinsky; or, in music, from Debussy to Luigi Russolo), subsequent poets would deconstruct the grand edifice of poetry that had been developed over the centuries according to the Homeric model. Finally, when this process of deconstruction had been completed, it would then be time for a new amplic phase to commence. Isou saw himself as the man to show the way. He would take the rubble that remained after the old forms had been shattered, and lay out a new blueprint for reutilising these most basic elements in a radically new way, utterly unlike the poetry of the preceding amplic phase. Isou identified the most basic elements of poetic creation as letters—i.e. uninterpreted visual symbols and acoustic sounds—and he set out the parameters for new ways of recombining these ingredients in the name of new aesthetic goals.
The Lettrie
Isou's idea for the poem of the future was that it should be purely formal, devoid of all semantic content. The Letterist poem, or lettrie, in many ways resembles what certain Italian Futurists (such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti), Russian Futurists (such as Velemir Chlebnikov, Iliazd, or Alexej Kručenych—cf. Zaum), and Dada poets (such as Raoul Hausmann or Kurt Schwitters) had already been doing, and what subsequent sound poets and concrete poets (such as Bob Cobbing, Eduard Ovčáček or Henri Chopin) would later be doing. However, the Letterists were always keen to insist on their own radical originality and to distinguish their work from other ostensibly similar currents.
Metagraphics/Hypergraphics
On the visual side, the Letterists first gave the name 'metagraphics' (metagraphie) and then 'hypergraphics' (hypergraphie) to their new synthesis of writing and visual art. Some precedents may be seen in Cubist, Dada and Futurist (both Italian and Russian) painting and typographical works, such as Marinetti's Zang Tumb Tuum, or in poems such as Apollinaire's Calligrammes but none of them were a full system like hypergraphy.
Letterist film
Notwithstanding the considerably more recent origins of film-making, compared to poetry, painting or music, Isou felt in 1950 that its own first amplic phase had already been completed. He therefore set about inaugurating a chiselling phase for the cinema. As he explained in the voiceover to his first film, Treatise of Slime and Eternity:
I believe firstly that the cinema is too rich. It is obese. It has reached its limits, its maximum. With the first movement of widening which it will outline, the cinema will burst! Under the blow of a congestion, this greased pig will tear into a thousand pieces. I announce the destruction of the cinema, the first apocalyptic sign of disjunction, of rupture, of this corpulent and bloated organization which calls itself film.
The two central innovations of Letterist film were: (i) the carving of the image (la ciselure d'image), where the film-maker would deliberately scratch or paint onto the actual film stock itself. Similar techniques are also employed in Letterist still photography. (ii) Discrepant cinema (le cinéma discrépant), where the soundtrack and the image-track would be separated, each one telling a different story or pursuing its own more abstract path. The most radical of the Letterist films, Wolman's The Anticoncept and Debord's Howls for Sade, went even further, and abandoned images altogether. From a visual point of view, the former consisted simply of a fluctuating ball of light, projected onto a large balloon, while the latter alternated a blank white screen (when there was speech in the soundtrack) and a totally black screen (accompanying ever-increasing periods of total silence). In addition, the Letterists utilised material appropriated from other films, a technique which would subsequently be developed (under the title of 'détournement') in Situationist film. They would also often supplement the film with live performance, or, through the 'film-debate', directly involve the audience itself in the total experience.
Supertemporal art (L'art supertemporel)
The supertemporal frame was a device for inviting and enabling an audience to participate in the creation of a work of art. In its simplest form, this might involve nothing more than the inclusion of several blank pages in a book, for the reader to add his or her own contributions.
Infinitesimal art (Art infinitesimal)
Recalling the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually, the Letterists developed the notion of a work of art which, by its very nature, could never be created in reality, but which could nevertheless provide aesthetic rewards by being contemplated intellectually. Also called Art esthapériste ('infinite-aesthetics'). Cf. Conceptual Art. Related to this, and arising out of it, is excoördism, the current incarnation of the Isouian movement, defined as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small.
Youth uprising (Le soulèvement de la jeunesse)
Isou identified the amplic phase of political theory and economics as that of Adam Smith and free trade; its chiselling phase was that of Karl Marx and socialism. Isou termed these 'atomic economics' and 'molecular economics' respectively: he launched 'nuclear economics' as a corrective to both of them. Both currents, he felt, had simply failed to take into account a large part of the population, namely those young people and other 'externs' who neither produced nor exchanged goods or capital in any significant way. He felt that the creative urge was an integral part of human nature, but that, unless it was properly guided, it could be diverted into crime and anti-social behaviour. The Letterists sought to restructure every aspect of society in such a way as to enable these externs to channel their creativity in more positive ways.
Major developments of Lettrism
The Letterist International was formed in 1952 by Lettrists Guy Debord, Gil J. Wolman, Jean-Louis Brau and Serge Berna. In 1957, it fused with the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus and the London Psychogeographical Association to create the Situationist International. During its five years, the Letterist International continued to practice the Lettrist technique of metagraphics, although they were quite against hypergraphics, instead developing metagraphics into détournement.
Ultra-Lettrism arose in 1958, its manifesto appearing in the second issue of Grammes in that year, signed by the Lettrists François Dufrêne, Robert Estivals, and Jacques Villeglé. Its members practiced hypergraphics and, with Dufrêne's crirhythmes and a greater interest in tape-recording, they sought to push Letterist sound-poetry further than Isou's group had done.
The Second Letterist International was an ephemeral group formed in 1964 by Wolman, Dufrêne and Brau.
The New Lettrist International, unknown form the original lettrists themselves, was formed in the late 1990s. Although it has no direct connection with the original Letterist group, it has drawn influences both from them and from the Letterist International, as well as from Hurufism (Arabic for 'Letterism').
Key members
Isidore Isou (Jan 29, 1925–July 28, 2007).
Gabriel Pomerand (1926–1972), member from 1945.
François Dufrêne (1930–1982), member from 1947 to 1964. Split to form Ultra-letterism and the Second Letterist International.
Jan Kubíček (1927–2013), significantly contributing member during the early 1960s.
Maurice Lemaître (1926–2018), member since 1950, and still actively pursuing his own approach to Letterism.
Gil J. Wolman (1929–1995), member from 1950 to 1952. Split to form Letterist International 1952-1957], but then returned to occasional participation with Isouian group from 1961 to 1964, before splitting again to form the Second Letterist International.
Jean-Louis Brau (1930–1985), member from 1950 to 1952. Split to form Letterist International 1952-1957], but then returned to occasional participation with Isouian group from 1961 to 1964, before splitting again to form the Second Letterist International.*
Guy Debord (1931–1994), member from 1951 to 1952. Split to form Letterist International.
Anton Perich (1945-), member from 1967 to 1970.
Influences
Fluxus artist Ben Vautier has openly avowed his indebtedness to Isou: "Isou, I don't deny it, was very important for me around 1958 when I first theorized about art. It was thanks to Isou that I realized that what was important in art was not the beautiful, but the new, the creation. In 1962, while reading L'agrégation d'un nom et d'un messie, I was fascinated by his ego, his megalomania, his pretences. I said to myself then: there is no art without ego, and this is where my work on the ego is rooted."
The German painter, set designer, and writer, Mike Rose, developed techniques close to Letterism during the 1970s and 1980s, and had some contact with the Parisian group.
The film Irma Vep (1996) contains a sequence that evokes the Lettrist aesthetic.
Michael Jacobson's novella The Giant's Fence (2006) is a hypergraphic work, apparently inspired by the Letterists.
Sources and further reading
English translations of Letterist works
Although the Letterists have published literally hundreds of books, journals and substantial articles in French, virtually none of these have been translated into English. One recent exception is:
Pomerand, Gabriel. Saint Ghetto of the Loans (Ugly Duckling Presse, 2006).
Maurice Lemaître has privately published translations of a few of his own works, though these are not at all easy to find:
Conversations about Letterism.
Correspondence. Maurice Lemaitre-Kirk Varnedoe.
Has The Film Already Started?
The Lettrist Cinema.
Considerations on the Death and Burial of Tristan Tzara by Isidore Isou (Translated by Doug Skinner) Absurdist Texts & Documents series #8,
Black Scat Books: 2012 (http://www.blackscatbooks.com)
Alain Satié, Written In Prose, 2010. Asemic Editions.
Secondary works in English
Acquaviva, Frédéric [monograph] Gil J Wolman, I am immortal and alive, MACBA, 140pp (anglais) + texts by Kaira Cabanas and Bartomeu Mari
Acquaviva, Frédéric Isidore Isou, Hypergraphic Novels 1950-1984, Stockholm Romanian Institute, 2012, 138pp (English)
Cabañas, Kaira M and Acquaviva, Frédéric : "Specters of Artaud", Reina Sofia (English), 2012
Cabañas, Kaira M. Off-Screen Cinema: Isidore Isou and the Lettrist Avant-Garde (University of Chicago Press, 2014).
Curtay, Jean-Paul. Letterism and Hypergraphics: The Unknown Avant-Garde, 1945–1985 (Franklin Furnace, 1985).
Debord, Guy and Gil J. Wolman.Why Lettrism?
Ferrua, Pietro, ed. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Letterism (Portland: Avant-Garde, 1979)
Foster, Stephen C., ed. Lettrisme: Into the Present (University of Iowa Museum of Art, 1983).
Home, Stewart. The Assault on Culture (Aporia Press and Unpopular Books, 1988).
Isou/Satié/Gérard Bermond. Le peinture lettriste (bilingual edition, Jean-Paul Rocher, 2000).
Jolas, Eugene. 'From Jabberwocky to Lettrism', Transition 48, no. 1 (1948).
Jorn, Asger. 'Originality and Magnitude (on Isou's System)', in his Open Creation And Its Enemies (Unpopular Books, 1994).
Marcus, Greil. Lipstick Traces (Penguin, 1989).
Monsegu, Sylvain. 'Lettrism', in Art Tribes, ed. Achille Bonito Oliva (Skira, 2002).
Seaman, David W. Concrete Poetry in France (UMI Research, 1981).
Roland Sabatier, Persistence of Lettrisme, in « Complete with missing parts : Interviews with the avant-garde ». Edited by Louis E. Bourgeois, Vox Press, Oxford, 2008
Fabrice Flahutez, Camille Morando, Isidore Isou's Library. A certain look on lettrism, (English-French), Paris, Artvenir, 2014 ()
General introductions and surveys in French
Acquaviva, Frédéric "Isidore Isou", Centre International de Poésie de Marseille, Cahier du Refuge n°163, 2007
Acquaviva, Frédéric "Isou 2.0" in Catalogue Isidore Isou, pour en finir avec la conspiration du silence, ICRF, 2007
Acquaviva, Frédéric " Lettrisme + bibliophilie : mode d'emploi", Le Magazine de la Bibliophilie n°75, 2008
Acquaviva, Frédéric "Gil J Wolman", Centre International de Poésie de Marseille, Cahier du Refuge n°173, 2007
Acquaviva, Frédéric and Bernard Blistène "Bientôt les Lettristes", Passage de Retz, 2012
Acquaviva, Frédéric "Lemaître, une vie lettriste" Editions de la Différence, Paris, 2014
Acquaviva, Frédéric "Isidore Isou" Editions du Griffon, Neuchâtel, 2018 (FILAF Awards for 2019 Best Contemporary Arts Book)* Fabrice Flahutez, Julia Drost et Frédéric Alix, Le Lettrisme et son temps, Dijon, Les presses du réel, 2018, 280p. .
Bandini, Mirella. Pour une histoire du lettrisme (Jean-Paul Rocher, 2003).
Curtay, Jean-Paul. La poésie lettriste (Seghers, 1974).
Devaux, Fréderique. Le Cinéma Lettriste (1951–1991) (Paris Experimental, 1992).
Fabrice Flahutez, Le lettrisme historique était une avant-garde, Les presses du réel, 2011. .
Lemaître, Maurice. Qu'est-ce que le lettrisme? (Fischbacher, 1954).
Sabatier, Roland. Le lettrisme: les créations et les créateurs (ZEditions, n.d. [1988]).
Roland Sabatier, Isidore Isou : La problématique du dépassement, revue Mélusine n° XXVIII (Actes du colloque de Cerisy « Le Surréalisme en héritage : les avant-gardes après 1945 », 2-12 août 2006), Editions L'Age d'Homme, Lausanne, 2008.* Satié, Alain. Le lettrisme, la creation ininterrompue (Jean-Paul Rocher, 2003).
Discography
Maurice Lemaître présente le lettrisme (Columbia ESRF1171, 1958). (7" e.p., 45 r.p.m).
Maurice Lemaître, Poèmes et musique lettristes (Lettrisme, nouvelle série, no. 24, 1971). (Three 7" discs, 45 r.p.m.). Augmented reissue of the above. Two extracts are also included in Futura poesia sonora (Cramps Records CRSCD 091–095, 1978).
Maurice Lemaître, Oeuvres poètiques et musicales lettristes (1993). (Audio cassette) / Rédition 100ex en 2007 avec 2 CDs, préface Frédéric Acquaviva
Isidore Isou, Poèmes lettristes 1944-1999 (Alga Marghen 12vocson033, 1999). (12" l.p., 33 r.p.m., 500 copies).
Isidore Isou, Musiques lettristes (Al Dante II-AD04, 1999). (Compact disc, realization by Frédéric Acquaviva).
Isidore Isou, Juvenal (symphonie 4) (Al Dante, 2004). (Compact disc, realization and orchestration by Frédéric Acquaviva).
Gil J. Wolman, L'Anticoncept (Alga Marghen 11VocSon032, 1999). (12" l.p., 33 r.p.m., 400 copies).
Gil J. Wolman, La mémoire (Ou, no. 33, 1967).
L'Autonomatopek 1 (Opus International, nos. 40–41, 1973). (7" e.p.) Contains work by Isou, Dufrêne, Wolman, Brau, Spacagna etc.
Jacques Spacagna" in Jacques Spacagna, le voyage en Italie , de Frédéric Acquaviva, Ed Conz, Verona, 2007 (Book + Compact Disc)
Jean-Louis Brau" in Jean-Louis Brau, instrumentations verbales, LP Alga Marghen with liner notes by Frédéric Acquaviva, Milano, 2010
See also
Art movements
Asemic writing
Situationist International
Ultra-Lettrists
Notes
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227012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carenza%20Lewis | Carenza Lewis | Professor Carenza Rachel Lewis (born 30 November 1963) is a British academic archaeologist and television presenter.
Early life
Lewis received her formal education at the school of the Church of England Community of All Hallows, in Suffolk, and at Girton College, University of Cambridge.
Field and academic career
In 1985, she joined the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England as a field archaeologist for the Wessex area. During part of her time with the Commission she was seconded to the History Department of the University of Birmingham to research the relationship between settlement and landscape in the East Midlands. She followed this with a similar project in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.
Lewis was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1998. In 1999, she was elected a visiting fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where she was a Senior Research Associate and Affiliated Lecturer. In 2004, she took on a new post at Cambridge to promote undergraduate archaeology, and created Access Cambridge Archaeology. In 2015, Lewis was appointed to the Professorial Chair of 'Public Understanding of Research' at the University of Lincoln.
Television career
In the early 1990s she joined the team presenting the Time Team series, a new television programme designed to make archaeology accessible for the general public, which was first broadcast on Channel 4 Television in 1994. She appeared on the show from 1993 to 2005, appearing each season from the first through the twelfth. The ratings success of the Time Team series led to further television presenting commissions for Lewis, including the series House Detectives (1997–2002).
In 2000, Lewis presented an episode of the BBC's theoretical history programme entitled What If, where she examined the failed revolt of Queen Boudicca and the Iceni against the Roman Empire in AD 60. She also devised and presented a series called Sacred Sites for HTV.
In 2010, she appeared in the television series Michael Wood's Story of England.
Personal life
Lewis has three children. In 2000, she appeared in national print media detailing her experiences as one of a number of victims of medical misdiagnosis at the hands of Dr James Elwood in the late 1990s.
Publications
Aston, Mick and Lewis, Carenza (eds.) (1994) The Medieval Landscape of Wessex Oxford: Oxbow
Lewis, Carenza, Mitchell-Fox, Patrick and Dyer, Christopher (1997) Village, Hamlet and Field: Changing Medieval Settlements in Central England Manchester University Press
Lewis, Carenza, Harding, Phil and Aston, Mick (2000) Time Team's Timechester: a companion to archaeology; ed. Tim Taylor London: Macmillan
Aberg, Alan and Lewis, Carenza (eds.) (2000) The Rising Tide: Archaeology and Coastal Landscapes Oxford: Oxbow
References
External links
Access Cambridge Archaeology
My inspiration: Carenza Lewis talks to the Guardian
Carenza Lewis's Home Page at the University of Lincoln
1963 births
British archaeologists
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Academics of the University of Birmingham
Living people
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Place of birth missing (living people)
Archaeologists appearing on Time Team
British women archaeologists
Fellows of the Higher Education Academy
Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts
People of the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England | [
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227018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20standard | Open standard | An open standard is a standard that is publicly available and has various rights to use associated with it and may also have various properties of how it was designed (e.g. open process). There is no single definition, and interpretations vary with usage.
The terms open and standard have a wide range of meanings associated with their usage. There are a number of definitions of open standards which emphasize different aspects of openness, including the openness of the resulting specification, the openness of the drafting process, and the ownership of rights in the standard. The term "standard" is sometimes restricted to technologies approved by formalized committees that are open to participation by all interested parties and operate on a consensus basis.
The definitions of the term open standard used by academics, the European Union, and some of its member governments or parliaments such as Denmark, France, and Spain preclude open standards requiring fees for use, as do the New Zealand, South African and the Venezuelan governments. On the standard organisation side, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) ensures that its specifications can be implemented on a royalty-free basis.
Many definitions of the term standard permit patent holders to impose "reasonable and non-discriminatory licensing" royalty fees and other licensing terms on implementers or users of the standard. For example, the rules for standards published by the major internationally recognized standards bodies such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and ITU-T permit their standards to contain specifications whose implementation will require payment of patent licensing fees. Among these organizations, only the IETF and ITU-T explicitly refer to their standards as "open standards", while the others refer only to producing "standards". The IETF and ITU-T use definitions of "open standard" that allow "reasonable and non-discriminatory" patent licensing fee requirements.
There are those in the open-source software community who hold that an "open standard" is only open if it can be freely adopted, implemented and extended. While open standards or architectures are considered non-proprietary in the sense that the standard is either unowned or owned by a collective body, it can still be publicly shared and not tightly guarded. The typical example of “open source” that has become a standard is the personal computer originated by IBM and now referred to as Wintel, the combination of the Microsoft operating system and Intel microprocessor. There are three others that are most widely accepted as “open” which include the GSM phones (adopted as a government standard), Open Group which promotes UNIX and the like, and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) which created the first standards of SMTP and TCP/IP. Buyers tend to prefer open standards which they believe offer them cheaper products and more choice for access due to network effects and increased competition between vendors.
Open standards which specify formats are sometimes referred to as open formats.
Many specifications that are sometimes referred to as standards are proprietary and only available under restrictive contract terms (if they can be obtained at all) from the organization that owns the copyright on the specification. As such these specifications are not considered to be fully open. Joel West has argued that "open" standards are not black and white but have many different levels of "openness". A more open standard tends to occur when the knowledge of the technology becomes dispersed enough that competition is increased and others are able to start copying the technology as they implement it. This occurred with the Wintel architecture as others were able to start imitating the software. Less open standards exist when a particular firm has much power (not ownership) over the standard, which can occur when a firm's platform “wins” in standard setting or the market makes one platform most popular.
Specific definitions of an open standard
Joint IEEE, ISOC, W3C, IETF and IAB Definition
On August 12, 2012, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Internet Society (ISOC), World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and Internet Architecture Board (IAB), jointly affirmed a set of principles which have contributed to the exponential growth of the Internet and related technologies. The “OpenStand Principles” define open standards and establish the building blocks for innovation. Standards developed using the OpenStand principles are developed through an open, participatory process, support interoperability, foster global competition, are voluntarily adopted on a global level and serve as building blocks for products and services targeted to meet the needs of markets and consumers. This drives innovation which, in turn, contributes to the creation of new markets and the growth and expansion of existing markets.
There are five, key OpenStand Principles, as outlined below:
1. Cooperation
Respectful cooperation between standards organizations, whereby each respects the autonomy, integrity, processes, and intellectual property rules of the others.
2. Adherence to Principles - Adherence to the five fundamental principles of standards development, namely
Due process: Decisions are made with equity and fairness among participants. No one party dominates or guides standards development. Standards processes are transparent and opportunities exist to appeal decisions. Processes for periodic standards review and updating are well defined.
Broad consensus: Processes allow for all views to be considered and addressed, such that agreement can be found across a range of interests.
Transparency: Standards organizations provide advance public notice of proposed standards development activities, the scope of work to be undertaken, and conditions for participation. Easily accessible records of decisions and the materials used in reaching those decisions are provided. Public comment periods are provided before final standards approval and adoption.
Balance: Standards activities are not exclusively dominated by any particular person, company or interest group.
Openness: Standards processes are open to all interested and informed parties.
3. Collective Empowerment
Commitment by affirming standards organizations and their participants to collective empowerment by striving for standards that:
are chosen and defined based on technical merit, as judged by the contributed expertise of each participant;
provide global interoperability, scalability, stability, and resiliency;
enable global competition;
serve as building blocks for further innovation; and
contribute to the creation of global communities, benefiting humanity.
4. Availability
Standards specifications are made accessible to all for implementation and deployment. Affirming standards organizations have defined procedures to develop specifications that can be implemented under fair terms. Given market diversity, fair terms may vary from royalty-free to fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory terms (FRAND).
5. Voluntary Adoption
Standards are voluntarily adopted and success is determined by the market.
ITU-T definition
The ITU-T is a standards development organization (SDO) that is one of the three sectors of the International Telecommunications Union (a specialized agency of the United Nations). The ITU-T has a Telecommunication Standardization Bureau director's Ad Hoc group on IPR that produced the following definition in March 2005, which the ITU-T as a whole has endorsed for its purposes since November 2005:
The ITU-T has a long history of open standards development. However, recently some different external sources have attempted to define the term "Open Standard" in a variety of different ways. In order to avoid confusion, the ITU-T uses for its purpose the term "Open Standards" per the following definition:
"Open Standards" are standards made available to the general public and are developed (or approved) and maintained via a collaborative and consensus driven process. "Open Standards" facilitate interoperability and data exchange among different products or services and are intended for widespread adoption.
Other elements of "Open Standards" include, but are not limited to:
Collaborative process – voluntary and market driven development (or approval) following a transparent consensus driven process that is reasonably open to all interested parties.
Reasonably balanced – ensures that the process is not dominated by any one interest group.
Due process - includes consideration of and response to comments by interested parties.
Intellectual property rights (IPRs) – IPRs essential to implement the standard to be licensed to all applicants on a worldwide, non-discriminatory basis, either (1) for free and under other reasonable terms and conditions or (2) on reasonable terms and conditions (which may include monetary compensation). Negotiations are left to the parties concerned and are performed outside the SDO.
Quality and level of detail – sufficient to permit the development of a variety of competing implementations of interoperable products or services. Standardized interfaces are not hidden, or controlled other than by the SDO promulgating the standard.
Publicly available – easily available for implementation and use, at a reasonable price. Publication of the text of a standard by others is permitted only with the prior approval of the SDO.
On-going support – maintained and supported over a long period of time.
The ITU-T, ITU-R, ISO, and IEC have harmonized on a common patent policy under the banner of the WSC. However, the ITU-T definition should not necessarily be considered also applicable in ITU-R, ISO and IEC contexts, since the Common Patent Policy
does not make any reference to "open standards" but rather only to "standards."
IETF definition
In section 7 of its RFC 2026, the IETF classifies specifications that have been developed in a manner similar to that of the IETF itself as being "open standards," and lists the standards produced by ANSI, ISO, IEEE, and ITU-T as examples. As the IETF standardization processes and IPR policies have the characteristics listed above by ITU-T, the IETF standards fulfill the ITU-T definition of "open standards."
However, the IETF has not adopted a specific definition of "open standard"; both RFC 2026 and the IETF's mission statement (RFC 3935) talks about "open process," but RFC 2026 does not define "open standard" except for the purpose of defining what documents IETF standards can link to.
RFC 2026 belongs to a set of RFCs collectively known as BCP 9 (Best Common Practice, an IETF policy).
RFC 2026 was later updated by BCP 78 and 79 (among others). As of 2011 BCP 78 is RFC 5378 (Rights Contributors Provide to the IETF Trust), and BCP 79 consists of RFC 3979 (Intellectual Property Rights in IETF Technology) and a clarification in RFC 4879. The changes are intended to be compatible with the "Simplified BSD License" as stated in the IETF Trust Legal Provisions and Copyright FAQ based on RFC 5377.
In August 2012, the IETF combined with the W3C and IEEE to launch OpenStand and to publish The Modern Paradigm for Standards. This captures "the effective and efficient standardization processes that have made the Internet and Web the premiere platforms for innovation and borderless commerce". The declaration is then published in the form of RFC 6852 in January 2013.
European Interoperability Framework for Pan-European eGovernment Services
The European Union defined the term for use within its European Interoperability Framework for Pan-European eGovernment Services, Version 1.0 although it does not claim to be a universal definition for all European Union use and documentation.
To reach interoperability in the context of pan-European eGovernment services, guidance needs to focus on open standards.
The word "open" is here meant in the sense of fulfilling the following requirements:
The standard is adopted and will be maintained by a not-for-profit organization, and its ongoing development occurs on the basis of an open decision-making procedure available to all interested parties (consensus or majority decision etc.).
The standard has been published and the standard specification document is available either freely or at a nominal charge. It must be permissible to all to copy, distribute and use it for no fee or at a nominal fee.
The intellectual property - i.e. patents possibly present - of (parts of) the standard is made irrevocably available on a royalty-free basis.
There are no constraints on the re-use of the standard
Network Centric Operations Industry Consortium definition
The Network Centric Operations Industry Consortium (NCOIC) defines open standard as the following:
Specifications for hardware and/or software that are publicly available implying that multiple vendors can compete directly based on the features and performance of their products. It also implies that the existing open system can be removed and replaced with that of another vendor with minimal effort and without major interruption.
Danish government definition
The Danish government has attempted to make a definition of open standards,
which also is used in pan-European software development projects. It states:
An open standard is accessible to everyone free of charge (i.e. there is no discrimination between users, and no payment or other considerations are required as a condition of use of the standard)
An open standard of necessity remains accessible and free of charge (i.e. owners renounce their options, if indeed such exist, to limit access to the standard at a later date, for example, by committing themselves to openness during the remainder of a possible patent's life)
An open standard is accessible free of charge and documented in all its details (i.e. all aspects of the standard are transparent and documented, and both access to and use of the documentation is free)
French law definition
The French Parliament approved a definition of "open standard" in its "Law for Confidence in the Digital Economy." The definition is:
By open standard is understood any communication, interconnection or interchange protocol, and any interoperable data format whose specifications are public and without any restriction in their access or implementation.
Indian Government Definition
A clear Royalty Free stance and far reaching requirements case is the one for India's Government
4.1 Mandatory Characteristics
An Identified Standard will qualify as an “Open Standard”, if it meets the following criteria:
4.1.1 Specification document of the Identified Standard shall be available with or without a nominal fee.
4.1.2 The Patent claims necessary to implement the Identified Standard shall be made available on a Royalty-Free basis for the lifetime of the Standard.
4.1.3 Identified Standard shall be adopted and maintained by a not-for-profit organization, wherein all stakeholders can opt to participate in a transparent, collaborative and consensual manner.
4.1.4 Identified Standard shall be recursively open as far as possible.
4.1.5 Identified Standard shall have technology-neutral specification.
4.1.6 Identified Standard shall be capable of localization support, where applicable, for all Indian official Languages for all applicable domains.
Italian Law definition
Italy has a general rule for the entire public sector dealing with Open Standards, although concentrating on data formats, in Art. 68 of the Code of the Digital Administration (Codice dell'Amministrazione Digitale)
[applications must] allow representation of data under different formats, at least one being an open data format.
[...]
[it is defined] an open data format, a data format which is made public, is thoroughly documented and neutral with regard to the technological tools needed to peruse the same data.
Spanish law definition
A Law passed by the Spanish Parliament requires that all electronic services provided by the Spanish public administration must be based on open standards. It defines an open standard as royalty free, according to the following definition:
An open standard fulfills the following conditions:
it is public, and its use is available on a free [gratis] basis, or at a cost that does not imply a difficulty for the user.
its use is not subject to the payment of any intellectual [copyright] or industrial [patents and trademarks] property right.
Venezuelan law definition
The Venezuelan Government approved a "free software and open standards law."
The decree includes the requirement that the Venezuelan public sector must use free software based on open standards, and includes a definition of open standard:
Article 2: for the purposes of this Decree, it shall be understood as
k) Open standards: technical specifications, published and controlled by an organization in charge of their development, that have been accepted by the industry, available to everybody for their implementation in free software or other [type of software], promoting competitivity, interoperability and flexibility.
South African Government definition
The South African Government approved a definition in the "Minimum Interoperability Operating Standards Handbook" (MIOS).
For the purposes of the MIOS, a standard shall be considered open if it meets all of these criteria. There are standards which we are obliged to adopt for pragmatic reasons which do not necessarily fully conform to being open in all respects. In such cases, where an open standard does not yet exist, the degree of openness will be taken into account when selecting an appropriate standard:
it should be maintained by a non-commercial organization
participation in the ongoing development work is based on decision making processes that are open to all interested parties.
open access: all may access committee documents, drafts and completed standards free of cost or for a negligible fee.
It must be possible for everyone to copy, distribute and use the standard free of cost.
The intellectual rights required to implement the standard (e.g.essential patent claims) are irrevocably available, without any royalties attached.
There are no reservations regarding reuse of the standard.
There are multiple implementations of the standard.
New Zealand official interoperability framework definition
The E-Government Interoperability Framework (e-GIF) defines open standard as royalty free according to the following text:
While a universally agreed definition of "open standards" is unlikely to be
resolved in the near future, the e-GIF accepts that a definition of “open standards”
needs to recognise a continuum that ranges from closed to open, and encompasses
varying degrees of "openness." To guide readers in this respect, the e-GIF
endorses "open standards" that exhibit the following properties:
Be accessible to everyone free of charge: no discrimination between users, and no payment or other considerations should be required as a condition to use the standard.
Remain accessible to everyone free of charge: owners should renounce their options, if any, to limit access to the standard at a later date.
Be documented in all its details: all aspects of the standard should be transparent and documented, and both access to and use of the documentation should be free.
The e-GIF performs the same function in e-government as the Road Code does on
the highways. Driving would be excessively costly, inefficient, and ineffective if
road rules had to be agreed each time one vehicle encountered another.
Bruce Perens' definition
One of the most popular definitions of the term "open standard", as measured by Google ranking, is the one developed by Bruce Perens.
His definition lists a set of principles that he believes must be met by an open standard:
Availability: Open Standards are available for all to read and implement.
Maximize End-User Choice: Open Standards create a fair, competitive market for implementations of the standard. They do not lock the customer into a particular vendor or group.
No Royalty: Open Standards are free for all to implement, with no royalty or fee. Certification of compliance by the standards organization may involve a fee.
No Discrimination: Open Standards and the organizations that administer them do not favor one implementor over another for any reason other than the technical standards compliance of a vendor's implementation. Certification organizations must provide a path for low and zero-cost implementations to be validated, but may also provide enhanced certification services.
Extension or Subset: Implementations of Open Standards may be extended, or offered in subset form. However, certification organizations may decline to certify subset implementations, and may place requirements upon extensions (see Predatory Practices).
Predatory Practices: Open Standards may employ license terms that protect against subversion of the standard by embrace-and-extend tactics. The licenses attached to the standard may require the publication of reference information for extensions, and a license for all others to create, distribute, and sell software that is compatible with the extensions. An Open Standard may not otherwise prohibit extensions.
Bruce Perens goes on to explain further the points in the standard in practice. With regard to availability, he states that "any software project should be able to afford a copy without undue hardship. The cost should not far exceed the cost of a college textbook".
Microsoft's definition
Vijay Kapoor, national technology officer, Microsoft, defines what open standards are as follows:
Let's look at what an open standard means: 'open' refers to it being royalty-free, while 'standard' means a technology approved by formalized committees that are open to participation by all interested parties and operate on a consensus basis. An open standard is publicly available, and developed, approved and maintained via a collaborative and consensus driven process.
Overall, Microsoft's relationship to open standards was, at best, mixed. While Microsoft participated in the most significant standard-setting organizations that establish open standards, it was often seen as oppositional to their adoption.
Open Source Initiative's definition
The Open Source Initiative defines the requirements and criteria for open standards as follows:
The Requirement
An "open standard" must not prohibit conforming implementations in open source software.
The Criteria
To comply with the Open Standards Requirement, an "open standard" must satisfy the following criteria. If an "open standard" does not meet these criteria, it will be discriminating against open source developers.
No Intentional Secrets: The standard MUST NOT withhold any detail necessary for interoperable implementation. As flaws are inevitable, the standard MUST define a process for fixing flaws identified during implementation and interoperability testing and to incorporate said changes into a revised version or superseding version of the standard to be released under terms that do not violate the OSR.
Availability: The standard MUST be freely and publicly available (e.g., from a stable web site) under royalty-free terms at reasonable and non-discriminatory cost.
Patents: All patents essential to implementation of the standard MUST:
be licensed under royalty-free terms for unrestricted use, or
be covered by a promise of non-assertion when practiced by open source software
No Agreements: There MUST NOT be any requirement for execution of a license agreement, NDA, grant, click-through, or any other form of paperwork to deploy conforming implementations of the standard.
No OSR-Incompatible Dependencies: Implementation of the standard MUST NOT require any other technology that fails to meet the criteria of this Requirement.
Ken Krechmer's definition
Ken Krechmer identifies ten "rights":
Open Meeting
Consensus
Due Process
Open IPR
One World
Open Change
Open Documents
Open Interface
Open Use
On-going Support
World Wide Web Consortium's definition
As a provider of Web technology ICT Standards, notably XML, http, HTML, CSS and WAI, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) follows a process that promotes the development of quality standards.
Looking at the end result, the spec alone, up for adoption, is not enough. The participative/inclusive process leading to a particular design, and the supporting resources available with it should be accounted when we talk about Open Standards:
transparency (due process is public, and all technical discussions, meeting minutes, are archived and referencable in decision making)
relevance (new standardization is started upon due analysis of the market needs, including requirements phase, e.g. accessibility, multi-linguism)
openness (anybody can participate, and everybody does: industry, individual, public, government bodies, academia, on a worldwide scale)
impartiality and consensus (guaranteed fairness by the process and the neutral hosting of the W3C organization, with equal weight for each participant)
availability (free access to the standard text, both during development, at final stage, and for translations, and assurance that core Web and Internet technologies can be implemented Royalty-Free)
maintenance (ongoing process for testing, errata, revision, permanent access, validation, etc.)
In August 2012, the W3C combined with the IETF and IEEE to launch OpenStand and to publish The Modern Paradigm for Standards. This captures "the effective and efficient standardization processes that have made the Internet and Web the premiere platforms for innovation and borderless commerce".
Digital Standards Organization definition
The Digital Standards Organization (DIGISTAN) states that "an open standard must be aimed at creating unrestricted competition between vendors and unrestricted choice for users." Its brief definition of "open standard" (or "free and open standard") is "a published specification that is immune to vendor capture at all stages in its life-cycle." Its more complete definition as follows:
"The standard is adopted and will be maintained by a not-for-profit organization, and its ongoing development occurs on the basis of an open decision-making procedure available to all interested parties.
The standard has been published and the standard specification document is available freely. It must be permissible to all to copy, distribute, and use it freely.
The patents possibly present on (parts of) the standard are made irrevocably available on a royalty-free basis.
There are no constraints on the re-use of the standard.
A key defining property is that an open standard is immune to vendor capture at all stages in its life-cycle. Immunity from vendor capture makes it possible to improve upon, trust, and extend an open standard over time."
This definition is based on the EU's EIF v1 definition of "open standard," but with changes to address what it terms as "vendor capture." They believe that "Many groups and individuals have provided definitions for 'open standard' that reflect their economic interests in the standards process. We see that the fundamental conflict is between vendors who seek to capture markets and raise costs, and the market at large, which seeks freedom and lower costs... Vendors work hard to turn open standards into franchise standards. They work to change the statutory language so they can cloak franchise standards in the sheep's clothing of 'open standard.' A robust definition of "free and open standard" must thus take into account the direct economic conflict between vendors and the market at large."
Free Software Foundation Europe's definition
The Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE) uses a definition which is based on the European Interoperability Framework v.1, and was extended after consultation with industry and community stakeholders. FSFE's standard has been adopted by groups such as the SELF EU Project, the 2008 Geneva Declaration on Standards and the Future of the Internet, and international Document Freedom Day teams.
According to this definition an Open Standard is a format or protocol that is:
Subject to full public assessment and use without constraints in a manner equally available to all parties;
Without any components or extensions that have dependencies on formats or protocols that do not meet the definition of an Open Standard themselves;
Free from legal or technical clauses that limit its utilisation by any party or in any business model;
Managed and further developed independently of any single vendor in a process open to the equal participation of competitors and third parties;
Available in multiple complete implementations by competing vendors, or as a complete implementation equally available to all parties.
FFII's definition
The Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure's definition is said to coincide with the definition issued in the European Interoperability Framework released in 2004.
A specification that is public, the standard is inclusive and it has been developed and is maintained in an open standardization process, everybody can implement it without any restriction, neither payment, to license the IPR (granted to everybody for free and without any condition). This is the minimum license terms asked by standardization bodies as W3C. Of course, all the other bodies accept open standards. But specification itself could cost a fair amount of money (i.e. 100-400 Eur per copy as in ISO because copyright and publication of the document itself).
UK government definition
The UK government's definition of open standards applies to software interoperability, data and document formats. The criteria for open standards are published in the “Open Standards Principles” policy paper and are as follows.
Collaboration - the standard is maintained through a collaborative decision-making process that is consensus based and independent of any individual supplier. Involvement in the development and maintenance of the standard is accessible to all interested parties.
Transparency - the decision-making process is transparent, and a publicly accessible review by subject matter experts is part of the process.
Due process - the standard is adopted by a specification or standardisation organisation, or a forum or consortium with a feedback and ratification process to ensure quality.
Fair access - the standard is published, thoroughly documented and publicly available at zero or low cost. Zero cost is preferred but this should be considered on a case-by-case basis as part of the selection process. Cost should not be prohibitive or likely to cause a barrier to a level playing field.
Market support - other than in the context of creating innovative solutions, the standard is mature, supported by the market and demonstrates platform, application and vendor independence.
Rights - rights essential to implementation of the standard, and for interfacing with other implementations which have adopted that same standard, are licensed on a royalty free basis that is compatible with both open source and proprietary licensed solutions. These rights should be irrevocable unless there is a breach of licence conditions.
The Cabinet Office in the UK recommends that government departments specify requirements using open standards when undertaking procurement exercises in order to promote interoperability and re-use, and avoid technological lock-in.
Comparison of definitions
Examples of open standards
Note that because the various definitions of "open standard" differ in their requirements, the standards listed below may not be open by every definition.
System
World Wide Web architecture specified by W3C
Hardware
Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) (a specification for plug-in boards to 16-bit IBM-architecture PCs, later standardized by the IEEE)
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) (is a retroactively named specification for plug-in boards to 8-bit IBM-architecture PCs. The short-lived EISA, and renaming of ISA was in response to IBM's move from "AT standard bus" to proprietary Micro Channel Architecture).
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) (a specification by Intel Corporation for plug-in boards to IBM-architecture PCs)
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) (a specification by Intel Corporation for plug-in boards to IBM-architecture PCs)
PCI Industrial Computer Manufacturers Group (PICMG) (an industry consortium developing Open Standards specifications for computer architectures )
Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) and its DDR SDRAM variants (by JEDEC Solid State Technology Association)
Universal Serial Bus (USB) (by USB Implementers Forum)
DiSEqC by Eutelsat—under the "IPR, TRADEMARK AND LOGO" section of the Recommendation for Implementation document, it is stated:
DiSEqC is an open standard, no license is required or royalty is to be paid to the rightholder EUTELSAT.
DiSEqC is a trademark of EUTELSAT.
Conditions for use of the trademark and the DiSEqC can be obtained from EUTELSAT.
File formats
Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM) (file format for 2D vector graphics, raster graphics, and text defined by ISO/IEC 8632)
Darwin Information Typing Architecture (DITA) (a format and architecture to create and maintain technical documentation defined by OASIS)
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Extensible HTML (XHTML) and HTML5 (specifications of the W3C for structured hyperlinked document formatting)
Office Open XML (a specification by Microsoft for document, spreadsheet and presentation formats, approved by ISO as ISO/IEC 29500) (openness is contested )
Ogg (a container for Vorbis, FLAC, Speex, Opus (audio formats) & Theora (a video format), by the Xiph.Org Foundation)
OpenDocument Format (ODF) (by OASIS for document, spreadsheet, presentation, graphics, math and other formats, approved by ISO as ISO/IEC 26300)
Opus (audio codec, defined by IETF RFC 6716)
Portable Document Format (PDF/X) (a specification by Adobe Systems Incorporated for formatted documents, later approved by ISO as ISO 15930-1:2001 )
Portable Network Graphics (PNG) (a bitmapped image format that employs lossless data compression, approved by ISO as ISO/IEC 15948:2004)
Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) (a specification for two-dimensional vector graphics developed by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)).
Protocols
Connected Home over IP (also known as "Project Connected Home over IP" or "CHIP" for short) is a proprietary, royalty-free home automation connectivity standard project which features compatibility among different smart home and Internet of things (IoT) products and software.
Internet Protocol (IP) (a specification of the IETF for transmitting packets of data on a network - specifically, IETF RFC 791
Matrix is an open communication protocol for decentralized real-time communication which is mostly used for instant messaging
MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) is a lightweight, publish-subscribe network protocol that transports messages between devices.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) (a specification of the IETF for implementing streams of data on top of IP - specifically, IETF RFC 793)
OMA Data Synchronization and Device Management (a platform-independent data synchronization protocol, specified by The SyncML Initiative/Open Mobile Alliance)
XMPP - an open protocol for near-real-time instant messaging (IM) and presence information (a.k.a. buddy lists)
Programming languages
ANSI C (a general-purpose programming language, approved by ISO as ISO/IEC 9899)
Ada, a multi-paradigm programming language, defined by joint ISO/ANSI standard, combined with major Amendment ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007
MUMPS, a dynamically typed programming language, originally designed for database-driven applications in the healthcare industry approved by ISO as ISO/IEC 11756:1992 and ISO/IEC 11756:1999
Other
Data2Dome a standard for planetarium dome content distribution.
Apdex (Application Performance Index) (specifies a uniform way to analyze and report on the degree to which the measured performance of software applications meets user expectations
Application Response Measurement (ARM) (defines an API for C and Java programming language to measure application transaction response times, adopted by The Open Group)
CD-ROM (Yellow Book) (a specification for data interchange on read-only 120 mm optical data disks, approved by ISO as ISO/IEC 10149 and ECMA as ECMA-130)
Common Information Model (CIM) (a specification by DMTF for defining how managed elements in an IT environment are represented as a common set of objects and relationships between them)
Universal Data Element Framework (UDEF) an open standard by The Open Group that provides the foundation for building an enterprise-wide Controlled vocabulary enabling Interoperability.
CIPURSE an open standard by OSPT Alliance which is a set of specifications to implement secure element (contactless smart card, NFC SIM, Embedded Secure element)for Urban Transport Network and Value Added Services.
OpenReference, an open reference model for business performance, processes and practices,
Pipeline Open Data Standard (PODS)
Examples of associations
JEDEC Solid State Technology Association - sets SDRAM Open standard
Open Geospatial Consortium - develops and publishes open standards for spatial data and services
Open Handset Alliance - sets Open standards mobile device hardware.
OSPT Alliance - sets open standard named CIPURSE
A4L - the Access For Learning Association sets k12 educational data interoperability structures.
USB Implementers Forum - sets standards for Universal Serial Bus
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) - sets Open standards for the Internet, such as protocols, programming languages, etc.
Patents
In 2002 and 2003 the controversy about using reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) licensing for the use of patented technology in web standards increased. Bruce Perens, important associations as FSF or FFII and others have argued that the use of patents restricts who can implement a standard to those able or willing to pay for the use of the patented technology. The requirement to pay some small amount per user, is often an insurmountable problem for free/open source software implementations which can be redistributed by anyone. Royalty free (RF) licensing is generally the only possible license for free/open source software implementations. Version 3 of the GNU General Public License includes a section that enjoins anyone who distributes a program released under the GPL from enforcing patents on subsequent users of the software or derivative works.
One result of this controversy was that many governments (including the Danish, French and Spanish governments singly and the EU collectively) specifically affirmed that "open standards" required royalty-free licenses. Some standards organizations, such as the W3C, modified their processes to essentially only permit royalty-free licensing.
Patents for software, formulas and algorithms are currently enforceable in the US but not in the EU. The European Patent Convention expressly prohibits algorithms, business methods and software from being covered by patents. The US has only allowed them since 1989 and there has been growing controversy in recent years as to either the benefit or feasibility.
A standards body and its associated processes cannot force a patent holder to give up its right to charge license fees, especially if the company concerned is not a member of the standards body and unconstrained by any rules that were set during the standards development process. In fact, this element discourages some standards bodies from adopting an "open" approach, fearing that they will lose out if their members are more constrained than non-members. Few bodies will carry out (or require their members to carry out) a full patent search. Ultimately, the only sanctions a standards body can apply on a non-member when patent licensing is demanded is to cancel the standard, try to rework around it, or work to invalidate the patent. Standards bodies such as W3C and OASIS require that the use of required patents be granted under a royalty-free license as a condition for joining the body or a particular working group, and this is generally considered enforceable.
Examples of patent claims brought against standards previously thought to be open include JPEG and the Rambus case over DDR SDRAM. The H.264 video codec is an example of a standards organization producing a standard that has known, non-royalty-free required patents.
Often the scope of the standard itself determines how likely it is that a firm will be able to use a standard as patent-like protection. Richard Langlois argues that standards with a wide scope may offer a firm some level of protection from competitors but it is likely that Schumpeterian creative destruction will ultimately leave the firm open to being "invented around" regardless of the standard a firm may benefit from.
Quotes
EU Commissioner Erkki Liikanen: "Open standards are important to help create interoperable and affordable solutions for everybody. They also promote competition by setting up a technical playing field that is level to all market players. This means lower costs for enterprises and, ultimately, the consumer." (World Standards Day, 14 October 2003)
Jorma Ollila, Chairman of Nokia's Board of Directors: "... Open standards and platforms create a foundation for success. They enable interoperability of technologies and encourage innovativeness and healthy competition, which in turn increases consumer choice and opens entirely new markets,"
W3C Director Tim Berners-Lee: "The decision to make the Web an open system was necessary for it to be universal. You can't propose that something be a universal space and at the same time keep control of it."
In the opening address of The Southern African Telecommunications Networks and Applications Conference (SATNAC) 2005, then Minister of Science and Technology, Mosibudi Mangena stressed need for open standards in ICT:
See also
Conformity assessment
Free software
Free standard
Network effect
Open data
Open-design movement
Open-source hardware
Open specifications
Open system (computing)
Specification (technical standard)
Vendor lock-in
References
Further reading
Opening Standards: The Global Politics of Interoperability, Laura DeNardis, editor, MIT Press, 2011. Experts from industry, academia, and public policy examine what is at stake economically and politically in debates about open standards.
External links
Open U.S. Standards Development for Telecommunications
Bruce Perens: Open Standards: Principles and Practice
Ken Krechmer: The Principles of Open Standards
Bob Sutor: Open Standards vs. Open Source: How to think about software, standards, and Service Oriented Architecture at the beginning of the 21st century
European Commission: Valoris report on Open Document Formats
The New York Times: Steve Lohr: 'Plan by 13 Nations Urges Open Technology Standards'
UNDP-APDIP International Open Source Network: Free/Open Source Software: Open Standards Primer
OpenStandards.net: An Open Standards Portal
Is OpenDocument an Open Standard? Yes! develops a unified definition of "open standard" from multiple sources, then applies it to a particular standard
Open Source Initiative: Open Standard Requirement for Software
Open Standards: Definitions of "Open Standards" from the Cover Pages
Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure FFII Workgroup on Open Standards. "Standard Categories and Definitions": Categories and definitions of the different types of standards
American National Standards Institute Critical Issue Paper: Current Attempts to Change Established Definition of “Open” Standards
ITSSD Comments Concerning SCP/13/2 – Standards and Patents, Institute for Trade, Standards and Sustainable Development, (March 2009)
Supplement to ITSSD Comments Concerning the WIPO Report on Standards and Patents (SCP/13/2) Paragraph 44, Institute for Trade, Standards and Sustainable Development, (January 2010)
Open Data Standards Association, RY
Open Standard License, A license dedicated to open standards
Standards
Technological change
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227021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20Go | Computer Go | Computer Go is the field of artificial intelligence (AI) dedicated to creating a computer program that plays the traditional board game Go. The field is sharply divided into two eras. Before 2015, the programs of the era were weak. The best efforts of the 1980s produced only AIs that could be defeated by beginners, and AIs of the 1990s and early 2000s were intermediate level at best. Professionals could defeat these programs even given handicaps of 10+ stones in favor of the AI. Many of the algorithms such as alpha-beta minimax that performed well as AIs for checkers and chess fell apart on Go's 19x19 board, as there were too many branching possibilities to consider. Creation of a human professional quality program with the techniques and hardware of the time was out of reach. Some AI researchers speculated that the problem was unsolvable without creation of human-like AI.
The application of Monte Carlo tree search to Go algorithms provided a notable improvement in the late 2000s decade, with programs finally able to achieve low-dan level: that of a weaker professional. Better professionals could still exploit these programs' weaknesses and win consistently, but AI performance had advanced past the intermediate level. The tantalizing unmet goal of defeating the best human players without a handicap, long thought unreachable, brought a burst of renewed interest. The key insight proved to be an application of machine learning and deep learning. DeepMind, a Google acquisition dedicated to AI research, produced AlphaGo in 2015 and announced it to the world in 2016. AlphaGo defeated Lee Sedol, a 9 dan professional, in a no-handicap match in 2016, then defeated Ke Jie in 2017, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years. Just as checkers had fallen to machines in 1995 and chess in 1997, computer programs finally conquered humanity's greatest Go champions in 2016–2017. DeepMind did not release AlphaGo for public use, but various programs have been built since based on the journal articles DeepMind released describing AlphaGo and its variants.
Performance
Go is a complex board game that requires intuition, creative and strategic thinking. It has long been considered a difficult challenge in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) and is considerably more difficult to solve than chess. Many in the field of artificial intelligence consider Go to require more elements that mimic human thought than chess. Mathematician I. J. Good wrote in 1965:
Prior to 2015, the best Go programs only managed to reach amateur dan level. On the small 9×9 board, the computer fared better, and some programs managed to win a fraction of their 9×9 games against professional players. Prior to AlphaGo, some researchers had claimed that computers would never defeat top humans at Go.
Early decades
The first Go program was written by Albert Lindsey Zobrist in 1968 as part of his thesis on pattern recognition. It introduced an influence function to estimate territory and Zobrist hashing to detect ko.
In April 1981, Jonathan K Millen published an article in Byte discussing Wally, a Go program with a 15x15 board that fit within the KIM-1 microcomputer's 1K RAM. Bruce F. Webster published an article in the magazine in November 1984 discussing a Go program he had written for the Apple Macintosh, including the MacFORTH source.
In 1998, very strong players were able to beat computer programs while giving handicaps of 25–30 stones, an enormous handicap that few human players would ever take. There was a case in the 1994 World Computer Go Championship where the winning program, Go Intellect, lost all three games against the youth players while receiving a 15-stone handicap. In general, players who understood and exploited a program's weaknesses could win with much larger handicaps than typical players.
21st century
Developments in Monte Carlo tree search and machine learning brought the best programs to high dan level on the small 9x9 board. In 2009, the first such programs appeared which could reach and hold low dan-level ranks on the KGS Go Server on the 19x19 board as well.
In 2010, at the 2010 European Go Congress in Finland, MogoTW played 19x19 Go against Catalin Taranu (5p). MogoTW received a seven-stone handicap and won.
In 2011, Zen reached 5 dan on the server KGS, playing games of 15 seconds per move. The account which reached that rank uses a cluster version of Zen running on a 26-core machine.
In 2012, Zen beat Takemiya Masaki (9p) by 11 points at five stones handicap, followed by a 20-point win at four stones handicap.
In 2013, Crazy Stone beat Yoshio Ishida (9p) in a 19×19 game at four stones handicap.
The 2014 Codecentric Go Challenge, a best-of-five match in an even 19x19 game, was played between Crazy Stone and Franz-Jozef Dickhut (6d). No stronger player had ever before agreed to play a serious competition against a go program on even terms. Franz-Jozef Dickhut won, though Crazy Stone won the first match by 1.5 points.
2015 onwards: The deep learning era
In October 2015, Google DeepMind program AlphaGo beat Fan Hui, the European Go champion, five times out of five in tournament conditions.
In March 2016, AlphaGo beat Lee Sedol in the first three of five matches. This was the first time that a 9-dan master had played a professional game against a computer without handicap. Lee won the fourth match, describing his win as "invaluable". AlphaGo won the final match two days later.
In May 2017, AlphaGo beat Ke Jie, who at the time was ranked top in the world, in a three-game match during the Future of Go Summit.
In October 2017, DeepMind revealed a new version of AlphaGo, trained only through self play, that had surpassed all previous versions, beating the Ke Jie version in 89 out of 100 games.
Since the basic principles of AlphaGo had been published in the journal Nature, other teams were able to produce high-level programs. By 2017, both Zen and Tencent's project Fine Art were capable of defeating very high-level professionals some of the time and the open source Leela Zero engine was released.
Obstacles to high-level performance
For a long time, it was a widely held opinion that computer Go posed a problem fundamentally different from computer chess. It was believed that methods relying on fast global search with relatively little domain knowledge would not be effective against human experts. Therefore, a large part of the computer Go development effort was during these times focused on ways of representing human-like expert knowledge and combining this with local search to answer questions of a tactical nature. The result of this were programs that handled many situations well but which had very pronounced weaknesses compared to their overall handling of the game. Also, these classical programs gained almost nothing from increases in available computing power per se and progress in the field was generally slow.
A few researchers grasped the potential of probabilistic methods and predicted that they would come to dominate computer game-playing, but many others considered a strong Go-playing program something that could be achieved only in the far future, as a result of fundamental advances in general artificial intelligence technology.
The advent of programs based on Monte Carlo search (started in 2006) changed this situation in many ways with the first 9-dan professional Go players being defeated in 2013 by multicore computers, albeit with four-stone handicap.
Size of board
The large board (19×19, 361 intersections) is often noted as one of the primary reasons why a strong program is hard to create. The large board size prevents an alpha-beta searcher from achieving deep look-ahead without significant search extensions or pruning heuristics.
In 2002, a computer program called MIGOS (MIni GO Solver) completely solved the game of Go for the 5×5 board. Black wins, taking the whole board.
Number of move options
Continuing the comparison to chess, Go moves are not as limited by the rules of the game. For the first move in chess, the player has twenty choices. Go players begin with a choice of 55 distinct legal moves, accounting for symmetry. This number rises quickly as symmetry is broken, and soon almost all of the 361 points of the board must be evaluated. Some moves are much more popular than others and some are almost never played, but all are possible.
Evaluation function
While a material counting evaluation is not sufficient for decent play in chess, material balance and various positional factors like pawn structure, are easy to quantify.
These types of positional evaluation rules cannot efficiently be applied to Go. The value of a Go position depends on a complex analysis to determine whether or not the group is alive, which stones can be connected to one another, and heuristics around the extent to which a strong position has influence, or the extent to which a weak position can be attacked.
More than one move can be regarded as the best depending on which strategy is used. In order to choose a move, the computer must evaluate different possible outcomes and decide which is best. This is difficult due to the delicate trade-offs present in Go. For example, it may be possible to capture some enemy stones at the cost of strengthening the opponent's stones elsewhere. Whether this is a good trade or not can be a difficult decision, even for human players. The computational complexity also shows here as a move might not be immediately important, but after many moves could become highly important as other areas of the board take shape.
Combinatorial problems
Sometimes it is mentioned in this context that various difficult combinatorial problems (in fact, any NP-hard problem) can be converted to Go-like problems on a sufficiently large board; however, the same is true for other abstract board games, including chess and minesweeper, when suitably generalized to a board of arbitrary size. NP-complete problems do not tend in their general case to be easier for unaided humans than for suitably programmed computers: it is doubtful that unaided humans would be able to compete successfully against computers in solving, for example, instances of the subset sum problem.
Endgame
Given that the endgame contains fewer possible moves than the opening (fuseki) or middle game, one might suppose that it is easier to play, and thus that a computer should be able to easily tackle it. In chess, computer programs generally perform well in chess endgames, especially once the number of pieces is reduced to the extent that it allows taking advantage of solved endgame tablebases.
The application of surreal numbers to the endgame in Go, a general game analysis pioneered by John H. Conway, has been further developed by Elwyn R. Berlekamp and David Wolfe and outlined in their book, Mathematical Go (). While not of general utility in most playing circumstances, it greatly aids the analysis of certain classes of positions.
Nonetheless, although elaborate study has been conducted, Go endgames have been proven to be PSPACE-hard. There are many reasons why they are so hard:
Even if a computer can play each local endgame area flawlessly, we cannot conclude that its plays would be flawless in regard to the entire board. Additional areas of consideration in endgames include sente and gote relationships, prioritization of different local endgames, territory counting and estimation, and so on.
The endgame may involve many other aspects of Go, including 'life and death', which are also known to be NP-hard.
Each of the local endgame areas may affect one another. In other words, they are dynamic in nature although visually isolated. This makes it difficult to reason about for computers and humans alike. This nature leads to some complex situations like Triple Ko, Quadruple Ko, Molasses Ko, and Moonshine Life.
Thus, traditional Go algorithms can't play the Go endgame flawlessly in the sense of computing a best move directly. Strong Monte Carlo algorithms can still handle normal Go endgame situations well enough, and in general, the most complicated classes of life-and-death endgame problems are unlikely to come up in a high-level game.
Order of play
Monte-Carlo based Go engines have a reputation of being much more willing to play tenuki, moves elsewhere on the board, rather than continue a local fight than human players. Directly calculating when a specific local move is required can be difficult. This was often perceived as a weakness early in these program's existence. That said, this tendency has persisted in AlphaGo's playstyle with dominant results, so this may be more of a "quirk" than a "weakness."
Tactical search
One of the main concerns for a Go player is which groups of stones can be kept alive and which can be captured. This general class of problems is known as life and death. The most direct strategy for calculating life and death is to perform a tree search on the moves which potentially affect the stones in question, and then to record the status of the stones at the end of the main line of play.
However, within time and memory constraints, it is not generally possible to determine with complete accuracy which moves could affect the 'life' of a group of stones. This implies that some heuristic must be applied to select which moves to consider. The net effect is that for any given program, there is a trade-off between playing speed and life and death reading abilities.
With Benson's algorithm, it is possible to determine the chains which are unconditionally alive and therefore would not need to be checked in the future for safety.
State representation
An issue that all Go programs must tackle is how to represent the current state of the game. The most direct way of representing a board is as a one- or two-dimensional array, where elements in the array represent points on the board, and can take on a value corresponding to a white stone, a black stone, or an empty intersection. Additional data is needed to store how many stones have been captured, whose turn it is, and which intersections are illegal due to the Ko rule. In general, machine learning programs stop there at this simplest form and let the organic AIs come to their own understanding of the meaning of the board, likely simply using Monte Carlo playouts to "score" a board as good or bad for a player. "Classic" AI programs that attempted to directly model a human's strategy might go further, however, such as layering on data such as stones believed to be dead, stones that are unconditionally alive, stones in a seki state of mutual life, and so forth in their representation of the state of the game.
System design
New approaches to problems
Historically, symbolic artificial intelligence techniques have been used to approach the problem of Go AI. Neural networks began to be tried as an alternative approach in the 2000s decade, as they required immense computing power that was expensive-to-impossible to reach in earlier decades. These approaches attempt to mitigate the problems of the game of Go having a high branching factor and numerous other difficulties.
Computer Go research results are being applied to other similar fields such as cognitive science, pattern recognition and machine learning. Combinatorial Game Theory, a branch of applied mathematics, is a topic relevant to computer Go.
Design philosophies
The only choice a program needs to make is where to place its next stone. However, this decision is made difficult by the wide range of impacts a single stone can have across the entire board, and the complex interactions various stones' groups can have with each other. Various architectures have arisen for handling this problem. The most popular use:
some form of tree search,
the application of Monte Carlo methods,
the application of pattern matching,
the creation of knowledge-based systems, and
the use of machine learning.
Few programs use only one of these techniques exclusively; most combine portions of each into one synthetic system.
Minimax tree search
One traditional AI technique for creating game playing software is to use a minimax tree search. This involves playing out all hypothetical moves on the board up to a certain point, then using an evaluation function to estimate the value of that position for the current player. The move which leads to the best hypothetical board is selected, and the process is repeated each turn. While tree searches have been very effective in computer chess, they have seen less success in Computer Go programs. This is partly because it has traditionally been difficult to create an effective evaluation function for a Go board, and partly because the large number of possible moves each side can make each leads to a high branching factor. This makes this technique very computationally expensive. Because of this, many programs which use search trees extensively can only play on the smaller 9×9 board, rather than full 19×19 ones.
There are several techniques, which can greatly improve the performance of search trees in terms of both speed and memory. Pruning techniques such as alpha–beta pruning, Principal Variation Search, and MTD(f) can reduce the effective branching factor without loss of strength. In tactical areas such as life and death, Go is particularly amenable to caching techniques such as transposition tables. These can reduce the amount of repeated effort, especially when combined with an iterative deepening approach. In order to quickly store a full-sized Go board in a transposition table, a hashing technique for mathematically summarizing is generally necessary. Zobrist hashing is very popular in Go programs because it has low collision rates, and can be iteratively updated at each move with just two XORs, rather than being calculated from scratch. Even using these performance-enhancing techniques, full tree searches on a full-sized board are still prohibitively slow. Searches can be sped up by using large amounts of domain specific pruning techniques, such as not considering moves where your opponent is already strong, and selective extensions like always considering moves next to groups of stones which are about to be captured. However, both of these options introduce a significant risk of not considering a vital move which would have changed the course of the game.
Results of computer competitions show that pattern matching techniques for choosing a handful of appropriate moves combined with fast localized tactical searches (explained above) were once sufficient to produce a competitive program. For example, GNU Go was competitive until 2008.
Knowledge-based systems
Novices often learn a lot from the game records of old games played by master players. There is a strong hypothesis that suggests that acquiring Go knowledge is a key to making a strong computer Go. For example, Tim Kinger and David Mechner argue that "it is our belief that with better tools for representing and maintaining Go knowledge, it will be possible to develop stronger Go programs." They propose two ways: recognizing common configurations of stones and their positions and concentrating on local battles. "Go programs are still lacking in both quality and quantity of knowledge."
After implementation, the use of expert knowledge has been proved very effective in programming Go software. Hundreds of guidelines and rules of thumb for strong play have been formulated by both high-level amateurs and professionals. The programmer's task is to take these heuristics, formalize them into computer code, and utilize pattern matching and pattern recognition algorithms to recognize when these rules apply. It is also important to have a system for determining what to do in the event that two conflicting guidelines are applicable.
Most of the relatively successful results come from programmers' individual skills at Go and their personal conjectures about Go, but not from formal mathematical assertions; they are trying to make the computer mimic the way they play Go. "Most competitive programs have required 5–15 person-years of effort, and contain 50–100 modules dealing with different aspects of the game."
This method has until recently been the most successful technique in generating competitive Go programs on a full-sized board. Some example of programs which have relied heavily on expert knowledge are Handtalk (later known as Goemate), The Many Faces of Go, Go Intellect, and Go++, each of which has at some point been considered the world's best Go program.
Nevertheless, adding knowledge of Go sometimes weakens the program because some superficial knowledge might bring mistakes: "the best programs usually play good, master level moves. However, as every games player knows, just one bad move can ruin a good game. Program performance over a full game can be much lower than master level."
Monte-Carlo methods
One major alternative to using hand-coded knowledge and searches is the use of Monte Carlo methods. This is done by generating a list of potential moves, and for each move playing out thousands of games at random on the resulting board. The move which leads to the best set of random games for the current player is chosen as the best move. The advantage of this technique is that it requires very little domain knowledge or expert input, the trade-off being increased memory and processor requirements. However, because the moves used for evaluation are generated at random it is possible that a move which would be excellent except for one specific opponent response would be mistakenly evaluated as a good move. The result of this are programs which are strong in an overall strategic sense, but are imperfect tactically. This problem can be mitigated by adding some domain knowledge in the move generation and a greater level of search depth on top of the random evolution. Some programs which use Monte-Carlo techniques are Fuego, The Many Faces of Go v12, Leela, MoGo, Crazy Stone, MyGoFriend, and Zen.
In 2006, a new search technique, upper confidence bounds applied to trees (UCT), was developed and applied to many 9x9 Monte-Carlo Go programs with excellent results. UCT uses the results of the play outs collected so far to guide the search along the more successful lines of play, while still allowing alternative lines to be explored. The UCT technique along with many other optimizations for playing on the larger 19x19 board has led MoGo to become one of the strongest research programs. Successful early applications of UCT methods to 19x19 Go include MoGo, Crazy Stone, and Mango. MoGo won the 2007 Computer Olympiad and won one (out of three) blitz game against Guo Juan, 5th Dan Pro, in the much less complex 9x9 Go. The Many Faces of Go won the 2008 Computer Olympiad after adding UCT search to its traditional knowledge-based engine.
Machine learning
While knowledge-based systems have been very effective at Go, their skill level is closely linked to the knowledge of their programmers and associated domain experts. One way to break this limitation is to use machine learning techniques in order to allow the software to automatically generate rules, patterns, and/or rule conflict resolution strategies.
This is generally done by allowing a neural network or genetic algorithm to either review a large database of professional games, or play many games against itself or other people or programs. These algorithms are then able to utilize this data as a means of improving their performance. AlphaGo used this to great effect. Other programs using neural nets previously have been NeuroGo and WinHonte.
Machine learning techniques can also be used in a less ambitious context to tune specific parameters of programs that rely mainly on other techniques. For example, Crazy Stone learns move generation patterns from several hundred sample games, using a generalization of the Elo rating system.
AlphaGo
AlphaGo, developed by Google DeepMind, made a significant advance by beating a professional human player in October 2015, using techniques that combined deep learning and Monte Carlo tree search. AlphaGo is significantly more powerful than other previous Go programs, and the first to beat a 9 dan human professional in a game without handicaps on a full-sized board.
List of Go-playing computer programs
AlphaGo, the first computer program to win in even matches against a 9-dan human Go player
BaduGI, a program by Jooyoung Lee
Crazy Stone, by Rémi Coulom (sold as Saikyo no Igo in Japan)
Darkforest, by Facebook
Fine Art, by Tencent
Fuego, an open source Monte Carlo program
Goban, a Macintosh Go program by Sen:te (requires free Goban Extensions)
GNU Go, an open source classical Go program
Leela, the first Monte Carlo program for sale to the public
Leela Zero, a reimplementation of the system described in the AlphaGo Zero paper
The Many Faces of Go, by David Fotland (sold as AI Igo in Japan)
MyGoFriend, a program by Frank Karger
MoGo by Sylvain Gelly; parallel version by many people.
Pachi, an open source Monte Carlo program by Petr Baudiš
Smart Go, by Anders Kierulf, inventor of the Smart Game Format
Steenvreter, by Erik van der Werf
Zen, by Yoji Ojima aka Yamato (sold as Tencho no Igo in Japan); parallel version by Hideki Kato.
Competitions among computer Go programs
Several annual competitions take place between Go computer programs, the most prominent being the Go events at the Computer Olympiad. Regular, less formal, competitions between programs used to occur on the KGS Go Server (monthly) and the Computer Go Server (continuous).
Prominent go-playing programs include Crazy Stone, Zen, Aya, Mogo, The Many Faces of Go, pachi and Fuego, all listed above; and Taiwanese-authored coldmilk, Dutch-authored Steenvreter, and Korean-authored DolBaram.
History
The first computer Go competition was sponsored by Acornsoft, and the first regular ones by USENIX. They ran from 1984 to 1988. These competitions introduced Nemesis, the first competitive Go program from Bruce Wilcox, and G2.5 by David Fotland, which would later evolve into Cosmos and The Many Faces of Go.
One of the early drivers of computer Go research was the Ing Prize, a relatively large money award sponsored by Taiwanese banker Ing Chang-ki, offered annually between 1985 and 2000 at the World Computer Go Congress (or Ing Cup). The winner of this tournament was allowed to challenge young players at a handicap in a short match. If the computer won the match, the prize was awarded and a new prize announced: a larger prize for beating the players at a lesser handicap. The series of Ing prizes was set to expire either 1) in the year 2000 or 2) when a program could beat a 1-dan professional at no handicap for 40,000,000 NT dollars. The last winner was Handtalk in 1997, claiming 250,000 NT dollars for winning an 11-stone handicap match against three 11–13 year old amateur 2–6 dans. At the time the prize expired in 2000, the unclaimed prize was 400,000 NT dollars for winning a nine-stone handicap match.
Many other large regional Go tournaments ("congresses") had an attached computer Go event. The European Go Congress has sponsored a computer tournament since 1987, and the USENIX event evolved into the US/North American Computer Go Championship, held annually from 1988–2000 at the US Go Congress.
Japan started sponsoring computer Go competitions in 1995. The FOST Cup was held annually from 1995 to 1999 in Tokyo. That tournament was supplanted by the Gifu Challenge, which was held annually from 2003 to 2006 in Ogaki, Gifu. The Computer Go UEC Cup has been held annually since 2007.
Rule Formalization Problems in computer-computer games
When two computers play a game of Go against each other, the ideal is to treat the game in a manner identical to two humans playing while avoiding any intervention from actual humans. However, this can be difficult during end game scoring. The main problem is that Go playing software, which usually communicates using the standardized Go Text Protocol (GTP), will not always agree with respect to the alive or dead status of stones.
While there is no general way for two different programs to "talk it out" and resolve the conflict, this problem is avoided for the most part by using Chinese, Tromp-Taylor, or American Go Association (AGA) rules in which continued play (without penalty) is required until there is no more disagreement on the status of any stones on the board. In practice, such as on the KGS Go Server, the server can mediate a dispute by sending a special GTP command to the two client programs indicating they should continue placing stones until there is no question about the status of any particular group (all dead stones have been captured). The CGOS Go Server usually sees programs resign before a game has even reached the scoring phase, but nevertheless supports a modified version of Tromp-Taylor rules requiring a full play out.
These rule sets mean that a program which was in a winning position at the end of the game under Japanese rules (when both players have passed) could lose because of poor play in the resolution phase, but this is not a common occurrence and is considered a normal part of the game under all of the area rule sets.
The main drawback to the above system is that some rule sets (such as the traditional Japanese rules) penalize the players for making these extra moves, precluding the use of additional playout for two computers. Nevertheless, most modern Go Programs support Japanese rules against humans and are competent in both play and scoring (Fuego, Many Faces of Go, SmartGo, etc.).
Historically, another method for resolving this problem was to have an expert human judge the final board. However, this introduces subjectivity into the results and the risk that the expert would miss something the program saw.
Testing
Many programs are available that allow computer Go engines to play against each other and they almost always communicate via the Go Text Protocol (GTP).
GoGUI and its addon gogui-twogtp can be used to play two engines against each other on a single computer system. SmartGo and Many Faces of Go also provide this feature.
To play as wide a variety of opponents as possible, the KGS Go Server allows Go engine vs. Go engine play as well as Go engine vs. human in both ranked and unranked matches. CGOS is a dedicated computer vs. computer Go server.
See also
References
Further reading
Co-Evolving a Go-Playing Neural Network, written by Alex Lubberts & Risto Miikkulainen, 2001
Computer Game Playing: Theory and Practice, edited by M.A. Brauner (The Ellis Horwood Series in Artificial Intelligence), Halstead Press, 1983. A collection of computer Go articles. The American Go Journal, vol. 18, No 4. page 6. [ISSN 0148-0243]
A Machine-Learning Approach to Computer Go, Jeffrey Bagdis, 2007.
Minimalism in Ubiquitous Interface Design Wren, C. and Reynolds, C. (2004) Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 8(5), pages 370–374. Video of computer Go vision system in operation shows interaction and users exploring Joseki and Fuseki.
Monte-Carlo Go, presented by Markus Enzenberger, Computer Go Seminar, University of Alberta, April 2004
Monte-Carlo Go, written by B. Bouzy and B. Helmstetter from Scientific Literature Digital Library
Static analysis of life and death in the game of Go, written by Ken Chen & Zhixing Chen, 20 February 1999
article describing the techniques underlying Mogo
External links
Extensive list of computer Go events
All systems Go by David A. Mechner (1998), discusses the game where professional Go player Janice Kim won a game against program Handtalk after giving a 25-stone handicap.
Kinger, Tim and Mechner, David. An Architecture for Computer Go (1996)
Computer Go and Computer Go Programming pages at Sensei's Library
Computer Go bibliography
Another Computer Go Bibliography
Computer Go mailing list
Published articles about computer Go on Ideosphere gives current estimate of whether a Go program will be best player in the world
Information on the Go Text Protocol commonly used for interfacing Go playing engines with graphical clients and internet servers
The Computer Go Room on the K Go Server (KGS) for online discussion and running "bots"
Two Representative Computer Go Games, an article about two computer Go games played in 1999, one with two computers players, and the other a 29-stone handicap human-computer game
What A Way to Go describes work at Microsoft Research on building a computer Go player.
Cracking Go by Feng-hsiung Hsu, IEEE Spectrum magazine (October 2007) – Why it should be possible to build a Go machine stronger than any human player
computer-go-dataset, SGF datasets of 1,645,958 games
Game artificial intelligence
Electronic games | [
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227032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf%20warbler | Leaf warbler | Leaf warblers are small insectivorous passerine birds belonging to the genus Phylloscopus.
Leaf warblers were formerly included in the Old World warbler family but are now considered to belong to the family Phylloscopidae, introduced in 2006. The family originally included the genus Seicercus, but all species have been moved to Phylloscopus in the most recent classification. Leaf warblers are active, constantly moving, often flicking their wings as they glean the foliage for insects along the branches of trees and bushes. They forage at various levels within forests, from the top canopy to the understorey. Most of the species are markedly territorial both in their summer and winter quarters. Most are greenish or brownish above and off-white or yellowish below. Compared to some other "warblers", their songs are very simple. Species breeding in temperate regions are usually strongly migratory.
Description
The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with greyish-green to greyish-brown colours, varying little or not at all with the seasons. The tails are not very long and contain 12 feathers (unlike the similar Abroscopus species, which have 10 tail feathers). Many species are more easily identified by their distinctive songs than their dull plumage. These are very small passerines with adult body masses that can vary from and in some cases, such as the Chinese leaf warbler, are among the lightest passerines anywhere. Several of the larger species are similar in size including the large-billed leaf warbler, Radde's warbler and the pale-legged leaf warbler. Total length can vary from .
Distribution and habitat
Its members occur in Eurasia, ranging into Wallacea and Africa with one species, the Arctic warbler, breeding as far east as Alaska. Many of the species breed at temperate and high latitudes in Eurasia and migrate substantial distances to winter in southeastern Asia, India, or Africa. One example is Tickell's leaf warbler, which breeds in scrub at high elevation in the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau and then moves down-slope and south to winter in the Himalayan foothills of India and Burma. Most live in forest and scrub and many are canopy or sub-canopy dwellers.
Behavior and ecology
The family Phylloscopidae comprises many small tree-loving warbler species and feed by gleaning insects from leaves or catching food on the wing.
Taxonomy
The genus Phylloscopus was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826 to accommodate a single species, the willow warbler, which is therefore considered as the type species. The name combines the Ancient Greek phullon meaning "leaf" and skopos meaning "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). Phylloscopus is the only genus placed in the family Phylloscopidae that was introduced in 2006 by the Swedish ornithologist Per Alström and coworkers.
The genus contains 80 species: Of these, eleven species were formerly placed in the genus Seicercus, but a 2018 molecular phylogeny study indicated that the genus Seicercus is a synonym of Phylloscopus, leaving the family Phylloscopidae with a single genus, Phylloscopus.
Wood warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix
Western Bonelli's warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli
Eastern Bonelli's warbler, Phylloscopus orientalis
Buff-barred warbler, Phylloscopus pulcher
Ashy-throated warbler, Phylloscopus maculipennis
Hume's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus humei
Yellow-browed warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus
Brooks's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus subviridis
Chinese leaf warbler, Phylloscopus yunnanensis
Lemon-rumped warbler, Phylloscopus chloronotus
Sichuan leaf warbler, Phylloscopus forresti
Gansu leaf warbler, Phylloscopus kansuensis
Pallas's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus
Tytler's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus tytleri
Yellow-streaked warbler, Phylloscopus armandii
Radde's warbler, Phylloscopus schwarzi
Sulphur-bellied warbler, Phylloscopus griseolus
Tickell's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus affinis
Smoky warbler, Phylloscopus fuligiventer
Dusky warbler, Phylloscopus fuscatus
Plain leaf warbler, Phylloscopus neglectus
Buff-throated warbler, Phylloscopus subaffinis
Willow warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus
Mountain chiffchaff, Phylloscopus sindianus
Canary Islands chiffchaff, Phylloscopus canariensis
Eastern Canary Islands chiffchaff, Phylloscopus canariensis exsul (extinct: 1986?)
Western Canary Islands chiffchaff, Phylloscopus canariensis canariensis
Common chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita
Iberian chiffchaff, Phylloscopus brehmii
Eastern crowned warbler, Phylloscopus coronatus
Ijima's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus ijimae
Philippine leaf warbler, Phylloscopus olivaceus
Lemon-throated leaf warbler, Phylloscopus cebuensis
Yellow-throated woodland warbler, Phylloscopus ruficapilla
Brown woodland warbler, Phylloscopus umbrovirens
Red-faced woodland warbler, Phylloscopus laetus
Laura's woodland warbler, Phylloscopus laurae
Black-capped woodland warbler, Phylloscopus herberti
Uganda woodland warbler, Phylloscopus budongoensis
White-spectacled warbler, Phylloscopus intermedius – (previously Seicercus affinis)
Grey-cheeked warbler, Phylloscopus poliogenys – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Green-crowned warbler, Phylloscopus burkii – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Grey-crowned warbler, Phylloscopus tephrocephalus – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Whistler's warbler, Phylloscopus whistleri – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Bianchi's warbler, Phylloscopus valentini – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Alström's warbler, Phylloscopus soror – (first described in 1999; previously placed in Seicercus)
Martens's warbler, Phylloscopus omeiensis – (first described in 1999; previously placed in Seicercus)
Green warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus
Two-barred warbler, Phylloscopus plumbeitarsus
Greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides
Emei leaf warbler, Phylloscopus emeiensis
Large-billed leaf warbler, Phylloscopus magnirostris
Sakhalin leaf warbler, Phylloscopus borealoides
Pale-legged leaf warbler, Phylloscopus tenellipes
Japanese leaf warbler, Phylloscopus xanthodryas
Kamchatka leaf warbler, Phylloscopus examinandus
Arctic warbler, Phylloscopus borealis
Chestnut-crowned warbler, Phylloscopus castaniceps – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Sunda warbler, Phylloscopus grammiceps – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Yellow-breasted warbler, Phylloscopus montis – (previously placed in Seicercus)
Limestone leaf warbler, Phylloscopus calciatilis – (first described in 2010)
Sulphur-breasted warbler, Phylloscopus ricketti
Yellow-vented warbler, Phylloscopus cantator
Western crowned warbler, Phylloscopus occipitalis
Blyth's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus reguloides
Claudia's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus claudiae
Hartert's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus goodsoni
Kloss's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus ogilviegranti – (formerly considered as a subspecies of Davison's leaf warbler)
Hainan leaf warbler, Phylloscopus hainanus
Davison's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus intensior – (previously white-tailed leaf warbler, Phylloscopus davisoni)
Grey-hooded warbler, Phylloscopus xanthoschistos
Mountain leaf warbler, Phylloscopus trivirgatus
Negros leaf warbler, Phylloscopus nigrorum
Timor leaf warbler, Phylloscopus presbytes
Flores leaf warbler, Phylloscopus floresianus
Rote leaf warbler, Phylloscopus rotiensis (first described in 2018)
Makira leaf warbler, Phylloscopus makirensis
Sulawesi leaf warbler, Phylloscopus nesophilus – (formerly considered as a subspecies of Lompobattang leaf warbler)
Lompobattang leaf warbler, Phylloscopus sarasinorum
Kolombangara leaf warbler, Phylloscopus amoenus
Island leaf warbler, Phylloscopus poliocephalus
Numfor leaf warbler, Phylloscopus maforensis
Biak leaf warbler, Phylloscopus misoriensis
Two birds were described in 2020 but have not yet been recognised as species by the International Ornithologists' Union.
Peleng leaf warbler, Phylloscopus suaramerdu
Taliabu leaf warbler, Phylloscopus emilsalimi
The alpine leaf warbler, Phylloscopus occisinensis, was reclassified as conspecific with Tickell's leaf warbler (P. affinis) by the IOC, but other authorities such as eBird still consider it distinct.
References
Further reading
Badyaev, Alexander V. & Leaf, Elizabeth S. (1997): "Habitat associations of song characteristics in Phylloscopus and Hippolais warblers". Auk 114(1): 40–46.
External links
Leaf warbler videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Friedrich Boie | [
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227037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy%20Messerschmitt | Willy Messerschmitt | Wilhelm Emil "Willy" Messerschmitt (; 26 June 1898 – 15 September 1978) was a German aircraft designer and manufacturer. In 1934, in collaboration with Walter Rethel, he designed the Messerschmitt Bf 109, which became the most important fighter aircraft in the Luftwaffe as Germany rearmed prior to World War II. It remains the second most-produced warplane in history, with some 34,000 built, behind the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2. Another Messerschmitt aircraft, first called "Bf 109R", purpose-built for record setting, but later redesignated Messerschmitt Me 209, broke the absolute world airspeed record and held the world speed record for propeller-driven aircraft until 1969. Messerschmitt's firm also produced the first jet-powered fighter to enter service — the Messerschmitt Me 262.
Early life
He was born in Frankfurt am Main, the son of Baptist Ferdinand Messerschmitt (1858–1916) and his second wife, Anna Maria Schaller (1867–1942).
First sailplane designs and World War I
As a young man, Messerschmitt befriended German sailplane pioneer Friedrich Harth. Harth joined the German army in 1914 and while he was away at war, Messerschmitt continued work on one of Harth's designs, the S5 glider. In 1917, Messerschmitt himself signed up for military service. Following the war, the two were reunited and continued to work together while Messerschmitt commenced study at the Munich Technical College and Harth built aircraft at the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW – Bavarian Aircraft Works). The S8 glider they designed and built together in 1921 broke a world duration record (albeit unofficially) and they went into partnership for a while running a flying school. The same year, the first plane entirely designed by Messerschmitt flew — the S9 glider.
Beginning of his career
In 1923 Messerschmitt graduated from the Munich Institute of Technology. The same year Harth and Messerschmitt had a falling out and went their separate ways, with Messerschmitt founding his own aircraft company at Augsburg. At first, Messerschmitt built sailplanes, but within two years had progressed via motor gliders to small powered aircraft - sports and touring types. These culminated in the Messerschmitt M 17 and Messerschmitt M 18 designs, which Messerschmitt sold to BFW in 1927, when the Bavarian state government encouraged a merger between the two companies. These were followed by the Messerschmitt M20 light transport in 1928, which proved a disaster for BFW and Messerschmitt himself. Two Deutsche Luft Hansa M20s were involved in serious crashes very soon after purchase, and this led the airline to cancel their order for the type. This caused a serious cashflow problem for the company and led to its bankruptcy in 1931. The M20 crashes also created a powerful enemy for Messerschmitt in the person of Erhard Milch, the head of Lufthansa, who had lost a close friend in one of the crashes.
Nazi Germany and World War II
The ties that Messerschmitt had formed with leading Nazis Rudolf Hess and Hermann Göring (through Theo Croneiss) saved him from sharing the fate of Milch's other great enemy, Hugo Junkers. To stay in business in the face of Milch ensuring that he would get no government contracts, Messerschmitt had signed agreements with Romania for sales of the M35 and a transport plane, the Messerschmitt M 36. When Milch learned of this, he publicly denounced Messerschmitt as a traitor, and the Gestapo was sent to question him and other BFW officials. Probably due to Croneiss' intervention, no further action was taken.
The establishment of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ("Reich Aviation Ministry" - RLM) by the Nazi government in 1933, headed by Milch, led to a resurgence in the German aircraft industry and the resurrection of BFW. Collaborating with Robert Lusser, Messerschmitt designed the flagship product of the relaunched company. This was a low-wing four seater monoplane called the Messerschmitt M37, but better known by its later RLM designation of Bf 108. The following year, Messerschmitt incorporated many advanced design features of the Bf 108 into the Bf 109 fighter.
In 1936, the Messerschmitt Bf 109 won the RLM's single-seat fighter contest, and became one of the main Luftwaffe aircraft types. Messerschmitt and his factory thus took an important role in the RLM's armament plans. This role expanded even further when the Messerschmitt Bf 110 also won the multi-purpose fighter contest.
On 11 July 1938, Messerschmitt was appointed chairman and managing director of BFW and the company was renamed after him to Messerschmitt AG. This same year, the company began work on what would eventually become the Me 262, and on the Messerschmitt Me 210, planned as successor for the Bf 110. The Me 210 turned out to be plagued by massive development problems that were solved only by evolving the type into the Messerschmitt Me 410. The resulting problems and delays again put the reputation of both Messerschmitt and his namesake company in jeopardy.
Trial and postwar career
Following World War II, Messerschmitt was tried by a denazification court for using slave labor, and in 1948 was convicted of collaborating with the Nazi regime. After two years in prison, he was released and resumed his position as head of his company. Since Germany was forbidden to manufacture aircraft until 1955, he turned his company to manufacturing prefabricated buildings, sewing machines, and small cars — most notably the Messerschmitt Kabinenroller. Exporting his talents, he designed the Hispano HA-200 jet trainer for Hispano Aviación in Spain in 1952 before eventually being allowed to return to aircraft manufacturing in Germany to licence-produce the Fiat G91 and then Lockheed F-104 Starfighter for the West German Luftwaffe. He designed the later Helwan HA-300, a light supersonic interceptor, for the Egyptian air forces. This was his last aircraft design.
Messerschmitt saw his company through mergers first with Bölkow in 1968 and then Hamburger Flugzeugbau in 1969, at which point it became MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, that became part of EADS now named Airbus) with Messerschmitt as chairman until 1970 when he retired. He died eight years later, on 15 September 1978 in a Munich hospital in undisclosed circumstances.
Criticism
Messerschmitt's designs were characterized by a clear focus on performance, especially by striving for lightweight construction, but also by minimizing parasitic drag from aerodynamic surfaces. His critics accused him of taking this approach too far in some designs. His falling out with Harth had been over designs Harth felt to be dangerously unstable, and the Me 210 displayed instability, too, which could be cured only by enlarging the airframe and the aerodynamic surfaces, increasing drag and weight. Messerschmitt's design philosophy also is evident in his arguments with Alexander Lippisch, who was designing the tailless Me 163 rocket fighter for production at the Messerschmitt works. While Lippisch maintained that the tailless design had an advantage, in principle, with regard to total drag, Messerschmitt pointed out that the design compromises, which are necessary to make a tailless aircraft safely controllable, defeated this purpose by increasing drag to the original level and above.
Awards
Messerschmitt was appointed Honorary Professor by the Munich Technical College in 1930, and the Vice-President of the Deutsche Akademie für Luftfahrtforschung (German Academy of Aeronautical Research). The German government also awarded him the title of Wehrwirtschaftsführer (defense industry leader). In 1938, Adolf Hitler bestowed upon Messerschmitt the German National Prize for Art and Science.
In 1979, Messerschmitt was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
References
External links
Short Biography
Harth & Messerschmitt Youtube Documentary
1898 births
1978 deaths
Aircraft designers
German industrialists
Businesspeople from Frankfurt
People from Hesse-Nassau
German aerospace engineers
German company founders
20th-century German businesspeople
Collaborators with Nazi Germany
Messerschmitt people
Technical University of Munich alumni
Technical University of Munich faculty
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
German military personnel of World War I
Recipients of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross
Engineers from Frankfurt
Glider pilots | [
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227039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20Nunes | Pedro Nunes | Pedro Nunes (; Latin: Petrus Nonius; 1502 – 11 August 1578) was a Portuguese mathematician, cosmographer, and professor, from a New Christian (of Jewish origin) family.
Considered one of the greatest mathematicians of his time, Nunes is best known for his contributions to the nautical sciences (navigation and cartography), which he approached, for the first time, in a mathematical way. He was the first to propose the idea of a loxodrome, and was the inventor of several measuring devices, including the nonius (from which Vernier scale was derived), named after his Latin surname.
Life
Little is known about Nunes' early education, life or family background, only that he was born in Alcácer do Sal, his origins are Jewish and that his grandchildren spent a few years behind bars after they were accused by the Portuguese Inquisition of professing and secretly practicing Judaism. He studied at the University of Salamanca, maybe from 1521 until 1522, and at the University of Lisbon (this University later become the University of Coimbra) where he obtained a degree in medicine in 1525. In the 16th century medicine used astrology, so he also learned astronomy and mathematics.
He continued his medical studies but held various teaching posts within the University of Lisbon, including Moral, Philosophy, Logic and Metaphysics. When, in 1537, the Portuguese University located in Lisbon returned to Coimbra, he moved to the re-founded University of Coimbra to teach mathematics, a post he held until 1562. This was a new post in the University of Coimbra and it was established to provide instruction in the technical requirements for navigation: clearly a topic of great importance in Portugal at this period, when the control of sea trade was the primary source of Portuguese wealth. Mathematics became an independent post in 1544.
In addition to teaching he was appointed Royal Cosmographer in 1529 and Chief Royal Cosmographer in 1547: a post which he held until his death.
In 1531, King John III of Portugal charged Nunes with the education of his younger brothers Luís and Henry. Years later Nunes was also charged with the education of the king's grandson, and future king, Sebastian.
While at the University of Coimbra, future astronomer Christopher Clavius attended Pedro Nunes' classes, and was influenced by his works. Clavius, proponent of the Gregorian Calendar, the greatest figure of the Colégio Romano, the great center of Roman Catholic knowledge of that period, classified Nunes as “supreme mathematical genius". Nunes died in Coimbra.
Work
Pedro Nunes lived in a transition period, during which science was changing from valuing theoretical knowledge (which defined the main role of a scientist/mathematician as commenting on previous authors), to providing experimental data, both as a source of information and as a method of confirming theories. Nunes was, above all, one of the last great commentators, as is shown by his first published work “Tratado da Esfera”, enriched with comments and additions that denote a profound knowledge of the difficult cosmography of the period. He also acknowledged the value of experimentation.
In his Tratado da sphera he argued for a common and universal diffusion of knowledge. Accordingly, he not only published works in Latin, at that time science's lingua franca, aiming for an audience of European scholars, but also in Portuguese, and Spanish (Livro de Algebra).
Navigation
Much of Nunes' work related to navigation. He was the first to understand why a ship maintaining a steady course would not travel along a great circle, the shortest path between two points on Earth, but would instead follow a spiral course, called a loxodrome. The later invention of logarithms allowed Leibniz to establish algebraic equations for the loxodrome. These lines —also called rhumb lines— maintain a fixed angle with the meridians. In other words, loxodromic curves are directly related to the construction of the Nunes connection —also called navigator connection.
In his Treaty defending the sea chart, Nunes argued that a nautical chart should have its parallels and meridians shown as straight lines. Yet he was unsure how to solve the problems that this caused: a situation that lasted until Mercator developed the projection bearing his name. The Mercator Projection is the system which is still used.
Geometry
Nunes also solved the problem of finding the day with the shortest twilight duration, for any given position, and its duration. This problem per se is not greatly important, yet it shows the geometric genius of Nunes as it was a problem which was independently tackled by Johann and Jakob Bernoulli more than a century later with less success. They could find a solution to the problem of the shortest day, but failed to determine its duration, possibly because they got lost in the details of differential calculus which, at that time, had only recently been developed. The achievement also shows that Nunes was a pioneer in solving maxima and minima problems, which became a common requirement only in the next century using differential calculus.
Cosmology
He was probably the last major mathematician to make relevant improvements to the ptolemaic system (a geocentric model describing the relative motion of the Earth and Sun). However, this lost importance because Copernicus introduced his heliocentric system theory around the same time. Nunes knew Copernicus' work but referred only briefly to it in his published works, with the purpose of correcting some mathematical errors.
Most of Nunes' achievements were possible because of his profound understanding of spherical trigonometry and his ability to transpose Ptolemy's adaptations of Euclidean geometry to it.
Inventions
Nunes worked on several practical nautical problems concerning course correction as well as attempting to develop more accurate devices to determine a ship's position.
He created the nonius to improve the astrolabe's accuracy. This consisted of a number of concentric circles traced on the astrolabe and dividing each successive one with one fewer divisions than the adjacent outer circle. Thus the outermost quadrant would comprise 90° in 90 equal divisions, the next inner would have 89 divisions, the next 88 and so on. When an angle was measured, the circle and the division on which the alidade fell was noted. A table was then consulted to provide the exact measure.
The nonius was used by Tycho Brahe, who considered it too complex. The method inspired improved systems by Christopher Clavius and Jacob Curtius. These were eventually improved further by Pierre Vernier in 1631, which reduced the nonius to the Vernier scale that includes two scales, one of them fixed and the other movable. Vernier himself used to say that his invention was a perfected nonius and for a long time it was known as the “nonius”, even in France. In some languages, the Vernier scale is still named after Nunes, for example in Swedish.
Pedro Nunes also worked on some mechanics problems, from a mathematical point of view.
Influence
Nunes was very influential internationally, e.g. on the work of John Dee and Edward Wright.
Honours
One of the best known Lisbon public Secondary/High Schools is named after Pedro Nunes, Escola Secundária de Pedro Nunes (teaching 7th to 12th grade). It was founded, in 1906, as Lyceu Central da 3ª Zona Escolar de Lisboa (Central Liceum of the 3rd School Area of Lisbon). Over the years had known several designations: Lyceu Central de Pedro Nunes (1911–1930), Liceu Normal de Lisboa (1930–1937), Liceu Pedro Nunes (1937–1956), Liceu Normal de Pedro Nunes (1956–1978) and Escola Secundária de Pedro Nunes (1978–), but is still popularly known as Liceu Pedro Nunes. Many well known Portuguese personalities have studied in Pedro Nunes. The current headquarters commemorated its centenary in 2011, after being totally refurbished and modernized between 2008 and 2010.
He was featured on 100 escudos coins.
The Instituto Pedro Nunes in Coimbra, a business incubator and a center of innovation and technology transfer founded by the University of Coimbra, is named after Pedro Nunes.
Asteroid 5313 Nunes is named after him
TAP Portugal Airlines has named an Airbus A330-202 airplane after him, registered CS-TOP.
Bibliography
Pedro Nunes translated, commented and expanded some of the major works in his field, and he also published original research.
Commented and expanded translations:
Tratado da sphera com a Theorica do Sol e da Lua (Treaty about the Sphere with Theory of the Sun and the Moon), (1537). From Tractatus de Sphæra by Johannes de Sacrobosco, Theoricae novæ planetarum by Georg Purbach and the Geography by Claudius Ptolemaeus.
Original work:
Tratado em defensam da carta de marear (Treatise Defending the Sea Chart), (1537).
Tratado sobre certas dúvidas da navegação (Treatise about some Navigational Doubts), (1537)
De crepusculis (About the Twilight), (1542).
De erratis Orontii Finæi (About the Errors of Orontius Finæus), (1546).
Livro de algebra en arithmetica y geometria (Book of Algebra in Arithmetics and Geometry), (1567).
Petri Nonii Salaciensis Opera, (1566). Expanded, corrected and reedited as De arte adque ratione navigandi in 1573.
Some modern reprints:
Obras (4 vol.), Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Lisboa, 1940-1960 (No ISBN at the books' record at the Portuguese National Library)
Obras (6 vol.), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 2002-2011, and (more volumes are likely to be published)
Notes
References
Mourão, Ronaldo Rogério de Freitas, Dicionário das Descobertas, Pergaminho, Lisboa, 2001,
Dias, J. S. da Silva, Os descobrimentos e a problemática cultural do século XVI (3rd ed.), Presença, Lisboa, 1988
Calafate, Pedro, Pedro Nunes, at Instituto Camões' site (in Portuguese)
Printed works of Pedro Nunes in the 16th century, at Portuguese National Library (in Portuguese)
External links
Pedro Nunes page (FCUL)
1502 births
1578 deaths
Portuguese mathematicians
Portuguese Renaissance humanists
Portuguese Renaissance writers
16th-century mathematicians
Portuguese geographers
Scientific instrument makers
University of Coimbra alumni
University of Salamanca alumni
University of Salamanca faculty
Jewish Portuguese writers
16th-century Portuguese people
Portuguese exploration in the Age of Discovery
People from Setúbal District
People from Coimbra
School of Salamanca
Portuguese inventors
European Sephardi Jews | [
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227042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamo%20Bowl | Alamo Bowl | The Alamo Bowl is an NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision college football bowl game played annually since 1993 in the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas. Since 2010 it matches the second choice team from the Pac-12 Conference and the second choice team from the Big 12 Conference. Traditionally, the Alamo Bowl has been played in December, although it was played in January following the 2009, 2014, and 2015 seasons.
Since 2007, the game has been sponsored by Valero Energy Corporation and officially known as the Valero Alamo Bowl. Previous sponsors include MasterCard (2002–2005), Sylvania (1999–2001), and Builders Square (1993–1998).
History
The game was previously known as the Builders Square Alamo Bowl (1993–1998), the Sylvania Alamo Bowl (1999–2001), and the MasterCard Alamo Bowl (2002–2005). The logo of the event has evolved to reflect the changes in sponsorship. On May 24, 2007 the Alamo Bowl announced a partnership with San Antonio-based Valero Energy Corporation, and thus the bowl's full name was changed. The partnership with Valero is in place until 2025.
The game originally gave an automatic invite to a team from the now-defunct Southwest Conference (SWC). However, in 1993, only two of the eight SWC teams finished with the necessary 6 wins against Division I-A teams to become bowl-eligible, and those two teams were already committed to other bowls, so the Iowa Hawkeyes were invited instead. The SWC was able to provide teams for the next two seasons (Baylor Bears in 1994 and Texas A&M Aggies in 1995) before the conference disbanded.
During the 1996 Alamo Bowl, the Iowa Hawkeyes wore plain black helmets (removing their tigerhawk logo and gold stripe) in honor of linebacker Mark Mitchell's mother, who died in a car accident while traveling to San Antonio for the game.
The 2002 Alamo Bowl played between the Colorado Buffaloes and Wisconsin Badgers was the first Alamo Bowl to go into overtime, with the unranked Badgers defeating the No. 14 ranked Buffaloes after kicking a field goal to win 31–28, completing a perfect non-conference schedule at 6-0 (the Badgers finished with a 2-6 record in the Big Ten). The 2008 Alamo Bowl between the Missouri Tigers and Northwestern Wildcats also went into overtime, with the Tigers defeating the Wildcats 30–23.
The 2005 Alamo Bowl ended with one of the most controversial plays in bowl game history. During the multi-lateral play, almost the entire Nebraska Cornhuskers team and coaching staff as well as half of the Michigan Wolverines sideline came onto the field, and the Cornhuskers gave their coach a Gatorade shower before the play was blown dead. It drew parallels to 1982's "The Play", 2000's "Music City Miracle", and 2002's "Bluegrass Miracle". Nebraska would win the game 32−28 after Michigan was not able to reach the endzone.
The 2007 Alamo Bowl between the Penn State Nittany Lions and the Texas A&M Aggies was attended by 66,166, an Alamodome facility-record crowd for a sporting event, breaking the previous record set by the Iowa Hawkeyes and Texas Longhorns in the 2006 Alamo Bowl. The Nittany Lions won the game 24–17.
The Alamo Bowl has sold out seven of its 16 games (1995, 1999, 2001, 2004, 2006, 2007, and 2011).
On August 28, 2009, the Alamo Bowl organizers announced they had reached an agreement with the then Pac-10 Conference to replace the Big Ten Conference in the Alamo Bowl. Under the terms of the agreement, the now Pac-12 Conference's (Pac-12) second-choice team earns a bid to the Alamo Bowl. The agreement took effect beginning with the 2010 college football season. The Pac-12's second-choice team was previously contracted to play in the Holiday Bowl against the third choice from the Big 12. The Big 12's third choice also moved to the Alamo Bowl, and the Holiday Bowl now gets third choice of team from the Pac-12 and the fourth choice from the Big Ten.
In the 2011 Alamo Bowl, the Baylor Bears and Washington Huskies combined to score 123 points, breaking the record for the most points scored in a bowl game in college football history. Baylor won the game, 67–56. The 2011 game was also the first Alamo Bowl to feature a season's Heisman Trophy winner, Baylor's Robert Griffin III.
Game results
All rankings are taken from the AP Poll prior to the game being played.
Source:
MVPs
Two MVPs are selected for each game; one offensive player and one defensive player.
Source:
Fred Jacoby Sportsmanship Award
The bowl's sportsmanship award is named after Fred Jacoby, who served as SWC commissioner from 1982 to 1993.
Source:
Most appearances
Updated through the December 2021 edition (29 games, 58 total appearances).
Teams with multiple appearances
Teams with a single appearance
Won (6): California, Missouri, Ohio State, Oklahoma, UCLA, Wisconsin
Lost (6): Arizona, Iowa State, Oregon State, Stanford, Utah, Washington
With Oklahoma's appearance in the 2021 game, Kansas and West Virginia are the only current or former Big 12 members that have not appeared in the bowl, while Arizona State and USC are the only Pac-12 members that have not appeared. Colorado has appeared as both a member of the Big 12 and Pac-12.
Appearances by conference
Updated through the December 2021 edition (29 games, 58 total appearances).
Games marked with an asterisk (*) were played in January of the following calendar year.
Pac-12 record includes appearances when the conference was known as the Pac-10 (before 2011).
The Southwest Conference (SWC) dissolved after the 1995 season.
Game records
Source:
Media coverage
The bowl has been televised on ESPN since its inception. It has produced eight of the top 20 most-watched bowl games in ESPN history. In 2006, the Alamo Bowl featured the Texas Longhorns and the Iowa Hawkeyes in a game that earned a 6.0 rating, making it the most-watched college football game in ESPN history as more than 8.83 million viewers saw the telecast.
References
External links
College football bowls
Annual sporting events in the United States | [
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227049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-phase%20electric%20power | Single-phase electric power | In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power is the distribution of alternating current electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric motors. A single-phase supply connected to an alternating current electric motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field; single-phase motors need additional circuits for starting (capacitor start motor), and such motors are uncommon above 10 kW in rating.
Because the voltage of a single phase system reaches a peak value twice in each cycle, the instantaneous power is not constant.
Standard frequencies of single-phase power systems are either 50 or 60 Hz. Special single-phase traction power networks may operate at 16.67 Hz or other frequencies to power electric railways.
History
Single phase power transmission took many years to develop. The earliest developments were based on the early alternator inventions of 19th century Parisian scientist Hippolyte Pixii, which were later expanded upon by Lord Kelvin and others in the 1880s. The first full AC power system, based on single phase alternating current, was created by William Stanley with financial support from Westinghouse in 1886. In 1897, experiments began for single phase power transmission.
Applications
In North America, individual residences and small commercial buildings with services up to about 100 kVA (417 amperes at 240 volts) will usually have three-wire single-phase distribution, especially in rural areas where motor loads are small and uncommon. In rural areas where no three-phase supply is available, farmers or households who wish to use three-phase motors may install a phase converter. Larger consumers such as large buildings, shopping centers, factories, office blocks, and multiple-unit apartment blocks will have three-phase service. In densely populated areas of cities, network power distribution is used with many customers and many supply transformers connected to provide hundreds or thousands of kVA, a load concentrated over a few hundred square meters.
High-power systems, say hundreds of kVA or larger, are nearly always three-phase. The largest supply normally available as single-phase varies according to the standards of the electrical utility. In the United Kingdom a single-phase household supply may be rated 100 A or even 125 A, meaning that there is little need for three-phase in a domestic or small commercial environment. Much of the rest of Europe has traditionally had much smaller limits on the size of single phase supplies resulting in even houses being supplied with three-phase (in urban areas with three-phase supply networks).
If heating equipment designed for a 240-volt system is connected to two phases of a 208-volt supply, it will only produce 75% of its rated heating effect. Single-phase motors may have taps to allow their use on either 208-volt or 240-volt supply.
A single-phase load may be powered directly from a three-phase distribution transformer in two ways: by connection between one phase and neutral or by connection between two phases. These two give different voltages from a given supply. For example, on a 120/208 three-phase system, which is common in North America, the phase-to-neutral voltage is 120 volts and the phase-to-phase voltage is 208 volts. This allows single-phase lighting to be connected phase-to-neutral.
Single-phase power may be used for electric railways; the largest single-phase generator in the world, at Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power Plant, supplied a railway system on a dedicated traction power network.
Grounding
Typically a third conductor, called ground (or "safety ground") (U.S.) or protective earth (UK, Europe, IEC), is used as a protection against electric shock, and ordinarily carries significant current only when there is a circuit fault. Several different earthing systems are in use. In some extreme rural areas single-wire earth return distribution is used.
Splitting out
Single-phase is sometimes divided in half at the distribution transformer on the secondary winding to create split-phase electric power for household appliances and lighting.
See also
Single-wire earth return
Two-phase electric power
Three-phase electric power
References
Electric power distribution
Electrical standards
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227052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typical%20warbler | Typical warbler | The typical warblers are small birds belonging to the genus Sylvia in the "Old World warbler" (or sylviid warbler) family Sylviidae.
There are 7 species in the genus. Typical warblers occur in the temperate to tropical regions of Europe, western and central Asia, and Africa, with the highest species diversity centred on the Mediterranean.
They are strongly built, with stouter legs and a slightly thicker bill than many other warblers. The plumage is in varying shades of grey and brown, usually darker above and paler below, with bluish or pinkish tones in several species; several also have orange-brown or rufous fringed wing feathers. The tail is square-ended in most, slightly rounded in a few, and in several species has white sides. Many of the species show some sexual dimorphism, with distinctive male and female plumages, with the males in many having black or bright grey on the heads, replaced by brown, brownish-grey or similar dusky colours in females; about a third of the species also have a conspicuous red eye ring in males. Species breeding in cool temperate regions are strongly migratory, while most of those in warmer regions are partially migratory or resident. They are active warblers usually associated with open woodland, scrub, hedges or shrubs. Their diet is largely insectivorous, though several species also eat fruit extensively, mainly small berries such as elder and ivy, particularly from late summer to late winter; one species (blackcap) also frequently takes a wide variety of human-provided foods on birdtables in winter.
Taxonomy and systematics
The genus Sylvia was introduced in 1769 by the Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli. Scopoli did not specify a type species but this was designated as the Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1828. The genus name is from Modern Latin silvia, a woodland sprite, related to silva meaning "a wood".
The typical warblers are now known to form a major lineage in a clade containing also the parrotbills and some taxa formerly considered to be Old World babblers. The other "Old World warblers" have been moved to their own families, entirely redelimiting the Sylviidae. Because of their distinctness, the Sylvia group might be considered a subfamily Sylviinae, but several Old World warblers are pending restudy with the new data. In particular the relationship to the African hill babbler (Pseudoalcippe abyssinica) and the Beijing babbler (Rhopophilus pekinensis) are not entirely resolved but certainly more distant.
A molecular phylogenetic study using mitochondrial DNA sequence data published in 2011 found that the species in the genus Sylvia formed two distinct clades. Based on these results, the ornithologists Edward Dickinson and Leslie Christidis in the fourth edition of Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, chose to split the genus and moved most of the species into a resurrected genus Curruca retaining only the Eurasian blackcap and the garden warbler in Sylvia. In an additional change they moved the African hill babbler and Dohrn's thrush-babbler into Sylvia. The split was not made by the British Ornithologists' Union on the grounds that "a split into two genera would unnecessarily destabilize nomenclature and results in only a minor increase in phylogenetic information content."
Extant species
The genus as currently circumscribed includes the following species:
Eurasian blackcap Sylvia atricapilla
Garden warbler Sylvia borin
Dohrn's warbler Sylvia dohrni
Abyssinian catbird Sylvia galinieri
Bush blackcap Sylvia nigricapillus
African hill babbler Sylvia abyssinica
Rwenzori hill babbler Sylvia atriceps
References
Further reading
External links
Typical warbler videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli | [
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227053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism | Superorganism | A superorganism or supraorganism is a group of synergetically interacting organisms of the same species. A community of synergetically interacting organisms of different species is called a holobiont.
Concept
The term superorganism is used most often to describe a social unit of eusocial animals, where division of labour is highly specialised and where individuals are not able to survive by themselves for extended periods. Ants are the best-known example of such a superorganism. A superorganism can be defined as "a collection of agents which can act in concert to produce phenomena governed by the collective", phenomena being any activity "the hive wants" such as ants collecting food and avoiding predators, or bees choosing a new nest site. In challenging environments, micro organisms collaborate and evolve together to process unlikely sources of nutrients such as methane. This process called syntrophy ("eating together") might be linked to the evolution of eukaryote cells and involved in the emergence or maintenance of life forms in challenging environments on Earth and possibly other planets. Superorganisms tend to exhibit homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours.
The term was coined in 1789 by James Hutton, the "father of geology", to refer to Earth in the context of geophysiology. The Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock, and Lynn Margulis as well as the work of Hutton, Vladimir Vernadsky and Guy Murchie, have suggested that the biosphere itself can be considered a superorganism, although this has been disputed. This view relates to systems theory and the dynamics of a complex system.
The concept of a superorganism raises the question of what is to be considered an individual. Toby Tyrrell's critique of the Gaia hypothesis argues that Earth's climate system does not resemble an animal's physiological system. Planetary biospheres are not tightly regulated in the same way that animal bodies are: "planets, unlike animals, are not products of evolution. Therefore we are entitled to be highly skeptical (or even outright dismissive) about whether to expect something akin to a 'superorganism'". He concludes that "the superorganism analogy is unwarranted".
Some scientists have suggested that individual human beings can be thought of as "superorganisms"; as a typical human digestive system contains 1013 to 1014 microorganisms whose collective genome, the microbiome studied by the Human Microbiome Project, contains at least 100 times as many genes as the human genome itself. Salvucci wrote that superorganism is another level of integration that is observed in nature. These levels include the genomic, the organismal and the ecological levels. The genomic structure of organisms reveals the fundamental role of integration and gene shuffling along evolution.
In social theory
The nineteenth century thinker Herbert Spencer coined the term super-organic to focus on social organization (the first chapter of his Principles of Sociology is entitled "Super-organic Evolution"), though this was apparently a distinction between the organic and the social, not an identity: Spencer explored the holistic nature of society as a social organism while distinguishing the ways in which society did not behave like an organism. For Spencer, the super-organic was an emergent property of interacting organisms, that is, human beings. And, as has been argued by D. C. Phillips, there is a "difference between emergence and reductionism".
The economist Carl Menger expanded upon the evolutionary nature of much social growth, but without ever abandoning methodological individualism. Many social institutions arose, Menger argued, not as "the result of socially teleological causes, but the unintended result of innumerable efforts of economic subjects pursuing 'individual' interests".
Spencer and Menger both argued that because it is individuals who choose and act, any social whole should be considered less than an organism, though Menger emphasized this more emphatically. Spencer used the idea to engage in extended analysis of social structure, conceding that it was primarily an analogy. So, for Spencer, the idea of the super-organic best designated a distinct level of social reality above that of biology and psychology, and not a one-to-one identity with an organism. Nevertheless, Spencer maintained that "every organism of appreciable size is a society", which has suggested to some that the issue may be terminological.
The term superorganic was adopted by the anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber in 1917. Social aspects of the superorganism concept are analysed by Alan Marshall in his 2002 book "The Unity of Nature". Finally, recent work in social psychology has offered the superorganism metaphor as a unifying framework to understand diverse aspects of human sociality, such as religion, conformity, and social identity processes.
In cybernetics
Superorganisms are important in cybernetics, particularly biocybernetics. They are capable of the so-called "distributed intelligence", which is a system composed of individual agents that have limited intelligence and information. These are able to pool resources so that they are able to complete goals that are beyond reach of the individuals on their own. Existence of such behavior in organisms has many implications for military and management applications, and is being actively researched.
Superorganisms are also considered dependent upon cybernetic governance and processes. This is based on the idea that a biological system – in order to be effective – needs a sub-system of cybernetic communications and control. This is demonstrated in the way a mole rat colony uses functional synergy and cybernetic processes together.
Joel de Rosnay also introduced a concept called "cybionte" to describe cybernetic superorganism. This notion associate superorganism with chaos theory, multimedia technology, and other new developments.
See also
Collective intelligence
Group mind (science fiction)
Holobiont
Organismic computing
Quorum sensing, collective behaviour of bacteria
Stigmergy
Siphonophorae
References
Literature
Jürgen Tautz, Helga R. Heilmann: The Buzz about Bees – Biology of a Superorganism, Springer-Verlag 2008.
Bert Hölldobler, E. O. Wilson: "The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies", W.W. Norton, 2008.
External links
People Are Human-Bacteria Hybrid, Wired Magazine, October 11, 2004
Biocybernetics
Collective intelligence
Cybernetics
Holism
Biological classification
Emergence | [
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227055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide%20projector | Slide projector | A slide projector is an opto-mechanical device for showing photographic slides.
35 mm slide projectors, direct descendants of the larger-format magic lantern, first came into widespread use during the 1950s as a form of occasional home entertainment; family members and friends would gather to view slide shows. Reversal film was much in use, and supplied slides snapped during vacations and at family events. Slide projectors were also widely used in educational and other institutional settings.
Photographic film slides and projectors have mostly been replaced by image files on digital storage media shown on a projection screen by using a video projector or simply displayed on a large-screen video monitor.
History
A continuous-slide lantern was patented in 1881. It included a dissolving views apparatus.
Components
A projector has four main elements:
electric incandescent light bulb or other light source (usually fan-cooled)
reflector and "condensing" lens to direct the light to the slide
slide holder
focusing lens
A flat piece of heat-absorbing glass is often placed in the light path between the condensing lens and the slide, to avoid damaging the latter. This glass transmits visible wavelengths but absorbs infrared. Light passes through the transparent slide and lens, and the resulting image is enlarged and projected onto a perpendicular flat screen so the audience can view its reflection. Alternatively, the image may be projected onto a translucent "rear projection" screen, often used for continuous automatic display for close viewing. This form of projection also avoids the audience interrupting the light stream by casting their shadows on the projection or by bumping into the projector.
Types
Straight-tray slide projectors
Round-tray slide projectors
Stack-loader slide projectors
Slide cube projectors
Dual slide projectors
Single slide projectors (manual form)
Dissolve projectors
Viewer slide projectors
Stereo slide projectors project two slides simultaneously with different polarizations, making slides appear as three-dimensional to viewers wearing polarizing glasses
Medium-format slide projectors
Large-format slide projectors for use on stages, at large events, or for architectural and advertising installations where high light output is needed.
Overhead projectors
Manufacturers
List of known manufacturers of slide projectors:
Agfa Gevaert, Germany (–1984) → Reflecta (1984–)
, Germany → Bosch; ceased production
Bausch & Lomb; ceased production
Bell & Howell / TDC, US: "Headliner"; ceased production
Braun AG, Germany: "D", "PA"; ceased production
Braun Foto Technik, Germany: "Paximat", "Multimag" → Reflecta
VEB DEFA, Germany: "Filius"→ VEB Gerätewerk Friedrichshagen: "Filius"; ceased production
Eastman Kodak (–2004): "Carousel-S", "Ektagraphic", "Ektapro" → Leica
Elmo, Japan
Enna, Germany; ceased production
Erno Photo, Germany; ceased production
VEB Feinmess, Germany; ceased production
Filmoli, Germany → Gebr. Martin, Germany; ceased production
Foto Quelle, Germany: "Revue"; ceased distribution
GAF, US; ceased distribution
Götschmann, Germany (1978–2009) → Gecko-Cam (2009–)
Hasselblad, Sweden; ceased production
HASPE, Germany; ceased production
Hähnel, Germany; ceased production
Inox, France: "Prestige" → Prestinox
, Germany: "Diafocus" → Leica
Leitz, Germany (1958–): "Prado" → Leica Projektion GmbH Zett Gerätewerk, Germany (1990–2004): "Pradovit", "Pradovit RT" → Leica Camera, Germany (2004–2006): "Pradovit"; ceased production
, Germany: "Fantax", "Diafant", "Fantimat"; ceased production
Malinski, Germany: "Prokyon", "Malicolor" → Pentacon
Minolta, Japan; ceased production
Minox, Germany: "Minomat"; ceased production
Navitar, US
Nikon, Japan; ceased production
Ernst Plank, Germany: "Noris", "Trumpf"; ceased production
Pentacon, Germany: "Aspectar", "Malicolor"; ceased production
Asahi Pentax, Japan; ceased production
Prestinox, France → Plawa Condor (1969–?); ceased production
Pouva, Germany; ceased production
RBT, Germany
Queen, Germany: "Automat"; ceased distribution
Reflecta, Germany: "Multimag"
Rollei, Germany (1960–2007): "Rolleiscop", "Rolleivision" → Franke & Heidecke, Germany (2007–2009): "Rolleivision" → DHW Fototechnik, Germany (2009–2015): "Rolleivision"; ceased production
Royal, Germany?; ceased distribution
Sankyo, Japan; ceased production
Sawyer's, US; company sold to GAF
, Italy → Bauer and Rollei; ceased production
Vicom
Vivitar, US
Voigtländer, Germany: "Perkeo" → Zett
Zeiss Ikon, Germany (1964/1969–): "Ikolux" → Zett
Zeiss Jena, Germany → Pentacon, Germany
Zett, Germany (1928–1989): "Fafix", "Zett", "Zettomat", "Perkeo" → Leica Projektion GmbH Zett Gerätewerk, Germany (1990–2004)
CBИTЯ3ъ, Russia: "ABTO"; ceased production
See also
Slide viewer
Carousel slide projector
Presentation slide
In cinematography
The Slide Projector Web Series
References
Display devices
Slide projectors
Inventions by Christiaan Huygens
17th-century introductions
de:Projektor#Durchlichtprojektion | [
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227057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachiman | Hachiman | In Japanese religion, Yahata (八幡神, ancient Shinto pronunciation) formerly in Shinto and later commonly known as Hachiman (八幡神, Japanese Buddhist pronunciation) is the syncretic divinity of archery and war, incorporating elements from both Shinto and Buddhism.
In Shinto religion, he is mortally Emperor Ōjin (応神天皇, Ōjin Tennō) by birth who reigned in the 3rd–4th century and the son of Empress Jingū (神功皇后, Jingū-kōgō), later became deified and identified by legend as "Yahata-no-kami" meaning "Kami of Eight Banners", referring to the eight heavenly banners that signaled the birth of the divine and deified emperor, and is also called Hondawake (誉田別命). His messenger is the dove, symbolizes both the bow and arrow found in samurai banners associated to him where he is called "Yumiya Hachiman" (弓矢八幡).
Since ancient times Hachiman has been worshiped by farmers as the god of agriculture and by fishermen, who hoped that he would fill their nets with many fish.
During the age of the samurai, descendants of both samurai clans, Seiwa Genji (清和源氏 Seiwa Gen-ji, a line of the Minamoto clan descended from Emperor Seiwa) and Kanmu Taira (桓武平氏 Kanmu Taira'u-ji/ Hei-shi/ Hei-ji, a line of the Taira clan descended from Emperor Kanmu) honored Hachiman, from which the tradition is laid nationwide where samurai clans (武家 "buke" in Japanese) honor Hachiman as the revered deity to them. His other roles includes to determine a samurai's fate whether in success or failure at battle, who controls and protects martial arts, also as a deity who protects the victory of the army.
Although often called the god of war, he is more strictly defined as the tutelary god of warriors. He is also the divine protector of Japan, the Japanese people and the Imperial House.
Summary of Hachiman
In present form of Shinto, Hachiman is the divine spirit of Emperor Ōjin. Emperor Kinmei (欽明天皇, Kinmei-tennō) in his Regnal Year 32 (571 AD) handed down that deified Emperor Ōjin was revealed for the first time to the land of Usa (宇佐の地) - present-day city of Usa, in Oita Prefecture, where he became the patron deity of this city, along with a lesser Shinto female deity Himegami (比売神) and the Emperor's mother, Empress Jingū, which the trio known as Hachiman Mikami (八幡三神) is enshrined.
Amongst the Hachiman Mikami, there are many shrines that enshrines other figures apart from the trio, like Emperor Chūai (仲哀天皇, Chūai-tennō) instead of Empress Jingū, the legendary hero and Shinto deity Takenouchi no Sukune or Takeshiuchi no Sukune (武内宿禰) and the female deity Tamayori-hime (玉依毘売命 or 玉依姫尊), where there is a dedicated prayer for safe childbirth in the Shinto shrine of Umi Hachimangū (宇美八幡宮) in Umi, Fukuoka prefecture.
Himegami
The three Munakata goddesses (宗像三女神 Munakata Sanjoshin) born from the divination ritual Ukehi or Ukei (宇気比, 誓約, 祈, 誓, 誓占, lit. "pledge divination") between the goddess Amaterasu and the god Susanoo - that is Tagitsu-hime (多岐津姫命), Ichikishima-hime (市杵嶋姫命) and Tagairi-hime (多紀理姫命) - is said where they descended from the heavens as the "Three Pillars of Usanoshima (宇佐嶋) of the ancient province of Tsukushi (筑紫)", located in a temple complex on Mt. Omotosan (御許山) in Usa.
The Munakata goddesses are thereby the matriarchs of an ancient tribe and clan Munakata-shi (宗像氏, 宗形氏) which fishermen worshipped collectively as a whole. It is thought and received that the worship of Munakata goddesses by the Munakata clan was due to Empress Jingū success in the "Conquest of the Three Kingdoms (of Korea)" (三韓征伐 Sankan Seipatsu). Therefore, they are old Shinto folk deities (地主神 jinushigami) before the presence of Hachiman.
Himegami (比売神) is thought to be as the consort or aunt of Hachiman, whereas Tamayori-hime (玉依毘売命 or 玉依姫尊) possibly and perhaps as the mother viewed by opinion aforementioned. Since the description that Hachiman was the Emperor Ojin which appeared from the "Digest Record of Todai-ji Temple (東大寺要録 Tōdai-ji Yoroku)" and "Records of the Age of the Gods from the Sumiyoshi Grand Shrine (住吉大社神代記 Sumiyoshi-Taisha Jindaiki), the practice of Emperor Ōjin combined into Hachiman is estimated to begun from the Nara Period to the Heian Period.
There are theories as well as different opinions between the goddesses Amaterasu and Kukuri-hime (菊理媛神 or 菊理媛命, a Shinto goddess venerated as Shirayama-hime (白山比咩) whom both called the goddess Himegami as Himiko (卑弥呼, or Pimiko, also known as Shin-gi Wa-ō (親魏倭王, "Ruler of Wa, Friend of Wei"), a shamaness-queen of Yamatai-koku in Wakoku (倭国) around c. 170–248 AD.
Empress Jingū
Emperor Ojin was already destined to ascend the throne from the moment in the womb of his mother and Empress, is called "Emperor in the Womb", is based and interpreted sometimes in her belief as being the "mother deity" to the child-to-be who would be deified. The Three Munakata Goddesses, the Three Sumiyoshi Gods (住吉三神 Sumiyoshi Sanjin) and the goddess Amaterasu who were revered by the tribal clan Munakata-shi due to their aid in the "Conquest of the Three Kingdoms (of Korea)" is also worshiped in various places. It is said by tradition in commemoration after the conquest, Empress Jingu set up eight big military flags on Tsushima (対馬) which then became the origin of the name "Hirohatano Yahata Ōkami (広幡乃八幡大神)", also the origin of the name "Yahata (八幡)" to the Empress' son, the then-emperor Ojin.
Imperial Ancestor and Deity to the Imperial Family
Since Hachiman was considered to be a divine spirit of the Emperor Ojin, he was placed as both the ancestor and Kōso-shin (皇祖神, "Imperial Ancestor Deity") of the Imperial Family of Japan. He was considered to be the guardian deity of the Imperial Household after the Grand Goddess Amaterasu written down in the "Chronicle of the Jōkyū Era" (承久記 Jōkyūki) to the "Compilation of the Grand Goddess Amaterasu of Ise and Hachiman Daibosatsu on the Imperial Throne of Japan".
The founding of Konda Hachiman-gū (誉田八幡宮) Shrine at Habikino in Osaka Prefecture have been a long time linked with the connection to Emperor Ojin, therefore the Imperial Family also both revered the Usa Shrine (宇佐神宮 Usa Jingū, also known as 宇佐八幡宮 Usa Hachiman-gū) at Usa in Oita Prefecture, and the Iwashimizu Hachiman Shrine (石清水八幡宮 Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū) at Yawata in Kyoto Prefecture, as the second ancestral shrine after the dominant Ise Grand Shrine (伊勢神宮 Ise Jingū).
Syncretism of Hachiman in between Shinto and Buddhism
After the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, Hachiman became a syncretistic deity, fusing elements of the native kami worship with Buddhism (shinbutsu-shūgō). In the 8th century AD, he joined the Buddhist pantheon as where his jinja (神社 - Shinto shrines) and jingu (神宮 - Shinto shrine of the Imperial family) were incorporated to shrines in Buddhist temples (寺 dera).
This transition happened when the Great Buddha of Tōdai-ji (東大寺, Eastern Great Temple) was being built and recorded in the era of the "First Year of Tenpyō-shōhō (天平勝宝 "Heavenly Peace and Victorious Treasure")" under the reign of Emperor Kōken in 749 AD, an oracle was declared by Hachiman to a senior Shinto senior priest (禰宜 negi) and nun from Usa Shrine to proceed to the capital (in Nara) that Hachiman would cooperate in the construction of a "Great Buddha" dedicated to him. From this recognition Hachiman was syncretised into Buddhism early onwards.
Then in the "First Year of the Era of Ten'ō (天応)" under the reign of Emperor Kōnin in 781 AD, the Shinto imperial court granted the Shinto deity Usa Hachiman (Hachiman of Usa) with Buddhist deity Hachiman Daibosatsu as the guardian god for the spiritual protection of the state. As a result, the spread of worship to Hachiman is transferred and received to Buddhist temples or shrines throughout the country where the "theory of Shinto and Buddhist syncretism (本地垂迹 Honji Suijaku)" is established, therefore considered Amitabha to be the Buddha manifestation of Hachiman. However, the Japanese Buddhist priest Nichiren (日蓮) of the Kamakura Period says he denies the theory and assumes the true form of Hachiman Daibosatsu is Shakyamuni Buddha (i.e. Gautama Buddha).
Thereafter in the Heian Period, veneration of Shinto shrines of Hachiman have been received and gathered throughout the nation by the samurai clans Seiwa of the Genji clan (清和源氏) and Kanmu of the Taira clan (桓武平氏). When the theory of syncretism has spread during this period, Hachiman is depicted to represent a Buddhist monk and is then called Sogyō Hachiman (僧形八幡神, "Buddhist Priest-Form Hachiman").
Worship of Hachiman by the Samurai
Because Emperor Ōjin was an ancestor of the Minamoto warrior clan, Hachiman became its . Minamoto no Yoshiie, upon coming of age at Iwashimizu Shrine in Kyoto, took the name Hachiman Taro Yoshiie, and, through his military prowess and virtue as a leader, came to be regarded and respected as the ideal samurai through the ages. After Minamoto no Yoritomo became shōgun and established the Kamakura shogunate, Hachiman's popularity grew and he became by extension the protector of the warrior class that the shōgun had brought to power. For this reason, the shintai of a Hachiman shrine is usually a stirrup or a bow.
Following the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate, the worship of Hachiman spread throughout Japan among not only samurai, but also the peasantry. There are now about 2,500 Shinto shrines dedicated to Hachiman, who has more shrines dedicated to him than any other deity except Inari. Usa Shrine in Usa, Ōita Prefecture is head shrine of all these shrines; other important Hachiman shrines are Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū, Hakozaki-gū and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū.
Hachiman's mon (emblem) is a mitsudomoe, a round whirlpool or vortex with three heads swirling right or left. Many samurai clans used this mon as their own, including some that traced their ancestry back to the mortal enemy of the Minamoto, the Emperor Kanmu of the Taira clan (, Kanmu Heishi).
See also
Hachiman shrine
Kamikaze (typhoon)
Minamoto no Yorinobu
Minamoto no Yoriyoshi
References
Further reading
"Hachiman" – Ancient History Encyclopedia
External links
Japanese gods
Oracular deities
Shinbutsu shūgō
Shinto kami
War gods
Agricultural gods | [
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227062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor%20Mars | Sailor Mars | , better known as , is a fictional character in the Sailor Moon manga series written and illustrated by Naoko Takeuchi. In the series, Rei is her sailor form's alternative human identity as part of the Sailor Soldiers, female supernatural fighters who protect the Solar System from evil.
Rei is the second Sailor Soldier to be discovered by Usagi. She possesses powers associated with fire, the Ofuda charm, and psychic clairvoyance. Aside from the main body of the Sailor Moon series, Rei is featured in two different manga short stories. The first, Casablanca Memories, is entirely about her and her past; the second, Rei and Minako's Girls School Battle, is shared with Minako Aino. A number of image songs mentioning her character have been released as well, including the contents of three different CD singles.
Takeuchi based Rei on her own personal experience as a miko. Originally designed with her own unique outfit, when Takeuchi decided to give all of the Guardians identical outfits, Rei's high heels were the only aspect that was carried over. A cold and aloof character in the manga, her personality was drastically changed in the anime adaptation at the behest of Kunihiko Ikuhara, where she became fiery and hotheaded.
Profile
Rei first appears as a miko at the , and is shown to have an affinity with two crows who live there. It is revealed in the manga that as a child, the crows "told" her that their names are Phobos and Deimos (the same as Mars' two moons). In the manga, she is portrayed as imperial, ancient, conservative, old-fashioned, traditional, serious, disciplined, and practical, having contempt for men and disliking modern romantic relationships.
In the anime adaptation, Rei is a disciplined and practical person. She is also greatly interested in pop culture, and she excels at music - playing the piano and guitar, singing, and composing songs for a school festival. Rei and Usagi Tsukino have a very tempestuous relationship, and argue frequently. Though these arguments are usually petty, early in the series Rei attempts to usurp Usagi as the leader of Sailor Soldiers. Even though Rei does become more loyal to Usagi, with slightly calmer emotions in the later seasons, she still remains somewhat more of a typical teenager than her manga counterpart. In the anime, Rei also tends to engage in long periods of sticking her tongue out at Usagi (who returns the same reaction), as a running gag in their arguments.
Rei goes to a different school from the other girls, namely T*A Private Girls School, a Catholic institution run by nuns. She herself is a practitioner of Shinto, living and working at Hikawa Shrine with her grandfather, its head priest. Her mother died when Rei was very young; her father is a famous politician who cares more about his job than about her (though in the live-action version he still tries to be involved in her life), and who only visits Rei on her birthday. She carries a certain amount of dislike towards him, especially in the live-action series, in which the character of her grandfather does not appear.
Because of the lack of respectable males in her life, Rei harbors a generally low opinion of men. She considers them emotionally weak and untrustworthy and seems genuinely uninterested in romance. The one exception is in a manga side-story centering on her, Casablanca Memories, which tells of Rei's friendship with her father's young secretary, Kaidou. He had been kind to her for her entire life and, in the story, she fancies herself in love with him. She is shocked when he suddenly announces his engagement to another girl and his decision to become a politician, despite having once said that he did not like what had happened to Rei's family as a result of her father's work. Proof of her feelings are further cemented when she moves to kiss Kaidou, asking why, if he wanted to marry into the profession, did not he choose to marry her due to her father's political influence. In the manga, this is the only potential romance in her life; in the live-action series, nothing of the sort is ever shown, as Rei unquestionably detests boys. In the anime only, she "dates" Mamoru Chiba in the first season (though he thinks they are just friends), and occasionally seems open to a relationship with Yūichirō Kumada, her grandfather's pupil. In one episode, on the brink of death, she states that she wished she had kissed Yūichirō before leaving. In the original anime, she states in episode 152 that she dreams of one day getting married.
Later on, members of the Dead Moon Circus harass Rei with a reflection of her young self, which mocks her for her friendships and her dream of being a priestess. The reflection tells her that the only way for her to be happy is to try her luck with numerous men until she ends up married to someone rich. Rei is able to defeat this illusion, and in the process gains her Sailor Crystal along with the memory that, long ago, she had in fact made a vow of chastity to Princess Serenity. After this realization, she is never again shown having any doubts about her lack of interest in romance. This is never mentioned in the other series.
Rei's lifelong dream is to become the head priestess at Hikawa Shrine, and much of her life is influenced by spirituality, particularly in the manga. Meditation is given as her strong point, and she enjoys fortune-telling as a hobby. The elegance of her character is further underscored by the contrast between her favorite subject, ancient writing, and her least favorite, modern society. She also belongs to the Archery club at school, which later provides the context for her most powerful weapon, the Mars Arrow. Rei is also skilled in martial arts and a talented skier in the anime. As for more general tastes Rei likes fugu, Thai food, white casablancas, ruby gemstones, little lizards, and pandas and dislikes men in general. The manga states that she once enjoyed Devilman, which the English manga changes to Buffy.
In Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, Rei has problems trusting people, even her fellow Sailor Guardians, and has a tendency to rely too much on herself. She says that she hates karaoke (which the other girls love, especially Usagi), but is later forced by Minako into posing as an idol. As "Mars Reiko," she appears on three occasions: performing for hospitalized children, working alongside Minako, and staging a contest with Minako in order to stop her from quitting the idol business. She has a complex relationship with Minako; though they often disagree and compete with each other, they also share great respect. Minako even sometimes lets her guard down around Rei, and eventually confides to her about what she feels is her destiny as a Sailor Guardian. Rei is told that she is to be the secondary leader of the Guardians, and alternately admires and resents Minako's teachings about what that means. She later becomes aware of Mio hurting Usagi just to keep Mamoru at Beryl's side and confronts her while in the Dark Kingdom. Rei tells her off it is her own selfishness that is encouraging Serenity to keep using the crystal and give her a choice: allow Mamoru and Usagi to see each other even for a day or she will tell her friends about Mio(which will not end well for her). Mio wisely chooses to let them see each other in order to keep Rei quiet about her. Mars uses her own dagger with Venus' to attempt to stop Serenity from destroying the Earth.
In the Special Arc movie, Rei senses Mio's return and investigates it with Luna. She is later incapacitated by Mio's growing dark powers.
Aspects and forms
As a character with different incarnations, special powers, transformations and a long lifetime virtually spanned between the Silver Millennium era and the 30th century, Rei gains multiple aspects and aliases as the series progresses.
Sailor Mars
Rei's Soldier identity is Sailor Mars. She wears a sailor suit colored in red and purple, along with red high heels, and in the manga and live-action series has a small red jewel at the waist, though this vanishes upon upgrades. (Concept art shows this was supposed to appear as a necklace when not transformed but never does) She is given specific titles throughout the various series, including Soldier of War and Guardian of Flame and Passion. Her personality is no different from when she is a civilian, although certain powers are unavailable to her in that form.
In Japanese, the name for the planet Mars is , the first kanji meaning 'fire' and the second indicating a celestial object. Although the Roman planet-name is used, Sailor Mars' abilities are fire-based due to this aspect of Japanese mythology. Most are offensive attacks, although as a priestess, she also possesses a certain amount of psychic ability, and is able to do fire-readings, sense danger, and subdue evil spirits. In the manga, she is listed as the secondary leader of the Sailor Soldiers, after Sailor Venus. This fact is especially significant in the live-action series.
As she grows stronger, Sailor Mars gains additional powers, and at key points her uniform changes to reflect this. The first change takes place in Act 36 of the manga, when she obtains the Mars Crystal and her outfit becomes similar to that of Super Sailor Moon. She is not given a new title. A similar event is divided between episodes 143 and 152 of the anime, and she is given the name Super Sailor Mars. A third form appears in Act 42 of the manga, unnamed but analogous to Eternal Sailor Moon (sans wings). In the official visual book for Sailor Moon Eternal, this form was named "Eternal Sailor Mars".
Princess Mars
In Silver Millennium, Sailor Mars was also the Princess of her home planet. She was among those given the duty of protecting Princess Serenity of the Moon Kingdom. As Princess Mars, she lived in Phobos-Deimos Castle and wore a red gown—she appears in this form in the original manga, as well as in supplementary art. Naoko Takeuchi once drew her in the arms of Jadeite. In the manga, he expresses at least a physical attraction to her, and in Sailor Moon Crystal<ref>Sailor Moon Crystal act #12 "Enemy –Queen Metalia"</ref> and in the stage musicals it is clearly stated that Sailor Mars and Jadeite were in love at the time of the Moon Kingdom.
It is revealed later in the manga that Phobos and Deimos are actually maidens from Planet Coronis sent to protect Princess Mars. They take the form of crows during the present time and were near Rei when she first came to the shrine as a child, supposedly "telling" her their names. Phobos and Deimos reveal their true forms when delivering the Mars Crystal to her and refer to her using her princess title.
Special powers and items
Rei is one of few Sailor Moon characters who is able to use special powers in her civilian form. These are mainly the result of her role as a shrine maiden, which gives her heightened spirituality as well as certain resources. In addition to some psychic talent, including occasional unprompted premonitions, Rei is able to do fire readings and to dispel evil spirits. She does the latter by performing Kuji-Goshin-Ho, a ritual which consists of chanting nine words of power (Rin, Pyou, Tou, Sha, Kai, Jin, Retsu, Zai, Zen!) while making relevant hand signs. She then shouts , and throws one or multiple ofuda scrolls. She commonly uses this attack while in her Sailor Mars form as well as when she is in her civilian form.
Rei must transform into a Sailor Soldier, however, before she can access her celestial powers. She makes this change by raising a special device (pen, bracelet, wand, or crystal) into the air and shouting a special phrase, originally "Mars Power, Make-up!" As she becomes more powerful and obtains new transformation devices, this phrase changes to evoke Mars Star, Planet, or Crystal Power. In both anime, Sailor Mars' transformation sequence evolves slightly over time, whether to update the background images or to accommodate changes to her uniform or new transformation items, but they all involve rings of fire that circle her body as she spins, forming her outfit in a flash of light.
Sailor Mars has the power to create and control fire. Her named powers are somewhat inconsistent across the various series—in the first arc of the manga, she says "Evil spirits, begone!" the same phrase she uses as a civilian while using an ofuda, for her fire attacks. In the anime, she shoots a fireball from her index fingers and shouts the words "Fire Soul" and in the live-action series she shouts "Youma Taisan" ("Monster, begone"). This basic power is improved to "Fire Soul Bird" in the second arc of the anime only; the manga and Sailor Moon Crystal anime also have her develop an animal-based attack, "Mars Snake Fire," but it does not appear until the third story arc and third season respectively. Her first attack to be the same across all versions is "Burning Mandala," which incorporates Buddhist symbolism in the fiery rings Sailor Mars summons. She is not immune to her own powers, as she is able to use them for a suicide move in the anime.
Sailor Mars' final and greatest power comes in the fourth story arc, when she takes on her second Soldier form (Super Sailor Mars in the anime). At this point in the series, she acquires a special weapon, the Mars Arrow, and with it "Mars Flame Sniper," which is her primary attack for the duration of the series. In the manga, the Mars Crystal and Mars Arrow are among her most significant mystical possessions. The former is her Sailor Crystal and the source of all of her power. The latter is associated with her skill as an archer, and although she does not receive a physical bow, she recalls some advice given to her by Michiru Kaioh—"[If] you think you're being taken advantage of by the enemies, stretch a line taut in your soul. Then, with your whole body and spirit, shoot the arrow of your finishing blow!" In the live-action series, she is given a tambourine-like weapon, called the Sailor Star Tambo, by Artemis. During the final battle, her Tambo transforms into a dagger, which she uses alongside Venus's similar dagger. In the "Special Act", Venus wields both weapons.
Development
Rei is not named in the original proposal for a hypothetical Codename: Sailor V anime, but an identical character in miko clothing is present, named Miyabi Yoruno. Creator Naoko Takeuchi revealed that this character eventually became Rei, and wrote that her role as a shrine maiden was inspired by Takeuchi's own experience working as a miko for Shiba Daijingu Shrine while in college. She also stated that she was frequently "hit on" by the shrine's patrons, a source of annoyance that carries over into the character's life.
Hikawa Shrine, where Rei lives and works, is based on the real-life Hikawa Shrines, one of which is in Azabu Jūban, where the story is set. The kanji for "ice" in the original name (氷川神社) is replaced with the kanji for "fire"—a reflection of Rei's fire-related powers.
Sailor Mars' original costume design, like the others', was fully unique. It featured an alternate bow, double shoulder-guards, plate-armor, elaborate jewelry, and a gold-rimmed mask. Her trademark high-heeled shoes were already present, as well. Later, Takeuchi was surprised by these sketches and stated that she did not remember drawing them. In an intermediate design, the pendant that sat at her waist in the early manga was also intended to be worn as a necklace in her civilian form. Hitoshi Doi states that Kunihiko Ikuhara was responsible for much of Rei's changed personality in the anime.
The kanji of Rei's surname translate as and . Her given name is in katakana ; possible meanings include , , , and . Because katakana is the alphabet usually used for foreign loanwords, it may also be intended as a Western name, such as Raye (which is indeed used in American continent localizations) or Rae. In the Chinese versions of the series (anime and manga), Rei's name is written with the character "麗", which carries the same phonetic as "Rei", but means "beauty" and "elegance", and, ultimately, is the one included in the 5th Original Picture Collection Volume Artbook (Vol. V) (meaning that Rei's name written all in Kanji is "火野麗" (lit. "Fire-Field Beauty/Elegance" / "Beauty/Elegance of Fire")). Regardless, the entire name is structured as a pun, as the syllable "no" indicates a possessive, so that her name can also be understood as "Ray of Fire." Her prototypical name, , means "Elegance of Night" (みやび = 雅).
It has been noted that her outfit as Sailor Mars echoes the colors of her miko robes, and she is the only character that is mostly tied into tradition.
Actresses
In the Japanese anime television series, Rei is voiced by Michie Tomizawa, who later said that working on Sailor Moon had been "exactly like magic" for her. Rina Satō voices the character in Sailor Moon Crystal and all media since.
In the DIC/Cloverway English adaptations produced in association with Optimum Productions, her name was spelled as Raye Hino and was voiced by Katie Griffin, in her first voice acting role, for most of the franchise; however, Emilie-Claire Barlow filled in for the last 17 episodes of the second season while Griffin was involved in a film production. Raye was also Barlow's first voice acting role, and she said that during recording, it was difficult to take care of her voice, as Raye "had a lot of yelling." She also listened to Griffin's recording sessions to help with the voice matching. Barlow would later become the permanent replacement voice for Sailor Venus after Griffin returned to voice Sailor Mars. Sandy Howell also provides English vocals for songs sung by Raye in the English dub.
In the Viz Media English adaptation produced in association with Studiopolis, her voice is supplied by Cristina Vee, a long-time Sailor Moon fan.
In the musical productions, Rei has been portrayed by ten actresses: Hiroko Nakayama, Misako Kotani, Asuka Umemiya, Hiromi Sakai, Eri Kanda, Megumi Yoshida, Aiko Kawasaki, Risa Honma, Kanon Nanaki, Karen Kobayashi., Kazumi Takayama, Ranze Terada, Kotomi Hirai, Kyoko Ninomiya and Yui Hasegawa.
In Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, Rei was played by Keiko Kitagawa. In addition, Haruhi Mizukuro and Akira Tanaka portray the younger Rei in flashbacks and childhood photos.
Reception
The character has been well received by manga readers. Official Sailor Moon popularity polls listed Rei Hino and Sailor Mars as separate entities. In 1992, readers ranked them at thirteenth and fourteenth respectively, out of thirty eight choices. One year later, now with fifty choices, Mars remained at fourteenth most popular while Rei dropped to fifteenth. In 1994, with fifty one choices, Rei was the twentieth most popular character, whereas Sailor Mars was the twenty-second, with a gap between the two characters of over three thousand votes. In early 1996, with fifty one choices, Sailor Mars was the thirty-first most popular character and Rei was the thirty-second. In Animage's 1993 poll, she came sixth. In 1994, she came tenth.
A five-book series was published, one book on each of the Sailor Soldiers and Sailor Moon. Rei's was released in 1996. This book was later translated into English by Mixx. The episode where Sailor Mars gained her powers was novelised by Mixx. Other merchandise has been released based on her character, including T-shirts, fashion dolls, trading card stickers, gashapon and UFO dolls.
Rei Ayanami of Neon Genesis Evangelion'' is named after Rei Hino. She has also been referenced in non-Japanese media: DC Comics character Martian Manhunter briefly assumes the form of a female Japanese journalist named Rei Hino and is told by Batman that the name is a "giveaway."
See also
Mars in fiction
Mars (mythology)
Vulcan (mythology)
References
Comics characters introduced in 1992
Fiction set on Mars
Fictional archers
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Fictional characters with precognition
Fictional exorcists
Fictional Martians
Fictional miko
Mars
Teenage characters in anime and manga | [
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227070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna%20%28Sailor%20Moon%29 | Luna (Sailor Moon) | is a fictional character in the Sailor Moon media franchise. She is a black cat who has the ability to talk, and serves as a mentoring figure for the titular character and her companions, the Sailor Guardians. Luna makes her debut in the first act or episode of each version of the series, in which she meets Usagi Tsukino and tells her she is Sailor Moon, and gives her a brooch that allows her to transform. Luna features prominently in the first story arc, and although she becomes a supporting character for the rest of the series, she keeps providing the Sailor Guardians and Tuxedo Mask with advice, her family relationships are explored alongside her partner Artemis and their daughter from the future Diana, and even manages turn into a human being at key points of the series (including the ability to transform into a Sailor Guardian in the 2003 live-action series).
Profile
Luna first appears in the series as a mysterious black cat with a crescent moon mark on the forehead that meets Usagi and tells her she is Sailor Moon, a Guardian destined to fight evil. Luna gives Usagi the mission to find her fellow Sailor Guardians and Princess Serenity, whom, unbeknown to both of them, is Usagi herself. The two of them meet Ami Mizuno, Rei Hino, and Makoto Kino, whom Luna assist to awake respectively as Sailor Mercury, Sailor Mars, and Sailor Jupiter, before encountering Sailor Venus and Artemis, a male white cat that also has the ability to speak and who has been secretly providing Luna with details on her mission.
Halfway through the first arc, Luna's backstory is revealed: in the Silver Millennium, she was a servant to Princess Serenity, sworn never to leave her side, as well as an advisor to her mother, Queen Serenity. When the Moon Kingdom fell at the hands of the Dark Kingdom, she and Artemis were put into a long sleep and sent down to Earth to look after the Sailor Guardians, who would eventually be reborn there. Part of Luna's memory was suppressed, in order to make her task easier; she only knew that she was supposed to find and awaken the Sailor Guardians of the inner Solar System. Further details on Luna and Artemis' origin are revealed in the final arc of the manga, in which it is stated they were born in Planet Mau, home planet of the evil Sailor Tin Nyanko.
Over the course of the series, Luna develops a close bond with Usagi, though early on it is on uneasy terms, as Luna often upsets Usagi by giving her advice she does not want, often leading to comic results. The whole Tsukino family adopts her as a pet, even when they are unaware of her true identity. In an anime-only storyline, Shingo Tsukino is shown to be reluctant to accept Luna at first, and his animosity is enhanced by an attack from the Dark Kingdom; however, at the end of the episode, he seems to be friendly towards her. Luna also becomes good friends with Ami. Luna and Artemis have an implied romantic relationship, which is confirmed when they meet Diana, who is their daughter from the future. During the Sailor Stars anime, Luna also develops a crush on Kou Yaten, the male civilian form of one of the Sailor Starlights.
In the live-action series, Luna is portrayed as a stuffed toy rather than a real cat. Usually she is represented by a puppet, though CGI effects are used for complicated scenes.
Aspects and forms
Even when Luna does not have as many incarnations and special powers as the Sailor Guardians and Tuxedo Mask, she nonetheless manages to get some transformations, as well as a long lifetime virtually spanned between the Silver Millennium era and the 30th century.
Human form
The character is first shown to get the ability to transform into a human being in the manga special The Lover of Princess Kaguya, which was released a month after the end of the third arc of the series. In this side story, Luna falls in love with a human named Kakeru. It is stated that Kakeru's wish is to meet Princess Kaguya someday. During the climax of the story, Sailor Moon uses the Silver Crystal to transform Luna into a human woman. At first, Kakeru thinks this woman is Kaguya, but then he notices Luna's crescent moon mark in her forehead and realizes it is her. This side story was adapted into Sailor Moon S: The Movie, which marks Luna's only transformation into a human in the first anime adaptation.
Luna's human form appears in the main story timeline in the climax of the Dream arc, after Queen Nehelenia's defeat, alongside Artemis and Diana, who also appear in their human forms. The three of them appear once more as humans in the final arc, when Tin Nyanko attacks them.
In Sailor Moon Crystal, the second anime adaptation, Luna's human form appears earlier during the climatic battle against Queen Metalia, in which Artemis spots her praying on the Moon in this form.
Sailor Luna
In Act 27 of the live-action series, Luna gains the ability to turn into a young human girl, given the name , and is able to transform into , the "Guardian of Love and Small Things." Her uniform is colored in yellow and purple, along with purple boots with white fur atop of them as well as in the sleeves, a jingle bell instead of a brooch, and a cat ear motif in her dark blue hair. Luna's personality as a human girl is essentially identical to her normal self, except that she has a mild obsession with sweet foods and behaves more like a real cat, in that she runs from dogs and is easily distracted by toys. She also has heightened hearing and is able to move extremely quickly. Luna involuntarily transforms back into a plushie under certain circumstances such as sneezing, taking a direct attack from an enemy, or falling unconscious.
In the Special Act epilogue, Luna is the only one of the Senshi who is still able to transform without outside assistance. She is also shown living mainly as a human with Usagi's family, with whom she gets along quite well, though she still takes on her cat form when necessary. She is also shown to have taken on some of the personality traits of Usagi and her mother, such as acting in the same melodramatic manner when waking up in the morning.
Special powers and items
Luna's most distinctive power is her ability to talk like and communicate with human beings. This trait is only shared by Artemis and their daughter Diana. In all versions of the series, Luna provides the Sailor Guardians with many of their special items, particularly early on. The items always spring into existence, seemingly out of thin air, and it is unclear whether she is creating them herself or simply transporting them from some other location. Luna is also shown to be capable of handling machines, as shown when she accesses a secret laboratory below Crown Game Center, or an arcade machine in the first anime adaptation. The first time Luna manages to transform into a human is thanks to the power of the Silver Crystal; however, in subsequent appearances, she transforms by herself. Human Luna gains additional powers such as the ability to fly, to teleport herself and others, and is even capable of surviving in the vacuum of space. Luna loses all of these powers if the crescent moon mark on her forehead is hit by an attack, as shown when she, Artemis, and Diana are struck by Tin Nyanko, which renders them as normal cats. It is also stated by Princess Kakyuu in the final arc that Luna's starseed is almost as powerful as a Sailor Crystal.
In the live-action series, Luna uses a special cell phone named Lunatia S to transform into Sailor Luna, by dialing 6-7-2 and shouting "Luna Prism Power, Make up!". In this form, she uses a special attack called "Luna Sucre Candy" which bombards an enemy in exploding sweets. Her main weapon is a "candy" wand, which looks similar to Sailor Moon's "Moon Stick" and which she can transform into various other objects, such as a paper fan or a butterfly net.
Development
The concept of a talking cat guiding a schoolgirl to becoming a Sailor Guardian first occurs in Codename: Sailor V, Takeuchi's manga series that served as the basis for its successor Sailor Moon in which Artemis appears before Minako to reveal to her she has been chosen as "Sailor V" to protect Earth. When Codename: Sailor V was proposed for an anime adaptation, the story was revisioned so that it would eventually become Sailor Moon, and the talking cat role would result in Luna.
Luna has blue eyes in the manga, the live-action series, and in the Sailor Moon Eternal film, but red eyes in both anime TV series. In the Materials Collection, Takeuchi describes Luna's whiskers as long, and the character shares her page with Artemis, whom the author labels as opposite to Luna, though being her "other half". Luna and Artemis also share their page with an unused characer called "Diana the Moon Fairy", whom Luna does not like very much. This character never appears in the series, but her name was given to Luna and Artemis' daughter. Though Luna's age is never discussed in any version of the series, Takeuchi states in the Materials Collection that Luna's human form appears to be a year younger than Usagi and goes on to describe her as frail, as if she had recently lost a lot of weight. The author says her hair is the same color as her cat form's fur—blackish-gray—with two odangos in either side of her head.
The character of Sailor Luna was designed by Takeuchi herself. One of the only times she appears in an outfit other than those Takeuchi designed—her Guardian uniform or her purple shirt and yellow skirt—is in the Special Act, where she serves as the flower girl at Usagi and Mamoru's wedding.
Luna's name comes from the Latin word for Earth's Moon. Luna is also the divine embodiment of the Moon in the ancient Roman religion.
Actresses
In the original anime, as well as the live-action series, Luna is voiced by Keiko Han, the same woman who voiced Queen Beryl. Her English voice actress for the entire series was Jill Frappier, who portrayed the character with an English accent, described as "fairly old, not to mention cranky and British". In the live-action series, Sailor Luna is played by Rina Koike, who thought that she was going to play Chibiusa until she went in for a costume fitting. However, Chibiusa never appears in Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Ryō Hirohashi has voiced Luna in all media following Sailor Moon Crystal, while Michelle Ruff has portrayed the character in the English dub of this version. In the stage musicals, Luna has been portrayed by Tomoko Ishimura (1993-1994), Misato Matsumoto (2018-2019), Hiroko Wakasa (2018), Yune Sakurai (2021; cat form), and Marisa (2021; Human Form).
Reception and influence
In the first official Sailor Moon character popularity poll, Luna was the eighth most popular character out of thirty eight choices. One year later, now with fifty choices, Luna was the twenty-second most popular character. Her role in the series has been compared to Rupert Giles' in Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Writer Mary Grigsby considers Luna, along with the other cat characters, to blend pre-modern ideas about feminine mystery with modern ideas such as the lucky cat. In his review of season one episode "Loved and Chased! Luna's Worst Day Ever", Michael Mammano from Den of Geek thought that a Luna-centric episode "would have come earlier in the show" and that very little of Luna's background is known, considering her pivotal role in the series. In a review of Sailor Moon Crystal, Meghan Sullivan from IGN pointed that there are "weird issues" regarding Luna's role, particularly how the character "remembered being from the moon, but couldn't remember what the moon princess looks like?" However, on a review of a later act, the author praised the "growing friendship between Luna and Usagi", and how the latter defended the former when the brainwashed Mamoru attacked her. In her review of the season finale, Sullivan stated that voice actress Ryo Hirohashi "did an amazing job expressing helplessness and despair as Luna watched Metalia steamroll over everyone and everything back on Earth." In her reviews of Crystal, Gabriella Ekens from Anime News Network stated that series was "poorly animated" and that "Luna sometimes looks more like a horse than a cat." In her review of the act in which Artemis and Sailor Venus made their debut, Ekens considered that "Artemis consistently looks more like a cat than Luna, sometimes even while they're in the same shot."
In a thesis analyzing Japanese Feminine Language, author Alexandra Damalas from University of Colorado explained that "because Luna is a cat, her gender identity is not obvious through her biological sex, physical appearance, or bodily gestures. As a result, her speech style throughout the series is frequently gender marked", and that the character uses Sentence Final Particles that emphasize her "social standing as a mentor" to the Sailor Guardians. Damalas also stated that Luna curates the Sailor Guardians group "to be established in the way she sees fit" and explained that "there is not another female character in the series who shares the same or similar social role as Luna".
Appearances in other media
Luna is featured in Nakayoshi crossover video games Nakayoshi to Issho and Welcome Nakayoshi Park. In a collaboration between Sailor Moon and Capcom as part of the 25th anniversary celebration of the Sailor Moon franchise, the Felyne cat companion assumes the form of Luna and wields Usagi's Cutie Moon Rod weapon in the Monster Hunter XX expansion of Monster Hunter Generations.
In the second episode of RuPaul's Drag Race: UK Versus the World, American contestant Mo Heart's look for the "Kitty Girl" runway theme was as Luna, which according to Andy Swift from TVLine, was among the most incredible of the week.
Notes
References
Anime and manga sidekicks
Comics characters introduced in 1991
Female characters in anime and manga
Fictional advisors
Fictional cats
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Fictional extraterrestrial characters
Sailor Moon characters
Shapeshifter characters in comics
Talking animals in fiction | [
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227075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMX%20%28TV%20series%29 | IMX (TV series) | IMX (Interactive Music Exchange) was an American music television program which aired daily from 2002-2004 on MMUSA (renamed Fuse TV in May 2003). Described as a "fully converged music industry simulation game" and "part TV show, part Internet game," the program asked viewers to register at the network's website and buy "stock" in popular artists, songs, and albums. In dealing the "shares", traders used the fake cash to enter network-sponsored contests. A rebranded successor, "Daily Download", was terminated in July 2006.
Format
IMX was in development for nearly a year prior to its January 2003 debut. In a 2002 press release, network president Marc Juris discussed the inspiration behind the program:
"MuchMusic USA's mission is to provide its viewers with a real voice. What better way for a viewer's voice to be heard than by investing in an artist he or she loves? Our success and growth over the last year has occurred because we recognize that viewers want ownership and control of what they listen to and watch. We have developed technology that empowers our audience to create their own videos, select our video rotation, and even to host the shows we broadcast. Both the IMX program and game is the next step in this endeavor, by encompassing the technological advances of the web, the popularity of online games, and the potential of live television."
IMX featured three VJ hosts, each representing different music genres, as well as a guest from the music industry. It debuted on January 20, 2003 at 6pm EST and would air live Monday through Friday with various encores throughout the week. The IMX studio, located in Penn Plaza, was street level and therefore fans that couldn't get tickets were able to view from outside and would be visible through the window during filming.
In attempt to "extol the fun of the stock market," players would sign up online and be given a set amount of "IMX dollars" in order to buy stocks in artists, albums, videos, and TV offerings, which could be traded and sold short or for profit online. With such profits, players could win prizes like video game consoles, vacations, surfboards, or lithographs, all brought to them by Virgin Records. Stock values would be influenced largely by Billboard charts, concert sales, and other measures of commercial success.
Fixed to the bottom of the screen would be a market style ticker, updating viewers on how each artist, album, or song fared during the day's trading. Users could voice their opinions on the online bulletin boards, and their messages would frequently be shown live on air. Through the website, they would also be provided with music video previews, music downloads, and a wide range of market research tools for the individual portfolios of game participants, including airplay stats and sales charts. The one-hour program would help recap the day's trading, the value of each featured artist and song, and speculate on the future of the market.
IMX utilized the interactive investment technology of Hollywood Stock Exchange to allow web users to invest in real time. Marc Juris elaborated on the technological potential of the innovative format:
"IMX is like fantasy football, but with rock stars. The applications it can embrace are infinitely broad - from broadband and the digital set-top box to wireless devices and e-commerce. It's a new kind of entertainment experience that will captivate our tech-centric young viewers, and also cable operators who are eager to drive the demand for digital set-top boxes and high-speed services."
Hosts and guests
The show was hosted by Juliya Chernetsky of Uranium; Marianela Pereyra, who previously hosted Latin television's MHz HOT; and Steven Smith, formerly a VH1 personality. Dennis Da Menace (a.k.a. Dennis L.A. White) also frequently took up hosting duties in one's absence, usually Juliya's. Each host reflected different musical tastes with Juliya representing heavy metal, Marianela representing R&B, Steven representing indie/alternative rock, and Dennis representing hip hop. This allowed for frequent debate and friendly argument amongst the differing hosts. It was also during IMX that Juliya was confronted by her fellow hosts about false rumors that she might jump ship to MTV2 to host its revived Headbangers Ball.
Joining the diverse trio each day would be a variety of music industry insiders, ranging from current popular musicians to record company executives to music journalists. The program would also feature live in-studio performances following an interview with the given band. One particularly memorable episode saw Amy Lee and Ben Moody of Evanescence perform an acoustic rendition of "Going Under". Partly through the song, a string broke on Moody's guitar and caused the song to end prematurely.
Daily Download
In June 2004, IMX was rebranded Daily Download with an altered format. This series took place in the same studio and maintained the same schedule with Marianela, Steven, and Dylan Lane as hosts; however, the stock exchange aspect of IMX was removed in favor of a simpler interactive format. Daily Download served as a "live countdown show for the next generation," featuring the 10 most-downloaded songs in the country. It also offered free downloads of each song provided by f.y.e. as well as game cheats and movie trailers. The videos aired would include "Fuse Clues" that related to online puzzles of music and pop culture at the network's website, fuse.tv. Using a mobile phone or the Web, fans could solve the puzzles and be eligible to win prizes. Viewers also had the opportunity to talk to guest musicians appearing on the program.
Daily Download ran for about two years before ending in late July 2006. Marianela appeared on Get Malled Tour before ultimately leaving Fuse TV that year, and Dylan became the new host of GSN's Chain Reaction on August 1. Steven, however, would remain with Fuse TV and host other programs including Steven's Untitled Rock Show.
References
Fuse (TV channel) original programming
2000s American music television series
2003 American television series debuts
2004 American television series endings
Interactive television
Prediction markets
Browser-based multiplayer online games
Multiplayer online games | [
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227080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Thornton | William Thornton | William Thornton (May 20, 1759 – March 28, 1828) was a British-American physician, inventor, painter and architect who designed the United States Capitol. He also served as the first Architect of the Capitol and first Superintendent of the United States Patent Office.
Early life
From an early age William Thornton displayed interest and discernible talent in "the arts of design," to employ an 18th-century term that is particularly useful in assessing his career. Thornton was born on Jost Van Dyke in the British Virgin Islands, West Indies, in a Quaker community. where he was heir to sugar plantations. He was sent to England at age five to be educated. Frary Thornton was brought up strictly by his father's relations, Quakers and merchants, in and near the ancient castle town of Lancaster, in northern Lancashire, England. There was never any question of his pursuing the fine arts professionally—he was to be trained for a useful life, according to the Quaker ways. Thus, despite the fact that he had a sizeable income, young Thornton was apprenticed for a term of four years (1777–1781), to a practical physician and apothecary in Ulverston, Lancashire (now Cumbria).
The earliest of Thornton's known writings, a journal he began during his apprenticeship, records almost as many entries for drawing and sketching as notes on medical treatments and nostrums. His subjects were most often flora and fauna, but he also did portraits, landscapes, historical scenes, and studies of machinery, such as the Franklin stove, and managed to construct a camera obscura. This pattern continued when he enrolled as a medical student in the University of Edinburgh in 1781. He interned at St Bartholomew's Hospital. The architecture of Edinburgh, especially that of the New Town that was being built, surely exerted considerable influence. More direct evidence of his interest in architecture is found in the landscapes and sketches of castles he drew while travelling about Scotland, notably in the Highlands, during these years.
In 1783, Thornton went to London to continue his medical studies; characteristically, he also found time to attend lectures at the Royal Academy. The following year he was off to the Continent, carrying a letter of introduction to Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), written by his mentor and distant cousin Dr. John Coakley Lettsome, (1744-1815).
In the summer of 1784, he explored the Highlands with Faujas de St. Fond.
He received his medical degree in 1784 at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland.
Thornton then spent time in Paris, before returning to Tortola in 1786. There, he saw his mother for the first time since boyhood, where he came face to face with the source of his income—half interest in a sugar plantation and ownership of some 70 slaves, the possession of whom had begun to trouble him.
Eager to achieve fame (and undoubtedly some expiation) in the cause of anti-slavery, he emigrated to the United States of America in the fall of 1786, moving to Philadelphia. His unsuccessful efforts to lead a contingent of free black Americans to join the small British settlement of London blacks at the mouth of the Sierra Leone River in West Africa were looked on favorably by Philadelphia's Quaker establishment. Some leaders of the new republic—notably James Madison, with whom he lodged at Mrs. Mary House's prominent boarding establishment in 1787 and 1788—were cognizant of Thornton's abolitionist activities. However, after moving to the City of Washington, he took advantage of slavery. According to a diary his wife kept in 1800, he frequently shopped for slaves and bought and hired them. In 1788, he became an American citizen. Thornton married Anna Maria Brodeau, daughter of a school teacher, in 1790.
Architect
United States Capitol
In 1789, after briefly practicing medicine and pursuing an interest in steamboats, Thornton submitted a design to the architectural competition for the Library Company of Philadelphia's new hall. His design won but was somewhat departed from during actual construction. Library Hall was described as the first building in the "modern [classical] style" to be erected in the new nation's leading city.
During his visit to Tortola between October 1790 and October 1792, Thornton learned of the design competitions for the U.S. Capitol and the "President's House" to be erected in the new Federal City on the banks of the Potomac. Because a design for the Capitol had not been chosen, he was allowed to compete upon his return to Philadelphia. Between July and November 1792, the Washington administration examined closely the designs submitted by the French émigré architect Etienne Sulpice Hallet, (1755-1825), and Judge George Turner. Hallet and Turner had been summoned to the Federal City in August 1792 to present their ideas to the "Commissioners of the District of Columbia" and local landholders. Both were then encouraged to submit revisions of their designs to accommodate new conditions and requirements. At the beginning of November, Turner's new designs were rejected.
The painter John Trumbull handed in William Thornton's still "unfinished" revised plan of the Capitol building on January 29, 1793, but the President's formal approbation was not recorded until April 2, 1793. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, former royal palace later turned art museum, as well as the Pantheon, famed former Roman temple in Roma and later converted to a Christian church, for the center portion of the design. After more drawings were prepared, enthusiastic praise of Thornton's design was echoed by Secretary of State Jefferson: "simple, noble, beautiful, excellently distributed." For his winning design, Thornton received a prize of $500 and a city lot.
The execution of the design was entrusted to the supervision of Étienne Sulpice Hallet and James Hoban, (1758-1831), (who had also submitted designs for the "President's House - later the White House). Hallet proceeded to make numerous revisions, including removing the rotunda under which Washington was to be enshrined upon his death. So, on September 12, 1794 the President appointed Thornton as one of the three "Commissioners of the Federal District" in charge of laying out the new federal city and overseeing construction of the first government buildings, including the Capitol of which he became supervisor and remained in charge until 1802. Despite important changes and additions, (especially the substitution of a lower copper-clad wooden dome during the 1820s to 1856, for Thornton's original design), especially by second Architect of the Capitol, Latrobe and third Architect Bulfinch, much of the design of the façade of the central portion of the Capitol is his.
Other works
As a consequence of winning the Capitol competition, Thornton was frequently asked to give ideas for public and residential buildings in the Federal City. He responded with designs on several occasions during his tenure as a commissioner, less so after 1802 when he took on the superintendency of the Patent Office.
It was during this time he was asked to design a mansion for Colonel John Tayloe. The Tayloe House, also known as The Octagon House, in Washington, D.C., was erected between 1799 and 1800. It served as a temporary "Executive Mansion" after the 1814 burning of the White House by the British and the house's study was where President Madison signed the Treaty of Ghent ending the War of 1812. In 1899 the building was acquired by the American Institute of Architects, whose national headquarters now nestles behind it.
Around 1800, he designed Woodlawn for Major Lawrence Lewis (nephew of George Washington) and his wife, Eleanor (Nelly) Parke Custis (granddaughter of Martha Washington), on of Mount Vernon land. Sometime around 1808, he designed Tudor Place for Thomas Peter and his wife, Martha Parke Custis (another granddaughter of Martha Washington).
National Register
Many buildings designed by Thornton have been added to the National Register of Historic Places including:
Library Company of Philadelphia, 5th & Chestnut Sts., Philadelphia, PA; 1789 (demolished 1887; recreated as Library Hall, American Philosophical Society, 1954)
United States Capitol, Washington, DC; 1793 - exempt
Prospect Hill, NE of Long Green on Kanes Road, Baltimore, MD; 1796-1798 - added to registry in 1973
Octagon House, 1741 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, DC; 1799 - added in 1966
Woodlawn, W of jct. of U.S. 1 and Rte. 235, Fairfax, VA, 1800-05 - added in 1970
Tudor Place, 1644 31st Street, NW, Washington, DC; 1816 - added in 1966
Founding of the Washington Jockey Club
In 1802 the Club sought a new site for its track, which at the time lay at the rear of what is now the site of Decatur House at H Street and Jackson Place, crossing Seventeenth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue to Twentieth Street (today the Eisenhower Executive Office Building,) was being overtaken be the growth of the Federal City. With the leadership of John Tayloe III and Charles Carnan Ridgely and support of Gen. John Peter Van Ness, Dr. William Thornton, G.W. P. Custis, John D. Threlkeld of Georgetown and George Calvert of Riversdale, Bladensburg, Maryland, the contests were moved to a new site near Meridian Hill, north of Columbia Road at Fourteenth Street, between present-day Eleventh and Sixteenth Streets. Thornton designed this new track, one mile in circumference, and named the Washington City Race Course. It sat on land leased from the Holmead family, and lasted until the mid-1840s.
Superintendent of the Patent Office
Upon the abolition of the board in 1802, President Jefferson appointed Thornton the first Superintendent of the Patent Office. When Washington was burned by the British in 1814, Thornton convinced them not to burn the Patent Office because of its importance to mankind. He held the position from June 1, 1802, until his death in 1828 in Washington, DC. During his tenure, he introduced innovations including the patent reissue practice, which survives to this day.
Some of Thornton's reputation as an inventor is due to abuse of his position in the Patent Office.
His improvements to John Fitch's 1788 steamboat are patented but didn't work.
When John Hall applied for a patent on a new breech-loading rifle in 1811, Thornton claimed he had also invented it. As proof, he showed Hall a Ferguson rifle, a British gun dating from 1776, refusing to issue the patent unless it was in his name as well as Hall's name.
Societies
In 1787 Thornton was elected to the American Philosophical Society. During the 1820s, Thornton was a member of the prestigious society, Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences, who counted among their members former presidents Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams and many prominent men of the day, including well-known representatives of the military, government service, medical and other professions.
Later life
In the 1820s, Thornton wrote of having been summoned to Mount Vernon in December 1799, in the hopes that he would be able to treat George Washington, but of having arrived after Washington's death; as a result, he devised a plan to resurrect Washington's frozen corpse by (f)irst to thaw him in cold water, then to lay him in blankets, & by degrees & by friction to give him warmth, and to put into activity the minute blood vessels, at the same time to open a passage to the Lungs by the Trachaea, and to inflate them with air, to produce an artificial respiration, and to transfuse blood into him from a lamb. Thornton's plan was rejected, however, despite "there (being) no doubt in (Thornton's) mind that (Washington's) restoration was possible."
Thornton died in 1828 and was buried in Congressional Cemetery in eastern Washington, DC.
See also
Richard Humphreys (philanthropist)
John C. Lettsome
Notes
References
Bordewich, Fergus M., "A Capitol Vision From a Self-Taught Architect", Smithsonian magazine, December 2008
External links
Architect of the Capitol's official website
Model Showing Dr. William Thornton's Designs for the Capitol
Tudor Place
Thornton's grave
William Thornton's designs for the United States Capitol (Library of Congress)
1759 births
1828 deaths
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
American architects
American Quakers
American slave owners
Architects of the Capitol
British abolitionists
British Virgin Islands Quakers
Burials at the Congressional Cemetery
Federalist architects
British emigrants to the United States
American people of British Virgin Islands descent
United States Superintendents of Patents
Quaker abolitionists
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Quaker slave owners | [
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227086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waverider | Waverider | A waverider is a hypersonic aircraft design that improves its supersonic lift-to-drag ratio by using the shock waves being generated by its own flight as a lifting surface, a phenomenon known as compression lift.
The waverider remains a well-studied design for high-speed aircraft in the Mach 5 and higher hypersonic regime, although no such design has yet entered production. The Boeing X-51A scramjet demonstration aircraft was tested from 2010 to 2013. In its final test flight, it reached a speed of .
History
Early work
The waverider design concept was first developed by Terence Nonweiler of the Queen's University of Belfast, and first described in print in 1951 as a re-entry vehicle. It consisted of a delta-wing platform with a low wing loading to provide considerable surface area to dump the heat of re-entry. At the time, Nonweiler was forced to use a greatly simplified 2D model of airflow around the aircraft, which he realized would not be accurate due to spanwise flow across the wing. However, he also noticed that the spanwise flow would be stopped by the shockwave being generated by the aircraft, and that if the wing was positioned to deliberately approach the shock, the spanwise flow would be trapped under wing, increasing pressure, and thus increasing lift.
In the 1950s, the British started a space program based around the Blue Streak missile, which was, at some point, to include a manned vehicle. Armstrong-Whitworth were contracted to develop the re-entry vehicle, and unlike the U.S. space program they decided to stick with a winged vehicle instead of a ballistic capsule. Between 1957 and 1959, they contracted Nonweiler to develop his concepts further. This work produced a pyramid-shaped design with a flat underside and short wings. Heat was conducted through the wings to the upper cool surfaces, where it was dumped into the turbulent air on the top of the wing. In 1960, work on the Blue Streak was canceled as the missile was seen as being obsolete before it could have entered service. Work then moved to the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), where it continued as a research program into high-speed (Mach 4 to 7) civilian airliners.
This work was discovered by engineers at North American Aviation during the early design studies of what would lead to the XB-70 bomber. They re-designed the original "classic" delta wing to incorporate drooping wing tips in order to trap the shock waves mechanically, rather than using a shock cone generated from the front of the aircraft. This mechanism also had two other beneficial effects; it reduced the amount of horizontal lifting surface at the rear of the aircraft, which helped offset a nose-down trim that occurs at high speeds, and it added more vertical surface which helped improve the directional stability, which decreased at high speed.
Caret wing
Nonweiler's original design used the shock wave generated by the aircraft as a way to control spanwise flow, and thereby increase the amount of air trapped under the wing in the same way as a wing fence. While working on these concepts, he noticed that it was possible to shape the wing in such a way that the shock wave generated off its leading edge would form a horizontal sheet under the craft. In this case, the airflow would not only be trapped horizontally, spanwise, but vertically as well. The only area the air above the shock wave could escape would be out the back of the sheet where the fuselage ended. Since the air was trapped between this sheet and the fuselage, a large volume of air would be trapped, much more than the more basic approach he first developed. Furthermore, since the shock surface was held at a distance from the craft, shock heating was limited to the leading edges of the wings, lowering the thermal loads on the fuselage.
In 1962 Nonweiler moved to Glasgow University to become Professor of Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics. That year his "Delta Wings of Shapes Amenable to Exact Shock-Wave Theory" was published by the Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, and earned him that society's Gold Medal. A craft generated using this model looks like a delta wing that has been broken down the center and the two sides folded downward. From the rear it looks like an upside-down V, or alternately, the "caret", ^, and such designs are known as "caret wings". Two to three years later the concept briefly came into the public eye, due to the airliner work at the RAE that led to the prospect of reaching Australia in 90 minutes. Newspaper articles led to an appearance on Scottish Television.
Hawker Siddeley examined the caret wing waverider in the later 1960s as a part of a three-stage lunar rocket design. The first stage was built on an expanded Blue Steel, the second a waverider, and the third a nuclear-powered manned stage. This work was generalized in 1971 to produce a two-staged reusable spacecraft. The long first stage was designed as a classical waverider, with air-breathing propulsion for return to the launch site. The upper stage was designed as a lifting body, and would have carried an 8000-pound (3.6 t) payload to low Earth orbit.
Cone flow waveriders
Nonweiler's work was based on studies of planar 2D shocks due to the difficulty understanding and predicting real-world shock patterns around 3D bodies. As the study of hypersonic flows improved, researchers were able to study waverider designs that used different shockwave shapes, the simplest being the conical shock generated by a cone. In these cases, a waverider is designed to keep the rounded shockwave attached to its wings, not a flat sheet, which increases the volume of air trapped under the surface, and thereby increases lift.
Unlike the caret wing, the cone flow designs smoothly curve their wings, from near horizontal in the center, to highly drooped where they meet the shock. Like the caret wing, they have to be designed to operate at a specific speed to properly attach the shock wave to the wing's leading edge, but unlike them the entire body shape can be varied dramatically at the different design speeds, and sometimes have wingtips that curve upward to attach to the shockwave.
Further development of the conical sections, adding canopies and fuselage areas, led to the "osculating cones waverider", which develops several conical shock waves at different points on the body, blending them to produce a single shaped shock. The expansion to a wider range of compression surface flows allowed the design of waveriders with control of volume, upper surface shape, engine integration and centre of pressure position. Performance improvements and off-design analysis continued until 1970.
During this period at least one waverider was tested at the Woomera Rocket Range, mounted on the nose of an air-launched Blue Steel missile, and a number of airframes were tested in the wind tunnel at NASA's Ames Research Center. However, during the 1970s most work in hypersonics disappeared, and the waverider along with it.
Viscous optimized waveriders
One of the many differences between supersonic and hypersonic flight concerns the interaction of the boundary layer and the shock waves generated from the nose of the aircraft. Normally the boundary layer is quite thin compared to the streamline of airflow over the wing, and can be considered separately from other aerodynamic effects. However, as the speed increases and the shock wave increasingly approaches the sides of the craft, there comes a point where the two start to interact and the flowfield becomes very complex. Long before that point, the boundary layer starts to interact with the air trapped between the shock wave and the fuselage, the air that is being used for lift on a waverider.
Calculating the effects of these interactions was beyond the abilities of aerodynamics until the introduction of useful computational fluid dynamics starting in the 1980s. In 1981, Maurice Rasmussen at the University of Oklahoma started a waverider renaissance by publishing a paper on a new 3D underside shape using these techniques. These shapes have superior lifting performance and less drag. Since then, whole families of cone-derived waveriders have been designed using more and more complex conic shocks, based on more complex software. This work eventually led to a conference in 1989, the First International Hypersonic Waverider Conference, held at the University of Maryland.
These newest shapes, the "viscous optimized waveriders", look similar to conical designs as long as the angle of the shock wave on the nose is beyond some critical angle, about 14 degrees for a Mach 6 design for instance. The angle of the shock can be controlled by widening out the nose into a curved plate of specific radius, and reducing the radius produces a smaller shock cone angle. Vehicle design starts by selecting a given angle and then developing the body shape that traps that angle, then repeating this process for different angles. For any given speed, a single shape will generate the best results.
Design
During re-entry, hypersonic vehicles generate lift only from the underside of the fuselage. The underside, which is inclined to the flow at a high angle of attack, creates lift in reaction to the vehicle wedging the airflow downwards. The amount of lift is not particularly high, compared to a traditional wing, but more than enough to maneuver given the amount of distance the vehicle covers.
Most re-entry vehicles have been based on the blunt-nose reentry design pioneered by Theodore von Kármán. He demonstrated that a shock wave is forced to "detach" from a curved surface, forced out into a larger configuration that requires considerable energy to form. Energy expended in forming this shock wave is no longer available as heat, so this shaping can dramatically reduce the heat load on the spacecraft. Such a design has been the basis for almost every re-entry vehicle since, found on the blunt noses of the early ICBM warheads, the bottoms of the various NASA capsules, and the large nose of the Space Shuttle.
The problem with the blunt-nose system is that the resulting design creates very little lift, meaning the vehicle has problems maneuvering during re-entry. If the spacecraft is meant to be able to return to its point of launch "on command", then some sort of maneuvering will be required to counteract the fact that the Earth is turning under the spacecraft as it flies. After a single low Earth orbit, the launching point will be over to the east of the spacecraft by the time it has completed one full orbit. A considerable amount of research was dedicated to combining the blunt-nose system with wings, leading to the development of the lifting body designs in the U.S.
It was while working on one such design that Nonweiler developed the waverider. He noticed that the detachment of the shock wave over the blunt leading edges of the wings of the Armstrong-Whitworth design would allow the air on the bottom of the craft to flow spanwise and escape to the upper part of the wing through the gap between the leading edge and the detached shock wave. This loss of airflow reduced (by up to a quarter) the lift being generated by the waverider, which led to studies on how to avoid this problem and keep the flow trapped under the wing.
Nonweiler's resulting design is a delta-wing with some amount of negative dihedral — the wings are bent down from the fuselage towards the tips. When viewed from the front, the wing resembles a caret symbol () in cross section, and these designs are often referred to as carets. The more modern 3D version typically looks like a rounded letter 'M'. Theoretically, a star-shaped waverider with a frontal cross-section of a "+" or "×" could reduce drag by another 20%. The disadvantage of this design is that it has more area in contact with the shock wave and therefore has more pronounced heat dissipation problems.
Waveriders generally have sharp noses and sharp leading edges on their wings. The underside shock-surface remains attached to this. Air flowing in through the shock surface is trapped between the shock and the fuselage, and can only escape at the rear of the fuselage. With sharp edges, all the lift is retained.
Even though sharp edges get much hotter than rounded ones at the same air density, the improved lift means that waveriders can glide on re-entry at much higher altitudes where the air density is lower. A list ranking various space vehicles in order of heating applied to the airframe would have capsules at the top (re-entering quickly with very high heating loads), waveriders at the bottom (extremely long gliding profiles at high altitude), and the Space Shuttle somewhere in the middle.
Simple waveriders have substantial design problems. First, the obvious designs only work at a particular Mach number, and the amount of lift captured will change dramatically as the vehicle changes speed. Another problem is that the waverider depends on radiative cooling, possible as long as the vehicle spends most of its time at very high altitudes. However these altitudes also demand a very large wing to generate the needed lift in the thin air, and that same wing can become rather unwieldy at lower altitudes and speeds.
Because of these problems, waveriders have not found favor with practical aerodynamic designers, despite the fact that they might make long-distance hypersonic vehicles efficient enough to carry air freight.
Some researchers controversially claim that there are designs that overcome these problems. One candidate for a multi-speed waverider is a "caret wing", operated at different angles of attack. A caret wing is a delta wing with longitudinal conical or triangular slots or strakes. It strongly resembles a paper airplane or rogallo wing. The correct angle of attack would become increasingly precise at higher mach numbers, but this is a control problem that is theoretically solvable. The wing is said to perform even better if it can be constructed of tight mesh, because that reduces its drag, while maintaining lift. Such wings are said to have the unusual attribute of operating at a wide range of mach numbers in different fluids with a wide range of Reynolds numbers.
The temperature problem can be solved with some combination of a transpiring surface, exotic materials, and possibly heat-pipes. In a transpiring surface, small amounts of a coolant such as water are pumped through small holes in the aircraft's skin (see transpiration and perspiration). This design works for Mach 25 spacecraft re-entry shields, and therefore should work for any aircraft that can carry the weight of the coolant. Exotic materials such as carbon-carbon composite do not conduct heat but endure it, but they tend to be brittle. Heatpipes are not widely used at present. Like a conventional heat exchanger, they conduct heat better than most solid materials, but like a thermosiphon are passively pumped. The Boeing X-51A deals with external heating through the use of a tungsten nosecone and space shuttle-style heat shield tiles on its belly. Internal (engine) heating is absorbed by using the JP-7 fuel as a coolant prior to combustion. Other high temperature materials, referred to as SHARP materials (typically zirconium diboride and hafnium diboride) have been used on steering vanes for ICBM reentry vehicles since the 1970s, and are proposed for use on hypersonic vehicles. They are said to permit Mach 11 flight at altitudes and Mach 7 flight at sea level. These materials are more structurally rugged than the Reinforced Carbon Composite (RCC) used on the space shuttle nose and leading edges, have higher radiative and temperature tolerance properties, and do not suffer from oxidation issues that RCC needs to be protected against with coatings.
References
External links
Hypersonic Waveriders from Aerospace.org
ASTRA Waverider from gbnet.net
Accurate Automation Corporation, a company that has built several model waveriders, including the LoFLYTE and the NASA X-43
Aerodynamics
Aerospace engineering
Aircraft configurations
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227088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol | Estradiol | Estradiol (E2), also spelled oestradiol, is an estrogen steroid hormone and the major female sex hormone. It is involved in the regulation of the estrous and menstrual female reproductive cycles. Estradiol is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as the breasts, widening of the hips and a female-associated pattern of fat distribution. It is also important in the development and maintenance of female reproductive tissues such as the mammary glands, uterus and vagina during puberty, adulthood and pregnancy. It also has important effects in many other tissues including bone, fat, skin, liver, and the brain.
Though estradiol levels in males are much lower than in females, estradiol has important roles in males as well. Apart from humans and other mammals, estradiol is also found in most vertebrates and crustaceans, insects, fish, and other animal species.
Estradiol is produced especially within the follicles of the ovaries, but also in other tissues including the testicles, the adrenal glands, fat, liver, the breasts, and the brain. Estradiol is produced in the body from cholesterol through a series of reactions and intermediates. The major pathway involves the formation of androstenedione, which is then converted by aromatase into estrone and is subsequently converted into estradiol. Alternatively, androstenedione can be converted into testosterone, which can then be converted into estradiol. Upon menopause in females, production of estrogens by the ovaries stops and estradiol levels decrease to very low levels.
In addition to its role as a natural hormone, estradiol is used as a medication, for instance in menopausal hormone therapy and feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women; for information on estradiol as a medication, see the estradiol (medication) article.
Biological function
Sexual development
The development of secondary sex characteristics in women is driven by estrogens, to be specific, estradiol. These changes are initiated at the time of puberty, most are enhanced during the reproductive years, and become less pronounced with declining estradiol support after menopause. Thus, estradiol produces breast development, and is responsible for changes in the body shape, affecting bones, joints, and fat deposition. In females, estradiol induces breast development, widening of the hips, a feminine fat distribution (with fat deposited particularly in the breasts, hips, thighs, and buttocks), and maturation of the vagina and vulva, whereas it mediates the pubertal growth spurt (indirectly via increased growth hormone secretion) and epiphyseal closure (thereby limiting final height) in both sexes.
Reproduction
Female reproductive system
In the female, estradiol acts as a growth hormone for tissue of the reproductive organs, supporting the lining of the vagina, the cervical glands, the endometrium, and the lining of the fallopian tubes. It enhances growth of the myometrium. Estradiol appears necessary to maintain oocytes in the ovary. During the menstrual cycle, estradiol produced by the growing follicles triggers, via a positive feedback system, the hypothalamic-pituitary events that lead to the luteinizing hormone surge, inducing ovulation. In the luteal phase, estradiol, in conjunction with progesterone, prepares the endometrium for implantation. During pregnancy, estradiol increases due to placental production. The effect of estradiol, together with estrone and estriol, in pregnancy is less clear. They may promote uterine blood flow, myometrial growth, stimulate breast growth and at term, promote cervical softening and expression of myometrial oxytocin receptors. In baboons, blocking of estrogen production leads to pregnancy loss, suggesting estradiol has a role in the maintenance of pregnancy. Research is investigating the role of estrogens in the process of initiation of labor. Actions of estradiol are required before the exposure of progesterone in the luteal phase.
Male reproductive system
The effect of estradiol (and estrogens in general) upon male reproduction is complex. Estradiol is produced by action of aromatase mainly in the Leydig cells of the mammalian testis, but also by some germ cells and the Sertoli cells of immature mammals. It functions (in vitro) to prevent apoptosis of male sperm cells.
While some studies in the early 1990s claimed a connection between globally declining sperm counts and estrogen exposure in the environment, later studies found no such connection, nor evidence of a general decline in sperm counts.
Suppression of estradiol production in a subpopulation of subfertile men may improve the semen analysis.
Males with certain sex chromosome genetic conditions, such as Klinefelter's syndrome, will have a higher level of estradiol.
Skeletal system
Estradiol has a profound effect on bone. Individuals without it (or other estrogens) will become tall and eunuchoid, as epiphyseal closure is delayed or may not take place. Bone density is also affected, resulting in early osteopenia and osteoporosis. Low levels of estradiol may also predict fractures, with post-menopausal women having the highest incidence of bone fracture. Women past menopause experience an accelerated loss of bone mass due to a relative estrogen deficiency.
Skin health
The estrogen receptor, as well as the progesterone receptor, have been detected in the skin, including in keratinocytes and fibroblasts. At menopause and thereafter, decreased levels of female sex hormones result in atrophy, thinning, and increased wrinkling of the skin and a reduction in skin elasticity, firmness, and strength. These skin changes constitute an acceleration in skin aging and are the result of decreased collagen content, irregularities in the morphology of epidermal skin cells, decreased ground substance between skin fibers, and reduced capillaries and blood flow. The skin also becomes more dry during menopause, which is due to reduced skin hydration and surface lipids (sebum production). Along with chronological aging and photoaging, estrogen deficiency in menopause is one of the three main factors that predominantly influences skin aging.
Hormone replacement therapy consisting of systemic treatment with estrogen alone or in combination with a progestogen, has well-documented and considerable beneficial effects on the skin of postmenopausal women. These benefits include increased skin collagen content, skin thickness and elasticity, and skin hydration and surface lipids. Topical estrogen has been found to have similar beneficial effects on the skin. In addition, a study has found that topical 2% progesterone cream significantly increases skin elasticity and firmness and observably decreases wrinkles in peri- and postmenopausal women. Skin hydration and surface lipids, on the other hand, did not significantly change with topical progesterone. These findings suggest that progesterone, like estrogen, also has beneficial effects on the skin, and may be independently protective against skin aging.
Nervous system
Estrogens can be produced in the brain from steroid precursors. As antioxidants, they have been found to have neuroprotective function.
The positive and negative feedback loops of the menstrual cycle involve ovarian estradiol as the link to the hypothalamic-pituitary system to regulate gonadotropins. (See Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis.)
Estrogen is considered to play a significant role in women's mental health, with links suggested between the hormone level, mood and well-being. Sudden drops or fluctuations in, or long periods of sustained low levels of estrogen may be correlated with significant mood-lowering. Clinical recovery from depression postpartum, perimenopause, and postmenopause was shown to be effective after levels of estrogen were stabilized and/or restored.
The volumes of sexually dimorphic brain structures in transgender women were found to change and approximate typical female brain structures when exposed to estrogen concomitantly with androgen deprivation over a period of months, suggesting that estrogen and/or androgens have a significant part to play in sex differentiation of the brain, both prenatally and later in life.
There is also evidence the programming of adult male sexual behavior in many vertebrates is largely dependent on estradiol produced during prenatal life and early infancy. It is not yet known whether this process plays a significant role in human sexual behavior, although evidence from other mammals tends to indicate a connection.
Estrogen has been found to increase the secretion of oxytocin and to increase the expression of its receptor, the oxytocin receptor, in the brain. In women, a single dose of estradiol has been found to be sufficient to increase circulating oxytocin concentrations.
Gynecological cancers
Estradiol has been tied to the development and progression of cancers such as breast cancer, ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer. Estradiol affects target tissues mainly by interacting with two nuclear receptors called estrogen receptor α (ERα) and estrogen receptor β (ERβ). One of the functions of these estrogen receptors is the modulation of gene expression. Once estradiol binds to the ERs, the receptor complexes then bind to specific DNA sequences, possibly causing damage to the DNA and an increase in cell division and DNA replication. Eukaryotic cells respond to damaged DNA by stimulating or impairing G1, S, or G2 phases of the cell cycle to initiate DNA repair. As a result, cellular transformation and cancer cell proliferation occurs.
Cardiovascular system
Estrogen affects certain blood vessels. Improvement in arterial blood flow has been demonstrated in coronary arteries.
During pregnancy, high levels of estrogens, namely estradiol, increase coagulation and the risk of venous thromboembolism.
Other functions
Estradiol has complex effects on the liver. It affects the production of multiple proteins, including lipoproteins, binding proteins, and proteins responsible for blood clotting. In high amounts, estradiol can lead to cholestasis, for instance cholestasis of pregnancy.
Certain gynecological conditions are dependent on estrogen, such as endometriosis, leiomyomata uteri, and uterine bleeding.
Biological activity
Estradiol acts primarily as an agonist of the estrogen receptor (ER), a nuclear steroid hormone receptor. There are two subtypes of the ER, ERα and ERβ, and estradiol potently binds to and activates both of these receptors. The result of ER activation is a modulation of gene transcription and expression in ER-expressing cells, which is the predominant mechanism by which estradiol mediates its biological effects in the body. Estradiol also acts as an agonist of membrane estrogen receptors (mERs), such as GPER (GPR30), a recently discovered non-nuclear receptor for estradiol, via which it can mediate a variety of rapid, non-genomic effects. Unlike the case of the ER, GPER appears to be selective for estradiol, and shows very low affinities for other endogenous estrogens, such as estrone and estriol. Additional mERs besides GPER include ER-X, ERx, and Gq-mER.
ERα/ERβ are in inactive state trapped in multimolecular chaperone complexes organized around the heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), containing p23 protein, and immunophilin, and located in majority in cytoplasm and partially in nucleus. In the E2 classical pathway or estrogen classical pathway, estradiol enters the cytoplasm, where it interacts with ERs. Once bound E2, ERs dissociate from the molecular chaperone complexes and become competent to dimerize, migrate to nucleus, and to bind to specific DNA sequences (estrogen response element, ERE), allowing for gene transcription which can take place over hours and days.
Given by subcutaneous injection in mice, estradiol is about 10-fold more potent than estrone and about 100-fold more potent than estriol. As such, estradiol is the main estrogen in the body, although the roles of estrone and estriol as estrogens are said not to be negligible.
Biochemistry
Biosynthesis
Estradiol, like other steroid hormones, is derived from cholesterol. After side chain cleavage and using the Δ5 or the Δ4- pathway, androstenedione is the key intermediary. A portion of the androstenedione is converted to testosterone, which in turn undergoes conversion to estradiol by aromatase. In an alternative pathway, androstenedione is aromatized to estrone, which is subsequently converted to estradiol via 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD).
During the reproductive years, most estradiol in women is produced by the granulosa cells of the ovaries by the aromatization of androstenedione (produced in the theca folliculi cells) to estrone, followed by conversion of estrone to estradiol by 17β-HSD. Smaller amounts of estradiol are also produced by the adrenal cortex, and, in men, by the testes.
Estradiol is not produced in the gonads only, in particular, fat cells produce active precursors to estradiol, and will continue to do so even after menopause. Estradiol is also produced in the brain and in arterial walls.
In men, approximately 15 to 25% of circulating estradiol is produced in the testicles. The rest is synthesized via peripheral aromatization of testosterone into estradiol and of androstenedione into estrone (which is then transformed into estradiol via peripheral 17β-HSD). This peripheral aromatization occurs predominantly in adipose tissue, but also occurs in other tissues such as bone, liver, and the brain. Approximately 40 to 50 µg of estradiol is produced per day in men.
Distribution
In plasma, estradiol is largely bound to SHBG, and also to albumin. Only a fraction of 2.21% (± 0.04%) is free and biologically active, the percentage remaining constant throughout the menstrual cycle.
Metabolism
Inactivation of estradiol includes conversion to less-active estrogens, such as estrone and estriol. Estriol is the major urinary metabolite. Estradiol is conjugated in the liver to form estrogen conjugates like estradiol sulfate, estradiol glucuronide and, as such, excreted via the kidneys. Some of the water-soluble conjugates are excreted via the bile duct, and partly reabsorbed after hydrolysis from the intestinal tract. This enterohepatic circulation contributes to maintaining estradiol levels.
Estradiol is also metabolized via hydroxylation into catechol estrogens. In the liver, it is non-specifically metabolized by CYP1A2, CYP3A4, and CYP2C9 via 2-hydroxylation into 2-hydroxyestradiol, and by CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2C8 via 17β-hydroxy dehydrogenation into estrone, with various other cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes and metabolic transformations also being involved.
Estradiol is additionally conjugated with an ester into lipoidal estradiol forms like estradiol palmitate and estradiol stearate to a certain extent; these esters are stored in adipose tissue and may act as a very long-lasting reservoir of estradiol.
Excretion
Estradiol is excreted in the form of glucuronide and sulfate estrogen conjugates in urine. Following an intravenous injection of labeled estradiol in women, almost 90% is excreted in urine and feces within 4 to 5 days. Enterohepatic recirculation causes a delay in excretion of estradiol.
Levels
Levels of estradiol in premenopausal women are highly variable throughout the menstrual cycle and reference ranges widely vary from source to source. Estradiol levels are minimal and according to most laboratories range from 20 to 80 pg/mL during the early to mid follicular phase (or the first week of the menstrual cycle, also known as menses). Levels of estradiol gradually increase during this time and through the mid to late follicular phase (or the second week of the menstrual cycle) until the pre-ovulatory phase. At the time of pre-ovulation (a period of about 24 to 48 hours), estradiol levels briefly surge and reach their highest concentrations of any other time during the menstrual cycle. Circulating levels are typically between 130 and 200 pg/mL at this time, but in some women may be as high as 300 to 400 pg/mL, and the upper limit of the reference range of some laboratories are even greater (for instance, 750 pg/mL). Following ovulation (or mid-cycle) and during the latter half of the menstrual cycle or the luteal phase, estradiol levels plateau and fluctuate between around 100 and 150 pg/mL during the early and mid luteal phase, and at the time of the late luteal phase, or a few days before menstruation, reach a low of around 40 pg/mL. The mean integrated levels of estradiol during a full menstrual cycle have variously been reported by different sources as 80, 120, and 150 pg/mL. Although contradictory reports exist, one study found mean integrated estradiol levels of 150 pg/mL in younger women whereas mean integrated levels ranged from 50 to 120 pg/mL in older women.
During the reproductive years of the human female, levels of estradiol are somewhat higher than that of estrone, except during the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle; thus, estradiol may be considered the predominant estrogen during human female reproductive years in terms of absolute serum levels and estrogenic activity. During pregnancy, estriol becomes the predominant circulating estrogen, and this is the only time at which estetrol occurs in the body, while during menopause, estrone predominates (both based on serum levels). The estradiol produced by male humans, from testosterone, is present at serum levels roughly comparable to those of postmenopausal women (14–55 versus <35 pg/mL, respectively). It has also been reported that if concentrations of estradiol in a 70-year-old man are compared to those of a 70-year-old woman, levels are approximately 2- to 4-fold higher in the man.
Measurement
In women, serum estradiol is measured in a clinical laboratory and reflects primarily the activity of the ovaries. The Estradiol blood test measures the amount of estradiol in the blood. It is used to check the function of the ovaries, placenta, adrenal glands. This can detect baseline estrogen in women with amenorrhea or menstrual dysfunction, and to detect the state of hypoestrogenicity and menopause. Furthermore, estrogen monitoring during fertility therapy assesses follicular growth and is useful in monitoring the treatment. Estrogen-producing tumors will demonstrate persistent high levels of estradiol and other estrogens. In precocious puberty, estradiol levels are inappropriately increased.
Ranges
Individual laboratory results should always be interpreted using the ranges provided by the laboratory that performed the test.
In the normal menstrual cycle, estradiol levels measure typically <50 pg/mL at menstruation, rise with follicular development (peak: 200 pg/mL), drop briefly at ovulation, and rise again during the luteal phase for a second peak. At the end of the luteal phase, estradiol levels drop to their menstrual levels unless there is a pregnancy.
During pregnancy, estrogen levels, including estradiol, rise steadily toward term. The source of these estrogens is the placenta, which aromatizes prohormones produced in the fetal adrenal gland.
Medical use
Estradiol is used as a medication, primarily in hormone therapy for menopausal symptoms as well as transgender hormone replacement therapy.
Chemistry
Estradiol is an estrane steroid. It is also known as 17β-estradiol (to distinguish it from 17α-estradiol) or as estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17β-diol. It has two hydroxyl groups, one at the C3 position and the other at the 17β position, as well as three double bonds in the A ring. Due to its two hydroxyl groups, estradiol is often abbreviated as E2. The structurally related estrogens, estrone (E1), estriol (E3), and estetrol (E4) have one, three, and four hydroxyl groups, respectively.
Neuropsychopharmacology
In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, estradiol was shown to have gender-specific effects on fairness sensitivity. When the division of a given amount of money was framed as either fair or unfair in a modified version of the ultimatum game, estradiol increased the acceptance rate of fair-framed proposals among men and decreased it among women.
History
The discovery of estrogen is usually credited to the American scientists Edgar Allen and Edward A. Doisy. In 1923, they observed that injection of fluid from porcine ovarian follicles produced pubertal- and estrus-type changes (including vaginal, uterine, and mammary gland changes and sexual receptivity) in sexually immature, ovariectomized mice and rats. These findings demonstrated the existence of a hormone which is produced by the ovaries and is involved in sexual maturation and reproduction. At the time of its discovery, Allen and Doisy did not name the hormone, and simply referred to it as an "ovarian hormone" or "follicular hormone"; others referred to it variously as feminin, folliculin, menformon, thelykinin, and emmenin. In 1926, Parkes and Bellerby coined the term estrin to describe the hormone on the basis of it inducing estrus in animals. Estrone was isolated and purified independently by Allen and Doisy and German scientist Adolf Butenandt in 1929, and estriol was isolated and purified by Marrian in 1930; they were the first estrogens to be identified.
Estradiol, the most potent of the three major estrogens, was the last of the three to be identified. It was discovered by Schwenk and Hildebrant in 1933, who synthesized it via reduction of estrone. Estradiol was subsequently isolated and purified from sow ovaries by Doisy in 1935, with its chemical structure determined simultaneously, and was referred to variously as dihydrotheelin, dihydrofolliculin, dihydrofollicular hormone, and dihydroxyestrin. In 1935, the name estradiol and the term estrogen were formally established by the Sex Hormone Committee of the Health Organization of the League of Nations; this followed the names estrone (which was initially called theelin, progynon, folliculin, and ketohydroxyestrin) and estriol (initially called theelol and trihydroxyestrin) having been established in 1932 at the first meeting of the International Conference on the Standardization of Sex Hormones in London. Following its discovery, a partial synthesis of estradiol from cholesterol was developed by Inhoffen and Hohlweg in 1940, and a total synthesis was developed by Anner and Miescher in 1948.
Society and culture
Etymology
The name estradiol derives from , Gk. (, literally meaning "verve or inspiration"), which refers to the estrane steroid ring system, and , a chemical term and suffix indicating that the compound is a type of alcohol bearing two hydroxyl groups.
References
Secondary alcohols
Animal reproductive system
Antigonadotropins
Antioxidants
Diols
Estranes
Estrogens
GPER agonists
Hepatotoxins
Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis
Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis
Hormones of the pregnant female
Human female endocrine system
Phenols
Prolactin releasers
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227091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation | Confederation | A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defense, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the central government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form of intergovernmentalism, which is defined as any form of interaction around states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government.
The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government and the distribution of powers among them varies. Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations. Other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems.
Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right of secession. The political philosopher Emmerich de Vattel said: "Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each in particular ceasing to be a perfect state.... The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member".
Under a confederation, unlike a federal state, the central authority is relatively weak. Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect; they are not laws acting directly upon the individual but have more the character of interstate agreements. Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity), not by majority. Historically, those features limit the effectiveness of the union and so political pressure tends to build over time for the transition to a federal system of government, as happened in the American, Swiss and German cases of regional integration.
Confederated states
In terms of internal structure, every confederal state is composed of two or more constituent states, that are referred to as confederated states. In regard to their political systems, confederated states can have republican or monarchical forms of government. Those that have republican form (confederated republics) are usually called states (like states of the American Confederacy, 1861-1865) or republics (like republics of Serbia and Montenegro within the former State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, 2003-2006). Those that have monarchical form of government (confederated monarchies) are defined by various hierarchical ranks (like kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan within the Hashemite Arab Union in 1958).
Examples
Belgium
Many scholars have claimed that the Kingdom of Belgium, a country with a complicated federal structure, has adopted some characteristics of a confederation under the pressure of separatist movements, especially in Flanders. For example, C. E. Lagasse declared that Belgium was "near the political system of a Confederation" regarding the constitutional reform agreements between Belgian Regions and between Communities, and the director of the Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques (CRISP) Vincent de Coorebyter called Belgium "undoubtedly a federation...[with] some aspects of a confederation" in Le Soir. Also in Le Soir, Professor Michel Quévit of the Catholic University of Leuven wrote that the "Belgian political system is already in dynamics of a Confederation".
Nevertheless, the Belgian regions and the linguistic communities do not have the necessary autonomy to leave the Belgian state. As such, federal aspects still dominate. Also, for fiscal policy and public finances, the federal state dominates the other levels of government.
The increasingly-confederal aspects of the Belgian Federal State appear to be a political reflection of the profound cultural, sociological and economic differences between the Flemish (Belgians who speak Dutch or Dutch dialects) and the Walloons (Belgians who speak French or French dialects). For example, in the last several decades, over 95% of Belgians have voted for political parties that represent voters from only one community, the separatist N-VA being the party with the most voter support among the Flemish population. Parties that strongly advocate Belgian unity and appeal to voters of both communities play usually only a marginal role in nationwide general elections. The system in Belgium is known as consociationalism.
That makes Belgium fundamentally different from federal countries like Switzerland, Canada, Germany and Australia. In those countries, national parties regularly receive over 90% of voter support. The only geographical areas comparable with Belgium within Europe are Catalonia, the Basque Country (both part of Spain), Northern Ireland and Scotland (both part of the United Kingdom) and parts of Italy, where a massive voter turnout for regional (and often separatist) political parties has become the rule in the last decades, and nationwide parties advocating national unity draw around half or sometimes less of the votes.
Benelux
The Benelux is a politico-economic union of the states of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg bound through treaties and based on consensus between the representatives of the member states.
They partially share a common foreign policy, especially in regards to their navies through the BeNeSam. The Dutch Defence minister (2010-2012) Hans Hillen even said on Belgian radio that it is not impossible that the three armed forces of the member-states could be integrated into "Benelux Armed Forces" one day.
Because of this the Benelux is sometimes labeled as a "kind of confederation" by, for example; Belgian Minister of State Mark Eyskens.
Canada
In Canada, the word confederation has an additional unrelated meaning. "Confederation" refers to the process of (or the event of) establishing or joining the Canadian federal state.
In modern terminology, Canada is a federation, not a confederation. However, to contemporaries of the Constitution Act, 1867, confederation did not have the same connotation of a weakly-centralized federation. Canadian Confederation generally refers to the Constitution Act, 1867, which formed the Dominion of Canada from three of the colonies of British North America, and to the subsequent incorporation of other colonies and territories. Therefore, on 1 July 1867, Canada became a self-governing dominion of the British Empire with a federal structure under the leadership of Sir John A. Macdonald. The provinces involved were the Province of Canada (comprising Canada West, now Ontario, formerly Upper Canada; and Canada East, now Quebec, formerly Lower Canada), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Later participants were Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Alberta and Saskatchewan (the latter two created as provinces from the Northwest Territories in 1905), and finally Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) in 1949. Canada is an unusually-decentralized federal state, not a confederate association of sovereign states, the usual meaning of confederation in modern terms. A Canadian law, the Clarity Act, and a court ruling, Reference Re Secession of Quebec, set forth the conditions for negotiations to allow the Canadian provinces (though not territories) to leave the Canadian federal state but since that would require a constitutional amendment, there is no current "constitutional" method for withdrawal.
European Union
Its unique nature and the political sensitivities surrounding it cause there to be no common or legal classification for the European Union (EU). However, it bears some resemblance to both a confederation (or a "new" type of confederation) and a federation. The term supranational union has also been applied. The EU operates common economic policies with hundreds of common laws, which enable a single economic market, a common customs territory, (mainly) open internal borders, and a common currency among most member-states. However, unlike a federation, the EU does not have exclusive powers over foreign affairs, defence, and taxation. Furthermore, most EU laws, which have been developed by consensus between relevant national government ministers and then scrutinised and approved or rejected by the European Parliament, must be transposed into national law by national parliaments. Most collective decisions by member states are taken by weighted majorities and blocking minorities, rather than unanimity. Treaties or amendments to them require ratification by every member state before they can come into force.
However, some academic observers more usually discuss the EU in the terms of it being a federation. As the international law professor Joseph H. H. Weiler (of the Hague Academy and New York University) wrote, "Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism". Jean-Michel Josselin and Alain Marciano see the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg City as being a primary force behind the building of a federal legal order for the EU, with Josselin stating that a "complete shift from a confederation to a federation would have required to straight-forwardly replace the principality of the member states vis-à-vis the Union by that of the European citizens. As a consequence, both confederate and federate features coexist in the judicial landscape". Rutgers political science professor R. Daniel Kelemen said: "Those uncomfortable using the 'F' word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view the EU as a federal system". Thomas Risse and Tanja A. Börzel claim that the "EU only lacks two significant features of a federation. First, the Member States remain the 'masters' of the treaties, i.e., they have the exclusive power to amend or change the constitutive treaties of the EU. Second, the EU lacks a real 'tax and spend' capacity, in other words, there is no fiscal federalism".
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, the chairman of the body of experts commissioned to elaborate a constitutional charter for the European Union, was confronted with strong opposition from the United Kingdom towards including the words 'federal' or 'federation' in the unratified European Constitution and the word was replaced with either 'Community' or 'Union'.
Indigenous confederations in North America
In the context of the history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, a confederacy may refer to a semi-permanent political and military alliance consisting of multiple nations (or "tribes", "bands", or "villages"), which maintained their separate leadership. One of the most well-known is the Haudenosaunee (or Iroquois), but there were many others during different eras and locations across North America, such as the Wabanaki Confederacy, Western Confederacy, Powhatan, Seven Nations of Canada, Pontiac's Confederacy, Illinois Confederation, Tecumseh's Confederacy, Great Sioux Nation, Blackfoot Confederacy, Iron Confederacy and Council of Three Fires.
The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, historically known as the Iroquois League or the League of Five (later Six) Nations, is the country of Native Americans (in what is now the United States) and First Nations (in what is now Canada) that consists of six nations: the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Cayuga, the Seneca and the Tuscarora. The Six Nations have a representative government known as the Grand Council which is the oldest governmental institution still maintaining its original form in North America. Each clan from the five nations sends chiefs to act as representatives and make decisions for the whole confederation. It has been operating since its foundation in 1142 despite limited international recognition today.
Serbia and Montenegro
In 2003, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was transformed into the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, a confederation of the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Serbia. The state was constituted as a loose political union, but formally functioned as a sovereign subject of international law, and member of the United Nations. As a confederation, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro had very few shared functions, such as defense, foreign affairs and a weak common president, ministerial council and parliament.
The two constituent republics functioned separately throughout the period of its short existence, and they continued to operate under separate economic policies and to use separate currencies (the euro was and still is the only legal tender in Montenegro, and the dinar was and still is the legal tender in Serbia). On 21 May 2006, the Montenegrin independence referendum was held. The final official results indicated on 31 May that 55.5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The confederation effectively came to an end after Montenegro's formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006 and Serbia's formal declaration of independence on 5 June.
Switzerland
Switzerland, officially known as the Swiss Confederation, is an example of a modern country that traditionally refers to itself as a confederation because the official (and traditional) name of Switzerland in German (the majority language of the Swiss) is (literally "Swiss Comradeship by Oath"), an expression which was translated into the Latin (Helvetic Confederation). It had been a confederacy since its inception in 1291 as the Old Swiss Confederacy, which was originally created as an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps, until it became a federation in 1848 but it retains the name of Confederacy for reasons of historical tradition. The confederacy facilitated management of common interests (such as freedom from external domination especially from the Habsburg Empire, the development of republican institutions in a Europe dominated by monarchies and free trade), and it ensured peace between the different cultural entities of the area.
After the Sonderbund War of 1847, when some of the Catholic cantons of Switzerland attempted to set up a separate union ( in German) against the Protestant majority, a vote was held and the majority of the cantons approved the new Federal Constitution which changed the political system to one of a federation.
Union State of Russia and Belarus
In 1999, Russia and Belarus signed a treaty to form a confederation, which came into force on 26 January 2000. Although it was given the name Union State, and has some characteristics of a federation, it remains a confederation of two sovereign states. Its existence has been seen as an indication of Russia’s political and economic support for the Belarusian government. The confederation was created with the objective of co-ordinating common action on economic integration and foreign affairs. However, many of the treaty’s provisions have not yet been implemented. Consequently, The Times, in 2020, described it as “a mostly unimplemented confederation”.
Historical confederations
Historical confederations (especially those predating the 20th century) may not fit the current definition of a confederation, may be proclaimed as a federation but be confederal (or the reverse), and may not show any qualities that 21st-century political scientists might classify as those of a confederation.
List
Some have more the characteristics of a personal union, but appear here because of their self-styling as a "confederation":
See also
Associated state
Commonwealth
Federalism
Federation
List of confederations
References
Sources
External links
P.-J. Proudhon, The Principle of Federation, 1863.
The Fathers of Confederation
Confederation: The Creation of Canada
United Confederation of Taino People
Constitutional state types
Federalism
Political systems | [
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227097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%208%20%28Shostakovich%29 | String Quartet No. 8 (Shostakovich) | Dmitri Shostakovich's String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, Op. 110, was written in three days (12–14 July 1960).
Composition and performances
The piece was written shortly after Shostakovich reluctantly joined the Communist Party. According to the score, it is dedicated "to the victims of fascism and the war"; his son Maxim interprets this as a reference to the victims of all totalitarianism, while his daughter Galina says that he dedicated it to himself, and that the published dedication was imposed by the Russian authorities. Shostakovich's friend, Lev Lebedinsky, said that Shostakovich thought of the work as his epitaph and that he planned to commit suicide around this time. Peter J. Rabinowitz has also pointed to covert references to Richard Strauss's Metamorphosen in the Eighth Quartet.
The work was written in Dresden, where Shostakovich was to write music for the film Five Days, Five Nights, a joint project by Soviet and East German filmmakers about the bombing of Dresden in World War II.
The quartet was premiered in 1960 in Leningrad by the Beethoven Quartet. In the liner notes of the Borodin Quartet's 1962 recording, music critic Erik Smith writes, "The Borodin Quartet played this work to the composer at his Moscow home, hoping for his criticisms. But Shostakovich, overwhelmed by this beautiful realisation of his most personal feelings, buried his head in his hands and wept. When they had finished playing, the four musicians quietly packed up their instruments and stole out of the room."
Music
The quartet, extremely compact and focused, is in five interconnected movements and lasts about 20 minutes:
The first movement opens with the DSCH motif – Shostakovich's musical signature. This slow, extremely sad theme can also be heard in his Cello Concerto No. 1, Symphony No. 10, Violin Concerto No. 1, Symphony No. 15, and Piano Sonata No. 2. The motif is used in every movement of this quartet, and is the basis of the faster theme of the third movement.
The work is filled with quotations of other pieces by Shostakovich: the first movement quotes his Symphony No. 1 and Symphony No. 5; the second movement uses a Jewish theme first used by Shostakovich in his Piano Trio No. 2; the third movement quotes the Cello Concerto No. 1; and the fourth movement quotes the 19th century revolutionary song "Tormented by Grievous Bondage" ( , by Grigori Machtet) and the aria "Seryozha, my love" from Shostakovich's opera Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District. The fifth contains a play upon another motif from Lady Macbeth.
Rudolf Barshai transcribed the quartet for string orchestra, in which version it is known as Chamber Symphony in C minor, Op. 110a. Boris Giltburg arranged the quartet for piano solo. Other arrangements include Lucas Drew's Sinfonia for string orchestra and Abram Stasevich's Sinfonietta for string orchestra and timpani.
In literature
This quartet is heavily referenced in William T. Vollmann's novel Europe Central, and a central part of that novel discusses its writing and the composer's life under the Soviet system.
In film
The fourth movement of the quartet is used extensively in The Lobster, a 2015 film directed by Yorgos Lanthimos.
Notes
References
Ardov, Michael (2004); Memories of Shostakovich; Short Books.
Fay, Laurel (1999); Shostakovich: A Life; Oxford University Press.
Shostakovich, Dmitry, ed. Glikman, Isaak (2001). Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman. Cornell Univ Press. .
Yves Senden (2002); String Quartet No. 8 in c; Brilliant Classics 6898 [Rubio Quartet: "Shostakovich: Complete String Quartets"]
External links
Shostakovich: the string quartets
08
1960 compositions
Compositions in C minor
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227098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retro%20style | Retro style | Retro style is a style that is imitative or consciously derivative of lifestyles, trends, or art forms from the historical past, including in music, modes, fashions, or attitudes. In popular culture, the "nostalgia cycle" is typically for the two decades that are 20–30 years before the current one.
Definition
The term retro has been in use since 1972 to describe on the one hand, new artifacts that self-consciously refer to particular modes, motifs, techniques, and materials of the past. But on the other hand, many people use the term to categorize styles that have been created in the past. Retro style refers to new things that display characteristics of the past. Unlike the historicism of the Romantic generations, it is mostly the recent past that retro seeks to recapitulate, focusing on the products, fashions and artistic styles produced since the Industrial Revolution, the successive styles of Modernity. The English word retro derives from the Latin prefix retro, meaning backwards, or in past times.
In France, the word rétro, an abbreviation for rétrospectif, gained cultural currency with reevaluations of Charles de Gaulle and France's role in World War II. The French mode rétro of the 1970s reappraised in film and novels the conduct of French civilians during the Nazi occupation. The term rétro was soon applied to nostalgic French fashions that recalled the same period.
Shortly thereafter retro was introduced into English by the fashion and culture press, where it suggests a rather cynical revival of older but relatively recent fashions. In Simulacra and Simulation, French theorist Jean Baudrillard describes retro as a demythologization of the past, distancing the present from the big ideas that drove the modern age.
Most commonly retro is used to describe objects and attitudes from the recent past that never seem modern. It suggests a fundamental shift in the way we relate to the past. Different from more traditional forms of revivalism, "retro" suggests a half ironic, half longing consideration of the recent past; it has been called an "unsentimental nostalgia", recalling modern forms that are no longer current. The concept of nostalgia is linked to retro, but the bittersweet desire for things, persons, and situations of the past has an ironic stance in retro style. Retro shows nostalgia with a dose of cynicism and detachment. The desire to capture something from the past and evoke nostalgia is fuelled by dissatisfaction with the present.
Specific types of retro
Since the 1980s the implications of the word ‘retro’ have been expanding in the application to different media. Several fields have adopted the term retro from the design world.
Objects
Up until the 1960s, interiors were often decorated with antiques. During the 1960s in London, shops started selling pieces of second-hand furniture. These shops were different from the previous antique shops because they sold daily life objects from the recent past. These objects used to be seen as junk: Victorian enamel signs, stuffed bears, old furniture painted with union jacks, bowler hats etc. A new way of producing and consuming the past emerged and a broader range of objects from the recent past was used for new designs.
Before the word ‘retro’ came into use in the 1970s, the practice of adopting old styles for new designs was already common. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, designers borrowed from the past, for example, classicistic style. The difference is that since the 1960s people started to refer to the recent past.
In the 1980s, design history emerged as a discipline and several histories of design were published. The access to these overviews and the ability to experiment with computer design programs has caused an increase of retro designed objects in the last decades.
Interior design
Interior design magazines often show retro style as an interior decoration of mixed styles and objects from the past, second hand and new. For example, 1970s patterned wallpapers, combined with second-hand furniture also from the 1970s, the 1960s or 1950s. The value of old artifacts has increased, because the objects used to be considered old-fashioned and every day. In this case ‘retro’ indicates a value, which is also partly why today's retailers produce new objects in an old style.
Graphic design, typography, and packaging
Long before the use of the word ‘retro’, graphic design made reference to earlier graphic characteristics. William Morris can be seen as an example: for book design and other purposes he adopted Medieval production and stylistic models in 1891. Furthermore, in the beginning of the twentieth century, Gothic, Baroque and Rococo motifs were used for new products.
In typography, classicism has always been an influence and throughout the 20th century, and in early woodcut printing as well. The introduction of the technique of photocomposition in the 1960s allowed typographers greater flexibility in the selection and arrangement of type styles and sizes. For example, psychedelic typefaces were developed, gaining inspiration from Art Nouveau and other cultures. Historicist styles are also used in the promotion and packaging of food and household products, referring to childhood memories and domestic nostalgic ideals.
In logo designing, retro logos have taken quite the limelight in recent years. Brands have incorporated retro logos designs to highlight their brand voice and message: clean, classic, and reminiscent of the recent past.
Fashion design
In the 2000s and 2010s, there was a revival of pastel and neon colors, stereotypically associated with 1980s and early 1990s fashion (with the 1980s pastel revival itself actually being a rebirth of a 1950s trend). Also at this time, late 1980s-style high-waisted mom jeans made a comeback with female hipsters. In the 2010s and 2020s, 1990s fashion has made a comeback: many of the fabrics and patterns ubiquitous in that decade (such as crushed velvet and floral) are popular now, and Dr. Martens, a shoe brand popular in the 1990s, also made a strong comeback in the early 2010s, as 2011–12 was the British company's best-selling season of all-time.
Retro art
The style now called "retro art" is a genre of pop art which was developed from the 1940s to 1960s, in response to a need for bold, eye-catching graphics that were easy to reproduce on simple presses available at the time in major centres. Retro advertising art has experienced a resurgence in popularity since its style is distinctive from modern computer-generated styling. Contemporary artist Anne Taintor uses retro advertising art as the centerpiece for her ongoing commentary on the modern woman. Specific styling features include analog machine design, vintage television programs, etc.
Perhaps the most famous example of a retro pop-art character is the more generalized form of the Ward Cleaver-styled J. R. "Bob" Dobbs-esque icon which has been widely played off, copied, and parodied.
Media and culture
Film, music, fashion, and television
Foreshadowed by the Mothers of Invention album Cruising with Ruben & the Jets in 1968, and the revival/parody group Sha Na Na in 1969, the 1970s and 1980s brought about a 1950s–early 1960s revival with films and television shows such as American Graffiti, M*A*S*H, Grease, Happy Days and Peggy Sue Got Married set in this time period.
Retrogaming
Retrogaming is a pastime which is becoming increasingly popular where individuals play video games on vintage computers or a classic game consoles. What constitutes a vintage or retro machine is sometimes open to debate, but typically, most retro gamers are interested in Commodore 64, Amiga 500, Atari 2600, NES, Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Dreamcast, SNES, and classic Game Boy games and consoles. Emulation often plays a part in retrogaming if the original hardware is unavailable.
Aircraft
A handful of airlines have chosen to paint a historical livery on a single selected aircraft in their modern fleet, typically as a marketing device or to commemorate an anniversary.
See also
List of retro style video game consoles
Nostalgia
Retrofuturism
Retrotronics
Retro-style automobile
Steampunk
Throwback uniform
Vintage (design)
Notes
References
Robyns, Clem (1991). "Beyond the first dimension: recent tendencies in popular culture studies", in Joris Vlasselaers (Ed.) The Prince and the Frog, Leuven: ALW, 14–32.
The Retro Store, 2018: Website listing and displaying many retro related items.
Dermody, Brenda and Breathnach, Teresa (2009). New Retro: classic graphics, today's designs London: Thames & Hudson
Baker, Sarah Elsie (2012). Retailing Retro. Class, cultural capital and the material practices of the (re)valuation of style in European Journal of Cultural Studies, 15: 621,
Heller, Steven and Lasky, Julie (1993). Borrowed Design: The Use and Abuse of Historical Form, New York: Wiley
Woodham, Jonathan M. (2004). A Dictionary of Modern Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press
External links
Cultural trends
Nostalgia
1970s neologisms | [
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227100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver%20nitrate | Silver nitrate | Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with chemical formula . This salt is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, such as those used in photography. It is far less sensitive to light than the halides. It was once called lunar caustic because silver was called luna by ancient alchemists who associated silver with the moon. In solid silver nitrate, the silver ions are three-coordinated in a trigonal planar arrangement.
Synthesis and structure
Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, documented the ability of nitric acid to separate gold and silver by dissolving the silver. Indeed silver nitrate can be prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid followed by evaporation of the solution. The stoichiometry of the reaction depends upon the concentration of nitric acid used.
3 Ag + 4 HNO3 (cold and diluted) → 3 AgNO3 + 2 H2O + NO
Ag + 2 HNO3 (hot and concentrated) → AgNO3 + H2O + NO2
The structure of silver nitrate has been examined by X-ray crystallography several times. In the common orthorhombic form stable at ordinary temperature and pressure, the silver atoms form pairs with Ag---Ag contacts of 3.227 Å. Each Ag+ center is bonded to six oxygen centers of both uni- and bidentate nitrate ligands. The Ag-O distances range from 2.384 to 2.702 Å.
Reactions
A typical reaction with silver nitrate is to suspend a rod of copper in a solution of silver nitrate and leave it for a few hours. The silver nitrate reacts with copper to form hairlike crystals of silver metal and a blue solution of copper nitrate:
2 AgNO3 + Cu → Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
Silver nitrate decomposes when heated:
2 AgNO3(l) → 2 Ag(s) + O2(g) + 2 NO2(g)
Qualitatively, decomposition is negligible below the melting point, but becomes appreciable around 250 °C and fully decomposes at 440 °C.
Most metal nitrates thermally decompose to the respective oxides, but silver oxide decomposes at a lower temperature than silver nitrate, so the decomposition of silver nitrate yields elemental silver instead.
Uses
Precursor to other silver compounds
Silver nitrate is the least expensive salt of silver; it offers several other advantages as well. It is non-hygroscopic, in contrast to silver fluoroborate and silver perchlorate. It is relatively stable to light. Finally, it dissolves in numerous solvents, including water. The nitrate can be easily replaced by other ligands, rendering AgNO3 versatile. Treatment with solutions of halide ions gives a precipitate of AgX (X = Cl, Br, I). When making photographic film, silver nitrate is treated with halide salts of sodium or potassium to form insoluble silver halide in situ in photographic gelatin, which is then applied to strips of tri-acetate or polyester. Similarly, silver nitrate is used to prepare some silver-based explosives, such as the fulminate, azide, or acetylide, through a precipitation reaction.
Treatment of silver nitrate with base gives dark grey silver oxide:
2 AgNO3 + 2 NaOH → Ag2O + 2 NaNO3 + H2O
Halide abstraction
The silver cation, , reacts quickly with halide sources to produce the insoluble silver halide, which is a cream precipitate if is used, a white precipitate if is used and a yellow precipitate if is used. This reaction is commonly used in inorganic chemistry to abstract halides:
(aq) + (aq) → AgX(s)
where = , , or .
Other silver salts with non-coordinating anions, namely silver tetrafluoroborate and silver hexafluorophosphate are used for more demanding applications.
Similarly, this reaction is used in analytical chemistry to confirm the presence of chloride, bromide, or iodide ions. Samples are typically acidified with dilute nitric acid to remove interfering ions, e.g. carbonate ions and sulfide ions. This step avoids confusion of silver sulfide or silver carbonate precipitates with that of silver halides. The color of precipitate varies with the halide: white (silver chloride), pale yellow/cream (silver bromide), yellow (silver iodide). AgBr and especially AgI photo-decompose to the metal, as evidence by a grayish color on exposed samples.
The same reaction was used on steamships in order to determine whether or not boiler feedwater had been contaminated with seawater. It is still used to determine if moisture on formerly dry cargo is a result of condensation from humid air, or from seawater leaking through the hull.
Organic synthesis
Silver nitrate is used in many ways in organic synthesis, e.g. for deprotection and oxidations. binds alkenes reversibly, and silver nitrate has been used to separate mixtures of alkenes by selective absorption. The resulting adduct can be decomposed with ammonia to release the free alkene. Silver nitrate is highly soluble in water but is poorly soluble in most organic solvents, except acetonitrile (111.8 g/100 g, 25 °C).
Biology
In histology, silver nitrate is used for silver staining, for demonstrating reticular fibers, proteins and nucleic acids. For this reason it is also used to demonstrate proteins in PAGE gels. It can be used as a stain in scanning electron microscopy.
Indelible ink
Silver nitrate produces long-lasting stain when applied to skin. An electoral stain makes use of this to mark a finger of people who have voted in an election, allowing easy identification to prevent double-voting.
Medicine
Silver salts have antiseptic properties. In 1881 Credé introduced the use of dilute solutions of AgNO3 in newborn babies' eyes at birth to prevent contraction of gonorrhea from the mother, which could cause blindness. (Modern antibiotics are now used instead).
Fused silver nitrate, shaped into sticks, was traditionally called "lunar caustic". It is used as a cauterizing agent, for example to remove granulation tissue around a stoma. General Sir James Abbott noted in his journals that in India in 1827 it was infused by a British surgeon into wounds in his arm resulting from the bite of a mad dog to cauterize the wounds and prevent the onset of rabies.
Silver nitrate is used to cauterize superficial blood vessels in the nose to help prevent nose bleeds.
Dentists sometimes use silver nitrate-infused swabs to heal oral ulcers. Silver nitrate is used by some podiatrists to kill cells located in the nail bed.
The Canadian physician C. A. Douglas Ringrose researched the use of silver nitrate for sterilization procedures, believing that silver nitrate could be used to block and corrode the fallopian tubes. The technique was ineffective.
Disinfection
Much research has been done in evaluating the ability of the silver ion at inactivating Escherichia coli, a microorganism commonly used as an indicator for fecal contamination and as a surrogate for pathogens in drinking water treatment. Concentrations of silver nitrate evaluated in inactivation experiments range from 10–200 micrograms per liter as Ag+.
Silver's antimicrobial activity saw many applications prior to the discovery of modern antibiotics, when it fell into near disuse. Its association with argyria made consumers wary and led them to turn away from it when given an alternative.
Against warts
Repeated daily application of silver nitrate can induce adequate destruction of cutaneous warts, but occasionally pigmented scars may develop. In a placebo-controlled study of 70 patients, silver nitrate given over nine days resulted in clearance of all warts in 43% and improvement in warts in 26% one month after treatment compared to 11% and 14%, respectively, in the placebo group.
Safety
As an oxidant, silver nitrate should be properly stored away from organic compounds. Despite its common usage in extremely low concentrations to prevent gonorrhea and control nose bleeds, silver nitrate is still very toxic and corrosive. Brief exposure will not produce any immediate side effects other than the purple, brown or black stains on the skin, but upon constant exposure to high concentrations, side effects will be noticeable, which include burns. Long-term exposure may cause eye damage. Silver nitrate is known to be a skin and eye irritant. Silver nitrate has not been thoroughly investigated for potential carcinogenic effect.
Silver nitrate is currently unregulated in water sources by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. However, if more than 1 gram of silver is accumulated in the body, a condition called argyria may develop. Argyria is a permanent cosmetic condition in which the skin and internal organs turn a blue-gray color. The United States Environmental Protection Agency used to have a maximum contaminant limit for silver in water until 1990, when it was determined that argyria did not impact the function of any affected organs despite the discolouration. Argyria is more often associated with the consumption of colloidal silver solutions rather than with silver nitrate, since it is only used at extremely low concentrations to disinfect the water. However, it is still important to be wary before ingesting any sort of silver-ion solution.
References
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 1116
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
History of Kodak: About Film and Imaging
13th century in science
Antiseptics
Electron microscopy stains
Nitrates
Photographic chemicals
Silver compounds
Staining dyes
Alchemical substances
Light-sensitive chemicals
Oxidizing agents
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227101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20planning | Strategic planning | Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy.
It may also extend to control mechanisms for guiding the implementation of the strategy. Strategic planning became prominent in corporations during the 1960s and remains an important aspect of strategic management. It is executed by strategic planners or strategists, who involve many parties and research sources in their analysis of the organization and its relationship to the environment in which it competes.
Strategy has many definitions, but generally involves setting strategic goals, determining actions to achieve the goals, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by the means (resources). The senior leadership of an organization is generally tasked with determining strategy. Strategy can be planned (intended) or can be observed as a pattern of activity (emergent) as the organization adapts to its environment or competes.
Strategy includes processes of formulation and implementation; strategic planning helps coordinate both. However, strategic planning is analytical in nature (i.e., it involves "finding the dots"); strategy formation itself involves synthesis (i.e., "connecting the dots") via strategic thinking. As such, strategic planning occurs around the strategy formation activity.
Process
Overview
Strategic planning is a process and thus has inputs, activities, outputs and outcomes. This process, like all processes, has constraints. It may be formal or informal and is typically iterative, with feedback loops throughout the process. Some elements of the process may be continuous and others may be executed as discrete projects with a definitive start and end during a period. Strategic planning provides inputs for strategic thinking, which guides the actual strategy formation. Typical strategic planning efforts include the evaluation of the organization's mission and strategic issues to strengthen current practices and determine the need for new programming. The end result is the organization's strategy, including a diagnosis of the environment and competitive situation, a guiding policy on what the organization intends to accomplish, and key initiatives or action plans for achieving the guiding policy.
Michael Porter wrote in 1980 that formulation of competitive strategy includes consideration of four key elements:
Company strengths and weaknesses;
Personal values of the key implementers (i.e., management and the board);
Industry opportunities and threats;
Broader societal expectations.
The first two elements relate to factors internal to the company (i.e., the internal environment), while the latter two relate to factors external to the company (i.e., the external environment). These elements are considered throughout the strategic planning process.
Inputs
Data is gathered from a variety of sources, such as interviews with key executives, review of publicly available documents on the competition or market, primary research (e.g., visiting or observing competitor places of business or comparing prices), industry studies, etc. This may be part of a competitive intelligence program. Inputs are gathered to help support an understanding of the competitive environment and its opportunities and risks. Other inputs include an understanding of the values of key stakeholders, such as the board, shareholders, and senior management. These values may be captured in an organization's vision and mission statements.
Activities
Strategic planning activities include meetings and other communication among the organization's leaders and personnel to develop a common understanding regarding the competitive environment and what the organization's response to that environment (its strategy) should be. A variety of strategic planning tools (described in the section below) may be completed as part of strategic planning activities.
The organization's leaders may have a series of questions they want to be answered in formulating the strategy and gathering inputs, such as:
What is the organization's business or interest?
What is considered "value" to the customer or constituency?
Which products and services should be included or excluded from the portfolio of offerings?
What is the geographic scope of the organization?
What differentiates the organization from its competitors in the eyes of customers and other stakeholders?
Which skills and resources should be developed within the organization?
Outputs
The output of strategic planning includes documentation and communication describing the organization's strategy and how it should be implemented, sometimes referred to as the strategic plan. The strategy may include a diagnosis of the competitive situation, a guiding policy for achieving the organization's goals, and specific action plans to be implemented. A strategic plan may cover multiple years and be updated periodically.
The organization may use a variety of methods of measuring and monitoring progress towards the strategic objectives and measures established, such as a balanced scorecard or strategy map. Companies may also plan their financial statements (i.e., balance sheets, income statements, and cash flows) for several years when developing their strategic plan, as part of the goal-setting activity. The term operational budget is often used to describe the expected financial performance of an organization for the upcoming year. Capital budgets very often form the backbone of a strategic plan, especially as it increasingly relates to Information and Communications Technology (ICT).
Outcomes
Whilst the planning process produces outputs, as described above, strategy implementation or execution of the strategic plan produces Outcomes. These outcomes will invariably differ from the strategic goals. How close they are to the strategic goals and vision will determine the success or failure of the strategic plan. There will also arise unintended Outcomes, which need to be attended to and understood for strategy development and execution to be a true learning process.
Tools and approaches
A variety of analytical tools and techniques are used in strategic planning. These were developed by companies and management consulting firms to help provide a framework for strategic planning. Such tools include:
PEST analysis, which covers the remote external environment elements such as political, economic, social and technological (PESTLE adds legal/regulatory and ecological/environmental);
Scenario planning, which was originally used in the military and recently used by large corporations to analyze future scenarios. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition.;
Porter five forces analysis, which addresses industry attractiveness and rivalry through the bargaining power of buyers and suppliers and the threat of substitute products and new market entrants;
SWOT analysis, which addresses internal strengths and weaknesses relative to the external opportunities and threats;
Growth-share matrix, which involves portfolio decisions about which businesses to retain or divest; and
Balanced Scorecards and strategy maps, which creates a systematic framework for measuring and controlling strategy.
Responsive Evaluation, which uses a constructivist evaluation approach to identify the outcomes of objectives, which then supports future strategic planning exercises.
Strategic planning vs. financial planning
Simply extending financial statement projections into the future without consideration of the competitive environment is a form of financial planning or budgeting, not strategic planning. In business, the term "financial plan" is often used to describe the expected financial performance of an organization for future periods. The term "budget" is used for a financial plan for the upcoming year. A "forecast" is typically a combination of actual performance year-to-date plus expected performance for the remainder of the year, so is generally compared against plan or budget and prior performance. The financial plans accompanying a strategic plan may include 3–5 years of projected performance.
McKinsey & Company developed a capability maturity model in the 1970s to describe the sophistication of planning processes, with strategic management ranked the highest. The four stages include:
Financial planning, which is primarily about annual budgets and a functional focus, with limited regard for the environment;
Forecast-based planning, which includes multi-year financial plans and more robust capital allocation across business units;
Externally oriented planning, where a thorough situation analysis and competitive assessment is performed;
Strategic management, where widespread strategic thinking occurs and a well-defined strategic framework is used.
Categories 3 and 4 are strategic planning, while the first two categories are non-strategic or essentially financial planning. Each stage builds on the previous stages; that is, a stage 4 organization completes activities in all four categories.
For Michael C. Sekora, Project Socrates founder in the Reagan White House, during the cold war the economically challenged Soviet Union was able to keep on western military capabilities by using technology-based planning while the U.S. was slowed by finance-based planning, until the Reagan administration launched the Socrates Project, which should be revived to keep up with China as an emerging superpower.
Criticism
Strategic planning vs. strategic thinking
Strategic planning has been criticized for attempting to systematize strategic thinking and strategy formation, which Henry Mintzberg argues are inherently creative activities involving synthesis or "connecting the dots" which cannot be systematized. Mintzberg argues that strategic planning can help coordinate planning efforts and measure progress on strategic goals, but that it occurs "around" the strategy formation process rather than within it. Further, strategic planning functions remote from the "front lines" or contact with the competitive environment (i.e., in business, facing the customer where the effect of competition is most clearly evident) may not be effective at supporting strategy efforts.
Evidence on strategic planning's impact
While much criticism surrounds strategic planning, evidence suggests that it does work. In a recent meta-analysis including data from almost 9,000 public and private organizations, strategic planning is found to have a positive impact on organizational performance. Strategic planning is particularly potent in enhancing an organization's capacity to achieve its goals (i.e., effectiveness). However, the study argues that just having a plan is not enough. For strategic planning to work, it needs to include some formality (i.e., including an analysis of the internal and external environment and the stipulation of strategies, goals and plans based on these analyses), comprehensiveness (i.e., producing many strategic options before selecting the course to follow) and careful stakeholder management (i.e., thinking carefully about whom to involve during the different steps of the strategic planning process, how, when and why).
See also
Business strategy mapping
Chief strategy officer
Decision making software
Enterprise planning systems
Francis J. Aguilar
Growth planning
Hoshin Kanri
Integrated business planning
Marketing strategy
Military strategy and The Art of War for the origins
Operational planning
Situational analysis
Strategic lenses
Strategic planning software
Strategy Markup Language (StratML)
U.S. Army Strategist
References
Further reading
Michael Allison and Jude Kaye (2005). Strategic Planning for Nonprofit Organizations. Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons.
John Argenti (1968). Corporate Planning – A Practical Guide. Allen & Unwin.
John Argenti (1974). Systematic Corporate Planning. Wiley.
Bradford and Duncan (2000). Simplified Strategic Planning. Chandler House.
Patrick J. Burkhart and Suzanne Reuss (1993). Successful Strategic Planning: A Guide for Nonprofit Agencies and Organizations. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
L. Fahey and V. K. Narayman (1986). Macroenvironmental Analysis for Strategic Management. West Publishing.
Stephen G. Haines (2004). ABCs of strategic management: an executive briefing and plan-to-plan day on strategic management in the 21st century.
T. Kono (1994) "Changing a Company's Strategy and Culture", Long Range Planning, 27, 5 (October 1994), pp. 85–97
Philip Kotler (1986), "Megamarketing" In: Harvard Business Review. (March–April 1986)
Theodore Levitt (1960) "Marketing myopia", In: Harvard Business Review, (July–August 1960)
M. Lorenzen (2006). "Strategic Planning for Academic Library Instructional Programming." In: Illinois Libraries 86, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 22–29.
R. F. Lusch and V. N. Lusch (1987). Principles of Marketing. Kent Publishing,
Max Mckeown (2012), The Strategy Book, FT Prentice Hall.
John Naisbitt (1982). Megatrends: Ten New Directions Transforming our Lives. Macdonald.
Erica Olsen (2012). Strategic Planning Kit for Dummies, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Brian Tracy (2000). The 100 Absolutely Unbreakable Laws of Business Success. Berrett, Koehler Publishers.
Strategic management
Business planning
Business terms
Articles containing video clips
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227103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team%20building | Team building | Teambuilding is a collective term for various types of activities used to enhance social relations and define roles within teams, often involving collaborative tasks. It is distinct from team training, which is designed by a combine of business managers, learning and development/OD (Internal or external) and an HR Business Partner (if the role exists) to improve the efficiency, rather than interpersonal relations.
Many team-building exercises aim to expose and address interpersonal problems within the group.
Over time, these activities are intended to improve performance in a team-based environment. Team building is one of the foundations of organizational development that can be applied to groups such as sports teams, school classes, military units or flight crews. The formal definition of team-building includes:
aligning around goals
building effective working relationships
reducing team members' role ambiguity
finding solutions to team problems
Team building is one of the most widely used group-development activities in organizations. A common strategy is to have a "team-building retreat" or "corporate love-in," where team members try to address underlying concerns and build trust by engaging in activities that are not part of what they ordinarily do as a team.
Of all organizational activities, one study found team-development to have the strongest effect (versus financial measures) for improving organizational performance. A 2008 meta-analysis found that team-development activities, including team building and team training, improve both a team's objective performance and that team's subjective supervisory ratings. Team building can also be achieved by targeted personal self-disclosure activities.
Four approaches
Team building describe four approaches to team building:
Setting goals
This emphasizes the importance of clear objectives and individual and team goals. Team members become involved in action planning to identify ways to define success and failure and achieve goals. This is intended to strengthen motivation and foster a sense of ownership. By identifying specific outcomes and tests of incremental success, teams can measure their progress. Many organizations negotiate a team charter with the team and (union leaders)
Role clarification
This emphasizes improving team members' understanding of their own and others' respective roles and duties. This is intended to reduce ambiguity and foster understanding of the importance of structure by activities aimed at defining and adjusting roles. It emphasizes the members' interdependence and the value of having each member focus on their own role in the team's success.
Problem solving
This emphasizes identifying major problems
Interpersonal-relations
This emphasizes increasing teamwork skills such as giving and receiving support, communication and sharing. Teams with fewer interpersonal conflicts generally function more effectively than others. A facilitator guides the conversations to develop mutual trust and open communication between team members.
Effectiveness
The effectiveness of team building differs substantially from one organization to another. The most effective efforts occur when team members are interdependent, knowledgeable and experienced and when organizational leadership actively establishes and supports the team.
Effective team building incorporates an awareness of team objectives. Teams must work to develop goals, roles and procedures. As a result, team building is usually associated with increasing task accomplishment, goal meeting, and achievement of results within teams.
Some research indicates that team building is not as effective as it seems, and despite causing people to feel closer initially, that is often short-lived. This research indicates that starting with individual motivation is a better starting point than team building (focus on relationships and trust) when seeking to improve the level of quality collaboration.
Effect on performance
Team building has been scientifically shown to positively affect team effectiveness. Goal setting and role clarification were shown to have impact on cognitive, affective, process and performance outcomes. They had the most powerful impact on affective and process outcomes, which implies that team building can help benefit teams experiencing issues with negative affect, such as lack of cohesion or trust. It could also improve teams suffering from process issues, such as lack of clarification in roles.
Goal setting and role clarification have the greatest impact because they enhance motivation, reduce conflict and help to set individual purposes, goals and motivation.
Teams with 10 or more members appear to benefit the most from team building. This is attributed to larger teams having – generally speaking – a greater reservoir of cognitive resources and capabilities than smaller teams.
Challenges to team building
The term 'team building' is often used as a dodge when organizations are looking for a 'quick fix' to poor communication systems or unclear leadership directives, leading to unproductive teams with no clear of how to be successful. Team work is the best work.
Teams are then assembled to address specific problems, while the underlying causes are not ignored.
Dyer highlighted three challenges for team builders:
Lack of teamwork skills: One of the challenges facing leaders is to find team-oriented employees. Most organizations rely on educational institutions to have inculcated these skills into students. Dyer believed however, that students are encouraged to work individually and succeed without having to collaborate. This works against the kinds of behavior needed for teamwork. Another study found that team training improved cognitive, affective, process and performance outcomes.
Virtual workplaces and across organizational boundaries: according to Dyer, organizations individuals who are not in the same physical space increasingly work together. Members are typically unable to build concrete relationships with other team members. Another study found that face-to-face communication is very important in building an effective team environment. Face-to-face contact was key to developing trust. Formal team building sessions with a facilitator led the members to "agree to the relationship" and define how the teams were work. Informal contact was also mentioned.
Globalization and virtualisation: Teams increasingly include members who have dissimilar languages, cultures, values and problem-solving approaches problems. One-to-one meetings has been successful in some organizations.
Application of team building
Schools
Diana and Joseph claim that instructors can motivate students to develop teamwork skills and provide a guideline on how professors can help students build effective study/project teams. This approach emphasizes examples of job situations that require teamwork skills.
Instructor guidelines:
Define the objectives and associated tasks that make up the project. The most important instruction is clear timelines/deadlines.
Show the team how to define roles and underline that to succeed, every role must be fulfilled.
Stress the balance between task roles and relationships. Assigning task roles ensures that nothing is forgotten, while relationships minimizes misunderstanding and conflict.
Attend (some) team meetings and observe the discussions, sometimes without prior notice. Give constructive feedback on how to improve.
Diana and Joseph recognize seven basic rules:
Know your team members
Communicate accurately and unambiguously
Accept and support one another
Check for understanding
Share ideas and understanding
Check for agreement
Resolve conflicts quickly and constructively
Help the team create a problem solving system. Diana and Joseph provide a scoring system that lets students assess a conflict and see how to resolve the issue. For example, students may be at a 0–1 score of "no decision" where the members are unable to reach a consensus or a score of 10 where all are satisfied.
Teams log their meetings and activities so they know where they are and can see problems while they can be solved.
Organizations
Team building in organizations is a common approach to improving performance.
Fun is an important component to team building, but the intent is to become productive, focused, and aligned. Purely recreational activities can be helpful, but must be timed and consider the capabilities of team members (e.g., sports are not for everyone). Other activities geared toward creating a learning environment, exceeding results and engaging employees must be present.
Employee engagement exercises allow teams to create solutions that are meaningful to them, with direct impact on the individuals, the team and the organization. Experiential learning and ramification methods are effective ways to engage millennials in the workplace. Employee engagement is effective because:
employees enjoy problem-solving activities;
problem-solving creates ownership;
it can increase capacity;
competitive activities encourage a results-based outlook.
Outdoor activities can be an effective way to engage the team, but there are many different types of team building activities possible.
Sports
Team building was introduced in sports in the 1990s. A 2010 study that analyzed the effects of team building found that team building activities increase group cohesion.
According to Yukelson, "In sports, teams are made up of a collection of interdependent individuals, coordinated and orchestrated into various task efficient roles for the purpose of achieving goals and objectives that are deemed important for that particular team".
Team building in sports develops behaviors and skills that increase team functioning. One of the fundamental strategies is to emphasize team identity. This can be done by instilling a sense of shared destiny.
A study examined whether a team building intervention program that stressed the importance of goal setting increased cohesion: 86 high school basketball players were studied. The hypothesis employed season-long goal setting. Participants were asked to individually assign targets for the team and negotiate with other team members to finalize a goal score for the team.
In the control branch, the coach occasionally encouraged participants to cheer for and support other team members. The research concluded that at the beginning of the study, all the teams had the same level of cohesion, but the team with the season long goal setting intervention program performed better.
The level of team cohesion did not increase as a result of ceiling effect with the intervention program, but the level decreased significantly for the control group. This was attributed to the lack of emphasis on team goals.
Core components for building a successful sports team:
The coach communicates the goals and objectives to the team, defining roles and group norms.
Team members should know what is expected from them. Mission statements can encourage the team to support each in achieving the goals.
Team members should be trained that the team comes first and that each member is accountable for individual action and the actions of the team as a whole.
"Team culture refers to the psychosocial leadership within the team, team motives, team identity, team sport and collective efficacy". The coach builds a positive culture. This can be done during recruiting for team-oriented athletes.
Instill a sense of pride in group membership. Team identity can be created by motivating team members commit to team goals and have pride in performance.
Open and honest communication process can bring the team together. This includes both verbal and non-verbal communication. Trust, honesty, mutual sharing and understanding should be emphasized. The team members should be encouraged and given the chance to speak during debriefing sessions.
Teammates help each other before, after and during games.
See also
Group development
Industrial and organizational psychology
Leadership development
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Personal development
Socionics
Team management
Teamwork
Team effectiveness
Workplace politics
References
Industrial and organizational psychology
Teams | [
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227104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda%20Nobuyuki | Oda Nobuyuki | , also known as , was the son of Oda Nobuhide and younger brother of Oda Nobunaga, who lived during the Sengoku period of Japan.
Nobuyuki conspired against his brother Nobunaga with the Hayashi clan (Owari), which Nobunaga viewed as treason. Nobuyuki's Suemori Castle was reduced by Ikeda Nobuteru. Nobuyuki was pardoned, however in 1558 it was discovered that he had been planning yet another revolt and Nobuyuki was executed.
Family
Father: Oda Nobuhide (1510–1551)
Mother: Tsuchida Gozen (died 1594)
Brothers
Oda Nobuhiro (died 1574)
Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582)
Oda Nagamasu (1548–1622)
Oda Nobukane (1548–1614)
Oda Nobuharu (1549–1570)
Oda Nobutoki (died 1556)
Oda Nobuoki
Oda Hidetaka
Oda Hidenari
Oda Nobuteru
Oda Nagatoshi
Sisters:
Oichi (1547–1583)
Oinu
Sons:
Tsuda Nobusumi (1555–1583)
Tsuda Nobutada (:Ja:津田 信糺) (1555-1633)
Oda Nobukane (:Ja:織田信兼) (d.1583) Not to be confused with Oda Nobukane 織田信包
References
1536 births
1557 deaths
Samurai
Oda clan | [
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227105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pleasure%20Garden%20%281953%20film%29 | The Pleasure Garden (1953 film) | The Pleasure Garden is a short film written and directed by James Broughton in 1953. Among its crew was Peter Price as sound editor. Cast members included the subsequent director Lindsay Anderson and Broughton's artistic collaborator Kermit Sheets.
Plot
Filmed among the ruins of the Crystal Palace Terraces, The Pleasure Garden is a poetic ode to desire, and winner of the Prix de Fantasie Poetique at Cannes in 1954. Made by the American poet James Broughton, the film features Hattie Jacques and Lindsay Anderson, with John Le Mesurier as the bureaucrat determined to stamp out any form of free expression.
Cast
Hattie Jacques as Mrs Albion
Diana Maddox as Bess
Kermit Sheets as Sam
Jean Anderson as Aunt Minerva
John Le Mesurier as Colonel Pall K. Gargoyle
Maxine Audley as Lady Ennui
Derek Hart as Lord Ennui
Jill Bennett as Miss Kellerman
Lindsay Anderson as Michael-Angelico
John Heawood as Mr Nurmi
Hilary Mackendrick as Miss Wheeling
Gladys Spencer as Mrs Jennybelle
Gontron Goulden as Doctor Hemingway
Victoria Grayson as Miss Greaves
Mary Lee Settle as Mme Paganini
Daphne Hunter as Girl in Grass
DVD release
The Pleasure Garden was released on DVD in the UK by the BFI on 15 February 2010. The release also includes The Phoenix Tower (UK, 1957, 39 min.), a short documentary charting the construction of the BBC's Crystal Palace Television Tower, plus a fully illustrated booklet with film notes, an original review and a history of the Crystal Palace.
See also
List of avant-garde films of the 1950s
References
External links
1953 films
American films | [
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227107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual | Intellectual | An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for the normative problems of society. Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend a concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by either rejecting or producing or extending an ideology, and by defending a system of values.
Etymological background
"Man of letters"
The term "man of letters" derives from the French term belletrist or homme de lettres but is not synonymous with "an academic". A "man of letters" was a literate man, able to read and write, as opposed to an illiterate man in a time when literacy was rare and thus highly valued in the upper strata of society. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term Belletrist(s) came to be applied to the literati: the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the Republic of Letters, which evolved into the salon, a social institution, usually run by a hostess, meant for the edification, education, and cultural refinement of the participants.
In the late 19th century, when literacy was relatively common in European countries such as the United Kingdom, the "Man of Letters" (littérateur) denotation broadened to mean "specialized", a man who earned his living writing intellectually (not creatively) about literature: the essayist, the journalist, the critic, et al. In the 20th century, such an approach was gradually superseded by the academic method, and the term "Man of Letters" became disused, replaced by the generic term "intellectual", describing the intellectual person.
"Intellectual"
The earliest record of the English noun "intellectual" is found in the 19th century, where in 1813, Byron reports that 'I wish I may be well enough to listen to these intellectuals'. Over the course of the 19th century, other variants of the already established adjective 'intellectual' as a noun appeared in English and in French, where in the 1890s the noun ('intellectuels') formed from the adjective 'intellectuel' appeared with higher frequency in the literature.
Collini writes about this time that "[a]mong this cluster of linguistic experiments there occurred ... the occasional usage of ‘intellectuals’ as a plural noun to refer, usually with a figurative or ironic intent, to a collection of people who might be identified in terms of their intellectual inclinations or pretensions."
In early 19th century Britain, Samuel Taylor Coleridge coined the term clerisy, the intellectual class responsible for upholding and maintaining the national culture, the secular equivalent of the Anglican clergy. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia (1860s–70s), who were the status class of white-collar workers.
For Germany, the theologian Alister McGrath said that "the emergence of a socially alienated, theologically literate, antiestablishment lay intelligentsia is one of the more significant phenomena of the social history of Germany in the 1830s". An intellectual class in Europe was socially important, especially to self-styled intellectuals, whose participation in society's arts, politics, journalism, and education—of either nationalist, internationalist, or ethnic sentiment—constitute "vocation of the intellectual". Moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities (the academy) being synonymous with intellectualism.
In France, the Dreyfus affair (1894–1906), an identity crisis of anti-semitic nationalism for the French Third Republic (1870–1940), marked the full emergence of the "intellectual in public life", especially Émile Zola, Octave Mirbeau and Anatole France directly addressing the matter of French antisemitism to the public; thenceforward, "intellectual" became common, yet initially derogatory, usage; its French noun usage is attributed to Georges Clemenceau in 1898. Nevertheless, by 1930 the term "intellectual" passed from its earlier pejorative associations and restricted usages to a widely accepted term and it was because of the Dreyfus Affair that the term also acquired generally accepted use in English.
In the 20th century, the term intellectual acquired positive connotations of social prestige, derived from possessing intellect and intelligence, especially when the intellectual's activities exerted positive consequences in the public sphere and so increased the intellectual understanding of the public, by means of moral responsibility, altruism, and solidarity, without resorting to the manipulations of demagoguery, paternalism and incivility (condescension). The sociologist Frank Furedi said that "Intellectuals are not defined according to the jobs they do, but [by] the manner in which they act, the way they see themselves, and the [social and political] values that they uphold.
According to Thomas Sowell, as a descriptive term of person, personality, and profession, the word intellectual identifies three traits:
Educated; erudition for developing theories;
Productive; creates cultural capital in the fields of philosophy, literary criticism, and sociology, law, medicine, and science, etc.; and
Artistic; creates art in literature, music, painting, sculpture, etc.
Historical uses
In Latin language, at least starting from the Carolingian Empire, intellectuals could be called litterati, a term which is sometimes applied today.
The word intellectual is found in Indian scripture Mahabharata in the Bachelorette meeting (Swayambara Sava) of Draupadi. Immediately after Arjuna and Raja-Maharaja (kings-emperors) came to the meeting, Nipuna Buddhijibina (perfect intellectuals) appeared at the meeting.
In Imperial China in the period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were the Scholar-officials ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that:
In Joseon Korea (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as the chungin (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty.
Public intellectual
The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the public-affairs discourse of society, in addition to an academic career. Regardless of the academic field or the professional expertise, the public intellectual addresses and responds to the normative problems of society, and, as such, is expected to be an impartial critic who can "rise above the partial preoccupation of one's own profession—and engage with the global issues of truth, judgment, and taste of the time". In Representations of the Intellectual (1994), Edward Saïd said that the "true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society". Public intellectuals usually arise from the educated élite of a society; although the North American usage of the term "intellectual" includes the university academics. The difference between "intellectual" and "academic" is participation in the realm of public affairs.
Jürgen Habermas' Structural Transformation of Public Sphere (1963) made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private and public. Controversial, in the same year, was Ralf Dahrendorf's definition: “As the court-jesters of modern society, all intellectuals have the duty to doubt everything that is obvious, to make relative all authority, to ask all those questions that no one else dares to ask".
An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy. The Czech intellectual Václav Havel said that politics and intellectuals can be linked, but that moral responsibility for the intellectual's ideas, even when advocated by a politician, remains with the intellectual. Therefore, it is best to avoid utopian intellectuals who offer 'universal insights' to resolve the problems of political economy with public policies that might harm and that have harmed civil society; that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights and ideas; and should be heard as social critics of politics and power.
Public engagement
The determining factor for a Thinker (historian, philosopher, scientist, writer, artist) to be considered a public intellectual is the degree to which he or she is implicated and engaged with the vital reality of the contemporary world, i.e. participation in the public affairs of society. Consequently, being designated as a public intellectual is determined by the degree of influence of the designator's motivations, opinions, and options of action (social, political, ideological), and by affinity with the given thinker.
After the failure of the large-scale May 68 movement in France, intellectuals within the country were often maligned for having specific areas of expertise while discussing general subjects like democracy. Intellectuals increasingly claimed to be within marginalized groups rather than their spokespeople, and centered their activism on the social problems relevant to their areas of expertise (such as gender relations in the case of psychologists). A similar shift occurred in China after the Tiananmen Square Massacre from the "universal intellectual" (who plans better futures from within academia) to minjian ("grassroots") intellectuals, the latter group represented by such figures as Wang Xiaobo, social scientist Yu Jianrong, and Yanhuang Chunqiu editor Ding Dong.
Public policy
In the matters of public policy, the public intellectual connects scholarly research to the practical matters of solving societal problems. The British sociologist Michael Burawoy, an exponent of public sociology, said that professional sociology has failed, by giving insufficient attention to resolving social problems, and that a dialogue between the academic and the layman would bridge the gap. An example is how Chilean intellectuals worked to reestablish democracy within the right-wing, neoliberal governments of the Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–90), the Pinochet régime allowed professional opportunities for some liberal and left-wing social scientists to work as politicians and as consultants in effort to realize the theoretical economics of the Chicago Boys, but their access to power was contingent upon political pragmatism, abandoning the political neutrality of the academic intellectual.
In The Sociological Imagination (1959), C. Wright Mills said that academics had become ill-equipped for participating in public discourse, and that journalists usually are "more politically alert and knowledgeable than sociologists, economists, and especially ... political scientists". That, because the universities of the U.S. are bureaucratic, private businesses, they "do not teach critical reasoning to the student", who then does not "how to gauge what is going on in the general struggle for power in modern society". Likewise, Richard Rorty criticized the participation of intellectuals in public discourse as an example of the "civic irresponsibility of intellect, especially academic intellect".
The American legal scholar Richard Posner said that the participation of academic public intellectuals in the public life of society is characterized by logically untidy and politically biased statements of the kind that would be unacceptable to academia. That there are few ideologically and politically independent public intellectuals, and disapproves that public intellectuals limit themselves to practical matters of public policy, and not with values or public philosophy, or public ethics, or public theology, not with matters of moral and spiritual outrage.
Intellectual status class
Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology (i.e. conservatism, fascism, socialism, liberal, reactionary, revolutionary, democratic, communism), or by nationality (American intellectuals, French intellectuals, Ibero–American intellectuals, et al.). The term intelligentsiya originated from the of Tsarist Russia (–1870s), where it denotes the social stratum of those possessing intellectual formation (schooling, education), and who were Russian society's counterpart to the German Bildungsbürgertum and to the French bourgeoisie éclairée, the enlightened middle classes of those realms.
In Marxist philosophy, the social class function of the intellectuals (the intelligentsia) is to be the source of progressive ideas for the transformation of society: providing advice and counsel to the political leaders, interpreting the country's politics to the mass of the population (urban workers and peasants). In the pamphlet What Is to Be Done? (1902), Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) said that vanguard-party revolution required the participation of the intellectuals to explain the complexities of socialist ideology to the uneducated proletariat and the urban industrial workers in order to integrate them to the revolution because "the history of all countries shows that the working class, exclusively by its own efforts, is able to develop only trade-union consciousness" and will settle for the limited, socio-economic gains so achieved. In Russia as in Continental Europe, socialist theory was the product of the "educated representatives of the propertied classes", of "revolutionary socialist intellectuals", such as were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
The Hungarian Marxist philosopher György Lukács (1885–1971) identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers and peasants the "Who?", the "How?" and the "Why?" of the social, economic and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society.
The Italian communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) developed Karl Marx's conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere. That because "all knowledge is existentially-based", the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are "spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests". That intellectuals occur in each social class and throughout the right-wing, the centre and the left-wing of the political spectrum and that as a social class the "intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class" of their society.
Addressing their role as a social class, Jean-Paul Sartre said that intellectuals are the moral conscience of their age; that their moral and ethical responsibilities are to observe the socio-political moment, and to freely speak to their society, in accordance with their consciences.
The British historian Norman Stone said that the intellectual social class misunderstand the reality of society and so are doomed to the errors of logical fallacy, ideological stupidity, and poor planning hampered by ideology. In her memoirs, the Conservative politician Margaret Thatcher wrote that the anti-monarchical French Revolution (1789–1799) was "a utopian attempt to overthrow a traditional order [...] in the name of abstract ideas, formulated by vain intellectuals".
Latin America
The American academic Peter H. Smith describes the intellectuals of Latin America as people from an identifiable social class, who have been conditioned by that common experience and thus are inclined to share a set of common assumptions (values and ethics); that ninety-four per cent of intellectuals come either from the middle class or from the upper class and that only six per cent come from the working class.
Philosopher Steven Fuller said that because cultural capital confers power and social status as a status group they must be autonomous in order to be credible as intellectuals:
United States
The 19th-century U.S. Congregational theologian Edwards Amasa Park said: "We do wrong to our own minds, when we carry out scientific difficulties down to the arena of popular dissension". In his view, it was necessary for the sake of social, economic and political stability "to separate the serious, technical role of professionals from their responsibility [for] supplying usable philosophies for the general public". This expresses a dichotomy, derived from Plato, between public knowledge and private knowledge, "civic culture" and "professional culture", the intellectual sphere of life and the life of ordinary people in society.
In the United States, members of the intellectual status class have been demographically characterized as people who hold liberal-to-leftist political perspectives about guns-or-butter fiscal policy.
In "The Intellectuals and Socialism" (1949), Friedrich Hayek wrote that "journalists, teachers, ministers, lecturers, publicists, radio commentators, writers of fiction, cartoonists, and artists" form an intellectual social class whose function is to communicate the complex and specialized knowledge of the scientist to the general public. He argued that intellectuals were attracted to socialism or social democracy because the socialists offered "broad visions; the spacious comprehension of the social order, as a whole, which a planned system promises" and that such broad-vision philosophies "succeeded in inspiring the imagination of the intellectuals" to change and improve their societies. According to Hayek, intellectuals disproportionately support socialism for idealistic and utopian reasons that cannot be realized in practice.
Persecution of intellectuals
Totalitarian governments manipulate and apply anti-intellectualism to repress political dissent. During the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and the following dictatorship (1939–1975) of General Francisco Franco, the reactionary repression of the White Terror (1936–1945) was notably anti-intellectual, with most of the 200,000 civilians killed being the Spanish intelligentsia, the politically active teachers and academics, artists and writers of the deposed Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939). Intellectuals were also targeted by the Nazis, the Communist regime in China, the Khmer Rouge, the Young Turks, and in conflicts in Bangladesh, the former Yugoslavia, and Poland.
Criticism
The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre noted that "the Intellectual is someone who meddles in what does not concern them. (L'intellectuel est quelqu'un qui se mêle de ce qui ne le regarde pas.)".
Noam Chomsky expressed the view that "intellectuals are specialists in defamation, they are basically political commissars, they are the ideological administrators, the most threatened by dissidence.". In the article "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", Chomsky analyzes the intellectual culture in the U.S., and argues that it is largely subservient to power. He is particularly critical of social scientists and technocrats, who provide a pseudo-scientific justification for the crimes of the state.
In "An Interview with Milton Friedman" (1974), the American economist Milton Friedman said that businessmen and intellectuals are enemies of capitalism: most intellectuals believed in socialism while businessmen expected economic privileges. In his essay "Why Do Intellectuals Oppose Capitalism?" (1998), the American libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick of the Cato Institute argued that intellectuals become embittered leftists because their superior intellectual work, much rewarded at school and at university, are undervalued and underpaid in the capitalist market economy. Thus, intellectuals turn against capitalism despite enjoying more socioeconomic status than the average person.
The economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book Intellectuals and Society (2010) that intellectuals, who are producers of knowledge, not material goods, tend to speak outside their own areas of expertise, and yet expect social and professional benefits from the halo effect derived from possessing professional expertise. In relation to other professions, public intellectuals are socially detached from the negative and unintended consequences of public policy derived from their ideas. Sowell gives the example of Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), who advised the British government against national rearmament in the years before the First World War.
References
Bibliography
Aron, Raymond (1962) The Opium of the Intellectuals. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.
Basov, Nikita et al. (2010). The Intellectual: A Phenomenon in Multidimensional Perspectives, Inter-Disciplinary Press.
Bates, David, ed., (2007). Marxism, Intellectuals and Politics. London: Palgrave.
Benchimol, Alex. (2016) Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (London: Routledge).
Benda, Julien (2003). The Treason of the Intellectuals. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.
Camp, Roderic (1985). Intellectuals and the State in Twentieth-Century Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Coleman, Peter (2010) The Last Intellectuals. Sydney: Quadrant Books.
Di Leo, Jeffrey R., and Peter Hitchcock, eds. (2016) The New Public Intellectual: Politics, Theory, and the Public Sphere. (Springer).
Finkielkraut, Alain (1995). The Defeat of the Mind. Columbia University Press.
Gella, Aleksander, Ed., (1976). The Intelligentsia and the Intellectuals. California: Sage Publication.
Gouldner, Alvin W. (1979). The Future of the Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class. New York: The Seabury Press.
Gross, John (1969). The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters. New York: Macmillan.
Huszar, George B. de, ed., (1960). The Intellectuals: A Controversial Portrait. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Anthology with many contributors.
Johnson, Paul (1990). Intellectuals. New York: Harper Perennial . Highly ideological criticisms of Rousseau, Shelley, Marx, Ibsen, Tolstoy, Hemingway, Bertrand Russell, Brecht, Sartre, Edmund Wilson, Victor Gollancz, Lillian Hellman, Cyril Connolly, Norman Mailer, James Baldwin, Kenneth Tynan, Noam Chomsky, and others.
Kennedy, Michael D. (2015). Globalizing knowledge: Intellectuals, universities and publics in transformation (Stanford University Press). 424pp online review.
Konrad, George et al. (1979). The Intellectuals On The Road To Class Power. Sussex: Harvester Press.
Lasch, Christopher (1997). The New Radicalism in America, 1889–1963: The Intellectual as a Social Type. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
Lemert, Charles (1991). Intellectuals and Politics. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.
McCaughan, Michael (2000). True Crime: Rodolfo Walsh and the Role of the Intellectual in Latin American Politics. Latin America Bureau .
Michael, John (2000). Anxious Intellects: Academic Professionals, Public Intellectuals, and Enlightenment Values. Duke University Press.
Misztal, Barbara A. (2007). Intellectuals and the Public Good. Cambridge University Press.
Molnar, Thomas (1961). The Decline of the Intellectual. Cleveland: The World Publishing Company.
Piereson, James (2006). "The Rise & Fall of the Intellectual," The New Criterion, Vol. XXV, p. 52.
Posner, Richard A. (2002). Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
Rieff, Philip, Ed., (1969). On Intellectuals. New York: Doubleday & Co.
Sawyer, S., and Iain Stewart, eds. (2016) In Search of the Liberal Moment: Democracy, Anti-totalitarianism, and Intellectual Politics in France since 1950 (Springer).
Showalter, Elaine (2001). Inventing Herself: Claiming A Feminist Intellectual Heritage. London: Picador.
Viereck, Peter (1953). Shame and Glory of the Intellectuals. Boston: Beacon Press.
Further reading
Aczél, Tamás & Méray, Tibor. (1959) The Revolt of the Mind. New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
Barzun, Jacques (1959). The House of Intellect. New York: Harper.
Berman, Paul (2010). The Flight of the Intellectuals. New York: Melville House.
Carey, John (2005). The Intellectuals And The Masses: Pride and Prejudice Among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939. Chicago Review Press.
Chomsky, Noam (1968). "The Responsibility of Intellectuals." In: The Dissenting Academy, ed. Theolord Roszak. New York: Pantheon Books, pp. 254–298.
Grayling, A.C. (2013). "Do Public Intellectuals Matter?," Prospect Magazine, No. 206.
Hamburger, Joseph (1966). Intellectuals in Politics. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hayek, F.A. (1949). "The Intellectuals and Socialism," The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. XVI, No. 3, pp. 417–433.
Huizinga, Johan (1936). In the Shadows of Tomorrow. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Kidder, David S., Oppenheim, Noah D., (2006). The Intellectual Devotional. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Books .
Laruelle, François (2014). Intellectuals and Power. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Lilla, Mark (2003). The Reckless Mind – Intellectuals in Politics. New York: New York Review Books.
Lukacs, John A. (1958). "Intellectuals, Catholics, and the Intellectual Life," Modern Age, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 40–53.
MacDonald, Heather (2001). The Burden of Bad Ideas. New York: Ivan R. Dee.
Milosz, Czeslaw (1990). The Captive Mind. New York: Vintage Books.
Molnar, Thomas (1958). "Intellectuals, Experts, and the Classless Society," Modern Age, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 33–39.
Moses, A. Dirk (2009) German Intellectuals and the Nazi Past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rothbard, Murray N. (1989). "World War I as Fulfillment: Power and the Intellectuals," The Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 81–125.
Sapiro, Gisèle. (2014). The French Writers' War 1940–1953 (1999; English edition 2014); highly influential study of intellectuals in the French Resistance online review.
Shapiro, J. Salwyn (1920). "The Revolutionary Intellectual," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CXXV, pp. 320–330.
Shenfield, Arthur A. (1970). "The Ugly Intellectual," The Modern Age, Vol. XVI, No. 1, pp. 9–14.
Shlapentokh, Vladimir (1990) Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Shore, Marci (2009). Caviar and Ashes. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Small, Helen (2002). The Public Intellectual. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Strunsky, Simeon (1921). "Intellectuals and Highbrows," Part II, Vanity Fair, Vol. XV, pp. 52, 92.
Whittington-Egan, Richard (2003-08-01). "The Vanishing Man of Letters: Part One". Contemporary Review.
Whittington-Egan, Richard (2003-10-01). "The Vanishing Man of Letters: Part Two". Contemporary Review.
Wolin, Richard (2010). The Wind from the East: French Intellectuals, the Culture Revolution and the Legacy of the 1960s. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
External links
The Responsibility of Intellectuals, by Noam Chomsky, 23 February 1967.
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"The Optimist's Book Club", The New Haven Advocate—discussion of public intellectuals in the 21st century.
1810s neologisms
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Intellectual history
Occupations
Positions of authority
Social classes
Sociology of culture
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and elsewhere | [
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227108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership%20development | Leadership development | Leadership development is the process which helps expand the capacity of individuals to perform in leadership roles within organizations. Leadership roles are those that facilitate execution of an organization's strategy through building alignment, winning mindshare and growing the capabilities of others. Leadership roles may be formal, with the corresponding authority to make decisions and take responsibility, or they may be informal roles with little official authority (e.g., a member of a team who influences team engagement, purpose and direction; a lateral peer who must listen and negotiate through influence).
Developing individual leaders
Traditionally, leadership development has focused on developing the leadership abilities and attitudes of individuals.
Different personal trait and characteristics can help or hinder a person's leadership effectiveness and require formalized programs for developing leadership competencies.
Classroom-style training and associated reading for leadership development may ail from the possible divergence between knowing what to do and doing what one knows; management expert Henry Mintzberg is one person to highlight this dilemma. It is estimated that as little as 15% of learning from traditional classroom-style training results in sustained behavioral change within workplaces.
The success of leadership development efforts has been linked to three variables:
Individual learner characteristics
Quality and nature of the leadership development program
Support for behavioral change from the leader's supervisor.
Military officer-training academies, such as the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, go to great lengths to accept only candidates who show the highest potential to lead well. Personal characteristics that are associated with successful leadership development include leader motivation to learn, a high achievement drive and personality traits such as openness to experience, an internal focus of control, and self-monitoring. In order to develop individual leaders, supervisors or superiors must conduct an individual assessment.
Development is also more likely to occur when the design of the development program:
Integrates a range of developmental experiences over a set period of time (e.g., 6–12 months). These experiences may include 360 degree feedback, experiential classroom style programs, business school style coursework, executive coaching, reflective journaling, mentoring and more.
Involves goal-setting, following an assessment of key developmental needs and then an evaluation of the achievement of goals after a given time period.
Among key concepts in leadership development one may find:
Experiential learning: Positioning the individual in the focus of the learning process, going through the four stages of experiential learning as formulated by David A. Kolb:
Concrete experience.
Observation and reflection.
Forming abstract concepts.
Testing in new situations.
Self efficacy: The right training and coaching should bring about 'self efficacy' in the trainee, as Albert Bandura formulated: a person's belief about his capabilities to produce effects.
Visioning: Developing the ability to formulate a clear image of the aspired future of an organization unit.
Attitude: Attitude plays a major role in being a leader.
Developing leadership at a collective level
Leadership can also be developed by strengthening the connection between, and alignment of, the efforts of individual leaders and the systems through which they influence organizational operations. This has led to a differentiation between leader development and leadership development.
Leadership development can build on the development of individuals (including followers) to become leaders. It also needs to focus on the interpersonal linkages in the team.
Following the credo of people as an organization's most valuable resource , some organizations address the development of these resources (including leadership).
In contrast, the concept of "employeeship" recognizes that what it takes to be a good leader is not too dissimilar to what it takes to be a good employee. Therefore, bringing the notional leader together with the team to explore these similarities (rather than focusing on the differences) brings positive results. This approach has been particularly successful in Sweden where the power distance between manager and team is small.
Succession planning
The development of "high potentials" to take over leadership when the time comes the current leadership to leave their positions is known as succession planning. This type of leadership development usually requires the extensive transfer of an individual between departments. In many multinationals, it usually requires international transfer and experience to build a future leader.
Succession planning requires a sharp focus on the organization's future and vision, in order to align leadership development with the future that the organization aspires to create. Thus successive leadership development is based not only on knowledge and history but also on a dream. For such a plan to be successful, a screening of future leadership should be based not only on "what we know and have" but also on "what we aspire to become".
Persons involved in succession planning should include current leadership members who can articulate the future vision. Three critical dimensions should be considered:
Skills and knowledge;
Role perception and degree of acceptance of leading role; and,
Self-efficacy.
See also
Action learning
Organization development
Executive education
Business acumen
Collaborative leadership
Leadership Studies
Trait Leadership
YGLP
Halogen Foundation, an international programme to develop young leaders
Kolb's experiential learning
References
Human resource management
Leadership studies | [
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227109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamer | Lamer | Lamer is a jargon or slang name originally applied in cracker and phreaker culture to someone who did not really understand what they were doing. Today it is also loosely applied by IRC, BBS, demosceners, and online gaming users to anyone perceived to be contemptible. In general, the term has come to describe someone who is willfully ignorant of how things work. It is derived from the word "lame".
A lamer is sometimes understood to be the antithesis of a hacker. While a hacker strives to understand the mechanisms behind what they use, even when such extended knowledge would have no practical value, a lamer only cares to learn the bare minimum necessary to operate the device in the way originally intended.
Origin
At least one example of the term "lamer" to mean "a dull, stupid, inept, or contemptible person" appeared as early as 1961. It was popularized among Amiga crackers of the mid-1980s by "Lamer Exterminator", a notable Amiga virus, which gradually corrupted non-write-protected floppy disks with bad sectors. The bad sectors, when examined, were overwritten with repetitions of the string "LAMER!".
In phreak culture, a lamer is one who scams codes from others and lacks understanding of the fundamental concepts. In warez culture, where the ability to distribute cracked commercial software within days of (or before) release to the commercial market is much esteemed, the lamer might try to upload garbage, shareware, or outdated releases.
See also
Luser
Noob
Script kiddie
References
External links
Definition of lame - Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
Definition of Lamer - Jargon File - Origination of term lamer.
Pejorative terms for people
Computer jargon | [
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227111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Benjamin | Walter Benjamin | Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin (; ; 15 July 1892 – 26 September 1940) was a German Jewish philosopher, cultural critic and essayist. An eclectic thinker, combining elements of German idealism, Romanticism, Western Marxism, and Jewish mysticism, Benjamin made enduring and influential contributions to aesthetic theory, literary criticism, and historical materialism. He was associated with the Frankfurt School, and also maintained formative friendships with thinkers such as playwright Bertolt Brecht and Kabbalah scholar Gershom Scholem. He was also related to German political theorist and philosopher Hannah Arendt through her first marriage to Benjamin's cousin Günther Anders.
Among Benjamin's best known works are the essays "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935), and "Theses on the Philosophy of History" (1940). His major work as a literary critic included essays on Baudelaire, Goethe, Kafka, Kraus, Leskov, Proust, Walser, and translation theory. He also made major translations into German of the Tableaux Parisiens section of Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal and parts of Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu. In 1940, at the age of 48, Benjamin committed suicide at Portbou on the French–Spanish border while attempting to escape from the invading Wehrmacht. Though popular acclaim eluded him during his life, the decades following his death won his work posthumous renown.
Life
Early life and education
Benjamin and his younger siblings, Georg (1895–1942) and Dora (1901–1946), were born to a wealthy business family of assimilated Ashkenazi Jews in the Berlin of the German Empire (1871–1918). The patriarch of Walter Benjamin's family, Emil Benjamin, was a banker in Paris who had relocated from France to Germany, where he worked as an antiques trader in Berlin; he later married Pauline Schönflies. He owned a number of investments in Berlin, including ice skating rinks. Benjamin's uncle William Stern (born Wilhelm Louis Stern; 1871-1938) was a prominent German child psychologist who developed the concept of the intelligence quotient (IQ), and Benjamin's cousin Günther Anders (born Günther Siegmund Stern; 1902-1992) was a German philosopher and anti-nuclear activist who studied under Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Through his mother, his great-uncle was the classical archaeologist Gustav Hirschfeld. In 1902, ten-year-old Walter was enrolled to the Kaiser Friedrich School in Charlottenburg; he completed his secondary school studies ten years later. Walter was of fragile health and so in 1905 the family sent him to Hermann-Lietz-Schule Haubinda, a boarding school in the Thuringian countryside, for two years; in 1907, having returned to Berlin, he resumed his schooling at the Kaiser Friedrich School.
In 1912, at the age of 20, he enrolled at the University of Freiburg, but at summer semester's end returned to Berlin, then matriculated at the University of Berlin to continue studying philosophy. There Benjamin had his first exposure to Zionism, which had not been part of his liberal upbringing. This gave him occasion to formulate his own ideas about the meaning of Judaism. Benjamin distanced himself from political and nationalist Zionism, instead developing in his own thinking what he called a kind of "cultural Zionism"—an attitude that recognized and promoted Judaism and Jewish values. In Benjamin's formulation his Jewishness meant a commitment to the furtherance of European culture. He wrote, "My life experience led me to this insight: the Jews represent an elite in the ranks of the spiritually active ... For Judaism is to me in no sense an end in itself, but the most distinguished bearer and representative of the spiritual." This was a position Benjamin largely held lifelong.
It was as a speaker and debater in the milieu of the Gustav Wyneken's German Youth Movement that Benjamin was first encountered by Gershom Scholem and later Martin Buber although he'd parted ways with the youth group before they'd become properly acquainted. Elected president of the Freie Studentenschaft (Free Students Association), Benjamin wrote essays arguing for educational and general cultural change. When not reelected as student association president, he returned to Freiburg University to study, with particular attention to the lectures of Heinrich Rickert; at that time he traveled to France and Italy.
His attempt to volunteer for service at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 was rejected by the army. Benjamin later feigned illnesses to avoid conscription, allowing him to continue his studies and his translations of works by French poet Charles Baudelaire. His conspicuous refuge in Switzerland on dubious medical grounds was a likely factor in his ongoing challenges in obtaining academic employment after the war.
The next year, 1915, he moved to Munich, and continued his schooling at the University of Munich, where he met Rainer Maria Rilke and Gershom Scholem; the latter became a friend. In that year, Benjamin wrote about the 18th-century Romantic German poet Friedrich Hölderlin.
In 1917 Benjamin transferred to the University of Bern; there he met Ernst Bloch, and Dora Sophie Pollak (née Kellner), whom he married. They had a son, Stefan Rafael, in 1918. In 1919 Benjamin earned his Ph.D. cum laude with the dissertation Der Begriff der Kunstkritik in der deutschen Romantik (The Concept of Art Criticism in German Romanticism).
For his post-doctoral thesis in 1920, Benjamin hit upon an idea very similar to the thesis proposed by Heidegger in the latter's own postdoctoral project (Dun Scotus: Theory of Categories and Meaning). Wolfram Eilenberger writes that Benjamin's plan was, "to legitimize [his theory of language] with reference to a largely forgotten tradition [found in the archaic writings of Duns Scotus], and to strike the sparks of systematization from the apparent disjunct among modern, logical, and analytical linguistic philosophy and medieval speculations on language that fell under the heading of theology." After Gershom Scholem sympathetically informed his friend that his interest in the concept had been pre-empted by Heidegger's earlier publication, Benjamin seems to have derived a lifelong antagonism toward the rival philosopher whose major insights, over the course of both of their careers, sometimes overlapped and sometimes conflicted with Benjamin's. Incidentally Heidegger, at the time, was soon to embark on a love-affair with Hannah Arendt, later related to Benjamin though marriage to his cousin.
Later, unable to support himself and family, he returned to Berlin and resided with his parents. In 1921 he published the essay Kritik der Gewalt (Critique of Violence). At this time Benjamin first became socially acquainted with Leo Strauss, and he remained an admirer of Strauss and his work throughout his life.
Career
In 1923, when the Institute for Social Research was founded, later to become home to the Frankfurt School, Benjamin published Charles Baudelaire, Tableaux Parisiens. At that time he became acquainted with Theodor Adorno and befriended Georg Lukács, whose The Theory of the Novel (1920) much influenced him. Meanwhile, the inflation in the Weimar Republic consequent to the war made it difficult for Emil Benjamin to continue supporting his son's family. At the end of 1923 Scholem emigrated to Palestine, a country under the British Mandate of Palestine; despite repeated invitations, he failed to persuade Benjamin (and family) to leave the Continent for the Middle East.
In 1924 Hugo von Hofmannsthal, in the Neue Deutsche Beiträge magazine, published Benjamin's "Goethes Wahlverwandtschaften" ("Goethe's Elective Affinities"), about Goethe's third novel, Die Wahlverwandtschaften (1809). Later that year Benjamin and Bloch resided on the Italian island of Capri; Benjamin wrote Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels (The Origin of German Tragic Drama) as a habilitation dissertation meant to qualify him as a tenured university professor in Germany. At Bloch's suggestion, he read Lukács's History and Class Consciousness (1923). He also met the Latvian Bolshevik and actress Asja Lācis, then residing in Moscow; he became her lover and was a lasting intellectual influence on him.
A year later, in 1925, Benjamin withdrew The Origin of German Tragic Drama as his possible qualification for the habilitation teaching credential at the University of Frankfurt at Frankfurt am Main, fearing its possible rejection; he was not to be an academic instructor. Working with Franz Hessel he translated the first volumes of Marcel Proust's À la Recherche du Temps Perdu (In Search of Lost Time). The next year, 1926, he began writing for the German newspapers Frankfurter Zeitung (The Frankfurt Times) and Die Literarische Welt (The Literary World); that paid enough for him to reside in Paris for some months. In December 1926, the year his father died, Benjamin went to Moscow to meet Lācis and found her ill in a sanatorium.
In 1927, he began Das Passagen-Werk (The Arcades Project), his uncompleted magnum opus, a study of 19th-century Parisian life. The same year, he saw Scholem in Berlin, for the last time, and considered emigrating from Germany to Palestine. In 1928, he and Dora separated (they divorced two years later, in 1930); in the same year he published Einbahnstraße (One-Way Street), and a revision of his habilitation dissertation Ursprung des Deutschen Trauerspiels (The Origin of German Tragic Drama). In 1929 Berlin, Lācis, then an assistant to Bertolt Brecht, socially presented the intellectuals to each other. In that time, he also briefly embarked upon an academic career, as an instructor at the University of Heidelberg.
Exile and death
In 1932, during the turmoil preceding Adolf Hitler's assumption of the office of Chancellor of Germany, Benjamin left Germany for the Spanish island of Ibiza for some months; he then moved to Nice, where he considered killing himself. Perceiving the sociopolitical and cultural significance of the Reichstag fire (27 February 1933) as the de facto Nazi assumption of full power in Germany, then manifest with the subsequent persecution of the Jews, he moved to Paris, but before doing so he sought shelter in Svendborg, at Bertolt Brecht's house, and at Sanremo, where his ex-wife Dora lived.
As he ran out of money, Benjamin collaborated with Max Horkheimer, and received funds from the Institute for Social Research, later going permanently into exile. In Paris, he met other refugee German artists and intellectuals; he befriended Hannah Arendt, novelist Hermann Hesse, and composer Kurt Weill. In 1936, a first version of "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (originally written in German in 1935) was published in French ("L'œuvre d'art à l'époque de sa reproduction méchanisée") by Max Horkheimer in the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung journal of the Institute for Social Research. It was a critique of the authenticity of mass-produced art; he wrote that a mechanically produced copy of an artwork can be taken somewhere the original could never have gone, arguing that the presence of the original is "prerequisite to the concept of authenticity". In 1937 Benjamin worked on "Das Paris des Second Empire bei Baudelaire" ("The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire"), met Georges Bataille (to whom he later entrusted the Arcades Project manuscript), and joined the College of Sociology. In 1938 he paid a last visit to Brecht, who was exiled to Denmark. Meanwhile, the Nazi régime stripped German Jews of their German citizenship; now a stateless man, Benjamin was arrested by the French government and incarcerated for three months in a prison camp near Nevers, in central Burgundy.
Returning to Paris in January 1940, he wrote "Über den Begriff der Geschichte" ("On the Concept of History", later published as "Theses on the Philosophy of History"). While the Wehrmacht was pushing back the French Army, on 13 June Benjamin and his sister fled Paris to the town of Lourdes, just a day before the Germans entered the capital with orders to arrest him at his flat. In August, he obtained a travel visa to the US that Horkheimer had negotiated for him. In eluding the Gestapo, Benjamin planned to travel to the US from neutral Portugal, which he expected to reach via Francoist Spain, then ostensibly a neutral country.
The historical record indicates that he safely crossed the French–Spanish border and arrived at the coastal town of Portbou, in Catalonia. The Franco government had cancelled all transit visas and ordered the Spanish police to return such persons to France, including the Jewish refugee group Benjamin had joined. They crossed the border on 25 September 1940 but were told by the Spanish police that they would be deported back to France the next day, which would have thwarted Benjamin's plans to travel to the United States. Expecting repatriation to Nazi hands, Benjamin killed himself with an overdose of morphine tablets that night, while staying at the Hotel de Francia; the official Portbou register records 26 September 1940 as the date of death. Benjamin's colleague Arthur Koestler, also fleeing Europe, attempted suicide by taking some of the morphine tablets, but survived. Benjamin's brother Georg was murdered at the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp in 1942. Despite his suicide, Benjamin was buried in the consecrated section of a Roman Catholic cemetery.
The others in his party were allowed passage the next day (maybe because Benjamin's suicide shocked Spanish officials), and safely reached Lisbon on 30 September. Arendt, who crossed the French-Spanish border at Portbou a few months later, passed the manuscript of Theses to Adorno. Another completed manuscript, which Benjamin had carried in his suitcase, disappeared after his death and has not been recovered. Some critics speculate that it was his Arcades Project in a final form; this is very unlikely as the author's plans for the work had changed in the wake of Adorno's criticisms in 1938, and it seems clear that the work was flowing over its containing limits in his last years.
Thought
Walter Benjamin corresponded much with Theodor Adorno and Bertolt Brecht, and was occasionally funded by the Frankfurt School under the direction of Adorno and Horkheimer, even from their New York City residence. The competing influences—Brecht's Marxism, Adorno's critical theory, Gerschom Scholem's Jewish mysticism—were central to his work, although their philosophic differences remained unresolved. Moreover, the critic Paul de Man argued that the intellectual range of Benjamin's writings flows dynamically among those three intellectual traditions, deriving a critique via juxtaposition; the exemplary synthesis is "Theses on the Philosophy of History". At least one scholar, historian of religion Jason Josephson-Storm, has argued that Benjamin's diverse interests may be understood in part by understanding the influence of Western Esotericism on Benjamin. Some of Benjamin's key ideas were adapted from occultists and New Age figures including Eric Gutkind and Ludwig Klages, and his interest in esotericism is known to have extended far beyond the Jewish Kabbalah.
"Theses on the Philosophy of History"
"Theses on the Philosophy of History" is often cited as Benjamin's last complete work, having been completed, according to Adorno, in the spring of 1940. The Institute for Social Research, which had relocated to New York, published Theses in Benjamin's memory in 1942. Margaret Cohen writes in the Cambridge Companion to Walter Benjamin:
In the essay, Benjamin's famed ninth thesis struggles to reconcile the Idea of Progress in the present with the apparent chaos of the past:
The final paragraph about the Jewish quest for the Messiah provides a harrowing final point to Benjamin's work, with its themes of culture, destruction, Jewish heritage and the fight between humanity and nihilism. He brings up the interdiction, in some varieties of Judaism, of attempts to determine the year when the Messiah would come into the world, and points out that this did not make Jews indifferent to the future "for every second of time was the strait gate through which the Messiah might enter."
"The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction"
Perhaps Walter Benjamin's best known essay, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," identifies the perceptual shift that takes place when technological advancements emphasize speed and reproducibility. The aura is found in a work of art that contains presence. The aura is precisely what cannot be reproduced in a work of art: its original presence in time and space. He suggests a work of art's aura is in a state of decay because it is becoming more and more difficult to apprehend the time and space in which a piece of art is created.
This essay also introduces the concept of the optical unconscious, a concept that identifies the subject's ability to identify desire in visual objects. This also leads to the ability to perceive information by habit instead of rapt attention.
The Origin of German Tragic Drama
Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels (The Origin of German Tragic Drama, 1928), is a critical study of German baroque drama, as well as the political and cultural climate of Germany during the Counter-Reformation (1545–1648). Benjamin presented the work to the University of Frankfurt in 1925 as the (postdoctoral) dissertation meant to earn him the Habilitation (qualification) to become a university instructor in Germany.
Professor Schultz of University of Frankfurt found The Origin of German Tragic Drama inappropriate for his Germanistik department (Department of German Language and Literature), and passed it to the Department of Aesthetics (philosophy of art), the readers of which likewise dismissed Benjamin's work. The university officials recommended that Benjamin withdraw Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels as a Habilitation dissertation to avoid formal rejection and public embarrassment. He heeded the advice, and three years later, in 1928, he published The Origin of German Tragic Drama as a book.
Criticism and prophecy must be the two categories that meet in the salvation of the past
The Arcades Project
The Passagenwerk (Arcades Project, 1927–40) was Benjamin's final, incomplete book about Parisian city life in the 19th century, especially about the Passages couverts de Paris—the covered passages that extended the culture of flânerie (idling and people-watching) when inclement weather made flânerie infeasible in the boulevards and streets proper. In this work Benjamin uses his fragmentary style to write about the rise of modern European urban culture.
The Arcades Project, in its current form, brings together a massive collection of notes Benjamin filed together from 1927 to 1940.
The Arcades Project was published for the first time in 1982, and is over a thousand pages long.
Writing style
Susan Sontag said that in Benjamin's writing, sentences did not originate ordinarily, do not progress into one another, and delineate no obvious line of reasoning, as if each sentence "had to say everything, before the inward gaze of total concentration dissolved the subject before his eyes", a "freeze-frame baroque" style of writing and cogitation. "His major essays seem to end just in time, before they self-destruct". The difficulty of Benjamin's style is essential to his philosophical project. Fascinated by notions of reference and constellation, his goal in later works was to use intertexts to reveal aspects of the past that cannot, and should not, be understood within greater, monolithic constructs of historical understanding.
Benjamin's writings identify him as a modernist for whom the philosophic merges with the literary: logical philosophic reasoning cannot account for all experience, especially not for self-representation via art. He presented his stylistic concerns in "The Task of the Translator", wherein he posits that a literary translation, by definition, produces deformations and misunderstandings of the original text. Moreover, in the deformed text, otherwise hidden aspects of the original, source-language text are elucidated, while previously obvious aspects become unreadable. Such translational modification of the source text is productive; when placed in a specific constellation of works and ideas, newly revealed affinities, between historical objects, appear and are productive of philosophical truth.
His work "The Task of the Translator" was later commented by the French translation scholar Antoine Berman (L'âge de la traduction).
Legacy and reception
Since the publication of Schriften (Writings, 1955), 15 years after his death, Benjamin's work—especially the essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (French edition, 1936)—has become of seminal importance to academics in the humanities disciplines. In 1968, the first Internationale Walter Benjamin Gesellschaft was established by the German thinker, poet and artist Natias Neutert, as a free association of philosophers, writers, artists, media theoreticians and editors. They did not take Benjamin's body of thought as a scholastic "closed architecture [...], but as one in which all doors, windows and roof hatches are widely open", as the founder Neutert put it—more poetically than politically—in his manifesto. The members felt liberated to take Benjamin's ideas as a welcome touchstone for social change.<ref>Hereto Helmut Salzinger: Swinging Benjamin. Verlag Michael Kellner, Hamburg 1990. </ref>
Like the first Internationale Walter Benjamin Gesellschaft, a new one, established in 2000, researches and discusses the imperative that Benjamin formulated in his "Theses on the Philosophy of History": "In every era the attempt must be made anew to wrest the tradition away from a conformism that is about to overpower it."
The successor society was registered in Karlsruhe (Germany); Chairman of the Board of Directors was Bernd Witte, an internationally recognized Benjamin scholar and Professor of Modern German Literature in Düsseldorf (Germany). Its members come from 19 countries, both within and beyond Europe and it provides an international forum for discourse. The Society supported research endeavors devoted to the creative and visionary potential of Benjamin's works and their view of 20th century modernism. Special emphasis had been placed upon strengthening academic ties to Latin America and Eastern and Central Europe.
The society conducts conferences and exhibitions, as well as interdisciplinary and intermedial events, at regular intervals and different European venues:
Barcelona Conference – September 2000
Walter-Benjamin-Evening at Berlin – November 2001
Walter-Benjamin-Evening at Karlsruhe – January 2003
Rome Conference – November 2003
Zurich Conference – October 2004
Paris Conference – June 2005
Düsseldorf Conference – June 2005
Düsseldorf Conference – November 2005
Antwerpen Conference – May 2006
Vienna Conference – March 2007
In 2017 Walter Benjamin's Arcades Project was reinterpreted in an exhibition curated by Jens Hoffman, held at the Jewish Museum in New York City. The exhibition, entitled "The Arcades: Contemporary Art and Walter Benjamin", features 36 contemporary artworks representing the 36 convolutes of Benjamin's Project.
Commemoration
A commemorative plaque is located by the residence where Benjamin lived in Berlin during the years 1930–1933: (Prinzregentenstraße 66, Berlin-Wilmersdorf). A commemorative plaque is located in Paris (10 rue Dombasle, 15th) where Benjamin lived in 1938–1940.
Close by Kurfürstendamm, in the district of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, a town square created by Hans Kollhoff in 2001 was named "Walter-Benjamin-Platz". There is a memorial sculpture by the artist Dani Karavan at Portbou, where Walter Benjamin ended his life. It was commissioned to mark 50 years since his death.
Works (selection)
Among Walter Benjamin's works are:
"Über Sprache überhaupt und über die Sprache des Menschen" ("On Language as Such and on the Language of Man", 1916)
"Die Aufgabe des Übersetzers" ("The Task of the Translator, 1921) – English translations by Harry Zohn, 1968, and by Stephen Rendell, 1997
"Zur Kritik der Gewalt" ("Critique of Violence", 1921)
"Goethes Wahlverwandtschaften" (Goethe's Elective Affinities, 1922)
Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels (The Origin of German Tragic Drama, 1928)
Einbahnstraße (One Way Street, 1928)
"Karl Kraus" (1931, in the Frankfurter Zeitung)
"Kafka" ("Some Remarks on Kafka", excerpted from a 1938 letter to Gershom Scholem)
"Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit" ("The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction", 1935)
"Paris, Hauptstadt des 19. Jahrhunderts" ("Paris, Capital of the 19th Century," 1935. This essay is often presented as a diptych with "Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire", as both are fragments or preparatory writings for the unfinished Arcades Project.)
Berliner Kindheit um neunzehnhundert (Berlin Childhood around 1900, 1938)
"Das Paris des Second Empire bei Baudelaire" ("The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire", 1938)
"Über den Begriff der Geschichte" ("Theses on the Philosophy of History", 1940)
See also
Gertrud Kolmar
Michael Heller
List of people from Berlin
References
Further reading
Primary literature
The Arcades Project, Harvard University Press,
Berlin Childhood Around 1900, Harvard University Press,
Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet In The Era Of High Capitalism.
The Complete Correspondence, 1928–1940, Harvard University Press,
The Correspondence of Walter Benjamin, 1910–1940.
The Correspondence of Walter Benjamin and Gershom Scholem.
Illuminations.
Moscow Diary, Harvard University Press,
One Way Street and Other Writings.
Reflections.
On Hashish, Harvard University Press,
The Origin of German Tragic Drama.
Understanding Brecht.
Selected Writings in four volumes Harvard University Press:
Volume 1, 1913–1926,
Volume 2, 1927–1934,
Volume 3, 1935–1938,
Volume 4, 1938–1940,
The Writer of Modern Life: Essays on Charles Baudelaire, Harvard University Press, ,
The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility, and Other Writings on Media, Harvard University Press,
Walter Benjamin's Archive: Images, Texts, Signs. Edited by Ursula Marx, Gudrun Schwarz, Michael Schwarz, Erdmut Wizisla.
The Sonnets of Walter Benjamin. Transl. by Andrew Paul Wood, Bilingual Edition German / English, Kilmog Press, Dunedin, 2020.
Secondary literature
Adorno, Theodor. (1967). Prisms (Studies in Contemporary German Social Thought). London: Neville Spearman Ltd. [reprinted by MIT Press, Cambridge, 1981. (cloth) – (paper)]
Victor Malsey, Uwe Raseh, Peter Rautmann, Nicolas Schalz, Rosi Huhn, Passages. D'après Walter Benjamin / Passagen. Nach Walter Benjamin. Mainz: Herman Schmidt, 1992.
Benjamin, Andrew and Peter Osborne, eds. (1993). Walter Benjamin's Philosophy: Destruction and Experience. London: Routledge. (cloth) – (paper) [reprinted by Clinamen Press, Manchester, 2000. (paper)]
Buck-Morss, Susan. (1991). The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project. Cambridge: The MIT Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Betancourt, Alex. (2008). Walter Benjamin and Sigmund Freud: Between Theory and Politics. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag.
Federico Castigliano, Flâneur. The Art of Wandering the Streets of Paris, 2016. .
Derrida, Jacques. (2001). "Force of Law: The 'Mystical Foundation of Authority, in Acts of Religion, Gil Anidjar, ed. London: Routledge. (cloth) –
Caygill, Howard. (1998) Walter Benjamin: The Colour of Experience. London: Routledge.
de Man, Paul. (1986). Conclusions': Walter Benjamin's 'Task of the Translator, in The Resistance to Theory. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 73–105.
Eiland, Howard and Michael W. Jennings. (2014). Walter Benjamin: A Critical Life. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press.
__. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Walter Benjamin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (cloth) (paper)
Eilenberger, Wolfram (2020). Time of the magicians: Wittgenstein, Benjamin, Cassirer, Heidegger, and the decade that reinvented philosophy. New York: Penguin Press. (cloth)
Ferris, David S., ed. (1996). Walter Benjamin: Theoretical Questions. Stanford: Stanford University Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Gandler, Stefan (2010). "The Concept of History in Walter Benjamin's Critical Theory", in Radical Philosophy Review, San Francisco, CA, Vol. 13, Nr. 1, pp. 19–42. .
Jacobs, Carol. (1999). In the Language of Walter Benjamin. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Jennings, Michael. (1987). Dialectical Images: Walter Benjamin's Theory of Literary Criticism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. (cloth)
Jacobson, Eric. (2003). Metaphysics of the Profane: The Political Theology of Walter Benjamin and Gershom Scholem. New York: Columbia University Press, , S. 352ff.
Kermode, Frank. "Every Kind of Intelligence; Benjamin", New York Times. 30 July 1978.
Kirst-Gundersen, Karoline. Walter Benjamin's Theory of Narrative. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1989
Kishik, David. (2015). "The Manhattan Project: A Theory of a City." Stanford: Stanford University Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Leslie, Esther. (2000). Walter Benjamin, Overpowering Conformism. London: Pluto Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Libero Federici, Il misterioso eliotropismo. Filosofia, politica e diritto in Walter Benjamin, Ombre Corte, Verona 2017
Lindner, Burkhardt, ed. (2006). Benjamin-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung Stuttgart: Metzler. (paper)
Löwy, Michael. (2005). Fire Alarm: Reading Walter Benjamin's 'On the Concept of History.' Trans. Chris Turner. London and New York: Verso.
Marchesoni, Stefano. (2016). Walter Benjamins Konzept des Eingedenkens. Über Genese und Semantik einer Denkfigur. Berlin: Kadmos Verlag.
Menke, Bettine. (2010). Das Trauerspiel-Buch. Der Souverän – das Trauerspiel – Konstellationen – Ruinen. Bielefeld: . .
Missac, Pierre (1996). Walter Benjamin's Passages. Cambridge: MIT Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Neutert, Natias : Mit Walter Benjamin! Poeto-philosophisches Manifest zur Gründung der Internationalen Walter Benjamin Gesellschaft. Lüdke Verlag, Hamburg 1968.
Perret, Catherine "Walter Benjamin sans destin", Ed. La Différence, Paris, 1992, rééd. revue et augmentée d'une préface, Bruxelles, éd. La Lettre volée, 2007.
Perrier, Florent, ed., Palmier, Jean-Michel (Author), Marc Jimenez (Preface). (2006) Walter Benjamin. Le chiffonnier, l'Ange et le Petit Bossu. Paris: Klincksieck.
Pignotti, Sandro (2009): Walter Benjamin – Judentum und Literatur. Tradition, Ursprung, Lehre mit einer kurzen Geschichte des Zionismus. Rombach, Freiburg
Plate, S. Brent (2004) Walter Benjamin, Religion and Aesthetics. London: Routledge.
Roberts, Julian (1982). Walter Benjamin. London: Macmillan.
Rudel, Tilla (2006) : Walter Benjamin L'Ange assassiné, éd. Menges – Place Des Victoires, 2006
Rutigliano, Enzo: Lo sguardo dell'angelo, Bari, Dedalo, 1983
Scheurmann, Ingrid, ed., Scheurmann, Konrad ed., Unseld, Siegfried (Author), Menninghaus, Winfried (Author), Timothy Nevill (Translator) (1993). For Walter Benjamin – Documentation, Essays and a Sketch including: New Documents on Walter Benjamin's Death. Bonn: AsKI e.V.
Scheurmann, Ingrid / Scheurmann, Konrad (1995). Dani Karavan – Hommage an Walter Benjamin. Der Gedenkort 'Passagen' in Portbou. Homage to Walter Benjamin. 'Passages' Place of Remembrance at Portbou. Mainz: Zabern.
Scheurmann, Konrad (1994) Passages Dani Karavan: An Environment in Remembrance of Walter Benjamin Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam. Bonn: AsKI e.V.
Schiavoni, Giulio. (2001). Walter Benjamin: Il figlio della felicità. Un percorso biografico e concettuale. Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore.
Scholem, Gershom. (2003). Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship. Trans. Harry Zohn. New York: New York Review Books.
Steinberg, Michael P., ed. (1996). Walter Benjamin and the Demands of History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Steiner, Uwe. (2010). Walter Benjamin: An Introduction to his Work and Thought. Trans. Michael Winkler. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Singh, Iona (2012) Vermeer, Materialism and the Transcendental in Art, from Color, Facture, Art & Design. Hampshire: Zero Books
Taussig, Michael. (2006). Walter Benjamin's Grave. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
Tedman, Gary. (2012). the Art Aesthetic State Apparatuses - from Aesthetics & Alienation. Hampshire : Zero Books. .
Weber, Samuel. (2008). Benjamin's -abilities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (cloth) – (paper)
Weigel, Sigrid. (2013). Walter Benjamin. Images, the Creaturely, and the Holy. Transl. by Chadwick Truscott Smith. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Witte, Bernd. (1996). Walter Benjamin: An Intellectual Biography. New York: Verso.
Wizisla, Erdmut. 2009. Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht — The Story of a Friendship. Translated by Christine Shuttleworth. London / New Haven: Libris / Yale University Press. [Contains a complete translation of the newly discovered Minutes of the meetings around the putative journal Krise und Kritik (1931)].
Wolin, Richard, Telos 43, An Aesthetic of Redemption: Benjamin's Path to Trauerspiel. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Spring 1980. (Telos Press).
Wolin, Richard, Telos 53, The Benjamin-Congress: Frankfurt (July 13, 1982). New York: Telos Press Ltd., Fall 1982. (Telos Press).
Urbich, Jan (2011). "Darstellung bei Walter Benjamin. Die 'Erkenntniskritische Vorrede' im Kontext ästhetischer Darstellungstheorien der Moderne", Berlin: De Gruyter.
In other media
Les Unwanted de Europa (2018 film on Benjamin's last days)
13: A Ludodrama About Walter Benjamin (2018 documentary)
The Passages of Walter Benjamin (2014 documentary)
Who Killed Walter Benjamin? (2005 documentary)
One Way Street: Fragments for Walter Benjamin (1992 documentary)
External links
Walter Benjamin Archive at marxists.org
"Walter Benjamin" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Internationale Walter Benjamin Gesellschaft. In English and German. (Defunct)
1892 births
1940 suicides
19th-century German Jews
20th-century essayists
20th-century German Jews
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Aphorists
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Book and manuscript collectors
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Writers from Berlin | [
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227112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentorship | Mentorship | Mentorship is the influence, guidance, or direction given by a mentor. Mentor is someone who teaches or gives help and advice to a less experienced and often younger person. In an organizational setting, a mentor influences the personal and professional growth of a mentee. Most traditional mentorships involve having senior employees mentor more junior employees, but mentors do not necessarily have to be more senior than the people they mentor. What matters is that mentors have experience that others can learn from.
Interaction with an expert may also be necessary to gain proficiency with cultural tools. Mentorship experience and relationship structure affect the "amount of psychosocial support, career guidance, role modeling and communication that occurs in the mentoring relationships in which the protégés and mentors engaged".
The person receiving mentorship may be referred to as a protégé (male), a protégée (female), an apprentice, a learner or, in the 2000s, a mentee. Mentoring is a process that always involves communication and is relationship-based, but its precise definition is elusive, with more than 50 definitions currently in use, such as:
Mentoring in Europe has existed as early as Ancient Greek. The word's origin comes from Mentor, son of Alcimus in Homer's Odyssey. Since the 1970s it has spread in the United States mainly in training contexts, associated with important historical links to the movement advancing workplace equity for women and minorities and has been described as "an innovation in American management".
History
The roots of the practice are lost in antiquity. The word was inspired by the character Mentor in Homer's Odyssey. Although the Mentor in the story is portrayed as a somewhat ineffective old man, the goddess Athena assumes his appearance to guide young Telemachus in his time of difficulty.
Historically significant systems of mentorship include the guru–disciple tradition practiced in Hinduism and Buddhism, Elders, the discipleship system practiced by Rabbinical Judaism and the Christian church and apprenticeship under the medieval guild system.
In the United States, advocates for workplace equity in the second half of the twentieth century popularized the term "mentor" and concept of career mentorship as part of a larger social capital lexicon that also includes terms such as glass ceiling, bamboo ceiling, networking, role model and gatekeeper, which serves to identify and address the problems barring non-dominant groups from professional success. Mainstream business literature have adopted the terms and concepts and promoted them as pathways to success for all career climbers. These terms were not in the general American vocabulary until the mid-1990s.
Professional bodies and qualifications
The European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) is the leading global body in terms of creating and maintaining a range of industry-standard frameworks, rules and processes for mentorship and related supervision and coaching fields.
Techniques
As the focus of mentorship is to develop the whole person, the techniques used are broad and require wisdom to be appropriately used. A 1995 study of mentoring techniques most commonly used in business found that the five most commonly used techniques among mentors were:
Accompanying: the mentor participates in the learning process alongside the learner and supports them.
Sowing: the mentor gives initially unclear or unacceptable advice to the learner that has value in a given situation.
Catalyzing: the mentor chooses to plunge the learner right into change to provoke a different way of thinking, a change in identity or a re-ordering of values.
Showing: the mentor teaches the learner by demonstrating a skill or activity.
Harvesting: the mentor assesses and defines the utility and value of the learner's skills.
Different techniques may be used by mentors according to the situation and the mindset of the mentee. The techniques used in modern organizations can be found in ancient education systems, from the Socratic technique of harvesting to the accompaniment used in the apprenticeship of itinerant cathedral builders during the Middle Ages. Leadership authors Jim Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner advise mentors to look for "teachable moments" in order to "expand or realize the potentialities of the people in the organizations they lead" and underline that personal credibility is as essential to quality mentoring as skill.
There are different types of mentors, such as:
Multiple mentors: A new trend is for a learner to have multiple mentors. Having more than one mentor can expand the learner's knowledge, as different mentors may have different strengths.
Profession or trade mentor: This is someone who is currently in the trade or profession the learner is entering. They know the trends, important changes, and new practices that newcomers should know to stay at the top of their career. A mentor like this would be someone a learner can discuss ideas with and also provides the learner the opportunity to network with other individuals in the trade or profession.
Industry mentor: This is someone who does not only focus on the profession and can give insight on the industry as a whole, such as research, development, or key changes.
Organization mentor: Politics in the organizations are constantly changing. It is important to be knowledgeable about the values, strategies, and products that are within the organisation, and when they change. An organization mentor can give clarity when needed, for example, on missions and strategies.
Work process mentor: This mentor can cut through unnecessary work, explain the "ins and outs" of projects and day to day tasks, and eliminate unnecessary things in the learner's work day. This mentor can help finish tasks quickly and efficiently.
Technology mentor: Technology has been rapidly improving and becoming more a part of day-to-day transactions within companies. A technology mentor can help with technical breakdowns, advise on systems that may work better than what the learner is currently using, and coach them in using new technology.
Types
Formal mentoring
Formal mentoring relationships are set up by an administrative unit or office in a company or organization, which solicits and recruits qualified individuals who are willing to mentor, provides training to the mentors, and helps to match the mentors with a person in need of mentoring. While formal mentoring systems contain numerous structural and guidance elements, they usually allow the mentor and mentee to have an active role in choosing who they want to work with. Formal mentoring programs that simply assign mentors to mentees without allowing input from these individuals have not performed well. Even though a mentor and a mentee may seem perfectly matched "on paper", in practice, they may have different working or learning styles. As such, giving the mentor and the mentee the opportunity to help select who they want to work with is a widely used approach. For example, youth mentoring programs assign at-risk children or youth who lack role models and sponsors to mentors who act as role models and sponsors.
In business, formal mentoring is one of many talent management strategies that are used to groom key employees, newly hired graduates, high-potential employees, and future leaders. Matching mentors and mentees is often done by a mentoring coordinator with the help of a computerized database registry, which usually suggests matches based on the type of experience and qualifications being sought.
There are formal mentoring programs that are values-oriented, while social mentoring and other types focus specifically on career development. Some mentorship programs provide both social and vocational support. In well-designed formal mentoring programs, there are program goals, schedules, training (for both mentors and protégés), and evaluation.
Informal mentoring
Informal mentoring occurs without the use of structured recruitment, mentor training and matching services. It can develop naturally between partners, such as business networking situations where a more experienced individual meets a new employee and the two build a rapport. Apart from these types, mentoring takes a dyadic structure in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM).
Models
There are many kinds of mentoring relationships from school or community-based relationships to e-mentoring relationships. These mentoring relationships vary and can be influenced by the type of mentoring relationship. There are several models that have been used to describe and examine the sub-relationships that can emerge: for example, Cindy Buell describes how mentoring relationships can develop:
Cloning model: The mentor teaches the learner as if they were a clone of the mentor.
Nurturing model: The mentor assumes a parental role to create an open, supportive environment where the learner can learn and try things themselves.
Friendship model: The mentor acts more as a peer "rather than being involved in a hierarchical relationship".
Apprenticeship model: The mentor and learner predominantly have a professional relationship.
Other types
Peer mentoring: Relationships that involve individuals in similar positions. One person may be more knowledgeable in a certain aspect or another, and they can help each other progress in their work. In most cases, peer relationships provide a lot of support, empathy, and advice because the situations are quite similar.
Situational mentoring: Short-term relationships in which a person mentors for a specific purpose. This could be a company bringing an expert in regarding social media, or internet safety. This expert can mentor employees to make them more knowledgeable about a specific topic or skill.
Supervisory mentoring: This relationship involves a mentor with a higher position than the learner. The mentor can answer many questions and advise the best course of action.
Mentoring circles: Participants from all levels of the organization propose and own a topic before meeting in groups to discuss the topic, which motivates them to grow and become more knowledgeable. Flash mentoring is ideal for situations like job shadowing and reverse mentoring.
Flash mentoring: A short-term form of mentoring that focuses on single meetings rather than a traditional, long-term mentoring relationship.
Benefits
A meta-analysis of 112 individual research studies found mentoring has significant behavioral, attitudinal, health-related, relational, motivational, and career benefits. For a learner, these benefits depend on the different functions being performed by the mentor. Originally, the concept of mentoring functions developed from qualitative research in a organizational context with functions that belong under two major factors: psychosocial support (e.g. role modeling, friendship, emotional support, encouragement) and career-related support (e.g. providing advice, discussing goals). An early quantitative approach found role modeling to be a distinct third factor. In mentoring for college success, a fourth function concerning knowledge transfer was additionally identified, which was also discovered in the context of mentoring creativity.
There are also many benefits for an employer to develop a mentorship program for new and current employees:
Career development: Setting up a career development mentoring program for employees enables an organization to help junior employees to learn the skills and behaviours from senior employees that the junior employees need to advance to higher-responsibility positions. This type of mentoring program can help to align organizational goals with employees' personal career goals of progressing within the organization. It gives employees the ability to advance professionally and learn more about their work. This collaboration also gives employees a feeling of engagement with the organization, which can lead to better retention rates and increased employee satisfaction.
High potential mentoring: The most talented employees in organizations tend to be difficult to retain as they usually seek greater challenges and responsibilities and are likely to leave for a different organization if they do not feel that they are being given the opportunity to develop. Creating a mentoring program for high-potential employees that gives them one-on-one guidance from senior leaders can help engage employees, give them the opportunity to develop, and increase the likelihood of staying in the organization.
Diversity mentoring: One of the top ways to innovate is by bringing in new ideas from senior employees and leaders from underrepresented groups (e.g., women, ethnic minorities, etc.). In many Western countries, women and ethnic minorities are significantly underrepresented in executive positions and boards of directors. However, in some traditionally gender segregated occupations, such as education and nursing, women may be the dominant gender in the workforce. Mentors from underrepresented groups can empower employees from similar groups to increase their confidence to accept higher-responsibility tasks and prepare for leadership roles. Developing employees from diverse groups can give the organization access to new ideas, problem-solving approaches, and perspectives. These relationships tend to lead to success within the organization and increased job satisfaction. Majority mentors are given the opportunity to learn about and empathize with the culture and experiences of the minority learning, but the mentoring relationship can be impeded if they are unwilling to adapt their cultural views. Members of the majority culture are perceived as more competent while members of the minority culture receive less credit for the same amount of work; therefore, a majority mentor, by virtue of their status, can assist a minority learner in receiving the recognition and job advancement they deserve. Minority mentors often feel pressure to work harder than other mentors to prove their worth within an organization. However, when paired with majority learners, their perceived worth automatically increases due solely to the majority status of their peers. Minority mentors tend to impart emotional benefits onto their learners. In a 1958 study, Margaret Cussler showed that for each female executive she interviewed who did not own her own company, "something—or someone—gave her a push up the ladder while others halted on a lower rung." Cussler concluded that the relationship between the "sponsor and protégé" (the vocabulary of "mentorship" was not yet in common use) was the "magic formula" for success. By the late 1970s, numerous publications had established the centrality of mentorship to business success for everyone and particularly for women trying to enter the male-dominated business world. These publications noted the many benefits provided by mentorship, which included insider information, education, guidance, moral support, inspiration, sponsorship, protection, promotion, the ability to "bypass the hierarchy", the projection of the superior's "reflected power," access to otherwise invisible opportunities, and tutelage in corporate politics. The literature also showed the value of these benefits: for example, a Harvard Business Review survey of 1,250 top executives published in 1979 showed that most employees that had been mentored or sponsored and that those who received such assistance reported higher incomes, better education, quicker paths to achievement, and more job satisfaction than those who did not. The literature particularly emphasized the necessity of mentoring for businesswomen's success: although women comprised less than one percent of the executives in the Harvard Business Review survey, all of these women reported being mentored. In subsequent decades, as mentoring became a widely valued phenomenon in the United States, women and minorities in particular continued to develop mentoring relationships consciously as they sought professional advancement.
Reverse mentoring: While mentoring typically involves a more experienced, typically older employee or leader providing guidance to a younger employee, the opposite approach can also be used. With the rise of digital innovations, Internet applications, and social media in the 2000s, new, younger employees may be more familiar with these technologies than senior employees in the organizations. The younger generations can help the older generations expand and grow with current trends.
Knowledge transfer mentoring: Employees must have a certain set of skills in order to accomplish the tasks at hand. Mentoring can teach employees to be organized. It can also give them access to an expert that can provide feedback and answer questions.
Contemporary research and practice in the US
Partly in response to a study by Daniel Levinson, research in the 1970s led some women and African Americans to question whether the classic "white male" model was available or customary for people who are newcomers in traditionally white male organizations. In 1978 Edgar Schein described multiple roles for successful mentors. He identified seven types of mentoring roles in his book Career Dynamics: Matching individual and organizational needs (1978). He said that some of these roles require the teacher to be, for example, an "opener of doors, protector, sponsor and leader".
Capability frameworks encourage managers to mentor staff. Although a manager can mentor their own staff, they are more likely to mentor staff in other parts of their organisation, staff in special programs (such as graduate and leadership programs), staff in other organisations or members of professional associations.
Mentoring covers a range of roles. Articulating these roles is useful not only for understanding what role an employee plays, but also for writing job applications.
Two of Schein's students, Davis and Garrison, studied successful leaders who differed in ethnicity and gender. Their research presented evidence for the roles of: cheerleader, coach, confidant, counsellor, developer of talent, "griot" (oral historian for the organization or profession), guardian, guru, inspiration, master, "opener of doors", patron, role model, pioneer, "seminal source", "successful leader", and teacher. They described multiple mentoring practices which have since been given the name of "mosaic mentoring" to distinguish this kind of mentoring from the single mentor approach.
Mosaic mentoring is based on the concept that almost everyone can perform one or another function well for someone else — and also can learn along one of these lines from someone else. The model is seen as useful for people who are "non-traditional" in a traditional setting, such as non-white people and women in a traditionally white male organization. The idea has been well received in medical education literature.
Corporate programs
Corporate mentoring programs may be formal or informal and serve a variety of specific objectives, including the acclimation of new employees, skills development, employee retention, and diversity enhancement.
Formal programs
Formal mentoring programs offer employees the opportunity to participate in an organized mentoring program. Participants join as a mentor, learner, or both by completing a mentoring profile. Mentoring profiles are completed as written forms on paper or computer or filled out via an online form as part of an online mentoring system. Learners are matched with a mentor by a program administrator or a mentoring committee, or they may self-select a mentor depending on the program format.
Informal mentoring takes place in organizations that develop a culture of mentoring but do not have formal mentoring in place. These companies may provide some tools and resources and encourage managers to accept mentoring requests from more junior members of the organization.
A study of 1,162 employees found that "satisfaction with a mentoring relationship had a stronger impact on attitudes than the presence of a mentor, whether the relationship was formal or informal, or the design of a formal mentoring program". Even when a mentoring relationship is established, the actual relationship is more important than the presence of a relationship.
Fortune 500 companies are also implementing formal mentoring programs globally. Cardinal Health has had an enterprise-wide formal mentoring initiative in place since 2011. The initiative encompasses nine formal mentoring programs, some enterprise-wide and some limited to specific business segments and functions. Goals vary by program, with some focused on employees facing specific challenges or career milestones and others enabling more open-ended learning and development.
New-hire programs
New-hire mentoring programs are set up to help new employees adjust more quickly into the organization. In new-hire mentoring programs, newcomers to the organization (learners) are paired with more experienced people (mentors) in order to obtain information, good examples, and advice as they advance. Beverly Kaye and Sharon Jordan-Evans claim that new employees who are paired with a mentor are twice as likely to remain in their job than those who do not receive mentorship.
These mentoring relationships promote career growth and benefit both the mentor and the learner: for example, the mentor can show leadership by teaching; the organization receives an employee that is shaped by the organization's culture and operation because they have been under the mentorship of an experienced member; and the learner can network, integrate easier into the organization, and acquire experience and advice. Donnalyn Pompper and Jonathan Adams say that "joining a mentor's network and developing one's own is central to advancement", which likely explains why those mentored tend to do well in their organizations.
In the organizational setting, mentoring usually "requires unequal knowledge", but the process of mentorship can differ. Bullis describes the mentoring process in the forms of phase models. Initially, the "mentee proves himself or herself worthy of the mentor's time and energy". Then cultivation occurs which includes the actual "coaching...a strong interpersonal bond between mentor and mentee develops". Next, under the phase of separation, "the mentee experiences more autonomy". Ultimately, there is more of equality in the relationship, termed by Bullis as Redefinition.
High-potential programs
High-potential mentoring programs are used to groom up-and-coming employees deemed to have the potential to move up into leadership or executive roles. The employee (learner) is paired with a senior-level leader (or leaders) for a series of career-coaching interactions. These programs tend to be smaller than general mentoring programs and learners that meet a list of criteria can be selected to participate. Another method of high-potential mentoring is to place the employee in a series of jobs in disparate areas of an organization (e.g. human resources, sales, operations management, etc.) for short periods of time, so they can learn in a hands-on, practical fashion, about the organization's structure, culture, and methods.
Matching approaches
Matching by committee
Learners are matched with mentors by a designated mentoring committee that usually consists of senior members of the training, learning and development group and/or the human resources departments The matching committee reviews the mentors' profiles and the coaching goals sought out by the learners and makes matches based on areas for development, mentor strengths, overall experience, skill set, location, and objectives.
Matching through self-match technology
Mentoring technology, typically based on computer software, can be used to facilitate matches allowing learners to search and select a mentor based on their own development, coaching needs, and interests. This learner-driven methodology increases the speed of matches being made and reduces the amount of administrative time required to manage the program. The quality of matches increases with self-match programs because mentorships tend to be more successful when the learner is involved in selecting their mentor. There are a variety of online mentoring technology programs available that can be used to facilitate this mentee-driven matching process.
Speed networking
In speed networking, Mentors and learners are introduced to each other in short sessions, allowing each person to meet potential matches in a very short timeframe. Speed networking occurs as a one-time event in order for people "to meet potential mentors to see if there is a fit for a longer term engagement".
Mentoring direct reports
Mentoring direct reports may be considered a form of Transformational Leadership, specifically that of Individualized Consideration.
In education
Mentoring in education involves a relationship between two people where the mentor plays a supportive and advisory role for the student, the learner. This relationship promotes "the development and growth of the latter's skills and knowledge through the former's experience". In many secondary and post-secondary schools, mentorship programs are offered to support students in program completion, confidence building, and transitioning to further education or the workforce. There are also peer mentoring programs designed specifically to bring under-represented populations into science and engineering.
Resilience
A specific focus of youth mentoring that addresses the issues that cause students to underachieve in education while simultaneously preparing them to deal with difficult circumstances that can affect their lives in the future and alter their success is the fostering of resilience. Resilience has been found to be a useful method when working with students from low socioeconomic backgrounds who often encounter crises or challenges and suffer specific traumas. Education, students' performance, and achievement in school are directly affected by these challenges, so certain negative psychological and environmental situations that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds disproportionately encounter provide a framework for explaining the achievement gap. Resilience does not provide a solution to the struggles and trauma that these students experience, but instead focuses on giving them the tools to adapt to these situations and respond to them in ways that avoid negative outcomes and enables them to grow stronger and learn from the experience.
Protective factors and risk factors
Protective factors "modify or transform responses to adverse events so that [students] avoid negative outcomes" and encourage the development of resilience. Their development enables students to apply them to challenges and engage in them positively that does not negatively affect their education, personal lives, or successes. Examples of these protective factors identified by Reis, Colbert and Hebert in their three-year study of economically disadvantaged and ethnically diverse students include "supportive adults, friendships with other achieving students, the opportunity to take honors and advanced classes, participation in multiple extracurricular activities both after school and during the summer, the development of a strong belief in the self, and ways to cope with the negative aspects of their school, urban and family environment." On the other hand, risk factors impede the student's ability to positively engage in their challenges and in many cases prevent these students from achieving at the same level as students who do not encounter the same situations, and can include family tragedy, having an older sibling who became involved in drugs and/or alcohol, family instability, personal pain and academic failure. "Just as risk factors and childhood stressors may co-occur within a particular population or within a particular developmental period, protective factors are also likely to occur together to some degree."
Counseling and guidance
Underachieving students who come from risk factor-filled environments often have little support, so the role of educators can be beneficial for students if it extends beyond the basic structures within the classroom. In these environments, students are often exposed to coercive interactions, so positive, personal and harmonious interchanges between the student and a supportive figure can help develop adaptive qualities. Teachers who see students as talented and care about them as individuals by establishing a genuine relationship create their additional roles as a mentor and advocate—an extra familial support system that can serve as an additional protective factor. A supportive adult can help reduce the negative impact of certain events and risk factors while strengthening the positive factors that help them cope effectively. Some of the components that facilitate the development of resilience when combined with a strong adult-student relationship include afterschool programs, more challenging classes, peer support programs, summer programs, and gifted programs. By getting to know students better—especially their home life and individual circumstances—teachers and counselors can provide specific support to each student by looking beyond their disadvantaged backgrounds, recognizing their abilities, nurturing their strengths, and maintaining high expectations.
Instructional coaches
Instructional coaches are former teachers or principals that have shown effectiveness in their work of teaching or leading and go through additional training to learn more about the technical skills needed to be an effective coach. In her book The Art of Coaching, Elena Aguilar recommends that a coach "must have been an effective teacher for at least five years". Although skills that were effective in the classroom are required, the coach must also be confident in working with adults and bring strong listening, communication, and data analysis skills to the coaching position. Ultimately, an instructional coach is a former teacher who was successful in the classroom and is respected in the field, with the respect carrying over into this new position.
Activities
Coaches work one-on-one with teachers or in a small group setting with teachers to build student achievement in the classroom based on data collected and discussed teachers or coaches. According to Melinda Mangin and KaiLonnie Dunsmore, instructional coaching models may include "cognitive coaching, clinical supervision, peer coaching and mentoring, formal literacy coaching, informal coaching, or a mixed model." "Other researchers have described categories of coaching such as data-oriented, student-oriented, managerial, and coaches who work with individual teachers or with groups of teachers". Ultimately, coaching roles are designed to increase teacher capacity and push teacher improvement through learning opportunities. Instructional coaching is embedded within a teacher's work; in other words, the coach works with the teacher throughout the school year and meets during the school day with the teacher regarding current lessons, planning, and the observations and data collected. Discussions between the instructional coach and teacher are built upon mutual respect and a trusting relationship through confidentiality. Overall, instructional coaching is meant to serve as professional development for the teacher.
A coach's main responsibility is to change a teacher's practice and build their knowledge on "new instructional materials, programs, and initiatives". This professional development can come from discussion, model lessons, and instructional strategies. Teacher observations are one of the most powerful ways that coaches can put data for change in front of teachers. Coaches making observations and collecting data to debrief with teachers helps facilitate teacher improvement.
Effectiveness
According to a three-year research study done by the Pennsylvania Institute for Instructional Coaching, there was an increase in student success when instructional coaching was used in the classroom. This could not be viewed as solely "instructional coaching" in isolation of other factors. The coaching "model emphasizes the simultaneous use of four strategies: one-on-one teacher engagement; evidence-based literacy practices applied across the curriculum; data analytics; and reflection on practice". Teachers have shared that:
Ninety-one percent of teachers coached regularly stated that coaches helped them understand and use new teaching strategies.
Seventy-nine percent of teachers coached regularly said that their coach played a significant role in improving their classroom instruction and practice.
Teachers who were regularly coached one-on-one reported that:
They made significant changes in their instructional practice.
Their students were more engaged in the classroom and enthusiastic about learning.
Attendance increased dramatically in their classes.
In addition to this, "the most effective professional development model is thought to involve follow-up activities, usually in the form of long-term support, coaching in teachers' classrooms, or ongoing interaction with colleagues". In most cases, instructional coaching can provide this support and meet this definition of effective professional development.
Administrative support
Aguilar states that there should also be support from administration around the instructional coaching to align the work of the coach and teacher with the school's mission or vision. Jim Knight focuses on the partnership with the principal being at the core of successful coaching and explains that the principal and the instructional coach need to be aligned in their goals for the coaching. If they have differing desired outcomes for teaching, then the teacher will receive mixed messages and be caught between improvement and a standstill. Aguilar suggests that coaches continually ask about the school's goals as well as action steps to bring into daily coaching to meet them.
Data-driven strategies
Knight's belief of data usage is critical for teacher improvement during coaching sessions. He shares how giving opinions and telling a teacher how to improve stops the learning for the teacher; instead, it creates a barrier between the coach and teacher and makes the teacher expect to be instructed throughout the process.
Relationship building
The relationship and trust between the coach and coachee are a critical component of coaching. A coach that has specific content knowledge and respect in a teacher's field of teaching can help build trust. Another way to build this trust is through confidentiality. In addition to relationship building, it is important to let the coachee feel comfortable talking to their coach about anything. Starting a coaching conversation about how a coachee is doing is also important to relationship building.
Content and pedagogical knowledge
According to Nelson and Sassi, "knowledge of pedagogical process and content knowledge must be fused" in both understanding teaching and observing teaching. For example, an instructional coach working with a math teacher should know "current mathematics education reform efforts are built on the notion that the ideas in a subject, and the ways in which students and teachers work with the ideas, matter". A deep pedagogical knowledge and deep content specific knowledge are required for the teacher to have confidence in the coach and for the coach to be able to step in and assume the role of the teacher.
Knowledge that coaches need to be effective include content and pedagogical knowledge. Aguilar uses the ladder of inference to allow coaches to evaluate their own thoughts, and ultimately use this ladder to help principals and teachers evaluate their own beliefs before jumping to assumptions. Approaches to teaching, classroom management, and content knowledge can change.
Blended mentoring
Blended mentoring is the implementation of information technology (IT) into the traditional mentoring program, and is intended to give the opportunity to career counseling and development services to adopt mentoring in their standard practices. Compared to a strict form of e-mentoring where communication between the mentor and learner are done electronically, and the traditional model of face-to-face mentoring, blended mentoring has been found to increase student satisfaction (which is inherently tied to effectiveness) by combining online group mentoring sessions with individual, face-to-face meetings with a mentor. By incorporating IT with the traditional mentoring method, students can benefit from the technologies of e-mentoring while receiving direct and personal advice from the traditional method.
Business mentoring
Business mentoring differs from apprenticeship: a business mentor provides guidance to a business owner or an entrepreneur on the entrepreneur's business, whereas an apprentice learns a trade by working on the job with the "employer".
A 2012 literature review by EPS-PEAKS investigated business mentoring, mainly focused on the Middle-East and North Africa region. The review found strong evidence to suggest that business mentoring can have real benefits for entrepreneurs, but highlights some key factors that need to be considered when designing mentoring programmes, such as the need to balance formal and informal approaches and to appropriately match mentors and learners.
See also
Big Brothers Big Sisters of America
Coaching
eMentors
Father complex
Maybach Foundation
MENTOR
New Teacher Center
Peer mentoring
Speed networking
Youth mentoring
Workplace mentoring
References
Further reading
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2005) Tapping the potential: Retaining and developing high-quality new teachers. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Boreen, J., Johnson, M. K., Niday, D., & Potts, J. (2000). Mentoring beginning teachers: guiding, reflecting, coaching. York, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.
Cheng, M. & Brown, R. (1992). A two-year evaluation of the peer support pilot project. Evaluation/Feasibility Report, Toronto Board of Education. ED 356 204.
Cox, M.D. (1997). Walking the tightrope: The role of mentoring in developing educators as professionals, in Mullen, C.A.. In M.D. Cox, C.K. Boettcher, & D.S. Adoue (Eds.), Breaking the circle of one: Redefining mentorship in the lives and writings of educators. New York: Peter Lang.
Daloz, L. A. (1999). Mentor: Guiding the journey of adult learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Head, F. A., Reiman, A. J., & Thies-Sprinthall, L. (1992). The reality of mentoring; Complexity in its process and function. In T.M. Bey & C. T. Holmes (Eds), Mentoring: Contemporary principles and issues. Reston, VA: Association of Teacher Educators, 5-24.
Huang, Chungliang and Jerry Lynch (1995), Mentoring - The TAO of Giving and Receiving Wisdom, Harper, San Francisco.
Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Murray, M. (1991). Beyond the myths and the magic of mentoring: How to facilitate an effective mentoring program. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Scherer, Marge (ed.). (1999) A better beginning: Supporting and mentoring new teachers. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Project Blue Lynx, by Dan Ward. A journal article published by Defense Acquisition University, exploring an innovative approach to mentoring.
External links
Human resource management
Alternative education
Internships | [
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227116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%20Library | Modern Library | The Modern Library is an American book publishing imprint and formerly the parent company of Random House. Founded in 1917 by Albert Boni and Horace Liveright as an imprint of their publishing company Boni & Liveright, Modern Library became an independent publishing company in 1925 when Boni & Liveright sold it to Bennett Cerf and Donald Klopfer. Random House began in 1927 as a subsidiary of the Modern Library and eventually overtook its parent company, with Modern Library becoming an imprint of Random House.
Recent history
The Modern Library originally published only hardbound books. In 1950, it began publishing the Modern Library College Editions, a forerunner of its current series of paperback classics. From 1955 to 1960, the company published a high quality, numbered paperback series, but discontinued it in 1960, when the series was merged into the newly acquired Vintage paperbacks group. The Modern Library homepage states:
In 1992, on the occasion of the Modern Library's seventy-fifth anniversary, Random House embarked on an ambitious project to refurbish the series. We revived the torchbearer emblem that Cerf and Klopfer commissioned in 1925 from Lucian Bernhard. The Promethean bearer of enlightenment (known informally around the old Modern Library offices as the "dame running away from Bennett Cerf") was redesigned several times over the years, most notably by Rockwell Kent.
In 1998, novelist David Ebershoff became the Modern Library's new Publishing Director. Ebershoff managed the imprint until 2005, when he resigned to concentrate on his own writing and to become editor-at-large at Random House.
In September 2000, the Modern Library initiated a newly designed Paperback Classics series. Six new titles are published in the series on the second Tuesday of each month.
Modern Library lists
At its onset the Modern Library identified itself as "The Modern Library of the World's Best Books". In keeping with that brand identity, in 1998 the editors created a list they called the "Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels", numbering 100 titles. They also conducted an internet poll of public opinion, then produced a readers''' list. (The lists were actually restricted to works in English, but titles of the lists do not represent this, and little attention was paid to that fact in publicity for the lists.)
The "top ten" of the editors' list is shown here—and the two "100 Best Novels" lists are linked below.
According to a New York Times article about the list, executives at Random House said they hoped that as the century drew to a close their list would encourage public debate about the greatest works of fiction of the last hundred years, thus both increasing awareness of the Modern Library and stimulating sales of novels the group publishes.
Both lists have incurred criticism. Their ranking system concerned many professional scholars and critics. The board members themselves, who did not create the rankings and were unaware of it until the list was published, expressed disappointment and puzzlement. There are only eight or nine women on the list, some very influential works are ranked below works of questionable literary merit, and the works of major writers from many English-speaking countries apart from the United States and England—such as Australia, Canada, India, and South Africa—have been ignored. There were also hypotheses that the Modern Library merely made a selection based on its stocklist. A. S. Byatt, the well-known English novelist who was on the board, called the list "typically American".
The list was compiled via approval voting, by sending each board member a list of 440 pre-selected books from the Modern Library catalogue and asking each member to place a check beside novels they wished to choose. Then the works with the most votes were ranked the highest, and ties were decided arbitrarily by Random House publishers. This explains surprising results like the No. 5 placement of Brave New World (1932), which most of the judges agreed belonged somewhere on the list, but much lower than the very top.
David Ebershoff, the Modern Library division's publishing director, stated in a follow-up "the people who were drawn to go to the Modern Library Web site and compelled to vote have a certain enthusiasm about books and their favourite books that many people don't, so that the voting population is skewed." In addition, people were allowed to vote repeatedly, once per day, making the poll a measure of how much effort people would put into promoting their favorite books. Others have been more direct in their descriptions of the results; librarian Robert Teeter remarks that the ballot boxes were "stuffed by cultists".
References
Bibliography
Lise Jaillant, Modernism, Middlebrow and the Literary Canon - the Modern Library Series (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2014)
Gordon B. Neavill, “The Modern Library Series: Format and Design, 1917-1977,” Printing History 1 (1979): 26-37.
Gordon B. Neavill, “The Modern Library Series and American Cultural Life,” Journal of Library History 16 (Spring 1981): 241-52.
Gordon B. Neavill, “Publishing in Wartime: The Modern Library Series during the Second World War,” Library Trends 55 (Winter 2007): 583-96.
Gordon B. Neavill, “Canonicity, Reprint Publishing, and Copyright,” in The Culture of the Publisher’s Series, vol. 1: Authors, Publishers and the Shaping of Taste, edited by John Spiers (Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 88–105.
Jay Satterfield, The World's Best Books": Taste, Culture, and the Modern Library'' (University of Massachusetts Press, 2002).
External links
Best Books Modern Library
CNN - 100 best novels list draws heavy dose of criticism
Collecting the Modern Library
History of the Modern Library (speech) by Henry Toledano
On the Trail of the Torch Bearer: An Interview with Henry Toledano
On the Trail of the Torch Bearer: An Interview with Scot Kamins
Bertelsmann subsidiaries
Book publishing companies of the United States
Series of books
Publishing companies established in 1917
1917 establishments in New York City | [
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227120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package-deal%20fallacy | Package-deal fallacy | The package-deal fallacy (also known as false conjunction) is the logical fallacy of assuming that things often grouped together by tradition or culture must always be grouped that way. False conjunction refers to misuse of the and operator.
It is particularly common in political arguments, such as the following imagined example from the United States: "My opponent is a conservative who voted against higher taxes and welfare, therefore he will also oppose gun control and abortion." While those four positions are often grouped together as "conservative" in United States politics, a person may believe in one "conservative" idea while not believing in another.
For misuse of the xor or nand operators, see False dilemma.
Additional examples
"John likes surprises, so he'll enjoy finding a snake in his sleeping bag."
Assumes a surprise is inherently a good thing, does not consider actual context of event.
"Droughts are common during summers in Country X, so water is hard to find there in August."
It hasn't rained in Country X for a while, but there may well be plenty of water reserves available. Also, seasons are different between the two hemispheres; if Country X is in the southern hemisphere August will be in winter. Lastly, just because droughts are common in summers in country X does not mean they must occur every summer. That August may have been one of the summers a drought did not occur.
"A child molester was caught in a nearby neighborhood. He was friends with many of his neighbors. Everyone in that whole neighborhood is sick."
Assumes that the neighbors knew that their friend was a sex offender and also implies their endorsement of such activity. Assumes guilt by association under incidental circumstances.
When it is not a fallacy
The package-deal argument need not be a fallacy when used to argue that things grouped by culture and tradition are likely to be grouped in a given way.
Examples
"John enjoys science fiction films, so chances are he'll enjoy Star Wars."
While it is not guaranteed that John will like Star Wars, we can tell from information about him that he probably will.
"There has been a serious drought in Country X for a while, and it is not very developed, so many of its inhabitants are probably starving."
Most developing countries do face famine when drought occurs, so it is likely that this is the case in Country X, even if it is not guaranteed.
Alternative interpretation
Philosopher Ayn Rand used the term to describe a different fallacy in which essentially different concepts or ideas are “packaged” together and treated as though they are essentially similar.
Definition
Rand wrote: "'Package-dealing' is the fallacy of failing to discriminate crucial differences. It consists of treating together, as parts of a single conceptual whole or 'package,' elements which differ essentially in nature, truth-status, importance, or value."
It is important to stress that the package deal fallacy concerns solely those errors of reasoning which mistreat the essential characteristics of concepts.
Examples
Selfishness and Self-Interest
Rand pointed out that, in popular usage, the term “selfishness” constitutes a package deal because it’s used as a moral evaluation, even though no such evaluation is contained or implied in the word’s meaning:The meaning ascribed in popular usage to the word “selfishness” is not merely wrong: it represents a devastating intellectual “package-deal,” which is responsible, more than any other single factor, for the arrested moral development of mankind.
In popular usage, the word “selfishness” is a synonym of evil; the image it conjures is of a murderous brute who tramples over piles of corpses to achieve his own ends, who cares for no living being and pursues nothing but the gratification of the mindless whims of any immediate moment.
Yet the exact meaning and dictionary definition of the word “selfishness” is: concern with one’s own interests.
This concept does not include a moral evaluation; it does not tell us whether concern with one’s own interests is good or evil; nor does it tell us what constitutes man’s actual interests. It is the task of ethics to answer such questions. . . .
There is a fundamental moral difference between a man who sees his self-interest in production and a man who sees it in robbery. The evil of a robber does not lie in the fact that he pursues his own interests, but in what he regards as to his own interest; not in the fact that he pursues his values, but in what he chose to value; not in the fact that he wants to live, but in the fact that he wants to live on a subhuman level.Some modern dictionaries have made problematic attempts to redefine selfishness and/or self-interest. Merriam-Webster lists this definition of the former: “the quality or state of being selfish; a concern for one’s own welfare or advantage at the expense of or in disregard of others.” Rand pointed out that this definition is self-contradictory because true concern for one’s own welfare (a state of genuine wellbeing) requires mutually beneficial relationships with others and so precludes unfair treatment or disregard of them:When one speaks of man’s right to exist for his own sake, for his own rational self-interest, most people assume automatically that this means his right to sacrifice others. Such an assumption is a confession of their own belief that to injure, enslave, rob or murder others is in man’s self-interest—which he must selflessly renounce. The idea that man’s self-interest can be served only by a non-sacrificial relationship with others has never occurred to those humanitarian apostles of unselfishness, who proclaim their desire to achieve the brotherhood of men. And it will not occur to them, or to anyone, so long as the concept “rational” is omitted from the context of “values,” “desires,” “self-interest” and ethics.
Altruism
Rand also identified altruism as a package deal when it is regarded as synonymous with or integral to morality:There are two moral questions which altruism lumps together into one “package-deal”: (1) What are values? (2) Who should be the beneficiary of values? Altruism substitutes the second for the first; it evades the task of defining a code of moral values, thus leaving man, in fact, without moral guidance.
Altruism declares that any action taken for the benefit of others is good, and any action taken for one’s own benefit is evil. Thus the beneficiary of an action is the only criterion of moral value—and so long as that beneficiary is anybody other than oneself, anything goes.Identifying behaviors and double standards common in virtually all modern societies, Rand offered the following examples of ways in which the beneficiary of an action is often used as a standard of moral judgment:Why is it moral to serve the happiness of others, but not your own? If enjoyment is a value, why is it moral when experienced by others, but immoral when experienced by you? If the sensation of eating a cake is a value, why is it an immoral indulgence in your stomach, but a moral goal for you to achieve in the stomach of others? Why is it immoral for you to desire, but moral for others to do so? Why is it immoral to produce a value and keep it, but moral to give it away? And if it is not moral for you to keep a value, why is it moral for others to accept it? If you are selfless and virtuous when you give it, are they not selfish and vicious when they take it? Does virtue consist of serving vice?
Power
Many people conflate political power and economic power, which are wholly different concepts.
Political power is the ability to legally employ or threaten physical force against others, typically via legislation, regulation, or taxation. Possible penalties for noncompliance, such as fines, arrest, and imprisonment, are ultimately backed by a threat of physical force.
Economic power, by contrast, is characterized primarily by the absence of physical force; buyers and sellers exchange goods and services voluntarily or not at all. Lumping together economic and political power under the broader concept “power” while ignoring the crucial differences between them constitutes a package deal.
See also
List of fallacies
Critical thinking
Psychology of reasoning
Availability heuristic
Illusory correlation
Stereotyping
References
In-line References
Informal fallacies | [
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227122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wario%20Land%3A%20Super%20Mario%20Land%203 | Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 | Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 is a 1994 platform game developed by Nintendo for the Game Boy. It is the first video game to feature Wario as both a playable character and the main character, as well as the first appearance of Captain Syrup and her Brown Sugar Pirates, recurring villains in the Wario Land series.
The game was then later released for the Nintendo 3DS's Virtual Console service via the Nintendo eShop on which it gained positive reviews from critics.
Gameplay
Wario Land features gameplay markedly different from the previous two games in the Super Mario Land series. The game takes place on a route through several themed areas, which are split into several courses culminating in a boss fight. Wario is able to jump on or bump into enemies to knock them over. Enemies thus stunned can be picked up and thrown at other enemies. When in his grown form, Wario is also able to perform a shoulder charge, which is used to attack enemies, break through blocks and open hidden treasure chests.
There are additionally three unique helmets that Wario can obtain, with their own abilities. The Bull Helmet increases Wario's strength and doubles the length of his shoulder charge attack, allowing him to smash through blocks more easily. It also gives Wario the abilities to stick onto ceilings and perform a "butt stomp" into the ground which stuns nearby enemies and breaks through blocks underneath him. The Jet Helmet increases Wario's running speed and lets him fly in purely horizontal directions in the air, as well as to shoulder charge underwater. Finally, the Dragon Helmet lets Wario shoot long-ranged bursts of flames both on land and underwater, which destroy enemies and blocks on contact. This attack replaces his shoulder charge so long as he wears the Dragon Helmet. Players can also collect a Starman to gain temporary invincibility. If Wario takes damage from an opponent or obstacle, he will shrink, losing his shoulder charge move, and will remain small until he collects a clove of garlic, a helmet, or reaches the end of the level. If Wario is hit while small, or is hit by an instant kill obstacle, such as pits or lava, he will lose a life and all the coins he had collected in that level.
Unlike the Mario series, in which coins are typically used to earn extra lives, coins in this game are instead used as currency. They can be earned by collecting them, finding them in blocks, or shoulder charging enemies. If Wario has acquired 10 or more coins in a level, he can pull out a 10-coin piece, which he can throw at enemies, and pick up again if desired. They can also be spent to open level exits, or activate checkpoints. Extra lives are earned by collecting heart points, which are earned by defeating enemies or collecting Hearts, with an extra life earned for every 100 points. At the end of each level, the player can choose to either gamble the coins they have collected in the level in a game of chance, or spend them to try and earn heart points.
Certain levels contain a locked treasure room, each of which contains a unique treasure. To acquire the treasure the player must find the key in the level, carry it to the treasure room (Wario cannot use helmet abilities or the shoulder charge while carrying the key), break open the treasure chest, take the treasure, and finish the level. Upon finishing the game, each treasure the player has acquired is traded in for a set amount of coins. Even the least valuable treasure is worth roughly as much coins as the player would normally acquire over the entire game. The game's ending varies according to how many total coins the player has.
Plot
After being ejected from Mario's castle in the previous game, Wario resolves to get his own castle, one even bigger and more impressive than Mario's. To fund this extravagant dream, he travels to Kitchen Island, where the Brown Sugar Pirates have hidden many treasures and coins, including a golden statue of Princess Peach, stolen from the Mushroom Kingdom. Wario intends to retrieve this statue and sell it back to Mario for the price of a castle. After exploring the island, stealing the pirates' treasures, and infiltrating their Syrup Castle, Wario confronts the leader of the pirates, a female buccaneer named Captain Syrup. She summons a genie to destroy Wario, but he defeats the genie and Syrup destroys the castle with a large bomb as she escapes. In doing so, the pirates' biggest treasure is revealed: the giant gold statue of Princess Peach. However, Mario appears in a helicopter, thanks Wario and takes the statue away in front of his eyes.
Still holding the genie's lamp, Wario summons the genie and wishes for a castle. The genie tells him that he requires money to grant his wish, and so Wario gives him all the coins the player has collected over the course of the game, plus trades in all the found treasures for more coins. Exactly how well the genie grants Wario's wish depends on the final amount of coins he is given: Wario can get (from best to worst outcome) a castle, a Chinese pagoda, a log cabin, a treehouse, or a tiny birdhouse. If the player collects all the treasures and has enough coins to reach the 99,999 limit, the genie will give Wario an entire planet with his face etched on its surface.
Release
Originally released for the Game Boy on January 21, 1994 in Japan and from March 13 to May 13 in North America and Europe, the game was later re-released on the Nintendo 3DS's eShop Virtual Console download service in Japan on December 14, 2011, Europe on February 16, 2012 and North America on July 26, 2012. The game can be downloaded along with its predecessors, Super Mario Land and Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins.
Reception
In the United States, it was the top-selling Game Boy game in March 1994 and April 1994. By 1997, units had been sold worldwide.
Game Informers Ben Reeves called it the 13th best Game Boy game and called it the most successful spin-off from the Mario series. In the United Kingdom, it was the top-selling Game Boy game for three months in 1994, from May to July.
GamePro named it the best Game Boy game at the 1994 Consumer Electronics Show, praising the new power-ups and the multiple endings. In their later review, they deemed the game "faster, more challenging, and more fun than its hand-held predecessors." They particularly commented that the backgrounds were not as cluttered as in the previous games, making the action easier to follow, that the music was less obtrusive, and that the sprites were better detailed. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it a unanimous 7 out of 10, criticizing that the game is too easy but praising the new power-ups and strong graphics. Pocket Gamer awarded the Virtual Console re-release a 9 out of 10, insisting that "this is a Nintendo classic that you must play – especially if you never have before." Nintendo Life similarly awarded the game 9 out of 10, praising the game as being "some of the best platforming the Game Boy system has to offer."
Legacy
Wario Land, the sequel to Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins, was designed to promote Wario to a starring role and expand the Mario universe. Wario Land spawned five popular sequels: Virtual Boy Wario Land, Wario Land II, Wario Land 3, Wario Land 4, and Wario Land: Shake It!. Other Wario titles have been released following the success of Wario Land, including Wario World, Wario: Master of Disguise, and the WarioWare Inc. series.
Several Mario spin-off titles have referenced the original Wario Land. In Mario's Super Picross, Bull Wario, Dragon Wario, and Small Wario appear in the background of the Wario stage selection screens. Subsequently, in Picross 2, Wario is depicted wearing his safari helmet that was introduced in this title. Similarly, Wario's Amiibo board map in Mario Party 10 features his safari helmet as a background element. And finally, in Mario Kart 7, Wario's bull transformation appears as a billboard on the Wario Shipyard racetrack. Additionally, the music track of this course is based on the main theme of Wario Land.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 at NinDB
Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 on IMDb
1994 video games
Nintendo Research & Development 1 games
Game Boy games
Platform games
Super Mario Land
Video game sequels
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS
Video games about genies
Video games about pirates
Video games developed in Japan
Video games produced by Gunpei Yokoi
Video games set on fictional islands
Wario Land
Single-player video games
Video games with alternate endings | [
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227123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational%20Safety%20and%20Health%20Administration | Occupational Safety and Health Administration | The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA ) is a large regulatory agency of the United States Department of Labor that originally had federal visitorial powers to inspect and examine workplaces. Congress established the agency under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), which President Richard M. Nixon signed into law on December 29, 1970. OSHA's mission is to "assure safe and healthy working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education and assistance". The agency is also charged with enforcing a variety of whistleblower statutes and regulations. OSHA's workplace safety inspections have been shown to reduce injury rates and injury costs without adverse effects to employment, sales, credit ratings or firm survival.
History
The Bureau of Labor Standards in the Labor Department had covered some work safety issues since 1922. Economic boom and associated labor turnover during World War II worsened work safety in nearly all areas of the United States economy, but after 1945 accidents again declined as long-term forces reasserted themselves. In addition, after World War II new and powerful labor unions played an increasingly important role in worker safety. In the 1960s increasing economic expansion again led to rising injury rates, and the resulting political pressures led Congress to establish the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) on April 28, 1971, the date that the Occupational Health and Safety Act became effective. The new agency incorporated much of what had been the Bureau of Labor Standards. George Guenther was appointed as the agency's first director.
OSHA has run a number of training, compliance assistance, and health and safety recognition programs throughout its history. The OSHA Training Institute, which trains government and private sector health and safety personnel, began in 1972. In 1978, the agency began a grantmaking program, now called the Susan Harwood Training Grant Program, to train workers and employers in reducing workplace hazards. OSHA started the Voluntary Protection Programs in 1982, which allow employers to apply as "model workplaces" to achieve special designation if they meet certain requirements.
OSHA Act coverage
The OSHA Act covers most private sector employers and their workers, in addition to some public sector employers and workers in the 50 states and certain territories and jurisdictions under federal authority. Those jurisdictions include the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Wake Island, Johnston Island, and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands as defined in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.
Private sector employers
The OSHA Act covers most private sector employers in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and other U.S. jurisdictions—either directly through federal OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state plan.
State plans are OSHA-approved job safety and health programs operated by individual states instead of federal OSHA. Federal OSHA approves and monitors all state plans and provides as much as fifty percent of the funding for each program. State-run safety and health programs are required to be at least as effective as the federal OSHA program.
The following 22 states or territories have OSHA-approved state programs: Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming.
Federal OSHA provides coverage to certain workplaces specifically excluded from a state’s plan — for example, work in maritime industries or on military bases.
State and local governments
Workers at state and local government agencies are not covered by federal OSHA, but have OSH Act protections if they work in those states that have an OSHA-approved state program. OSH Act rules also permit states and territories to develop plans that cover only public sector (state and local government) workers. In these cases, private sector workers and employers remain under federal OSHA jurisdiction. Five additional states and one U.S. territory have OSHA approved state plans that cover public sector workers only: Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, New Jersey, New York, and the Virgin Islands.
Federal government agencies
OSHA’s protection applies to all federal agencies. Section 19 of the OSH Act makes federal agency heads responsible for providing safe and healthful working conditions for their workers. OSHA conducts inspections of federal facilities in response to workers’ reports of hazards and under programs that target high hazard federal workplaces.
Federal agencies must have a safety and health program that meets the same standards as private employers. OSHA issues “virtual fines” to federal agencies – following an inspection where violations are found, OSHA issues a press release stating the size the fine would be if the federal agency were a private sector employer. Under a 1998 amendment, the OSHA Act covers the U.S. Postal Service the same as any private sector employer.
Not covered under the OSH Act
The OSH Act does not cover the self-employed, immediate family members of farm employers, or workplace hazards regulated by another federal agency (for example, the Mine Safety and Health Administration, the Department of Energy, or Coast Guard).
Rights and responsibilities under OSH Act law
Employers have the responsibility to provide a safe workplace.
By law, employers must provide their workers with a workplace that does not have serious hazards and must follow all OSH Act safety and health standards. Employers must find and correct safety and health problems. The OSH Act further requires that employers must first try to eliminate or reduce hazards by making feasible changes in working conditions rather than relying on personal protective equipment such as masks, gloves, or earplugs. Switching to safer chemicals, enclosing processes to trap harmful fumes, or using ventilation systems to clean the air are examples of effective ways to eliminate or reduce risks.
Employers must also:
Inform workers about chemical hazards through training, labels, alarms, color-coded systems, chemical information sheets and other methods.
Provide safety training to workers in a language and vocabulary they can understand.
Keep accurate records of work-related injuries and illnesses.
Perform tests in the workplace, such as air sampling, required by some OSH Act standards.
Provide required personal protective equipment at no cost to workers. (Employers must pay for most types of required personal protective equipment.)
Provide hearing exams or other medical tests when required by OSH Act standards.
Post OSHA citations and annually post injury and illness summary data where workers can see them.
Notify OSHA within eight hours of a workplace fatality. Notify OSHA within 24 hours of all work-related inpatient hospitalizations.
Prominently display the official OSHA Job Safety and Health – It’s the Law poster that describes rights and responsibilities under the OSH Act.
Not retaliate or discriminate against workers for using their rights under the law, including their right to report a work-related injury or illness.
Workers have the right to:
Working conditions that do not pose a risk of serious harm.
File a confidential complaint with OSHA to have their workplace inspected.
Receive information and training about hazards, methods to prevent harm, and the OSH Act standards that apply to their workplace. The training must be done in a language and vocabulary workers can understand.
Receive copies of records of work-related injuries and illnesses that occur in their workplace.
Receive copies of the results from tests and monitoring done to find and measure hazards in their workplace.
Receive copies of their workplace medical records.
Participate in an OSHA inspection and speak in private with the inspector.
File a complaint with OSHA if they have been retaliated or discriminated against by their employer as the result of requesting an inspection or using any of their other rights under the OSH Act.
File a complaint if punished or retaliated against for acting as a “whistleblower” under the 21 additional federal laws for which OSHA has jurisdiction.
Temporary workers must be treated like permanent employees. Staffing agencies and host employers share a joint accountability over temporary workers. Both entities are therefore bound to comply with workplace health and safety requirements and to ensure worker safety and health. OSHA could hold both the host and temporary employers responsible for the violation of any condition.
Health and safety standards
The Occupational Safety and Health Act grant OSHA the authority to issue workplace health and safety regulations. These regulations include limits on hazardous chemical exposure, employee access to hazard information, requirements for the use of personal protective equipment, and requirements to prevent falls and hazards from operating dangerous equipment.
The OSH Act's current Construction, General Industry, Maritime and Agriculture standards are designed to protect workers from a wide range of serious hazards. Examples of OSHA standards include requirements for employers to provide fall protection such as a safety harness/line or guardrails; prevent trenching cave-ins; prevent exposure to some infectious diseases; ensure the safety of workers who enter confined spaces; prevent exposure to harmful chemicals; put guards on dangerous machines; provide respirators or other safety equipment; and provide training for certain dangerous jobs in a language and vocabulary workers can understand.
OSHA sets enforceable permissible exposure limits (PELs) to protect workers against the health effects of exposure to hazardous substances, including limits on the airborne concentrations of hazardous chemicals in the air. Most of OSHA’s PELs were issued shortly after adoption of the OSH Act in 1970. Attempts to issue more stringent PELs have been blocked by litigation from industry; thus, the vast majority of PELs have not been updated since 1971. The agency has issued non-binding, alternate occupational exposure limits that may better protect workers.
Employers must also comply with the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act. This clause requires employers to keep their workplaces free of serious recognized hazards and is generally cited when no specific OSHA standard applies to the hazard.
In its first year of operation, OSHA was permitted to adopt regulations based on guidelines set by certain standards organizations, such as the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, without going through all of the requirements of a typical rulemaking.
OSHA is granted the authority to promulgate standards that prescribe the methods employers are legally required to follow to protect their workers from hazards. Before OSHA can issue a standard, it must go through a very extensive and lengthy process that includes substantial public engagement, notice and comment. The agency must show that a significant risk to workers exists and that there are feasible measures employers can take to protect their workers.
In 2000, OSHA issued an ergonomics standard. In March 2001, Congress voted to repeal the standard through the Congressional Review Act. The repeal, one of the first major pieces of legislation signed by President George W. Bush, is the first instance that Congress has successfully used the Congressional Review Act to block regulation.
Since 2001, OSHA has issued the following standards:
2002: Exit Routes, Emergency Action Plans, and Fire Prevention Plans
2004: Commercial Diving Operations
2004: Fire Protection in Shipyards
2006: Occupational Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium
2006: Assigned Protection Factors for Respiratory Protection Equipment
2007: Electrical Installation Standard
2007: Personal Protective Equipment Payment (Clarification)
2008: Vertical Tandem Lifts
2010: Cranes and Derricks in Construction
2010: General Working Conditions in Shipyards
2012: GHS Update to the Hazard Communication Standard
2014: New Recordkeeping and Reporting Requirements for Employers
2014: Revision to Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution; Electrical Protective Equipment
2016: Occupational Exposure to Respirable Crystalline Silica
2016: Update General Industry Walking-Working Surfaces and Fall Protection Standards
Enforcement
OSHA is responsible for enforcing its standards on regulated entities. Compliance Safety and Health Officers carry out inspections and assess fines for regulatory violations. Inspections are planned for worksites in particularly hazardous industries. Inspections can also be triggered by a workplace fatality, multiple hospitalizations, worker complaints, or referrals.
OSHA is a small agency, given the size of its mission: with its state partners, OSHA has approximately 2,400 inspectors covering more than 8 million workplaces where 130 million workers are employed. In Fiscal Year 2012 (ending Sept. 30), OSHA and its state partners conducted more than 83,000 inspections of workplaces across the United States — just a fraction of the nation’s worksites. According to a report by AFL–CIO, it would take OSHA 129 years to inspect all workplaces under its jurisdiction.
Enforcement plays an important part in OSHA’s efforts to reduce workplace injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. Inspections are initiated without advance notice, conducted using on-site or telephone and facsimile investigations, performed by trained compliance officers and scheduled based on the following priorities [highest to lowest]: imminent danger; catastrophes – fatalities or hospitalizations; worker complaints and referrals; targeted inspections – particular hazards, high injury rates; and follow-up inspections.
Current workers or their representatives may file a complaint and ask OSHA to inspect their workplace if they believe that there is a serious hazard or that their employer is not following OSHA standards. Workers and their representatives have the right to ask for an inspection without OSHA telling their employer who filed the complaint. It is a violation of the OSH Act for an employer to fire, demote, transfer or in any way discriminate against a worker for filing a complaint or using other OSHA rights.
When an inspector finds violations of OSHA standards or serious hazards, OSHA may issue citations and fines. A citation includes methods an employer may use to fix a problem and the date by which the corrective actions must be completed.
OSHA’s fines are very low compared with other government agencies. They were raised for the first time since 1990 on Aug. 2, 2016 to comply with the 2015 Federal Civil Penalties Inflation Adjustment Act Improvements Act passed by Congress to advance the effectiveness of civil monetary penalties and to maintain their deterrent effect. The new law directs agencies to adjust their penalties for inflation each year. The maximum OSHA fine for a serious violation is $13,653 (which can be assessed daily after a failure to "abate" the violation) and the maximum fine for a repeat or willful violation is $136,532. In determining the amount of the proposed penalty, OSHA must take into account the gravity of the alleged violation and the employer’s size of business, good faith, and history of previous violations. Employers have the right to contest any part of the citation, including whether a violation actually exists. Workers only have the right to challenge the deadline by which a problem must be resolved. Appeals of citations are heard by the independent Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC).
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused about 1,300 workers and their families to contract the virus, with four deaths, at the Smithfield Foods packing plant in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The governor, Kristi Noem, resisted initiating and enforcing measures to protect workers and the community. The plant was fined $13,494 - the maximum allowed at the time - by OSHA for what was considered a single violation.
OSHA carries out its enforcement activities through its 10 regional offices and 90 area offices. OSHA’s regional offices are located in Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Kansas City, Denver, San Francisco, and Seattle.
Record keeping requirements
Tracking and investigating workplace injuries and illnesses play an important role in preventing future injuries and illnesses. Under OSHA’s Recordkeeping regulation, certain covered employers in high hazard industries are required to prepare and maintain records of serious occupational injuries and illnesses. This information is important for employers, workers and OSHA in evaluating the safety of a workplace, understanding industry hazards, and implementing worker protections to reduce and eliminate hazards.
Employers with more than ten employees and whose establishments are not classified as a partially exempt industry must record serious work-related injuries and illnesses using OSHA Forms 300, 300A and 301. Recordkeeping forms, requirements and exemption information are at OSHA’s website.
Whistleblower protection
OSHA enforces the whistleblower provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act and 21 other statutes protecting workers who report violations of various airline, commercial motor carrier, consumer product, environmental, financial reform, food safety, health care reform, nuclear, pipeline, public transportation agency, maritime and securities laws. Over the years, OSHA has been responsible for enforcing these laws that protect the rights of workers to speak up without fear of retaliation, regardless of the relationship of these laws to occupational safety and health matters.
Compliance assistance
OSHA has developed several training, compliance assistance, and health and safety recognition programs throughout its history.
The OSHA Training Institute, which trains government and private sector health and safety personnel, began in 1972. In 1978, the agency began a grant making program, now called the Susan Harwood Training Grant Program, to train workers and employers in identifying and reducing workplace hazards.
The Voluntary Protection Program (VPP) recognize employers and workers in private industry and federal agencies who have implemented effective safety and health management programs and maintain injury and illness rates below the national average for their respective industries. In VPP, management, labor, and OSHA work cooperatively and proactively to prevent fatalities, injuries, and illnesses through a system focused on: hazard prevention and control, worksite analysis, training, and management commitment and worker involvement.
OSHA’s On-site Consultation Program offers free and confidential advice to small and medium-sized businesses in all states across the country, with priority given to high-hazard worksites. Each year, responding to requests from small employers looking to create or improve their safety and health management programs, OSHA’s On-site Consultation Program conducts over 29,000 visits to small business worksites covering over 1.5 million workers across the nation. On-site consultation services are separate from enforcement and do not result in penalties or citations. Consultants from state agencies or universities work with employers to identify workplace hazards, provide advice on compliance with OSHA standards, and assist in establishing safety and health management programs.
Under the consultation program, certain exemplary employers may request participation in OSHA’s Safety and Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP). Eligibility for participation includes, but is not limited to, receiving a full-service, comprehensive consultation visit, correcting all identified hazards and developing an effective safety and health management program. Worksites that receive SHARP recognition are exempt from programmed inspections during the period that the SHARP certification is valid.
OSHA also provides compliance assistance through its national and area offices. Through hundreds of publications in a variety of languages, website safety and health topics pages, and through compliance assistance staff OSHA provides information to employers and workers on specific hazards and OSHA rights and responsibilities.
Efficacy
A 2012 study in Science found that OSHA's random workplace safety inspections caused a "9.4% decline in injury rates" and a "26% reduction in injury cost" for the inspected firms. The study found "no evidence that these improvements came at the expense of employment, sales, credit ratings, or firm survival." A 2020 study in the American Economic Review found that the decision by the Obama administration to issue press releases that named and shamed facilities that violated OSHA safety and health regulations led other facilities to increase their compliance and to experience fewer workplace injuries. The study estimated that each press release had the same effect on compliance as 210 inspections.
Much of the debate about OSHA regulations and enforcement policies revolves around the cost of regulations and enforcement, versus the actual benefit in reduced worker injury, illness and death. A 1995 study of several OSHA standards by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) found that OSHA relies "generally on methods that provide a credible basis for the determinations essential to rulemakings". Though it found that OSHA's finding and estimates are "subject to vigorous review and challenge", it stated that this is natural because "interested parties and experts involved in rulemakings have differing visions".
OSHA has come under considerable criticism for the ineffectiveness of its penalties, particularly its criminal penalties. The maximum penalty is a misdemeanor with a maximum of 6-months in jail. In response to the criticism, OSHA, in conjunction with the Department of Justice, has pursued several high-profile criminal prosecutions for violations under the Act, and has announced a joint enforcement initiative between OSHA and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which has the ability to issue much higher fines than OSHA. Meanwhile, Congressional Democrats, labor unions and community safety and health advocates are attempting to revise the OSH Act to make it a felony with much higher penalties to commit a willful violation that results in the death of a worker. Some local prosecutors are charging company executives with manslaughter and other felonies when criminal negligence leads to the death of a worker.
A New York Times investigation in 2003 showed that over the 20-year period from 1982 to 2002, 2,197 workers died in 1,242 incidents in which OSHA investigators concluded that employers had willfully violated workplace safety laws. In 93% of these fatality cases arising from wilful violation, OSHA made no referral to the U.S. Department of Justice for criminal prosecution. The Times investigation found that OSHA had failed to pursue prosecution "even when employers had been cited before for the very same safety violation" and even in cases where multiple workers died. In interviews, current and former OSHA officials said that the low rates of criminal enforcement were the result of "a bureaucracy that works at every level to thwart criminal referrals. ... that fails to reward, and sometimes penalizes, those who push too hard for prosecution" and that " aggressive enforcement [was] suffocated by endless layers of review.
OSHA has also been criticized for taking too long to develop new regulations. For instance, speaking about OSHA under the George W. Bush presidency on the specific issue of combustible dust explosions, Chemical Safety Board appointee Carolyn Merritt said: "The basic disappointment has been this attitude of no new regulation. They don't want industry to be pestered. In some instances, industry has to be pestered in order to comply."
Directors
The director of OSHA is the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety and Health.
George Guenther (April 1971 - January 1973)
M. Chain Robbins (Acting, January 1973 - April 1973)
John Stender (April 1973 - July 1975)
Bert Concklin & Marshall Miller (Acting, July 1975 - December 1975)
Morton Corn, December 1975 - January 1977)
Bert Concklin (Acting, January 1977 - April 1977)
Eula Bingham, April 1977 - January 1981)
David Zeigler (Acting, January 1981 - March 1981)
Thorne G. Auchter, March 1981 - April 1984)
Patrick Tyson (Acting, April 1984 - July 1984)
Robert A. Rowland (Recess appointment; never confirmed, July 1984 - July 1985)
Patrick Tyson (Acting, July 1985 - May 1986)
John A. Pendergrass (May 1986 - March 1989)
Alan C. McMillan (Acting, April 1989 - October 1989)
Gerard F. Scannell (October 1989 - January 1992)
Dorothy L. Strunk (Acting, January 1992 - January 1993)
David Zeigler (Acting, January 1993 - November 1993)
Joseph A. Dear (November 1993 - January 1997)
Gregory R. Watchman (Acting, January 1997 - November 1997)
Charles N. Jeffress (November 1997 - January 2001)
R. Davis Layne (Acting, January 2001 - August 2001)
John L. Henshaw (August 2001 - December 2004)
Jonathan L. Snare (Acting, January 2005 - April 2006)
Edwin G. Foulke, Jr. (April 2006 - November 2008)
Thomas M. Stohler (Acting, November 2008 – January 2009)
Donald Shalhoub (Acting, January 2009 - April 2009)
Jordan Barab (Acting, April 2009 - December 2009)
David Michaels (December 2009 - January 2017)
Loren Sweatt (Acting, September 2017 - November 2017; February 2018 - May 2019)
James Frederick (Acting, April 2021 - November 2021)
Douglas L. Parker (November 2021 - present)
See also
Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations
American Society of Safety Engineers
Construction site safety
Ergonomics
Voluntary Protection Programs Participants' Association
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)
MIOSHA
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
National Safety Council
Occupational safety and health
Occupational fatality
Oregon OSHA
Regulatory Flexibility Act
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board
References
Department of Labor Budget in Brief, FY2013
External links
OSHA - Current 29 CFR Books in Digital Format
OSHA - List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals
OSHA in the Federal Register
OSHA account on USAspending.gov
Occupational Safety and Health Act, as amended, in PDF/HTML/details in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
1970 establishments in the United States
Government agencies established in 1970
Safety codes
United States Department of Labor agencies
Industrial and organizational psychology | [
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227124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20A.%20Michener | James A. Michener | James Albert Michener ( or ; February 3, 1907 – October 16, 1997) was an American author. He wrote more than 40 books, most of which were long, fictional family sagas covering the lives of many generations in particular geographic locales and incorporating detailed history. Many of his works were bestsellers and were chosen by the Book of the Month Club; he was known for the meticulous research that went into his books.
Michener's books include Tales of the South Pacific, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1948; Hawaii; The Drifters; Centennial; The Source; The Fires of Spring; Chesapeake; Caribbean; Caravans; Alaska; Texas; Space; Poland; and The Bridges at Toko-ri. His non-fiction works include Iberia, about his travels in Spain and Portugal; his memoir, The World Is My Home; and Sports in America. Return to Paradise combines fictional short stories with Michener's factual descriptions of the Pacific areas where they take place.
His first book was adapted as the popular Broadway musical South Pacific, by Rodgers and Hammerstein, and later as eponymous feature films in 1958 and 2001, adding to his financial success. A number of his other stories and novels were adapted for films and TV series.
He also wrote Presidential Lottery: The Reckless Gamble in Our Electoral System, in which he condemned the United States' Electoral College system. It was published in 1969, and republished in 2014 and 2016.
Biography
Michener wrote that he did not know who his biological parents were, or exactly when or where he was born. He was raised a Quaker by an adoptive mother, Mabel Michener, in Doylestown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania.
Michener graduated from Doylestown High School in 1925. He attended Swarthmore College, in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, where he played basketball and was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. After graduating summa cum laude in 1929, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English and History, he traveled and studied in Scotland at the University of St Andrews in the medieval town of St. Andrews, Fife, on the coast of the North Sea for two years.
Michener talks about "hoboing" (riding freight trains for free) during the Great Depression, as mentioned in the 1998 Great Depression documentary on the History Channel.
Michener took a job as a high school English teacher at The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. From 1933 to 1936, he taught English at George School in Newtown, Pennsylvania. He attended Colorado State Teachers College in Greeley, Colorado, (in 1970 renamed the University of Northern Colorado), where he earned a Master of Arts degree in education. After graduation, he taught at the university and at College High School (the University Lab School) for several years. The library at the University of Northern Colorado was named after him in October 1972.
In 1935, Michener married Patti Koon. He accepted a Guest Lecturer position at Harvard, from 1939 to 1940, but left to join Macmillan Publishers as their social studies education editor.
Although as a Quaker, he could have qualified as a conscientious objector and not been drafted into the military, Michener enlisted in the United States Navy during World War II (1941–1945). He traveled throughout the South Pacific Ocean on various assignments which he gained because his base commanders mistakenly thought his father was Admiral Marc Mitscher. His experiences during these travels inspired the stories published in his breakout work Tales of the South Pacific.
In 1960, Michener was chairman of the Bucks County committee to elect Democrat John F. Kennedy as the 35th President. In 1962, he unsuccessfully ran as a Democratic Party candidate for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania, a decision he later considered a misstep. "My mistake was to run in 1962 as a Democratic candidate for Congress. [My wife] kept saying, 'Don't do it, don't do it.' I lost and went back to writing books."
In 1968, Michener served as the campaign manager for the third-term run of the twice-elected U.S. Senator Joseph S. Clark of Pennsylvania. Michener later served as Secretary for the 1967–1968 Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention. Also that year, Michener was a member of the Electoral College, serving as a Pennsylvania Democrat. He wrote about that experience in a political science text Presidential Lottery: The Reckless Gamble in Our Electoral System, which was published the following year. In it, he suggested alternate systems, including using a direct popular vote by majority for the office of President of the United States and other more creative solutions.
Writing career
Michener began his writing career during World War II, when as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy he was assigned to the South Pacific as a naval historian. He later turned his notes and impressions into Tales of the South Pacific (1947), his first book, published when he was age 40. It won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1948, and Rodgers and Hammerstein adapted it as the hit Broadway musical South Pacific, which premiered on Broadway in New York City in 1949. The musical was also adapted as eponymous feature films in 1958 and 2001.
In the late 1950s, Michener began working as a roving editor for the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. He gave up that work in 1970.
Michener tried television writing but was unsuccessful. American television producer Bob Mann wanted Michener to co-create a weekly anthology series from Tales of the South Pacific and serve as narrator. Rodgers and Hammerstein, however, had bought all dramatic rights to the novel and did not relinquish their ownership. Michener did lend his name to a different television series, Adventures in Paradise, in 1959, starring Gardner McKay as Captain Adam Troy in the sailing ship Tiki III.
Michener was a popular writer during his lifetime; his novels sold an estimated 75 million copies worldwide. His novel Hawaii (1959), well-timed on its publication when Hawaii became the 50th state, was based on extensive research. He used this approach for nearly all of his subsequent novels, which were based on detailed historical, cultural, and even geological research. Centennial (1974), which documented several generations of families in the Rocky Mountains of the American West, was adapted as a popular 12-part television miniseries of the same name and aired on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC television network) from October 1978 through February 1979.
In 1996, State House Press published James A. Michener: A Bibliography, compiled by David A. Groseclose. Its more than 2,500 entries from 1923 to 1995 include magazine articles, forewords, and other works.
Michener's prodigious output made for lengthy novels, several of which run more than 1,000 pages. The author states in My Lost Mexico (1992) that at times he would spend 12 to 15 hours per day at his typewriter for weeks on end, and that he used so much paper, his filing system had trouble keeping up.
Marriages
Michener was married three times. In 1935, he married Patti Koon. In 1948, they divorced, and the same year Michener married his second wife, Vange Nord.
Michener met his third wife, Mari Yoriko Sabusawa, at a luncheon in Chicago. An American, she and her Japanese parents were interned in western camps that the U.S. government set up during the early years of World War II to hold ethnic Japanese from West Coast / Pacific communities. Michener divorced Nord in 1955 and married Sabusawa the same year. Sabusawa died in 1994.
Michener's novel Sayonara (1954) is quasi-autobiographical. Set during the early 1950s, it tells the story of Major Lloyd Gruver, a United States Air Force ace jet pilot in the Korean War (1950–1953), now stationed in Japan, who falls in love with Hana-Ogi, a Japanese woman. The novel follows their cross-cultural romance and illuminates the racism of the post-World War II time period. In 1957 it was adapted into the highly successful movie Sayonara which starred Marlon Brando, James Garner, Miiko Taka, and Red Buttons; Buttons won the 1958 Academy Award ("Oscar") for best supporting actor for his performance.
Philanthropist
Michener became a major philanthropist, donating more than $100 million to educational, cultural, and writing institutions, including his alma mater, Swarthmore College, the Iowa Writers Workshop, and the James A. Michener Art Museum, and more than $37 million to University of Texas at Austin. By 1992, his gifts made him UT Austin's largest single donor to that time. Over the years, Mari Michener played a major role in helping direct his donations.
In 1989, Michener donated the royalty earnings from the Canadian edition of his novel Journey (1989), published in Canada by McClelland & Stewart, to create the Journey Prize, an annual Canadian literary prize worth $10,000 (CDN) that is awarded for the year's best short story published by an emerging Canadian writer.
Final years and death
In the Micheners' final years, he and his wife lived in Austin, Texas, and they endowed the Michener Center for Writers at the University of Texas at Austin. The Center provides three-year Michener Fellowships in fiction, poetry, playwriting and screenwriting to a small number of students.
Suffering from terminal kidney disease, in October 1997, Michener ended the daily dialysis treatment that had kept him alive for four years. He said he had accomplished what he wanted and did not want further physical complications. On October 16, 1997, he died of kidney failure, at age 90. Michener was cremated, and his ashes were placed next to those of his wife at Austin Memorial Park Cemetery in Austin, Texas. Michener is honored by a memorial headstone at the Texas State Cemetery in Austin.
Bequests
Michener left most of his estate and book copyrights to Swarthmore College, where he earned his bachelor's degree. He had donated his papers to the University of Northern Colorado, where he earned his master's degree.
Honors
In 1971, Michener was awarded the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
In 1981, Michener was awarded the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates in St. Louis, Missouri.
In 1993, the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Michener its "Lone Sailor Award" for his naval war service and his literary achievements.
In 1994, Michener endorsed the naming as "Michener's" the restaurant at Iririki Island Resort, Port Vila, Vanuatu. He wrote:
Many of the fondest memories of my travels stem back to my years of military service in the New Hebrides – (now Vanuatu) – during the Pacific War years of the early 1940s...While those beautiful islands have changed much with progress in the ensuing years, I know from subsequent visits that the friendliness of the peoples, their infectious smiles and their open-heartedness will remain forever one of life's treasures.
Posthumous
On May 12, 2008, the United States Postal Service honored him with a 59¢ Distinguished Americans series postage stamp.
The Library at The University of Northern Colorado in Greeley, Colorado, his alma mater, is named "The James Michener Library" in his honor. On the mezzanine, there is a small display of his effects, including one of his typewriters.
In 1998, the Raffles Hotel in Singapore named one of their suites after the author, in memory of his patronage and affection for the hotel. Michener first stayed at the Singapore hotel in 1949 after World War II. In a 1987 interview, he said it was a luxury for him, a young man, to stay at the Raffles Hotel then, and that he had the time of his life. He returned on a later trip. The suite was officially christened by Steven J. Green, Ambassador of United States to Singapore.
James A. Michener Art Museum
Opened in 1988, in Michener's hometown of Doylestown, Pennsylvania, the James A. Michener Art Museum houses collections of local and well-known artists. Michener pledged $5.5 million to the museum in 1996. Constructed from the remains of an old state prison, the museum is a non-profit organization with both permanent and rotating collections. Two prominent permanent fixtures are the James A. Michener display room and the Nakashima Reading Room, constructed in honor of his third wife's Japanese heritage. The museum is known for its permanent collection of Pennsylvania Impressionist paintings.
James A. Michener Society
The James A. Michener Society was formed in the fall of 1998. It comprises people who share a common interest and admirers of Michener's life and work. The society sponsors a variety of activities and publishes an electronic internet newsletter. Annual meetings of members are held at locations closely associated with Michener's life.
The society's purpose is to:
Preserve the intellectual legacy of James A. Michener as a writer, teacher, historian, public servant, patriot, and philanthropist
Ensure that future generations have full access to all his writings
Promote the exchange of ideas and information about his writings
Encourage fellowship among readers of his writings
Inform devotees and members of the Society about recent publications and critiques of his writings
Works
In addition to writing novels, short stories, and non-fiction, Michener was very involved with movies, TV series, and radio. The following is only a selection of the listings in the Library of Congress files.
Books—fiction
Books — non-fiction
Adaptations
See also
List of bestselling novels in the United States
Edward Rutherfurd
References
Further reading
(His formative school years with Michener's personal reminiscences.)
(Memoir by a long-time friend of Michener's.)
(Photo essay and commentary on Michener's writing of Iberia in Spain.)
External links
Published books with covers
James A. Michener Library at the University of Northern Colorado
James A. Michener Biography and Interview on American Academy of Achievement
James A. Michener Collection at the University of Northern Colorado
James A. Michener Society
James A. Michener Art Museum, Doylestown, PA
Michener Center for Writers at the University of Texas at Austin
Michener: His Influence and Ethics by Edward Rutherfurd
Working with James A. Michener — The Making of The Covenant
James Michener interviewed by Stephen Banker (~1978)
Biographical Entry at the Texas State Cemetery
1907 births
1997 deaths
20th-century American educators
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American memoirists
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American novelists
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
American adoptees
American historical novelists
American humanists
American male non-fiction writers
American male novelists
American men's basketball players
American philanthropists
American social commentators
Burials at Texas State Cemetery
Critics of religions
Cultural critics
Environmental philosophers
Environmental writers
Novelists from Colorado
Novelists from Pennsylvania
Novelists from Texas
Pennsylvania Democrats
People from Doylestown, Pennsylvania
People from Greeley, Colorado
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of history
Philosophers of literature
Philosophers of science
Philosophers of social science
Philosophers of technology
Political philosophers
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winners
Secular humanists
Social critics
Social philosophers
Space advocates
Sportswriters from Pennsylvania
Swarthmore College alumni
Swarthmore Garnet Tide men's basketball players
Texas Longhorns women's basketball
The Hill School alumni
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Theorists on Western civilization
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
United States Navy officers
United States Navy personnel of World War II
University of Northern Colorado alumni
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Writers about activism and social change
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Writers about religion and science
Writers from Philadelphia
Writers of fiction set in prehistoric times
Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity
Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age | [
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227127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice%20chess | Alice chess | Alice chess is a chess variant invented in 1953 by V. R. Parton which employs two chessboards rather than one, and a slight (but significant) alteration to the standard rules of chess. The game is named after the main character "Alice" in Lewis Carroll's work Through the Looking-Glass, where transport through the mirror into an alternate world is portrayed on the chessboards by the after-move transfer of chess pieces between boards A and B.
This simple transfer rule is well known for causing disorientation and confusion in players new to the game, often leading to surprises and amusing mistakes as pieces "disappear" and "reappear" between boards, and pieces interposed to block attacks on one board are simply bypassed on the other. This "nothing is as it seems" experience probably accounts for Alice chess remaining Parton's most popular and successful variant among the numerous others he invented.
Move rules
Pieces move the same as they do in standard chess, but a piece transfers at the completion of its move to the opposite board. This simple change has dramatic impact on gameplay.
At the beginning of the game, pieces start in their normal positions on board A, while board B starts empty. After each move is made on a given board, the moved piece is transferred (goes "through the looking-glass") to the corresponding square on the opposite board. (So, if a piece is moved on board A, it is transferred to board B at the completion of its move; if the piece started on board B, it ends up on board A.)
For example, after the opening moves 1. Nf3 e6, the white knight and black pawn transfer after moving on board A to their corresponding squares on board B. If the game continued 2. Ne5 Bc5, the knight returns to board A and the bishop finishes on board B (see diagram).
A move in Alice chess has two basic stipulations: the move must be legal on the board on which it is played, and the square transferred to on the opposite board must be vacant. (Consequently, capture is possible only on the board upon which a piece currently stands: pieces on board A can capture only pieces on board A; pieces on board B can capture only pieces on board B.) After capture, the capturing piece transfers to the opposite board the same as a non-capturing move.
To demonstrate, if the above game continued 3. Nxf7, the knight transfers to board B. Then with Black to move, both 3...Kxf7 and 3...Bxf2+ are not possible. Black cannot play 3...Qd4 either, since the queen may not hop over the pawn on d7. But the move 3... Bg1 is possible (see diagram), although a white pawn is on f2 on board A. (The bishop move on board B is legal, and the square transferred to, g1 on board A, is vacant.)
A final stipulation applies specially to moves by the king: a king may not transfer to a vacant square on the opposite board, if this would put the king in check. Castling is largely regarded as permitted in Alice chess. The en passant rule is normally not used, but can be.
Early mates
Fool's mate
Several exist, one is: 1. e4 d5 2. Be2 dxe4 3. Bb5 (see diagram).
At first glance, it might seem that Black can simply interpose a piece between White's bishop and his king to block the check (for example, 3...Bd7 or 3...Nc6 or 3...c6). But any piece so interposed immediately "disappears" when it transfers to board B. And Black cannot escape check by fleeing to the opposite board via 3...Kd7, because the move is not a legal move on board A. Therefore, it is checkmate.
Another form of fool's mate: 1. e4 d6 2. Bc4 Qxd2? 3. Bb5#
And another: 1. e4 e5 2. Qh5 Nf6? 3. Qxe5#
Scholar's mate
1. e4 h5 2. Be2 Rh4 3. Bxh5 Rxe4+ 4. Kf1 d5 5. Qe2? (threatening 6.Qb5#) 5... Bh3# (see diagram).
1. d4 e6 2. Qd6 Be7? 3. Qe5+ Kf8 4. Bh6# (Seitz–Nadvorney, 1973).
Example game
Paul Yearout vs. George Jelliss, 1996 AISE Grand Prix [Annotations by George Jelliss; moves returning to board A are notated "/A".]
1. d3 Nf6 2. Nc3 c5 3. Qd2 Nc6 (To give a direct check to the king the checking piece must come from the other board, so it is necessary first to transfer forces to the other board.) 4. d4/A Rb8 (This way of developing rooks is common in Alice chess.) 5. e3 g5 (This prevents the Bc1 coming to g5 or f4.) 6. f4 Rbg8/A (Guarding Pg5 on the other board.) 7. Nd5/A h6 8. Nf3 gxf4/A (Inconsistent play on my part. Ne4/A now looks better to me.) 9. Bxf4 Rg4 10. Be5/A Rh5 11. 0-0-0 [diagram] (Perhaps judging that the activated black force now being on the second board the king might be safer there. The black queen is now effectively 'pinned': 11...Q–c7/b6 12.Qd8.) 11... Ne4/A 12. Bc7 Ra4/A 13. Ba6 Bg7 (The idea is 14...Rc4+ 15.c3/Nc3 Bxc3+/A.) 14. Bb5/A Rc4+ 15. Kb1/A Rf5/A 16. Ba5/A (Desperate measures now needed to save the 'pinned' queen.) 16... Rxd5 17. Qxd5/A Qxa5 (Threatening 18...Qa1#.) 18. a3 Qd2/A 19. Qxd7+ Kf8 (I put these two moves in as an 'if...then' clause, but it seems Paul may not have noticed the discovered check, so perhaps I should have kept quiet!) 20. Qxg7/A Qc3 (Stops Qh8#.) 21. Rd8/A (Black resigns. If 21...Bd7/Be6/Nf6 [then] 22.Qg8/Re8/Qh8#.)
Variations
Rule modifications have sprouted a number of variations of Alice chess.
Alice chess 2
The black army starts out on the opposite board (board B).
Ms. Alice chess
Null or zero moves are permitted. (A move consisting of piece transfer only – from the current square a piece sits on, to the corresponding square, if vacant, on the opposite board.) A king cannot escape check with a zero move, and castling is denied if either king or rook have made a zero move. By John Ishkan (1973).
O'Donohue chess
Alice chess rules, except that a move is permitted even though the square normally transferred to on the opposite board is occupied. (In that case, the transfer portion of the move is omitted.) By Michael O'Donohue (2003).
Duo chess
Black starts out on board B; transfers are optional; non-pawn pieces may make zero moves (and may capture in so doing); a king is checked when an opposing piece sits on the king's zero square; mate must cover the king's ability to flee via a zero move. By Jed Stone (1981).
Parton also introduced a smaller, 8×4 version of Alice chess (see diagram). He also observed that Alice chess can be played using three boards instead of two. (Players then having a choice between two boards when transferring pieces.)
Alice chess rules can be adopted by practically any other chess variant too, by simply doubling the number of gameboards in the variant and applying the piece transfer policy (for example, Raumschach using two 5×5×5 boards).
See also
Knightmare chess
Looking-glass chess – also by V. R. Parton
Three-dimensional chess
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Alice Chess by Edward Jackman and Fergus Duniho, The Chess Variant Pages
Alice Chess by George Jelliss, Variant Chess
Alice Chess by Michael J. Farris, SchemingMind.com
SchemingMind.com play online correspondence chess
Alice Chess Alice Chess II simple programs by Ed Friedlander (Java)
Chess variants
1953 in chess
Board games introduced in 1953
Works based on Alice in Wonderland | [
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227129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Carlyle | Alexander Carlyle | Alexander Carlyle MA DD FRSE (26 January 172228 August 1805) was a Scottish church leader, and autobiographer. He served as Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1770/1.
Life
He was born on 26 January 1722 in the manse at Cummertrees the son of Rev Willam Carlyle, the local minister. The family moved to Prestonpans in 1724. He was educated in Prestonpans then studied first at Edinburgh University then Glasgow before finalising his studies at Leyden University in the Netherlands which was famed for its teaching of Theology. He graduated MA from Edinburgh in 1743.
He was a witness to the Battle of Prestonpans in 1745 where he was part of the government Edinburgh militia. He missed the battle as he had been sent to lodge in nearby houses.
He was licensed to preach as a Church of Scotland minister by the Presbytery of Prestonpans in July 1746. He was originally presented to the congregation of Cockburnspath but declined this role. In February 1748, under patronage of the Duke of Buccleuch, he was presented to the congregation of Inveresk and was formally ordained there in August 1748.
From 1748, until his death he was minister at Inveresk in Midlothian (south west of Prestonpans).
In 1756 he incurred the anger of the Presbytery of Dalkeith and the General Assembly for his involvement in the editing of John Home's Douglas and in its theatre production in Edinburgh. He was present at its premiere on 15 December 1756.
During his long career he rose to high eminence in the Church of Scotland as leader of the moderate or "broad" Church section. This was recognised in an honorary Doctor of Divinity granted by King's College, Aberdeen in 1760. In 1770 he succeeded Rev James MacKnight as Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, being succeeded by Rev Robert Walker in 1771. In July 1785 he was made Dean of the Chapel Royal. In 1789 he was elected Principal Clerk of the General Assembly in opposition to Andrew Dalzell. He was associated with Principal Robertson as an ecclesiastical leader.
His strikingly ruddy complexion earned him the nickname of Jupiter Carlyle. His autobiography, which was edited by Hill Burton, and published 1860, though written in his closing years and not extending beyond the year 1770, is interesting as a picture of Scottish life, social and ecclesiastical, in the 18th century.
Carlyle's autobiography recalled the Porteous Riots of 1736, and his friendship with Adam Smith, David Hume, Charles Townshend and John Home, the dramatist, for witnessing the performance of whose tragedy Douglas he was censured in 1757.
He was also a member of The Select Society and of The Poker Club.
He was a founder member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in November 1783.
He died on 25 August 1805 and was buried in Inveresk churchyard on 28 August.
Family
In October 1760 Alexander married Mary Roddam (1743-1804) daughter of Robert Roddam of Heathpool in Northumberland.
Their three daughters and one son each died young. On death Carlyle bequeathed his belongings to his nephew, Carlyle Bell.
Publications
Reasons for applying to the King for Attgmentation of Stipend (Edinburgh, 1748)
An Argument to prove that the Tragedy of "Douglas" ought to be Burnt by the Hands of the Hangman (Edinburgh, 1757)
Faction Detected (1763)
Four single Sermons (Edinburgh, 1767-97)
Auto-biography (Edinburgh, 1860; republished Edinburgh, 1910)
Prologue to Herminius and Espasia (Edinburgh, 1754)
Statistical Account of Inveresk
Bibliography
Dunbar Presb. Reg.
Scots Mag., li., lxvii.
Kay's Portr., ii.
Cockburn's Mem.
See also
List of Moderators of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Notes
References
1722 births
1805 deaths
People from East Lothian
Doctors of Divinity
Moderators of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
19th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
People of the Jacobite rising of 1745
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
Scottish autobiographers
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Leiden University alumni
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland | [
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227130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky%20diode | Schottky diode | The Schottky diode (named after the German physicist Walter H. Schottky), also known as Schottky barrier diode or hot-carrier diode, is a semiconductor diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low forward voltage drop and a very fast switching action. The cat's-whisker detectors used in the early days of wireless and metal rectifiers used in early power applications can be considered primitive Schottky diodes.
When sufficient forward voltage is applied, a current flows in the forward direction. A silicon p–n diode has a typical forward voltage of 600–700 mV, while the Schottky's forward voltage is 150–450 mV. This lower forward voltage requirement allows higher switching speeds and better system efficiency.
History
Walter H. Schottky (1886–1976) in 1914, discovered an irregularity in the emission of thermions in a vacuum tube, now known as the Schottky effect..
Construction
A metal–semiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a semiconductor, creating a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductor–semiconductor junction as in conventional diodes). Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or tungsten, and certain silicides (e.g., palladium silicide and platinum silicide), whereas the semiconductor would typically be n-type silicon. The metal side acts as the anode, and n-type semiconductor acts as the cathode of the diode; meaning conventional current can flow from the metal side to the semiconductor side, but not in the opposite direction. This Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching and low forward voltage drop.
The choice of the combination of the metal and semiconductor determines the forward voltage of the diode. Both n- and p-type semiconductors can develop Schottky barriers. However, the p-type typically has a much lower forward voltage. As the reverse leakage current increases dramatically with lowering the forward voltage, it cannot be too low, so the usually employed range is about 0.5–0.7 V, and p-type semiconductors are employed only rarely. Titanium silicide and other refractory silicides, which are able to withstand the temperatures needed for source/drain annealing in CMOS processes, usually have too low a forward voltage to be useful, so processes using these silicides therefore usually do not offer Schottky diodes.
With increased doping of the semiconductor, the width of the depletion region drops. Below a certain width, the charge carriers can tunnel through the depletion region. At very high doping levels, the junction does not behave as a rectifier any more and becomes an ohmic contact. This can be used for the simultaneous formation of ohmic contacts and diodes, as a diode will form between the silicide and lightly doped n-type region, and an ohmic contact will form between the silicide and the heavily doped n- or p-type region. Lightly doped p-type regions pose a problem, as the resulting contact has too high a resistance for a good ohmic contact, but too low a forward voltage and too high a reverse leakage to make a good diode.
As the edges of the Schottky contact are fairly sharp, a high electric field gradient occurs around them, which limits how large the reverse breakdown voltage threshold can be. Various strategies are used, from guard rings to overlaps of metallization to spread out the field gradient. The guard rings consume valuable die area and are used primarily for larger higher-voltage diodes, while overlapping metallization is employed primarily with smaller low-voltage diodes.
Schottky diodes are often used as antisaturation clamps in Schottky transistors. Schottky diodes made from palladium silicide (PdSi) are excellent due to their lower forward voltage (which has to be lower than the forward voltage of the base-collector junction). The Schottky temperature coefficient is lower than the coefficient of the B–C junction, which limits the use of PdSi at higher temperatures.
For power Schottky diodes, the parasitic resistances of the buried n+ layer and the epitaxial n-type layer become important. The resistance of the epitaxial layer is more important than it is for a transistor, as the current must cross its entire thickness. However, it serves as a distributed ballasting resistor over the entire area of the junction and, under usual conditions, prevents localized thermal runaway.
In comparison with the power p–n diodes the Schottky diodes are less rugged. The junction is direct contact with the thermally sensitive metallization, a Schottky diode can therefore dissipate less power than an equivalent-size p–n counterpart with a deep-buried junction before failing (especially during reverse breakdown). The relative advantage of the lower forward voltage of Schottky diodes is diminished at higher forward currents, where the voltage drop is dominated by the series resistance.
Reverse recovery time
The most important difference between the p–n diode and the Schottky diode is the reverse recovery time (trr) when the diode switches from the conducting to the non-conducting state. In a p–n diode, the reverse recovery time can be in the order of several microseconds to less than 100 ns for fast diodes, and it is mainly limited by the diffusion capacitance caused by minority carriers accumulated in the diffusion region during the conducting state. Schottky diodes are significantly faster since they are unipolar devices and their speed is only limited by the junction capacitance. The switching time is ~100 ps for the small-signal diodes, and up to tens of nanoseconds for special high-capacity power diodes. With p–n-junction switching, there is also a reverse recovery current, which in high-power semiconductors brings increased EMI noise. With Schottky diodes, switching is essentially "instantaneous" with only a slight capacitive loading, which is much less of a concern.
This "instantaneous" switching is not always the case. In higher voltage Schottky devices, in particular, the guard ring structure needed to control breakdown field geometry creates a parasitic p–n diode with the usual recovery time attributes. As long as this guard ring diode is not forward biased, it adds only capacitance. If the Schottky junction is driven hard enough however, the forward voltage eventually will bias both diodes forward and actual trr will be greatly impacted.
It is often said that the Schottky diode is a "majority carrier" semiconductor device. This means that if the semiconductor body is a doped n-type, only the n-type carriers (mobile electrons) play a significant role in the normal operation of the device. The majority carriers are quickly injected into the conduction band of the metal contact on the other side of the diode to become free moving electrons. Therefore, no slow random recombination of n and p-type carriers is involved, so that this diode can cease conduction faster than an ordinary p–n rectifier diode. This property, in turn, allows a smaller device area, which also makes for a faster transition. This is another reason why Schottky diodes are useful in switch-mode power converters: the high speed of the diode means that the circuit can operate at frequencies in the range 200 kHz to 2 MHz, allowing the use of small inductors and capacitors with greater efficiency than would be possible with other diode types. Small-area Schottky diodes are the heart of RF detectors and mixers, which often operate at frequencies up to 50 GHz.
Limitations
The most evident limitations of Schottky diodes are their relatively low reverse voltage ratings, and their relatively high reverse leakage current. For silicon-metal Schottky diodes, the reverse voltage is typically 50 V or less. Some higher-voltage designs are available (200 V is considered a high reverse voltage).
Reverse leakage current, since it increases with temperature, leads to a thermal instability issue. This often limits the useful reverse voltage to well below the actual rating.
While higher reverse voltages are achievable, they would present a higher forward voltage, comparable to other types of standard diodes. Such Schottky diodes would have no advantage unless great switching speed is required.
Silicon carbide Schottky diode
Schottky diodes constructed from silicon carbide have a much lower reverse leakage current than silicon Schottky diodes, as well as higher forward voltage (about 1.4–1.8 V at 25 °C) and reverse voltage. they were available from manufacturers in variants up to 1700 V of reverse voltage.
Silicon carbide has a high thermal conductivity, and temperature has little influence on its switching and thermal characteristics. With special packaging, silicon carbide Schottky diodes can operate at junction temperatures of over 500 K (about 200 °C), which allows passive radiative cooling in aerospace applications.
Applications
Voltage clamping
While standard silicon diodes have a forward voltage drop of about 0.7 V and germanium diodes 0.3 V, Schottky diodes' voltage drop at forward biases of around 1 mA is in the range of 0.15 V to 0.46 V (see the 1N5817 and 1N5711), which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. This is due to the higher current density in the Schottky diode.
Reverse current and discharge protection
Because of a Schottky diode's low forward voltage drop, less energy is wasted as heat, making them the most efficient choice for applications sensitive to efficiency. For instance, they are used in stand-alone ("off-grid") photovoltaic (PV) systems to prevent batteries from discharging through the solar panels at night, called "blocking diodes". They are also used in grid-connected systems with multiple strings connected in parallel, in order to prevent reverse current flowing from adjacent strings through shaded strings if the "bypass diodes" have failed.
Switched-mode power supplies
Schottky diodes are also used as rectifiers in switched-mode power supplies. The low forward voltage and fast recovery time leads to increased efficiency.
They can also be used in power supply "OR"ing circuits in products that have both an internal battery and a mains adapter input, or similar. However, the high reverse leakage current presents a problem in this case, as any high-impedance voltage sensing circuit (e.g., monitoring the battery voltage or detecting whether a mains adapter is present) will see the voltage from the other power source through the diode leakage.
Sample-and-hold circuits
Schottky diodes can be used in diode-bridge based sample and hold circuits. When compared to regular p–n junction based diode bridges, Schottky diodes can offer advantages. A forward-biased Schottky diode does not have any minority carrier charge storage. This allows them to switch more quickly than regular diodes, resulting in lower transition time from the sample to the hold step.
The absence of minority carrier charge storage also results in a lower hold step or sampling error, resulting in a more accurate sample at the output.
Charge control
Due to its efficient electric field control Schottky diodes can be used to accurately load or unload single electrons in semiconductor nanostructures such as quantum wells or quantum dots.
Designation
Commonly encountered schottky diodes include the 1N58xx series rectifiers, such as the 1N581x (1 A) and 1N582x (3 A) through-hole parts, and the SS1x (1 A) and SS3x (3 A) surface-mount parts. Schottky rectifiers are available in numerous surface-mount package styles.
Small-signal schottky diodes such as the 1N5711, 1N6263, 1SS106, 1SS108, and the BAT41–43, 45–49 series are widely used in high-frequency applications as detectors, mixers and nonlinear elements, and have superseded germanium diodes. They are also suitable for electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection of sensitive devices such as III-V-semiconductor devices, laser diodes and, to a lesser extent, exposed lines of CMOS circuitry.
Schottky metal–semiconductor junctions are featured in the successors to the 7400 TTL family of logic devices, the 74S, 74LS and 74ALS series, where they are employed as Baker clamps in parallel with the collector-base junctions of the bipolar transistors to prevent their saturation, thereby greatly reducing their turn-off delays.
Alternatives
When less power dissipation is desired, a MOSFET and a control circuit can be used instead, in an operation mode known as active rectification.
A super diode consisting of a pn-diode or Schottky diode and an operational amplifier provides an almost perfect diode characteristic due to the effect of negative feedback, although its use is restricted to frequencies the operational amplifier used can handle.
Electrowetting
Electrowetting can be observed when a Schottky diode is formed using a droplet of liquid metal, e.g. mercury, in contact with a semiconductor, e.g. silicon. Depending on the doping type and density in the semiconductor, the droplet spreading depends on the magnitude and sign of the voltage applied to the mercury droplet. This effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’.
See also
Schottky barrier
Schottky effect (Schottky emission)
Heterostructure barrier varactor diode
Active rectification
Baker clamp and Schottky transistor
1N58xx Schottky diodes
Electrowetting
References
External links
"Characteristics of Schottky Diodes" – PowerGuru
"Introduction to Schottky Rectifiers"
"Is the lowest forward voltage drop of real schottky diodes always the best choice?" Technical application, IXYS Corporation.
"Schottky diode" in Electronics Notes
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227131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus%20Otto | Nicolaus Otto | Nicolaus August Otto (10 June 1832, Holzhausen an der Haide, Nassau – 26 January 1891, Cologne) was a German engineer who successfully developed the compressed charge internal combustion engine which ran on petroleum gas and led to the modern internal combustion engine. The Association of German Engineers (VDI) created DIN standard 1940 which says "Otto Engine: internal combustion engine in which the ignition of the compressed fuel-air mixture is initiated by a timed spark", which has been applied to all engines of this type since.
Biography
Nicolaus August Otto was born on 10 June 1832 in Holzhausen an der Haide, Germany. He was the youngest of six children. His father died in 1832. He began school in 1838. After six years of good performance he moved to the high school in Langenschwalbach until 1848. He did not complete his studies but was cited for good performance.
His main interest in school had been in science and technology but he graduated after three years as a business apprentice in a small merchandise company. After completing his apprenticeship he moved to Frankfurt where he worked for Philipp Jakob Lindheimer as a salesman of colonial goods and agricultural products (he was a grocery salesman). Otto worked for various companies, first for IC Alpeter and then in 1860 for Carl Mertens. He traveled throughout Western Germany and sold colonial goods—coffee, tea, rice, and sugar.
Lenoir engine
In late autumn of 1860 Otto and his brother learned of a novel gas (illuminating gas) engine that Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir had built in Paris. The brothers built a copy of the Lenoir engine and applied for a patent in January 1861 for a liquid fueled engine based on the Lenoir (Gas) engine with the Prussian Ministry of Commerce, but it was rejected.
First four stroke engine, 1861
Otto was aware of the concept of compressed fuel charge and tried to make an engine using this principle in 1861. It ran for just a few minutes before breaking. Otto's brother gave up on the concept, resulting in Otto looking for help elsewhere.
From 1862 to 1863 Otto experimented with the help of Cologne Mechanic Michael J. Zons in an effort to improve the engine. Running low on funds, in 1862 Otto worked for Carl Mertens in order to continue work on his engine.
Enter Eugen Langen
Early in 1864, Otto sought investors to fund his research. He found Eugen Langen, whose father was a sugar industrialist. Together they entered into a partnership on 31 March 1864 and named it NA Otto & Cie in Cologne. This was the world's first company focused entirely on the design and production of internal combustion engines.
The 1864 Otto & Langen engine was a free piston atmospheric engine (the explosion of gas was used to create a vacuum and the power came from atmospheric pressure returning the piston). It consumed less than half the gas of the Lenoir and Hugon atmospheric engines and so was a commercial success. The Lenoir engine was a double acting engine. In essence these engines are a steam engine altered to run on illuminating gas. The engines of Italian inventors Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci in their British Patent no 1625 of 1857, were built and are in a museum. Unlike Otto's engine these are two stroke atmospheric engines which are not in any way comparable.
Lenoir's engines were the first to be put into serial production with numbers sold being around 700.
The Otto engine which is the predecessor of the modern engine as specified by the VDI is Otto's fourth design. He built the following engines:
1861: a copy of Lenoir's atmospheric engine
1862: a four cycle compressed charge engine (prior to Rochas's patent) which failed as it broke almost immediately
1864: the first successful atmospheric engine
1876: the four stroke compressed charge engine which is acknowledged as the "Otto" cycle engine. The term "Otto cycle" is applied to all compressed charge, four cycle engines.
For all its commercial success, with the company producing 634 engines a year by 1875, the Otto and Langen engine had hit a technical dead end: it produced only , yet required headroom to operate.
Otto turned his attention to the four stroke cycle at which he had failed in 1862. Largely due to the efforts of Franz Rings and Herman Schumm, who were brought into the company by Gottlieb Daimler Otto succeeded in making the Four Stroke, Compressed Charge engine. It is this engine (the Otto Silent Engine), and not the Otto & Langen engine, to which the "Otto cycle" refers. This was the first commercially successful engine to use in-cylinder compression. The Rings-Schumm engine appeared in autumn 1876 and was immediately successful.
Otto married Anna Gossi and the couple had seven recorded children. His son Gustav Otto grew up to become an aircraft builder.
The Otto cycle
The Otto engine was designed as a stationary engine and in the action of the engine, the stroke is an upward or downward movement of a piston in a cylinder. Used later in an adapted form as an automobile engine, four strokes are involved:
(1) downward intake stroke—coal-gas and air enter the piston combustion chamber,
(2) upward compression stroke—the piston compresses the mixture,
(3) downward power stroke—ignites the fuel mixture by flame and later electric spark,
(4) upward exhaust stroke—releases exhaust gas from the piston chamber.
Otto only sold his engine as a stationary motor.
Earlier patents
Otto had obtained many patents from several different nations and for several different features. When his former manager Gottlieb Daimler wanted to build small engines for transportation Otto showed no interest. Daimler left and took Maybach with him. Daimler had no desire to pay royalties to Otto (Deutz AG) and so hired a lawyer to find a solution. What the lawyer found was a patent for the concept of a four cycle engine that had been issued to Beau De Rochas, a French engineer, in 1862. This resulted in Otto losing one of his patents and allowed Daimler to sell his engines in Germany without paying royalties. Neither Otto nor Daimler were aware of the Rochas patent. Rochas never built an engine. It is likely he could not have done so.
Several of the inventions that are sometimes mentioned as having preceded the Otto engine, such as Marcus, Barsanti, etc. are for two cycle (two stroke) atmospheric engines which do not compress the fuel charge. Otto's atmospheric engine is not the VDI (and other associations) Otto engine type. The only significant engines were those from Lenoir. His engines were the first to go into serial production. Lenoir eventually sold approximately 700 engines.
Production
Over 50,000 engines were produced in the 17 years following introduction.
Honors
Otto received numerous honors for his engines.
The 1864 atmospheric engine won the gold medal in the 1867 World Exhibition in Paris.
In 1882 Otto received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Würzburg.
His home has been turned into a museum which is promoted by the local government.
in 1936 Professor Nagël, head of the Association of German Engineers, decreed that DIN Standard 1940 specify that "Ottomotor" applies to all engines that draw in a fuel mix, compress it and ignite it by special device, thus replacing the terms such terms as "explosion motor", "detonation engine", "benzine engine", and "ignition engine."
Milestones
1862: First experiments with four-stroke engines
1864: Establishing the first engine factory in the world: NA Otto Cie
1867: Gold Medal of the World Exhibition in Paris for the gas engine
1869: The company relocates and changes its name to Langen, Otto, and Roosen
1872: The company relocates to larger facilities and changes its name to Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik
1876: Development of four-stroke engine (Otto-motor)
1882: Production of the Atmospheric engine is discontinued after 2649 were made
1884: Nicolaus Otto invents the electric ignition
1885: Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz built the first automobiles using liquid petroleum engines.
See also
History of the internal combustion engine
German inventors and discoverers
References
Wise, David Burgess. "Daimler: Founder of the Four-Wheeler", in Northey, Tom, ed. World of Automobiles Volume 5, pp. 481–3. London: Orbis, 1974.
External links
—1877
1832 births
1891 deaths
19th-century German inventors
German company founders
19th-century German businesspeople
German industrialists
People associated with the internal combustion engine
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227132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Steen | Jan Steen | Jan Havickszoon Steen (c. 1626 – buried 3 February 1679) was a Dutch Golden Age painter, one of the leading genre painters of the 17th century. His works are known for their psychological insight, sense of humour and abundance of colour.
Life
Steen was born in Leiden, a town in Southern Holland, where his well-to-do, Catholic family were brewers who ran the tavern The Red Halbert for two generations. Steen's father even leased him a brewery of his own in Delft from the years 1654 until 1657. He was the eldest of eight or more children. Like his even more famous contemporary Rembrandt van Rijn, Jan Steen attended the Latin school and became a student in Leiden. Though no official records of Steen's artistic training are preserved, contemporary sources tell us he received his painterly education from three men, Nicolaes Knupfer (1603–1660), a German painter of historical and figurative scenes in Utrecht, Adriaen van Ostade, and Jan van Goyen, who would later become his father-in-law. Influences of Knupfer can be found in Steen's use of composition and colour. Another source of inspiration was Isaac van Ostade, a painter of rural scenes, who lived in Haarlem.
In 1648 Jan Steen and Gabriël Metsu founded the painters' Guild of Saint Luke at Leiden. Soon after he became an assistant to the renowned landscape painter Jan van Goyen (1596–1656), and moved into his house on the Bierkade in The Hague. On Oct 3, 1649 he married van Goyen's daughter Margriet, with whom he would have eight children. Steen worked with his father-in-law until 1654, when he moved to Delft, where he ran the brewery De Slang ("The Snake") for three years without much success. After the explosion in Delft in 1654 the art market was depressed, but Steen painted A Burgomaster of Delft and his daughter. It does not seem to be clear if this painting should be called a portrait or a genre work.
Steen lived in Warmond, just north of Leiden, from 1656 till 1660 and in Haarlem from 1660 till 1670 and in both periods he was especially productive. In 1670, after the death of his wife in 1669 and his father in 1670, Steen moved back to Leiden, where he stayed the rest of his life. When the art market collapsed in 1672, called the Year of Disaster, Steen opened a tavern. In April 1673 he married Maria van Egmont, who gave him another child. In 1674 he became president of the Saint Luke's Guild. Frans van Mieris (1635- 1681) became one of his drinking companions. He died in Leiden in 1679 and was interred in a family grave in the Pieterskerk.
Influences
Connection with the Rederijkers
In 1945, Sturla Gudlaugsson, a specialist in Dutch seventeenth-century painting and iconography and Director of the Netherlands Institute for Art History and the Mauritshuis in The Hague, wrote The Comedians in the work of Jan Steen and his Contemporaries, which revealed that a major influence on Jan Steen's work was the guild of the Rhetoricians or Rederijkers and their theatrical endeavors.
It is often suggested that Jan Steen's paintings are a realistic portrayal of Dutch 17th-century life. However, not everything he did was a purely realistic representation of his day-to-day environment. Many of his scenes contain idyllic and bucolic fantasies and a declamatory emphasis redolent of theater.
Jan Steen's connection to theater is easily verifiable through his connection to the Rederijkers. There are two kinds of evidence for this connection. First, Jan Steen Steen's uncle belonged to the Rhetoricians in Leiden, where Steen was born and lived a substantial part of his life. Second, Jan Steen portrayed many scenes from the lives of the Rederijkers, an example being the painting Rhetoricians at a Window of 1658–65. The piece is currently held in the Philadelphia Museum of Art which was established in February 1876. The humanity, humour and optimism of the figures suggest that Jan Steen knew these men well, and wanted to portray them positively.
Theater
With his lavish and moralising style, it is logical that Steen would employ the stratagems from theater for his purposes. There is conclusive evidence that the characters in Steen's paintings are predominantly theatrical characters and not ones from reality.
Steen's numerous paintings of a theme most commonly entitled The Doctor's Visit, such as the composition of 1665–70 in the Rijksmuseum, illustrate his theatrical approach. The story is simple: a doctor attending a young maiden discovers that she is not ill but is in fact pregnant with child. The doctor is a comical character who wears a biretta, a doublet and a small pleated ruff. In fact, he is dressed in the fashion of 1570, not 1670. In contrast, the girl wears what would be the height of fashion at the time of the painting, a Japanese-styled loose kimono robe.
This anachronism can be explained only one way: this is not a real doctor but an actor wearing a traditional theater costume. According to Gudlaugsson, “never would so unusual and so completely uncontemporary a costume occur as that of the doctors in [Steen's] work".
Works
Daily life was Jan Steen's main pictorial theme. Many of the genre scenes he portrayed, as in The Feast of Saint Nicholas, are lively to the point of chaos and lustfulness, even so much that "a Jan Steen household", meaning a messy scene, became a Dutch proverb (een huishouden van Jan Steen). Subtle hints in his paintings seem to suggest that Steen meant to warn the viewer rather than invite him to copy this behaviour. Many of Steen's paintings bear references to old Dutch proverbs or literature. He often used members of his family as models, and painted quite a few self-portraits in which he showed no tendency to vanity.
Steen did not shy from other themes: he painted historical, mythological and religious scenes, portraits, still lifes and natural scenes. His portraits of children are famous. He is also well known for his mastery of light and attention to detail, most notably in Persian rugs and other textiles.
Steen was prolific, producing about 800 paintings, of which roughly 350 survive. His work was valued much by contemporaries and as a result he was reasonably well paid for his work. He did not have many students—only Richard Brakenburgh is recorded—but his work proved a source of inspiration for many painters.
In the two paintings, The way you hear it and As old men sing, so children squeal, six of the people are identical in person and pose, and their spatial relationship is similar.
Sources
External links
Jan Steen at the National Gallery of Art
Jan Steen's Cat Paintings
Olga Gallery
Web Gallery of art
Artcyclopedia entry with many links
Works and literature on Jan Steen
Vermeer and The Delft School, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Jan Steen
1626 births
1679 deaths
Dutch genre painters
Dutch Golden Age painters
Dutch male painters
Artists from Leiden
Burials at Pieterskerk, Leiden
Painters from Leiden
Painters from Haarlem | [
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227134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20B.%20Dickey | Robert B. Dickey | Robert Barry Dickey (November 10, 1811 – July 14, 1903) was a participant in the conferences leading to the Canadian Confederation of 1867 and is therefore considered to be one of the Fathers of Confederation.
Born in Amherst, the son of Robert McGowan Dickey and Eleanor Chapman, he was educated at Windsor Academy and later studied law with Alexander Stewart. He was called to the Nova Scotia bar in 1834, and to the New Brunswick bar in 1835. He was made a Queen's Counsel in 1863. He served as both judge and registrar of probate in Cumberland County for 20 years. In 1844, he married Mary Blair, one of Alexander Stewart's daughters. Dickey was a director of the Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph Company and consular agent for the United States at Amherst.
From 1858 to 1867, Dickey was appointed to the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia. In 1867, he was appointed to the Senate of Canada representing the senatorial division of Amherst, Nova Scotia. A Conservative, he served until his death in 1903.
His son Arthur Rupert Dickey served as a member of the House of Commons.
His daughter Mary married the English landscape architect Henry Ernest Milner.
References
External links
Library and Archives Canada Profile
1811 births
1903 deaths
Canadian Presbyterians
Canadian senators from Nova Scotia
Fathers of Confederation
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) senators
Members of the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia
People from Amherst, Nova Scotia
Colony of Nova Scotia judges
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Queen's Counsel 1801–1900 | [
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227135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage%20combat | Stage combat | Stage combat, fight craft or fight choreography is a specialised technique in theatre designed to create the illusion of physical combat without causing harm to the performers. It is employed in live stage plays as well as operatic and ballet productions. With the advent of cinema and television the term has widened to also include the choreography of filmed fighting sequences, as opposed to the earlier live performances on stage. It is closely related to the practice of stunts and is a common field of study for actors. Actors famous for their stage fighting skills frequently have backgrounds in dance, gymnastics or martial arts training.
History
Ancient
The history of stage fighting and mock combat can be traced to antiquity, with Aristotle quoted as noting that tragedy is conflict between people or indeed it may be traced to the origins of the human species and primate display behaviour. Display of martial aptitude is a natural occurrence in warrior societies, and ritualized forms of mock combat often evolve into war dances. Whether it is the struggle between the men and women of Aristophanes' Lysistrata in Ancient Greece or Ancient Egypt where Herodotus in his Histories talks about a religious festival in which they beat each other with staves but no one dies, staged combat has always existed. As it doesn't make sense to sacrifice citizens in rituals, many ancient civilizations turned to symbolic gestures of combat through dancing or bringing a weapon to someone's throat or neck without actually touching them to symbolize death or an act of violence.
Post-classical
Fights staged for entertainment may also be in earnest for the combatants, as was the case with the Roman gladiators, and any public duel, such as the judicial duel of the European Middle Ages. The medieval tournament and joust are a classical examples of competitive ritualised mock combat. The joust from the time of Maximilian I developed into a sport with enormous cost involved for each knight and correspondingly high prestige attached, comparable to contemporary Formula One races, while at the same time minimizing the danger of injury with highly specialized equipment.
In the Late Middle Ages, staged fencing bouts, with or without choreography, became popular with fencing schools. Some German fechtbuch ("combat manuals", literally 'fight' or 'fence book') have sections dedicated to flamboyant techniques to be employed in such Klopffechten ("knockabout fighting"), which would be impractical in serious combat, and the Late Medieval German masters distinguish mock fights (fechten zu schimpf, 'rant fighting') and real combat (fechten zu ernst, 'earnest fighting').
The history of European theatrical combat has its roots in medieval theatre, and becomes tangible in Elizabethan drama. Richard Tarlton, who was a member of both William Shakespeare's acting company and of the London Masters of Defence weapons guild, was among the first fight directors in the modern sense. Sword duels depicted in plays showed how popular the pastime was in actual life. Before 1615 in England, many plays featured duels and the duels were regarded as highlights of the show. As opposed to after 1615, when dueling was publicly condemned by King James and the duels were used as a last resort in regards to the plot.
Modern
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, stylized stage combat has been a staple feature of traditional performing arts for centuries, such as in Japanese Kabuki theater (as tachimawari "fighting scenes"), Chinese Beijing Opera and Indian theater.
Fencing masters in Europe began to research and experiment with historical fencing techniques, with weapons such as the two-handed sword, rapier and smallsword, and to instruct actors in their use. Notable amongst these were George Dubois, a Parisian fight director and martial artist who created performance fencing styles based on gladiatorial combat as well as Renaissance rapier and dagger fencing. Egerton Castle and Captain Alfred Hutton of London were also involved both in reviving antique fencing systems and in teaching these styles to actors.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scenes of swordplay in touring theatrical productions throughout Europe, the British Commonwealth and the United States were typically created by combining several widely known, generic routines known as "standard combats", identified by names such as the "Round Eights" and the "Glasgow Tens".
Cinematic fencing has its roots in the 1920s, with the movies of Douglas Fairbanks. One of the more celebrated fight directors who emerged in this time was Paddy Crean who revolutionized stage combat, specifically sword play, for the silver screen and theater. Paddy created the flamboyant style of sword play that can be seen in Errol Flynn movies, among others. He promoted the use of safety above all things and then focused on story of the fight. B. H. Barry and J. Allen Suddeth, students of Paddy Crean, are two fight masters who have continued developing Paddy's legacy. Barry helped found the Society of British Fight Directors and then came to the United States to give fight direction a more specific shape. J. Allen Suddeth founded the National Fight Directors Training Program in the United States and wrote the book "Fight Direction for the Theater" (1996). Martial arts movies emerge as a distinct genre from the 1940s, popularized by Bruce Lee and Sonny Chiba from the 1960s.
Starting in the mid-1960s, John Waller, a pioneer in the English historical European martial arts (HEMA) revival, was a fight director for stage and screen, and later a teacher of stage combat at London drama schools, with an emphasis on historical realism. Informal guilds of fight choreographers began to take shape in the 1970s with the establishment of The Society of British Fight Directors, 1969 to 1996. Training was established in the United States with the formation of the Society of American Fight Directors in 1977.
Following this, further academies and associations worldwide have been established to uphold the craft, training and quality of work in the art-form of stage combat nationally and internationally, including: The British Academy Of Stage & Screen Combat (BASSC) and Fight Directors Canada (FDC) in 1993; the Society of Australian Fight Directors Inc. (SAFDi) in 1994; the Nordic Stage Fight Society (NSFS) and the New Zealand Stage Combat Society in 1995; the British Academy of Dramatic Combat (BADC, formerly known as The Society of British Fight Directors) in 1996; Art of Combat in 1997; Stage Combat Deutschland in 2004; and the Australian Stage Combat Association (ASCA) in 2010; The British Guild of Stage Combat in 2015. As of 2005, East 15 Acting School, London offered a B.A. (Hons) Degree in Acting & Stage Combat. Many of the societies offer certification programs for different weapons, which is used as an indicator about how much training an actor has had.
Techniques
Stage combat training includes unarmed combat skills such as illusory slaps, punches, kicks, throwing and holding techniques; theatrical adaptations of various forms of fencing such as rapier and dagger, smallsword and broadsword, as well as the use of other weapons, notably the quarterstaff and knives; and more specialized skills such as professional wrestling and different styles of martial arts. However, stage combat can include any form of choreographed violence and the options are limited only by safety concerns, and the ability of the participants involved. As a note, most of these techniques are drawn from actual fighting techniques, but modified to be safer for actors. For example, although there are a number of ways of creating the safe illusion of a slap to the face (which is obviously something that could really be done in combat), none of these involve making actual contact with the victim's face.
The overriding concern is for the safety of the actors and audience. This requirement has led to the adaptation of many standard martial arts and fencing skills specifically for performance. For example, many basic sword attacks and parries must be modified to ensure that the actors do not bring the points of their weapons past their partner's face or otherwise inadvertently risk the other actor's health and well-being. Attacking actions in stage combat are extended past the performance partner's body, or aimed short of their apparent targets. Likewise, whereas their characters may be engaged in vicious unarmed combat, the actors must operate at a high level of complicity and communication to ensure a safe, exciting fight scene. In many forms of stage combat, distance is a key factor in technique. Many attacks are performed 'out of distance' so that there is no possible chance of one performer accidentally striking the other. Considerable professional judgement is called upon to determine what technical level may be appropriate for a given performer, taking into account allotted rehearsal time, and the expectations of the director.
Another important element of stage combat is sound. Sound increases the believability of an action for the audience. There are two kinds of sounds that can be made. One is vocal reactions. By adding a gasp, groan, or grunt when struck, the combatants make the moves come to life. The other kind of sound is a knap or a percussive sound made by hitting a resonant part of the body. This is timed to the moment an impact would happen and is staged so it is hidden from the audience. This allows the audience to believe that an actual blow or slap has landed because they hear a corresponding sound and see a reaction.
The combat phase of a play rehearsal is referred to as a fight rehearsal. Choreography is typically learned step by step, and practiced at first very slowly before increasing to a speed that is both dramatically convincing and safe for the performers and their audience. Even stage combat is risky, and it is preferable for actors to have as much training and experience as possible. A "fight call" or a brief rehearsal before the show is performed each time, set aside for the actors to "mark" through the fight to increase their muscle memory. A show which involves fight choreography will typically be trained and supervised by a professional fight choreographer and may also include a fight captain, who runs fight calls and ensures that actors are remaining safe throughout the duration of the show.
The fighting styles in movies set in the Medieval or Renaissance periods may be unrealistic and historically inaccurate. Most fight choreographers use a mix between Asian martial arts and sports fencing to re-enact fight scenes. This is generally due to the look of the fighting asked for by the director. If the director wants the story to flow a certain way, then the fight director will choreograph the fights to fit that style and tell the story.
Weapons
For stage combat, all edges should be dulled and points blunted so that there is no risk of severe injury if someone is accidentally stabbed. In addition, weapons that are used, and not just for show, should be certified as combat-ready, thereby preventing any accidents involving blades accidentally breaking off.
Melee
Melee weapons are used in large battle scenes and can include spears, axes, maces, flails, and more. These are other weapons that are best used in large playing spaces where there is room to work at a safe distance.
Stick-fighting
Quarterstaffs are used in shows that are performed in large playing spaces due to the large size of the weapon. One of the most popular quarterstaff fights is that between Robin Hood and Little John in the tale of Robin Hood from the 17th century ballad. Modern quarterstaff choreography has also integrated the techniques of the bō staff from the Japanese martial art Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, which originated around 1447. Examples of this style can be seen in the famous Kabuki play Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura, written in 1748.
Asian
Other weapons like a katana, a Japanese style sword that is curved on one side, and nunchucks can also be used onstage. These require more detailed study of Japanese martial arts. Stage combat versions of nunchucks can be purchased that are foam instead of wood, thereby reducing the danger to the actors.
European
A large sword commonly used in the early Middle Ages in Europe. The broadsword was notable for its large hilt which allowed it to be wielded with both hands due to its size and weight. Used for slashing rather than stabbing, this weapon is used in plays set in this period like Shakespeare's Macbeth and is also seen in fantasy epics like Lord of the Rings.
First school instructing on the correct use of the rapier in England was started in 1576 by Rocco Bonetti from Italy. Bonetti took over the lease from playwright John Lyly to open his school in Blackfriars. The rapier has the advantage of the thrust over the slash which means it could be a much smaller and lighter weapon than the broadsword. It is popular in Shakespeare plays like Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet where duels are performed and can be used in combination with a dagger.
The smallsword came into fashion in England and France in the late seventeenth century. It was used as a thrusting weapon and so sword movements were kept minimal to find the opening that a thrust could land. Most men of the period carried smallswords as fashion accessories so most were elegantly ornamented. An example of a smallsword duel can be seen in Les Liaisons Dangereuses by Christopher Hampton written in 1985, based on the 1782 novel of the same name.
There are many knife fighting styles from the Bowie knife to a switchblade. Knife fights tend to have quick sharp movements. An example of this can be seen in West Side Story's fight between Riff and Bernardo. Often in plays however, it is one actor with a knife against someone who is unarmed like in Act I of Georges Bizet's opera Carmen, written in 1875.
LLyg
The Sword and shields used in stage combat are commonly round and are strong enough that they can be used as a defensive and offensive weapon. An important element in using a shield is to hold the shield arm in an upper diagonal so the fist is higher than the elbow so the top of the shield does not move when struck, and the danger being hit in the face with the shield or the weapon using to strike it can be avoided. Sword and shields can be found in battle scenes like in Shakespeare's Wars of the Roses history plays.
Guns
A staple of modern action films due to its visual spectacle, a result of often impressive choreography and stuntwork.
Bodies and bottles
This consists of hand to hand combat without weapon. Elements of unarmed combat include slaps, punches, kicks, grabs, chokes, falls, rolls, grappling, among others. Many fight directors rely on combinations of messy street fighting and martial arts such as aikido and Brazilian jiu-jitsu to create fights of this nature. Generally more common in modern contemporary plays, after swords have gone out of style but also seen in older plays such as Shakespeare's Othello when Othello strangles Desdemona.
Found objects are objects that are not traditionally weapons but can be used so in the context of the scene. A classic example of this is breaking a bottle over someone's head. As with all stage combat, the objects are rigged so as not to actually pose any danger to the recipients. In the case of bottles or plates, sugar glass molds are used rather than actual glass bottles.
Realism
Fight choreography can vary widely from true realism to outright fantasy depending upon the requirements of a particular production. One of the biggest reasons that theatrical fight directors often do not aim for strict realism is that the live audience could not easily follow the 'story' of the action if bodies and blades were moving in the ways trained fighters would move them. For example, a production of Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, using 17th-century rapiers, might show Cyrano making many circular cut attacks. But a more efficient, practical attack would be taking a quicker, more direct line to the opponent's body. But the fight director knows that the audience couldn't follow the action as well if the attacks were faster (the audience might hardly be able to see the thin blades whip through the air), so most fight choreographers would make choices to help the audience follow the story. Of course, this is dependent on the production, the director and other stylistic choices.
One school of fight choreographer thought says that an unusual aspect of live stage combat, such as in a play, is that audiences will react negatively to even simulated violence if they fear the actors are being harmed: for example, if an actor is really slapped in the face, the audience will stop thinking about the character and, instead, worry about the performer. Audiences may also fear for their own safety if large combat scenes seem to be out of control. Therefore, stage combat is not simply a safety technique but is also important for an audience to maintain uninterrupted suspension of disbelief.
Types
In theater
Having its roots in Medieval theatre, stage combat enters classical theatre choreography with Elizabethan drama (Shakespeare's simple and oft seen stage direction, they fight).
Classical stageplays with sword fight scenes:
Romeo and Juliet (1597) by William Shakespeare
Henry IV (1597) by William Shakespeare
Hamlet (circa 1600) by William Shakespeare
Macbeth (circa 1605) by William Shakespeare
King Lear (1606) by William Shakespeare (Cornwall and the servant, Act III; Edgar and Edmund, Act V)
Troilus and Cressida (1609) by William Shakespeare
'Tis Pity She's A Whore (circa 1630) by John Ford
The Rover (1677) by Aphra Behn
Die Räuber (1781) by Friedrich Schiller
Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) by Edmond Rostand
In film
Cinema inherited the concept of choreographed fights directly from the theatrical fight. Douglas Fairbanks in 1920 was the first film director to ask a fencing master to assist the production of a fencing scene in cinema. A second wave of swashbuckling films was triggered with Errol Flynn from 1935. Renewed interest in swashbuckling films arose in the 1970s, in the wake of
The Three Musketeers (1973). Directors at this stage aimed for a certain amount of historical accuracy, although, as the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica puts it, "movie fencing remains a poor representation of actual fencing technique".
The Star Wars films, the fights for which are choreographed by Bob Anderson & Peter Diamond (Episodes IV, V & VI) and Nick Gillard (Episodes I, II & III), tend to portray its lightsaber combat using swordsmanship techniques drawn from existing martial arts, but performed with fantasy weapons such as lightsabers or the Force, whereas the action featured in The Lord of the Rings also choreographed by Bob Anderson employed fantasy weapons and fighting styles, designed by Tony Wolf.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Bruce Lee, Sonny Chiba, Jackie Chan and Sammo Hung became famous for both choreographing and acting in martial arts action films, and were influential in the development of stage combat on film. Hong Kong-based fight choreographer Yuen Woo-ping is known for his work on Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and the Matrix trilogy, in which the often unrealistic fighting techniques are complemented by directorial techniques such as bullet time. Ching Siu-tung is particularly noted in the field of Hong Kong action cinema for his use of graceful wire fu techniques. By contrast, films such as The Duellists, fight directed by William Hobbs, Once Were Warriors, fight directed by Robert Bruce and Troy & Ironclad, fight directed by Richard Ryan are widely famed for including gritty, realistic combat scenes. Ryan is also known for his creativity in devising styles such as Batman's in The Dark Knight, Sherlock Holmes 'prevision' style in Guy Ritchie's two Sherlock Holmes movies.
Combat reenactment
Combat reenactment is a side of historical reenactment which aims to depict events of battle, normally a specific engagement in history, but also unscripted battles where the 'winner' is not predetermined.
See also
Hong Kong action cinema
Kung Fu Theater
Martial arts film
Samurai cinema
References
Further reading
William Hobbs, Fight Direction for Stage and Screen, Heinemann (1995), .
Wolf Christian, The Stage Combat Handbook, Lulu (2014), .
Jenn Boughn, Stage Combat: Fisticuffs, Stunts, and Swordplay for Theater and Film, Allworth Press (2006), .
Keith Ducklin and John Waller, A Manual for Actors and Directors, Applause Books (2001), .
Dale Anthony Girard, Actors on Guard: A Practical Guide for the Use of the Rapier and Dagger for Stage and Screen, Theatre Arts Book (1996), .
Michael Kirkland, Stage Combat Resource Materials: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography, Praeger Publishers (2006), .
Richard Lane, Swashbuckling: A Step-by-Step Guide to the Art of Stage Combat and Theatrical Swordplay, Limelight Editions (2004), .
Meron Langsner, 'Theatre Hoplology: Simulations and Representations of Violence on the Stage' in 'Text & Presentation 2006' edited by Stratos E. Constantinidis',McFarland (2007), , 9780786430772.
Meron Langsner, 'Why Everyone Should Study Stage Combat', HowlRound, http://howlround.com/why-everyone-should-study-stage-combat
J. D. Martinez, The Swords of Shakespeare: An Illustrated Guide to Stage Combat Choreography in the Plays of Shakespeare, McFarland & Company (1996), .
J. Allen Suddeth, Fight Directing for the Theatre, Heinemann Drama (1996), .
Richard Pallaziol, The Textbook of Theatrical Combat, Weapons of Choice (2009), weaponsofchoice.com, .
Jonathan Howell, "Stage Fighting, a Practical Guide", Crowood Press (2008),
F. Braun McAsh, "Fight Choreography, a Practical Guide", Crowood Press (2010)
Video
Basic Stage Combat DVD, Educational Video Network (2004).
Traditioneller Schaukampf für Anfänger nach Dreynschlag, Agilitas TV (2007).
B H Barry. "Fights for Everyone" 2013
Filmmaking
Sports entertainment
Performing arts | [
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227137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Reade | Charles Reade | Charles Reade (8 June 1814 – 11 April 1884) was an English novelist and dramatist, best known for The Cloister and the Hearth.
Life
Charles Reade was born at Ipsden, Oxfordshire, to John Reade and Anne Marie Scott-Waring, and had at least four brothers. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford, taking his B.A. in 1835, and became a fellow of his college. He was subsequently dean of arts and vice-president, taking his degree of D.C.L. in 1847. His name was entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1836; he was elected Vinerian Fellow in 1842, and was called to the bar in 1843. He kept his fellowship at Magdalen all his life but, after taking his degree, he spent most of his time in London. William Winwood Reade, the influential historian, was his nephew.
Writings
Reade began his literary career as a dramatist, and he chose to have "dramatist" stand first in the list of his occupations on his tombstone. As an author, he always had an eye to stage effect in scene and situation as well as in dialogue. His first comedy, The Ladies' Battle, appeared at the Olympic Theatre in May 1851. It was followed by Angela (1851), A Village Tale (1852), The Lost Husband (1852), and Gold (1853).
But Reade's reputation was made by the two-act comedy, Masks and Faces, in which he collaborated with Tom Taylor. It was produced in November 1852, and later was expanded into three acts. By the advice of the actress, Laura Seymour, he turned the play into a prose story which appeared in 1853 as Peg Woffington. The same year he wrote Christie Johnstone, a close study of Scottish fisher folk. In 1854 he produced, in conjunction with Tom Taylor, Two Loves and a Life, and The King's Rival, and, unaided, The Courier of Lyons (well known under its later title, The Lyons Mail) and his adaptation of Tobias Smollett's Peregrine Pickle. In the next year appeared Art (1855), afterwards known as Nance Oldfield.
He made his name as a novelist in 1856, when he published It Is Never Too Late to Mend, a novel written to reform abuses in prison discipline and the treatment of criminals. The truth of some details was challenged, and Reade defended himself vigorously. Five more novels followed in quick succession: The Course of True Love Never Did Run Smooth (1857), White Lies (1857), Jack of all Trades (1858), The Autobiography of a Thief (1858), and Love Me Little, Love Me Long (1859). White Lies started as a translation of Auguste Maquet's play Le Château de Grantier. After managers declined the manuscript, Reade adapted the story, weaving it into a novel which was serialised in The London Journal and published in three volumes the same year. He produced an adaptation of this on stage as The Double Marriage in 1867.
In 1861 Reade published what would become his most famous work, based on a few lines by the medieval humanist Erasmus about the life of his parents. The novel began life as a serial in Once a Week in 1859 under the title "A Good Fight", but when Reade disagreed with the proprietors of the magazine over some of the contentious subject matter (principally the unmarried pregnancy of the heroine), he abruptly curtailed the serialisation with a false happy ending. Reade continued to work on the novel and published it in 1861, thoroughly revised and extended, as The Cloister and the Hearth. It became recognised as one of the most successful historical novels. Returning from the 15th century to modern English life, he next produced Hard Cash (originally published as Very Hard Cash) (1863), in which he highlighted the abuses of private lunatic asylums. Three more such novels followed: Foul Play (1869), in which he exposed the iniquities of ship-knackers, and paved the way for the labours of Samuel Plimsoll; Put Yourself in His Place (1870), in which he dealt with trade unions; and A Woman-Hater (1877), in which he continued his commentary on trade unions while also tackling the topic of women doctors. The Wandering Heir (1875), of which he also wrote a version for the stage, was suggested by the Tichborne Case.
Reade also published three elaborate studies of character: Griffith Gaunt (1866), A Terrible Temptation (1871), A Simpleton (1873). He rated the first of these as his best novel. At intervals throughout his literary career, he sought to gratify his dramatic ambition, hiring a theatre and engaging a company for the production of his plays. An example of his persistence was seen in the case of Foul Play. He wrote this in 1869 in combination with Dion Boucicault with a view to stage adaptation. The play was more or less a failure; but he produced another version alone in 1877, under the title of A Scuttled Ship, which was a notable failure. His greatest success as a dramatist attended his last attempt—Drink—an adaptation of Émile Zola's L'Assommoir, produced in 1879, and made into the film Drink in 1917.
In that year his friend Laura Seymour, who may have been his mistress and had kept house for him since 1854, died. Reade's health failed from that time. On his death, he left behind him a completed novel, A Perilous Secret, which showed he was still skilled in the arts of weaving a complicated plot and devising thrilling situations. Reade was an amateur of the violin, and among his works is an essay on Cremona violins with the title, "A Lost Art Revived." Reade is buried alongside Laura Seymour, in the churchyard of St. Mary's Church, Willesden, in north-west London.
Reade subtitled a number of his novels "A matter-of-fact romance"; this referred to his practice of basing his novels largely on newspaper cuttings, which he began collecting for this purpose in 1848. He also conducted his own research, observing prisons personally, for example, as well as borrowing at times heavily from other novelists' works. He admitted the public freely to the secrets of his method of composition: he spoke about his method in his prefaces, he introduced himself into one of his novels, as Dr Rolfe in A Terrible Temptation, and in his will he left his workshop and his accumulation of materials open for inspection for two years after his death. The collection was extensive and well-organized, and he had planned to use it as a basis for an unrealized work in "the wisdom and folly of nations," dealing with social, political and domestic details.
Reade's novels were popular, and he was among England's highest-paid novelists. However, many libraries refused to carry his works on the grounds that they were indecent.
Reputation
Reade fell out of fashion by the turn of the century—"it is unusual to meet anyone who has voluntarily read him," wrote George Orwell in an essay on Reade—but during the 19th century Reade was one of England's most popular novelists. He was not highly regarded by critics. The following assessment by Justin McCarthy, writing in 1872, is typical:A strong, healthy air of honest and high purpose breathes through nearly all the stories. An utter absence of cant, affectation, and sham distinguishes them. A surprising variety of descriptive power, at once bold, broad, and realistic is one of their great merits. Mr. Reade can describe a sea-fight, a storm, the forging of a horseshoe, the ravages of an inundation, the trimming of a lady's dress, the tuning of a piano, with equal accuracy and apparent zest. . . .
Mr. Reade wants no quality which is necessary to make a powerful story-teller, while he is distinguished from all mere story-tellers by the fact that he has some great social object to serve in nearly everything he undertakes to detail. More than this I do not believe he is, nor, despite the evidences of something yet higher which were given in 'Christie Johnstone' and 'The Cloister and the Hearth,' do I think he ever could have been. He is a magnificent specimen of the modern special correspondent, endowed with the additional and unique gift of a faculty for throwing his report into the form of a thrilling story. But it requires something more than this, something higher than this, to make a great novelist whom the world will always remember. Mr. Reade is unsurpassed in the second class of English novelists, but he does not belong to the front rank. His success has been great in its way, but it is for an age and not for time.
The author George Orwell summed up Reade's attraction as "the same charm as one finds in R. Austin Freeman's detective stories or Lieutenant-Commander Gould's collections of curiosities—the charm of useless knowledge," going on to say that
Reade was a man of what one might call penny-encyclopaedic learning. He possessed vast stocks of disconnected information which a lively narrative gift allowed him to cram into books which would at any rate pass as novels. If you have the sort of mind that takes a pleasure in dates, lists, catalogues, concrete details, descriptions of processes, junk-shop windows and back numbers of the Exchange and Mart, the sort of mind that likes knowing exactly how a medieval catapult worked or just what objects a prison cell of the eighteen-forties contained, then you can hardly help enjoying Reade.
During his career, the prolific Reade was involved in several literary feuds involving accusations of plagiarism. He strongly defended himself, but invoked standards on literary borrowing that are looser than those of today. Reade is frequently discussed in studies of evolving attitudes toward plagiarism.
Reade is credited with the quote: "Sow a thought, and you reap an act; Sow an act, and you reap a habit; Sow a habit, and you reap a character; Sow a character, and you reap a destiny". These days it is often adapted to:
"Mind your thoughts for they become your words; mind your words for they become your actions; mind your actions for they become your habits; mind your habits for they become your character; mind your character for it becomes your destiny."(This was used in the film, The Iron Lady (2011), spoken by Meryl Streep playing Margaret Thatcher, the former Prime Minister.)
Reade's newspaper cuttings, notebooks and correspondence are held at The London Library.
Marriage and family
Reade and his late wife had an adopted daughter. He cut off relations with her after she eloped at age sixteen with an actor. After her husband abandoned her, she worked as an actress for a number of years. She performed 2000 times in a production of Reade's It Is Never Too Late to Mend. She wound up destitute in a workhouse in Kent.
Allusions
Ira Gershwin's lyric "It’s never too late to Mendelssohn...", which appears in both Oh, Kay! and Lady in the Dark, is a play on the title of Reade's book.
John Betjeman's poem "In Willesden Churchyard" includes a reference to "Laura Seymour's grave-/ 'So long the loyal counsellor and friend'/Of that Charles Reade whose coffin lies with hers/Was she his mistress?" followed by a long imagined passage about their possible relationship.
Works
Gold! (1853, play)
Masks and Faces (1852, play)
Peg Woffington (1853, novel)
Christie Johnstone (1853, novel)
The Courier of Lyons (1854, play. Also known as The Lyons Mail)
Clouds and Sunshine and Arts (1855)
It Is Never Too Late to Mend (1856, novel)
The Course of True Love Never Did Run Smooth (1857)
White Lies (1857, novel)
The Box Tunnel (1857, short story. Only published in book form in America)
Autobiography of a Thief (1858, novelette about a train robbery)
(novelette about the elephant Mademoiselle D'Jeck)
Love Me Little, Love Me Long (1859, novel)
A Good Fight and Other Tales (1859)
The Eighth Commandment (1860)
The Cloister and the Hearth (1861)
Hard Cash (1863, novel)
Griffith Gaunt; or, Jealousy (1866, novel)
Foul Play (1869, novel)
Put Yourself in His Place (1870, novel)
A Terrible Temptation (1871, novel)
Shilly-Shally (1872, unauthorized stage adaptation of Anthony Trollope's Ralph the Heir)
A Simpleton (1873)
The Wandering Heir (1873)
Trade Malice (1875)
A Woman Hater (1877)
Golden Crowns (1877)
The Lyons Mail (1877)
Single Heart and Double Face (1884, novel)
A Perilous Secret (1884, novel)
Notes
References
Diamond, Michael (2003). Victorian Sensation, Or, the Spectacular, the Shocking, and the Scandalous in Nineteenth-Century Britain. London: Anthem , pp. 209–211,236–239
Reade, Charles L., and Compton Reade (1887). Charles Reade, Dramatist, Novelist, Journalist: A Memoir. London: Chapman and Hall.
The entry contains a detailed assessment of his methods by the anonymous author.
Further reading
Buchanan, Robert (1887). "Charles Reade: A Souvenir." In: A Look Round Literature. London: Ward & Downey, pp. 308–313.
Coleman, John (1903). Charles Reade as I Knew Him. London: Treherne & Company.
Dawson, William James (1905). "Charles Reade." In: The Makers of English Fiction. New York: F.H. Revell Co., pp. 164–178.
Howells, William Dean (1895). "Charles Reade." In: My Literary Passions. New York: Harper & Brothers, pp. 191–197.
Murray, David Christie (1897). "Charles Reade." In: My Contemporaries in Fiction. London: Chatto & Windus, pp. 16–31.
Purnell, Thomas (1871). "Mr. Charles Reade." In: Dramatists of the Present Day. London: Chapman & Hall, pp. 127–140.
Quiller-Couch, A.T. (1896). "Charles Reade." In: Adventures in Criticism. London: Cassell & Company, pp. 129–136.
Swinburne, Algernon Charles (1886). "Charles Reade." In: Miscellanies. London: Chatto & Windus, pp. 271–302.
External links
Charles Reade Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
19th-century English novelists
Victorian novelists
English dramatists and playwrights
1814 births
1884 deaths
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford
Members of Lincoln's Inn
English male dramatists and playwrights
English male novelists
19th-century English dramatists and playwrights
English historical novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages | [
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227141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical%20economics | Classical economics | Classical economics or classical political economy is a school of thought in economics that flourished, primarily in Britain, in the late 18th and early-to-mid 19th century. Its main thinkers are held to be Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus, and John Stuart Mill. These economists produced a theory of market economies as largely self-regulating systems, governed by natural laws of production and exchange (famously captured by Adam Smith's metaphor of the invisible hand).
Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1776 is usually considered to mark the beginning of classical economics. The fundamental message in Smith's book was that the wealth of any nation was determined not by the gold in the monarch's coffers, but by its national income. This income was in turn based on the labor of its inhabitants, organized efficiently by the division of labour and the use of accumulated capital, which became one of classical economics' central concepts.
In terms of economic policy, the classical economists were pragmatic liberals, advocating the freedom of the market, though they saw a role for the state in providing for the common good. Smith acknowledged that there were areas where the market is not the best way to serve the common interest, and he took it as a given that the greater proportion of the costs supporting the common good should be borne by those best able to afford them. He warned repeatedly of the dangers of monopoly, and stressed the importance of competition. In terms of international trade, the classical economists were advocates of free trade, which distinguishes them from their mercantilist predecessors, who advocated protectionism.
The designation of Smith, Ricardo and some earlier economists as "classical" is due to a canonization which stems from Karl Marx's critique of political economy, where he critiqued those that he at least perceived as worthy of dealing with, as opposed to their "vulgar" successors. There is some debate about what is covered by the term classical economics, particularly when dealing with the period from 1830 to 1875, and how classical economics relates to neoclassical economics.
History
The classical economists produced their "magnificent dynamics" during a period in which capitalism was emerging from feudalism and in which the Industrial Revolution was leading to vast changes in society. These changes raised the question of how a society could be organized around a system in which every individual sought his or her own (monetary) gain. Classical political economy is popularly associated with the idea that free markets can regulate themselves.
Classical economists and their immediate predecessors reoriented economics away from an analysis of the ruler's personal interests to broader national interests. Adam Smith, following the physiocrat François Quesnay, identified the wealth of a nation with the yearly national income, instead of the king's treasury. Smith saw this income as produced by labour, land, and capital. With property rights to land and capital held by individuals, the national income is divided up between labourers, landlords, and capitalists in the form of wages, rent, and interest or profits. In his vision, productive labour was the true source of income, while capital was the main organizing force, boosting labour's productivity and inducing growth.
Ricardo and James Mill systematized Smith's theory. Their ideas became economic orthodoxy in the period ca. 1815–1848, after which an "anti-Ricardian reaction" took shape, especially on the European continent, that eventually became marginalist/neoclassical economics. The definitive split is typically placed somewhere in the 1870s, after which the torch of Ricardian economics was carried mainly by Marxian economics, while neoclassical economics became the new orthodoxy also in the English-speaking world.
Henry George is sometimes known as the last classical economist or as a bridge. The economist Mason Gaffney documented original sources that appear to confirm his thesis arguing that neoclassical economics arose as a concerted effort to suppress the ideas of classical economics and those of Henry George in particular.
Modern legacy
Classical economics and many of its ideas remain fundamental in economics, though the theory itself has yielded, since the 1870s, to neoclassical economics. Other ideas have either disappeared from neoclassical discourse or been replaced by Keynesian economics in the Keynesian Revolution and neoclassical synthesis. Some classical ideas are represented in various schools of heterodox economics, notably Georgism and Marxian economics – Marx and Henry George being contemporaries of classical economists – and Austrian economics, which split from neoclassical economics in the late 19th century. In the mid-20th century, a renewed interest in classical economics gave rise to the neo-Ricardian school and its offshoots.
Classical International Trade Economics
Adam Smith refuted Mercantilist thought with his most influential publication: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. He argued against mercantilism, and instead favored free trade and free markets, while believing that this would favor the countries who participate in free trade. He elucidated that mercantilist policies would benefit domestic producers but not the country because it prevents consumers buying products at competitive prices, therefore directing cashflow ineffectively. Smith believed that deviating from free trade costs society in a similar manner as to how monopolies negatively affect competition in a market.
During the classical era and after Adam Smith, David Ricardo became a prominent economist with thoughts on international trade. Ricardo’s most famous economic theory was the theory of comparative advantage as the foundation of the international division of labor. He argued that international trade, in any case, would increase the standard of living. His main idea on international trade was that while it does add to real output produced in a country, the main benefits are derived from the encouragement of specialization and the division of labor on an international scale, leading to a more effective use of resources in all countries involved. One of Ricardo’s greatest assumptions and observations was that the factors of production are immobile between countries while finished goods are perfectly mobile, this assumption was critical to depict the advantages of international trade and specialization. His theory on international trade was weakened by how the labor theory of value clashes with the theory of comparative advantage. Ultimately both theories collide with a question on how the price is relatively determined and Ricardo simply stated that it does not hold in international trade theory.
John Stuart Mill would later come and solve this dilemma and further build upon Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage. John Stuart Mill’s contribution to Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage came about when he introduced demand to the equation. Mill introduced demand and was the first to promote the idea that demand and supply are functions of price, and the market equilibrium is where price is adjusted to where there is equilibrium between supply and demand. Overall, prior to Adam Smith and the classical economic wave, the main view of international trade was viewed negatively and not in favor of the countries who would participate in international trade with the economic policies of mercantilism. However, once Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill arrived with the classical wave of economics, international trade came to be viewed favorably and ultimately beneficial for all parties involved.
Classical theories of growth and development
Analyzing the growth in the wealth of nations and advocating policies to promote such growth was a major focus of most classical economists. However, John Stuart Mill believed that a future stationary state of a constant population size and a constant stock of capital was both inevitable, necessary and desirable for mankind to achieve. This is now known as a steady-state economy.
John Hicks & Samuel Hollander, Nicholas Kaldor, Luigi L. Pasinetti, and Paul A. Samuelson have presented formal models as part of their respective interpretations of classical political economy.
Value theory
Classical economists developed a theory of value, or price, to investigate economic dynamics. In political economics, value usually refers to the value of exchange, which is separate from the price. William Petty introduced a fundamental distinction between market price and natural price to facilitate the portrayal of regularities in prices. Market prices are jostled by many transient influences that are difficult to theorize about at any abstract level. Natural prices, according to Petty, Smith, and Ricardo, for example, capture systematic and persistent forces operating at a point in time. Market prices always tend toward natural prices in a process that Smith described as somewhat similar to gravitational attraction.
The theory of what determined natural prices varied within the Classical school. Petty tried to develop a par between land and labour and had what might be called a land-and-labour theory of value. Smith confined the labour theory of value to a mythical pre-capitalist past. Others may interpret Smith to have believed in value as derived from labour. He stated that natural prices were the sum of natural rates of wages, profits (including interest on capital and wages of superintendence) and rent. Ricardo also had what might be described as a cost of production theory of value. He criticized Smith for describing rent as price-determining, instead of price-determined, and saw the labour theory of value as a good approximation.
Some historians of economic thought, in particular, Sraffian economists, see the classical theory of prices as determined from three givens:
The level of outputs at the level of Smith's "effectual demand",
technology, and
wages.
From these givens, one can rigorously derive a theory of value. But neither Ricardo nor Marx, the most rigorous investigators of the theory of value during the Classical period, developed this theory fully. Those who reconstruct the theory of value in this manner see the determinants of natural prices as being explained by the Classical economists from within the theory of economics, albeit at a lower level of abstraction. For example, the theory of wages was closely connected to the theory of population. The Classical economists took the theory of the determinants of the level and growth of population as part of Political Economy. Since then, the theory of population has been seen as part of Demography. In contrast to the Classical theory, the following determinants of the neoclassical theory value are seen as exogenous to neoclassical economics:
tastes
technology, and
endowments.
Classical economics tended to stress the benefits of trade. Its theory of value was largely displaced by marginalist schools of thought which sees "use value" as deriving from the marginal utility that consumers finds in a good, and "exchange value" (i.e. natural price) as determined by the marginal opportunity- or disutility-cost of the inputs that make up the product. Ironically, considering the attachment of many classical economists to the free market, the largest school of economic thought that still adheres to classical form is the Marxian school.
Monetary theory
British classical economists in the 19th century had a well-developed controversy between the
Banking and the Currency School. This parallels recent debates between proponents of the theory of endogeneous money, such as Nicholas Kaldor, and monetarists, such as Milton Friedman. Monetarists and members of the currency school argued that banks can and should control the supply of money. According to their theories, inflation is caused by banks issuing an excessive supply of money. According to proponents of the theory of endogenous money, the supply of money automatically adjusts to the demand, and banks can only control the terms and conditions (e.g., the rate of interest) on which loans are made.
Debates on the definition
The theory of value is currently a contested subject. One issue is whether classical economics is a forerunner of neoclassical economics or a school of thought that had a distinct theory of value, distribution, and growth.
The period 1830–75 is a timeframe of significant debate. Karl Marx originally coined the term "classical economics" to refer to Ricardian economics – the economics of David Ricardo and James Mill and their predecessors – but usage was subsequently extended to include the followers of Ricardo.
Sraffians, who emphasize the discontinuity thesis,
see classical economics as extending from Petty's work in the 17th century to the break-up of the Ricardian system around 1830. The period between 1830 and the 1870s would then be dominated by "vulgar political economy", as Karl Marx characterized it. Sraffians argue that: the wages fund theory; Senior's abstinence theory of interest, which puts the return to capital on the same level as returns to land and labour; the explanation of equilibrium prices by well-behaved supply and demand functions; and Say's law, are not necessary or essential elements of the classical theory of value and distribution. Perhaps Schumpeter's view that John Stuart Mill put forth a half-way house between classical and neoclassical economics is consistent with this view.
Georgists and other modern classical economists and historians such as Michael Hudson argue that a major division between classical and neo-classical economics is the treatment or recognition of economic rent. Most modern economists no longer recognize land/location as a factor of production, often claiming that rent is non-existent. Georgists and others argue that economic rent remains roughly a third of economic output.
Sraffians generally see Marx as having rediscovered and restated the logic of classical economics, albeit for his own purposes. Others, such as Schumpeter, think of Marx as a follower of Ricardo. Even Samuel Hollander has recently explained that there is a textual basis in the classical economists for Marx's reading, although he does argue that it is an extremely narrow set of texts.
Another position is that neoclassical economics is essentially continuous with classical economics. To scholars promoting this view, there is no hard and fast line between classical and neoclassical economics. There may be shifts of emphasis, such as between the long run and the short run and between supply and demand, but the neoclassical concepts are to be found confused or in embryo in classical economics. To these economists, there is only one theory of value and distribution. Alfred Marshall is a well-known promoter of this view. Samuel Hollander is probably its best current proponent.
Still another position sees two threads simultaneously being developed in classical economics. In this view, neoclassical economics is a development of certain exoteric (popular) views in Adam Smith. Ricardo was a sport, developing certain esoteric (known by only the select) views in Adam Smith. This view can be found in W. Stanley Jevons, who referred to Ricardo as something like "that able, but wrong-headed man" who put economics on the "wrong track". One can also find this view in Maurice Dobb's Theories of Value and Distribution Since Adam Smith: Ideology and Economic Theory (1973), as well as in Karl Marx's Theories of Surplus Value.
The above does not exhaust the possibilities. John Maynard Keynes thought of classical economics as starting with Ricardo and being ended by the publication of his own General Theory of Employment Interest and Money. The defining criterion of classical economics, on this view, is Say's law which is disputed by Keynesian economics. Keynes was aware, though, that his usage of the term 'classical' was non-standard.
One difficulty in these debates is that the participants are frequently arguing about whether there is a non-neoclassical theory that should be reconstructed and applied today to describe capitalist economies. Some, such as Terry Peach, see classical economics as of antiquarian interest.
See also
Classical general equilibrium model
Classical liberalism
Constitutional economics
Neoclassical economics
Perspectives on capitalism
Political economy
References
Citations
Sources
Mark Blaug (1987). "classical economics," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 414–45.
_ (2008). "British classical economics," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
Samuel Hollander (1987). Classical Economics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ernesto Screpanti and Stefano Zamagni (2005). An Outline of the History of Economic Thought. Oxford University Press.
Further reading
External links
Classical economics, Encyclopædia Britannica
Adam Smith | [
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227143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Plimsoll | Samuel Plimsoll | Samuel Plimsoll (10 February 1824 – 3 June 1898) was an English politician and social reformer, now best remembered for having devised the Plimsoll line (a line on a ship's hull indicating the maximum safe draught, and therefore the minimum freeboard for the vessel in various operating conditions).
Early life
Samuel Plimsoll was born in Bristol and soon moved to Whiteley Wood Hall, Sheffield, also spending part of his childhood in Penrith, Cumberland. Leaving school at an early age, he became a clerk at Rawson's Brewery, and rose to be manager.
In 1853, he attempted to become a coal merchant in London. He failed and was reduced to destitution. He himself told how for a time he lived in a common lodging for seven shillings and two pence a week.
Through this experience, he learnt to sympathise with the struggles of the poor, and when his good fortune returned, he resolved to devote his time to improving their condition.
His efforts were directed especially against what were known as "coffin ships": unseaworthy and overloaded vessels, often heavily insured, in which unscrupulous owners risked the lives of their crews.
Political career
In 1867, Plimsoll was elected as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Derby, and endeavoured in vain to pass a bill dealing with the subject of a safe load line on ships. The main problem was the number of powerful ship-owning MPs in Parliament.
In 1872, he published a work entitled Our Seamen, which became well known throughout the country. Accordingly, on Plimsoll's motion in 1873, a Royal Commission was appointed, and in 1875 a government bill was introduced, which Plimsoll, though regarding it as inadequate, resolved to accept.
On 22 July, the Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, announced that the bill would be dropped. Plimsoll lost his self-control, applied the term "villains" to members of the House, and shook his fist in the Speaker's face.
Disraeli moved that he be reprimanded, but on the suggestion of Lord Hartington agreed to adjourn the matter for a week to allow Plimsoll time for thought.
Eventually Plimsoll made an apology. Many people, however, shared his view that the bill had been stifled by the pressure of the shipowners, and popular feeling forced the government to pass a bill which in the following year was amended into the Merchant Shipping Act.
This gave stringent powers of inspection to the Board of Trade, and the mark that indicates the safe limit to which a ship may be loaded became generally known as Plimsoll's mark or line.
Plimsoll was re-elected for Derby at the general election of 1880 by a great majority, but gave up his seat to William Vernon Harcourt, believing that the latter, as Home Secretary, could advance sailors' interests more effectively than any private member.
Offered a seat by 30 constituencies, Plimsoll was an unsuccessful candidate in Sheffield Central in 1885. He did not re-enter the house, and later became estranged from the Liberal leaders by what he regarded as their breach of faith in neglecting the question of shipping reform.
He was for some years the honorary president of the National Sailors' and Firemen's Union, and drew attention to the horrors of the cattle-ships, where animals were transported under appalling and over-crowded conditions.
Later life
Later, he visited the United States to try to secure the adoption of a less bitter tone towards England in the historical textbooks used in American schools.
He died in Folkestone on 3 June 1898, and is buried in St Martin's churchyard, Cheriton, Kent.
Family
Plimsoll married his first wife, Eliza Ann, daughter of Hugh Railton of Chapeltown, near Sheffield, in 1858. In Census 1871 they were enumerated in Hastings where Eliza Ann is recorded as being blind in her right eye and deaf in her left ear. She died in Australia in 1882. There were no children by this marriage. He married his second wife, Harriet Frankish, daughter of Mr. Joseph Armitage Wade, J.P., of Hull and Hornsea, in 1885. By this marriage there were six children, of whom a son, Samuel Richard Cobden Plimsoll, and two daughters survived him.
Legacy
In 1873, the Samuel Plimsoll, an iron hulled full-rigged merchant sailing ship, was launched at the shipyard of Walter Hood & Co. in Aberdeen, Scotland for the Aberdeen White Star Line (G. Thompson & Co.). She was assigned the official British Reg. No. 65097 and the signal MKDH. In 1899, she caught fire in the Thames River and had to be scuttled, but was refloated and repaired in 1900. In 1902, she was severely dismasted and damaged on voyage to Port Chalmers, Australia. Towed to Sydney and subsequently to Fremantle, she was reduced to hulk status the following year.
In the 1920s, Plimsoll shoes were named for their similarity in appearance to the Plimsoll line on boats.
In Whitehall Garden, a Victoria Embankment garden, there is a monument to Samuel Plimsoll in front of the railings.
A monument bust of Plimsoll is located in his native Bristol, on the banks of Bristol Harbour in the Canons Marsh area.
British writer Nicolette Jones published The Plimsoll Sensation, a highly acclaimed biography – getting the idea for it from living in 1995 in Plimsoll Road in Finsbury Park, north London, but knowing hardly anything about whom it was named after.
Samuel Plimsoll appears in the third series of the BBC historical television drama The Onedin Line, portrayed by actor David Garfield.
References
Attribution
External links
"Our Seamen: An Appeal" by Samuel Plimsoll, 1873, at The Internet Archive
"The sailor's friend" (book review), The Economist, Jul 6th 2006 (payment required)
"The Plimsoll Sensation" (podcast), The British Library, Jul 7th 2006#
"The Bottom Line About Mr. Plimsoll", The Observer, 25 June 2006
Review of "The Plimsoll Sensation" in Bookworm on the Net, 2 July 2006
Re: Monument in Whitehall Garden. London Parks & Gardens Trust, London Gardens Online. See under heading 'Fuller Information', paragraph 'The south-western sections..'."
1824 births
1898 deaths
People from Fulwood, Sheffield
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Politicians from Sheffield
UK MPs 1868–1874
UK MPs 1874–1880
UK MPs 1880–1885
British reformers
British social reformers
Burials in Kent | [
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227144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eider%20%28river%29 | Eider (river) | The Eider (; ; Latin: Egdor or Eidora) is the longest river in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The river starts near Bordesholm and reaches the southwestern outskirts of Kiel on the shores of the Baltic Sea, but flows to the west, ending in the North Sea. The lower part of the Eider was used as part of the Eider Canal until that canal was replaced by the modern Kiel Canal.
In the Early Middle Ages the river is believed to have been the border between the related Germanic tribes, the Jutes and the Angles, who along with the neighboring Saxons crossed the North Sea from this region during this period and settled in England. During the High Middle Ages the Eider was the border between the Saxons and the Danes, as reported by Adam of Bremen in 1076. For centuries it divided Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire. Today it is the border between Schleswig, Holstein and Eiderland, the northern and southern parts, respectively, of the modern German state of Schleswig-Holstein.
The Eider flows through the following towns: Bordesholm, Kiel, Rendsburg, Friedrichstadt and Tönning. Near Tönning it flows into the North Sea. The estuary has tidal flats and brackish water. The mouth of the river is crossed by a closeable storm surge barrier, the Eider Barrage.
Navigation
A tidal lock provides access for boats through the Eider Barrage. The fishing port of Tönning lies upstream of the barrier, while Friedrichstadt is further upstream. At Friedrichstadt a lock gives access to the River Treene.
The Eider remains tidal as far as the lock at Nordfeld, above Friedrichstadt. There is a further lock named near Wrohm, upstream of Nordfeld. A further beyond Lexfähre is the junction with the short Gieselau Canal, which provides a navigable link to the Kiel Canal at Oldenbüttel. The Eider therefore provides an alternative route from the North Sea to the Kiel Canal, avoiding the tides of the estuary of the Elbe.
The head of navigation lies a further upstream at Rendsburg. Although it is adjacent to the Kiel Canal, through passage is no longer possible.
See also
Eider-Treene Depression
List of rivers of Schleswig-Holstein
References
Rivers of Schleswig-Holstein
Holstein
Federal waterways in Germany
Kiel Canal
Rivers of Germany | [
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227145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jotto | Jotto | Jotto (or Giotto) is a logic-oriented word game played with two players, a writing implement, and a piece of paper with the alphabet on it. Each player writes a secret word and attempts to guess the other player's word.
Gameplay
Each player picks a secret word of five letters and writes it down privately. Words must appear in a dictionary; generally no proper nouns are allowed. The object of the game is to correctly guess the other player's word first.
Players take turns: on a player's turn, they guess some five-letter word, and the other player announces how many letters in that guess match a unique letter in their secret word. For example, if the secret word is OTHER and the guess is PEACH, the E and H in PEACH match an E and an H in OTHER, so the announced result is "2". (Letters don't need to occur in the same position.) On the next turn, players reverse roles.
Players keep track on paper of each guess and result, crossing out letters of the alphabet that (by deduction) cannot appear in the opponent's secret word. Eventually, one player has enough information to win by making a correct guess.
History
Jotto was invented in 1955 by Morton M. Rosenfeld and marketed by his New York-based Jotto Corp. In the 1970s, copyright passed to the Selchow and Righter Company. It is now made by Endless Games.
Variations
The most common variation uses words of four letters instead of five.
Players should agree before playing if secret words can contain duplicate letters.
Six-Letter (sometimes called 'Word Master Mind', though its logical content places it well beyond Master Mind and Jotto). Known to have been played with pencil and paper in UK computer departments at least as far back as 1970. Each player picks a secret word of 6 letters, and they take turns guessing the other's word. Secret words (sometimes called 'targets') and guesses, must all be real words verifiable in a nominated dictionary. When you guess a word, you find out the number of letters which are perfect matches only. So if you guess PEACHY and the secret word was OTHERS, you get a reply of 0 (because the E and H are in the wrong positions). Even more so than Jotto, this game stretches one's skills in combinatorial logic as well as one's command of the dictionary. The name of the same computer game is Sixicon by Island Software, 1979.
Five-Letter, like Jotto, requires players to take turns guessing at an opponent's five-letter word. Like Six-Letter, responses only indicate the number of perfect matches. If you guess PEACH and the secret word is PHIAL, the response would be 1 – the P is an exact match, but the A and the H are not. A strong strategy for Five-Letter involves attacking the middle three positions (2, 3, and 4) with vowels.
The television game show Lingo consists largely of contestants playing a variant of Jotto. In Lingo, the player is told which matching letters are in the correct position, and which are in incorrect positions. Instead of being selected by the contestants, the words are chosen by the show and contestants are given a limited number of guesses.
Kane Jotto is a form of multi-player Jotto. Each player has a secret word, like the original game. Each round, a player guesses a word and each player goes around stating the number of letters his or her secret word has in common with the guess. The winner correctly guesses the secret words of all other players.
Three-letter Jotto is played without using pencil and paper. In order that the game not be overly difficult, as it must be done entirely in the head, only perfect matches return a count.
See also
Lingo (American game show) - a similar TV show
Wordle – a similar 2021 web game
Bulls and Cows – a similar game with numbers
Mastermind – a similar game with colored pegs
External links
Jotto online with multiplayer and single player — Uses 4 letters with duplicates not allowed
Jotto — Detailed rules, strategies
Working version of Jotto — Uses 5 letters with duplicates not allowed
Word games
Selchow and Righter games
Endless Games games
Paper-and-pencil games | [
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227149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel%20Terminus%3A%20The%20Life%20and%20Times%20of%20Klaus%20Barbie | Hotel Terminus: The Life and Times of Klaus Barbie | Hotel Terminus: The Life and Times of Klaus Barbie (French: Hôtel Terminus: Klaus Barbie, sa vie et son temps) is a 1988 American documentary film directed by Marcel Ophuls about the life of Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie. The film covers Barbie's relatively innocent childhood, his time with the Gestapo in Lyon (where he apparently excelled at torture), through to the forty years between the end of World War II and his eventual deportation from Bolivia to stand trial for crimes against humanity in France. The film explores a number of themes, including the nature of evil and the diffusion of responsibility in hierarchical situations.
The film won the 1988 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature, as well as the FIPRESCI Award at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival.
Synopsis
The film features interviews from both supporters and opponents of Barbie's trial, from journalists to former U.S. Counter Intelligence Corps agents to independent investigators of Nazi war crimes to Barbie's defense attorney. Much of the testimony presented is contradictory: for example, some interviewees allege that Barbie was brought to trial as a figurehead while others allege that he was allowed to go free for forty years as a result of the protection of various governments (including those of the United States and Bolivia), because Barbie knew secret agents and a public trial could potentially jeopardize various intelligence operations. Some of those interviewed by Ophuls included Barbie's lawyer Jacques Vergès, the writer Günter Grass, the American intelligence officer Eugene Kolb who insisted that Barbie was "too professional" to have tortured people, the philosopher Régis Debray who was captured by the Bolivian Army in 1967, Daniel Cordier who served as the secretary to Jean Moulin, the Nazi hunters Serge Klarsfeld and his wife Beate Klarsfeld, the philosopher Alain Finkielkraut, the Gestapo officer Harry Stengritt, the poet René Tavernier, Jean-Marie Le Pen of the Front national, the Catholic priest Ivo Omrcanin who helped to smuggle Barbie into Bolivia, the Frenchwoman Simone Lagrange who was deported by Barbie from Lyon to Auschwitz, the former Bolivian president General Guido Vildoso who employed Barbie as his "security consultant", the student radical Daniel Cohn-Bendit, the filmmaker Claude Lanzmann (Shoah), the résistant Raymond Aubrac and his wife Lucie Aubrac, the résistant René Hardy, and Hardy's former mistress Lydie Bastien who claimed to have magical powers to bring bad luck on anyone who displeased her.
Within the course of the film, Barbie is brought to trial and sentenced to life in prison; near the end of the film, his defense attorney vows to appeal the decision.
Release
Hotel Terminus: The Life and Times of Klaus Barbie had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on 10 May 1988. It was later shown at the New York Film Festival on 6 October 1988, followed by screenings in New York on October 9, 1988 and October 26, 1988.
See also
Hôtel Terminus
Claude Bourdet
Counterintelligence Corps (United States Army)
Elizabeth Holtzman
Guido Vildoso
Izieu
Jacques Vergès
Jean Moulin
Paul Paillole
Ratlines (World War II)
Régis Debray
References
External links
Hotel Terminus at Icarus Films
1988 films
American films
French films
American documentary films
Films set in Lyon
French documentary films
Best Documentary Feature Academy Award winners
Films directed by Marcel Ophuls
Documentary films about war crimes
1988 documentary films
Documentary films about Nazis
The Samuel Goldwyn Company films | [
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227154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Harcourt | William Harcourt | William Harcourt may refer to:
William Vernon Harcourt (scientist) (1789–1871), British scientist
William Harcourt (politician) (1827–1904), British Liberal politician
William Harcourt (martyr), Catholic martyr, victim of the Titus Oates plot
William Harcourt, villain in the film Alien Nation (named for the people above)
William Harcourt, 3rd Earl Harcourt, English nobleman and soldier
William Harcourt (MP for Berkshire), in 1491, MP for Berkshire (UK Parliament constituency)
William Harcourt, 2nd Viscount Harcourt
See also
Willie Harcourt-Cooze, entrepreneur and chocolatier | [
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227155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale-free%20network | Scale-free network | A scale-free network is a network whose degree distribution follows a power law, at least asymptotically. That is, the fraction P(k) of nodes in the network having k connections to other nodes goes for large values of k as
where is a parameter whose value is typically in the range 2 < < 3 (wherein the second moment (scale parameter) of is infinite but the first moment is finite), although occasionally it may lie outside these bounds.
Many networks have been reported to be scale-free, although statistical analysis has refuted many of these claims and seriously questioned others. Additionally, some have argued that simply knowing that a degree-distribution is fat-tailed is more important than knowing whether a network is scale-free according to statistically rigorous definitions.
Preferential attachment and the fitness model have been proposed as mechanisms to explain conjectured power law degree distributions in real networks. Alternative models such as super-linear preferential attachment and second-neighbour preferential attachment may appear to generate transient scale-free networks, but the degree distribution deviates from a power law as networks become very large.
History
In studies of the networks of citations between scientific papers, Derek de Solla Price showed in 1965 that the number of links to papers—i.e., the number of citations they receive—had a heavy-tailed distribution following a Pareto distribution or power law, and thus that the citation network is scale-free. He did not however use the term "scale-free network", which was not coined until some decades later. In a later paper in 1976, Price also proposed a mechanism to explain the occurrence of power laws in citation networks, which he called "cumulative advantage" but which is today more commonly known under the name preferential attachment.
Recent interest in scale-free networks started in 1999 with work by Albert-László Barabási and colleagues at the University of Notre Dame who mapped the topology of a portion of the World Wide Web, finding that some nodes, which they called "hubs", had many more connections than others and that the network as a whole had a power-law distribution of the number of links connecting to a node. After finding that a few other networks, including some social and biological networks, also had heavy-tailed degree distributions, Barabási and collaborators coined the term "scale-free network" to describe the class of networks that exhibit a power-law degree distribution. However, studying seven examples of networks in social, economic, technological, biological, and physical systems, Amaral et al. were not able to find a scale-free network among these seven examples. Only one of these examples, the movie-actor network, had degree distribution P(k) following a power law regime for moderate k, though eventually this power law regime was followed by a sharp cutoff showing exponential decay for large k.
Barabási and Réka Albert proposed a generative mechanism to explain the appearance of power-law distributions, which they called "preferential attachment" and which is essentially the same as that proposed by Price. Analytic solutions for this mechanism (also similar to the solution of Price) were presented in 2000 by Dorogovtsev, Mendes and Samukhin and independently by Krapivsky, Redner, and Leyvraz, and later rigorously proved by mathematician Béla Bollobás. Notably, however, this mechanism only produces a specific subset of networks in the scale-free class, and many alternative mechanisms have been discovered since.
The history of scale-free networks also includes some disagreement. On an empirical level, the scale-free nature of several networks has been called into question. For instance, the three brothers Faloutsos believed that the Internet had a power law degree distribution on the basis of traceroute data; however, it has been suggested that this is a layer 3 illusion created by routers, which appear as high-degree nodes while concealing the internal layer 2 structure of the ASes they interconnect.
On a theoretical level, refinements to the abstract definition of scale-free have been proposed. For example, Li et al. (2005) recently offered a potentially more precise "scale-free metric". Briefly, let G be a graph with edge set E, and denote the degree of a vertex (that is, the number of edges incident to ) by . Define
This is maximized when high-degree nodes are connected to other high-degree nodes. Now define
where smax is the maximum value of s(H) for H in the set of all graphs with degree distribution identical to that of G. This gives a metric between 0 and 1, where a graph G with small S(G) is "scale-rich", and a graph G with S(G) close to 1 is "scale-free". This definition captures the notion of self-similarity implied in the name "scale-free".
Overview
There are two major components that explain the emergence of the scale-free property in a complex networks: the growth and the preferential attachment.
By "growth" is meant a growth process where, over an extended period of time, new nodes join an already existing system, a network (like the World Wide Web which has grown by billions of web pages over 10 years).
Finally, by "preferential attachment" is meant that new nodes prefer to connect to nodes that already have a high number of links with others. Thus, there is a higher probability that more and more nodes will link themselves to that one which has already many links, leading this node to a hub in-fine.
Depending on the network, the hubs might either be assortative or disassortative. Assortativity would be found in social networks in which well-connected/famous people would tend to know better each other. Disassortativity would be found in technological (Internet, World Wide Web) and biological (protein interaction, metabolism) networks.
Characteristics
The most notable characteristic in a scale-free network is the relative commonness of vertices with a degree that greatly exceeds the average. The highest-degree nodes are often called "hubs", and are thought to serve specific purposes in their networks, although this depends greatly on the domain.
Clustering
Another important characteristic of scale-free networks is the clustering coefficient distribution, which decreases as the node degree increases. This distribution also follows a power law. This implies that the low-degree nodes belong to very dense sub-graphs and those sub-graphs are connected to each other through hubs. Consider a social network in which nodes are people and links are acquaintance relationships between people. It is easy to see that people tend to form communities, i.e., small groups in which everyone knows everyone (one can think of such community as a complete graph). In addition, the members of a community also have a few acquaintance relationships to people outside that community. Some people, however, are connected to a large number of communities (e.g., celebrities, politicians). Those people may be considered the hubs responsible for the small-world phenomenon.
At present, the more specific characteristics of scale-free networks vary with the generative mechanism used to create them. For instance, networks generated by preferential attachment typically place the high-degree vertices in the middle of the network, connecting them together to form a core, with progressively lower-degree nodes making up the regions between the core and the periphery. The random removal of even a large fraction of vertices impacts the overall connectedness of the network very little, suggesting that such topologies could be useful for security, while targeted attacks destroys the connectedness very quickly. Other scale-free networks, which place the high-degree vertices at the periphery, do not exhibit these properties. Similarly, the clustering coefficient of scale-free networks can vary significantly depending on other topological details.
Immunization
The question of how to immunize efficiently scale free networks which represent realistic networks such as the Internet and social networks has been studied extensively. One such strategy is to immunize the largest degree nodes, i.e., targeted (intentional) attacks since for this case p is relatively high and less nodes are needed to be immunized.
However, in many realistic cases the global structure is not available and the largest degree nodes are not known.
Properties of random graph may change or remain invariant under graph transformations. Mashaghi A. et al., for example, demonstrated that a transformation which converts random graphs to their edge-dual graphs (or line graphs) produces an ensemble of graphs with nearly the same degree distribution, but with degree correlations and a significantly higher clustering coefficient. Scale free graphs, as such, remain scale free under such transformations.
Examples
Although many real-world networks are thought to be scale-free, the evidence often remains inconclusive, primarily due to the developing awareness of more rigorous data analysis techniques. As such, the scale-free nature of many networks is still being debated by the scientific community. A few examples of networks claimed to be scale-free include:
Some Social networks, including collaboration networks. Two examples that have been studied extensively are the collaboration of movie actors in films and the co-authorship by mathematicians of papers.
Many kinds of computer networks, including the internet and the webgraph of the World Wide Web.
Software dependency graphs, some of them being described with a generative model.
Some financial networks such as interbank payment networks
Protein-protein interaction networks.
Semantic networks.
Airline networks.
Scale free topology has been also found in high temperature superconductors. The qualities of a high-temperature superconductor — a compound in which electrons obey the laws of quantum physics, and flow in perfect synchrony, without friction — appear linked to the fractal arrangements of seemingly random oxygen atoms and lattice distortion.
A space-filling cellular structure, weighted planar stochastic lattice (WPSL) has recently been proposed whose coordination number distribution follow a power-law. It implies that the lattice has a few blocks which have astonishingly large number neighbors with whom they share common borders. Its construction starts with an initiator, say a
square of unit area, and a generator that divides it randomly into four blocks. The generator thereafter is sequentially applied
over and over again to only one of the available blocks picked preferentially with respect to their areas. It results in the partitioning of the square into ever smaller mutually exclusive rectangular blocks. The dual of the WPSL (DWPSL), which is obtained by replacing each block with a node at its center, and each common border
between blocks with an edge joining the two corresponding vertices, emerges as a network whose degree distribution follows
a power-law. The reason for it is that it grows following mediation-driven attachment model rule which also embodies preferential attachment rule but in disguise.
Generative models
Scale-free networks do not arise by chance alone. Erdős and Rényi (1960) studied a model of growth for graphs in which, at each step, two nodes are chosen uniformly at random and a link is inserted between them. The properties of these random graphs are different from the properties found in scale-free networks, and therefore a model for this growth process is needed.
The most widely known generative model for a subset of scale-free networks is Barabási and Albert's (1999) rich get richer generative model in which each new Web page creates links to existing Web pages with a probability distribution which is not uniform, but
proportional to the current in-degree of Web pages. This model was originally invented by Derek J. de Solla Price in 1965 under the term cumulative advantage, but did not reach popularity until Barabási rediscovered the results under its current name (BA Model). According to this process, a page with many in-links will attract more in-links than a regular page. This generates a power-law but the resulting graph differs from the actual Web graph in other properties such as the presence of small tightly connected communities. More general models and network characteristics have been proposed and studied. For example, Pachon et al. (2018) proposed a variant of the rich get richer generative model which takes into account two different attachment rules: a preferential attachment mechanism and a uniform choice only for the most recent nodes. For a review see the book by Dorogovtsev and Mendes. Some mechanisms such as super-linear preferential attachment and second neighbour attachment generate networks which are transiently scale-free, but deviate from a power law as networks grow large.
A somewhat different generative model for Web links has been suggested by Pennock et al. (2002). They examined communities with interests in a specific topic such as the home pages of universities, public companies, newspapers or scientists, and discarded the major hubs of the Web. In this case, the distribution of links was no longer a power law but resembled a normal distribution. Based on these observations, the authors proposed a generative model that mixes preferential attachment with a baseline probability of gaining a link.
Another generative model is the copy model studied by Kumar et al. (2000),
in which new nodes choose an existent node at random and copy a fraction of the links of the existent node. This also generates a power law.
The growth of the networks (adding new nodes) is not a necessary condition for creating a scale-free network. One possibility (Caldarelli et al. 2002) is to consider the structure as static and draw a link between vertices according to a particular property of the two vertices involved. Once specified the statistical distribution for these vertex properties (fitnesses), it turns out that in some circumstances also static networks develop scale-free properties.
Generalized scale-free model
There has been a burst of activity in the modeling of scale-free complex networks. The recipe of Barabási and Albert has been followed by several variations and generalizations and the revamping of previous mathematical works. As long as there is a power law distribution in a model, it is a scale-free network, and a model of that network is a scale-free model.
Features
Many real networks are (approximately) scale-free and hence require scale-free models to describe them. In Price's scheme, there are two ingredients needed to build up a scale-free model:
1. Adding or removing nodes. Usually we concentrate on growing the network, i.e. adding nodes.
2. Preferential attachment: The probability that new nodes will be connected to the "old" node.
Note that some models (see
Dangalchev and
Fitness model below) can work also statically, without changing the number of nodes. It should also be kept in mind that the fact that "preferential attachment" models give rise to scale-free networks does not prove that this is the mechanism underlying the evolution of real-world scale-free networks, as there might exist different mechanisms at work in real-world systems that nevertheless give rise to scaling.
Examples
There have been several attempts to generate scale-free network properties. Here are some examples:
The Barabási–Albert model
The Barabási–Albert model, an undirected version of the Price Model has a linear preferential attachment and adds one new node at every time step.
(Note, another general feature of in real networks is that , i.e. there is a nonzero probability that a
new node attaches to an isolated node. Thus in general has the form , where is the initial attractiveness of the node.)
Two-level network model
Dangalchev (see [43]) builds a 2-L model by considering the importance of each of the neighbours of a target node in preferential attachment. The attractiveness of a node in the 2-L model depends not only on the number of nodes linked to it but also on the number of links in each of these nodes.
where C is a coefficient between 0 and 1.
A variant of the 2-L model, the k2 model, where first and second neighbour nodes contribute equally to a target node's attractiveness, demonstrates the emergence of transient scale-free networks. In the k2 model, the degree distribution appears approximately scale-free as long as the network is relatively small, but significant deviations from the scale-free regime emerge as the network grows larger. This results in the relative attractiveness of nodes with different degrees changing over time, a feature also observed in real networks.
Mediation-driven attachment (MDA) model
In the mediation-driven attachment (MDA) model, a new node coming with edges picks an existing connected node at random and then connects itself, not with that one, but with of its neighbors, also chosen at random. The probability that the node of the existing node picked is
The factor is the inverse of the harmonic mean
(IHM) of degrees of the neighbors of a node . Extensive numerical investigation suggest that for approximately the mean IHM value in the large limit becomes a constant which means . It implies that the higher the
links (degree) a node has, the higher its chance of gaining more links since they can be
reached in a larger number of ways through mediators which essentially embodies the intuitive
idea of rich get richer mechanism (or the preferential attachment rule of the Barabasi–Albert model). Therefore, the MDA network can be seen to follow
the PA rule but in disguise.
However, for it describes the winner takes it all mechanism as we find that almost of the total nodes has degree one and one is super-rich in degree. As value increases the disparity between the super rich and poor decreases and as we find a transition from rich get super richer to rich get richer mechanism.
Non-linear preferential attachment
The Barabási–Albert model assumes that the probability that a node attaches to node is proportional to the degree of node . This assumption involves two hypotheses: first, that depends on , in contrast to random graphs in which , and second, that the functional form of is linear in .
In non-linear preferential attachment, the form of is not linear, and recent studies have demonstrated that the degree distribution depends strongly on the shape of the function
Krapivsky, Redner, and Leyvraz demonstrate that the scale-free nature of the network is destroyed for nonlinear preferential attachment. The only case in which the topology of the network is scale free is that in which the preferential attachment is asymptotically linear, i.e. as . In this case the rate equation leads to
This way the exponent of the degree distribution can be tuned to any value between 2 and .
Hierarchical network model
Hierarchical network models are, by design, scale free and have high clustering of nodes.
The iterative construction leads to a hierarchical network. Starting from a fully connected cluster of five nodes, we create four identical replicas connecting the peripheral nodes of each cluster to the central node of the original cluster. From this, we get a network of 25 nodes (N = 25).
Repeating the same process, we can create four more replicas of the original cluster – the four peripheral nodes of each one connect to the central node of the nodes created in the first step. This gives N = 125, and the process can continue indefinitely.
Fitness model
The idea is that the link between two vertices is assigned not randomly with a probability p equal for all the couple of vertices. Rather, for
every vertex j there is an intrinsic fitness xj and a link between vertex i and j is created with a probability
.
In the case of World Trade Web it is possible to reconstruct all the properties by using as fitnesses of the country their GDP, and taking
Hyperbolic geometric graphs
Assuming that a network has an underlying hyperbolic geometry, one can use the framework of spatial networks to generate scale-free degree distributions. This heterogeneous degree distribution then simply reflects the negative curvature and metric properties of the underlying hyperbolic geometry.
Edge dual transformation to generate scale free graphs with desired properties
Starting with scale free graphs with low degree correlation and clustering coefficient, one can generate new graphs with much higher degree correlations and clustering coefficients by applying edge-dual transformation.
Uniform-preferential-attachment model (UPA model)
UPA model is a variant of the preferential attachment model (proposed by Pachon et al.) which takes into account two different attachment rules: a preferential attachment mechanism (with probability 1−p) that stresses the rich get richer system, and a uniform choice (with probability p) for the most recent nodes. This modification is interesting to study the robustness of the scale-free behavior of the degree distribution. It is proved analytically that the asymptotically power-law degree distribution is preserved.
Scale-free ideal networks
In the context of network theory a scale-free ideal network is a random network with a degree distribution following the scale-free ideal gas density distribution. These networks are able to reproduce city-size distributions and electoral results by unraveling the size distribution of social groups with information theory on complex networks
when a competitive cluster growth process is applied to the network. In models of scale-free ideal networks it is possible to demonstrate that Dunbar's number is the cause of the phenomenon known as the 'six degrees of separation' .
Novel characteristics
For a scale-free network with nodes and power-law exponent , the induced subgraph constructed by vertices with degrees larger than is a scale-free network with , almost surely.
See also
References
Further reading
Caldarelli G. " Scale-Free Networks" Oxford University Press, Oxford (2007).
Robb, John. Scale-Free Networks and Terrorism, 2004.
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227156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinian | Tinian | Tinian ( or ; old Japanese name: 天仁安島, Tenian-shima) is one of the three principal islands of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Together with uninhabited neighboring Aguigan, it forms Tinian Municipality, one of the four constituent municipalities of the Northern Marianas. Tinian's largest village is San Jose.
History
Prehistory
Traces of human settlements on Tinian have been found by archaeologists ranging over 4,000 years in datings, including ancient latte stones, and other artifacts pointing to cultural affinities with Melanesia and with similar stone monuments in the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau. Around 3000 years ago, Tinian was ruled by the Chamorro Chief Taga, who built the biggest stone home with latte stones. A beach on Tinian (Taga Beach) and the local charter airline (Taga Air) were named after him.
Spanish colonial period
Tinian, together with Saipan, was possibly first sighted by Europeans of the Spanish expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, when it made landfall in the southern Marianas on 6 March 1521. It was likely sighted next by Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa in 1522 on board the Spanish ship Trinidad, in an attempt to reach Panama after the death of Magellan. This would have happened after the sighting of the Maug Islands in between the end of August and end of September. Gonzalo de Vigo deserted in the Maugs from the Trinidad and in the next four years, living with the Chamorros, visited thirteen main islands in the Marianas and possibly Tinian among them.
The first clear evidence of European arrival was by the Manila galleon Santa Margarita commanded by Juan Martínez de Guillistegui, that wrecked in the southeast of Saipan in February 1600 and whose survivors stayed for two years till 250 were rescued by the Santo Tomas and the Jesus María. The Spanish formally occupied Tinian in 1669, with the missionary expedition of Diego Luis de San Vitores who named it Buenavista Mariana (Goodsight Mariana). From 1670, it became a port of call for Spanish and occasional English, Dutch and French ships as a supply station for food and water.
The native population, estimated at 40,000 at the time of the Spanish arrival, shrank to less than 1400 due to European-introduced diseases and conflicts over land. The survivors were forcibly relocated to Guam in 1720 for better control and assimilation. Under Spanish rule, the island was developed into ranches for raising cattle and pigs, which were used to provision Spanish galleons en route to Mexico.
German colonial period
After the Spanish–American War of 1898, Tinian was occupied by the US. It was later sold by Spain to the German Empire in 1899. The island was administered by Germany as part of German New Guinea. During the German period, there was no attempt to develop or settle the island, which remained under the control of its Spanish and mestizo landowners.
Japanese colonial period
In 1914, during World War I, the island was captured by Japan, which was awarded formal control in 1918 by the League of Nations as part of the South Seas Mandate. The island was settled by ethnic Japanese, Koreans and Okinawans, who developed large-scale sugar plantations. Under Japanese rule, extensive infrastructure development occurred, including the construction of port facilities, waterworks, power stations, paved roads and schools, along with entertainment facilities and Shinto shrines. Initial efforts to settle the island met with difficulties, including an infestation of scale insects, followed by a severe drought in 1919.
Efforts were resumed under the aegis of the Nanyo Kohatsu Kabushiki Kaisha in 1926, with new settlers from Okinawa as well as Fukushima and Yamagata Prefectures, and the introduction of coffee and cotton as cash crops in addition to sugar, and the construction of a Katsuobushi processing plant. By June 1944, some 15,700 Japanese civilians resided on Tinian (including 2700 ethnic Koreans and 22 ethnic Chamorro).
World War II
Tinian was not garrisoned by the Japanese military until the latter stages of World War II, when the Japanese realized its strategic importance as a possible base for American Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers. The island was seized by the Allies during the Battle of Tinian from 24 July to 1 August 1944. Of the 8,500-man Japanese garrison, 313 survived the battle. At the time, there were an estimated 15,700 Japanese civilians (including 2700 ethnic Koreans) on the island. Many hundreds were also killed in the crossfire, took their own lives, or were executed by the Japanese military to avoid capture by the Americans.
Tinian is located approximately from mainland Japan, and was suitable as a staging base for continuous heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese Islands. Immediately after the island's seizure by the US, construction began on the largest airbase of WWII, which covered the entire island (except its three highland areas). The base was a 40,000-personnel installation, and the Navy Seabees (110th NCB) laid out the base in a pattern of city streets resembling New York City's Manhattan Island, and named the streets accordingly.
The former Japanese town of Sunharon was nicknamed "The Village" because its location corresponded to that of Greenwich Village. A large square area between West and North Fields, used primarily for the location of the base hospitals and otherwise left undeveloped, was called Central Park.
Two runway complexes, West Field and North Field, having a combined total of six 8,500-foot (2,600-meter) runways, were constructed. Today the four runways at North Field are overgrown and abandoned. One of the two West Field runways remains in use as part of Tinian International Airport.
West Field
Airfield construction was originally by the Japanese, built with two parallel runways. It was repaired by the Americans, and then called West Field. From here seven squadrons of the 58th Bombardment Wing flew combat and reconnaissance missions throughout Southeast Asia and finally into the Japanese home islands, as part of the bombing of Japan.
After WWII, West Field was Tinian's airport called Gurguan Point Airfield; and today is Tinian International Airport.
North Field
The Japanese had constructed three small fighter strips on Tinian, but none were suitable for bomber operations. Under the Americans, nearly the entire northern end of the island was occupied by the runways, almost of taxiways and the airfield area, designed to accommodate the entire 313th Bombardment Wing complement of Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers.
North Field was the departure point of the 509th Composite Group specialized Silverplate nuclear weapons delivery B-29 bombers Enola Gay and Bockscar, which respectively carried the two atomic bombs named Little Boy and Fat Man, that were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Remains of the US bomber base and Atom Bomb Pits, and the remains of Japanese fortifications, are located at North Field. There is a memorial on the old airfield at the loading pits, which are roofed-over with glazed panels in metal framing for safer viewing. Both pits were reopened in conjunction with the 60th Anniversary Commemoration of the Battles of Saipan and Tinian. The pits were originally constructed to load the bombs, since they were too large to be loaded in the conventional manner. The B-29s were maneuvered over a pit with their bomb bay doors open to facilitate loading.
Postwar Tinian
After the end of World War II, Tinian became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, controlled by the United States. The island continued to be dominated by the United States military, and until 1962 was administered as a sub-district of Saipan. Since 1978, the island has been a municipality of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.
During the 1980s, one of the runways on North Field was kept active to allow U.S. Air Force C-130s to take off and land in support of U.S. Marine Corps training exercises in the north end of the island. The two northern airstrips, Alpha and Bravo, were cleared of vegetation and the limestone coral that had been disturbed by roots was excavated and replaced by Marines of the 9th Engineer Support Battalion, 3rd FSSG, 3rd Marine Division then stationed at Camp Hansen, Okinawa in late 1981. That unit had been transported by sea aboard the USS Cayuga, LST-1186. The military presence began to be replaced by tourism in the 1990s, but still plays an important role in the local economy.
On October 24, 2018, Typhoon Yutu made landfall on the island of Tinian as a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon, becoming the most powerful storm on record to hit the Northern Mariana Islands, and causing an extensive amount of damage.
Geography
Tinian is about southwest of Saipan, from which it is separated by the Saipan Channel. It has a land area of , with its highest elevation at Mount Lasso at . It is considerably flatter than Saipan. The island has limestone cliffs and caves. There is a variety of marine life and coral reefs surrounding the island. Its clear, warm waters are ideal for snorkeling, scuba diving and sport fishing.
Important Bird Area
There is a variety of flora and fauna; the Tinian monarch is the island's only endemic bird species and it is threatened by habitat loss. The island has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of Micronesian megapodes, white-throated ground doves, Mariana fruit doves, Micronesian myzomelas, rufous fantails, Tinian monarchs, Saipan white-eyes and Micronesian starlings.
Population
The population of Tinian was 3,136 (), which corresponds to less than 5% of all residents of the Northern Mariana Islands and a population density of 31 people per km2. Most of the inhabitants are Chamorros (about 75%) and members of various other groups of islands in the Caroline Islands. There are also minorities of Filipino, Bangladeshi, East Asian and European-descended people.
Economy
Much of the local economy of Tinian is dependent on tourism, however, tourist infrastructure is relatively poorly developed. The village of San Jose has several smaller hotels, restaurants, and bars. Agriculture is primarily on the subsistence level. The largest employers on the island are the government and the casino, which was legalized in 1989. As of March 2006, the island has plans to put in four new casinos. The 2010 census showed a population of 3,136 for the island.
Transportation
Air
Tinian Airport is small and serviced by Star Marianas Air, which operates daily scheduled flights to Saipan. Freedom Air, who previously served the island filed for bankruptcy in October 2013 and suspended all operations since March 2014.
Ferry
The ferry boat service that operated twice daily between Tinian and Saipan ran at a loss estimated to be US$1 million a year, and has since ceased.
Government
The local government is the Municipality of Tinian and Aguiguan, which also includes the uninhabited island Aguijan. The municipality has a land area of 108.1 km2 (41.738 sq mi). The 2000 census population was 3,540 persons, all living on the island of Tinian (Aguijan is uninhabited). The municipal seat and main village of the island of Tinian is San Jose, situated on the southwest coast. Mayor Edwin P. Aldan was inaugurated in January 2019, succeeding Joey San Nicolas.
Local attractions
House of Taga
The House of Taga is a latte stone site, one of the largest such structures in the Marianas. The stones are quarried limestone, each approximately in length. Of the twelve large Latte structures, only one is still standing. The site is one of seven locations on Tinian on the National Register of Historic Places listings in the Northern Mariana Islands.
Education
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Public School System operates public schools including Tinian Elementary School, and Tinian Jr./Sr. High School.
State Library of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands operates the Tinian Public Library in San Jose Village.
References
External links
The Insular Empire: America in the Mariana Islands, PBS documentary film & website
Pacific Wrecks: Tinian History
Google Maps
Pascal Horst Lehne and Christoph Gäbler: Über die Marianen. Lehne-Verlag, Wohldorf in Germany 1972. and Tinian
Islands of the Northern Mariana Islands
Municipalities of the Northern Mariana Islands
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Former German colonies
Important Bird Areas of the Northern Mariana Islands | [
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227157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Vernon%20Harcourt%20%28scientist%29 | William Vernon Harcourt (scientist) | Rev. William Venables-Vernon Harcourt (1789April 1871) was an English cleric, founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, canon residentiary of the York Cathedral, Dean of Chichester, and later rector of Bolton Percy.
Family
He was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, a younger son of Edward Vernon-Harcourt, Archbishop of York and his wife Lady Anne Leveson-Gower, who was a daughter of Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford and his second wife Lady Louisa Egerton. Her maternal grandparents were Scroop Egerton, 1st Duke of Bridgewater and his second wife Rachel Russell. Rachel was a daughter of Wriothesley Russell, 2nd Duke of Bedford and the rich heiress Elizabeth Howland, daughter of John Howland of Streatham.
Career
After he had served in the navy, on the West Indian station, for five years, his father allowed him to become a clergyman. He was a student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1807, graduating B.A. in 1811 and M.A. in 1814, and remained a student of Christ Church till 1815. He was on good terms with Cyril Jackson, the dean and Dr. John Kidd, then a teacher of chemistry at his college, influenced him.
On leaving university in 1811, Harcourt began duties as a clergyman at Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire and aided the movement for establishing an institution in Yorkshire for the cultivation of science. He constructed a laboratory, and occupied himself in chemical analysis, aided by his early friends Davy and Wollaston.
In 1821, remains of prehistoric life found by William Buckland in the cavern of Kirkdale went to form the basis of a museum, connected with the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which Harcourt was the first president. In 1824, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
The first meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held at York in September 1831, and the general plan of its proceedings, and the laws to govern it, were drawn up by Harcourt, who was appointed general secretary. At the Birmingham meeting of the association in 1839, Harcourt was elected president. The subject of his address was the history of the composition of water, supporting the claims of Henry Cavendish to the discovery by original documents, and vindicating the claims of science to freedom of inquiry. Another subject to which Harcourt directed his inquiries was the effect of heat on inorganic compounds.
For 40 years, he worked to acquire glasses of definite and mutually compensative dispersions, for achromatic combinations. In this work, he was supported by George Stokes.
As a cleric, Harcourt became canon of York, and rector of Wheldrake in Yorkshire in 1824, and of Bolton Percy, Yorkshire, in 1837. The Yorkshire School for the Blind, and the Castle Howard Reformatory, and other institutions, owed their existence to him.
In 1861, on the death of his elder brother, George Granville Harcourt, he succeeded to the Harcourt estates at Nuneham Courtenay in Oxfordshire, and his latter years were spent at Nuneham House among his books and in the society of men of culture and science.
Harcourt died in April 1871, in his eighty-second year.
Family
He married, in 1824, Matilda Mary, daughter of Colonel William Gooch, by whom he had two sons and five daughters; including:
Edward William Harcourt (1825–1891) of Nuneham
Right Hon. Sir William Vernon Harcourt (1827–1904)
Cecilia Caroline Harcort, who married Admiral Sir Edward Rice (1819–1902)
He changed his name from Vernon-Harcourt to Harcourt circa 1830.
Works
Letter to Henry Lord Brougham, F.R.S. &c., Containing Remarks on Certain Statements in his Lives of Black, Watt and Cavendish (1846)
Symmetrical psalmody; or, Portions of the Psalms and other Scriptures, tr. into metrical stanzas, with corresponding accents in corresponding verses, for Musical Use (1855); G. Bell.
Sermons, with an introductory preface by W. F. Hook (1873); London, Simpkin, Marschall, and Co.
References
Attribution:
1789 births
1871 deaths
British scientists
19th-century English Anglican priests
People from Sudbury, Derbyshire
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
William
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society | [
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227160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lothrop%20Motley | John Lothrop Motley | John Lothrop Motley (April 15, 1814 – May 29, 1877) was an American author and diplomat. As a popular historian, he is best known for his works on the Netherlands, the three volume work The Rise of the Dutch Republic and four volume History of the United Netherlands. As United States Minister to Austria in the service of the Abraham Lincoln administration, Motley helped to prevent European intervention on the side of the Confederates in the American Civil War. He later served as Minister to the United Kingdom (Court of St. James) during the Ulysses S. Grant administration.
Biography
John Lothrop Motley was born on April 15, 1814, in Dorchester, Massachusetts. His grandfather, Thomas Motley, a jail-keeper (a public position) and innkeeper in Portland, Maine, had been a Freemason and radical sympathizer with the French Revolution. Motley's father Thomas and uncle Edward served mercantile apprenticeships in Portland.
In 1802, Thomas Motley moved to Boston and established a commission house on India Wharf, taking his brother Edward with him as clerk. "Thomas and Edward Motley" became one of the leading commission houses in Boston. Thomas, married Anna Lothrop, daughter of the Rev. John Lathrop, product of an old and distinguished line of Massachusetts clergymen. Like other successful Boston merchants of the period, Thomas Motley devoted a great part of his wealth to civic purposes and the education of his children. The brilliant accomplishments of his second son, J.L. Motley, are evidence of the care both the father and mother—known both for her learning and what Motley's boyhood friend Wendell Phillips called her "regal beauty"—bestowed on the boy's intellectual development.
Motley attended the Round Hill School and Boston Latin School, and graduated from Harvard in 1831.
His boyhood was spent in Dedham, near the site of the present day Noble and Greenough School on land purchased from Edward L. Penniman. His education included training in the German language and literature, and he went to Germany to complete these studies at Göttingen, during 1832–1833, during which time he became a lifelong friend of Otto von Bismarck. Motley and Bismarck studied civil law together at Frederick William University, Berlin. Bismarck recalled his early impression of Motley: "He exercised a marked attraction by a conversation sparkling with wit, humor or originality....The most striking feature of his handsome and delicate appearance was his uncommonly large and beautiful eyes." After a period of European travel, Motley returned in 1834 to Boston, where he continued his legal studies.
In 1837 he married Mary Benjamin (died 1874). She came from a wealthy Boston family; her brother was Park Benjamin Sr. In 1839 he published anonymously a novel titled Morton's Hope, or the Memoirs of a Provincial, about life in a German university, based on his own experiences. It was poorly received, but has later been recognized for featuring a valuable portrayal of Bismarck, "thinly disguised as Otto von Rabenmarck", as a young student.
In 1841, Motley entered the U.S. diplomatic service as secretary of legation in St. Petersburg, Russia, but resigned his post within three months, because of the harsh climate, the expenses living there, and his reserved habits. Returning to Boston, he soon entered definitely upon a literary career. Besides contributing various historical and critical essays to the North American Review, such as "Life and Character of Peter the Great" (1845), and a remarkable essay on the "Polity of the Puritans", he published in 1849, again anonymously, a second novel, titled Merry Mount, a Romance of the Massachusetts Colony, based again on the odd history of Thomas Morton and Merrymount. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1856 and as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1861.
Dutch history
In 1846, Motley had begun to plan a history of the Netherlands, in particular the period of the United Provinces, and he had already done a large amount of work on this subject when, finding the materials at his disposal in the United States inadequate, he went with his wife and children to Europe in 1851. The next five years were spent at Dresden, Brussels, and The Hague in investigation of the archives, which resulted in 1856 in the publication of The Rise of the Dutch Republic, which became very popular. It speedily passed through many editions and was translated into Dutch, French, German, and Russian. In 1860, Motley published the first two volumes of its continuation, The United Netherlands. This work was on a larger scale and embodied the results of a still greater amount of original research. It was brought down to the truce of 1609 by two additional volumes, published in 1867.
Reception in Britain and the United States
The books were popular and critical successes in both Britain and the United States, and multiple editions over the decades sold tens of thousands of copies. It was a favorite prize that schools awarded to their best students. Owen Edwards says of Motley, "He and he alone had created a Dutch awareness on a wide scale."
American critics have given the book mixed reviews. It was quite popular in its day, but modern scholars argue:
Reception in the Netherlands
The reception of Motley's work in the Netherlands itself was not wholly favorable, especially as Motley described the Dutch struggle for independence in a flattering light, which caused some to argue he was biased against their opponents. Although historians like the orthodox Protestant Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer (whom Motley extensively quotes in his work) viewed him very favorably, the eminent liberal Dutch historian Robert Fruin (who was inspired by Motley to do some of his own best work, and who had reported already in 1856 in The Westminster Review Motley's edition on the Rise of the Dutch Republic) was critical of Motley's tendency to make up "facts" if they made for a good story. Though he admired Motley's gifts as an author, and stated that he continued to hold the work as a whole in high regard, he stressed it still required "addition and correction".
The humanist historian Johannes van Vloten was very critical, and responded to Fruin in 1860: "I agree less with your too favorable judgement....We cannot build on Motley['s foundation]; for that—apart from the little he copied from Groen's Archives and Gachard's Correspondences—for that his views are generally too obsolete." Although appreciating his efforts to make Dutch history known among an English-speaking audience, Van Vloten argues that Motley's lack of knowledge of the Dutch language prevented him from sharing the latest insights of the Dutch historiographers, and made him vulnerable to bias in favor of Protestants and against Catholics.
American Civil War
In 1861, just after outbreak of the American Civil War, Motley wrote two letters to The Times defending the Federal position, and these letters, afterwards reprinted as a pamphlet entitled Causes of the Civil War in America, made a favourable impression on President Lincoln. At this point the English census of 1861 confirms that he was living with his wife and two daughters at 31 Hertford Street, in the parish of St George's, Hanover Square, London and describing himself as an 'author - history'.
Partly owing to this essay, Motley was appointed United States minister to the Austrian Empire in 1861, a position which he filled with distinction, working with other American diplomats such as John Bigelow and Charles Francis Adams to help prevent European intervention on the side of the Confederacy in the American Civil War. He resigned this position in 1867. Two years later, he was sent to represent his country as Ambassador to the United Kingdom, but in November 1870 he was recalled by President Grant. Motley had angered Grant when he completely disregarded Secretary of State Hamilton Fish's carefully drafted orders regarding settlement of the Alabama Claims. After a short visit to the Netherlands, Motley again went to live in England, where the Life and Death of John Barneveld, Advocate of Holland: with a View of the Primary Causes and Movements of the Thirty Years War appeared in two volumes in 1874.
Ill health now began to interfere with his literary work, and he died at Kingston Russell House, near Dorchester, Dorset, leaving three daughters. He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, London.
Selected works
Morton's Hope, or the Memoirs of a Provincial, 1839
Life and Character of Peter the Great (North American Review), 1845
On Balzac's Novels (North American Review), 1847
Merry Mount, a Romance of the Massachusetts Colony, 1849
Polity of the Puritans (North American Review), 1849
The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 3 vol., 1856
Florentine Mosaics (Atlantic Monthly), 1857
History of the United Netherlands, 4 vol., 1860–67
Causes of the Civil War in America (from The Times), 1861
Historic Progress and American Democracy, 1868
Review of S. E. Henshaw's History of the Work of the North-West Sanitary Commission (Atlantic Monthly), 1868
Democracy, the Climax of Political Progress and the Destiny of Advanced Races: an Historical Essay, 1869. (Pamphlet reprint of "Historic Progress and American Democracy," listed above.)
The Life and Death of John of Barneveld, 2 vol., 1874
References
Further reading
Edwards, Owen Dudley. "John Lothrop Motley and the Netherlands." BMGN-Low Countries Historical Review 97.3 (1982): 561-588. online
Guberman, Joseph. The Life of John Lothrop Motley (Springer, 2012).
Haight, Gordon S. "The Publication of Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic." The Yale University Library Gazette (1980): 135-140 online.
Kaplan, Lawrence S. "The Brahmin as Diplomat in Nineteenth Century America: Everett Bancroft Motley Lowell." Civil War History 19.1 (1973): 5-28.
Putnam, Ruth. "Prescott and Motley," Cambridge History of American Literature (1918), 2:131-47, 501-03. online
Sommers, William. "John Lothrop Motley: The Witty US Minister to Vienna" Foreign Vistas: Stories from a Life in the Foreign Service. (2017), p. 1+. online
Steinberg, Jonathan. "The American connection: John Lothrop Motley, George Bancroft and Andrew Dickson White. Eminent Americans and Otto von Bismarck." Realpolitik für Europa (Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, 2016) pp. 267–280.
Primary sources
The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 3 vol., 1856; many editions online
History of the United Netherlands, 4 vol., 1860–67; many editions online
Motley, John Lothrop. The Correspondence of John Lothrop Motley (G.W. Curtis, ed. 3 vol. Harper & brothers, 1889). vol 1 online; also vol 2 online; and vol 3 online
External links
1814 births
1877 deaths
19th-century American historians
19th-century American male writers
Boston Latin School alumni
Ambassadors of the United States to Austria
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
Historians of Europe
Harvard University alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
19th-century American diplomats
Writers from Dedham, Massachusetts
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Historians of the Dutch Republic
People from Dorchester, Massachusetts
Historians from Massachusetts
Diplomats from Dedham, Massachusetts
American male non-fiction writers | [
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227161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moncure%20D.%20Conway | Moncure D. Conway | Moncure Daniel Conway (March 17, 1832 – November 15, 1907) was an American abolitionist minister and radical writer. At various times Methodist, Unitarian, and a Freethinker, he descended from patriotic and patrician families of Virginia and Maryland but spent most of the final four decades of his life abroad in England and France, where he wrote biographies of Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Thomas Paine and his own autobiography. He led freethinkers in London's South Place Chapel, now Conway Hall.
Family
Conway's parents descended from the First Families of Virginia. His father, Walter Peyton Conway, was a wealthy slave-holding gentleman farmer, county judge, and state representative; his home, known as the Conway House, still stands at 305 King Street (also known as River Road), along the Rappahannock River. Conway's mother, Margaret Stone Daniel Conway, was the granddaughter of Thomas Stone of Maryland (a signer of the Declaration of Independence), and in addition to running the household, also practiced homeopathy, learned from her doctor father. Both parents were Methodists, his father having left the Episcopal church, his mother the Presbyterian, and they hosted Methodist meetings in their home until a suitable church was finally built in Fredericksburg. An uncle, Judge Eustace Conway, advocated states' rights in Virginia's General Assembly (as did Walter Conway). Another uncle, Richard C.L. Moncure, served on what later became the Virginia Supreme Court, was a layman in the Episcopal Church, and became known for his integrity and hatred of intolerance. His great-uncle, Peter Vivian Daniel, served on the United States Supreme Court, where he upheld slavery and the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, including in the Dred Scott Decision of 1857.
Two of his three brothers later fought for the Confederacy. His opposition to slavery reportedly came from his mother's side of the family, including his great-grandfather Travers Daniel (justice of the Stafford Court, died 1824) and his mother herself (who fled to Easton, Pennsylvania and lived with her daughter and son-in-law Professor Marsh after the Civil War broke out) as well as from his boyhood experiences. Nonetheless, during his youth, Moncure Conway briefly took a pro-slavery position under the influence of a cousin, Richmond editor John Moncure Daniel, himself a protege of Justice Daniel.
Early life
Conway was born in Falmouth, Virginia.
After attending the Fredericksburg Classical and Mathematical Academy (alma mater of George Washington and other famous Virginians), Conway followed his elder brother to Methodist-affiliated Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1849. During his time at Dickinson, Conway helped found the college's first student publication and was influenced by Professor John McClintock, which caused him to embrace Methodism as well as an anti-slavery position, although that controversy was starting to split the denomination. In Fredericksburg, uncle Eustace funded the pro-slavery Southern Conference faction and his father the at-least-theoretically anti-slavery Baltimore Conference faction.
While in Cincinnati as discussed below, Conway married Ellen Davis Dana. She was a fellow Unitarian, feminist, and abolitionist. The couple had three sons (two of whom survived childhood) and a daughter during their long marriage, which ended with her death from cancer in 1898. Despite the previous tension with his own family over his opposition to slavery, Moncure Conway nevertheless brought his bride to meet them, during which Ellen broke a Southern social constraint by hugging and kissing a young slave girl in front of family members; after this, it would take 17 years before Conway reconciled with his family.
Career
After studying law for a year in Warrenton, Virginia, partly out of a moral crisis caused by seeing a lynching of a black man whose retrial had been ordered by the Court of Appeals, Conway became a circuit-riding Methodist minister. Conway had self-published his first pamphlet in 1850, "Free Schools in Virginia: A Plea of Education, Virtue and Thrift, vs. Ignorance, Vice and Poverty", but had been unable to convince local politicians to follow his recommendations, particularly as the pro-slavery faction believed such universal education influenced by Northern mores. His Rockville Circuit included his native state and Washington, D.C. through Rockville, Maryland, where he became acquainted with the Quaker Roger Brooke, whom he considered his first avowed abolitionist, despite his familial relation to the jurist Roger Brooke Taney. In 1853, after being reassigned to a circuit around Frederick, Maryland and shortly after his beloved elder brother Peyton died of typhoid fever and his assistant Becky of another, Moncure Conway left the Methodist church and entered the Harvard University school of divinity to continue his spiritual journey. Before graduating in 1854, he met Ralph Waldo Emerson and fell under the influence of Transcendentalism, as well as became an outspoken abolitionist after discussions with Theodore Parker, William Lloyd Garrison, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Wendell Phillips.
In America
After graduating from Harvard, Conway accepted a call to the First Unitarian Church of Washington, D.C., but he was invited to seek another position after enunciating abolitionist views. Moreover, when Conway returned to his native Virginia, his rumored connection with an attempt to rescue the fugitive slave Anthony Burns in Boston, Massachusetts (whose master Conway had known in Stafford, Virginia, before their move to Alexandria and was ultimately purchased by an abolitionist and set free) aroused bitter hostility among his old neighbors and friends and family. Conway fled being tarred and feathered in 1854.
Nonetheless, almost at once, Conway was invited to preach sermons at the Unitarian congregation in Cincinnati, Ohio. He served as minister at that anti-slavery congregation from late 1855 until after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. However, when in 1859, he announced to the congregation that he no longer believed in miracles or Christ's divinity, a third of the congregation left, but the "Free Church" survived. Conway also edited a short-lived liberal periodical, The Dial, in 1860-1861, linking his emerging spiritual views to his Transcendentalist background. In Cincinnati, he became more acquainted with Jews and Catholics, and counseled against discriminating against them because of their religions. However, not all his abolitionist friends agreed with his pacificism, especially his condemnation of John Brown's raid at Harper's Ferry (though he also expressed disappointment at Virginia's bellicose response).
Civil War
Conway had become editor of the anti-slavery weekly Commonwealth in Boston, and in 1861, Conway published semi-anonymously The Rejected Stone; or Insurrection vs. Resurrection in America, identifying himself only as a "Native of Virginia". The book was published in three editions and ultimately handed out to Union soldiers after the start of the American Civil War. During the next year, Conway advocated abolition, including in a Smithsonian lecture series in Washington, DC, which earned him and the more moderate Unitarian minister William Henry Channing a meeting with President Abraham Lincoln to discuss his argument that announcing abolition would weaken the Confederacy. While in Washington, DC, Conway located several dozen of his father's slaves who had fled from Virginia into Georgetown. Conway secured train tickets and safe-conduct passes for them and escorted them on a dangerous trip through Maryland to safety in Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he believed they would be safe because of the town's accepting culture.
During the Union occupation before the devastating Battle of Fredericksburg, Conway also returned home to Falmouth in 1862 and learned that his family's house had been spared from destruction because of its association with him although it was commandeered for use as a hospital for wounded soldiers (at which Walt Whitman would nurse). That year, Conway published another powerful plea for emancipation, The Golden Hour (1862). On New Year's Day, 1863 (also called Emancipation Day, because President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, news of which reached Boston by telegraph), Conway with fellow abolitionists Julia Ward Howe, Amos Bronson Alcott, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., George Luther Stearns and Wendell Phillips unveiled a marble bust of John Brown at Stearns' home.
Also in 1862, after spending more and more time away from his church advancing the abolitionist cause, and growing dissatisfied with the theological, liturgical, and social conservatism of mainstream Unitarianism, Conway left that denomination's ministry, and he maintained an uneasy and uncertain relationship with Unitarianism in America and subsequently in England until he and Ellen made a clean break.
London
In April 1863, fellow American abolitionists sent Conway to London to convince the United Kingdom that the American Civil War was primarily a war of abolition and to not support the Confederacy. Under English influence, Conway eventually contacted James Murray Mason, representative of the Confederate States of America to Britain "on behalf of the leading antislavery men of America," offering withdrawal of support for prosecution of the war in exchange for emancipation of the slaves. Mason publicly rejected the overture, embarrassing Conway's sponsors, who quickly and angrily withdrew support. Moreover, Conway had to apologize to US Secretary of State William H. Seward, who could have caused revocation of his passport for attempting to speak as a private citizen for the US government.
Rather than go back to America, where Conway no longer felt welcome as a suspected traitor to his childhood Virginia friends and neighbors and he paid someone to take his place after being drafted to serve in the Union army, Conway traveled to Italy. There, he reunited with his wife and children in Venice before moving back to London. There, in 1864, he became minister of the South Place Chapel (serving in 1864–65 and 1893–97) as well as leader of the then named South Place Religious Society in Finsbury, London. Conway continued writing and publishing, including articles in both British and American magazines and traveled to Paris and even Russia. He also served as a war correspondent during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. Conway published biographies of Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Thomas Paine, as well as acted as the American agent for Robert Browning and the London literary agent for Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Louisa May Alcott, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
Conway also abandoned theism after his son Emerson died in 1864. His thinking continued to move from Emersonian transcendentalism toward a more humanistic Freethought. He conducted funeral services for his friend Artemus Ward and preached memorial at memorial services for many other famous literary figures. Moreover, women were allowed to preach at South Place Chapel, among them Annie Besant, whom Mrs. Conway had befriended. However, the South Place congregation and Conway soon left fellowship with the Unitarian Church. For a year from November 1865 Cleveland Hall was leased for Sunday evenings so Conway could "address the working classes." However, the audience consisted of well-dressed lower-middle-class people.
Conway remained the leader of South Place until 1886, when Stanton Coit took his place. Under Coit's leadership, South Place was renamed to the South Place Ethical Society. However Coit's tenure ended in 1892 in a losing power struggle, and Conway resumed leadership until his death.
Conway attended the salon of radicals Peter and Clementia Taylor at Aubrey House in Campden Hill, West London. He also was a member of Clementia's "Pen and Pencil Club", at which young writers and artists read and exhibited their works. Conway moved to Notting Hill to be near the Taylors at Aubrey House.
In 1868, Conway was one of four speakers at the first open public meeting in support of women's suffrage in Great Britain. His many literary and intellectual friends included Charles Dickens, Robert Browning, Thomas Carlyle, Charles Lyell, and Charles Darwin. In 1878, he attempted to personally endow a new, non-denominational women's college at the University of Oxford; frightened at this prospect, Anglicans made haste to instead create Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, which was the first women's college at Oxford.
In the 1870s and the 1880s, Conway returned occasionally to the United States, where he reconciled with his Virginia family in 1875 and toured in the West about Demonology and the famous Englishmen he knew. In 1897 Conway and his terminally-ill (from cancer) wife Ellen returned from London to New York City to fulfill her wish of dying on American soil; she died on Christmas Day; their son Dana also died that year. As the Spanish–American War approached, Conway turned toward pacifism and became disaffected with his countrymen, moving to France to devote much of the rest of his life to the peace movement and writing. However, he occasionally returned to Fredericksburg, which had come to admire his cultural accomplishments. Conway also traveled to India and wrote about it shortly before his death.
India
Conway visited India and described his experiences in My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East, 1906.
He visited Helena Blavatsky in 1884 and denounced the Mahatma letters as fraudulent. He suggested that Koot Hoomi was a fictitious creation of Blavatsky. Conway wrote that Blavatsky "created the imaginary Koothoomi (originally Kothume) by piecing together parts of the names of her two chief disciples, Olcott and Hume."
Death
Conway died alone, at 75, in his apartment in Paris. His corpse was found on November 15, 1907 and was ultimately returned to Westchester County, New York, for burial in Kensico cemetery.
Legacy
Conway Hall in Holborn, London is named in his honor. In 2004, Virginia Governor Mark R. Warner proclaimed Conway the only descendant of a Founding Father of the nation to physically lead slaves to freedom. Both Ohio and Virginia have erected historical markers in his honor, and Conway's childhood home was designated a U.S. and Virginia landmark.
Works
Tracts for To-day (1858) online edition
The Natural History of the Devil (1859)
The Rejected Stone: or, Insurrection vs. Resurrection in America, By a Native of Virginia (1861) online edition
The Golden Hour (1862) online edition
Testimonies Concerning Slavery (1864) online edition
The Earthward Pilgrimage (1870) online edition
Republican Superstitions as Illustrated in the Political History of America (1872) online edition
Christianity (1876) online edition
Idols and Ideals, with an Essay on Christianity (1877) online edition
Demonology and Devil Lore (2 vols., 1878) online edition
A Necklace of Stories (1880) online edition
Thomas Carlyle (1881) online edition
The Wandering Jew (1881) online edition
Emerson at Home and Abroad (1882) online edition
Travels in South Kensington: with Notes on Decorative Art and Rrchitecture in England (1882) online edition
Lessons for the Day (1882) online edition
The Saint Patrick Myth (1883)
Pine and Palm: A Novel (2 vols., 1887) online edition
Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph (1888) online edition
Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1890) online edition
George Washington's Rules of Civility: Traced to their Sources and Restored (1890) online edition
The Life of Thomas Paine with an unpublished sketch of Paine by William Cobbett (2 vols., 1892) online edition
The Writings of Thomas Paine (1894) online edition
Solomon and Solomonic Literature (1899) online edition
Autobiography, Memories and Experiences (2 vols, 1904) online edition
My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East (1906) online edition
See also
American philosophy
List of American philosophers
References
Sources
Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography - Article by Charles A. Howe
Burtis, Mary Elizabeth. Moncure Conway, 1832-1907. New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1952.
d'Entremont, John. Southern Emancipator: Moncure Conway: The American Years, 1832-1865. Oxford University Press, 1987.
Easton, Loyd D. Hegel's First American Followers: The Ohio Hegelians: J.D. Stallo, Peter Kaufmann, Moncure Conway, August Willich. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1966.
Good, James A., ed. Moncure Daniel Conway: Autobiography and Miscellaneous Writings. 3 volumes. Bristol, UK: Thoemmes Press, 2003.
Good, James A., ed. The Ohio Hegelians. 3 volumes. Bristol, UK: Thoemmes Press, 2004.
Walker, Peter. Moral Choices: Memory, Desire, and Imagination in Nineteenth-Century American Abolition. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978.
External links
Moncure Conway Foundation
Moncure Conway in Encyclopedia Virginia
Conway Hall Website
Conway Hall Ethical Society Website
Wandering Jew and Wandering Jeweess screenplays
1832 births
1907 deaths
19th-century American philosophers
American abolitionists
American Methodist clergy
American Unitarian clergy
Critics of Theosophy
Dickinson College alumni
Ethical movement
Freethought writers
Harvard Divinity School alumni
Hegelian philosophers
Moncure family
People associated with Conway Hall Ethical Society
People from Falmouth, Virginia
Burials at Kensico Cemetery | [
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227162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamers | Lamers | Lamers () is a Dutch / Low Franconian patronymic surname, from the now rare given name Lamert, a local form of Lambert. Among variant spellings are Laamers and Laemers. People with the surname include:
(1834–1903), Dutch theologian
Ine Lamers (born 1954), Dutch photographer and video installation artist
Karl A. Lamers (born 1951), German CDU politician, NATO Parliamentary Assembly president 2010–12
(born 1935), German CDU politician
(born 1964), Dutch painter and photographer
Loiza Lamers (born 1995), Dutch model
Martin Laamers (born 1967), Dutch football midfielder
Rolf Lamers (1927–2016), German middle-distance runner
See also
Lamer (surname)
Lamer, internet pejorative
Lammers, surname of a similar origin
References
Dutch-language surnames
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227164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20William%20Curtis | George William Curtis | George William Curtis (February 24, 1824 – August 31, 1892) was an American writer and public speaker, born in Providence, Rhode Island, of New Englander ancestry. A Republican, he spoke in favor of African-American equality and civil rights.
Early life and education
Curtis, the son of George and Mary Elizabeth (Burrill) Curtis, was born in Providence on February 24, 1824. His mother died when he was two. His maternal grandfather, James Burrill Jr., served in the United States Senate representing Rhode Island from 1817 to 1820.
At six he was sent with his elder brother to school in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, where he remained for five years. Then, his father having again married happily, the boys were brought home to Providence, where they stayed till, in around 1839, their father moved to New York. Three years later, Curtis, fell in sympathy with the spirit of the Transcendental movement. He joined the communal experiment known as Brook Farm from 1842 to 1843. He was accompanied by his brother, James Burrill Curtis, whose influence on him was strong and helpful. He remained there for two years, and met many interesting men and women. Then came two years, passed partly in New York, partly in Concord, Massachusetts, in order mainly to be in the friendly neighborhood of Ralph Waldo Emerson, and then followed four years spent in Europe, Egypt and Syria.
He married Anna Shaw Curtis at the Unitarian Church of the Redeemer in 1856. Curtis, another New England transplant to Staten Island, was a founding member of the Unitarian Church of Staten Island (originally the Unitarian Church of the Redeemer), an author, editor of Putnam's Magazine, and columnist for Harper's Weekly. He was an abolitionist and supporter of civil rights for African Americans and Native Americans. He also advocated women's suffrage, civil service reform, and public education.
The Curtis and Shaw families, rooted as they were in the liberal soil of New England, counted Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry David Thoreau among their close associates.
The Underground Railroad was in use during the 1850s to help runaway slaves, and it is believed that the Curtises and the Shaws were very involved in the Railroad. The Shaw sisters, Anna and Josephine, and their mother, Sarah Sturgis, also spearheaded local efforts to help during the Civil War. George Curtis was targeted by Southern sympathizers, and Anna and her three children left Staten Island temporarily during the New York City draft riots in 1863 for the safety of her grandparents’ home in Roxbury, Massachusetts.
Career
Curtis returned from Europe in 1850, attractive, accomplished, and ambitious for literary distinction. He settled on Staten Island and instantly plunged into the whirl of life in New York, obtained a post on the New-York Tribune, became a popular lecturer, started work on Nile Notes of a Howadji (1851), and became a favorite in society. He wrote for Putnam's Magazine which he helped George Palmer Putnam to found. He became an associate editor along with Parke Godwin and managing editor Charles Frederick Briggs; the three also collaborated on a gift book called The Homes of American Authors (1853).
Curtis produced a number of volumes, composed of essays written for Putnam's and for Harper's Weekly, which came in rapid succession from his pen. The chief of these were the Potiphar Papers (1853), a satire on the fashionable society of the day; and Prue and I (1856), a pleasantly sentimental, fancifully tender and humorous study of life. In 1855 he married Anna Shaw, daughter of abolitionist Francis Shaw and sister of Robert Gould Shaw of the famed 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. Not long afterwards he became, through no fault of his own, deeply involved in debt owing to the failure of Putnam's Magazine; and his sense of honour compelled him to spend the greater part of his earnings for many years on discharging the obligations for which he had become responsible, and from which he might have freed himself by legal process. In the period just preceding the Civil War, other interests became subordinate to those of national concern. He was involved in the founding of the Republican Party, and made his first important speech on the questions of the day at Wesleyan University in 1856; he engaged actively in John C. Fremont's presidential campaign of 1856 (the Republican campaign headquarters were located not far from his Staten Island home), and was soon recognized not only as an effective public speaker, but also as one of the ablest, most high-minded, and most trustworthy leaders of public opinion.
In 1862 George William Curtis delivered his "Doctrine of Liberty" address to the Phi Beta Kappa Society at Harvard, on behalf of President Abraham Lincoln, who was encouraging support for the Emancipation Proclamation. In it, he laid out the intellectual foundations for the purpose of American education that would last another 30 years, and public schools, nearly 100 years.
In 1863 he became the political editor of Harper's Weekly, which was highly influential in shaping public opinion. Curtis's writing was always clear and direct, displaying fairness of mind and good temper. He had high moral standards. From month to month he contributed to Harper's Magazine, under the title of "The Easy Chair," brief essays on topics of social and literary interest, charming in style, touched with delicate humour and instinct with generous spirit. His service to the Republican party was such, that he was offered several nominations to office, and might have been sent as minister to England; but he refused all such offers, preferring to serve the country as editor and public speaker.
In 1871 he was appointed, by President Ulysses S. Grant, to chair the commission on the reform of the civil service. Its report was the foundation of every effort since made for the purification and regulation of the service and for the destruction of political patronage. From that time Curtis was the leader in this reform, and its progress is mainly due to him. He was president of the National Civil Service Reform League and of the New York Civil Service Reform Association. In 1884 he refused to support James G. Blaine as candidate for the presidency, and thus broke with the Republican party, of which he had been a founder and leader. From that time he stood as the typical independent in politics. In April 1892 he delivered at Baltimore his eleventh annual address as president of the National Civil Service Reform League, and in May he appeared for the last time in public, to repeat in New York an address on James Russell Lowell, which he had first delivered in Brooklyn on the 22nd of the preceding February, the anniversary of Lowell's birth.
Curtis was one of the original members of the Board of Education for what would become New York City, and advocated educational reforms. He was a member of and frequent speaker at the Unitarian Church on Staten Island (the congregation still meets in the same building). A high school not far from his home is named for him. He is also immortalized with an annual namesake oratorical prize awarded by Columbia College of Columbia University.
Works
Notes of a Howadji (1851)
The Howadji in Syria (1852)
Lotus-Eating (1852)
Potiphar Papers (1853) (Project Gutenberg text)
The Duty of the American Scholar to Politics and the Times (1856)
Prue and I (1856) (Project Gutenberg text)
Trumps (1862)
Washington Irving: A Sketch (1891)
Essays from the Easy Chair (1893) (Project Gutenberg text)
Orations And Addresses (1894)
Literary and Social Essays (1895) (Project Gutenberg text)
Early Letters of George Wm. Curtis to John S. Dwight: Brook Farm and Concord (1898) (Project Gutenberg text)
Ars Recte Vivendi (1898)
See also
Curtis High School, St George Staten Island is named for him. Built 1904
Notes
Attribution
References
George William Curtis, by Edward Cary, in the American Men of Letters series (Boston, 1894)
An Epistle to George William Curtis, by James Russell Lowell (1874–1887), in Lowell's Poems
George William Curtis, a Commemorative Address delivered before The Century Association, December 17, 1892, by Parke Godwin (New York, 1893)
Orations and Addresses by George William Curtis, edited by Charles Eliot Norton (5 vols. New York, 1894).
Galahad in the Gilded Age: A Life of George William Curtis, Linda Dowling. 528 pp. (United States: Xlibris, 2021)
External links
George William Curtis Papers (MS Am 1124.5-1124.8) at Houghton Library, Harvard University.
1824 births
1892 deaths
19th-century American essayists
19th-century American journalists
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American non-fiction writers
19th-century Unitarians
Activists for African-American civil rights
American abolitionists
American essayists
American magazine editors
American male essayists
American male journalists
American male non-fiction writers
American satirists
American suffragists
American Unitarians
Civil service reform in the United States
Comedians from New York (state)
Journalists from New York City
Native Americans' rights activists
New York (state) Republicans
People from Jamaica Plain
People from Livingston, Staten Island
Rhode Island Republicans
Writers from Boston
Writers from Providence, Rhode Island
Harper's Weekly editors | [
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