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226702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20authors | List of political authors | The following people are authors of writings on political subjects:
See also
Lists of writers
Lists of writers | [
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226704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korn%20%28album%29 | Korn (album) | Korn (printed and stylized as KoЯn) is the self-titled debut studio album by American nu metal band Korn. It was released on October 11, 1994, through Immortal/Epic Records. Before recording the album, the band was approached by Immortal/Epic Records after a performance at Huntington Beach, California. The band signed to their label because they did not want to "sign away all of their creative freedom". The band would record at Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu, California with producer Ross Robinson, who also produced their 1993 demo Neidermayer's Mind. The recording took place from May to June 1994. After the recordings, Korn toured with Biohazard and House of Pain.
The album's themes include child abuse, drug abuse, and bullying. The album cover depicts a young girl being approached by a large man who is holding what appears to be horseshoes or possibly blades. Furthermore, the girl's shadow gives the appearance that her body is being hanged due to the position of the band's logo. Photography was done by Stephen Stickler, and the design was directed by Jay Papke and Dante Ariola.
The first single, "Blind", charted at number 15 on the Canadian Alternative 30, the album peaked at number 10 in New Zealand as well as number 72 on the Billboard 200. The debut album has sold at least 2.1 million copies in the United States and 10 million copies worldwide according to Nielsen SoundScan as of January 4, 2013. The album is considered by many to have started the nu metal genre.
Background
Before Korn developed a name, they had moved into a small house together in Huntington Beach, California, south of Los Angeles, where they began working on songs. Soon after moving, they rented Underground Chicken Sounds, a recording studio, from Jeff Creath, who had previously allowed lead singer Jonathan Davis to live in his garage. While they were recording at the studio, they attracted a crowd of people when performing the prelude to "Clown". The band's bass guitarist, Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu, said that the crowd gathered because the band's style sounded so "different".
Korn began playing gigs in the summer of 1993. While performing at Huntington Beach, the band was spotted by Immortal/Epic A&R Paul Pontius. He approached the band offering to record an album through their company. Although the group had offers from several other labels, Korn went with Immortal/Epic because they did not want to "sign away all of their creative freedom".
Recording and production
While Korn was looking for a place to record their debut album, they asked producer Ross Robinson to produce their album. After accepting the offer, Robinson suggested they record at Indigo Ranch, Malibu, California. The band would record the majority of the album there, while additional recording took place at Bakersfield's Fat Tracks. Korn recorded most of the album with all members playing simultaneously, as opposed to recording instruments separately. In addition, Indigo Ranch was located on a hill rather than in the city, allowing them to record outside, resulting in the "distinctive" sound and quality of music given off by their instruments. The banging sound near the ending of "Ball Tongue" was created via a guitar cord striking a music stand. The bagpipes on "Shoots and Ladders" are often thought to have been recorded on a mountain-top. However, they were actually recorded with a microphone set up at the back door of the studio while Jonathan Davis walked past outside playing. As he walked further from the microphone, this led to the sound naturally fading quieter. Korn finished recording their self-titled album by the end of June 1994.
Since Robinson produced the album, his career was launched by its success, as it "taught Robinson how to produce." In an interview with the heavy metal magazine Metal Hammer, Davis touted Robinson's behavior, saying: "Ross is a very pure and clean-spirited person, and you feel it when you're with him. He's the kind of person that can draw that out of you. I felt very safe with Ross." The album was released on October 11, 1994 through Immortal and Epic Records. During the recording of Korn, there were four outtakes: "Christmas Song", "Sean Olson", "Layla", and "This Broken Soul". "Sean Olson" was put on the single release of "Shoots and Ladders", and featured on The Crow: City of Angels soundtrack.
Composition and lyrics
Korn begins with "Blind", starting with the dueling riffs of James Shaffer and Brian Welch. Lead vocalist Jonathan Davis' first line is "Are you ready?!", which is now one of the band's trademarks. Davis told Metal Hammer that on the album's second track, "Ball Tongue", he "didn't sing a goddamn word in that song. I couldn't describe what I wanted to do, so that's how it came out. It's a really heavy sound." "Shoots and Ladders" explores the concept of nursery rhymes. Davis relates: "'Shoots and Ladders' uncovers the hidden messages in nursery rhymes, the first songs many of us ever hear. 'Shoots and Ladders', to set the record straight, calls out nursery rhymes for what they really are. I choose each rhyme for a different reason—'Baa Baa Black Sheep' has racist overtones. 'London Bridge' talks of all the people of London dying (from the Black Plague, as does 'Ring Around the Roses'). Then there's 'Little Red Riding Hood'—one story tells of the wolf raping Red Riding Hood and killing her."
"Clown"'s concept deals with an incident that happened in San Diego, California. A skinhead who told Davis to "go back to Bakersfield" attempted to hit Davis but he dodged and the band's road manager, Jeff, knocked the skinhead out. "Helmet in the Bush" was about Davis' drug abuse, and the fear that gripped him at the height of his drug problem. He pleaded for a divine intervention to deliver him from his nightmare. Davis explained: "I'd wake up in the morning and do a line to get out of bed. Speed in the morning, I'd have it all lined up for breakfast so when I'd lay down and go to sleep, I'd wake up and just snort and it's like 'Yeah, okay, I'm up. ' It was bad. It's like, you do one line and stay up all night, but then you have shit to do the next day so you have to do another line to be able to keep staying up to get that shit done. Eventually you start spinning-out from sleep deprivation. You get hallucinations and shit like that." Davis said that "Helmet in the Bush" "is about meth. It's about when you do meth and you look down at your dick and it's literally a helmet in the bush [laughs]". "Basically it's what happens when you do too much drugs and your girl wanna get with you and you got some man problems down below. Just another reason not to do drugs, children," Munky elaborated.
"Faget" lyrical themes are about lead vocalist Jonathan Davis' time in high school where he was relentlessly bullied primarily by jocks for wearing eyeliner, listening to new wave and enjoying arts. He was constantly called names like "fag" or "faggot". Davis talked about the song in an interview saying,
"Daddy", the album's longest track, saw Jonathan Davis "descending very real tears." Davis said that the song's concept deals with his childhood, saying "People think 'Daddy' was written because my father abused me, but that's not what the song's about. When I was a kid, I was being abused by someone else. I don't really like to talk about that song." Though the song ends at 9:32, a hidden track which depicts an argument between a man and his wife over a Dodge Dart carburetor can be heard at 14:05 after about 4.5 minutes of silence.
According to Jonathan Davis and Brian Welch, current Metallica and then-Suicidal Tendencies bassist Robert Trujillo helped them write the song "Divine."
Marketing and promotion
Stephen Stickler acted as the band's photographer, and Jay Papke and Dante Ariola directed the album's cover art and booklet. The cover depicts Paul Pontius' niece in a blue school uniform with a matching bow in her blonde hair, bringing her swing to a stop to squint in the sun at the man standing before her. The man is only seen as a dark shadow on the ground, and is holding what appears to be a horse shoe or, more presumably, blades. The band's logo, a childlike drawing of the band's name created by lead singer Jonathan Davis, is seen on the sandy ground by the man.
After Korn finished recording the album, they began touring with Biohazard and House of Pain at free gigs. Korn personally passed out flyers at their performances. Their record company gave them enough money for their own tour bus. Korn's first gig was in Atlanta, Georgia. About halfway through the tour, the tour bus that their record company gave them stopped working, forcing the band to find a new one. This first tour proved very unsuccessful in promoting the album. Aside from them touring, Korn released four singles. "Blind" was the lead single, released in 1994, followed by "Need To", "Shoots and Ladders", and "Clown".
Despite this, Korn resumed touring in the Sick of It All Tour, beginning on January 21, 1995, and ending in March 1995. Following the Sick of It All Tour, Korn joined the Danzig 4 Tour, including Danzig and Marilyn Manson. The tour lasted three months and was preceded with the group touring with Megadeth, where they played to crowds of thirty-five-hundred to five thousand. They toured with Megadeth, Fear Factory, and Flotsam and Jetsam. All of this happened in the summer of 1995. Lead vocalist Jonathan Davis introduced the bagpipes while performing live (however many people there did not like this).
Korn began touring in Europe during September 1995. One of Korn's first concert dates was in Nottingham. After the performance, there was conflict between Korn's bassist Fieldy and someone from "tech", resulting in the airport prohibiting them from boarding the plane. From 1995 to 1996, Korn toured with Ozzy Osbourne, Sugar Ray, Cradle of Thorns, Incubus, Life of Agony, Metallica, and others.
By the end of 1995, Korn had already played 200 dates in support of their first album.
Critical reception
Korn was well received by music critics. Arnopp stated that the group "positively encouraged America's formerly introverted, apathetic misfits to thrust a livid middle finger in the face of high–school jocks who would traditionally bundle them into a locker and brand them 'faggots' for sporting hair longer than any Army buzz-cut."
In their original 1994 review, the Los Angeles Times wrote "Kindred to such bands as Tool, Rollins Band and Rage Against the Machine, Korn and its singer-lyricist, Jonathan Davis, make their core ethic fairly explicit in songs like "Predictable", "Lies" and "Fake": the world is a torment-filled morass that leaves us seething with deep, internalized fears; virtue lies in confronting those painful truths unflinchingly and screaming them to the world." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave Korn a positive review, calling the album "a powerful sound and one that actually builds on the funk-metal innovations of the late '80s/early '90s instead of merely replicating them".
Sputnikmusic thought that although Davis isn't the best lyricist, he is able to paint very disturbing visual images in the head of the listener, especially on the song "Daddy". Sputnikmusic also thought that Davis's voice was what made Korn unique, and that it made every song on the album interesting. They praised each of the members' skill on their respective instrument, and summed it up as "a bass heavy, angst ridden vessel of catharsis". They considered "Blind", "Ball Tongue", "Need To", "Faget", "Helmet in the Bush" and "Daddy" to be the best songs from the album.
In July 2014, Guitar World ranked Korn at number 27 in their "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list.
Metal Hammer considered the album to be Korn's best, writing, "this is a record that remains as integral to modern metal as the first Black Sabbath album or Metallica's Master of Puppets.
Commercial performance
On January 29, 1996, Korn went gold in the United States, and on February 10, 1996, the album charted at number 72. The album spent 30 weeks on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand charts, entering on June 23, 1996 and peaking at number 10. The album left the chart on May 18, 1997. It went platinum in the United States on January 8, 1997, and entered the ARIA Charts on March 28, 1999 at number 49. It maintained a position on the chart for five weeks, and peaked at number 46. It peaked at number five on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart on April 24, 1999. On July 17, 1999, it entered the MegaCharts at its peak position of 56. After three weeks, Korn left the chart. On November 10, 1999, it was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album peaked at number 181 on the UK Albums Chart on February 10, 2001. It has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association. In 2003, Billboard reported that Korn sold at least 2,100,000 copies in the United States.
Legacy
Korn's debut album is said to have established nu metal. As said by Joel McIver, Korn "was almost solely responsible for the tidal wave of change that subsequently swept the metal scene." Bands like Coal Chamber and Limp Bizkit were inspired by the album's "churning rage, emphasising similar grooves and song structures", and "the sound's hip-hop elements". Slipknot, Machine Head, and Sepultura were also inspired by the album. The album launched the career of record producer Ross Robinson, who later produced albums such as Roots by Sepultura, Three Dollar Bill, Yall by Limp Bizkit, and the Slipknot albums Slipknot and Iowa. In 2014, Rolling Stone described Korn as "the most important metal record of the last 20 years". In 2018, Loudwire named it the greatest nu metal album of all-time.
In 2017, Rolling Stone listed the album at No. 30 on its list of the 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.
Track listing
All tracks written by Korn, except "Daddy" and "Blind", written by Korn, Dennis Shinn, and Ryan Shuck.
"Daddy" ends at 9:32. A hidden track, "Michael & Geri", starts at 14:05, after four minutes and 33 seconds of silence. (however, on some versions of the album "Michael & Geri" is a separate track from "Daddy" and lasts 3:26).
Personnel
Korn
Jonathan Davis – vocals, bagpipes
Head – lead and rhythm guitars, vocals, backing vocals on "Ball Tongue", "Faget" and "Lies"
Munky – rhythm and lead guitars
Fieldy – bass
David Silveria – drums
Additional personnel
Judith Kiener – vocals on the lullaby at the end of "Daddy"
Richard Kaplan – engineer
Chuck Johnson – engineer, mixing
Ross Robinson – producer, engineer, mixing
Eddy Schreyer – mastering
Stephen Stickler – photography
Jay Papke/Dante Ariola – art direction and design
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Certifications
References
Bibliography
External links
1994 debut albums
Albums produced by Ross Robinson
Epic Records albums
Immortal Records albums
Korn albums | [
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226705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars%20in%20Their%20Eyes | Stars in Their Eyes | Stars in Their Eyes is a British television talent series, based on Joop van den Ende's Dutch format Soundmixshow. It featured a singing contest in which members of the public impersonate showbiz stars.
The show premiered on 21 July 1990 and initially ran until 23 December 2006. It was produced by Granada for ITV and originally presented by Leslie Crowther. Matthew Kelly took over in May 1993, before he was replaced by Cat Deeley in April 2004. An Elvis Presley special hosted by Russ Abbot aired in January 1993, as well as 2003 specials hosted by Davina McCall. A number of celebrity specials and a children's spin-off series were also aired during the original run.
A six-part revival hosted by Harry Hill aired from 10 January 2015 to 14 February 2015, but it was later axed by ITV due to low ratings and poor reviews. Another revival began airing on 12 February 2022, this time in a reformatted version titled Starstruck, hosted by Olly Murs.
History
A series of non-televised pilots were filmed in 1989 hosted by Chris Tarrant. However, in February 1990, Leslie Crowther was chosen as the host of the show which began airing on 21 July 1990. Crowther hosted the first three series, and a Christmas Special in 1991. At the time of his car accident in October 1992, he was booked to record an Elvis Presley special (which was later hosted by Russ Abbot) and a fourth series (later hosted by Matthew Kelly) in 1993.
It then became clear that Crowther would not be able to return. He announced his retirement from showbusiness in November 1994 and died 2 years later. Therefore, Kelly hosted the show until the live grand final of the 15th series on 13 March 2004. Kelly announced a few days earlier that he would quit the show in order to pursue his acting career full-time. Kelly also hosted the 2001 pilot episode, and first series of the kids version in 2002.
In January 2003, Kelly was arrested by police over allegations of child sex abuse resulting in Davina McCall temporarily guest hosting the show for three celebrity specials that were broadcast the following month. Kelly returned after the charges were dropped.
Cat Deeley, who previously took over as host of the kids' version in 2003, was Kelly's replacement for the final adult series in 2005. Deeley also hosted several celebrity specials in 2004. In June 2006, ITV denied reports that the series was facing the axe although admitted that the future of the show was being discussed. Deeley hosted the show until its final episode in December 2006; the show was then axed by ITV.
The most impersonated stars are Dolly Parton, Elvis Presley, Cher, George Michael, Celine Dion, Kylie Minogue and Madonna.
2015 revival
Harry Hill took over as host on 10 January 2015, with all episodes pre-recorded and the winner of each show again voted for by the studio audience.
The revival proved divisive – fans of the original format were critical of it, saying that Harry Hill had made the show about him rather than the contestants; while others acknowledged that the revival was a post-modern parody of the original, with its knowing ridicule of talent show cliches such as terrible performances being overpraised, and the actions of the presenter receiving high editorial focus to distract from the outdated performance element being thinly stretched. Each episode features Harry being pursued by Adele (really a look-alike) for being in possession of her baby and she would comically chase him until she got the baby back.
In April 2015, it was announced that due to poor viewing figures, ITV would not be renewing the show for another series, and it was axed.
Revival/reformat: Starstruck
In March 2020, it was reported that ITV would replace The X Factor with a second revival/reformat of Stars in Their Eyes later in the year, however this time with a celebrity panel of judges. In December 2020, new reports suggested that ITV would revive the show in Autumn 2021, under the new name of Starstruck, with Sheridan Smith, Adam Lambert, Beverley Knight and Jason Manford as judges. In April 2021, it was reported that Olly Murs would host the show. The show was finally scheduled for February 2022, with the change to the format being that three 'tribute artists' will perform at the same time as each other, with four different music acts covered each week. Six 75 minute programmes have been ordered by the network along with a 90 minute final which will see the winner get £50,000.
Format
Stars in Their Eyes is a talent show where contestants get the chance to appear and sing live as a famous singer. The show is mostly a 'soundalike' competition, but contestants are also dressed up to look as close as possible to the singer they are impersonating, often with wigs and heavy makeup. Each contestant walks through 'smoky' doors before instantly reappearing dressed up as their chosen star.
Heats
The contestants appear firstly as themselves, talking briefly to the host about their lives and giving clues as to who they are going to be performing as, finishing with the now famous catchphrase 'Tonight [presenter name] I'm going to be...' The contestants then disappear through the famous doors and reappear as the famous singer they are going to impersonate, seemingly instantly.
At the end of the show, the studio audience vote for their favourite, and the winner is announced. The winners from each show in the series return for the grand final to perform once more.
Grand Final & Live Grand Final
1990–1992, 2015
In the original Leslie Crowther version and 2015 revival, the grand finals were pre-recorded, and the winner of the whole series was voted for by the studio audience at the end of the show. The first series final in 1990 also had a celebrity panel, consisting of Joe Longthorne, Sally Dynevor and Pete Waterman, who gave their opinions after each performance.
1993–2006
When Matthew Kelly took over, the grand finals were broadcast live, and the winner of the whole series was voted for by the viewing public through the phone lines and in later years online as well. The winner was announced later that same evening in a separate broadcast.
The same process applied during Cat Deeley's tenure as host.
Episode guide
Champions
Regular series
Series 1 (1990) – Maxine Barrie as Shirley Bassey
Series 2 (1991) – Bernard Wenton as Nat "King" Cole
Series 3 (1992) – Amanda Normansell as Patsy Cline
Series 4 (1993) – Jacquii Cann as Alison Moyet
Series 5 (1994) – John Finch as Marti Pellow
Series 6 (1995) – Lee Griffiths as Bobby Darin
Series 7 (1996) – Paul Doody as Marti Pellow
Series 8 (1997) – Faye Dempsey as Olivia Newton-John
Series 9 (1998) – Jason Searle as Neil Diamond
Series 10 (1999) – Ian Moor as Chris De Burgh (also won Champion of Champions)
Series 11 (Spring 2000) – Gary Mullen as Freddie Mercury
Series 12 (Winter 2000) – Nicola Kirsch as Maria Callas
Series 13 (2001) – Emma Wilkinson as Dusty Springfield
Series 14 (2002) – Stewart Duff as Elvis Presley
Series 15 (2004) – Charles Ngandwe as Paul Robeson
Series 16 (2005) – Gordon Hendricks as Elvis Presley
Series 17 (2015) – Peter Sarsfield as Frankie Valli
Starstruck - Series 1 (2022) - TBC
Junior series
Series 1 (2002) – Charlotte Gethin as Eva Cassidy
Series 2 (2003) – Laura Jenkins as Connie Francis
Series 3 (2004) – Paul Cowperthwaite as Michael Jackson
Series 4 (2006) – Christopher Napier as George Formby
Transmissions
Main series
Stars in Their Eyes: Kids
Specials
A number of different specials were aired during the course of the show's original run, the majority of which featured celebrities as the contestants.
Non-celebrity
Celebrity
Reception
Ratings and awards
It is still one of Britain's most successful shows of all time, attracting around 13 million viewers for the live grand final at the end of each series. It has one of the most memorable catchphrases in TV history: 'Tonight Matthew, I'm going to be...’ and was named Most Popular Entertainment Programme at the National Television Awards in 1996, 1998, 1999 and 2000. The show was nominated for the same award again in 1997, 2001 and 2002 but lost out to other ITV shows (An Evening With Lily Savage in 1997, My Kind of Music in 2001 and Pop Idol in 2002).
See also
Soundmixshow
European Soundmix Show
Stars in Euro Eyes 2001
Stars in Their Eyes European Championships 2002
References
External links
Stars in Their Eyes at BFI
Stars in Their Eyes Kids at BFI
1990s British television series
2000s British television series
2010s British television series
2020s British television series
1990 British television series debuts
2006 British television series endings
2015 British television series debuts
2015 British television series endings
2022 British television series debuts
British music television shows
British television series based on Dutch television series
British television series revived after cancellation
Cultural depictions of Elvis Presley
Cultural depictions of Freddie Mercury
Cultural depictions of Maria Callas
Cultural depictions of Michael Jackson
English-language television shows
European Soundmix Show
ITV reality television shows
Singing talent shows
Television series by Endemol
Television series by ITV Studios
Television shows produced by Granada Television
Television shows set in Manchester | [
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226710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal%20intent | Criminal intent | Criminal intent refers to intention (criminal law), the subjective purpose or goal that must be proven along with criminal acts. It may also refer to:
Law & Order: Criminal Intent, American television series
Criminal Intents/Morning Star, a 2009 EP by Dope Stars Inc.
"Criminal Intent", a song by Robyn from the album Body Talk Pt. 2
Gang Related, a 1997 film also known as Criminal Intent | [
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226711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Call%20of%20the%20Simpsons | The Call of the Simpsons | "The Call of the Simpsons" is the seventh episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 18, 1990. It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer. Albert Brooks made his first of nine guest appearances on The Simpsons franchise in this episode as the voice of Cowboy Bob.
In this episode, Homer purchases an RV and the Simpsons vacation in the wilderness. After the RV accidentally plummets from a cliff, the Simpsons find themselves stranded in a forest. While Bart and Homer try hiking back to civilization, Homer gets covered in mud and is mistaken for Bigfoot by a naturalist. News of the Bigfoot encounter spreads quickly and soon hunters converge to capture Homer. Meanwhile, Maggie is separated from her family and cared for by bears.
Plot
Jealous of Ned Flanders' new motor home, Homer visits Bob's RV Round-up to buy one. Because of his poor credit rating, he only qualifies for a smaller, dilapidated RV. Homer takes his family on an excursion, driving on remote back roads. After Homer ignores Marge's suggestion to drive back to the main road, the Simpsons find themselves teetering over a precipice. They escape the RV before it plummets over the cliff and explodes, leaving them stranded in the wilderness with no food or supplies.
After Homer builds a crude lean-to shelter, he and Bart leave to find help, unaware Maggie is tagging along. Marge and Lisa stay behind and build a fire and sturdier shelter despite knowing nothing about camping. Separated from Homer and Bart, Maggie is adopted by a family of bears. Homer and Bart lose their clothes after falling into a raging river and plunging over a waterfall. They hide their exposed bodies with leaves and mud. After a frigid night's sleep, Homer tries to steal honey from a beehive. When the bees attack him, he evades them by jumping into a mud pit. Homer is mistaken for Bigfoot after a nature photographer takes a picture of him covered in mud. Soon the forest is inundated with Bigfoot enthusiasts after a tabloid offers a $5000 reward for capturing the creature alive.
After Marge and Lisa are rescued by park rangers, Marge tells the media the monster in question is her husband, leading to tabloid headlines like "I married Bigfoot". Cold, hungry, and exhausted, Homer and Bart stumble upon the bears' cave and retrieve Maggie. Homer is captured and taken to a lab for testing. He returns home after scientists agree that he is "either a below-average human being or a brilliant beast". While watching news coverage of his ordeal, Homer worries his co-workers will mock him until Marge consoles him by calling him "my brilliant beast."
Production
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer. A plot twist that involved Homer being carried away to an eagle nest and being raised as a baby eagle was suggested for this episode by executive producer James L. Brooks, but they ended up going with Maggie being raised by bears instead. The sequence with Marge and Lisa by the bonfire was originally longer and included a conversation between the two about boys, but it was cut from the episode. In the original script, Homer and Bart were not talking in the scene where they concealed their private parts with mud and moss, but Sam Simon thought it would be "too funny to leave as a stage direction" and they added dialogue to the scene.
Albert Brooks guest starred in the episode as the voice of Cowboy Bob. He was not sure whether he wanted to be identified with a cartoon show or not at the time, like many of the other early guest stars on The Simpsons, and was therefore credited as A. Brooks in the ending credits. The episode was a satire of the Bigfoot specials that had aired on Fox at the time it was written. A lot of resources were spent on the backgrounds, trying to make them look realistic with many observational details such as trees, rocks, fences and the way the cars were positioned. Burger King figurines were made out of the camping designs of the Simpsons family in this episode.
Reception
In its original American broadcast on February 18, 1990, "The Call of the Simpsons" finished third that day, with a Nielsen rating of 14.6 and a 22 percent audience share. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award in 1990 in the category "Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special". IGN named Albert Brooks' guest performance in this episode, along with his four other appearances on The Simpsons, the best guest appearance in the show's history.
"The Call of the Simpsons" received mixed reviews from critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, both criticized and praised the episode saying: "This episode is a bit less than the sum of its parts. The early stuff at the RV Round-Up is much better than the main camping story, although there's some nice Marge-Lisa bonding, and who could resist Maggie and the bears?" In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode a (of 5), adding "the surrealism of Homer as bigfoot is a major misstep. This type of gag would be very different today, if done at all."
Jon Bonné at MSNBC called the episode "a perfect example of the first season's bizarre and fruitful balance between edgy humor and softly-drawn neuroses" and said "it was this combination that made Groening's shorts for the Ullman show so compelling, and ultimately what made it possible for The Simpsons to break the molds of network television". Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that "while [the episode] doesn't offer the continuous highs of the best Simpsons, it's a generally solid show" and added that "the episode uses a wackier tone than usual for this era, but it works, and the program is consistently fun".
Trivia
The song that is playing in the background as the Simpson family is traveling into the woods is "The Happy Wanderer" ("Der fröhliche Wanderer" in the original German).
References
External links
"The Call of the Simpsons" at The Simpsons.com
The Simpsons (season 1) episodes
1990 American television episodes
Television shows written by John Swartzwelder
Television about Bigfoot | [
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226715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surat | Surat | Surat is a city in the western Indian state of Gujarat. Located at the mouth of the Tapti River, it used to be a large seaport. It is now the commercial and economic center in South Gujarat, and one of the largest urban areas of western India. It has well-established diamond and textile industries, and is a shopping centre for apparels and accessories. About 90% of the world's diamonds supply are cut and polished in the city. It is the second largest city in Gujarat after Ahmedabad and the eighth largest city by population and ninth largest urban agglomeration in India. It is the administrative capital of the Surat district. The city is located south of the state capital, Gandhinagar; south of Ahmedabad; and north of Mumbai. The city centre is located on the Tapti River, close to Arabian Sea.
Surat will be the world's fastest growing city from 2019 to 2035, according to a study conducted by Economic Times. The city registered an annualised GDP growth rate of 11.5% over the seven fiscal years between 2001 and 2008. Surat was awarded "best city" by the Annual Survey of India's City-Systems (ASICS) in 2013. Surat is selected as the first smart IT city in India which is being constituted by the Microsoft CityNext Initiative tied up with IT services majors Tata Consultancy Services and Wipro. The city has 2.97 million internet users, about 65% of total population. Surat was selected in 2015 for an IBM Smarter Cities Challenge grant. Surat has been selected as one of twenty Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi's flagship Smart Cities Mission.
Surat is listed as the second cleanest city of India as of 21 August 2020 according to the Swachh Survekshan 2020 on 20 August. It suffered a major pipeline fire which caused some damage.
Surat, famous for its diamond cutting and polishing, is known as the Diamond City of India. The city has various engineering plants like Essar, Larsen and Toubro and RIL. Surat won the Netexplo Smart Cities Award 2019 with UNESCO in the resilience category. Surat's mayor will receive the award at the UNESCO House in Paris, France in March next year.
Etymology
Surat was founded by a man called Gopi, who named the area Surajpur or Suryapur. Duarte Barbosa described Surat as Suratt. Jacob Peeters referred to Surat as Sourratte which is a Dutch name. There are many other names of Surat in history. Surat is referred to as Surrat, Surate or Soorat in some literature.
History
Surat before the Mughal Empire
From 1297, Gujarat was gradually conquered by Allauddin Khilji, the ruler of the principal state in north India at the time, the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate appointed Governors to control Gujarat, but this had to be forcefully imposed, notably in 1347, when Muhammad bin Tughluq sacked Surat, among other cities.
As control from the Delhi Sultanate waned at the end of the 14th century, pressure grew for an independent Gujarat, culminating in the then Governor Zafar Khan declaring independence in 1407. Surat was controlled directly by the nobles of the Rajput kingdom of Baglana who fell either under the Gujarat Sultans or the Deccan sultanates. However, following the fall of the Gujarat Sultanate in 1538 it was controlled by more local nobles starting with Chengiz Khan who enjoyed absolute authority over Surat, Broach, Baroda and Champaner. However, in 1637, Aurangzeb fully annexed Baglana into the Mughal Empire.
In 1514, the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa described Surat as an important seaport, frequented by many ships from Malabar and various parts of the world. By 1520, the name of the city had become Surat. It was burned by the Portuguese (1512 and 1530) and conquered by the Mughals (1573) and was twice raided by the Maratha king Shivaji (17th century).
During the Mughal Empire
It was the most prosperous port in the Mughal empire. Despite being a rich city, Surat looked like a typical "grubby" trader's town with mud-and-bamboo tenements and crooked streets, although along the riverfront there were a few mansions and warehouses belonging to local merchant princes and the establishments of Turkish, Armenian, English, French and Dutch traders. There were also hospitals for cows, horses, flies and insects run by religious Jains, which puzzled travelers. Some streets were narrow while others were of sufficient width. In the evening, especially near the Bazaar (marketplace), the streets became crowded with people and merchants (including Banyan merchants) selling their goods. Surat was a populous city during the Mughal era but also had a large transient population: during the monsoon season, when ships could come and go from the ports without danger, the city's population would swell. In 1612, England established its first Indian trading factory in Surat. The city was looted twice by the Maratha king Shivaji, with the first sacking occurring in 1664. Shivaji's raids scared trade away and caused ruin to the city.
Later, Surat became the emporium of India, exporting gold and cloth. Its major industries were shipbuilding and textile manufacture. The coast of the Tapti River, from Athwalines to Dumas, was specially meant for shipbuilders, who were usually Rassis. The city continued to be prosperous until the rise of Bombay (present-day Mumbai). Afterward, Surat's shipbuilding industry declined and Surat itself gradually declined throughout the 18th century. During 1790–1791, an epidemic killed 100,000 Gujaratis in Surat. The British and Dutch both claimed control of the city, but in 1800, the British took control of Surat.
By the middle of the 19th century, Surat had become a stagnant city with about 80,000 inhabitants. When India's railways opened, the city started becoming prosperous again. Silks, cotton, brocades, and objects of gold and silver from Surat became famous and the ancient art of manufacturing fine muslin was revived.
Geography
Surat is a port city situated on the banks of the Tapi river. Damming of the Tapi caused the original port facilities to close; the nearest port is now in the Magadalla and Hazira area of Surat Metropolitan Region. It has a famous beach called 'Dumas Beach' located in Hazira.
The city is located at . It has an average elevation of 13 metres. The Surat district is surrounded by the Bharuch, Narmada, Navsari, to the west is the Gulf of Cambay and the surrounding districts. The climate is tropical and monsoon rainfall is abundant (about 2,500 mm a year). According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the town falls under seismic zone-III, in a scale of I to V (in order of increasing vulnerability to earthquakes).
Climate
Surat has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw), moderated strongly by the Sea to the Gulf of Camboy. The summer begins in early March and lasts until June. April and May are the hottest months, the average maximum temperature being . Monsoon begins in late June and the city receives about of rain by the end of September, with the average maximum being during those months. October and November see the retreat of the monsoon and a return of high temperatures until late November. Winter starts in December and ends in late February, with average mean temperatures of around , and negligible rain.
Since the 20th century, Surat has experienced some 20 floods. In 1968, most parts of the city were flooded and in 1994 a flood caused a country-wide plague outbreak, Surat being the epicenter. In 1998, 30 per cent of Surat had gone under water due to flooding in Tapti river following release of water from Ukai dam located 90 km from Surat and in Aug 2006 flood more than 95 per cent of the city was under Tapti river waters, killing more than 120 people, stranding tens of thousands in their homes without food or electricity and closing businesses and schools for weeks. The city is expected to experience more flooding and extreme weather as climate change becomes worse, so has invested in flood protection and climate resilience infrastructure.
Economy
Surat ranked 9th in India with a GDP of 2.60 lakh crore in fiscal year 2016 ($40 billion in 2016). Surat GDP in 2020 will be around $57 billion estimated by The City Mayors Foundation, an international think tank on urban affairs. Surat is a major hub of diamond cutting and polishing. The first diamond workshops in Gujarat appeared in Surat and Navasari in the late 1950s. The major group working in this industry is people from the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Because of demand in the American market from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s (with only a brief recession in 1979), Surat's diamond industry grew tremendously. Currently, most of the diamond polishing workshops are running in the Varachha area of Surat, mostly by the people of the Patel community. Around the world, 8 out of 10 diamonds on the market were cut and polished in Surat. This industry earns India about US$10 billion in annual exports. That declined by about 18% in 2019 due to reduced demand for diamonds. The decline continued in 2020 when the industry closed for some months because of the COVID-19 pandemic in India. A legacy of old Dutch trade links, it began after a Surti entrepreneur returned from East Africa bringing diamond cutters. The rough diamonds are mined in South Africa and other regions of the African continent, and go from here as smooth gems to Antwerp, Belgium where the international diamond trade is run mainly by Hasidic Jews and Jains from Palanpur in North Gujarat. Surat's economy drives from a range of manufacturing and industry fields such as diamonds, textiles, petrochemicals, shipbuilding, automobile, port etc.
Since it is known for producing textiles, including silk, Surat is known as the textile hub of the nation or the Silk City of India. It is very famous for its cotton mills and Surat Zari Craft. Surat is the biggest center of MMF (man-made fiber) in India. It has a total of 381 dyeing and printing mills and 41,100 power loom units. There are over a hundred thousand units and mills in total. The overall annual turnover is around 5 billion rupees. There are over 800 cloth wholesalers in Surat. It is the largest manufacturer of clothes in India, and Surti dress material can be found in any state of India. Surat produces 9 million meters of fabric annually, which accounts for 60% of the total polyester cloth production in India. Now the city is focusing on increasing the exports of its textile.
There are many SME Domestic IT Companies present in Surat. MNC IT companies like IBM, HCL have satellite or virtual branches in Surat. On 14 February 2014, Government of Gujarat DST had handover STPI Surat at Bhestan-Jiav Road, Bhestan Near Udhana-Sachin BRTS Route. Surat city administration will demand for setting up of an information technology (IT) hub and an Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) on the outskirts of the city. Microsoft CityNext initiative has tied up with IT services majors Tata Consultancy Services and Wipro to leverage technology for sustainable growth of cities in India. The first smart IT city in India is being constituted by the Microsoft CityNext Initiative in Surat, Gujarat. In 2011, Surat hosted India's first Microsoft DreamSpark Yatra (a tech event) with speakers from Microsoft Headquarters at Redmond, Washington. The event was organised by Ex-Microsoft Student Partner Samarth Zankharia. In May 2015, Tech giant IBM has chosen Surat among 16 global locations for its smart cities program to help them address challenges like waste management, disaster management and citizen services. Under the program, IBM will send a team of experts to each of the chosen cities where they will spend three weeks working closely with city staff analysing data about critical issues faced by its local bodies; the co-operation continued into 2016.
Surat is being a port city, it has turned as a major commercial and industrial hub in India. It is home for many companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Reliance Industries (Hazira Manufacturing Division), Essar Steel, Larsen & Toubro, Krishak Bharati Cooperative, NTPC Limited, Bharat Petroleum, Indian Oil Corporation, UltraTech Cement, Shell, GAIL, GSEG, Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation, Hero MotoCorp etc. Hazira Port is located in Hazira, an industrial suburb where most of the industries are located while other region is Magdalla which is also developed as Port of Magdalla.
The government of Gujarat plans another project near Surat similar to Gujarat International Finance Tec-City (GIFT). The Chief Minister has suggested that the government wishes to develop DREAM to have a five-seven star hotel, bank, IT, corporate trading house, entertainment zone and other facilities while the Surat Diamond Bourse (SDB) will be based there. Allotment of Khajod land for the project is convenient for the state government because they have of available land. The Trade Centre, located near Sarsana village, will have a pillar-less air-conditioned hall with a pillar-less dome.
Transport
Built in 1860, Surat railway station falls under the administrative control of Western Railway zone of the Indian Railways. In early 2016, the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation rated the facility the best large station in India based on cleanliness.
The Sitilink or Surat BRTS is a bus rapid transit system in the city. Initiated by Bharat Shah, additional city engineer of Surat Municipal Corporation. It is operated by Surat Municipal Corporation and as of August 2017, had a network of 245 buses connecting major localities.
Surat International Airport located in Magdalla, 11 kilometres (7 mi) southwest of Surat. It is the 2nd busiest airport in Gujarat in terms of both aircraft movements and passenger traffic. Currently, airlines such as Air India, Alliance Air, AirAsia India, SpiceJet, IndiGo Airlines, Air Odisha, Ventura AirConnect provide flight services from the Surat to various major cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Goa, Jaipur, Visakhapatnam. There are also running international flights for the Sharjah route of Air India Express. Apart from the main city, Surat Airport also caters to various localities of south Gujarat including Navsari, Bardoli, Valsad, Bharuch, Ankleshwar.
Surat Metro is a under construction rapid transit rail system for the city.
Civic institutions
The Surat Municipal Corporation is responsible for maintaining the city's civic infrastructure as well as carrying out associated administrative duties. At present, BJP is the ruling party with a majority. Under the Provisions of Bombay Provincial Municipal Corporations Act, 1949, Section – 4, the powers have been vested in three Distinct Statutory Authorities: the General Board, the Standing Committee, and the Municipal Commissioner. It ranked 7 out of 21 cities for best administrative practices in India in 2014. It scored 3.5 on 10 compared to the national average of 3.3. It is the only city in India to disclose municipal budgets on a weekly basis.
Science Center
Science Center, Surat is a multi-facility complex built by the Surat Municipal Corporation in 2009, the first of its type in western India. The complex houses a science center, museum, an art gallery, an auditorium, an amphitheater and a planetarium.
Pandit Dindayal Upadhyay Indoor Stadium
With a seating capacity of 6800, Pandit Dindayal Upadhyay Indoor Stadium is the first of its kind in the Western Region of India. The stadium frequently organizes national and international indoor games such as volleyball, table tennis, gymnastics, handball, boxing, wrestling, badminton, basketball, and tennis. It has a central arena of size 63 m x 33 m, rooms for participants and team officials, and other essential facilities including snack bars. This is also a convenient venue for organizing cultural programs, music concerts, drama, fashion shows, seminars, conferences, and many more. The Indoor Stadium also hosted TEDxSurat 2018 on 7 October 2018 which is the largest TEDx conference in Gujarat and one of the largest TEDx conferences in the world.
Lalbhai Contractor Cricket Stadium
Lalbhai contractor cricket stadium has a capacity of more than 7000 and hosted several Ranji, Irani and Duleep Trophy matches. The stadium also serves as a primary destination for local budding cricketers and enthusiasts. The stadium has hosted several benefit matches for international cricketers as well.
Public Safety
Surat began the 'Safe City Project' in 2011 aimed at keeping the city safe using surveillance cameras. The project was headed by Sanjay Srivastava (IPS) who was then the Joint-Commissioner of Surat Police. The 280-square-foot video wall claimed to be the largest surveillance screen in the country, is being installed in the control room of Police Commissioner Mr. Rakesh Asthana (IPS). This will help the police view the entire city live through 10,000 CCTV cameras across the city. Surat police have decided to install 5,000 CCTV cameras at sensitive points across the city. While 1,000 cameras will be night vision cameras, 4,000 others will be simple CCTV cameras. This has been installed on PPP base with the help of the city's businessmen, the city's social persons, Surat Municipal Corporation, and the Surat City Police.
Demographics
A resident of Surat is called Surati. According to the 2011 India census, the population of Surat is 4,467,797. Surat has an average literacy rate of 89%, higher than the national average of 79.5%, male literacy is 93%, and female literacy is 84%.
Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. In Surat, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Education
Universities
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat is one of 31 National Institutes of Technology that are recognised as Institutes of National Importance by the Government of India. Indian Institute of Information Technology, Surat started in 2017.
Most of the regional colleges are affiliated to Veer Narmad South Gujarat University (VNSGU, named after the poet Veer Narmad), which has headquarters in the Surat Metropolitan Region. Colleges are also affiliated to SNDT, Gujarat Technological University and other universities. Government Medical College, Surat is a more than 50 years old medical school of 250 yearly student admission capacity with attached tertiary care hospital, New Civil Hospital. Surat Municipal Institute of Medical Education and Research (SMIMER) is a Municipal Medical College affiliated with the Veer Narmad South Gujarat University. Auro University has also started to provide education in Surat.
Culture
Food
Surat is known for its food and has its own list of cherished street foods. There is a famous saying in Gujarati language "સુરતનું જમણ અને કાશીનું મરણ", meaning Eat in Surat and Die in Kashi for the ultimate experience of the soul.
The unique dishes of surat includes Locho, Ghari (sweet), Surti Bhusu, Alupuri, Kavsa, Ponk, Undhiyu, Dhokla, Khaman, Sev Khamani, and so forth.
People's love for food in Surat is so much that there is a lane called as " Khaudra gali" which means foodie's lane which has all stalls of various types of dishes specialty being Mysore Dosa.
Surat in Literature
The Coffee-House of Surrat - By Leo Tolstoy
A Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689 - by John Ovington
Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Gujarát Surat and Broach
The Land of Malabar - by Duarte Barbosa
Plague in Surat: Crisis in Urban Governance- By Archana Ghosh & S. Sami Ahmad
Surat In The Seventeenth Century - by Balkrishna Govind Gokhale
Surat, Port of the Mughal Empire - by Ruby Maloni
Surat, Broach and Other Old Cities of Goojerat - by Theodore Hope
People
Abbas–Mustan, Bollywood directors
Hashim Amla, South African Cricketer
Henry Barnes-Lawrence (1815–1896), Anglican clergyman, and founder of the Association for the Protection of Sea-Birds
Kiransinh Chauhan, Gujarati poet and scriptwriter
Abdulgani Dahiwala, Gujarati poet
Ismail Darbar, Bollywood composer
Freddy Daruwala, Bollywood actor
Harmeet Desai, table-tennis player
Prachi Desai, actress in Bollywood
Savji Dholakia, an Indian businessman. He is the founder and chairman of Hari Krishna Export.
Pratik Gandhi, Bollywood actor
Yazdi Karanjia, theatre person - noted as one of the doyens of Parsi theatre
Sanjeev Kumar (actual name Haribhai Jariwala), film actor
Mareez, 20th century Gujarati poet, popular for his ghazals
Narmad, Gujarati poet, playwright, essayist, orator, lexicographer and reformer under the British Raj
Dhwanil Parekh, 20th century Gujarati poet
Hardik Pandya, Indian international Cricketer
Laljibhai Patel, an Indian diamantaire and philanthropic social activist, who is the chairman of Dharmanandan Diamonds Pvt. Ltd.(DDPL)
Hendrik van Rheede (1636–1691), Dutch botanist and colonial administrator. Died of the coast of Mumbai and was buried at the Dutch Cemetery in Surat.
Mufaddal Saifuddin religious leader of the Dawoodi Bohra
Gunvant Shah, educationist and columnist
Bhagwatikumar Sharma, author and journalist
Farooq Sheikh, actor and television presenter
Naval Tata, former chairman of Tata Group
Virji Vora, businessman known as "merchant prince" during Mughal era
See also
List of tourist attractions in Surat
Surat Railway Station
Surat International Airport
Surat BRTS
Surat Metro
Surat Metropolitan Region
References
External links
Website of Surat Municipal Corporation
Pincode list
Populated coastal places in India
Port cities in India
Port cities and towns of the Arabian Sea
Cities and towns in Surat district
Smart cities in India
Former capital cities in India
Gulf of Khambhat
Metropolitan cities in India
1612 establishments in the British Empire
Populated places established in the 2nd millennium | [
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226719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames%20Television | Thames Television | Thames Television, commonly simplified to just Thames, was a franchise holder for a region of the British ITV television network serving London and surrounding areas from 30 July 1968 until the night of 31 December 1992. It was also a production company. Thames Television broadcast from 9:25 Monday morning to 5:15 Friday afternoon (7:00 Friday night until 1982) at which time it would hand over to LWT. It continued as an independent production company until 2003.
Formed as a joint company, it merged the television interests of British Electric Traction (trading as Associated-Rediffusion) owning 49%, and Associated British Picture Corporation—soon taken over by EMI—owning 51%. It was a broadcaster, a producer and a commissioner of television programmes, making shows both for the local region it covered and for networking nationally across the ITV regions.
The British Film Institute describes Thames as having "served the capital and the network with a long-running, broad-based and extensive series of programmes, several of which either continue or are well-remembered today." Thames covered a broad spectrum of commercial public-service television, with a strong mix of drama, current affairs and comedy.
After Thames was acquired by FremantleMedia it was merged with another Fremantle company, Talkback Productions, to form a new independent production company, Talkback Thames; consequently, Thames ceased to exist as a separate entity. However, on 1 January 2012, the Thames brand was revived and Talkback Thames has now been split into four different labels: Boundless, Retort, Talkback and Thames, within the newly created FremantleMedia UK production arm.
Launch and the 1970s
Background
From its formation in 1954, the Independent Television Authority (ITA) offered broadcasting licences to different companies for weekday and weekend service in its first three Independent Television network locations, the London area, the Midlands, and the North. The initial six contracts were parcelled out to different companies. Associated-Rediffusion (Rediffusion) won the London weekday service while Associated Television (ATV) operated weekends. ATV also won the weekday service in the Midlands, while ABC Weekend TV operated the weekend service. Granada Television won daytime service in the North, and ABC the weekends.
Geographical and structural changes to the network led to the first significant shakeups of the network, a process that started in 1967 to take effect from 1968. As part of these changes, the separate weekend service was eliminated in the Midlands and North, who would instead be served by a single seven-day schedule. The London weekday/weekend split schedule remained the same, although the weekend contract was extended to include Friday evenings, but was opened to new applicants.
ABC loses markets
As a result of the changes to the schedule, ABC was at risk of losing both of its existing markets, the weekend services that would be going away. Consequently, ABC applied for both the Midlands seven-day operation and the contract to serve London at the weekend, preferring the latter.
It was widely expected that the company would be awarded the London weekend franchise. Instead, after an impressive application by a consortium led by David Frost and others, this market was awarded to what became London Weekend Television.
This led to a serious problem for the ITA as ABC was a popular station, whose productions earned vital foreign currency - one such series was The Avengers. Its station management and presentation style were also well-admired.
While they were still in the running for the seven-day service in the Midlands, it was clear this would be won by ATV, who was also a large earner of overseas revenue, having won the Queen's Award for Export in 1966.
Rediffusion angers ITV
In programming, Rediffusion was originally considered stuffy but in the previous contract round of 1964, it had re-invented itself, dropping the name Associated-Rediffusion in favour of the trendier Rediffusion London, to reflect the cultural changes of the time, with its output altered accordingly.
By the time of the 1967 negotiations, Rediffusion believed that its contract renewal for London weekday service was a formality, and its application reflected this complacency: the company had treated the ITA high-handedly in interviews.
In the early days of ITV, the company had worked hard to keep the network on-air during financial crises that threatened the collapse of other companies, particularly Granada. It was reported that Rediffusion's chairman Sir John Spencer Wills felt the ITA owed his company a 'debt of gratitude' for this, a comment which particularly annoyed the authority.
During the interview process, several members of Rediffusion management also appeared in interviews for applicants for other regions, principally the consortium of which David Frost was a member, as well as the interview for Rediffusion, leading the ITA to question the loyalty at the company.
ABC and Rediffusion become Thames
The outcome proposed by the ITA was a "shotgun marriage" between ABC and Rediffusion. "The combination of these two companies," announced ITA Chairman Lord Hill, "seemed to the Authority to offer the possibility of a programme company of real excellence." The resultant company was awarded the contract to serve London on weekdays.
Control of the new company would be given to ABC, a move unpopular with Rediffusion. Questioning the ITA's decision, Rediffusion attempted to slow down the merger: only the threat of giving the licence solely to ABC made it relent. To assist Rediffusion financially, the ITA insisted that the new company have two sets of shares: voting shares which would allow ABC to have control (with 51%) and 'B' shares which were to be split equally between the two, thus sharing profits fairly.
The structure of the new company was also a problem. A merger between the two existing contract holders Associated British Cinemas (Television) Limited and Rediffusion Television Limited was impossible, owing to internal politics, as was a merger between their respective parent companies Associated British Picture Corporation and British Electric Traction. The answer was found to be a new holding company, Thames Television (Holdings) Ltd. ABC's parent, the Associated British Picture Corporation was taken over by EMI in 1969, and in 1979 became part of Thorn EMI.
The ITA ordered ABC's managing director Howard Thomas and its director of programmes Brian Tesler to be appointed in similar capacities at the new station, the only individuals named or specified in all 15 franchise awards. ABC had majority control of the new company and the make-up of its board predominantly (and eventually fully) came from ABC. The use of ABC's old studios at Teddington meant the workforce was predominantly ex-ABC, although those at Kingsway were ex-Rediffusion.
After some discussion as to the name of the new company—some directors favoured ABC London, while others suggested Tower Television to reflect the Post Office Tower and the Tower of London—it was named Thames Television, after the River Thames. This name had been previously considered and rejected by London Weekend Television.
On 30 July 1968 Thames began broadcasting to London. The opening week was disrupted by sporadic strike action; the following week, the action had spread to all of ITV and resulted in the creation of a management-run ITV Emergency National Service for some two weeks.
Each week Thames broadcast from the start of transmissions on Monday until its handover to London Weekend Television at 19:00 on Friday. (From 1982, the handover time was 17:15.)
Studios
The former ABC studios at Teddington became Thames's main production base. Thames's corporate base moved to its newly constructed studios and offices on Euston Road (next to Euston Tower) in 1970, when it relinquished Television House, Rediffusion's former London headquarters. The Teddington studios were highly desirable, as they had participated in colour experiments and were already partially converted by the time of the franchise change, and as such had been sought after by both Thames and LWT.
When Thames was formed, the new company acquired numerous other properties of the former franchise holders. Rediffusion's main studio complex at Wembley was leased to London Weekend Television by order of the ITA before being sold to Lee International in 1977. ABC's Midlands base in Aston, Birmingham (see Alpha Television), co-owned with ATV, was sold in 1971 when ATV moved to new colour television facilities. Its northern base in Didsbury, Manchester was used by Yorkshire Television prior to its Kirkstall Road studios in Leeds being completed, and eventually sold to Manchester Polytechnic in 1970, with a lease on sales offices in central Manchester being surrendered.
Early programmes
The station continued formats inherited from its predecessors. These included the variety show Opportunity Knocks, Armchair Theatre, the last series of The Avengers and the detective thrillers Callan and Public Eye, all inherited from ABC. The comedy Do Not Adjust Your Set, though, originated with Rediffusion, and if nominally a children's show, was one of the forerunners of Monty Python's Flying Circus.
More conventional sitcoms, all of which began in Thames's early years, included Father, Dear Father (1968–73), the Sid James vehicle Bless This House (1971–76), and Love Thy Neighbour (1972-76), with a controversial take on race relations. Another sitcom, Man About the House (1973–76), was successful enough for two spin-offs, George and Mildred (1976–80) and Robin's Nest (1977-81).
The company took over the This Is Your Life format in 1969, several years after the BBC had dropped the show in 1964. Another BBC favourite was comedian Benny Hill, the star of The Benny Hill Show (1969–89), who was placed under contract. Hill spent most of the rest of his career with Thames.
The Sooty Show, cancelled in 1967 by the BBC, now aired on Thames and began on the first day of transmission. It continued after Harry Corbett's retirement in 1975 with his son, Matthew Corbett, and lasted on Thames until late 1992. The company also produced the children's show Magpie, which began in 1968 and was intended as a rival for Blue Peter on BBC 1, and The Tomorrow People (1973–79), a science fiction series.
For pre-school children there was Rainbow, which started in 1972 and ran for 20 years. The programme used animation and graphics created by Cosgrove Hall, a Thames subsidiary founded in 1972, which made animated series for children. During the hours after Rainbow and before the children's slot, Good Afternoon was transmitted, a magazine programme. It began after the IBA allowed non-schools broadcasting in this period of the day, when the government relaxed the regulations around daytime television and featured interview editions undertaken by such broadcasters as Mavis Nicholson, and a weekly consumer programme, which eventually became a programme in its own right; Money-Go-Round.
Of much greater prestige was The World at War (1973–74), a 26-part history of the Second World War using unseen footage and interviews, often of high-level participants. The series, narrated by Sir Laurence Olivier, was commissioned in 1969, took four years to produce, and cost a record £4m (approx £47m in 2018).
Meanwhile, Thames gained a reputation for drama with such series as Jenny, Lady Randolph Churchill (1974), with Lee Remick as the mother of Winston Churchill. It won an Emmy as the best series in its category, as Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978), about the abdication crisis, did later. Other successful series in the genre from this period include Shades of Greene (1975-76), Rock Follies (1976), and Armchair Thriller (1978-80). These programmes were made in the then standard 'hybrid' studio video/location film format, but the British industry was in the slow process of dropping the multi-camera studio format for drama, excepting soaps, to making the genre entirely on film.
The Thames offshoot Euston Films was founded in 1971 to specialise in drama output made entirely on film, then still a rare practice. Euston made the police series The Sweeney (1975–78), Danger UXB (1979), and Minder (1979–94), plus the last appearance of Nigel Kneale's best known creation in Quatermass (1979). In this era, Euston also made single one-off dramas such as The Naked Civil Servant (1975).
On 1 December 1976, the punk band the Sex Pistols were interviewed live on Thames's regional news magazine programme, Today. Members of the group uttered obscenities during their interview with Bill Grundy. Grundy, in his introduction, said they are "as drunk as I am", but later claimed his comment was a joke, and had allowed the bad language to illustrate the character of the individuals in the group.
The interview filled two minutes at the end of the programme, but the production team feared trouble in the studio if they stopped the programme mid-air. Thames's telephone switchboard was jammed by complaining viewers. Responding to the incident, Thames said in a statement: "Because the programme was live, it was impossible to foresee the language that would be used."
The press continued to be interested in the incident for several days. Grundy was suspended and Today ended soon afterwards; his career never recovered. Over time, Thames replaced Today with a more conventional news offering as seen on other ITV stations. Thames at Six was launched, later Thames News.
In 1978, Thames secured a contract with Morecambe & Wise. The comedians had worked for the BBC since 1968 with major national success, but the decisive factor leading the duo to leave the corporation was Thames's offer to feature them as main leads in a film made by the company's Euston Films subsidiary. The comedy duo's leading scriptwriter, Eddie Braben, did not initially move to ITV with them, and with Eric Morecambe's failing health, the new shows never gained the audiences or matched the esteem they had previously enjoyed.
One of the early anchor presenters was radio DJ Tom Edwards.
Industrial relations up to the end of 1979
Like most of ITV, Thames was beset by conflicts with trade unions, notably the Association of Cinematograph Television and Allied Technicians (ACTT). A two-week technicians strike in the summer of 1975 shut down the whole of ITV with the technicians being bought off with a 35% pay rise.
Two years later in May 1977, another strike occurred when production assistants at Thames refused to operate new video equipment. Thames proceeded to sack all the technicians for breach of contract. The following month, both sides backed down over the issues, with all technicians returning to work.
The worst strike to hit the network originated at Thames. Failure to reach agreement on pay increases and shift allowances in the 1979 pay round resulted in technicians switching off power to the transmission facilities at the Euston Road centre on 6 August. After management restored power, the technicians walked out. Within four days, all but one ITV station had gone off-air after the ACTT asked members at other companies to walk out in claim for a 15% pay rise. The network was off the air for 10 weeks.
From 1980 to 1992
Later programming
Other Thames shows included This Week (known as TV Eye between 1979 and 1985), Rumpole of the Bailey, the game shows Strike It Lucky, Give Us a Clue and Name That Tune, and the drama Dodger, Bonzo and the Rest.
Thames sitcoms during the 1980s and early 1990s included Keep it in the Family, Never the Twain, After Henry, and Mr. Bean. The Mr. Bean pilot episode, starring Rowan Atkinson as the titular character, was first broadcast on ITV on 1 January 1990, and the eventual run lasted beyond Thames holding of its franchise. Less well-known is its adaptation of Andy Capp (1988), starring James Bolam. Two of its post-franchise sitcoms found more success when they transferred away from ITV – Men Behaving Badly, which moved to the BBC in 1994 and Is It Legal?, which moved to Channel 4 in 1997. Both were written by Simon Nye and co-produced by independent company Hartswood Films.
A few years after The World at War, Thames broadcast Hollywood (1980), a 13-part documentary series about the era of the America silent cinema. This series, produced by Kevin Brownlow and David Gill, was followed by the company sponsoring Thames Silents, a project undertaken by Brownlow and Gill of the restoration and screenings (in a limited number of cinemas and on television) of major films from the silent era.
The two men followed Hollywood with series dedicated to leading comics of the silent era, Unknown Chaplin (1983) and Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow (1987). A programme on Harold Lloyd (The Third Genius) followed in 1989. Hollywood and the Chaplin series were narrated by the actor James Mason. Unusually for a commercial broadcaster, it also produced lavish versions of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Mikado and Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Thames's subsidiary production company Euston Films continued to produce many of Thames's highest-profile drama contributions to ITV network programming to the end of its ITV franchise. These included Reilly, Ace of Spies (1983), Jack the Ripper (1988), Capital City (1989–1990), and Anglo-Saxon Attitudes (1992). The Bill (1984–2010) began as a one-hour series of separate stories in 1984, but from 1989 until 1998 was broadcast several times a week, usually in a 30 minute slot. Its storylines became overly melodramatic and focussed far more directly on particular police characters rather than the crime from 1998 and its return to the hour long slot and then became much more a soap opera in 2002 (when individual story titles were dropped) until coming full circle dealing predominantly with crime again in about 2007 for the last few years of its existence.
Programming controversies
In January 1985, the company made a deal with international distributors for US production company Lorimar to purchase the UK broadcasting rights for US drama Dallas, at that time transmitted on BBC1. This broke a gentlemen's agreement between the two sides not to poach each other's imported shows. Thames paid £55,000 a show compared to the £29,000 of the BBC. The deal brought condemnation from the BBC and from other ITV stations, who feared the BBC would poach their imports, pushing up prices.
The BBC planned to delay transmission of the episodes of Dallas that it already had, with the hope to broadcast them at the same time Thames broadcast its new purchases. Ultimately, pressure from several ITV companies (especially Yorkshire Television) to the IBA, forced Thames to sell the series back to the BBC at a loss. Bryan Cowgill, the managing director of Thames left the company, as he believed his position was untenable since the board was unwilling to support his plans to buy the series. In October, Thames paid the BBC, via the IBA, £300,000 in compensation to make up the shortfall in additional cost for new episodes of Dallas.
The most controversial programme Thames broadcast was the documentary "Death on the Rock", part of the current affairs This Week series. The programme questioned the authority of British troops who had shot dead suspected IRA members allegedly planning a terrorist attack on a British military ceremony in Gibraltar. The documentary was regarded almost as treason by many Conservative politicians, and The Sunday Times made claims about one of the witnesses interviewed which were later found to be libellous.
The following year, in 1989, Thames ended the contract of Benny Hill, a stalwart at the station since 1969. It was believed that the comedian was dismissed because his shows were considered offensive and politically incorrect, but John Howard Davies said the decision was taken because of falling ratings, very high production costs and Hill was looking tired. The show at its peak had 21 million viewers, while the last episode had nine million.
However, it remained one of the top ten most watched shows across the whole ITV network and was still one of the UK's top TV exports, continuing to air in 97 other countries. Hill himself said "I didn't mind them sacking me; but I did expect a bit more of a pat on the back, after all I had been there for 20 years". Hill made only 58 hour-long episodes in the 20 years he worked for Thames, with the result that, in the UK, the show was generally promoted as specials, but the programmes were reedited as 30-minute episodes for overseas markets.
Hill gained a following in the United States when this version was screened there. His retained popularity in the UK was confirmed following his death, when Thames (which had refused to air his shows since the cancellation) gave in to public demand to rerun the shows.
Industrial relations in the Thatcher era
Through the early 1980s, Thames experienced a series of local disputes while management deliberately confronted contractual ‘rackets’, and pursued the introduction of new technologies based on operational requirements rather than precedent. For Thames’s management, this was a materialist operation with a clear dimension, and to weed out unscrupulous bargaining and working practices.
In the summer of 1984 a major strike was called, this time, over Thames's management unilaterally issuing new rostering schedules (overtime payments for transmission staff), and the use of new cameras and editing equipment. There were no internal discussions of the potential savings that could be derived from new shift patterns, but there was a strong sense that union controls had to be removed before the company embarked on increasing its operations. The technicians walked out, but the station was off the air for just one day as management and administration staff took over their roles.
On Monday 27 August, ATTC technicians walked out again over the new shift patterns; the strike ended on 3 September 1984, at 1p.m. after the union agreed to rostering according to need, while the management dropped plans for ending six-day working fortnights. Bryan Cowgill said: "The need for sensible change in the way we conduct our operations has been at the heart of this dispute. The outcome of a damaging and costly dispute has resulted in substantial progress towards a more realistic and effective way of working".
Over the following four weeks, further discussions took place about implementing the plans while introducing new technologies. On Wednesday 17 October, another strike was instigated, as talks failed to reach agreement. The union warned against a management-run service, as it would be a recipe for total network disturbance and a massive loss of programmes, but Thames claimed that it would be justified due to the strike being unofficial. On Monday 22 October, a management-run service started operating; the company claimed the revised schedule was popular with the viewers.
During the period of the management operated emergency schedule, viewers in the Thames Television region would see the ITV breakfast service TV-am from 6.25am until 9.25am. Once TV-am concluded, when the rest of the UK received schools programmes, Thames viewers were left with a blue screen showing their upcoming emergency schedule which would normally start at around 1.30pm and conclude around midnight. With no access to ITN News, viewers in the Thames region had to make do with short Thames News bulletins. Weekend ITV schedules for the London region were not affected by the strike, with London Weekend Television coming on air on Fridays at 5.15pm as usual.
The strike ended on 3 November 1984, after 62 film editors agreed to the new conditions, while the ACTT agreed as well to start negotiations about the introductions of new technology. Additional episodes of network productions were screened to help clear the backlog, since no outside programmes were broadcast. Thames said: "We are delighted in the outcome of the dispute which we believe is in the best interests of everyone who works at Thames".
For the Thames board, the dispute represented a huge, but necessary, cost if the company was to expand its production operations profitably. Profits at Thames dropped – from £14.1M in 1983/84 to £8.75M in 1984/85 – during the strike period, but were able to recover back to £14.6M in 1985/86 just before flotation on the stock market.
During April 1988, after successfully introducing new technologies and employing more freelance staff, Thames announced the loss of 200 jobs from its permanent workforce, which followed similar action from other ITV companies in a bid to slim down their workforce and alter working practices for economic reasons. Thames made a further 297 employees redundant as part of its restructuring plan to reduce its staff to 1,500 in preparation for the 1991 ITV franchise round.
Area and ownership changes
In 1982, The Independent Broadcasting Authority decided to change the Thames franchise area, which resulted in the Bluebell Hill transmitter in north Kent, its associated relays and the main relay at Tunbridge Wells being transferred from London to the new South and South-East of England, TVS franchise, in order to serve the new region better.
In 1985, Carlton Communications had executed a failed take-over bid for Thames after Thorn EMI and British Electric Traction decided to sell their share of Thames. The deal was blocked by both Richard Dunn, chief executive of Thames, and by the IBA, which concluded 'the proposal would lead to a major change in the nature and characteristic of a viable ITV programme company'.
Carlton's owner, Michael Green, claimed that the decision left him 'bewildered' and said: 'We are surprised at the IBA's decision. I'm absolutely certain it would not have been a major change to Thames. We have always suggested that we would make absolutely sure the company would continue to be what it is at this moment in time.' The IBA said it had nothing against Carlton owning part of an ITV company, but believed 'any' single ownership of an ITV company was undesirable.
It has been said that Carlton chief executive Michael Green talked to the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher on the matter, which in turn may have helped to shape the 1990 Parliamentary Act which replaced the IBA with the Independent Television Commission and the change in franchise allocation procedures.
Thames finally floated on the stock market in July 1986, after being blocked by the IBA in late 1982. The shares on offer were being sold by BET and Thorn EMI, which planned to reduce their shareholding from 100% down to 28.8%. A few days afterwards speculation appeared that Carlton had attempted to buy a sizable number of shares; Michael Green, chairman of Carlton, was quoted saying "I can't possibly comment" but a Thames spokesperson pointed out "It does seem quite likely, however, no one share holder can own more than 10% of our equity so it's difficult to see what they might have in mind".
During 1989 reports appeared that talks were taking place with Carlton about an agreed merger, which resulted in no action. The flotation was not a great success, EMI and BET only managing to reduce their shares to 56.6%, with management acquiring much of the new stock. In March 1990, EMI and BET tried once again to sell off their shares in Thames, with Cartlon and CLT (a Luxembourg-based media company) both in the running.
However, by October talks had stalled, with EMI and BET still controlling Thames before heading into the 1991 franchise round.
Franchise loss
On 16 October 1991, Thames Television lost its weekday London ITV franchise from the beginning of January 1993 as a result of losing the silent auction used to renegotiate the new franchises. Thames bid £32.5 million while Carlton Television placed a bid of £43.2 million, and since both Thames and Carlton were deemed to have passed the quality threshold, the franchise was awarded to Carlton for having submitted the higher cash bid. Some commentators consequently speculated that Thames had fallen victim to a 'government vendetta', whilst others felt that the auction had been won fairly. Carlton chose to commission the vast majority of its production content from third parties, and rent studio and broadcasting space at LWT's London Studios.
Thames was bullish after losing, since the company had made confidential contingency plans, which involved 1,000 redundancies and the closure of the Euston Road facility. The company believed it would become "Europe's most powerful Independent producer and programme distributor." The Times quoted a spokesman the day after the announcement: "We can be more profitable this way, being forced out of broadcasting will save us £32.5m a year in bid payments, £30 million a year in advertising revenue taxes and about £10m in transmitter cost."
The transition of ITV companies was never smooth, but Thames's bitterness stayed until the very end. In June 1992 Carlton and the ITV network centre had backed down over its demands for Thames to relinquish its right to broadcast repeats of its own programmings on rival channels for 10 years. Thames believed Carlton's demands were unreasonable and would have forced it to drop most networked programmes on ITV during the autumn of 1992.
Thames chairman Richard Dunn publicly stated that Carlton chairman Michael Green had done everything in his power to obtain the London weekday franchise since being blocked by the IBA in 1985. Carlton was forced to advertise on LWT to promote its new programme line up until December 1992, following an acrimonious High Court dispute between Thames and Carlton over the selling of rights of hundreds of films in Thames's library. Carlton settled out of court for £13.1M.
The loss of Thames's franchise was seen as controversial by many, and highly significant by most, given Thames's history within ITV, as a long-standing franchisee in its own right, its heritage from the start of the network through its founding parents ABC and Rediffusion London, and the fact that it was one of the major contributors of content to the ITV network. The auction method used to conduct the new franchise round was a significant change from previous rounds and was brought about by the Broadcasting Act 1990.
Consequently, the franchise loss became a subject of political debate, with changes brought about by the 1990 act being cited as 'The primary reason for an operation such as Thames being able to lose its licence to broadcast'. That the then Conservative government had passed such an act caused accusations of direct responsibility to be levelled at former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in particular, who had presided over its creation.
Opinions varied on the matter of political motivations; some cite the documentary "Death On The Rock", which may have caused displeasure to the then government, whilst others link it to a more general ideological dislike of the way ITV had been run at the time, with over-manning, and the fact that programme production was generally limited to franchise holders (sometimes critically referred to as barriers to entry), being seen as examples of why more commercial freedom and competition was needed within the network.
Television and movies
In 2021, Fremantle were licensing various Thames Television programmes to British television channels such as That's TV, Forces TV and Talking Pictures TV. Programmes from the Thames archive include:
Documentary
This Is Your Life
Comedy
The Benny Hill Show
Father, Dear Father
The Morecambe & Wise Show
Carry On Christmas Specials
Bless This House
The Edward Woodward Hour
For The Love Of Ada
Alcock and Gander
Thirty Minutes Worth
Love Thy Neighbour
Alice Through the Looking Glass
All in Good Faith
The Best of Tommy Cooper
Man About the House
Never Mind the Quality, Feel the Width
Robin's Nest
George and Mildred
Shelley
Mr. Bean
Men Behaving Badly
Full House
Get Some In!
Entertainment
Opportunity Knocks
Des O'Connor Tonight
The Kenny Everett Video Show/Video Cassette
Game shows
Give Us a Clue
Name That Tune
Strike It Lucky
Take Your Pick!
Whodunnit?
Quick on the Draw
Drama
The Avengers
The Tomorrow People
Six Days of Justice
London Belongs To Me
The Mind of Mr. J.G. Reeder
Minder
Mystery and Imagination
The Rivals of Sherlock Holmes
Rumpole of the Bailey
Special Branch
Widows
The Sweeney
The Bill
Factual
This Week
The World at War
Hollywood
Drive In
Database
Children's
Alias the Jester
The Beano's Dennis the Menace and Gnasher Show
Button Moon
C.A.B.
CBTV
Chocky
Chorlton and the Wheelies
Cockleshell Bay
Count Duckula
Creepy Crawlies
Danger Mouse
Dawson's Funny Old Farm
Flicks
The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship
Hotdog
Illusions
Hattytown Tales
Jamie and the Magic Torch
Mike and Angelo
Rainbow
Rod, Jane and Freddy
The Sooty Show/Learn with Sooty
Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings
Spatz
Splash!
T-Bag
A Tale Of Two Toads
The Talking Parcel
Time Riders
Treasure Box
Terry Pratchett's Truckers
Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends (post production services on the third series)
The Tyrant King
Victor & Hugo: Bunglers in Crime
The Wind in the Willows
Branding and presentation
The first idents to be used comprised a plain screen with the words 'from Thames' written in white in the Helvetica font, and a vignette that resembled the famous ident, containing famous London landmarks. The first ident was used to signify programmes made at Rediffusion's old studios at Adastral House, the latter, shows that came from ABC's former Teddington Studios. Some programmes recorded at Teddington, such as some episodes of the 1969 series of "Callan" did, however, use the "from Thames" caption, indicating that they may have been edited at Adastral House rather than Teddington. Both of the company's logos were accompanied by a fanfare called Salute to Thames, composed by Johnny Hawksworth.
With the introduction of colour, the ident was remodelled on the vignette, this time using photographs rather than drawings. This ident was designed by agency Minale Tattersfield. It was originally shot by stop-frame animation on 16 mm film, then shot again on 35 mm film in 1976 and finally digitized on computer in 1984. All of these animations featured the same design, which consisted of the skyline slowly rolling up from the River Thames along with the logo, which was reflected briefly on the water and then quickly faded to its static position at the centre of the ident.
The ident was finally withdrawn in the summer of 1989, when Thames celebrated its 21st anniversary. The revised ident retained the London landmarks but contained them in a blue and orange triangle, pointing downwards, with three wavy blue lines to represent the river and the words 'Thames XXI' in the orange part of the triangle and it was this logo which was used on the first ITV branding idents on 4 September 1989.
A new ident was launched on 3 September 1990, featuring a redesigned triangle logo containing Big Ben, the British Telecom Tower, the dome of St Paul's Cathedral and Tower Bridge. Initially, this ident was used only before local programmes; a modified ITV generic ident featuring this new logo was used for networked shows. Once Thames learned it was to lose its franchise to Carlton, the ITV-branded ident was dropped in favour of the local ident which was used at all times from 4 November 1991 until 31 December 1992.
From 1992
Thames Television was involved in an attempt to win the new Channel 5 licence when it was first advertised in early 1992. Thames was the main shareholder in a consortium (alongside Warner Bros. Television and others) called Channel Five Holdings. The consortium became the only bidder for the licence in December 1992 after two other groups dropped out. However the ITC rejected the bid as a result of concerns about its business plan and investor backing. The deadline was therefore extended twice before the licence was handed to Channel 5 Broadcasting Limited.
This Is Your Life ran on ITV for 26 years until around 1995 when ITV cancelled it and the series was re-commissioned by the BBC, with Thames continuing to produce it. The corporation ended the series in 2003. The Bill continued on ITV until 2010.
Following the loss of Thames's franchise, the Euston Road base of Thames was sold off and demolished. The site of the studios is currently occupied by Triton Square and the registered headquarters of the British operation of Spanish bank Santander. The studios at Teddington were sold to a management buy-out team and were part of the Pinewood Group, owners of both Pinewood and Shepperton Studios.
Thames Television was acquired by Pearson Television in mid-1993. Pearson Television was itself sold by Pearson plc to CLT-UFA in 2000, thus merging to become the RTL Group, and rebranded as FremantleMedia in 2001. In 2003, Thames Television was merged with another FremantleMedia subsidiary, Talkback (founded by comedians Mel Smith and Griff Rhys Jones in 1981) to form Talkback Thames. That subsidiary was split into four new production companies at the start of 2012, with the new Thames producing light entertainment programming.
Culture
Thames is often quoted as a prime example of a good commercial public-service broadcaster with shows covering all aspects of the spectrum and the largest producer in the network. Its shows achieved massive audiences and are still remembered many years later. This is sometimes attributed to the culture of the company, which could be claimed to be a continuation of that at ABC. This station was more highly regarded by the ITA (amongst others) than Rediffusion whose programming was seen as downmarket and whose management-style was viewed as high-handed. The two companies allowed Thames independence (although in later years there were accusations that they both treated the company as a cash cow).
The children's department also spawned the independent production company Tetra Films, which would later revive some classic Thames children's programmes for ITV – The Tomorrow People (1992-5, in association with Thames-owned Reeves Entertainment for ITV and Nickelodeon) and Rainbow (1994/96, for HTV) - along with a range of original film and television productions.
See also
Euston Films
Talkback Thames
Thames Silents
Associated-Rediffusion
ABC Weekend TV
Carlton Television
London Weekend Television
ITV (TV network)
History of ITV
References
External links
talkbackTHAMES.tv
Talk of Thames unofficial site.
Thames Television on TV Ark.
ITV franchisees
Television broadcasting companies of the United Kingdom
Television in London
Television channels and stations established in 1968
Television channels and stations disestablished in 1992
Television production companies of the United Kingdom
Peabody Award winners
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] |
226721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoof | Spoof | Spoof, spoofs, spoofer, or spoofing may refer to:
Forgery of goods or documents
Semen, in Australian slang
Spoof (game), a guessing game
Spoofing (finance), a disruptive algorithmic-trading tactic designed to manipulate markets
Culture
A type of satire, specifically a parody, in which an original work is made fun of by creating a similar but altered work.
Spoof film (aka parody film), a cinematographic genre
Spoofing (anti-piracy measure), a technique to curb unlawful online downloading
Networking and communications
ARP spoofing
Biometric spoofing
Caller ID spoofing
E-mail spoofing
IP address spoofing
MAC spoofing
Protocol spoofing, a technique to increase performance in data communications
Referrer spoofing, a type of spoofing attack
SMS spoofing
Spoofed URL
Spoofing attack, falsifying data on a telecommunications network
Website spoofing
See also
DLL spoofing, computer routine libraries
Meaconing, radio navigation beacons | [
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226722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging | Functional magnetic resonance imaging | Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that region also increases.
The primary form of fMRI uses the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) contrast, discovered by Seiji Ogawa in 1990. This is a type of specialized brain and body scan used to map neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals by imaging the change in blood flow (hemodynamic response) related to energy use by brain cells. Since the early 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate brain mapping research because it does not involve the use of injections, surgery, the ingestion of substances, or exposure to ionizing radiation. This measure is frequently corrupted by noise from various sources; hence, statistical procedures are used to extract the underlying signal. The resulting brain activation can be graphically represented by color-coding the strength of activation across the brain or the specific region studied. The technique can localize activity to within millimeters but, using standard techniques, no better than within a window of a few seconds. Other methods of obtaining contrast are arterial spin labeling and diffusion MRI. Diffusion MRI is similar to BOLD fMRI but provides contrast based on the magnitude of diffusion of water molecules in the brain.
In addition to detecting BOLD responses from activity due to tasks or stimuli, fMRI can measure resting state, or negative-task state, which shows the subjects' baseline BOLD variance. Since about 1998 studies have shown the existence and properties of the default mode network, a functionally connected neural network of apparent resting brain states.
fMRI is used in research, and to a lesser extent, in clinical work. It can complement other measures of brain physiology such as electroencephalography (EEG), and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Newer methods which improve both spatial and time resolution are being researched, and these largely use biomarkers other than the BOLD signal. Some companies have developed commercial products such as lie detectors based on fMRI techniques, but the research is not believed to be developed enough for widespread commercial use.
Overview
The fMRI concept builds on the earlier MRI scanning technology and the discovery of properties of oxygen-rich blood. MRI brain scans use a strong, permanent, static magnetic field to align nuclei in the brain region being studied. Another magnetic field, the gradient field, is then applied to spatially locate different nuclei. Finally, a radiofrequency (RF) pulse is played to kick the nuclei to higher magnetization levels, with the effect now depending on where they are located. When the RF field is removed, the nuclei go back to their original states, and the energy they emit is measured with a coil to recreate the positions of the nuclei. MRI thus provides a static structural view of brain matter. The central thrust behind fMRI was to extend MRI to capture functional changes in the brain caused by neuronal activity. Differences in magnetic properties between arterial (oxygen-rich) and venous (oxygen-poor) blood provided this link.
Since the 1890s it has been known that changes in blood flow and blood oxygenation in the brain (collectively known as hemodynamics) are closely linked to neural activity. When neurons become active, local blood flow to those brain regions increases, and oxygen-rich (oxygenated) blood displaces oxygen-depleted (deoxygenated) blood around 2 seconds later. This rises to a peak over 4–6 seconds, before falling back to the original level (and typically undershooting slightly). Oxygen is carried by the hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells. Deoxygenated hemoglobin (dHb) is more magnetic (paramagnetic) than oxygenated hemoglobin (Hb), which is virtually resistant to magnetism (diamagnetic). This difference leads to an improved MR signal since the diamagnetic blood interferes with the magnetic MR signal less. This improvement can be mapped to show which neurons are active at a time.
History
During the late 19th century, Angelo Mosso invented the 'human circulation balance', which could non-invasively measure the redistribution of blood during emotional and intellectual activity. However, although briefly mentioned by William James in 1890, the details and precise workings of this balance and the experiments Mosso performed with it remained largely unknown until the recent discovery of the original instrument as well as Mosso's reports by Stefano Sandrone and colleagues. Angelo Mosso investigated several critical variables that are still relevant in modern neuroimaging such as the 'signal-to-noise ratio', the appropriate choice of the experimental paradigm and the need for the simultaneous recording of differing physiological parameters. Mosso's manuscripts do not provide direct evidence that the balance was really able to measure changes in cerebral blood flow due to cognition, however a modern replication performed by David T Field has now demonstrated using modern signal processing techniques unavailable to Mosso that a balance apparatus of this type is able to detect changes in cerebral blood volume related to cognition.
In 1890, Charles Roy and Charles Sherrington first experimentally linked brain function to its blood flow, at Cambridge University. The next step to resolving how to measure blood flow to the brain was Linus Pauling's and Charles Coryell's discovery in 1936 that oxygen-rich blood with Hb was weakly repelled by magnetic fields, while oxygen-depleted blood with dHb was attracted to a magnetic field, though less so than ferromagnetic elements such as iron. Seiji Ogawa at AT&T Bell labs recognized that this could be used to augment MRI, which could study just the static structure of the brain, since the differing magnetic properties of dHb and Hb caused by blood flow to activated brain regions would cause measurable changes in the MRI signal. BOLD is the MRI contrast of dHb, discovered in 1990 by Ogawa. In a seminal 1990 study based on earlier work by Thulborn et al., Ogawa and colleagues scanned rodents in a strong magnetic field (7.0 T) MRI. To manipulate blood oxygen level, they changed the proportion of oxygen the animals breathed. As this proportion fell, a map of blood flow in the brain was seen in the MRI. They verified this by placing test tubes with oxygenated or deoxygenated blood and creating separate images. They also showed that gradient-echo images, which depend on a form of loss of magnetization called T2* decay, produced the best images. To show these blood flow changes were related to functional brain activity, they changed the composition of the air breathed by rats, and scanned them while monitoring brain activity with EEG. The first attempt to detect the regional brain activity using MRI was performed by Belliveau and colleagues at Harvard University using the contrast agent Magnevist, a paramagnetic substance remaining in the bloodstream after intravenous injection. However, this method is not popular in human fMRI, because of the inconvenience of the contrast agent injection, and because the agent stays in the blood only for a short time.
Three studies in 1992 were the first to explore using the BOLD contrast in humans. Kenneth Kwong and colleagues, using both gradient-echo and inversion recovery echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequence at a magnetic field strength of 1.5 T published studies showing clear activation of the human visual cortex. The Harvard team thereby showed that both blood flow and blood volume increased locally in activity neural tissue. Ogawa and others conducted a similar study using a higher field (4.0 T) and showed that the BOLD signal depended on T2* loss of magnetization. T2* decay is caused by magnetized nuclei in a volume of space losing magnetic coherence (transverse magnetization) from both bumping into one another and from intentional differences in applied magnetic field strength across locations (field inhomogeneity from a spatial gradient). Bandettini and colleagues used EPI at 1.5 T to show activation in the primary motor cortex, a brain area at the last stage of the circuitry controlling voluntary movements. The magnetic fields, pulse sequences and procedures and techniques used by these early studies are still used in current-day fMRI studies. But today researchers typically collect data from more slices (using stronger magnetic gradients), and preprocess and analyze data using statistical techniques.
Physiology
The brain does not store a lot of glucose, its primary source of energy. When neurons become active, getting them back to their original state of polarization requires actively pumping ions across the neuronal cell membranes, in both directions. The energy for those ion pumps is mainly produced from glucose. More blood flows in to transport more glucose, also bringing in more oxygen in the form of oxygenated hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells. This is from both a higher rate of blood flow and an expansion of blood vessels. The blood-flow change is localized to within 2 or 3 mm of where the neural activity is. Usually the brought-in oxygen is more than the oxygen consumed in burning glucose (it is not yet settled whether most glucose consumption is oxidative), and this causes a net decrease in deoxygenated hemoglobin (dHb) in that brain area's blood vessels. This changes the magnetic property of the blood, making it interfere less with the magnetization and its eventual decay induced by the MRI process.
The cerebral blood flow (CBF) corresponds to the consumed glucose differently in different brain regions. Initial results show there is more inflow than consumption of glucose in regions such as the amygdala, basal ganglia, thalamus and cingulate cortex, all of which are recruited for fast responses. In regions that are more deliberative, such as the lateral frontal and lateral parietal lobes, it seems that incoming flow is less than consumption. This affects BOLD sensitivity.
Hemoglobin differs in how it responds to magnetic fields, depending on whether it has a bound oxygen molecule. The dHb molecule is more attracted to magnetic fields. Hence, it distorts the surrounding magnetic field induced by an MRI scanner, causing the nuclei there to lose magnetization faster via the T2* decay. Thus MR pulse sequences sensitive to T2* show more MR signal where blood is highly oxygenated and less where it is not. This effect increases with the square of the strength of the magnetic field. The fMRI signal hence needs both a strong magnetic field (1.5 T or higher) and a pulse sequence such as EPI, which is sensitive to T2* contrast.
The physiological blood-flow response largely decides the temporal sensitivity, that is how accurately we can measure when neurons are active, in BOLD fMRI. The basic time resolution parameter (sampling time) is designated TR; the TR dictates how often a particular brain slice is excited and allowed to lose its magnetization. TRs could vary from the very short (500 ms) to the very long (3 s). For fMRI specifically, the hemodynamic response lasts over 10 seconds, rising multiplicatively (that is, as a proportion of current value), peaking at 4 to 6 seconds, and then falling multiplicatively. Changes in the blood-flow system, the vascular system, integrate responses to neuronal activity over time. Because this response is a smooth continuous function, sampling with ever-faster TRs does not help; it just gives more points on the response curve obtainable by simple linear interpolation anyway. Experimental paradigms such as staggering when a stimulus is presented at various trials can improve temporal resolution, but reduces the number of effective data points obtained.
BOLD hemodynamic response
The change in the MR signal from neuronal activity is called the hemodynamic response (HR). It lags the neuronal events triggering it by a couple of seconds, since it takes a while for the vascular system to respond to the brain's need for glucose. From this point it typically rises to a peak at about 5 seconds after the stimulus. If the neurons keep firing, say from a continuous stimulus, the peak spreads to a flat plateau while the neurons stay active. After activity stops, the BOLD signal falls below the original level, the baseline, a phenomenon called the undershoot. Over time the signal recovers to the baseline. There is some evidence that continuous metabolic requirements in a brain region contribute to the undershoot.
The mechanism by which the neural system provides feedback to the vascular system of its need for more glucose is partly the release of glutamate as part of neuron firing. This glutamate affects nearby supporting cells, astrocytes, causing a change in calcium ion concentration. This, in turn, releases nitric oxide at the contact point of astrocytes and intermediate-sized blood vessels, the arterioles. Nitric oxide is a vasodilator causing arterioles to expand and draw in more blood.
A single voxel's response signal over time is called its timecourse. Typically, the unwanted signal, called the noise, from the scanner, random brain activity and similar elements is as big as the signal itself. To eliminate these, fMRI studies repeat a stimulus presentation multiple times.
Spatial resolution
Spatial resolution of an fMRI study refers to how well it discriminates between nearby locations. It is measured by the size of voxels, as in MRI. A voxel is a three-dimensional rectangular cuboid, whose dimensions are set by the slice thickness, the area of a slice, and the grid imposed on the slice by the scanning process. Full-brain studies use larger voxels, while those that focus on specific regions of interest typically use smaller sizes. Sizes range from 4 to 5 mm, or with laminar resolution fMRI (lfMRI), to submillimeter. Smaller voxels contain fewer neurons on average, incorporate less blood flow, and hence have less signal than larger voxels. Smaller voxels imply longer scanning times, since scanning time directly rises with the number of voxels per slice and the number of slices. This can lead both to discomfort for the subject inside the scanner and to loss of the magnetization signal. A voxel typically contains a few million neurons and tens of billions of synapses, with the actual number depending on voxel size and the area of the brain being imaged.
The vascular arterial system supplying fresh blood branches into smaller and smaller vessels as it enters the brain surface and within-brain regions, culminating in a connected capillary bed within the brain. The drainage system, similarly, merges into larger and larger veins as it carries away oxygen-depleted blood. The dHb contribution to the fMRI signal is from both the capillaries near the area of activity and larger draining veins that may be farther away. For good spatial resolution, the signal from the large veins needs to be suppressed, since it does not correspond to the area where the neural activity is. This can be achieved either by using strong static magnetic fields or by using spin-echo pulse sequences. With these, fMRI can examine a spatial range from millimeters to centimeters, and can hence identify Brodmann areas (centimers), subcortical nuclei such as the caudate, putamen and thalamus, and hippocampal subfields such as the combined dentate gyrus/CA3, CA1, and subiculum.
Temporal resolution
Temporal resolution is the smallest time period of neural activity reliably separated out by fMRI. One element deciding this is the sampling time, the TR. Below a TR of 1 or 2 seconds, however, scanning just generates sharper hemodynamic response (HR) curves, without adding much additional information (e.g. beyond what is alternatively achieved by mathematically interpolating the curve gaps at a lower TR). Temporal resolution can be improved by staggering stimulus presentation across trials. If one-third of data trials are sampled normally, one-third at 1 s, 4 s, 7 s and so on, and the last third at 2 s, 5 s and 8 s, the combined data provide a resolution of 1 s, though with only one-third as many total events.
The time resolution needed depends on brain processing time for various events. An example of the broad range here is given by the visual processing system. What the eye sees is registered on the photoreceptors of the retina within a millisecond or so. These signals get to the primary visual cortex via the thalamus in tens of milliseconds. Neuronal activity related to the act of seeing lasts for more than 100 ms. A fast reaction, such as swerving to avoid a car crash, takes around 200 ms. By about half a second, awareness and reflection of the incident sets in. Remembering a similar event may take a few seconds, and emotional or physiological changes such as fear arousal may last minutes or hours. Learned changes, such as recognizing faces or scenes, may last days, months, or years. Most fMRI experiments study brain processes lasting a few seconds, with the study conducted over some tens of minutes. Subjects may move their heads during that time, and this head motion needs to be corrected for. So does drift in the baseline signal over time. Boredom and learning may modify both subject behavior and cognitive processes.
Linear addition from multiple activation
When a person performs two tasks simultaneously or in overlapping fashion, the BOLD response is expected to add linearly. This is a fundamental assumption of many fMRI studies that is based on the principle that continuously differentiable systems can be expected to behave linearly when perturbations are small; they are linear to first order. Linear addition means the only operation allowed on the individual responses before they are combined (added together) is a separate scaling of each. Since scaling is just multiplication by a constant number, this means an event that evokes, say, twice the neural response as another, can be modeled as the first event presented twice simultaneously. The HR for the doubled-event is then just double that of the single event.
To the extent that the behavior is linear, the time course of the BOLD response to an arbitrary stimulus can be modeled by convolution of that stimulus with the impulse BOLD response. Accurate time course modeling is important in estimating the BOLD response magnitude.
This strong assumption was first studied in 1996 by Boynton and colleagues, who checked the effects on the primary visual cortex of patterns flickering 8 times a second and presented for 3 to 24 seconds. Their result showed that when visual contrast of the image was increased, the HR shape stayed the same but its amplitude increased proportionally. With some exceptions, responses to longer stimuli could also be inferred by adding together the responses for multiple shorter stimuli summing to the same longer duration. In 1997, Dale and Buckner tested whether individual events, rather than blocks of some duration, also summed the same way, and found they did. But they also found deviations from the linear model at time intervals less than 2 seconds.
A source of nonlinearity in the fMRI response is from the refractory period, where brain activity from a presented stimulus suppresses further activity on a subsequent, similar, stimulus. As stimuli become shorter, the refractory period becomes more noticeable. The refractory period does not change with age, nor do the amplitudes of HRs. The period differs across brain regions. In both the primary motor cortex and the visual cortex, the HR amplitude scales linearly with duration of a stimulus or response. In the corresponding secondary regions, the supplementary motor cortex, which is involved in planning motor behavior, and the motion-sensitive V5 region, a strong refractory period is seen and the HR amplitude stays steady across a range of stimulus or response durations. The refractory effect can be used in a way similar to habituation to see what features of a stimulus a person discriminates as new. Further limits to linearity exist because of saturation: with large stimulation levels a maximum BOLD response is reached.
Matching neural activity to the BOLD signal
Researchers have checked the BOLD signal against both signals from implanted electrodes (mostly in monkeys) and signals of field potentials (that is the electric or magnetic field from the brain's activity, measured outside the skull) from EEG and MEG. The local field potential, which includes both post-neuron-synaptic activity and internal neuron processing, better predicts the BOLD signal. So the BOLD contrast reflects mainly the inputs to a neuron and the neuron's integrative processing within its body, and less the output firing of neurons. In humans, electrodes can be implanted only in patients who need surgery as treatment, but evidence suggests a similar relationship at least for the auditory cortex and the primary visual cortex. Activation locations detected by BOLD fMRI in cortical areas (brain surface regions) are known to tally with CBF-based functional maps from PET scans. Some regions just a few millimeters in size, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, which relays visual inputs from the retina to the visual cortex, have been shown to generate the BOLD signal correctly when presented with visual input. Nearby regions such as the pulvinar nucleus were not stimulated for this task, indicating millimeter resolution for the spatial extent of the BOLD response, at least in thalamic nuclei. In the rat brain, single-whisker touch has been shown to elicit BOLD signals from the somatosensory cortex.
However, the BOLD signal cannot separate feedback and feedforward active networks in a region; the slowness of the vascular response means the final signal is the summed version of the whole region's network; blood flow is not discontinuous as the processing proceeds. Also, both inhibitory and excitatory input to a neuron from other neurons sum and contribute to the BOLD signal. Within a neuron these two inputs might cancel out. The BOLD response can also be affected by a variety of factors, including disease, sedation, anxiety, medications that dilate blood vessels, and attention (neuromodulation).
The amplitude of the BOLD signal does not necessarily affect its shape. A higher-amplitude signal may be seen for stronger neural activity, but peaking at the same place as a weaker signal. Also, the amplitude does not necessarily reflect behavioral performance. A complex cognitive task may initially trigger high-amplitude signals associated with good performance, but as the subject gets better at it, the amplitude may decrease with performance staying the same. This is expected to be due to increased efficiency in performing the task. The BOLD response across brain regions cannot be compared directly even for the same task, since the density of neurons and the blood-supply characteristics are not constant across the brain. However, the BOLD response can often be compared across subjects for the same brain region and the same task.
More recent characterization of the BOLD signal has used optogenetic techniques in rodents to precisely control neuronal firing while simultaneously monitoring the BOLD response using high field magnets (a technique sometimes referred to as "optofMRI"). These techniques suggest that neuronal firing is well correlated with the measured BOLD signal including approximately linear summation of the BOLD signal over closely spaced bursts of neuronal firing. Linear summation is an assumption of commonly used event-related fMRI designs.
Medical use
Physicians use fMRI to assess how risky brain surgery or similar invasive treatment is for a patient and to learn how a normal, diseased or injured brain is functioning. They map the brain with fMRI to identify regions linked to critical functions such as speaking, moving, sensing, or planning. This is useful to plan for surgery and radiation therapy of the brain. Clinicians also use fMRI to anatomically map the brain and detect the effects of tumors, stroke, head and brain injury, or diseases such as Alzheimer's, and developmental disabilities such as Autism etc..
Clinical use of fMRI still lags behind research use. Patients with brain pathologies are more difficult to scan with fMRI than are young healthy volunteers, the typical research-subject population. Tumors and lesions can change the blood flow in ways not related to neural activity, masking the neural HR. Drugs such as antihistamines and even caffeine can affect HR. Some patients may be suffering from disorders such as compulsive lying, which makes certain studies impossible. It is harder for those with clinical problems to stay still for long. Using head restraints or bite bars may injure epileptics who have a seizure inside the scanner; bite bars may also discomfort those with dental prostheses.
Despite these difficulties, fMRI has been used clinically to map functional areas, check left-right hemispherical asymmetry in language and memory regions, check the neural correlates of a seizure, study how the brain recovers partially from a stroke, test how well a drug or behavioral therapy works, detect the onset of Alzheimer's, and note the presence of disorders like depression. Mapping of functional areas and understanding lateralization of language and memory help surgeons avoid removing critical brain regions when they have to operate and remove brain tissue. This is of particular importance in removing tumors and in patients who have intractable temporal lobe epilepsy. Lesioning tumors requires pre-surgical planning to ensure no functionally useful tissue is removed needlessly. Recovered depressed patients have shown altered fMRI activity in the cerebellum, and this may indicate a tendency to relapse. Pharmacological fMRI, assaying brain activity after drugs are administered, can be used to check how much a drug penetrates the blood–brain barrier and dose vs effect information of the medication.
Animal research
Research is primarily performed in non-human primates such as the rhesus macaque. These studies can be used both to check or predict human results and to validate the fMRI technique itself. But the studies are difficult because it is hard to motivate an animal to stay still and typical inducements such as juice trigger head movement while the animal swallows it. It is also expensive to maintain a colony of larger animals such as the macaque.
Analyzing the data
The goal of fMRI data analysis is to detect correlations between brain activation and a task the subject performs during the scan. It also aims to discover correlations with the specific cognitive states, such as memory and recognition, induced in the subject. The BOLD signature of activation is relatively weak, however, so other sources of noise in the acquired data must be carefully controlled. This means that a series of processing steps must be performed on the acquired images before the actual statistical search for task-related activation can begin. Nevertheless, it is possible to predict, for example, the emotions a person is experiencing solely from their fMRI, with a high degree of accuracy.
Sources of noise
Noise is unwanted changes to the MR signal from elements not of interest to the study. The five main sources of noise in fMRI are thermal noise, system noise, physiological noise, random neural activity and differences in both mental strategies and behavior across people and across tasks within a person. Thermal noise multiplies in line with the static field strength, but physiological noise multiplies as the square of the field strength. Since the signal also multiplies as the square of the field strength, and since physiological noise is a large proportion of total noise, higher field strengths above 3 T do not always produce proportionately better images.
Heat causes electrons to move around and distort the current in the fMRI detector, producing thermal noise. Thermal noise rises with the temperature. It also depends on the range of frequencies detected by the receiver coil and its electrical resistance. It affects all voxels similarly, independent of anatomy.
System noise is from the imaging hardware. One form is scanner drift, caused by the superconducting magnet's field drifting over time. Another form is changes in the current or voltage distribution of the brain itself inducing changes in the receiver coil and reducing its sensitivity. A procedure called impedance matching is used to bypass this inductance effect. There could also be noise from the magnetic field not being uniform. This is often adjusted for by using shimming coils, small magnets physically inserted, say into the subject's mouth, to patch the magnetic field. The nonuniformities are often near brain sinuses such as the ear and plugging the cavity for long periods can be discomfiting. The scanning process acquires the MR signal in k-space, in which overlapping spatial frequencies (that is repeated edges in the sample's volume) are each represented with lines. Transforming this into voxels introduces some loss and distortions.
Physiological noise is from head and brain movement in the scanner from breathing, heart beats, or the subject fidgeting, tensing, or making physical responses such as button presses. Head movements cause the voxel-to-neurons mapping to change while scanning is in progress. Since fMRI is acquired in slices, after movement, a voxel continues to refer to the same absolute location in space while the neurons underneath it would have changed. Another source of physiological noise is the change in the rate of blood flow, blood volume, and use of oxygen over time. This last component contributes to two-thirds of physiological noise, which, in turn, is the main contributor to total noise.
Even with the best experimental design, it is not possible to control and constrain all other background stimuli impinging on a subject—scanner noise, random thoughts, physical sensations, and the like. These produce neural activity independent of the experimental manipulation. These are not amenable to mathematical modeling and have to be controlled by the study design.
A person's strategies to respond or react to a stimulus, and to solve problems, often change over time and over tasks. This generates variations in neural activity from trial to trial within a subject. Across people too neural activity differs for similar reasons. Researchers often conduct pilot studies to see how participants typically perform for the task under consideration. They also often train subjects how to respond or react in a trial training session prior to the scanning one.
Preprocessing
The scanner platform generates a 3 D volume of the subject's head every TR. This consists of an array of voxel intensity values, one value per voxel in the scan. The voxels are arranged one after the other, unfolding the three-dimensional structure into a single line. Several such volumes from a session are joined to form a 4 D volume corresponding to a run, for the time period the subject stayed in the scanner without adjusting head position. This 4 D volume is the starting point for analysis. The first part of that analysis is preprocessing.
The first step in preprocessing is conventionally slice timing correction. The MR scanner acquires different slices within a single brain volume at different times, and hence the slices represent brain activity at different timepoints. Since this complicates later analysis, a timing correction is applied to bring all slices to the same timepoint reference. This is done by assuming the timecourse of a voxel is smooth when plotted as a dotted line. Hence the voxel's intensity value at other times not in the sampled frames can be calculated by filling in the dots to create a continuous curve.
Head motion correction is another common preprocessing step. When the head moves, the neurons under a voxel move and hence its timecourse now represents largely that of some other voxel in the past. Hence the timecourse curve is effectively cut and pasted from one voxel to another. Motion correction tries different ways of undoing this to see which undoing of the cut-and-paste produces the smoothest timecourse for all voxels. The undoing is by applying a rigid-body transform to the volume, by shifting and rotating the whole volume data to account for motion. The transformed volume is compared statistically to the volume at the first timepoint to see how well they match, using a cost function such as correlation or mutual information. The transformation that gives the minimal cost function is chosen as the model for head motion. Since the head can move in a vastly varied number of ways, it is not possible to search for all possible candidates; nor is there right now an algorithm that provides a globally optimal solution independent of the first transformations we try in a chain.
Distortion corrections account for field nonuniformities of the scanner. One method, as described before, is to use shimming coils. Another is to recreate a field map of the main field by acquiring two images with differing echo times. If the field were uniform, the differences between the two images also would be uniform. Note these are not true preprocessing techniques since they are independent of the study itself. Bias field estimation is a real preprocessing technique using mathematical models of the noise from distortion, such as Markov random fields and expectation maximization algorithms, to correct for distortion.
In general, fMRI studies acquire both many functional images with fMRI and a structural image with MRI. The structural image is usually of a higher resolution and depends on a different signal, the T1 magnetic field decay after excitation. To demarcate regions of interest in the functional image, one needs to align it with the structural one. Even when whole-brain analysis is done, to interpret the final results, that is to figure out which regions the active voxels fall in, one has to align the functional image to the structural one. This is done with a coregistration algorithm that works similar to the motion-correction one, except that here the resolutions are different, and the intensity values cannot be directly compared since the generating signal is different.
Typical MRI studies scan a few different subjects. To integrate the results across subjects, one possibility is to use a common brain atlas, and adjust all the brains to align to the atlas, and then analyze them as a single group. The atlases commonly used are the Talairach one, a single brain of an elderly woman created by Jean Talairach, and the Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) one. The second is a probabilistic map created by combining scans from over a hundred individuals. This normalization to a standard template is done by mathematically checking which combination of stretching, squeezing, and warping reduces the differences between the target and the reference. While this is conceptually similar to motion correction, the changes required are more complex than just translation and rotation, and hence optimization even more likely to depend on the first transformations in the chain that is checked.
Temporal filtering is the removal of frequencies of no interest from the signal. A voxel's intensity change over time can be represented as the sum of a number of different repeating waves with differing periods and heights. A plot with these periods on the x-axis and the heights on the y-axis is called a power spectrum, and this plot is created with the Fourier transform technique. Temporal filtering amounts to removing the periodic waves not of interest to us from the power spectrum, and then summing the waves back again, using the inverse Fourier transform to create a new timecourse for the voxel. A high-pass filter removes the lower frequencies, and the lowest frequency that can be identified with this technique is the reciprocal of twice the TR. A low-pass filter removes the higher frequencies, while a band-pass filter removes all frequencies except the particular range of interest.
Smoothing, or spatial filtering, is the idea of averaging the intensities of nearby voxels to produce a smooth spatial map of intensity change across the brain or region of interest. The averaging is often done by convolution with a Gaussian filter, which, at every spatial point, weights neighboring voxels by their distance, with the weights falling exponentially following the bell curve. If the true spatial extent of activation, that is the spread of the cluster of voxels simultaneously active, matches the width of the filter used, this process improves the signal-to-noise ratio. It also makes the total noise for each voxel follow a bell-curve distribution, since adding together a large number of independent, identical distributions of any kind produces the bell curve as the limit case. But if the presumed spatial extent of activation does not match the filter, signal is reduced.
Statistical analysis
One common approach to analysing fMRI data is to consider each voxel separately within the framework of the general linear model. The model assumes, at every time point, that the hemodynamic response (HR) is equal to the scaled and summed version of the events active at that point. A researcher creates a design matrix specifying which events are active at any timepoint. One common way is to create a matrix with one column per overlapping event, and one row per time point, and to mark it if a particular event, say a stimulus, is active at that time point. One then assumes a specific shape for the HR, leaving only its amplitude changeable in active voxels. The design matrix and this shape are used to generate a prediction of the exact HR of the voxel at every timepoint, using the mathematical procedure of convolution. This prediction does not include the scaling required for every event before summing them.
The basic model assumes the observed HR is the predicted HR scaled by the weights for each event and then added, with noise mixed in. This generates a set of linear equations with more equations than unknowns. A linear equation has an exact solution, under most conditions, when equations and unknowns match. Hence one could choose any subset of the equations, with the number equal to the number of variables, and solve them. But, when these solutions are plugged into the left-out equations, there will be a mismatch between the right and left sides, the error. The GLM model attempts to find the scaling weights that minimize the sum of the squares of the error. This method is provably optimal if the error were distributed as a bell curve, and if the scaling-and-summing model were accurate. For a more mathematical description of the GLM model, see generalized linear models.
The GLM model does not take into account the contribution of relationships between multiple voxels. Whereas GLM analysis methods assess whether a voxel or region's signal amplitude is higher or lower for one condition than another, newer statistical models such as multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA), utilize the unique contributions of multiple voxels within a voxel-population. In a typical implementation, a classifier or more basic algorithm is trained to distinguish trials for different conditions within a subset of the data. The trained model is then tested by predicting the conditions of the remaining (independent) data. This approach is most typically achieved by training and testing on different scanner sessions or runs. If the classifier is linear, then the training model is a set of weights used to scale the value in each voxel before summing them to generate a single number that determines the condition for each testing set trial. More information on training and testing classifiers is at statistical classification. Another method used the same fMRI dataset for visual object recognition in the human brain is depending on multi-voxel pattern analysis (fMRI voxels) and multi-view learning which is described in, this method used meta-heuristic search and mutual information to eliminate noisy voxels and select the significant BOLD signals.
Combining with other methods
It is common to combine fMRI signal acquisition with tracking of participants' responses and reaction times. Physiological measures such as heart rate, breathing, skin conductance (rate of sweating), and eye movements are sometimes captured simultaneously with fMRI. The method can also be combined with other brain-imaging techniques such as transcranial stimulation, direct cortical stimulation and, especially, EEG. The fMRI procedure can also be combined with near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to have supplementary information about both oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin.
The fMRI technique can complement or supplement other techniques because of its unique strengths and gaps. It can noninvasively record brain signals without risks of ionising radiation inherent in other scanning methods, such as CT or PET scans. It can also record signal from all regions of the brain, unlike EEG/MEG, which are biased toward the cortical surface. But fMRI temporal resolution is poorer than that of EEG since the HR takes tens of seconds to climb to its peak. Combining EEG with fMRI is hence potentially powerful because the two have complementary strengths—EEG has high temporal resolution, and fMRI high spatial resolution. But simultaneous acquisition needs to account for the EEG signal from varying blood flow triggered by the fMRI gradient field, and the EEG signal from the static field. For details, see EEG vs fMRI.
While fMRI stands out due to its potential to capture neural processes associated with health and disease, brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have the power to alter these neural processes. Therefore, a combination of both is needed to investigate the mechanisms of action of TMS treatment and on the other hand introduce causality into otherwise pure correlational observations. The current state-of-the-art setup for these concurrent TMS/fMRI experiments comprises a large-volume head coil, usually a birdcage coil, with the MR-compatible TMS coil being mounted inside that birdcage coil. It was applied in a multitude of experiments studying local and network interactions. However, classic setups with the TMS coil placed inside MR birdcage-type head coil are characterised by poor signal to noise ratios compared to multi-channel receive arrays used in clinical neuroimaging today. Moreover, the presence of the TMS coil inside the MR birdcage coil causes artefacts beneath the TMS coil, i.e. at the stimulation target. For these reasons new MR coil arrays were currently developed dedicated to concurrent TMS/fMRI experiments.
Issues in fMRI
Design
If the baseline condition is too close to maximum activation, certain processes may not be represented appropriately. Another limitation on experimental design is head motion, which can lead to artificial intensity changes of the fMRI signal.
Block versus event-related design
In a block design, two or more conditions are alternated by blocks. Each block will have a duration of a certain number of fMRI scans and within each block only one condition is presented. By making the conditions differ in only the cognitive process of interest, the fMRI signal that differentiates the conditions should represent this cognitive process of interest. This is known as the subtraction paradigm.
The increase in fMRI signal in response to a stimulus is additive. This means that the amplitude of the hemodynamic response (HR) increases when multiple stimuli are presented in rapid succession. When each block is alternated with a rest condition in which the HR has enough time to return to baseline, a maximum amount of variability is introduced in the signal. As such, we conclude that block designs offer considerable statistical power. There are however severe drawbacks to this method, as the signal is very sensitive to signal drift, such as head motion, especially when only a few blocks are used. Another limiting factor is a poor choice of baseline, as it may prevent meaningful conclusions from being drawn. There are also problems with many tasks lacking the ability to be repeated. Since within each block only one condition is presented, randomization of stimulus types is not possible within a block. This makes the type of stimulus within each block very predictable. As a consequence, participants may become aware of the order of the events.
Event-related designs allow more real world testing, however, the statistical power of event related designs is inherently low, because the signal change in the BOLD fMRI signal following a single stimulus presentation is small.
Both block and event-related designs are based on the subtraction paradigm, which assumes that specific cognitive processes can be added selectively in different conditions. Any difference in blood flow (the BOLD signal) between these two conditions is then assumed to reflect the differing cognitive process. In addition, this model assumes that a cognitive process can be selectively added to a set of active cognitive processes without affecting them.
Baseline versus activity conditions
The brain is never completely at rest. It never stops functioning and firing neuronal signals, as well as using oxygen as long as the person in question is alive. In fact, in Stark and Squire's, 2001 study When zero is not zero: The problem of ambiguous baseline conditions in fMRI, activity in the medial temporal lobe (as well as in other brain regions) was substantially higher during rest than during several alternative baseline conditions. The effect of this elevated activity during rest was to reduce, eliminate, or even reverse the sign of the activity during task conditions relevant to memory functions. These results demonstrate that periods of rest are associated with significant cognitive activity and are therefore not an optimal baseline for cognition tasks. In order to discern baseline and activation conditions it is necessary to interpret a lot of information. This includes situations as simple as breathing. Periodic blocks may result in identical data of other variance in the data if the person breathes at a regular rate of 1 breath/5sec, and the blocks occur every 10s, thus impairing the data.
Reverse inference
Neuroimaging methods such as fMRI and MRI offer a measure of the activation of certain brain areas in response to cognitive tasks engaged in during the scanning process. Data obtained during this time allow cognitive neuroscientists to gain information regarding the role of particular brain regions in cognitive function. However, an issue arises when certain brain regions are alleged by researchers to identify the activation of previously labeled cognitive processes. Poldrack clearly describes this issue:
The usual kind of inference that is drawn from neuroimaging data is of the form ‘if cognitive process X is engaged, then brain area Z is active.’ Perusal of the discussion sections of a few fMRI articles will quickly reveal, however, an epidemic of reasoning taking the following form:
(1) In the present study, when task comparison A was presented, brain area Z was active.
(2) In other studies, when cognitive process X was putatively engaged, then brain area Z was active.
(3) Thus, the activity of area Z in the present study demonstrates engagement of cognitive process X by task comparison A.
This is a ‘reverse inference’, in that it reasons backwards from the presence of brain activation to the engagement of a particular cognitive function.
Reverse inference demonstrates the logical fallacy of affirming what you just found, although this logic could be supported by instances where a certain outcome is generated solely by a specific occurrence. With regard to the brain and brain function it is seldom that a particular brain region is activated solely by one cognitive process. Some suggestions to improve the legitimacy of reverse inference have included both increasing the selectivity of response in the brain region of interest and increasing the prior probability of the cognitive process in question. However, Poldrack suggests that reverse inference should be used merely as a guide to direct further inquiry rather than a direct means to interpret results.
Forward inference
Forward inference is a data driven method that uses patterns of brain activation to distinguish between competing cognitive theories. It shares characteristics with cognitive psychology's dissociation logic and philosophy's forward chaining. For example, Henson discusses forward inference's contribution to the "single process theory vs. dual process theory" debate with regard to recognition memory. Forward inference supports the dual process theory by demonstrating that there are two qualitatively different brain activation patterns when distinguishing between "remember vs. know judgments". The main issue with forward inference is that it is a correlational method. Therefore, one cannot be completely confident that brain regions activated during cognitive process are completely necessary for that execution of those processes. In fact, there are many known cases that demonstrate just that. For example, the hippocampus has been shown to be activated during classical conditioning, however lesion studies have demonstrated that classical conditioning can occur without the hippocampus.
Risks
The most common risk to participants in an fMRI study is claustrophobia and there are reported risks for pregnant women to go through the scanning process. Scanning sessions also subject participants to loud high-pitched noises from Lorentz forces induced in the gradient coils by the rapidly switching current in the powerful static field. The gradient switching can also induce currents in the body causing nerve tingling. Implanted medical devices such as pacemakers could malfunction because of these currents. The radio-frequency field of the excitation coil may heat up the body, and this has to be monitored more carefully in those running a fever, the diabetic, and those with circulatory problems. Local burning from metal necklaces and other jewellery is also a risk.
The strong static magnetic field can cause damage by pulling in nearby heavy metal objects converting them to projectiles.
There is no proven risk of biological harm from even very powerful static magnetic fields. However, genotoxic (i.e., potentially carcinogenic) effects of MRI scanning have been demonstrated in vivo and in vitro, leading a recent review to recommend "a need for further studies and prudent use in order to avoid unnecessary examinations, according to the precautionary principle". In a comparison of genotoxic effects of MRI compared with those of CT scans, Knuuti et al. reported that even though the DNA damage detected after MRI was at a level comparable to that produced by scans using ionizing radiation (low-dose coronary CT angiography, nuclear imaging, and X-ray angiography), differences in the mechanism by which this damage takes place suggests that the cancer risk of MRI, if any, is unknown.
Advanced methods
The first fMRI studies validated the technique against brain activity known, from other techniques, to be correlated to tasks. By the early 2000s, fMRI studies began to discover novel correlations. Still their technical disadvantages have spurred researchers to try more advanced ways to increase the power of both clinical and research studies.
Better spatial resolution
MRI, in general, has better spatial resolution than EEG and MEG, but not as good a resolution as invasive procedures such as single-unit electrodes. While typical resolutions are in the millimeter range, ultra-high-resolution MRI or MR spectroscopy works at a resolution of tens of micrometers. It uses 7 T fields, small-bore scanners that can fit small animals such as rats, and external contrast agents such as fine iron oxide. Fitting a human requires larger-bore scanners, which make higher fields strengths harder to achieve, especially if the field has to be uniform; it also requires either internal contrast such as BOLD or a non-toxic external contrast agent unlike iron oxide.
Parallel imaging is another technique to improve spatial resolution. This uses multiple coils for excitation and reception. Spatial resolution improves as the square root of the number of coils used. This can be done either with a phased array where the coils are combined in parallel and often sample overlapping areas with gaps in the sampling or with massive coil arrays, which are a much denser set of receivers separate from the excitation coils. These, however, pick up signals better from the brain surface, and less well from deeper structures such as the hippocampus.
Better temporal resolution
Temporal resolution of fMRI is limited by: (1) the feedback mechanism that raises the blood flow operating slowly; (2) having to wait till net magnetization recovers before sampling a slice again; and (3) having to acquire multiple slices to cover the whole brain or region of interest. Advanced techniques to improve temporal resolution address these issues. Using multiple coils speeds up acquisition time in exact proportion to the coils used. Another technique is to decide which parts of the signal matter less and drop those. This could be either those sections of the image that repeat often in a spatial map (that is small clusters dotting the image periodically) or those sections repeating infrequently (larger clusters). The first, a high-pass filter in k-space, has been proposed by Gary H. Glover and colleagues at Stanford. These mechanisms assume the researcher has an idea of the expected shape of the activation image.
Typical gradient-echo EPI uses two gradient coils within a slice, and turns on first one coil and then the other, tracing a set of lines in k-space. Turning on both gradient coils can generate angled lines, which cover the same grid space faster. Both gradient coils can also be turned on in a specific sequence to trace a spiral shape in k-space. This spiral imaging sequence acquires images faster than gradient-echo sequences, but needs more math transformations (and consequent assumptions) since converting back to voxel space requires the data be in grid form (a set of equally spaced points in both horizontal and vertical directions).
New contrast mechanisms
BOLD contrast depends on blood flow, which is both sluggish in response to stimulus and subject to noisy influences. Other biomarkers now looked at to provide better contrast include temperature, acidity/alkalinity (pH), calcium-sensitive agents, neuronal magnetic field, and the Lorentz effect. Temperature contrast depends on changes in brain temperature from its activity. The initial burning of glucose raises the temperature, and the subsequent inflow of fresh, cold blood lowers it. These changes alter the magnetic properties of tissue. Since the internal contrast is too difficult to measure, external agents such as thulium compounds are used to enhance the effect. Contrast based on pH depends on changes in the acid/alkaline balance of brain cells when they go active. This too often uses an external agent. Calcium-sensitive agents make MRI more sensitive to calcium concentrations, with calcium ions often being the messengers for cellular signalling pathways in active neurons. Neuronal magnetic field contrast measures the magnetic and electric changes from neuronal firing directly. Lorentz-effect imaging tries to measure the physical displacement of active neurons carrying an electric current within the strong static field.
Commercial use
Some experiments have shown the neural correlates of peoples' brand preferences. Samuel M. McClure used fMRI to show the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and midbrain were more active when people knowingly drank Coca-Cola as opposed to when they drank unlabeled Coke. Other studies have shown the brain activity that characterizes men's preference for sports cars, and even differences between Democrats and Republicans in their reaction to campaign commercials with images of the 9/11 attacks. Neuromarketing companies have seized on these studies as a better tool to poll user preferences than the conventional survey technique. One such company was BrightHouse, now shut down. Another is Oxford, UK-based Neurosense, which advises clients how they could potentially use fMRI as part of their marketing business activity. A third is Sales Brain in California.
At least two companies have been set up to use fMRI in lie detection: No Lie MRI and the Cephos Corporation . No Lie MRI charges close to $5000 for its services. These companies depend on evidence such as that from a study by Joshua Greene at Harvard University suggesting the prefrontal cortex is more active in those contemplating lying.
However, there is still a fair amount of controversy over whether these techniques are reliable enough to be used in a legal setting . Some studies indicate that while there is an overall positive correlation, there is a great deal of variation between findings and in some cases considerable difficulty in replicating the findings. A federal magistrate judge in Tennessee prohibited fMRI evidence to back up a defendant's claim of telling the truth, on the grounds that such scans do not measure up to the legal standard of scientific evidence.. Most researchers agree that the ability of fMRI to detect deception in a real life setting has not been established.
Use of the fMRI has been left out of legal debates throughout its history. Use of this technology has not been allowed due to holes in the evidence supporting fMRI. First, most evidence supporting fMRIs accuracy was done in a lab under controlled circumstances with solid facts. This type of testing does not pertain to real life. Real-life scenarios can be much more complicated with many other affecting factors. It has been shown that many other factors affect BOLD other than a typical lie. There have been tests done showing that drug use alters blood flow in the brain, which drastically affects the outcome of BOLD testing. Furthermore, individuals with diseases or disorders such as schizophrenia or compulsive lying can lead to abnormal results as well. Lastly, there is an ethical question relating to fMRI scanning. This testing of BOLD has led to controversy over if fMRIs are an invasion of privacy. Being able to scan and interpret what people are thinking may be thought of as immoral and the controversy still continues.
Because of these factors and more, fMRI evidence has been excluded from any form of legal system. The testing is too uncontrolled and unpredictable. Therefore, it has been stated that fMRI has much more testing to do before it can be considered viable in the eyes the legal system.
Criticism
Some scholars have criticized fMRI studies for problematic statistical analyses, often based on low-power, small-sample studies. Other fMRI researchers have defended their work as valid. In 2018, Turner and colleagues have suggested that the small sizes affect the replicability of task-based fMRI studies and claimed that even datasets with at least 100 participants the results may not be well replicated, although there are debates on it.
In one real but satirical fMRI study, a dead salmon was shown pictures of humans in different emotional states. The authors provided evidence, according to two different commonly used statistical tests, of areas in the salmon's brain suggesting meaningful activity. The study was used to highlight the need for more careful statistical analyses in fMRI research, given the large number of voxels in a typical fMRI scan and the multiple comparisons problem. Before the controversies were publicized in 2010, between 25 and 40% of studies on fMRI being published were not using the corrected comparisons. But by 2012, that number had dropped to 10%. Dr. Sally Satel, writing in Time, cautioned that while brain scans have scientific value, individual brain areas often serve multiple purposes and "reverse inferences" as commonly used in press reports carry a significant chance of drawing invalid conclusions.
In 2015, it was discovered that a statistical bug was found in the fMRI computations which likely invalidated at least 40,000 fMRI studies preceding 2015, and researchers suggest that results prior to the bug fix cannot be relied upon. Furthermore, it was later shown that how one sets the parameters in the software determines the false positive rate. In other words, study outcome can be determined by changing software parameters.
In 2020 professor Ahmad Hariri, (Duke University) one of the first researchers to use fMRI, performed a largescale experiment that sought to test the reliability of fMRI on individual people.
In the study, he copied protocols from 56 published papers in psychology that used fMRI. The results suggest that fMRI has poor reliability when it comes to individual cases, but good reliability when it comes to general human thought patterns
See also
Brain function
Brain mapping
Event related fMRI
Functional neuroimaging
Functional ultrasound imaging
Linear transform model (MRI)
List of neuroscience databases
Signal enhancement by extravascular water protons (SEEP fMRI)
Notes
Citations
References
Textbooks
EMRF/TRTF (Peter A. Rinck, ed.), Magnetic Resonance: A peer-reviewed, critical introduction (A free access online textbook)
Joseph P. Hornak, The basics of MRI (online)
Richard B. Buxton, Introduction to functional magnetic resonance imaging: Principles and techniques, Cambridge University Press, 2002,
Roberto Cabeza and Alan Kingstone, Editors, Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition, Second Edition, MIT Press, 2006,
Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G., Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Second Edition, 2009, Massachusetts: Sinauer,
Further reading
External links
www.mri-tutorial.com MRI-TUTORIAL.COM – A free learning repository about neuroimaging
BrainMapping.ORG project – Community web site for information Brain Mapping and methods
fMRI Videos at RadiologyTube.com – A collection of fMRI videos
Columbia University Program for Imaging and Cognitive Sciences: fMRI
Magnetic resonance imaging
Neuroimaging
Cognitive neuroscience
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226724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Capp | Andy Capp | Andy Capp is a British comic strip created by cartoonist Reg Smythe, seen in The Daily Mirror and The Sunday Mirror newspapers since 5 August 1957. Originally a single-panel cartoon, it was later expanded to four panels.
The strip is syndicated internationally by Creators Syndicate. The character is also licensed as the mascot for a line of snack foods (Andy Capp's fries).
Characters and story
Andy (short for "Andrew") Capp
Florrie "Flo" Capp (named after Florence Nightingale)
Chalkie White
Ruby "Rube" White
Percy Ritson, the rent collector
Jackie the barman
The Vicar
Flo's Mum (never seen)
Minor recurring characters include various constables, barmaids, barmen, referees, footballers, pub locals, door-to-door salesmen, debt collectors, job centre employees, and Guitar Bob.
Andy is a working-class figure who never actually works, living in Hartlepool, a harbour town in County Durham, in northeast England. The title of the strip is a pun on the local pronunciation of "handicap"; and the surname "Capp" signifies how Andy's cap always covered his eyes along with, metaphorically, his vision in life.
Andy's hobbies and activities include pigeon racing, darts, snooker (his cue's name is "Delilah"), playing football (which always involves fights with the other players, and frequently ends with Andy being sent off), occasional cricket and rugby, betting on horses (and usually losing badly), getting drunk in the local pub (often falling into the canal and being fished out by a constable, and usually arriving home late as a result), ending up in the local jail, fishing (and not catching anything bigger than a goldfish), unsuccessfully mooching money from everyone for beer, unsuccessfully flirting with barmaids (also yelling at them when he is not served), attempting to pick up (mostly young) bargirls (and being rejected usually due to his age), loafing and napping on the sofa, playing poker (and usually cheating with hidden cards, although plainly seen by the readers), and fighting with his long-suffering wife Florrie (also known as "Flo"), as well as being served burnt food by her.
Andy's iconic checked cap is always pulled down over his eyes, even when he is napping or bathing. He is often unshaven, frequently intoxicated (indicated by a prominent red nose and dishevelled clothing), lazy, freeloading, belligerent, and confrontational, but just as frequently lovable (he always refers to Flo as "pet", and will instantly "bop" anyone who dares to be rude to her). Until the 1980s he was often seen with a cigarette dangling from his lip. When Andy gave up smoking in 1983 some readers blamed political correctness. However, Fergus McKenna, head of syndication at Trinity Mirror which publishes the Daily Mirror, denied that the newspaper had put pressure on Smythe to change Andy's habits, saying: "The truth is that Reg himself gave up smoking and he said there was no way Andy was going to carry on enjoying cigarettes when Reg couldn't". Similarly, Andy no longer beats his wife, because of concerns about the depiction of domestic violence; instead, Andy and Florrie now attend marriage counselling.
Andy and Florrie are always on the verge of poverty. Although Flo works regularly as a charwoman, Andy is unemployed and lacks motivation. Rent on their terraced house and its contents is constantly in arrears, and the rent collector, Percy Ritson, despairs of ever being paid. He, as well as several others, always nag Andy to get himself a job, which is usually met with him clobbering them.
Percy is also always confronting Andy on the way he treats Flo. It's obvious that Percy has a crush on Flo and believes that he would treat her far better than Andy does. This has led the two men to fight.
Their furniture has been repossessed on several occasions. Somehow they always manage to retrieve it, and Andy is always able to afford beer and gambling money, usually by borrowing from Florrie. The "Rose and Crown" barman, Jackie, is regularly seen as well. (Andy also frequents "The Pig and Whistle" and "The Jolly Riveters".)
Almost all the characters occasionally "break the fourth wall" by delivering asides directly to the reader, or even as a very terse 'thought bubble', usually referring to Andy's low character, but more regularly by a character simply cutting their eyes to the reader in the final panel whenever something is said or done by Andy that the character finds unbelievable. The 24 October 1972 strip revealed that Andy once worked as a sign painter, but had not worked at that trade (or any other) for many years. Should anyone suggest he get a job, his response is often very terse and along the lines of 'Don't be so ridiculous!' and sometimes leads to fisticuffs.
He occasionally visits the Job Centre (Labour Exchange) and is sometimes shown finding excuses why he cannot take a job that seems suitable for him, preferring instead to collect his "dole money" (government unemployment assistance). On more than one occasion, it was mentioned that Andy had served in the Royal Air Force. According to Don Markstein,
The strip takes place almost exclusively in one of three locations: the pub, the street, or inside the Capps' residence at 37 Durham Street (generally with Andy on the couch and Florrie yelling from the next room). Less-frequently visited places include the racetrack (although Andy frequently bets by listening to the radio, thus saving him the trip), the marriage counsellor, and the football pitch (where Andy is either fighting, quarrelling, being sent off, or carried off on a stretcher).
Andy's and Flo's best friends are their neighbours Chalkie and Rube White. Chalkie is a hard-drinking working-class type like Andy, who can often be seen sharing a pint with him at the corner pub, but Chalkie seems mellower than Andy, and more tolerant of his wife. Rube is Flo's confidante, and the two often trade gossip over the clothesline about their husbands' latest escapades. The local vicar is also often seen. Andy despairs of his holier-than-thou attitude, as he is constantly criticising Andy for his many bad habits and vice-ridden lifestyle. He often lets his opinion be known to Flo, who agrees with his low assessment of Andy's character.
At times, Flo will forcibly remove Andy from the pub when she feels he has been there for far too long (even at times, missing his tea meal). When he comes home, especially in the earlier strips, Flo often confronted him about his doings, sometimes striking him with either her fist or anything she could grab, ie: a rolling pin, cricket bat or something similar with the intent to clobber him.
However, Flo is not without her own vices. She (along with Rube) will go to Bingo with the same frequency as Andy goes to the pub.
Whenever this happened (also mainly in the earlier strips), the roles are then reversed, with Andy usually confronting Flo for being late from going to Bingo and sometimes striking her with either his fist or chasing her out the door with a push broom or a chair with the intent to clobber her with said object.
She had also lost cleaning jobs due to her being bingo mad.
Flo is also not a very good cook, regularly burning the meals with her lack of cooking skills. This often sends Andy into a rage and off to the nearest Cafe for a meal.
Flo's mother, an unseen character whose dialogue appears from out of frame, often chimes into the conversation, mostly with sarcastic criticism of her son-in-law. Flo's "mam", whom Andy addresses only as "Missus", is often the subject of Andy's pointed barbs about her weight and less-than-sunny disposition, but she has been known to give as good as she gets. Andy's mother was similarly mentioned and also delivered dialogue from offstage, but her "appearances" were cut back significantly as the years passed. Andy's father has also been mentioned. Flo has an older sister named Polly who is seen once, and never-seen brother. Andy had a pet whippet, Nancy, and has always kept pigeons.
Two of the constables who observe Andy's drunken behavior are named Alan and Trevor.
Continuation
Reg Smythe died on 13 June 1998, but the original strip has continued. For some time, the writer and artist were uncredited, but in November 2004 the strip began to carry a credit for Roger Mahoney (artist) and Roger Kettle (writer). Circa 2011, Kettle discontinued his work on the strip and was replaced by Lawrence Goldsmith and Sean Garnett, while Mahoney continues to draw. The appearance of the characters has not changed perceptibly since Smythe's death.
In May 2012, Andy Capp (as well as Flo, Chalkie White, the Vicar, and Jackie the Barman) appeared as an animated series for the first time in promotional material for The Trinity Mirror-owned MirrorBingo.com website. The animation was created by Teesside-born Chris Hunneysett, who drew from his own background to place Andy Capp in Middlesbrough. Andy Capp had previously appeared in animated form in television adverts for the Post Office (1986) and Kit Kat (1991).
Awards
Smythe received the National Cartoonists Society's Humor Comic Strip Award for the strip in 1974.
A statue of Andy Capp was erected in Hartlepool on 28 June 2007. It was sculpted by Jane Robbins.
Book collections and reprints
United Kingdom
(All titles by Reg Smythe. Published by Daily Mirror Books/Mirror Group Publishers unless otherwise noted)
The Andy Capp Book (No. 1) (1958)
Andy Capp Spring Tonic (No. 2) (1959)
Life with Andy Capp (No. 3) (1959)
The Andy Capp Spring Collection (No. 4) (1960)
The Best of Andy Capp (No. 5) (1960)
Laugh with Andy Capp (No. 6) (1961)
The World of Andy Capp (No. 7) (1961)
More Andy Capp (No. 8) (1962)
Andy Capp (No. 9)
Andy Capp Picks His Favourites (No. 10) (1963)
Happy Days with Andy Capp (No. 11) (1963)
Laugh at Life with Andy Capp (No. 12) (1964)
Andy Capp and Florrie (No. 13) (1964)
All the Best from Andy Capp (No. 14) (1965)
Andy Capp (Nos. 15–20) (1965–1968)
The Cream of Andy Capp (1965) First hardcover collection
Andy Capp: His 21st Book (1968)
Andy Capp (Nos. 22–46) (1969–1982)
Laugh Again with Andy Capp – 23 volumes (1968–1980)
The World of Andy Capp – 16 volumes (1981–1995)
The World of Andy Capp (1990) Titan
Andy Capp in Colour: After a Few (1992) Ravette
Andy Capp in Colour: Don’t Wait Up (1992) Ravette
Andy Capp in Colour: On Cue (1993) Ravette
Andy Capp in Colour: A Barrel of Laughs (1993) Ravette
Andy Capp Through the Ages: 1957–2000 (2000) Syndication International
The New Andy Capp Collection Number 1 (2004) David and Charles Books
The New Andy Capp Collection Number 2 (2005) David and Charles Books
Andy Capp at 50 (2006) David and Charles Books
Andy Capp Annual 2011 (2010) Titan
Australia
Andy Capp, Man of the Moment! (1977) Mirror Books
Down the Hatch, Andy Capp! (1977) Mirror Books
Who's Buying, Andy Capp? (1977) Mirror Books
You’re a Winner, Andy Capp! (1977) Mirror Books
Lots More Andy Capp (1980) Castle Books
Amazing Andy Capp (1981) Castle
Everlovin' Andy Capp (1981) Castle
This Is Your Life, Andy Capp! (1981) Castle
Leave 'Em Laughing, Andy Capp (1982) Castle
Flo & Andy at It Again (1982) Castle
You Little Beauty, Andy Capp (1982) Castle
The Incredible Andy Capp (1982) Castle
We Still Luv You, Andy Capp (1982) Castle
Howzat! Andy Capp (1983) Castle
Laugh at Life with Andy Capp (1983) Castle
Big Mouth Andy Capp (1983) Castle
Summer Fun with Andy Capp (1983) Castle
Amorous Andy Capp (1983) Castle
Good Sport Andy Capp (1983) Castle
Raging Andy Capp (1984) Castle
I Can’t Stand Andy Capp! (1984) Castle
It's a Hard Life, Andy Capp (1984) Castle
Romantic Andy Capp (1984) Horwitz Grahame Books
Strike Again, Andy Capp! (1984) HGB
The New Image Andy Capp (1984) HGB
Nobody's Perfect, Andy Capp (1985) HGB
Down Another, Andy Capp (1986) HGB
The Laid Back Andy Capp (1986) HGB
The Andy and Flo Show (1987) HGB
Educating Andy Capp (1987) HGB
The Liberated Andy Capp (1985) HGB
You’re Fine 'n Dandy, Andy Capp (1987) Budget Books
Sporting Life of Andy Capp (1987) Budget Books
Up the Pub with Andy Capp (1987) Budget Books
Andy Capp: After Hours (1987) Budget Books
Andy Capp: Home Sweet Home (1987) Budget Books
Andy Capp: A Look Inside (1987) Budget Books
Outrageous Andy Capp (1987) HGB
The Return of Andy Capp (1988) HGB
The Trivial Pursuit of Andy Capp (1988) HGB
Good Morning, Andy Capp (1988) HGB
Trouble in Paradise with Andy Capp (1988) HGB
On the Run with Andy Capp (1989) HGB
Taking It Easy with Andy Capp (1989) HGB
Late Again, Andy Capp (1989) HGB
Bounce Back with Andy Capp (1990) HGB
Help Yourself, Andy Capp (1990) HGB
Adaptations
Stage
In 1981 a stage musical based on the strip had a short run at London's Aldwych Theatre, with songs by Alan Price and Trevor Peacock, starring Tom Courtenay as Andy and Val McLane as Florrie. The stage show also produced an original West End cast recording, released on LP record by Key Records in 1982. The musical was reprised in 2016 at the Finborough Theatre in London, with Roger Alborough portraying Andy.
Television
An attempt to transfer Andy Capp to television in 1988 met with little success. The well-known British character actor James Bolam played Andy on ITV. The Thames Television series consisted of six episodes that were shown once and have never been repeated. The series was poorly received and attracted some criticism for the way it played up to supposed stereotypes of Northern working-class men.
In 2012 the series was released on DVD (Region 2) in the UK, licensed by Fremantle Media Ltd to the Network Label (VFD64669 / Network 7953656).
Computer game
In 1987, a computer game based on Andy Capp, entitled Andy Capp: The Game, was released for the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC in Europe and North America. Players had to borrow money in order to replenish Andy's alcohol supply while avoiding fights with his wife Flo and the police.
Around the world
A Konkani language adaptation of the comic strip, known as Anton Chepekar (आंंतोन चेपेंकार) used to feature in the Konkani daily Sunaparant.
Related comics
When the children's comic Buster was launched in 1960, its masthead character was entitled "Buster: Son of Andy Capp". Buster wore a cloth cap similar to Andy's until 1992, but the connection was not recognised in the parent strip and had limited development in the children's comic. Buster often referred to his father, and Andy was seen in the comic attempting to find a gas leak in three frames of the 18 June 1960 strip. He was also shown in two drawn photographs in the 2 July 1960 issue, the first of which was displayed by Buster's mum with the pronouncement "It's a photo of Buster taken with Andy! You can see he's got his dad's fine straight nose". Buster's mum was often referred to by name and was consistently drawn to resemble Andy's wife Flo.
See also
The Lockhorns
The Better Half
References
External links
Andy Capp, British Cartoon Archive, University of Kent
Daily Andy Capp comics at Creators Syndicate
Daily Andy Capp comics at GoComics
Andy's Facebook Page
World of Andy Capp at Twitter
"A comic-hero on his way through Europe" in Nürnberger Nachrichten (newspaper), about Ultras Nürnberg's mascot "Jacky" (=Andy)
Cigarettes and Alcohol: Andy Capp, extensive article about Reg Smythe and the comic strip, at PlanetSlade
Interview with Andy Capp writer Sean Garnett at The Journalix
British comic strips
British comics characters
Andy Capp
Andy Capp
Fictional English people
Fictional unemployed people
Andy Capp
Andy Capp
Andy Capp
Andy Capp
Andy Capp
Fictional alcohol abusers
Fictional domestic abusers
1957 establishments in England
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226729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisions%20of%20Bangladesh | Divisions of Bangladesh | Divisions are the first-level administrative division in Bangladesh. There are currently 8 divisions of Bangladesh, each is named after the major city within its jurisdiction that also serves as the administrative seat of that division. Each division is further split into several districts which are further sub-divided into upazilas.
History
Following the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the country had four divisions: Chittagong Division, Dhaka Division, Khulna Division and Rajshahi Division.
In 1982, the English spelling of the Dacca Division (along with the name of the capital city) was changed into Dhaka to more closely match the Bengali pronunciation.
In 1993, Barisal Division was split off from Khulna Division; in 1995, Sylhet Division was split off from Chittagong Division; and in 2010 (25 January), Rangpur Division was split off from Rajshahi Division. In terms of area the newly formed Rangpur Division ranked fifth followed by Barisal Division and Sylhet Division.
On 14 September 2015, Mymensingh Division was added as the eighth division. In 2015, the process started to create two more divisions: Comilla Division and Faridpur Division.
In October 2021, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina announced the formation of two new divisions, Padma and Meghna, named after the eponymous rivers.
Divisional Commissioner
Divisional Commissioner is the administrative head of a division. Divisional Commissioner is appointed by the government from an Additional Secretary level officer of Bangladesh Civil Service (B.C.S) Administration Cadre. The role of a Divisional Commissioner's office is to act as the supervisory head of all the government Offices (except the central government offices) situated in the division. A Divisional Commissioner is given the direct responsibility of supervising the revenue and development administration of a division. The Divisional Commissioner is assisted by the several Additional Divisional Commissioners, Senior Assistant Commissioners and other bureaucratic officials.
List of divisions
The following table outlines some key statistics about the eight divisions of Bangladesh as found in the 2011 Population and Housing Census conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.
Proposed divisions
Two more divisions have been proposed to ease down administrative work load due to increase in population:
Meghna Division – proposed to consist of the six northern districts of the current Chittagong Division, formerly comprising the regions of Greater Comilla and Brahmanbaria.
Padma Division - proposed to have the five districts south of the Padma in the existing Dhaka division
See also
ISO 3166 codes
List of divisions of Bangladesh by Human Development Index
Districts of Bangladesh
Upazilas of Bangladesh
Villages of Bangladesh
References
Subdivisions of Bangladesh
Divisions
Bangladesh 1
Divisions, Bangladesh
Bangladesh geography-related lists | [
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226730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilermaker%20%28beer%20cocktail%29 | Boilermaker (beer cocktail) | A boilermaker can refer to two types of beer cocktail. In American terminology, the drink consists of a glass of beer mixed with a shot of whiskey.
Name
The drink originated in Butte, Montana, in the 1890s, and was originally called a "Sean O'Farrell" and was served only when miners ended their shifts. When the beer is served as a chaser, the drink is often called simply a shot and a beer.
In Britain, the term "boilermaker" traditionally refers to a half pint of draught mild mixed with a half pint of bottled brown ale, although it also refers to the American shot and pint. In Scotland, "a half and a half" is a half pint of beer with a whisky ("a hauf"). The use of these terms in Scottish and English pubs can be traced back to about 1920.
Drinking
There are a number of ways to drink an American beer chaser:
Traditionally, the liquor is consumed in a single gulp and is then "chased" by the beer, which is sipped.
The liquor and beer may be mixed by pouring or dropping the shot into the beer. The mixture may be stirred. If the shot glass is dropped into the beer glass, the drink can also be known as a depth charge.
Similar drinks
Other pairings of a shot and a beer are possible; traditional pairings include:
Herrengedeck ("gentlemen's menu"), a German pairing of Korn (grain brandy) and beer
Irish Car Bomb, an American pairing of a shot of Irish cream and whiskey into a glass of stout
("little headbutt"), a Dutch pairing of Jenever (Dutch gin) and beer, term attested 1943
Somaek or Poktan-ju, a Korean pairing of soju and beer
U-Boot, a pairing of vodka and beer
The Chicago Handshake or Chicago Drive-by, a shot of Jeppson's Malört alongside Old Style beer
See also
Queen Mary (beer cocktail)
References
Shooters (drinks)
Cocktails with beer
Cocktails
Two-ingredient cocktails
Cocktails with whisky | [
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226734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%20of%20Nigeria | States of Nigeria | Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal capital territory. Each of the 36 states is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares powers with the Federal Government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Federal Capital Territory, also known as FCT, is the capital territory of Nigeria, and it is in this territory that the capital city of Abuja is located. The FCT is not a state but is administered by elected officials who are supervised by the Federal Government. Each state is sub-divided into Local Government Areas (LGAs). There are 774 local government in Nigeria. Under the Constitution, the 36 states are co-equal but not supreme because sovereignty resides with the Federal Government. The constitution can be amended by the National Assembly, but each amendment must be ratified by two-thirds of the 36 states of the federation.
Current states and the Federal Capital Territory
Evolution of Nigerian states
Government
States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria.
Legislature
At the State level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives. It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list.
Executive
At the State level, the head of the executive is called the Governor, who has the power to appoint people to the State Executive Council, subject to the advice and consent of the State House of Assembly (Legislature). The head of a ministry at the State level is called a commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the State.
Judiciary
The Judiciary is one of the co-equal arms of the State government concerned with the interpretation of the laws of the State government. The Judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of the State appointed by the governor subject to the approval of the State House of Assembly.
Chronology
See also
List of Nigerian states by population
ISO 3166-2:NG
List of state governors of Nigeria
Notes
Sources
External links
Headline News in Nigeria States
States And Capital In Nigeria, Their Slogans & Current Governors A comprehensive list of all states in Nigeria and their current governors.
Subdivisions of Nigeria
States
Nigeria 1
States, Nigeria
Nigeria geography-related lists | [
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226736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20Irish%20general%20election | 2002 Irish general election | The 2002 Irish general election was held on Friday, 17 May just over three weeks after the dissolution of the 28th Dáil on Thursday, 25 April by President Mary McAleese, at the request of the Taoiseach, Bertie Ahern. The newly elected members of the 29th Dáil assembled on Thursday, 6 June.
The general election took place in 42 parliamentary constituencies throughout Ireland for 165 seats in the lower house of parliament, Dáil Éireann.
Overview
The general election was significant for a number of reasons:
The election was considered a success for Fianna Fáil, with the party coming within a handful of seats from achieving an overall majority (the nearest the country came to a one party majority government since 1987). The only high-profile loss was Mary O'Rourke losing her seat in Westmeath.
The re-election of the Fianna Fáil–Progressive Democrats government, the first occasion since 1969 that an Irish government won re-election.
The meltdown in Fine Gael support, which saw the main opposition party drop from 54 to 31 seats, and lose all but three seats in Dublin.
The failure of the Labour Party, contrary to all expectations, to increase its seat total. Later in the year, Ruairi Quinn stepped down as leader of the Labour Party. He was replaced by Pat Rabbitte, who was one of four Democratic Left TDs who joined in a merger with Labour in 1999. The most high-profile loss for the party was the defeat of former leader Dick Spring in Kerry.
The success of the Green Party, which increased its TDs from two to six, including its first Teachta Dála (TD) outside of Dublin.
The electoral success of Sinn Féin, which increased its seat number from one to five.
The election of a large number of independent candidates.
Contrary to what opinion polls and political pundits were predicting, the Progressive Democrats kept all of their seats, and picked up four more.
It was the first time electronic voting machines were used in an Irish election. They were used in three constituencies: Dublin North, Dublin West and Meath.
Fine Gael
The most noticeable feature of the election was the collapse in Fine Gael's vote. It suffered its second worst electoral result ever (after the 1948 general election), with several prominent members failing to get re-elected, including:
Alan Dukes – former party leader
Jim Mitchell – deputy leader
Nora Owen – former deputy leader and former Minister for Justice
Austin Currie – former presidential candidate
Jim Higgins – former Chief Whip
Alan Shatter – front bench member
Deirdre Clune – front bench member
Michael Creed – front bench member
Frances Fitzgerald – front bench member
The party's losses were especially pronounced in Dublin, where just three TDs (Richard Bruton, Gay Mitchell and Olivia Mitchell) were returned, fewer than Fianna Fáil, Labour, the Progressive Democrats or the Greens.
The reasons for the drop in support for Fine Gael are many and varied:
There was an element of bad luck in some losses, and the proportion of seats they lost (42.6%) was much greater than the proportion of votes (25.2%).
In 2002, the Irish economy was booming, unemployment was low, and the outgoing government was a stable one that had lasted its full term.
No other opposition party, noticeably Labour, would agree to a pre-election pact with Fine Gael, sensing the unpopularity of the party. This meant that no-one felt that Fine Gael would be able to lead a government after the election. In contrast, the two parties of the outgoing government fought the election on a united front.
The Fine Gael party was poorly organised in Dublin, and morale was low.
The political landscape had changed in Ireland since Fine Gael's heyday in the 1980s. The Progressive Democrats and the Green Party in particular ate into Fine Gael's middle class support, and anti-Fianna Fáil voters had a much wider range of parties to choose from. All 4 of the extra seats won by the Green Party were at the expense of Fine Gael, as were 3 out of 4 of the Progressive Democrats' gains.
Toward the end of the campaign, Michael McDowell warned that because Fianna Fáil were so high in the opinion polls, they could form a government by themselves. This led to a significant shift to the Progressive Democrats at the last minute, and many Fine Gael voters voted strategically for the Progressive Democrats to avoid a single-party Fianna Fáil government.
In the immediate aftermath of the election, Fine Gael leader Michael Noonan announced his resignation from the leadership and Enda Kenny was chosen as the new leader in the subsequent election.
Results
Fianna Fáil and Progressive Democrats majority coalition government formed.
Democratic Left, which won 4 seats in 1997, merged with the Labour Party in 1999. Independents include Independent Health Alliance candidates (12,296 votes, 1 seat) and Independent Fianna Fáil (6,124 votes, 1 seat).
Voting summary
Seats summary
Dáil membership changes
The following changes took place as a result of the election:
22 outgoing TDs retired
143 TDs stood for re-election (plus the Ceann Comhairle, Séamus Pattison who was automatically returned)
110 of those were re-elected
33 failed to be re-elected
55 successor TDs were elected
47 were elected for the first time
8 had previously been TDs
There were 7 successor female TDs, replacing 6 outgoing, increasing the total number by 1 to 22
There were changes in 38 of 42 constituencies contested
Outgoing TDs are listed in the constituency they contested in the election. For some, such as Marian McGennis, this differs from the constituency they represented in the outgoing Dáil. Where more than one change took place in a constituency the concept of successor is an approximation for presentation only.
A summary of the cross-party seat transfers is:
See also
Government of the 29th Dáil
Members of the 29th Dáil
Ministers of State of the 29th Dáil
Members of the 22nd Seanad
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Dáil General Election May 2002: Results and Transfer of Votes (PDF format)
RTÉ archives
Archived collection of party manifestos from 2002 on IrishManifestos.co.nr
General
General
2002
29th Dáil
May 2002 events in Europe | [
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226739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Lutheran%20University | Pacific Lutheran University | Pacific Lutheran University (PLU) is a private Lutheran university in Parkland, Washington. It was founded by Norwegian Lutheran immigrants in 1890. PLU is sponsored by the 580 congregations of Region I of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. PLU has approximately 3,100 students enrolled. As of 2017, the school employs approximately 220 full-time professors on the woodland campus.
PLU consists of the College of Arts and Sciences (including of the Divisions of Humanities, Natural Sciences, and Social Sciences), the School of Arts and Communication, the School of Business, the School of Education and Kinesiology, and the School of Nursing.
History
Early years
Pacific Lutheran University was chartered by the State of Washington on December 11, 1890. In naming the university, the Norwegian pioneers who founded it recognized the role that a Lutheran educational institution on the Western frontier could play in the region. They wanted the institution to help immigrants adjust to their new land and find jobs, but they also wanted it to produce graduates who would serve church and community. Education—and educating for service—was a venerated part of the Scandinavian traditions from which these pioneers came.
Classes first began in 1894 with the student body consisting of 30 students. Tuition at the time cost $1 per week. Bjug Harstad was the school's first president. The entire university was housed in one building from 1894 to 1912. This building was formerly known as Old Main but has since been renamed Harstad Hall in honor of the school's founding president.
In 1898 the university's name was changed to Pacific Lutheran Academy and Business College. Attempting to eliminate the debt plaguing the school, Bjug Harstad left for Alaska to search for gold. He spent one and one half years there but was unable to discover any gold. In 1902 the PLA athletic club celebrated its first victory in men's basketball with a 15–12 win over the University of Washington. Five years later women would be allowed to play basketball.
In 1912 a second building, a gymnasium, was constructed on the university campus. It included a track, a stage, and a science laboratory in the basement. Two years later students built a tennis court in what is now Red Square. By 1914 PLA received full accreditation meaning students could transfer to universities and retain their credits.
Although founded as a university, the institution functioned primarily as an academy until 1918, when it suspended instruction for two years. It reopened as the two-year Pacific Lutheran College, after merging with Columbia College, previously located in Everett. Further consolidations occurred when Spokane College merged with PLC in 1929. Four-year baccalaureate degrees were first offered in education in 1939 and in the liberal arts in 1942. The institution was reorganized as a university in 1960, reclaiming its original name.
Pacific Lutheran College
In 1920 the school merged with Columbia College in Everett, Washington, and reopened as Pacific Lutheran College. The reopening of the school also saw the construction of a new building, the chapel. Classes were held in the chapel until 1967. The chapel was also the home of Trinity Lutheran Church until the congregation built its own church in 1937.
The school's first football team was launched in 1926. They were originally known as the "Greyhounds", then the "Gladiators" (although they are unofficially referred to as the "Lutes"). That same year Polly Langlow, a member of PLC's women's basketball team, scored 270 points in 12-games setting a national record. A year later in 1927 the college's great musical tradition, the Choir of the West, was founded. The Choir acquired its name on a trip to the Great Lakes region.
Another merger occurred in 1929 when Spokane College, another Northwest Norwegian Lutheran school, closed. Its academic records were merged with PLC's, and several of its faculty members came to PLC. In 1937 the university acquired the golf course through a generous donation. The same year the cornerstone was laid for the new library. 1939 saw the first of several visits by Norwegian royalty when Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Märtha came to PLC's campus.
During the early 1940s PLC's student body was almost all female as most men were fighting in World War II. People returning to college post-war, specifically veterans using the G.I. Bill, caused a boom in enrollment. The student body at that time was half veteran and no longer mostly female. A number of new buildings were completed in the following years including Ramstad Hall, Memorial Gymnasium, and the Student Union Building (now renamed as Anderson University Center). In 1952 the new Chapel-Music-Speech Building was constructed and later named Eastvold Chapel (renamed in 2013 as the Karen Hille Phillips Center for the Performing Arts). Chapel became mandatory for the first time with attendance being taken and seats being assigned. Two years later North and South Halls, the first dormitories, were built (later renamed Hong Hall and Hinderlie Hall, respectively.) Until that time students had lived in Old Main or boarded with Parkland families.
University status
Reclaiming the original name, Pacific Lutheran College became known as Pacific Lutheran University in 1960. Along with the name of the school being changed the PLU mascot was also changed from the Gladiators to the Knights. The 1960s saw decade-long construction boom as ten buildings were built by 1970, almost as many as had been built in the previous 70 years.
The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great change on PLU's campus when restrictions on student life began to loosen. Chapel was no longer required and two dormitories become coed. Girls' dormitories' restrictive hours were replaced with a card-key system, and opposite-sex visitation was allowed 3 times a week instead of 2 times a year. Dancing was allowed for the first time on campus in 1963. Several well known entertainers performed at PLU including Louis Armstrong, Ray Charles, The Steve Miller Band, The Righteous Brothers, B.B. King, Ike & Tina Turner, Bob Hope and The Psychedelic Furs performing hits 'Pretty in Pink' and 'Heartbreak Beat'.
Throughout its history PLU has remained close to its Scandinavian roots. In 1975 the school played host to King Olav V of Norway. Three years later in 1978, 14 members of Stortinget, the Norwegian Parliament, visited PLU. In 1982 King Carl XVI Gustav and Queen Silvia of Sweden visited PLU and the following year Princess Astrid of Norway also paid a visit to the university. That same year a monument was erected in Valle, Norway, to honor the Rev. Bjug Harstad, founder of PLU. By 1989 a Scandinavian Cultural Center would be completed on the lower floor of the University Center. King Harald V and Queen Sonja of Norway came to PLU in 1995 with Queen Sonja receiving an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters. Crown Prince Haakon of Norway visited PLU in 1999. To mark its 125th anniversary in 2015, PLU awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree upon King Harald V of Norway.
Presidents
The first President of the Pacific Lutheran University was Rev. Bjug Harstad. The entire university was housed in one building from 1894 to 1912. This building was formerly known as Old Main but has since been renamed Harstad Hall in honor of the founding president.
The 14th and current President of the Pacific Lutheran University is L. Allan Belton, appointed in 2017.
AAUP censure
In June 2020, PLU was added to the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) list of censured administrations. An AAUP report found that a long-serving PLU faculty member had been dismissed in violation of the AAUP's 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure.
Cuts
In April 2021, the board of regents at PLU announced its approval for cuts to 36 full-time faculty equivalent (FTE) positions, which will include some tenured faculty members losing their jobs. The university also will cut several majors (German, Nordic Studies), minors (Classical Studies, Norwegian, German), and one master's program (Master of Science in finance). All cuts will be implemented beginning with the fall 2022 semester. These cuts are expected to save between $2.5 million and $4 million.
The cuts announced in April 2021 follow cuts of about 31 FTE faculty announced during the 2017–2018 academic year, with savings of around $2.8 million. Cuts announced in 2018 also affected some majors and minors. PLU had 376 faculty members in September 2017. More than 1 in 6 FTE faculty positions (67 positions) will have been eliminated as a result of the cuts announced in 2017-2018 and April 2021. The faculty cuts announced in 2017-2018 were made largely through attrition or enticing professors close to retirement to retire early, whereas the cuts announced in April 2021 will involve more involuntary cuts, with some tenured and tenure-track and most contingent professors involuntarily losing their jobs.
Admission and financial aid
Tuition for the 2019–20 school year is $43,264 with room and meals costing $10,876. More than 97 percent of PLU students receive some sort of financial support. The 2020 U.S. News College and University rankings listed PLU as the seventh most innovative school, ninth best undergraduate teaching, and tenth best value school in the west region.
The 2019–2020 student body is as follows: 64 percent female, 36 percent male; 41 percent are students of color; 75 percent are from Washington state; 13 percent are Lutheran; 3 percent are international students representing 23 countries.
Academics
The academic calendar at PLU is divided into two semesters, fall and spring, with a one-month term during January known as J-term. Summer classes are also offered. During J-term students take one class for the entire month of January which counts as a normal 4-credit class one would take during a semester. PLU offers 44 majors and 54 minors in a wide array of disciplines.
New American University
PLU is a member of The New American Colleges and Universities, a national consortium of 22 selective, medium-sized (2,000–7,500 students) independent colleges and universities dedicated to the purposeful integration of liberal education, professional studies, and civic engagement.
This type of institution was called a New American College by Ernest Boyer in a series of influential essays and speeches in the 1990s. Since Boyer coined this term, most of the institutions that have aligned with this identity are referred to as universities; so, the term has tended to become New American University.
Study away
In 2009 PLU received the Senator Paul Simon Award for Campus Internationalization. In the same year PLU matched a $1 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to create an endowment to assist low-income students to participate in study away programs. The Wang Center for International Programs opened in 2002 as the result of a $4 million donation from Peter, a 1960 PLU graduate, and Grace Wang. PLU maintains a partnership with Sichuan University, a university on the Entity List of the United States Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security. Nearly 50% of PLU students study away.
Campus
The Pacific Lutheran University campus is located six miles (10 km) south of Tacoma, Washington, in suburban Parkland, on a 156-acre (63 ha) woodland campus. Joint Base Lewis-McChord is less than a half-mile (800 m) west of Parkland. The campus is unofficially divided into two sections, upper campus and lower campus.
Upper campus is home to many of the academic and administration buildings including the Phillip Hauge Administration Building, Mortvedt Library, Ramstad Hall and Xavier Hall. In 1964, the Board of Regents engaged Richard Haag—'the father of Northwest Landscape Architecture'—to design the landscape architecture plan for upper campus. Haag is famous for his work on Gas Works Park in Seattle, Washington and on the Bloedel Reserve on Bainbridge Island as well as the Seattle Center.
The Mortvedt Library offers over 260,000 volumes of books as well as over 23,000 full-text journals. The oldest book in the PLU collection is a psalter by Johann Bugenhagen published in 1524. Built in 1937, Xavier Hall served as the library until the Mortvedt Library was built in 1967. Since then the Division of Social Sciences has been housed in Xavier. In 2000 Xavier underwent a $5 million renovation project that saw the addition of the Philip Nordquist Lecture Hall. The University Center is also located on upper campus. This building houses the all-campus cafeteria, called the University Commons, and the Old Main Market. In addition it houses the offices of Campus Ministry, Student Involvement and Leadership, Residential Life, the Diversity Center, the Scandinavian Center, Student Media, Residence Hall Association, the Associated Students of PLU (ASPLU), Dining Services, Conferences and Events, and the Chris Knutzen Lecture Hall.
Along with the academic and administration buildings upper campus also houses PLU's art programs. The Mary Baker Russell Music Center was built in 1997 and is the home of PLU's Department of Music. The acoustically impressive and well-known Lagerquist Concert Hall houses the Gottfried and Mary Fuchs Organ (the largest University-based mechanical action organ on the West Coast) as well as state-of-the-art practice and performance facilities. Ingram Hall is home to a communication computer lab, a digital photography/graphic design lab, and studio art classrooms for painting, ceramics, sculpture, photography and printmaking. Ingram boasts two galleries: the University Gallery (which houses major shows and exhibitions) and the Wekell Gallery (which generally houses student and class work). Eastvold Auditorium, formal called Eastvold Chapel, seats 1100 and is the home of PLU Theatre. Eastvold hosts all main stage productions as well as a range of smaller productions throughout the year. In October 2011, PLU Theatre premiered a new addition to its arts department, the Karen H. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts. Named after the former Regent, this space is a symbol of the completion of phase one in Eastvold Auditorium's renovations. Eastvold is set to reopen with a new performing arts center in the fall of 2013.
Lower campus is home to many of the university's athletic facilities. These include Olson Auditorium, Memorial Gymnasium, Names Fitness Center, and the university swimming pool. Also located on lower campus are the Rieke Science Center, Morken Center for Learning and Technology, Martin J. Neeb Building, and the Keck Observatory.
Additional buildings around the perimeter of campus are also used for University purposes, including offices, the Wang Center for International Studies, East Campus, the Women's Center, the University House and Trinity Lutheran Church.
Residential life
PLU requires that all students under 20 years of age or junior status on or before September 1 live on campus or at home with a parent, spouse or child. Approximately half of all students enrolled at PLU live on campus. There are ten residence halls at PLU, with six located on upper campus and four located on lower campus.
Every year, the PLU Football team helps move new students into their PLU home.
The ten on campus residence halls:
Harstad Hall, built in 1894, is the oldest building on campus and housed the entire university from 1894 to 1912. It became a residence hall in 1960. It is an all-female hall, the only single sex hall on campus. Harstad is five stories tall and houses approximately 200 female residents. In 1984 the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Hinderlie Hall, built in 1954, Hinderlie Hall was first named South Hall but changed to Hinderlie in 1966 in honor of Berent and Ragna Hinderlie, university staff members between 1923 and 1955. The hall is four stories tall, with resident rooms on each floor including the south side of the basement, which is open to the hillside. Approximately 130 residents reside in Hinderlie.
Hong International Hall, built in 1954, was originally named North Hall. In 1966 the building was renamed in honor of Nils Joseph Hong, president from 1898 until 1918 and a faculty member at Pacific Lutheran College until he retired in 1938. The hall has five language wings (Norwegian, Chinese, French, German, and Spanish) and the International Honors wing. Approximately 75 residents reside in Hong.
Kreidler Hall, built in 1957, was originally named West Hall. In 1966 the hall was renamed Kreidler Hall after Lora Bradford Kreidler, the Dean of Women and teacher of arts from 1921 to 1943. All rooms in Kreidler are single rooms and students must be 20 years of age or junior standing to reside in Kreidler. Approximately 65 students reside in Kreidler.
Stuen Hall, built in 1966, is named after Ole J. Stuen, faculty member and administrator from 1913 to 1952. Approximately 100 residents reside in Stuen.
Ordal Hall, built in 1967, is named in honor of Ola J. Ordal, president of Pacific Lutheran College from 1921 to 1928. The Hall was originally built to house 187 female students but has since become co-ed.
Pflueger Hall, built in 1962, was the first residence hall built on lower campus. The building is named after Jesse P. Pflueger, professor of religion and philosophy from 1930 to 1958. It was designed to be a three-story hall to house 212 men, but since then has been converted to house both men and women.
Foss Hall, built in 1965, is named after Rev. Halfdan L. Foss, chairman of the Pacific Lutheran Board of Trustees from 1942 to 1964. The hall originally housed 188 men but has since become co-ed. It was taken offline after Spring 2015.
Tingelstad Hall, built in 1967, was originally designed to house 396 men but has since then become co-ed. The hall was named to honor Oscar A. Tingelstad, president of Pacific Lutheran College from 1928 to 1943. Standing nine stories tall Tingelstad is the tallest building in Parkland. The hall is divided into four houses, Alpine, Cascade, Evergreen and Ivy with every two floors sharing a common lounge.
South Hall, built in 2000, is an apartment-style complex located on the south edge of campus. Students must be 20-years of age or junior standing to reside in South.
Commitment to sustainability
PLU has a long history of being committed to a sustainable campus and leading the way as an example for institutions around the world. A certification program in environmental studies was developed in the 1970s, and a major was established in the 1990s. On April 22, 2004, PLU President Loren Anderson signed the Talloires Declaration, making PLU the first Pacific Northwest University to sign the declaration. Leading the nation as a charter signatory to the American College and University presidents Climate Commitment in 2007, PLU accepted the challenge, showing commitment to achieving carbon neutrality. The agreement called for universities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but PLU has taken the initiative to set their goal of becoming carbon neutral by December 31, 2020. The 2015 edition of The Princeton Review's Guide to 353 Green Colleges recognized PLU as a green college leader. Highlights of the review include PLU dining services using 25 percent of its food budget to buy local and/or organic food and 95 percent of the products used by the cleaning services crew being Green Seal Certified.
PLU is currently in the process of remodeling and reconstructing multiple buildings throughout campus. The goal is for each building to obtain a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating of Gold. Currently two buildings have been awarded a Gold rating by LEED. In 2006 the Morken Center for Learning and Technology became the first building to earn the award. The Morken Building is home to the School of Business and the Computer Science department. This , $21 million building requires no fossil fuel to operate and is heated and cooled by using a geothermal heat-pump system that regulates its temperature with water stored in 85 wells located 300 feet (100 m) underground. In 2009 a second building would earn the LEED Gold rating when the Martin J. Neeb Center was completed. This building was home to the radio station 88.5 KPLU and at the time of the award being presented it was the only radio facility in the nation with a LEED Gold ranking. The University Center was the third building to receive a LEED rating. Following the completion of the 2006–2007 academic year, the University Center underwent $14 million in construction renovations and as a result earned a LEED Silver rating.
As of 2013, PLU diverted more than 70% of its waste. For its record on sustainability, the university was recognized with a Gold Award from the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE). In 2008, a student-led initiative brought awareness about saving money by consuming tap water instead of buying bottled water. Bottled water is not sold in campus restaurants as a result of the student-run initiative in 2011. All of the programs in the PLU Sustainability Office are student-led i.e. Bike Coop, Community Garden, surPLUs store, and habitat restoration.
Student activities
Music
PLU's instrumental groups include the University Symphony Orchestra, Wind Ensemble, Concert Band, Jazz Ensemble, Jazz Combo, and Chamber Music. Along with these groups the university has a variety of vocal groups which include the Choir of the West, University Chorale, University Singers, University Men's Chorus, Choral Union, and Chapel Choir.
Founded in 1925, the Choir of the West has toured in America, Europe, and Asia. In 1964 the choir performed the world premier of Hungarian composer Miklós Rózsa's major vocal piece, "The Vanities of Life." A decade later the choir performed the west coast premier of Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki's Passion According to St. Luke. In 1987, the choir gave the first performance in the northwest of Benjamin Britten's War Requiem. The choir has been chosen to perform at several American Choral Directors Association conventions, performing most recently in 2013. In 2015, the Choir of the West won the Anton Bruckner Choir grand prize in an international competition in Linz, Austria. The choir recorded a professional album in April 2018 with composer Eriks Esenvalds and recording artist Adrian Peacock which is expected to be released in fall 2018. Since its founding in 1925 the Choir of the West has had six conductors. They are Joseph Edwards (1927–1935), Gunnar Malmin (1937–1964), Maurice Skones (1964–1983), Richard Sparks (1983–2001), Kathryn Lehmann (2001–2006) and Richard Nance (2006–present).
The Pacific Lutheran University Chorale is a mixed choir composed primarily of freshmen and sophomore singers. The choir tours regionally and appears on PLU Christmas compact discs. The Chorale performed for conferences of the Washington Music Educators Association (2010) and American Choral Directors Association (2006). In March 2012, the ensemble performed for the ACDA Northwest Division Conference. University Chorale is conducted by Brian Galante.
The Mast
The Mast is PLU's student-run newspaper. It was first printed in 1924 in the basement of the university chapel. It is now a converged media group which includes Mast TV and Lute Air Student Radio. It was originally named "The Mooring Mast", but was changed in Fall 2015 to simply "The Mast." The unusual, original name "The Mooring Mast" came from the USS Shenandoah, a U.S. Navy airship. In nearby Fort Lewis there was a large mooring structure for the airship and the students derived the name from this in honor of the famed ship.
Army ROTC
PLU has a US Army Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) detachment that each year commissions officers into the active Army, Army National Guard and Army Reserve. In addition to Army scholarships, PLU provides a room and board scholarship. The Lute Battalion of Army ROTC won the McArthur Award—the highest award available—in 2010, 2012 and 2013.
KPLU-FM
KPLU-FM (88.5 MHz) is a news and jazz format National Public Radio member station that was owned by Pacific Lutheran University. While PLU held the license for the radio station and all KPLU staff members were also university employees, the university took a hands-off approach to on-air content. PLU supported the station with infrastructure amounting to more than $1.5 million annually.
Sale of KPLU
On November 12, 2015, it was announced to KPLU staff that PLU intended to sell the radio station to the University of Washington, which already operated KUOW. On May 26, 2016, Friends of 88.5 FM announced that they had raised $7 million to match the offer made by the University of Washington. On June 28, 2016, PLU announced that it had reached an agreement to transfer the license for 88.5 FM to Friends of 88.5 FM. The sale was consummated on August 30, 2016.
Athletics
PLU is a member of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III, as well as the Northwest Conference. PLU has a rich tradition of athletic success: in the Northwest Conference, no other school has won the All-Sports Trophy as many times as PLU has. In 2014, PLU was honored as first recipient of Diversity Spotlight award for LGBTQ inclusion efforts by student-athletes.
PLU offers the following varsity sports: Baseball, Men's and Women's Basketball, Men's and Women's Cross Country, Football, Men's and Women's Golf, Women's Rowing, Men's and Women's Soccer, Softball, Men's and Women's Swimming, Men's and Women's Tennis, Men's and Women's Track and field, and Women's Volleyball. Along with these varsity sports PLU also offers Men's Rowing, both Men's and Women's Lacrosse and Ultimate Frisbee as club sports.
Traditions
During the academic processional at commencement, Processional of Joy by Dr. Lawrence J. Meyer is traditionally played by the University Symphony Orchestra. Composed as a unique ceremonial score in 1969, Processional of Joy has been played at each commencement since 1970.
Notable alumni
Athletics
Lisa Cole, head coach of the Boston Breakers in the National Women's Soccer League
Chris Egan, Emmy award-winning sports anchor/reporter for KING-TV
Ken Flajole, National Football League coach, formerly the inside linebacker coach for the Cleveland Browns
Craig Fouhy, sports broadcaster
Marv Harshman, nation's winningest college basketball coach at the time of his retirement
Doug Herland, rower and winner of bronze medal for the coxed pair at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Megan Jendrick, swimmer, record holder, and winner of two gold medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Craig Kupp, former National Football League quarterback
Don Poier, radio and television voice for the Vancouver and Memphis Grizzlies from 1995 to 2005
Scott Squires, CFL football coach
Kirk Talley, college football coach
Marv Tommervik, professional football player and college coach
John Zamberlin, former National Football League linebacker and head football coach at Central Washington University and Idaho State University
Art and music
Crystal Aikin, gospel singer-songwriter and reality television personality
Angela Meade, operatic soprano
Marissa Meyer, writer of The Lunar Chronicles
Aaron Padilla, artist and art educator
Michael Peterson, country music artist
Connor Trinneer, actor most notable for playing Commander 'Trip' Tucker in Star Trek: Enterprise
Business
Brad Tilden, CEO of Alaska Airlines
Law and politics
Joyce A. Barr, diplomat; Assistant Secretary of State for Administratio, and former ambassador to Namibia
Lois Capps, former member of the United States House of Representatives from California's 22nd congressional district
Jane Gillette, dentist and member of the Montana House of Representatives
Calvin Goings, youngest Washington state senator
Rick Larsen, former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Washington's 2nd congressional district
Jack Metcalf, former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Washington's 2nd congressional district
John Nilson, Canadian politician; member of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan.
Sean Parnell, lawyer and former governor of Alaska
Science and medicine
William Foege, director of U.S. Centers for Disease Control and the Carter Center; 2012 Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient
Martin W. Johnson, marine biologist and author
Gene Strandness, pioneer in the field of vascular surgery, and "founding father" of the University of Washington School of Medicine and Medical Center
David B. Wake, professor of integrative biology at UC Berkeley and internationally respected expert on speciation
Scott Ransom, partner in the Health & Life Sciences Advisory at Oliver Wyman; past president of the University of North Texas Health Science Center
Neil L. Kelleher, Walter and Mary Elizabeth Glass Professor of Chemistry, Molecular Biosciences, and Medicine at Northwestern University
Other
Lute Jerstad, mountaineer and mountain guide and one of the first Americans to climb Mount Everest
Rosanna Pansino, YouTuber and cookbook author
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
Universities and colleges in Tacoma, Washington
Educational institutions established in 1890
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Private universities and colleges in Washington (state)
1890 establishments in Washington (state) | [
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226740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stachys%20the%20Apostle | Stachys the Apostle | Stachys the Apostle (Greek: Στάχυς "ear-spike"; died 54) was the second bishop of Byzantium, from AD 38 to AD 54. He seemed to be closely connected to Andrew and Paul. Eusebius quotes Origen as saying that Andrew had preached in Asia Minor and in Scythia, along the Black Sea as far as the Volga and Kiev, hence he became a patron saint of Romania and Russia. According to tradition, Saint Andrew founded the See of Byzantium in 38, installing Stachys as bishop (the only bishopric in that neighbourhood before that time had been established at Heraclea). This See would later develop into the Patriarchate of Constantinople, having Apostle Andrew as its Patron Saint. It was not clear if Stachys was the same person whom Paul calls "dear" in the Epistle to the Romans (Rom. 16:9), but anyway, he is always associated in traditions with five other apostles (Ampliatus, Urban, Apelles, Aristobulus and Narcissus) that are the very same names mentioned together with him by Paul in .
His feast day is on October 31.
Notes
External links
antiebeati.it
1st-century Romans
Seventy disciples
Saints from Roman Anatolia
Saints from Constantinople
1st-century Byzantine bishops
1st-century Christian saints
Bishops of Byzantium | [
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226741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%20in%20science%20fiction | Earth in science fiction | An overwhelming majority of fiction is set on or features the Earth. This also holds true of science fiction, despite perceptions to the contrary. Counterfactual depictions of the shape of the Earth, be it flat or hollow, occasionally are featured. A personified, living Earth appears in a handful of works. In works set in the far future, Earth can be a center of space-faring human civilization, or just one of many inhabited planets of a galactic empire, and sometimes destroyed by ecological disaster or nuclear war or otherwise forgotten or lost.
Related vocabulary
In a number of works of science fiction, Earth's English name has become less popular, and the planet is instead known as Terra or Tellus, Latin words for Earth. Inhabitants of Earth can be referred to as Earthlings, Earthers, Earthborn, Earthfolk, Earthians, Earthies (this term being often seen as derogatory), Earthmen (and Earthwomen), Earthpersons, Earthsiders, Solarians, Tellurians, or Terrans.
In addition, science fiction vocabulary includes terms like Earthfall for landing of a spaceship on planet Earth; and Earth-type, Earthlike, Earthnorm(al) and terrestrial for the concept of "resembling planet Earth or conditions on it".
The concept of modifying planets to be more Earth-like is known as terraforming. The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. In science, Carl Sagan, an astronomer, proposed the terraforming of Venus in 1961, which is considered one of the first accounts of the concept. The term itself, however, was coined by Jack Williamson in a science-fiction short story ("Collision Orbit") published in 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction, although the concept of terraforming in popular culture predates this work; for example, the idea of turning the Moon into a habitable environment with atmosphere was already present in La Journée d'un Parisien au XXIe siècle ("A Day of a Parisian in the 21st Century") by . In fact, perhaps predating the concept of terraforming, is that of xenoforming – a process in which aliens change the Earth to suit their own needs, already suggested in the classic The War of the Worlds (1898) of H.G. Wells.
Themes
In general, the vast majority of fiction, including science fiction, takes place on Earth. To the extent that Earth is more than the obvious but forgettable background where the action of the story takes place, a number of themes have been identified.
Earth
Many works of science fiction focus on the outer space, but many others still take place on Earth; this distinction has been subject to debates among the science fiction authors, visible for example in J. G. Ballard's 1962 essay Which Way to Inner Space?. Some critics of the "outer space adventures" have pointed to the importance of "earthly" concepts and imagery closer to contemporary readers' everyday experience. While it has been argued that a planet can be considered "too large, and its lifetime too long, to be comfortably accommodated within fiction as a topic in its own right," this has not prevented some writers from engaging with that topic. Some works that focus on Earth as an entity have been influenced by holistic, "big picture" concepts such as the Gaia hypothesis, noosphere and the Omega Point, and the popularizing of the photography of Earth from space. Others works have addressed the concept of Earth as a Goddess Gaia (from Greek mythology; another prominent goddess of Earth whose name influenced science fiction was the Roman Terra or Tellus). Bridging these ideas, and treating Earth as a semi-biological or even sentient entity, are classic works like Arthur Conan Doyle's When the World Screamed (1928) and Jack Williamson's Born of the Sun (1934).
Shape
Depictions of the Earth as being flat are uncommon in modern works, the sphericity of the planet having been proved around 200 B.C. by Archimedes and Eratosthenes. Exceptions to this include Terry Pratchett's satirical Discworld series—which was inspired by Hindu cosmology—and deliberately provocative works like S. Fowler Wright's novel Beyond the Rim from 1932. There have also been fictional accounts of a hollow Earth, such as Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket inspired by John Cleves Symmes Jr.'s model featuring openings at the north and south poles whereby the interior can be accessed. A few writers have likewise engaged with another old fringe theory, that of Counter-Earth – a hypothetical body of the Solar System that orbits on the other side of the solar system from Earth.
Planetary engineering
Large scale planetary engineering includes ideas such as adjusting the Earth's axial tilt, or moving the Earth from its orbit. Some works deal with geoengineering, a term usually referred to large-scale projects attempting to deal with the problem of climate change; a theme common in many works of climate fiction. In the extreme case, Earth can be consumed in its entirety, all of its mass repurposed in construction of megastructures such as a Dyson sphere.
The end of Earth
Various versions of the future of Earth have been imagined. Some works focus on the end of the planet; those have been written in all forms – some focused on "ostentatious mourning"; others more of a slapstick comedy; yet others take this opportunity to explore themes of astronomy or sociology. The genre of climate fiction can often mix the themes of near and far future consequences of the climate change, whether anthropogenic or accidental. In other works, often found in the apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction and the Dying Earth genres, Earth has been destroyed or at least ruined for generations to come; many such works are therefore set in the background of Earth changed into a wasteland. Some of the works in these genres overlap with the climate change genre, as climate change and resulting ecological disasters are a commonly used plot device for events that trigger the fall of human civilization (other plots involve the destruction of Earth from human warfare, alien invasions, or from various sorts of man-made incidents or accidental disasters). Many such works, set either during the disaster, or in its aftermath, are metaphors for environmental concerns or otherwise warnings about issues the writers think humanity needs to be concerned about.
One planet among many
For many works set in the far future, Earth is just one of many inhabited planets of a galactic empire, federation or larger civilization, and many similar planets have been found or created (common themes in space opera), all of which challenges the idea of Earth's uniqueness. In some works, Earth is still a center of the known universe, or at least a significant player on the galactic scene. In others, Earth has become of so little importance that it is a mostly forgotten backwards world. In Clifford D. Simak's Cemetery World (1973) Earth is a planet-size cemetery and in Gordon R. Dickson's Call Him Lord (1966), a museum. At its extreme, in some settings, knowledge of Earth has been simply lost, making it a mythological place, whose existence is questioned by the few who even know the legends about it. In some of these works, a major plotline can involve future civilizations or intrepid explorers seeking the "lost cradle" or Earth. Finally, some stories told from the perspective of aliens focus on their discovery of Earth.
A different history
Some works look backwards – or perhaps sideways, not to the future of Earth, but to its past; here, works of science fiction can overlap with historic fiction as well as prehistoric fiction. This can happen particularly through the genres of alternate history as well as time travel (where as Gary Westfahl observed, most time travellers travel through time much more than space, visiting the past or future versions of Earth).
See also
Class M planet
Earth Is Room Enough
Ecofiction
Moon in fiction
Mythopoeia
Near future in fiction
Notes
References
Science fiction
Fiction about terrestrial planets
Science fiction themes | [
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226748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stillbirth | Stillbirth | Stillbirth is typically defined as fetal death at or after 20 or 28 weeks of pregnancy, depending on the source. It results in a baby born without signs of life. A stillbirth can result in the feeling of guilt or grief in the mother. The term is in contrast to miscarriage, which is an early pregnancy loss, and live birth, where the baby is born alive, if they die shortly after.
Often the cause is unknown. Causes may include pregnancy complications such as pre-eclampsia and birth complications, problems with the placenta or umbilical cord, birth defects, infections such as malaria and syphilis, and poor health in the mother. Risk factors include a mother's age over 35, smoking, drug use, use of assisted reproductive technology, and first pregnancy. Stillbirth may be suspected when no fetal movement is felt. Confirmation is by ultrasound.
Worldwide prevention of most stillbirths is possible with improved health systems. Around half of stillbirths occur during childbirth, with this being more common in the developing than developed world. Otherwise, depending on how far along the pregnancy is, medications may be used to start labor or a type of surgery known as dilation and evacuation may be carried out. Following a stillbirth, people are at higher risk of another one; however, most subsequent pregnancies do not have similar problems. Depression, financial loss, and family breakdown are known complications.
Worldwide in 2019, there were an estimated 2.0 million stillbirths that occurred after 28 weeks of pregnancy (about 1 for every 72 births). They occur most commonly in low income settings, particularly South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. In the United States, for every 167 births there is one stillbirth. Stillbirth rates have declined, though more slowly since the 2000s.
Causes
As of 2016, there is no international classification system for stillbirth causes. The causes of a large percentage of stillbirths is unknown, even in cases where extensive testing and an autopsy have been performed. A rarely used term to describe these is "sudden antenatal death syndrome", or SADS, a phrase coined in 2000. Many stillbirths occur at full term to apparently healthy mothers, and a postmortem evaluation reveals a cause of death in about 40% of autopsied cases.
About 10% of cases are believed to be due to obesity, high blood pressure, or diabetes.
Other risk factors include:
bacterial infection, like syphilis
malaria
birth defects, especially pulmonary hypoplasia
chromosomal aberrations
growth restriction
intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
maternal diabetes
maternal consumption of recreational drugs (such as alcohol, nicotine, etc.) or pharmaceutical drugs contraindicated in pregnancy
postdate pregnancy
placental abruptions
physical trauma
radiation poisoning
Rh disease
celiac disease
female genital mutilation
umbilical cord accidents
Prolapsed umbilical cord – Prolapse of the umbilical cord happens when the fetus is not in a correct position in the pelvis. Membranes rupture and the cord is pushed out through the cervix. When the fetus pushes on the cervix, the cord is compressed and blocks blood and oxygen flow to the fetus. The mother has approximately 10 minutes to get to a doctor before there is any harm done to the fetus.
Monoamniotic twins – These twins share the same placenta and the same amniotic sac and therefore can interfere with each other's umbilical cords. When entanglement of the cords is detected, it is highly recommended to deliver the fetuses as early as 31 weeks.
Umbilical cord length - A short umbilical cord (<30 cm) can affect the fetus in that fetal movements can cause cord compression, constriction, and rupture. A long umbilical cord (>72 cm) can affect the fetus depending on the way the fetus interacts with the cord. Some fetuses grasp the umbilical cord but it is yet unknown as to whether a fetus is strong enough to compress and stop blood flow through the cord. Also, an active fetus, one that frequently repositions itself in the uterus can accidentally entangle itself with the cord. A hyperactive fetus should be evaluated with ultrasound to rule out cord entanglement.
Cord entanglement - The umbilical cord can wrap around an extremity, the body or the neck of the fetus. When the cord is wrapped around the neck of the fetus, it is called a nuchal cord. These entanglements can cause constriction of blood flow to the fetus. These entanglements can be visualized with ultrasound.
Torsion – This term refers to the twisting of the umbilical around itself. Torsion of the umbilical cord is very common (especially in equine stillbirths) but it is not a natural state of the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord can be untwisted at delivery. The average cord has 3 twists.
A pregnant woman sleeping on her back after 28 weeks of pregnancy may be a risk factor for stillbirth.
After a stillbirth there is a 2.5% risk of another stillbirth in the next pregnancy (an increase from 0.4%).
In the United States, highest rates of stillbirths happen in pregnant women who:
are of low socioeconomic status
are aged 35 years or older
have chronic medical conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, etc.
are African-American
have previously lost a child during pregnancy
have multiple children at a time (twins, triplets, etc.)
Diagnosis
It is unknown how much time is needed for a fetus to die. Fetal behavior is consistent and a change in the fetus' movements or sleep-wake cycles can indicate fetal distress. A decrease or cessation in sensations of fetal activity may be an indication of fetal distress or death, though it is not entirely uncommon for a healthy fetus to exhibit such changes, particularly near the end of a pregnancy when there is considerably less space in the uterus than earlier in pregnancy for the fetus to move about. Still, medical examination, including a nonstress test, is recommended in the event of any type of any change in the strength or frequency of fetal movement, especially a complete cease; most midwives and obstetricians recommend the use of a kick chart to assist in detecting any changes. Fetal distress or death can be confirmed or ruled out via fetoscopy/doptone, ultrasound, and/or electronic fetal monitoring. If the fetus is alive but inactive, extra attention will be given to the placenta and umbilical cord during ultrasound examination to ensure that there is no compromise of oxygen and nutrient delivery.
Some researchers have tried to develop models to identify, early on, pregnant women who may be at high risk of having a stillbirth.
Definition
There are a number of definitions for stillbirth. To allow comparison, the World Health Organization uses the ICD-10 definitions and recommends that any baby born without signs of life at greater than or equal to 28 completed weeks' gestation be classified as a stillbirth. The
WHO uses the ICD-10 definitions of "late fetal deaths" as their definition of stillbirth. Other organisations recommend that any combination of greater than 16, 20, 22, 24 or 28 weeks gestational age or 350g, 400g, 500g or 1000g birth weight may be considered a stillbirth.
The term is often used in distinction to live birth (the baby was born alive, even if it died shortly thereafter) or miscarriage (early pregnancy loss). The word miscarriage is often used incorrectly to describe stillbirths. The term is mostly used in a human context; however, the same phenomenon can occur in all species of placental mammals.
Constricted umbilical cord
When the umbilical cord is constricted (q.v. "accidents" above), the fetus experiences periods of hypoxia, and may respond by unusually high periods of kicking or struggling, to free the umbilical cord. These are sporadic if constriction is due to a change in the fetus' or mother's position, and may become worse or more frequent as the fetus grows. Extra attention should be given if mothers experience large increases in kicking from previous childbirths, especially when increases correspond to position changes.
Regulating high blood pressure, diabetes and drug use may reduce the risk of a stillbirth. Umbilical cord constriction may be identified and observed by ultrasound, if requested.
Some maternal factors are associated with stillbirth, including being age 35 or older, having diabetes, having a history of addiction to illegal drugs, being overweight or obese, and smoking cigarettes in the three months before getting pregnant.
Treatment
Fetal death in utero does not present an immediate health risk to the pregnant woman, and labour will usually begin spontaneously after two weeks, so the pregnant woman may choose to wait and bear the fetal remains vaginally. After two weeks, the pregnant woman is at risk of developing blood clotting problems, and labor induction is recommended at this point. In many cases, the pregnant woman will find the idea of carrying the dead fetus traumatizing and will elect to have labor induced. Caesarean birth is not recommended unless complications develop during vaginal birth. How the diagnosis of stillbirth is communicated by healthcare workers may have a long-lasting and deep impact on parents. People need to heal physically after a stillbirth just as they do emotionally. In Ireland, for example, people are offered a 'cuddle cot', a cooled cot which allows them to spend a number of days with their child before burial or cremation.
Delivery
In single stillbirths, common practice is to induce labor for the health of the mother due to possible complications such as exsanguination. Induction and labor can take 48 hours. In the case of various complications such as preclampsia, infections, multiples(twins), emergency Cesarean may occur.
Epidemiology
The average stillbirth rate in the United States is approximately 1 in 160 births, which is roughly 26,000 stillbirths each year. In Australia, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the rate is approximately 1 in every 200 births; in Scotland, 1 in 167. Rates of stillbirth in the United States have decreased by about two-thirds since the 1950s.
The vast majority of stillbirths worldwide (98%) occur in low and middle-income countries, where medical care can be of low quality or unavailable. Reliable estimates calculate that, yearly, about 2.6 million stillbirths occur worldwide during the third trimester. Stillbirths were previously not included in the Global Burden of Disease Study which records worldwide deaths from various causes until 2015.
Society and culture
The way people view stillbirths has changed dramatically over time; however, its economic and psychosocial impact is often underestimated. In the early 20th century, when a stillbirth occurred, the baby was taken and discarded and the parents were expected to immediately let go of the attachment and try for another baby. In many countries, parents are expected by friends and family members to recover from the loss of an unborn baby very soon after it happens. Societally-mediated complications such as financial hardship and depression are among the more common results. A stillbirth can have significant psychological effects on the parents, notably causing feelings of guilt in the mother. Further psycho-social effects on parents include apprehension, anger, feelings of worthlessness and not wanting to interact with other people, with these reactions sometimes carried over into pregnancies that occur after the stillbirth. Men also suffer psychologically after stillbirth, although they are more likely to hide their grief and feelings and try to act strong, with the focus on supporting their partner.
Legal definitions
Australia
In Australia, stillbirth is defined as a baby born with no signs of life that weighs more than 400 grams, or more than 20 weeks in gestation. They legally must have their birth registered.
Austria
In Austria, a stillbirth is defined as a birth of a child of at least 500g weight without vital signs, e.g. blood circulation, breath or muscle movements.
Canada
Beginning in 1959, "the definition of a stillbirth was revised to conform, in substance, to the definition of fetal death recommended by the World Health Organization". The definition of "fetal death" promulgated by the World Health Organization in 1950 is as follows:
"Fetal death" means death prior to the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of human conception, irrespective of the duration of pregnancy and which is not an induced termination of pregnancy. The death is indicated by the fact that after such expulsion or extraction, the fetus does not breathe or show any other evidence of life, such as beating of the heart, pulsation of the umbilical cord, or definite movement of voluntary muscles. Heartbeats are to be distinguished from transient cardiac contractions; respirations are to be distinguished from fleeting respiratory efforts or gasps.
Germany
In Germany, a stillbirth is defined as the birth of a child of at least 500g weight without blood circulation or breath. Details for burial vary amongst the federal states.
Republic of Ireland
Since 1 January 1995, stillbirths occurring in the Republic of Ireland must be registered; stillbirths that occurred before that date can also be registered but evidence is required. For the purposes of civil registration, s.1 of the Stillbirths Registration Act 1994 refers to :-
"...a child weighing at least 500 grammes, or having reached a gestational age of at least 24 weeks who shows no signs of life."
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, stillbirth is defined differently by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and the Dutch Perinatal Registry (Stichting PRN). The birth and mortality numbers from the CBS include all livebirths, regardless of gestational duration, and all stillbirths from 24 weeks of gestation and onwards. In the Perinatal Registry, gestational duration of both liveborn and stillborn children is available. They register all liveborn and stillborn children from 22, 24 or 28 weeks of gestation and onwards (dependent on the report: fetal, neonatal or perinatal mortality). Therefore, data from these institutions on (still)births can not simply be compared one-on-one.
United Kingdom
The registration of stillbirths has been required in England and Wales from 1927 and in Scotland from 1939 but is not required in Northern Ireland. Sometimes a pregnancy is terminated deliberately during a late phase, for example due to congenital anomaly. UK law requires these procedures to be registered as "stillbirths".
England and Wales
For the purposes of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1926 (as amended), section 12 contains the definition that :-
"still-born" and "still-birth" shall apply to any child which has issued forth from its mother after the twenty fourth week of pregnancy and which did not at any time after being completely expelled from its mother, breathe or show any other signs of life.
A similar definition is applied within the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1953 (as amended), contained in s.41.
The above definitions apply within those Acts thus other legislation will not necessarily be in identical terms.
s.2 of the 1953 Act requires that registration of a birth takes place within 42 days of the birth except where an inquest takes place or the child has been "found exposed" in which latter case the time limit runs from the time of finding.
Extracts from the register of stillbirths are restricted to those who have obtained consent from the Registrar General for England and Wales.
Scotland
Section 56(1) of the Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Scotland) Act 1965 (as amended) contains the definition that :-
"still-born child" means a child which has issued forth from its mother after the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy and which did not at any time after being completely expelled from its mother breathe or show any other signs of life, and the expression "still-birth" shall be construed accordingly
s.21(1) of the same Act requires that :-
Except so far as otherwise provided by this section or as may be prescribed, the provisions of this Part of this Act shall, so far as applicable, apply to still-births in like manner as they apply to births of children born alive.
In the general case, s.14 of the Act requires that a birth has to be registered within 21 days of the birth or of the child being found.
Unlike the registers for births, marriages, civil partnerships and deaths, the register of still-births is not open to public access and issue of extracts requires the permission of the Registrar General for Scotland.
Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, the Births and Deaths Registration (Northern Ireland) Order 1976, as amended contains the definition :-
"still-birth" means the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother after the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy of a child which did not at any time after being completely expelled or extracted breathe or show any other evidence of life.
Registration of stillbirths can be made by a relative or certain other persons involved with the stillbirth but it is not compulsory to do so. Registration takes place with the District Registrar for the Registration District where the still-birth occurred or for the District in which the mother is resident. A stillbirth certificate will be issued to the registrant with further copies only available to those obtaining official consent for their issue. Registration may be made within three months of the still-birth
United States
In the United States, there is no standard definition of the term 'stillbirth'.
In the U.S., the Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2002 specifies that any breathing, heartbeat, pulsating umbilical cord or confirmed voluntary muscle movement indicate live birth rather than stillbirth.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention collects statistical information on "live births, fetal deaths, and induced termination of pregnancy" from 57 reporting areas in the United States. Each reporting area has different guidelines and definitions for what is being reported; many do not use the term "stillbirth" at all. The federal guidelines suggest (at page 1) that fetal death and stillbirth can be interchangeable terms. The CDC definition of "fetal death" is based on the definition promulgated by the World Health Organization in 1950 (see section above on Canada). Researchers are learning more about the long term psychiatric sequelae of traumatic birth and believe the effects may be intergenerational
The federal guidelines recommend reporting those fetal deaths whose birth weight is over 12.5 oz (350 g), or those more than 20 weeks gestation. Forty-one areas use a definition very similar to the federal definition, thirteen areas use a shortened definition of fetal death, and three areas have no formal definition of fetal death. Only 11 areas specifically use the term 'stillbirth', often synonymously with late fetal death; however, they are split between whether stillbirths are "irrespective of the duration of pregnancy", or whether some age or weight constraint is applied. A movement in the U.S. has changed the way that stillbirths are documented through vital records. Previously, only the deaths were reported. However, 27 states have enacted legislation that offers some variation of a birth certificate as an option for parents who choose to pay for one. Parents may not claim a tax exemption for stillborn infants, even if a birth certificate is offered. To claim an exemption, the birth must be certified as live, even if the infant only lives for a very brief period.
See also
Coffin birth
Perinatal death
Smoking and pregnancy
Stillbirth and Neonatal Death Society
References
External links
G. J. Barker-Benfield, "Stillbirth and Sensibility The Case of Abigail and John Adams," Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal, Spring 2012, Vol. 10 Issue 1, pp 2–29.
Lancet series on stillbirth 2016
Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Fertility
Medical aspects of death
Midwifery
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226751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerning | Kerning | In typography, kerning is the process of adjusting the spacing between characters in a proportional font, usually to achieve a visually pleasing result. Kerning adjusts the space between individual letterforms, while tracking (letter-spacing) adjusts spacing uniformly over a range of characters. In a well-kerned font, the two-dimensional blank spaces between each pair of characters all have a visually similar area. The term "keming" is sometimes used informally to refer to poor kerning (the letters r and n placed too close together being easily mistaken for the letter m)
The related term kern denotes a part of a type letter that overhangs the edge of the type block.
Metal typesetting
The source of the word kern is from the French word , meaning "projecting angle, quill of a pen". The French term originated from the Latin , , meaning "hinge". In the days when all type was cast metal, the parts of a typecasting sort that needed to overlap adjacent letters simply hung off the sort slug's edge. Those overhanging metal pieces were called kerns. At that time, the word kerning only referred to manufacturing the sorts with kerns, while adjusting space between letters during compositing was called inter-spacing or letter spacing.
Because this method was not well-suited to some pairs of letters, ligatures were supplied for those glyph combinations, such as the French , or the combinations ff, fi and ffi.
Digital typography
In metal typesetting, kerning was labour-intensive and expensive because the matrices had to be physically modified. It was therefore only employed on letter combinations which needed it the most, such as VA or AV. With the arrival of digital fonts, it became much easier to kern many glyph combinations.
Kerning values
In digital typography, kerning is usually applied to letter pairs as a number by which the default character spacing should be increased or decreased: a positive value for an increase, a negative value for a decrease. The number is expressed in font units, one unit being a certain fraction of an em (one em is the type size currently used). Different fonts may use different units, but common values are 1000 and 2048 units/em. Thus, for 1000 units/em, a kerning value of 15 means an increase in character spacing by 0.015 of the current type size. (The kerning units for a given font are the same as the units used to express the character widths in that font.)
Most kerning adjustments are negative, and negative adjustments are generally larger than positive ones. Adjustments for different pairs within a given font can range from a tiny 2 to over 100 (when expressed as 1000 units/em). The adjustments for a given pair vary greatly from one font to another.
Negative kerning is widely used to fit capital letters such as T, V, W, and Y closer to some other capital letters on either side, especially A, and to some lower case letters on the right side, such as the combinations Ta, Te, and To. It is also used to fit a period (full stop) or a comma closer to these and to F and P, as well as to the lower case letters r, v, w, and y. Some other combinations that use negative kerning are FA, LT, and LY, and letters like A, L, and h followed by a quotation mark.
Positive kerning is used mainly in conjunction with special characters and punctuation (for example, the lower case letter f followed by right parenthesis or quotation mark). Depending on the font, some small positive kerning may also be required for accented letters and for pairs like Bo, Dw, and TY.
The table below contains a few exemplifying kerning pairs and their values. These values are based on 1000 units/em and the kerning pairs are ordered from the most negative to the most positive kerning value. The samples are taken from the kerning tables of the Minion Pro font. In other fonts the kerning may be very different.
Which letters need to be kerned depends on which languages the font is to be used with. Since some combinations of letters are not used in normal words in any language, kerning these is not necessary. Non-proportional (monospaced) fonts do not use kerning, since their characters always have the same spacing.
Kerning tables
In older font formats, such as Microsoft's TrueType, the kerning values are specified in a simple kern table where each entry consists of a pair of characters and their kerning value. TrueType fonts typically have several hundred pairs, but some have more than a thousand.
Since OpenType is a superset of TrueType kern tables are still supported for TrueType fonts packed as OpenType; however PostScript-based (CFF) OpenType fonts do not have this option. OpenType introduced a new, uniform way of specifying, among other things, kerning, via the Glyph Positioning Table (GPOS). The more recent font releases by Adobe no longer have kern tables at all, but only specify kerning via GPOS.
Since an OpenType font may include thousands of glyphs, and consequently a huge number of pairs of characters that need kerning, OpenType fonts may have an elaborate system of tables and subtables, designed to minimize the overall storage space. (Kerning is treated as part of a broad range of new glyph positioning features which are stored in GPOS.) The system is based on the concept of glyph classes: instead of a one-dimensional table where each entry corresponds to a pair of characters, there are two-dimensional tables where each entry corresponds to a pair of classes of glyphs. A class includes several characters whose right-hand outline (and right side-bearing) is identical for kerning purposes, or several characters whose left-hand outline (and left side-bearing) is identical. All pairs of characters where the first one is from the first class and the second one is from the second class will require the same kerning value, so this value needs to be specified only once in the table. The rows in the two-dimensional table correspond to first-character classes, and the columns correspond to second-character classes. The kerning value for a given pair of characters is found in the table at the intersection of the classes to which they belong.
This system is very economical, but is necessarily limited. For example, many of the classes may be quite small. Also, a font with many types of glyphs may require several such tables. Finally, many pairs remain that cannot be represented through classes. For them, simpler, one-dimensional tables are provided: each table is for a particular character that is the first in many pairs, and the entries contain the characters that are the second in these pairs, together with the corresponding kerning values.
Here are a few examples of glyph classes in the Minion Pro font for the first character in a kerning pair: (d i l u), (h m n), (j q), (b o p), (v w y), (D O Q), (H I), (V W); and for the second character in a pair: (f i m n r), (h k l), (j p t u), (c d e o q), (v w y), (C G O Q), (B D E F H I K L N P R).
A category of letters that lend themselves well to class-based kerning is those with diacritical marks. These letters can be added to the class of the base letter, and can stay together whether they are the first or second character in a pair: (a à á â), (e è é ê), etc. A letter cannot be included in the class if its kerning is different from the others in certain pairs (for example, Yá vs. Yä).
Most modern office and desktop publishing systems support OpenType features, and hence class-based kerning.
Automatic and manual kerning
Automatic kerning refers to the kerning applied automatically by a program, as opposed to no kerning at all, or the kerning applied manually by the user. There are two types of automatic kerning: metric and optical. With metric kerning, the program directly uses the values found in the kerning tables included in the font file. Most systems with typographic features today provide this type of kerning. Optical kerning, on the other hand, is available only in the more advanced systems. With optical kerning, the program uses an algorithm to calculate, from their outlines, the optimal spacing for each pair of consecutive characters. With both types of automatic kerning, the system usually permits the user to specify a minimum font size for applying kerning, if the user feels that kerning is unnecessary for smaller font sizes.
With metric kerning, in a text that uses several fonts, the program must decide which kerning table to use when two consecutive characters belong to different the table from the font of the first character, or the second or to avoid kerning altogether. In this case, optical kerning is preferable. A common situation occurs when italic text ends with a roman symbol (right parenthesis or quotation mark, question mark, etc.) and the last letter's slant clashes with the symbol.
Manual kerning, available in some systems, permits the user to override the automatic kerning and to apply any kerning value directly to a pair of characters in a particular place in the text. When not available, this feature can be simulated by using, for those two characters, the function that modifies the space between characters in a block of text (usually called tracking).
When employed by a skilled person, manual kerning will usually give better results than optical kerning; for example, some characters that may appear to an algorithmic comparison to be spaced very closely together may appear to a human reader too far apart, especially when the only element of a glyph that is “too close” is a diacritic mark. Manual kerning may even be better than the metric kerning built into the kerning table by the font's designer, since these tables often have errors or omissions, or the difference may simply be a matter of personal preference.
Contextual kerning
Contextual kerning refers to positional adjustment that depends on more than two consecutive glyphs. For example, the spacing of a certain glyph may depend not only on the preceding glyph (as in ordinary kerning) but also on the one following it. Although rarely implemented in ordinary documents, contextual kerning is a concern in quality typography.
An example of a situation that demands contextual kerning in the Minion Pro font is the sequence of three characters f.” (f, period, quotation mark), as is often found at the end of a quotation. Using the font's kerning tables, the quotation mark is too close to the f, although without the period between them their spacing is adequate. The period, in other words, reduces their spacing instead of increasing it. The explanation is this: without the period, their kerning is a positive 121 (expressed as 1000 units/em). The period's width is 228, but the kerning between f and the period is −5, and between the period and the quotation mark −138. The total is a positive 85, as opposed to the original 121: a net loss of 36 units, which explains why the quotation mark is now closer to the f. Contextual kerning would recognize the sequence of three characters, and would increase one or both inter-character spaces. A similar problem exists with the letters F, P, T, V, W, and Y; with comma rather than period; or with single rather than double quotation mark.
Contextual kerning is supported by the OpenType font format, but few font designers implement it, and probably no desktop publishing systems can currently use it. When important, the solution for a user is to employ manual kerning instead.
Kerning of subscripts and superscripts
While the OpenType math standard does not include support for kerning of subscripts or superscripts, Microsoft's implementation adds extensions to support this feature as of Office 2007.
Kerning tools
Font editors allow the user to modify the properties of a font, including its kerning table (if the font license permits it). They accomplish this by modifying the table found in the actual font file. The user can change the kerning value in existing pairs, or add new pairs.
A few desktop publishing systems allow the user to change or add kerning pairs without modifying the font file itself. The system merely applies to the user's document the new kerning values, in place of the values found in the font file.
Whether modifying the font file with a font editor or overriding it in a particular system, the user is limited to the existing kerning features. Thus, if one needs features like optical kerning, or contextual kerning, or kerning a pair of characters that belong to different fonts, and if the system lacks these features, other means must be employed.
Some desktop publishing systems permit developers to create plug-ins (extensions that perform a variety of functions that the system itself lacks), and this capability has also been used for kerning. In general, these plug-ins permit the user to apply a kerning change automatically to a certain character pair throughout an entire document, instead of applying it by searching manually for those pairs. So far only basic kerning features have been implemented through plug-ins, and it is unclear whether the more advanced features can be effectively implemented in this manner.
Instead of adding functionality to a desktop publishing system, a different approach is to export the document and process it outside that system. Any kerning features can then be applied to the document using tools ranging from ordinary text editors to programs specially developed for this task. The modified document is then imported back into the desktop publishing system. Many systems permit this operation, either by converting the document with import and export functions, or by making their internal document format an open standard. The benefit of this approach is that some complex typesetting functions that may be hard to implement through plug-ins (kerning in particular) may be relatively easy to implement through separate tools.
Kerning in browsers
The CSS property text-rendering: optimizeLegibility; enables kerning in Firefox, Chrome, Safari, Opera, and the Android Browser. Another CSS property, font-feature-settings, also enables kerning in Internet Explorer 10+, Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and the Android Browser. There is also a proposed CSS3 property font-kerning, but it is only supported in Firefox (prefixed with -moz-), Chrome and Opera (prefixed with -webkit- in both) and in Internet Explorer starting at version 10. The CSS3 draft suggests that kerning should always be enabled for OpenType fonts.
Some critics have proposed to replace (at least some) OpenType-style GPOS kerning with spacer glyphs using OpenType's Glyph Substitution Table (GSUB).
Perception
The human perception of kerning can vary with the intraword and interword spacing during reading. Even without complete kerning control, the effect can be simulated by slight modifications to the space between letters. For instance, on webpages with CSS1, a standard dating back to 1996, the property offers options for "lost" or "enhanced kerning perception" by simply making the space between letters non-uniform. The newer CSS3 standard includes the property, which allows a complete control of kerning.
See also
Letter-spacing
Typographic ligature
Word spacing
Hz-program
References
External links
http://www.printmag.com/featured/the-kerning-game/
http://blog.typekit.com/2014/02/05/kerning-on-the-web/
Typography
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226753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fix | Fix | Fix or FIX may refer to:
People with the name
Fix (surname)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
Fix (film), a feature film by Tao Ruspoli
Music
Fix (album), 2015 album by Chris Lane
"Fix" (Blackstreet song), 1997 song by Blackstreet
"Fix" (Chris Lane song), 2015 song by Chris Lane
"Fix", a song from industrial metal band Static-X's 1999 album Wisconsin Death Trip
Business and government
Federal Internet Exchange, network peering points between US agency networks
Financial Information eXchange, a communications and messaging protocol
Science and medicine
Factor IX, a coagulation factor
Spaying and neutering, also called "fixing", sterilization of an animal
Other uses
Fix (beer), a Greek beer
Fix (position), a position determined by navigation
Fix, a term used in problem-solving
Fix, a term referring to maintenance, repair, and operations
"Fix", an addictive drug, hence "fixing" or "getting your fix", taking addictive drugs (from the 1960s)
Fixed point combinator, in mathematics
See also
F9 (disambiguation), including a list of topics named F.IX, etc.
Fixation (disambiguation)
Fixed (disambiguation)
Fixer (disambiguation)
Fixing (disambiguation)
Fix-up (disambiguation)
The Fix (disambiguation)
The Fix Is In (disambiguation) | [
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226761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set%20and%20drift | Set and drift | The term “set and drift” is used to describe external forces that affect a boat and keep it from following an intended course. To understand and calculate set and drift, one needs to first understand currents. Ocean currents are the horizontal movements of water from one location to another. The movement of water is impacted by: meteorological effects, wind, temperature differences, gravity, and on occasion earthquakes. Set is referred to as the current's direction, expressed in true degrees. Drift is referred to as the current's speed, which is usually measured in knots. “Leeway” refers to the amount of sidewards translation of a vessel drifting off of or away from the intended course of travel (with no correction or compensation by altering the heading of the vessel such as pointing her into the wind.)
Ignoring set and drift can cause a mariner to get off their desired course, sometimes by hundreds of miles. A mariner needs to be able to steer the ship and compensate for the effects of set and drift upon their vessel while underway. The actual course a vessel travels is referred to as the course over the ground. The current of the ocean alters this course whether pushing it away from its desired course or in the same direction. The vessel's speed through the water is referred to as the speed over the ground and the current can affect how fast or slow the vessel moves through the water.
How to Calculate
In order to utilize set and drift in navigation, navigators must first set the course using Dead Reckoning.
A Dead Reckoning, DR, is calculated by using a previously determined position on a chart, and advancing that position based on known or estimated speed over a set amount of time. This can be calculated by using the formula Speed = Distance / Time.
Once an advance position has been plotted, then set and drift can be factored in. If there is a known set and drift, then the corrections can be applied to the Dead Reckoning position to then get an Estimated Position on a chart.
The Course Made Good is the direction in which a ship or vessel has traveled with the effects of current, wind, and helmsmanship. If a current is flowing in the same direction as the ships heading, then the Course Made Good remains the same, but the current speed and ship speed are added together. If the speeds are in opposite directions, then the smaller speed is subtracted from the larger speed. If a vessel runs directly against a current or directly with a current, the speed of the vessel and speed of the current can be added or subtracted from each other. Such as, a vessel has a speed of 8 knots through the water and the vessel is traveling with the current, which is at 2 knots, then the speed over ground is 8+2 and the vessel's true speed is 10 knots.
Set and Drift can be calculated by using a vector diagram and can be drawn and measured on a chart, maneuvering board or even a plain piece of paper.
Example Calculation
You are underway on course 150 degrees true at 8 knots. Your vessel is making good a course of 166 degrees true and a speed made good of 8.8 knots. What is your set and drift?
Step 1. Plot out course of 150 degrees true on Radar Plotting Sheet
Step 2. Measure length of course by using speed of 8 knots and converting into nautical miles via the time, speed, and distance scale
Step 3. Plot the length of speed on Radar Plotting sheet
Step 4. Plot out desired course of 166 degrees true on Radar Plotting Sheet
Step 5. Measure length of course by using speed of 8.8 knots and converting into nautical miles via the time, speed, and distance scale
Step 6. Connect the two ends of the vectors from the current course to the course made good. Thus creating your set and drift vector
Step 7. Using the navigational triangle, place on set and drift vector. Then drag to center crosshairs keeping the same angle and find the degrees on the outer circle
Step 8. Measure the length of the set and drift vector with the compass. Convert from nautical miles into knots using the time, speed, and distance scale.
Step 9. Your set is 230 degrees true at a drift of 2.5 knots
Tools used to calculate
To use Navigation Triangles, a navigator need two of them to be able to navigate correctly. Navigation Triangles can be used to find Lines of Positions, Dead Reckoning, ranges, Estimated Positions, Running Fixes and so on. They are also used to connect all the types of fixes to be able to determine a course.
Dividers can be used for the measurement of lengths of lines on a chart and approximating the lengths of non-linear lines on a chart. Dividers can also be turned into a compass by replacing the metal leg of the divider with a piece of lead. A compass can measure and draw arc and circles on charts and maneuvering boards.
Sources
Navigation
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226762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed%20of%20advance | Speed of advance | Speed of advance (SOA) is used to indicate the speed to be made along the intended track. The intended (anticipated, desired) speed along the track with respect to the earth, taking into consideration the effect of known or predicted current; speed along the track. SOA is also used to designate the average speed that must be made good to arrive at a destination at a specified time.
References
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226765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print%20circulation | Print circulation | Print circulation is the average number of copies of a publication. The number of copies of a nonperiodical publication (such as a book) are usually called print run. Circulation is not always the same as copies sold, often called paid circulation, since some issues are distributed without cost to the reader. Readership figures are usually higher than circulation figures because of the assumption that a typical copy is read by more than one person.
Print circulation is a good proxy measure of print readership and is thus one of the principal factors used to set print advertising rates (prices). In many countries, circulations are audited by independent bodies such as the Audit Bureau of Circulations to assure advertisers that a given newspaper does reach the number of people claimed by the publisher. There are international open access directories such as Mondo Times, but these generally rely on numbers reported by newspapers themselves.
In many developed countries, print circulation is falling due to social and technological changes such as the availability of news on the internet. On the other hand, in some developing countries circulation is increasing as these factors are more than cancelled out by rising incomes, population, and literacy.
World newspapers with the largest circulation
The World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA) publishes a list of newspapers with the largest circulation. In 2011, India led the world in terms of newspaper circulation with nearly 330 million newspapers circulated daily. In 2005, China topped the list in term of total newspaper circulation with 93.5 million a day, India came second with 78.8 million, followed by Japan, with 70.4 million; the United States, with 48.3 million; and Germany, with 22.1 million. Around 75 of the 100 best selling newspapers are in Asia and seven out of the top ten are Japanese newspapers.
The Japanese Yomiuri Shimbun (), Asahi Shimbun () and Mainichi Shimbun () are still the largest circulated newspapers in the world. The Times of India is the largest circulated English-language daily newspaper in the world, across all formats (Broadsheet, Compact, Berliner and Online). Reference News () is the most popular paper in China.
According to the Guinness Book of Records, the daily circulation of the Soviet newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda exceeded 21,500,000 in 1990, while the Soviet weekly Argumenty i Fakty boasted a circulation of 33,500,000 in 1991.
Individual countries
Australia
The Herald Sun has the highest circulation in Australia. Based in one of the country's two major cities, Melbourne, it is the result of the amalgamation of the original Sun and Herald newspapers.
Belgium
The Belgian institution CIM (Centre for Information about Media) publishes national circulation figures for all written, audiovisual and web-based media in Belgium. The top ten best selling papers according to their website are Het Laatste Nieuws, 317,715; Het Nieuwsblad, 245,209; SUD Presse (group of papers focused on community specific content), 147,749; Het Belang van Limburg, 121,428; Le Soir, 113,780; Vers l’avenir, 109,287 (group of papers focused on community specific content); La Dernière Heure, 107,583; De Standaard, 104,758.
Canada
The most widely read paper in the country is the Toronto Star, which, as of the six-month period ending on March 31, 2007, averaged 634,886 copies sold on Saturday, 436,694 Monday to Friday, and 442,265 on Sunday. The second most widely read paper is Toronto-based national newspaper The Globe and Mail, which averaged 374,000 copies on Saturdays, and 303,000 Monday to Friday. The most widely read French-language newspaper is Le Journal de Montréal, which averaged 319,899 copies on Saturday, 267,404 Monday to Friday, and 264,733 on Sunday. Unlike in the United States, newspapers in Canada published their biggest and mostly widely read editions on Saturdays.
India
The Audit Bureau of Circulations shows that the largest read local language newspapers to be Dainik Bhaskar (with 4.320 million readers) and Dainik Jagran (with 3.410 million readers), both published in Hindi. The Times of India is the most widely read English language newspaper ( 3.029 million), followed by Malayala Manorama (2.370 million), Amar Ujala (2.067 million), Hindustan Times (1.132 million), Eenadu (1.732 million), Daily Thanthi is a Tamil daily (1.498 million), Anandabazar Patrika is Bengali language newspaper(1.075 million). Malayala Manorama newspaper which is published in Malayalam from Kerala, currently has a readership of over 2.370 million (with a circulation base of over 2.4 million copies) has the most circulation in other languages.
Japan
The 2004 circulation figures for the morning and evening editions of Japan's largest newspapers: Yomiuri Shimbun, 14,067,000; The Asahi Shimbun, 12,121,000; Mainichi Shimbun, 5,587,000; Seikyo Shimbun, 5,500,000; Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 4,635,000; Chunichi Shimbun/Tokyo Shimbun,4,512,000; Tokyo Sports, 2,425,000; Sankei Shimbun, 2,757,000; Nikkan Sports, 1,965,000; Hokkaido Shimbun, 1,896,594; Sports Nippon, 1,711,000; The Nikkan Gendai, 1,686,000; Akahata, 1,683,000; Yukan Fuji, 1,559,000; Shizuoka Shimbun, 1,479,000; Sankei Sports, 1,368,000; Hochi Shimbun, 1,354,000; Daily Sports, 999,000.
Norway
The Norwegian Media Businesses' Association publishes national circulation figures for every newspaper in Norway every year. In 2011 the most read newspaper was the Oslo-based national newspaper Aftenposten, with a circulation of 235,795 followed by the tabloid Verdens Gang with 211,588. The local evening newspaper Aften averages 101,574 and the tabloid Dagbladet had 98,989 readers. The financial newspaper Dagens Næringsliv averaged 82,595. In the top ten list it is followed by five local newspapers: Bergens Tidende, 79,467; Adresseavisen, 71,657; Stavanger Aftenblad, 63,283; Fædrelandsvennen, 36,604 and Drammens Tidende, 33,352.
Turkey
As of August 2016, the top 6 best selling papers are respectively: Hürriyet, 340,898; Sözcü, 322,829; Sabah, 313,989; Posta, 302,919; Habertürk, 253,256 and Milliyet, 143,577.
United Kingdom
According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations the best-selling papers as of January 2017 are The Sun, 1.67 million, The Daily Mail, 1.51 million and the Daily Mirror, 725,000.
United States
The heyday of the newspaper industry was the 1940s, but the percentage of Americans reading newspapers began to decline with the increased competition from radio, television and, more recently, the Internet. A growing population helped the absolute circulation numbers continue to increase until the 1970s, where it remained stable until the 1990s, when absolute circulation numbers began declining.
Newspaper circulation numbers are reported to the Alliance for Audited Media. The best-selling papers in America, measured by combined daily average circulation as of March 31, 2013, are the Wall Street Journal with 2,378,827 in circulation; The New York Times at 1,865,318; and USA Today with 1,674,306. Overall, for the 593 reporting newspapers, daily circulation declined 0.7 percent year-over-year between March 2012 and March 2013. Sunday circulation was down 1.4 percent over the same period.
See also
List of newspapers by circulation
List of magazines by circulation
Newspaper delivery: The circulation department of a newspaper, in addition to soliciting subscriptions, also distributes them to subscribers to the print edition. The last step is newspaper delivery consisting of newspaper routes run either by motor vehicle or traditional adolescent "paper boys."
References
External links
Newspaper Map (circulation worldwide)
BPA Worldwide: Media Auditing
The State of the Media 2004 from journalism.org
Alliance for Audited Media web site
The Front Pages of the Main Newspapers of the World
Editor & Publisher Yearbook On-line with circulation statistics
Searchable database of Canadian newspaper circulation figures from the Canadian Newspaper Association
English Newspaper in Spain
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226767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eenadu | Eenadu | Eenadu (transl: "Today" or "This Country/State") is the largest circulated Telugu-language daily newspaper of India sold mostly in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. According to the Indian Readership Survey (IRS) Q2 2019, Eenadu ranks eighth among the most circulated Indian-language dailies with a total readership (TR) of 1,614,105. It was founded by Ramoji Rao in 1974.
Editions
Various editions of Eenadu exist throughout the Telugu-speaking region of India constituting the states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana.
History
Early days in Visakhapatnam
Initially, the circulation of Eenadu was limited. When launched in the city of Visakhapatnam, it wasn't able to sell more than 3,000 copies a week. Eenadu found itself struggling to become a daily publication among publication. However, it was popular in certain regions and rivalry was still an issue. Eenadu hired a new set of directors to be part of its key decision and management group which drove it towards what it is today: the most highly circulated newspaper in the region.
Eenadu was launched from Visakhapatnam on 10 August 1974 by Ramoji Rao, a businessman who had previously achieved success with Priya Pickles and Margadarsi Chitfunds. At that time, the Andhra Prabha, owned by the Indian Express Group, was the leading regional newspaper.
Expansion to other regions
Eenadu began with a print order of 4,000 copies, composed by hand and produced using a second-hand printing press. But by the time it was admitted into the Audit Bureau of Circulations in 1976, its circulation had already reached a readership of 48,000. By 1978, Eenadu surpassed Andhra Prabhas circulation and, by 1995, two other rivals Andhra Patrika and Udayam folded, leaving Eenadu with over seventy-five percent of the audited circulation of Telugu dailies.
When Eenadu expanded to Hyderabad in 1975, it divided the city into target areas, recruited delivery boys three months in advance and handed out the paper freely for a week. During the 1980s, technology enabled Eenadu to spread over larger areas beyond only the main cities. Earlier, it was difficult to manage even the three editions of the 1970s (the Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada and Hyderabad editions) because the only communication facilities available to the publication at the time were the telegram, telephone, and teleprinter, all of which had limited presence in rural Andhra Pradesh.
Further publications
With the introduction of offset printing, photocomposing software and computers, Eenadu was able to launch editions in smaller towns like Tirupathi in 1982. From the 1980s, the news editor of Eenadu oversaw an enormous local-based news gathering and disseminating organization from his Hyderabad office.
By the end of the 1980s, there were six substantial Telugu dailies running, and the business was highly competitive. In 1989 Eenadu introduced "district dailies (tabloid edition)" to carry its presence not only into district towns like Rajahmundry, Karimnagar, Guntur and Adilabad, but also taluka towns like Suryapet and Tadepalligudem. Each publication center required forty engineers to run its printing presses. Eenadus district dailies were based on market research asserting that heavy local content would generate new groups of readers and boost advertising revenue. Currently, the district dailies print local news specifically for each major location in the area, thereby negating the need for any separate local daily. Few special sections are published every day of the week.Eenadu later ventured into other markets such as finance and chit funds (e.g. Margadarsi chits), foods (Priya Foods), film production (Ushakiran Movies), film distribution (Mayuri Films), and television (ETV). All the businesses are organized under the Ramoji Group.
References
External links
Daily newspapers published in India
Telugu-language newspapers
Publications established in 1974
Newspapers published in Hyderabad
Ramoji Group
1974 establishments in Andhra Pradesh
Newspapers published in Vijayawada | [
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226768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramoji%20Rao | Ramoji Rao | Cherukuri Ramoji Rao (born 16 November 1936) is an Indian film producer, and media entrepreneur. He is head of the Ramoji Group which owns the world's largest film production facility Ramoji Film City, film production company Ushakiran Movies and ETV Network. He has garnered four Filmfare Awards South,five Nandi Awards and the National Film Award for his works in Telugu cinema. In 2016, he was honored with the Padma Vibhushan, India's second-highest civilian honor, for his contributions in journalism, literature and education.
Personal life
Cherukuri Ramoji Rao was born on 16 November 1936 in Pedaparupudi of Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, India into an agricultural family. Companies owned by the Ramoji group include Margadarsi Chit Fund, Eenadu newspaper, ETV Network, Ramadevi Public School, Priya Foods, Kalaanjali,Ushakiran Movies and the Ramoji Film City near Hyderabad. He is also the chairman of Dolphin Group of Hotels in Andhra Pradesh.
Rao's younger son, Cherukuri Suman, died of leukemia on 7 September 2012.
Filmography
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film title !! Language !! class=unsortable| Cast !! class=unsortable| Director !! class=unsortable| Notes
|-
| 1984|| Srivariki Premalekha||Telugu ||Naresh, Poornima||Jandhyala||
|-
| 1984|| Kanchana Ganga||Telugu ||Chandra Mohan, Saritha, Swapna, Sarath Babu||V. Madhusudhan Rao||
|-
| 1984|| Sundari Subbarao ||Telugu ||Chandra Mohan, Vijayshanti||Relangi Narasimha Rao||
|-
| 1985|| Mayuri||Telugu ||Sudha Chandran, Subhakar||Singeetam Srinivasa Rao||Remade in Hindi as Naache Mayuri; dubbed into Malayalam and Tamil as Mayoori
|-
| 1985|| Pratighatana||Telugu||Vijayshanti, Chandra Mohan||T. Krishna||Remade in Malayalam as Pakarathinu Pakaram and Hindi as Pratighaat
|-
| 1985|| Preminchu Pelladu||Telugu||Rajendra Prasad, Bhanupriya ||Vamsy||
|-
| 1986|| Pakarathinu Pakaram||Malayalam ||||T. Krishna||Remake of Pratighatana
|-
| 1986|| Mallemoggalu||Telugu||Sagarika, Rajesh||V. Madhusudhan Rao||
|-
| 1986|| Car Diddina Kapuram||Telugu||Rajendra Prasad, Pavitra||D.V. Narasa Raju||
|-
| 1986|| Naache Mayuri||Hindi ||Sudha Chandran, Shekhar Suman||T. Rama Rao||Remake of Mayuri
|-
| 1987|| Chandamama Rave||Telugu||Chandra Mohan, Kalpana||Moulee||
|-
| 1987|| Pratighaat||Hindi||Sujata Mehta||N. Chandra||Remake of Pratighatana
|-
| 1987|| Premayanam||Telugu ||Naresh, Jayashree||C. V. Sridhar||
|-
| 1988|| O Bharya Katha||Telugu ||Jayasudha, Chandra Mohan, Sarath Babu||Moulee||
|-
| 1989|| Mouna Poratam||Telugu ||Yamuna, Vinod Kumar||Mohan Gandhi||
|-
| 1989|| Paila Pacheesu||Telugu ||Rajendra Prasad, Ramya Krishna, Brahmanandam ||Moulee||
|-
| 1990|| Judgement||Telugu ||Siva Krishna, Vinod Kumar, Yamuna, Aruna||A.Mohan Gandhi||
|-
| 1990|| Mamasri||Telugu ||Suresh, Ramyakrishna, Liji, Anand||Sharath||
|-
| 1990|| Manasu Mamata||Telugu ||Naresh, Sithara||Moulee||
|-
| 1991|| Amma||Telugu ||Suhasini,Sarathbabu, Baby Sunayana||Suresh Krissna||
|-
| 1991|| Aswini||Telugu ||Bhanu Chander, Ashwini Nachappa||Moulee||
|-
| 1991|| People's Encounter||Telugu ||Meka Srikanth, Vinod kumar, Bhanupriya||Mohan Gandhi||
|-
| 1991|| Jagannatham & Sons||Telugu ||Suresh, Sindhuja||Anil Kumar||
|-
| 1992|| Vasundhara||Telugu ||Sithara ||Suresh Krissna||
|-
| 1998|| Padutha Theeyaga||Telugu||Vineeth, Heera Rajgopal||Kranthi Kumar||
|-
| 1998|| Daddy Daddy||Telugu||ANR, Jayasudha, Harish, Raasi||Kodi Ramakrishna||
|-
| 1999|| Mechanic Mamaiah'||Telugu||Rajasekhar, Rambha||S. V. Rajendra Singh Babu||
|-
| 2000|| Subhavela||Telugu||Ravi Kanth, Anasuya||Ramana||
|-
| 2000|| Chitram||Telugu||Uday Kiran, Reema Sen||Teja||Remade in Kannada as Chitra|-
| 2000|| Moodu Mukkalaata||Telugu||Jagapati Babu, Soundarya, Rambha, Raasi ||K. Raghavendra Rao||
|-
| 2000|| Nuvve Kavali||Telugu||Tarun Kumar, Richa Pallod||K. Vijaya Bhaskar||Remake of Niram; remade in Hindi as Tujhe Meri Kasam and Kannada as Ninagagi|-
| 2001|| Deevinchandi||Telugu|| Srikanth, Raasi, Malavika||Muthyala Subbaiah||
|-
| 2001|| Ninnu Choodalani||Telugu||Jr. NTR, Raveena Rajput||V. R. Pratap||
|-
| 2001|| Akasa Veedhilo||Telugu||Nagarjuna, Rajendra Prasad, Raveena Tandon, Kasthuri||Singeetam Srinivasa Rao||
|-
| 2001|| Chithra||Kannada||Nagendra Prasad, Rekha Vedavyas||Dinesh Baboo||Remake of Chitram|-
| 2001|| Anandam||Telugu||Aakash, Rekha Vedavyas, Venkat, Tanu Roy||Srinu Vaitla||Remade in Tamil as Inidhu Inidhu Kadhal Inidhu|-
| 2001 || Ananda ||Kannada||Naveen Mayur|| ||Remake of Telugu film Anandam|-
| 2001|| Ishtam||Telugu||Charan, Shriya Saran||Vikram Kumar & Raj Kumar||
|-
| 2002|| Manasuvunte Chalu||Telugu||Sai Kiran, Jennifer Kotwal, Sivaji||Jonnalagadda Sreenivasa Rao||
|-
| 2002|| Priya Nesthama||Telugu||Venu Thottempudi, Shanu||R. Ganapathi||
|-
| 2002|| Neetho||Telugu|| Prakash Kovelamudi, Mahek Chahal||John Mahendran||
|-
| 2002|| Ninagagi||Kannada||Vijay Raghavendra, Radhika||S. Mahendar||Remake of Nuvve Kavali|-
| 2003|| Tujhe Meri Kasam||Hindi|| Ritesh Deshmukh, Genelia Deshmukh||K. Vijaya Bhaskar||Remake of Nuvve Kavali|-
| 2003|| Oka Raju Oka Rani||Telugu||Ravi Teja, Namitha||Yogie||
|-
| 2003|| Toli Choopulone||Telugu||Nandamuri Kalyan Ram, Akanksha||Y. Kasi Viswanath||
|-
| 2003|| Inidhu Inidhu Kadhal Inidhu||Tamil ||Jai Akash, Neha||Sakthi Chidambaram||Remake of Anandam|-
| 2003|| Bombaiyer Bombete||Bengali||Sabyasachi Chakraborty, Parambrata Chatterjee, Bibhu Bhattacharya||Sandip Ray||
|-
| 2004|| Anandamanandamaye||Telugu||Jai Akash, Renuka Menon||Srinu Vaitla||
|-
| 2004|| Thoda Tum Badlo Thoda Hum||Hindi|| Arya Babbar, Shriya Saran|| Esmayeel Shroff||
|-
| 2006|| Veedhi||Telugu||Sharwanand, Gopika||V. Dorairaj||
|-
| 2007|| Sixer||Kannada||Prajwal Devaraj, Devaki||Shashank||
|-
| 2008|| Nachavule||Telugu||Tanish, Maadhavi Latha||Ravi Babu||
|-
| 2009|| Ninnu Kalisaka||Telugu||Santosh Samrat, Chaitanya Krishna, Dipa Shah, Piaa Bajpai, Jagapati Babu||Siva Nageswara Rao ||
|-
| 2009|| Savaari||Kannada||Srinagar Kitty, Raghu Mukherjee, Kamalini Mukherjee, Suman Ranganathan||Jacob Verghese||Remake of Gamyam; co-production with Arka Media Works
|-
| 2010|| Betting Bangaraju||Telugu||Allari Naresh, Nidhi||E.Sattibabu||
|-
| 2011|| Nuvvila||Telugu||Avish, Ajay, Prasad Barve, Vijay Sai, Yami Gautam, Sarayu, Remya Nambeesan||Ravi Babu||
|-
| 2015|| Beeruva||Telugu||Sundeep Kishan, Surabhi ||Kanmani||Co-production with Anandi Art Creations
|-
| 2015|| Dagudumootha Dandakor||Telugu||Rajendra Prasad, Sara Arjun||R.K Malineni ||Remake of Saivam; co-production with First Frame Entertainment
|}
Awards and honours
Civilian honours
Padma Vibhushan (2016) – Government of India
National Film Awards
National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu (producer) – Nuvve Kavali (2000)
Filmfare Awards
Filmfare Best Film Award (Telugu) – Pratighatana (1985)
Filmfare Special Award - South for outstanding contributions towards Indian cinema (1998)
Filmfare Best Film Award (Telugu) – Nuvve Kavali'' (2000)
Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award - South (2004)
Nandi Awards
Best Feature Film - Silver - Kanchana Ganga (1984)
Best Feature Film - Gold - Mayuri (1985)
Best Feature Film - Silver - Mouna Poratam (1989)
Best Feature Film - Bronze - Aswini (1991)
Best Childrens Film - Gold - Teja (1992)
References
External links
1936 births
Living people
Telugu film producers
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in literature & education
Film producers from Andhra Pradesh
Filmfare Awards South winners
Indian mass media owners
People from Krishna district
20th-century Indian businesspeople
21st-century Indian businesspeople
Indian film distributors
Businesspeople from Andhra Pradesh
Ramoji Group | [
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226769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaming | Roaming | Roaming is a wireless telecommunication term typically used with mobile devices, such as mobile phones. It refers to a mobile phone being used outside the range of its native network and connecting to another available cell network.
Technical definition
In more technical terms, roaming refers to the ability for a cellular customer to automatically make and receive voice calls, send and receive data, or access other services, including home data services, when travelling outside the geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a visited network. For example: should a subscriber travel beyond their cell phone company's transmitter range, their cell phone would automatically hop onto another phone company's service, if available.
The process is supported by the Telecommunication processes of mobility management, authentication, authorization and accounting billing procedures (known as AAA or 'triple A').
Roaming in general
Roaming is divided into "SIM-based roaming" and "username/password-based roaming", whereby the technical term "roaming" also encompasses roaming between networks of different network standards, e.g. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) or GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications). Device equipment and functionality, such as SIM card capability, antenna and network interfaces, and power management, determine the access possibilities.
Using the example of WLAN/GSM roaming, the following scenarios can be differentiated (cf. GSM Association Permanent Reference Document AA.39):
SIM-based (roaming): GSM subscriber roams onto a public WLAN operated by:
their GSM operator, or
another operator who has a roaming agreement with their GSM operator.
Username/password based roaming: GSM subscriber roams onto a public WLAN operated by:
their GSM operator, or
another operator who has a roaming agreement with their GSM operator.
Although these user/network scenarios focus on roaming from GSM network operator's networks, clearly roaming can be bi-directional, i.e. from public WLAN operators to GSM networks. Traditional roaming in networks of the same standard, e.g. from a WLAN to a WLAN or a GSM network to a GSM network, has already been described above and is likewise defined by the foreignness of the network based on the type of subscriber entry in the home subscriber register.
In the case of session continuity, seamless access to these services across different access types is provided.
Home and visited networks
"Home network" refers to the network the subscriber is registered with.
"Visitor network" refers to the network a subscriber roams temporarily and is outside the bounds of the "home network".
Roaming agreements
The legal roaming business aspects negotiated between the roaming partners for billing of the services obtained are usually stipulated in so called roaming agreements. The GSM Association broadly outlines the content of such roaming agreements in standardized form for its members. For the legal aspects of authentication, authorization and billing of the visiting subscriber, the roaming agreements typically can comprise minimal safety standards, as e.g. location update procedures or financial security or warranty procedures.
The roaming process
The details of the roaming process differ among types of cellular networks, but in general, the process resembles the following:
Location update
Location updating is the mechanism that is used to determine the location of an MS in the idle state (connected to the network, but with no active call).
When the mobile device is turned on or is transferred via a handover to the network, this new "visited" network sees the device, notices that it is not registered with its own system, and attempts to identify its home network. If there is no roaming agreement between the two networks, maintenance of service is impossible, and service is denied by the visited network.
The visited network contacts the home network and requests service information (including whether or not the mobile should be allowed to roam) about the roaming device using the IMSI number.
If successful, the visited network begins to maintain a temporary subscriber record for the device. Likewise, the home network updates its information to indicate that the cell phone is on the visited network so that any information sent to that device can be correctly routed.
Mobile terminated call
It occurs for example when a call is made to a roaming cell phone.
Signaling process:
The calling subscriber (from within the public telephone network) dials the mobile subscriber's MSISDN (the telephone number) of the roaming cell phone.
Based on the information contained in the MSISDN (national destination code and the country code), the call is routed to the mobile network gateway MSC (GMSC). It's done with an ISUP IAM message.
To locate the MS, the GMSC sends to the HLR a MAP SRI (Send Routing Information) message. The MAP SRI message contains the MSISDN number and with this MSISDN the HLR will obtain the IMSI.
Because of past location updates, the HLR already knows the VLR that currently serves the subscriber. The HLR will send to the VLR a MAP PRN (Provide Roaming Number) message to obtain the MSRN of the roaming cell phone. Like that the HLR will be able to route the call to the correct MSC.
With the IMSI contained in the MAP PRN message, the VLR assigns a temporary number known as the mobile station roaming number (MSRN) to the roaming cell phone. This MSRN number is sent back to the HLR in a MAP RIA (Routing Information Acknowledgement) message.
Now with the MSRN number, the GMSC knows how to route the call to reach the roaming cell phone. Then, the call is made using ISUP (or TUP) signaling between the GMSC and the visited MSC. The GMSC will generate an ISUP IAM message with the MSRN as the called party number (and NOT the MSISDN as the called party number).
When the MSC of the visitor network receives the IAM, it recognizes the MSRN and knows the IMSI for which the MSRN was allocated. The MSC then returns the MSRN to the pool for future use on another call. Afterwards, the MSC sends to the VLR a MAP SI (Send Information) message to request information like the called MS's capabilities, services subscribed to, and so on. If the called MS is authorized and capable of taking the call, the VLR sends a MAP CC (Complete Call) message back to the MSC.
In order that a subscriber is able to register on to a visited network, a roaming agreement needs to be in place between the visited network and the home network. This agreement is established after a series of testing processes called IREG (International Roaming Expert Group) and TADIG (Transferred Account Data Interchange Group). While the IREG testing is to test the proper functioning of the established communication links, the TADIG testing is to check the billability of the calls.
The usage by a subscriber in a visited network is captured in a file called the TAP (Transferred Account Procedure) for GSM / CIBER (Cellular Intercarrier Billing Exchange Record) for CDMA, AMPS etc... file and is transferred to the home network. A TAP/CIBER file contains details of the calls made by the subscriber viz. location, calling party, called party, time of call and duration, etc. The TAP/CIBER files are rated as per the tariffs charged by the visited operator. The home operator then bills these calls to its subscribers and may charge a mark-up/tax applicable locally.
As recently many carriers launched own retail rate plans and bundles for Roaming, TAP records are generally used for wholesale Inter-Operators settlements only
Tariffs
Roaming fees are typically charged on a per-minute basis for wireless voice service, per text message sent and received and per megabyte/s of data used for data service, and they are typically determined by the service provider's pricing plan.
Several carriers in both the United States and India have eliminated these fees in their nationwide pricing plans. All of the major carriers now offer pricing plans that allow consumers to purchase nationwide roaming-free minutes. However, carriers define "nationwide" in different ways. For example, some carriers define "nationwide" as anywhere in the U.S., whereas others define it as anywhere within the carrier's network.
In the UK, the main network providers generally send text alerts to advise users that they will now be charged international rates so it is clear when this will apply. UK data roaming charges abroad vary depending on the nature of the phone agreement (either pay as you go or monthly contracts). Some carriers, including T-Mobile and Virgin Mobile, do not allow pay as you go customers to use international roaming without pre-purchase of an international "add on" or "bolt on."
An operator intending to provide roaming services to visitors publishes the tariffs that would be charged in their network at least sixty days prior to its implementation under normal situations. The visited operator tariffs may include tax, discounts etc. and would be based on duration in case of voice calls. For data calls, the charging may be based on the data volume sent and received. Some operators also charge a separate fee for call setup i.e. for the establishment of a call. This charge is called a flagfall charge.
Roaming within the EU
In the European Union, regulation on roaming charges began on 30 June 2007, forcing service providers to lower their roaming fees across the 28-member bloc. It later also included EEA member states. The regulation set a price cap of €0.39 (€0.49 in 2007, €0.46 in 2008, €0.43 in 2009) per minute for outgoing calls, and €0.15 (€0.24 in 2007, €0.22 in 2008, €0.19 in 2009) per minute for incoming calls - excluding tax. Having still found that market conditions did not justify lifting the capping of roaming within the EEA, the Commission replaced the law in 2012. Under the 2012 Regulation, retail roaming capping charges expired in 2017 and wholesale capping charges are due to expire in 2022. In mid-2009 there was also an €0.11 (excluding tax) maximum price for SMS text message included into this regulation.
On 11 June 2013, the European Commission voted to end mobile roaming charges for the first time.
Following a European Commission vote on 15 December 2016, roaming charges within the European Union were to be abolished by June 2017. While the European Commission (EC) believed that ending roaming charges would stimulate entrepreneurship and trade, mobile operators had their doubts about the changes.
On 15 June 2017, Regulation (EU) 2016/2286, nicknamed "Roam like at Home" and having been signed by the European Parliament and Commission in May of the same year came into force. It abolished all roaming charges within the EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.
Roaming between other countries
Countries that do not share a supra-national authority have also begun examining the provision of international roaming services. In April 2011, Singapore and Malaysia announced that they had agreed with operators to reduce voice and SMS rates for roaming between their two countries. In August 2012, Australia and New Zealand published a draft report proposing coordinated action on roaming services. This was followed by a final report in February 2013 recommending that the two countries equip their telecommunications regulators with an extended palette of regulatory remedies, when they investigate international roaming. The Australian and New Zealand prime ministers subsequently announced that they would introduce legislation to effect the recommendations of the final report.
On 19 February 2020, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru voted, through the auspice of the Andean Community, to eliminate roaming fees amongst themselves. The agreement is set to start in 2022.
On 1 July 2021, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, North Macedonia and Kosovo abolished roaming fees as part of Mini Schengen project, allowing SIM holders on those countries to use their domestic packages on another country in the agreement without having to pay their roaming fee. The agreement was signed in April 2019. There are no additional charges, just like in EU's "Roaming like home" project.
Other types of roaming
Regional or internal roaming
This type refers to the ability of moving from one region to another region inside national coverage of the mobile operator ("internal roaming"). Initially, operators may have provided commercial offers restricted to a region (sometimes to a town). Due to the success of GSM and the decrease in cost, regional roaming is rarely offered to clients except in nations with wide geographic areas like the US, Russia, India, etc., in which there are a number of regional operators.
In Russia even country-wide operators charge different tariffs depending on whether the users are within or outside of their "home region". A number of legislative attempts to remove the "internal roaming" failed due to opposition from operators. Following the annexation of Crimea in 2014 the Russian operators are facing significant criticism as they do not offer their services inside Crimea directly, even though formally it's recognized as a regular federal subject inside Russia.
National roaming
This type refers to the ability to move from one mobile operator to another in the same country. For example, a subscriber of T-Mobile USA who is allowed to roam on AT&T Mobility's service would have national roaming rights.
For commercial and license reasons, this type of roaming is not allowed unless under very specific circumstances and under regulatory scrutiny. This has often taken place when a new company is assigned a mobile telephony license, to create a more competitive market by allowing the new entrant to offer coverage comparable to that of established operators (by requiring the existing operators to allow roaming while the new entrant has time to build up its own network).
In a country like India, where the number of regional operators is high and the country is divided into telecom circles, this type of roaming is common. Following the launch of the Pebble Network in the UK on 15 July 2015, national roaming has been possible across the major UK networks at no additional cost using a Pebble Network SIM card.
International roaming
This type of roaming refers to the ability to move to a foreign service provider's network. It is, consequently, of particular interest to international tourists and business travelers. Broadly speaking, international roaming is typically easiest when using the GSM standard, as it is used by over 80% of the world's mobile operators, and most devices support it. However, even then, there may be problems, since countries have allocated different frequency bands for GSM communications (there are two groups of countries: most GSM countries use 900/1800 MHz, but the United States and some other countries in the Americas have allocated 850/1900 MHz): for a phone to work in a country with a different frequency allocation, it must support one or both of that country's frequencies, and thus be tri or quad band. If international roaming allows the traveler to stay connected during their trip, it can also generate significant costs for users, due to the trend of carriers pricing GSM usage internationally outrageously high if the traveler elects to not purchase an optional addon to their current phone service. In fact, the use of mobile networks outside its original country can lead to significant billing by its original mobile data operator without an addon to their current phone service.
Inter-standards roaming
This type refers to roaming between two standards. This term is now widely used in mobile communications where especially CDMA customers want to use their phone in areas where there is no CDMA network or there is no roaming agreement in place to support roaming on the used standard. In Europe there are hardly any CDMA networks. Most CDMA customers originate from the Americas or the Far East. In order to enable them to roam in Europe inter-standard roaming is the solution. The CDMA customers arriving in Europe can register on the available GSM networks.
Since mobile communication technologies have evolved independently across continents, there is significant challenge in achieving seamless roaming across these technologies. Typically, these technologies were implemented in accordance with technological standards laid down by different industry bodies and hence the name. A number of the standards making industry bodies have come together to define and achieve interoperability between the technologies as a means to achieve inter-standards roaming. This is currently an ongoing effort.
Mobile signature roaming
Mobile signature roaming allows an access point to get a mobile signature from any end-user, even if the AP and the end-user have not contracted a commercial relationship with the same MSSP. Otherwise, an AP would have to build commercial terms with as many MSSPs as possible, and this might be a cost burden. This means that a mobile signature transaction issued by an Application Provider should be able to reach the appropriate MSSP, and this should be transparent for the AP.
Inter-MSC roaming
Network elements belonging to the same Operator but located in different areas (a typical situation where assignment of local licenses is a common practice) pair depends on the switch and its location. Hence, software changes and a greater processing capability are required, but furthermore this situation could introduce the fairly new concept of roaming on a per MSC basis instead of per Operator basis. But this is actually a burden, so it is avoided.
Permanent roaming
This type refers to customers who purchase service with a mobile phone operator intending to permanently roam, or be off-network. This becomes possible because of the increasing popularity and availability of "free roaming" service plan, where there is no cost difference between on and off network usage. The benefits of getting service from a mobile phone operator, that is not local to a user, can include cheaper rates, or features and phones that are not available on their local mobile phone operator, or to get to a particular mobile phone operator's network to get free calls to other customers of that mobile phone operator through a free unlimited mobile to mobile feature.
Most mobile phone operators will require the customer's living or billing address be inside their coverage area or less often inside the government issued radio frequency license of the mobile phone operator, this is usually determined by a computer estimate because it is impossible to guarantee coverage. If a potential customer's address is not within the requirements of that mobile phone operator, they will be denied service. In order to permanently roam customers may use a false address and online billing, or a relative or friend's address which is in the required area, and a 3rd party billing option.
Most mobile phone operators discourage or prohibit permanent roaming since they must pay per minute rates to the network operator their customer is roaming onto. This is because they can not pass that extra cost onto customers ("free roaming").
Trombone roaming
Roaming calls within a local tariff area, when at least one of the phones belong outside that area. Usually implemented with trombone routing also known as tromboning.
See also
5G NR frequency bands
GSM frequency bands
Handoff
Home Location Register
IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11f
IEEE 802.11r
LTE frequency bands
Mobile IP
Mobile phone
Mobile phones on aircraft
Mobility management
Regulation on roaming charges in the European Union
Roaming sim
TADIG codes
UMTS frequency bands
Vertical handoff
Visitor Location Register
References
External links
Roaming - Using my mobile abroad: are prices dropping ? - European Commission
Intra MSC Roaming
Mobile Europe describes how the roaming industry will cope with pending EU legislation and the arrival of mobile VoIP
GSM operators and their roaming agreements - Index of GSM operators in a country, and their roaming partners indexed by country. Maintained by GSM Alliance
GSM standard
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226770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate%20sanctions | Intermediate sanctions | Intermediate sanctions is a term used in regulations enacted by the United States Internal Revenue Service that is applied to certain types of non-profit organizations who engage in transactions that inure to the benefit of a disqualified person within the organization. These regulations allow the IRS to penalize the organization and the disqualified person receiving the benefit. Intermediate sanctions may be imposed either in addition to or instead of revocation of the exempt status of the organization.
Summary
The Taxpayer Bill of Rights 2 which came into force on July 30, 1996, added section 4958 to the Internal Revenue Code. Section 4958 adds intermediate sanctions as an alternative to revocation of the exempt status of an organization when private persons benefit from transactions with a 501(c)(3) public charity or 501(c)(4) non-profit organization. NOTE: 501(c)(3) private foundations are subject to similar regulations found in Section 4941 of the Internal Revenue Code.
Intermediate Sanctions may be imposed on any disqualified person who receives an excess benefit from a covered non-profit organization and on each organization manager who approves an excess benefit. If you are a disqualified person you are subject to having participated in an excess benefit transaction, if the transaction is so defined.
Being a disqualified person does not automatically result in a finding that a transaction involves an excess benefit. If you are not a disqualified person, then you cannot be subject to an excess benefit (your transaction with the non-profit organization is considered to be at arm's length).
If there is a finding that there has been an excess benefit, the disqualified person must reimburse the organization to place the organization back in the position it was in before the excess benefit transaction was completed. As well, there are stiff interest penalties and excise penalties in excess of 200%. The organizational managers who participated in the transaction may also be fined an aggregate of $10,000 per violation and are jointly and severally liable for payment of such penalty. These penalties are cumulative, thus an individual may be liable as a disqualified person and as an organization manager.
History
The Taxpayer Bill of Rights 2 (effective July 30, 1996) added section 4958 to the Internal Revenue Code. On August 4, 1998, the IRS proposed regulations to implement IRC 4958. On March 16 and 17, 1999, the IRS held public hearings on these proposed regulations. It was not until January 10, 2001 that the IRS issued Temporary Regulations, which were to be effective for up to 3 years. Then, on January 23, 2002 the Final Regulations were issued, superseding the Temporary Regulations.
On September 9, 2005, the IRS announced proposed rulemaking to clarify the relationship between penalties imposed under section 4958 and revocation of exempt status.
Who is a Disqualified Person?
You are a disqualified person if you are a person who, during five years beginning after September 13, 1995, and ending on the date of the transaction in question, were in a position to exercise substantial influence over the affairs of the exempt organization. Note: You can be an individual, another organization, a partnership or unincorporated association, trust or estate.
In affiliated organizations, your substantial influence must be determined separately for each organization but benefits provided by a controlled entity will be treated as being provided by the exempt organization. A person may be a disqualified person for more than one organization.
The intermediate sanction statute identifies certain persons as having substantial influence as a matter of law — such persons are conclusively presumed to be disqualified persons. The temporary regulations identify additional categories of those who have a substantial influence. The IRS considers these individuals to be presumptively disqualified.
Under the statute, the following are disqualified:
A family member (spouse, siblings and their spouses, ancestors, children, grandchildren, great grandchildren, and spouses of children, grandchildren and great grandchildren) of a disqualified person. A legally adopted child is a child.
An organization (corporation, partnership, trust or estate) owned 35% or more, directly or indirectly, by a disqualified person, or family member(s). This does not include voting rights held only as a director, trustee, or other fiduciary, without any stock, profit or other beneficial interest.
Other persons defined by the regulations as having substantial interest include:
Members of the governing board of the organization who are entitled to vote on matters over which the governing body has authority (e.g., directors, elders, trustees, steering committee members, etc.).
Executive officers of the organization, such as president, chief executive officer, and chief operating officer — the exact title is used is irrelevant; includes any individual who has ultimate responsibility for implementing board decisions or for supervising the management, administration or operations of the organization. Responsibilities may be shared by more than one individual. If a person has a title of president, chief executive officer or chief operating officer that person will be disqualified unless they can show otherwise.
The treasurer or chief financial officer — including anyone who has or shares responsibility for managing the organization's financial assets, regardless of actual title. Several persons may share this responsibility. Once again, any person with the title of treasurer or chief financial officer will be considered to have this ultimate responsibility unless shown otherwise.
If a hospital participates in a provider-sponsored organization then any person who has a material financial interest in the organization (e.g., a person involved in a joint venture with the organization).
Not a Disqualified Person
Under the temporary regulations certain persons are deemed not to have substantial influence including:
501(c)(3) organizations.
With respect to a 501(c)(4) organization, another organization described in 501(c)(4).
Employees who do not fit into one of the categories listed above, provided they are not highly compensated employees (as defined in section 414(q)(1)(B)(i) - compensation in excess of $80,000, as adjusted by the IRS) or substantial contributors (as defined in section 507(d)(2)(A), taking into account only contributions received during the current and the four preceding taxable years).
Facts and Circumstances Test
Whether an individual or organization is a disqualified person in any cases not under the above categories is determined by a facts and circumstances test. The regulations include two lists of facts and circumstances (1) including facts and circumstances that tend to show an individual has substantial influence and (2) including facts and circumstances that tend to show a person 'does not have substantial influence.
(1). Facts and circumstances which tend to show a person has substantial influence include:
The person founded the organization.
The person is a substantial contributor to the organization (as defined in section 507(d)(2)(A), taking into account only contributions received during the current taxable year and the four preceding taxable years).
The person's compensation is primarily based on revenues derived from an activity of the organization or a part thereof that the person controls (see further discussion about percentage payments, below).
The person has or shares authority to control or determine a substantial portion of the organization's capital expenditures, operating budget, or compensation for employees.
The person manages a discrete segment or activity of the organization that represents a substantial portion of the organization's activities, assets, income or expenses, as compared to the organization as a whole. For example, a person who manages one department that contributes significantly to the whole may be a disqualified person.
The person owns a controlling interest (measured either by vote or value) in an organization (corporation, partnership, trust) that is a disqualified person.
The person is a non-stock organization (such as a social club, homeowners association, etc.) controlled, directly or indirectly, by one or more disqualified persons.
(2). Facts and circumstances which tend to show a person has no substantial influence include:
The organization is a religious organization and the person has taken a "bona fide" vow of poverty as an employee or agent, or on behalf of the organization.
The person is a contractor (e.g. an attorney, an accountant, or investment manager or advisor) whose sole relationship to the organization is providing professional advice (without having decision-making authority) with respect to transactions from which the contractor will not economically benefit, either directly or indirectly, apart from customary fees received for the professional advice rendered.
The direct supervisor of the individual is not a disqualified person.
The person does not participate in any management decisions affecting the organization as a whole or a discrete segment or activity of the organization that represents a substantial portion of the organization's activities, assets, income or expenses, as compared to the organization as a whole.
Any preferential treatment a person receives which is based on the size of the person's donation, is also offered to all other donors making a comparable contribution as part of a solicitation intended to attract a substantial number of contributions.
Who is an Organization Manager?
An organization manager is any officer, director, trustee, or person having similar powers or responsibilities, regardless of title. Officers are specifically designated under the articles or bylaws of the organization, or a person regularly exercising general authority to make administrative or policy decisions for the organization. If a person only makes recommendations, but cannot implement decisions without approval of a superior, that person is not an officer. The regulations make it clear that a contractor who acts solely in a capacity as an attorney, accountant, or investment manager or advisor is not an officer.
An organization manager includes anyone on a committee of the board (whether a member of the board), if the organization is claiming that the rebuttable presumption of reasonableness (see below) is based on the committee's (or the designee's) actions. If the committee is responsible for determining the reasonableness of a transaction, and this determination is relied upon by the organization, every member of the committee will be considered an organization manager.
When Does an Organization Manager Participate in a Transaction?
Silence or inaction can be participation by the organization manager if the manager is under a duty to speak or act, as well as any affirmative action. Abstention is considered consent to a transaction. Managers opposing the transaction in a manner consistent with their responsibilities to the organization are not be considered to have participated in the action.
Knowing Participation — Knowing means that the manager:
has actual knowledge of sufficient facts which indicate, based solely on those facts, the transaction is an excess benefit transaction,
is aware that the transaction may violate the law, and
negligently fails to make reasonable attempts to ascertain whether the transaction is an excess benefit transaction or is, in fact, aware that it is such a transaction.
Although knowing does not mean having reason to know, under the regulations, evidence that a manager has reason to know is relevant to determine whether the manager has actual knowledge. It is up to the IRS to prove that the manager knowingly participated.
If an organization manager relies on a reasoned written opinion of an appropriate professional, his or her participation will ordinarily not be considered knowing. In addition, an organization manager's participation is ordinarily not considered knowing if the requirements of the rebuttable presumption of reasonableness are satisfied.
Willful Participation — an organization manager participation is willful if it is voluntary, conscious and intentional. It is not willful if the manager does not know that the transaction is an excess benefit transaction.
Due to Reasonable Cause — if the manager exercised responsibility on behalf of the organization with ordinary business care and prudence participation is due to reasonable cause.
Safe Harbor Provision of the Law
Congress, in the legislative history, intended to create a rebuttable presumption of reasonableness, or safe harbor. Under this safe harbor, compensation is presumed to be reasonable and a property transfer is presumed to be at fair market value if: (1) the compensation arrangement or terms of transfer are approved, in advance, by an authorized body of the exempt organization, composed entirely of individuals without a conflict of interest, (2) the board or committee obtained and relied upon appropriate data as to comparability in making its determination; and (3) the board or committee adequately documented the basis for its determination, concurrently with making the decision.
The disqualified person or organization manager has the initial burden of proving that the compensation was reasonable. If the three criteria above are met, the burden of proof shifts to the IRS and the IRS must prove that the compensation was unreasonable. The IRS can rebut the presumption with sufficient contrary evidence showing the compensation was not reasonable or showing a transfer not to be at fair market value.
Penalties
The intermediate sanction provision goes on to create a penalty which is essentially a claw back of any benefits received plus a penalty as well as excise penalties that may be in excess of 200% of the benefit received. The organization must be returned to the state it was in, to the extent possible, before the person received the excess benefit. While the contract may be modified to prevent any excess benefit once any penalties are paid, organization managers may be liable for penalties up to $10,000 and held jointly and severally liable.
In order to prevent the IRS's invocation of intermediate sanctions, any individual serving on the governing body of the organization may not have a conflict of interest regarding the transaction, and if they are on the governing body and have a conflict, they may answer questions posed by other members, but they must recuse themselves in the decision-making process, including debate.
External links
Easier Compliance is Goal of New Intermediate Sanction Regulations
By Steven T. Miller, Director, Exempt Organizations I.R.S., expressing his personal views regarding the Temporary Regulations interpreting the benefit limitation provisions of Section 4958 of the Internal Revenue Code.
Rebuttable Presumption Procedure is Key to Easy Intermediate Sanctions Compliance
Steven T. Miller's 2nd article explaining (in his personal view) how to determine which officials are covered and suggesting a relatively simple process for ensuring full compliance.
Final Regulations
Lisa Runquist, Esq. explains how to determine compliance. Intermediate Sanctions
Text of the Final Regulations effective January 23, 2002 as published in the Federal Register.
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226772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Marlyn | John Marlyn | John Marlyn (April 2, 1912 – November 16, 2005) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Canadian writer who also used the pseudonym Vincent Reid when writing science fiction.
Marlyn was born in Nagybecskerek (Veliki Bečkerek), Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary (today Serbia) but grew up in Winnipeg, Manitoba, after arriving in Canada as an infant. During the depression-era 1930s, he found work as a script reader for a film studio in England. Just before World War II, he returned to Canada and worked as a writer for the Canadian government in Ottawa, Ontario. He also taught creative writing at Carleton University 1963–1967.
Marlyn received a Beta Sigma Phi award for his first novel, a tale of poor immigrant life during the 1920s, set in Winnipeg's North End.
Marlyn's papers were acquired by the University of Calgary in 1987.
He lived in the Canary Islands until he died of a heart attack.
Excerpt
"The English," he whispered. "Pa, the only people who count are the English. Their fathers got all the best jobs. They're the only ones nobody ever calls foreigners. Nobody ever makes fun of their names or calls them, 'Baloney-eaters,' or laughs at the way they dress or talk." "Nobody," he concluded bitterly, "cause when you're English it's the same as being Canadian." —Under the Ribs of Death
Works
Under the Ribs of Death (1957)
Putzi, I Love You, You Little Square (1981)
The Baker's Daughter (2000)
References
The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature, 2nd ed., pp. 742–743.
Wenzl, Bernhard. "… beyond the invisible barrier at Portage and Main": Liminality in John Marlyn's Under the Ribs of Death". In: In-Between – Liminal Spaces in Canadian Literature and Culture, Ed. Stefan L. Brandt. Peter Lang Verlag, 2017, 91-100.
1912 births
2005 deaths
Canadian male novelists
Canadian science fiction writers
Canadian people of Hungarian descent
Writers from Winnipeg
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian male writers
Austro-Hungarian emigrants to Canada | [
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226773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument%20to%20moderation | Argument to moderation | Argument to moderation ()—also known as false compromise, argument from middle ground, and the golden mean fallacy—is the fallacy that the truth is supposedly always a compromise between two opposing positions. An example would be to regard two opposed arguments, with one person (correctly) saying that the sky is blue and another saying that the sky is in fact yellow, and incorrectly conclude that the sky is the intermediate colour of green.
See also
Centrism
False balance
Golden mean (philosophy)
Horseshoe theory
View from nowhere
Wisdom of the crowd
References
External links
False Compromise at ChangingMinds.org
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226775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hon | Hon | Hon or HON may refer to:
People
Han (surname) (Chinese: 韩/韓), also romanized Hon
Louis Hon (1924–2008), French footballer
Priscilla Hon (born 1998), Australian tennis player
Other uses
Hon (Baltimore), a cultural stereotype of working-class women from Baltimore, Maryland, United States
Cafe Hon, a restaurant in Baltimore
Hon, Arkansas, a community in the United States
Hands on Network, an American network of volunteer centers
Health On the Net Foundation, a Swiss non-governmental organization
Heroes of Newerth, a 2010 video game
Høn Station, in Asker, Norway
The HON Company, an American business furniture manufacturer
Honduras at the Olympics
Honeywell (NYSE stock symbol: HON), an American multinational corporation
Honorary (disambiguation)
The Honourable, an honorific styling
Huron Regional Airport, in South Dakota, United States
On (biblical figure) (or Hon), a minor biblical figure
Hon, a term of endearment, short for "honey" | [
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226779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinod%20Khosla | Vinod Khosla | Vinod Khosla (born 28 January 1955) is an Indian-American billionaire businessman and venture capitalist. He is a co-founder of Sun Microsystems and the founder of Khosla Ventures. Khosla made his wealth from early venture capital investments in areas such as networking, software, and alternative energy technologies. He is considered one of the most successful and influential venture capitalists.
In 2014, Forbes counted him among the 400 richest people in the United States. In 2021, he was ranked 92nd on the Forbes 400 list.
Since 2010, he has been engaged in a legal dispute related to his attempt to close off public access to Martin's Beach.
Biography
Vinod Khosla was born on January 28, 1955 in Pune, India. Khosla's father was an officer in the Indian Army and was posted at New Delhi, India. His father wanted him to also join the army. He attended Mount St Mary's School for elementary school. Khosla became interested in entrepreneurship after reading about the founding of Intel in Electronic Engineering Times as a teenager, and this inspired him to pursue technology as a career.
From 1971-76, Khosla attended the Indian Institutes of Technology where he received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering. He started the first computer club in any IIT to do computer programming and operated the school's computer center while the operations staff were on strike. He also wrote a paper on parallel processing as a teenager before the concept was adopted by the IT industry, and helped to start the first biomedical engineering program in India. In 1975, Khosla attempted to start a soy milk company intended to provide a milk alternative to Indian consumers that do not have refrigerators to preserve cow milk.
Khosla received a master's in biomedical engineering from Carnegie Mellon University on a full scholarship. He applied to Stanford University's MBA program but was rejected for lack of work experience. He got two full time jobs while finishing his master’s for the two years of work experience, but was rejected a second time. Three weeks into starting at Carnegie Mellon for his MBA, Khosla convinced the admissions staff to accept him into Stanford Graduate School of Business and received an MBA in 1980.
He is married to Neeru Khosla, his childhood girlfriend. They have four children.
Career
Early businesses and investments
After completing his MBA at Stanford in 1980, Khosla worked for electronic design automation start-up Daisy Systems (founded January 1981). Khosla has founded a number of other businesses and organizations, and was involved with the founding of Daisy Systems in 1981.
In 1982, Khosla co-founded Sun Microsystems (SUN is the acronym for the Stanford University Network), along with Stanford classmates Scott McNealy, Andy Bechtolsheim, and UC Berkeley computer science graduate student Bill Joy. Khosla served as the first chairman and CEO from 1982 to 1984, when he left the company to become a venture capitalist.
In 1986, Khosla joined the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins as a general partner. At Kleiner, Khosla became a recognized venture capitalist, with several successful early-stage investments.
He also invested in an Indian microfinance company, SKS Microfinance, which lends small loans to poor women in rural India.
Khosla Ventures
In 2004 to spend more time with his teenage kids and focus on technology startups, Khosla moved to part-time and eventually left Kleiner Perkins. He founded his own venture capital firm, Khosla Ventures later that year as a way to invest in more experimental technologies with a "social impact." At the time, he had about $1.5 billion from co-founding Sun Microsystems and his work with Kleiner Perkins. The firm is based in Menlo Park, California.
Khosla was featured on Dateline NBC in May 2006, where he discussed the practicality of ethanol as a gasoline substitute. He is known to have invested heavily in ethanol companies in hopes of widespread adoption.
The firm became known for large, early investments in alternative energy technology like solar, biofuel, and batteries. He has advocated for breakthroughs in these "clean" energies rather than cutting back on energy consumption. The firm incubated carbon recycling and aviation fuel company LanzaTech and Quantumscape, a solid state battery company. Khosla has stated both Quantumscape and Lanzatech are unicorns that have taken time and calls them part of "clean tech 1.0." He believes carbon sequestration is an area that needs significant advancements and is the most feasible. Impossible Foods, which works to make meat a more efficient energy source, and View Glass are also unicorns incubated by Khosla Ventures. Business Insider reported that it took 10 years to return "more than a billion dollars" to the firm, similar to some of Khosla's other successful investments that also took a decade to pay off.
In September 2009, Khosla completed fundraising for two new funds to invest in cleantech and information technology start-ups. Khosla Ventures III secured $750 million of investor commitments to invest in traditional early-stage and growth-stage companies. Khosla also raised $250 million for Khosla Seed, which will invest in higher-risk opportunities.
In May 2010, it was announced that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair was to join Khosla Ventures to provide strategic advice regarding investments in technologies focused on the environment. Khosla Ventures also invested in HackerRank.
Khosla Ventures manages approximately $15 billion of investor capital as well as investments funded by Khosla himself. In 2021, he was listed No. 92 on the Forbes 400 list of the richest people in America.
Martin's Beach dispute
Since 2010, Khosla has been engaged in a legal dispute surrounding public access to Martin's Beach, several miles south of Half Moon Bay, California, where he owns adjacent land. His attempts to close the beach by erecting a gate with armed guards at the road entrance and painting over the welcome sign that existed prior to his ownership of the property has been the subject of legal challenges, popular resentment, and extensive press coverage.
Martin's Beach was previously a popular family beach and surf spot before Khosla purchased the property adjacent to the beach and blocked access. In August 2017, a Californian court of appeal ruled that Khosla must restore public access to Martins Beach. The plaintiffs, Surfrider Foundation, stated that they expected Khosla to take the case all the way to the US Supreme Court. In October 2018, the Supreme Court announced that they would not hear the appeal of the California appeals court decision. In November 2018, a San Mateo County court found that the prior owners of the property had not intended for access to Martins Beach to be public. In January 2020, the California Coastal Commission sued Khosla, alleging he is in violation of the California Coastal Act of 1976.
In addition to the Martin's beach dispute, another dispute with Russian inventor Vladimir Poponin, is documented in Martti Vallila’s book Bannana in the Legal Gulag; Exposing Trickery and Manipulation ; Legal briefs filed on Khosla’s behalf reveal behavior in conflict with his public persona.
Politics
Khosla has donated to a mix of Democrats and Republicans and supports politicians based on their climate policies. He is a Democrat and has donated to organizations that support left-leaning politics. In 2013, Khosla hosted Barack Obama for a fundraising dinner at his home in Portola Valley.
Khosla was a major proponent of the "Yes on 87" campaign to pass California's Proposition 87, The Clean Energy Initiative, which failed to pass in November 2006.
Khosla endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.
Philanthropy and affiliations
Khosla served as the honorary chair of the DonorsChoose San Francisco Bay Area advisory board. In 2000, Khosla was a recipient of the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2006, Khosla's wife Neeru co-founded the CK-12 Foundation, which aims to develop open-source textbooks and lower the cost of education in America and the rest of the world. Khosla and his wife are also donors to the Wikimedia Foundation, in the amount of $600,000.
In 2007, Khosla was an award recipient in the Northern California region for the EY Entrepreneur of the Year award. Khosla was a member of the board of trustees of the Blum Center for Developing Economies at the University of California, Berkeley. The center is focused on finding solutions to address the crisis of extreme poverty and disease in the developing world. He is an advisor for HackerRank, a website for competitive coding. Khosla is a member of the Xconomists, an ad hoc team of editorial advisors for the tech news and media company, Xconomy.
He is also one of the founders of TiE, The Indus Entrepreneurs, and has guest-edited a special issue of The Economic Times, a business newspaper in India.
He is involved with organizations that provide microfinancing to small businesses in third-world countries and other organizations that promote entrepreneurship. Khosla is on the Board of Trustees at Carnegie Mellon University. Khosla was an early signatory to the Giving Pledge and sits on the Breakthrough Energy Ventures board.
In April 2021, Khosla made an offer to fund oxygen imports for hospitals in India amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
See also
Range Fuels
Virgin Green Fund
References
External links
(2006-03-29)
1955 births
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century philanthropists
21st-century American businesspeople
American billionaires
American technology chief executives
American people of Punjabi descent
American technology company founders
Carnegie Mellon University College of Engineering alumni
Carnegie Mellon University trustees
American venture capitalists
American chairpersons of corporations
Businesspeople from Delhi
Giving Pledgers
Indian company founders
Indian emigrants to the United States
IIT Delhi alumni
Living people
Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni
Sun Microsystems people
Kleiner Perkins people
American businesspeople of Indian descent
American computer businesspeople
American chief executives
American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies
Chief executives in the technology industry | [
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226784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendai%20bud%C5%8D | Gendai budō | , literal meaning "modern budo",
or , literally meaning "new budo" are both terms referring to modern Japanese martial arts, which were established after the Meiji Restoration (1866–1869). Kobudō are the opposite of these terms referring to ancient martial arts established before the Meiji Restoration.
Scope and tradition
Any martial art created after the Meiji Restoration of 1868 is Gendai Budo. Koryu Budo are schools of budo that predate 1868. Some examples of Gendai budō are aikido, gendai goshin jutsu, judo, karate and shorinji kempo. The Japanese art of sumo is often defined as a gendai budō. This definition is incorrect as sumo is an ancient art that has attained popularity and media coverage in the modern era.
Gendai budō have origins in koryū, the traditional Japanese martial arts. For example, Kano Jigoro (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō, 1860–1938) founded judo in part as an attempt to systematize the myriad traditions of jujutsu which existed at the time. Kendo similarly derives from the many schools of kenjutsu that evolved over the centuries.
Organization of ranking system
Koryu make no use of the popular kyu-dan ranking system. The gendai budo (modern budo forms), however, use the kyu-dan ranking system.
These rankings replaced the various certificates awarded within koryū. Gendai budō also generally do not contain the same strong entrance oaths and rituals as koryū, such as the keppan ("blood oath"). Whereas in most gendai budō dojo all are welcome provided they follow basic rules of conduct, koryū instructors often strictly scrutinize candidates. The primary purpose of gendai budō is for spiritual and mental development while application of techniques is the secondary purpose
References
Dō
Japanese martial arts
Japanese martial arts terminology | [
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226788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiesta%20Bowl | Fiesta Bowl | The Fiesta Bowl is an American college football bowl game played annually in the Phoenix metropolitan area. From its beginning in 1971 until 2006, the game was hosted at the Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona. Since 2007, the game has been played at the State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. Since December 2016, it has been sponsored by PlayStation and officially known as the PlayStation Fiesta Bowl. Previous sponsors include BattleFrog (January 2016), Vizio (December 2014), Tostitos (1996–January 2014), IBM (1993–1995) and Sunkist (1986–1990).
Since 1992, the Fiesta Bowl has been part of some organization of bowls designed to determine an undisputed national champion. In 1992, it was named as one of the Bowl Coalition games, but the bowl was never used to determine the champion. In 1995, the organizers of the Fiesta Bowl joined with the Sugar Bowl and the Orange Bowl to form the Bowl Alliance, with each bowl guaranteed to host a championship game as the coaches’ poll was contractually obligated to choose the winner of the Bowl Alliance championship game as its national champion. The Fiesta Bowl hosted the first of these games in January 1996.
After the 1997 season, the three Bowl Alliance bowls joined with the Rose Bowl to form the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), with the Fiesta Bowl guaranteed to host the national championship game every four years. As with the Bowl Alliance, the Fiesta Bowl was given first chance at hosting the BCS' championship in 1999; they also hosted the game in 2003. When the BCS reconstituted itself following the 2005 season, it began staging a separate national championship game, which rotated between BCS bowl sites.
Beginning with the 2014 season, Fiesta Bowl became a member of College Football Playoff, hosting a semifinal game every three years; all the teams playing in this bowl will be selected by the CFP Selection Committee in those years. In years that it serves as a semifinal, the winner of the Fiesta Bowl faces the winner of the Peach Bowl in the College Football Playoff National Championship Game the following week. Unlike in the previous years, the National Championship Game is not awarded to the bowl organizations in the CFP; instead, the selection process is similar to the one used to determine a host for the Super Bowl.
The Fiesta Bowl has donated over $12 million to charity. In 2020, it donated $1 million in emergency relief during the COVID-19 pandemic.
History
Origins (1968–1971)
The Fiesta Bowl was born from the Western Athletic Conference's frustrated attempts to obtain bowl invitations for its champions. In 1968 and 1969 respectively, champions Wyoming and Arizona State failed to secure any bowl selection. The next year, undefeated Arizona State was bypassed by the major bowls and had to settle for an appearance in the less prestigious Peach Bowl. The Fiesta Bowl therefore initially provided an automatic berth for the WAC champion.
1970s
In its first decade of existence, the Fiesta Bowl was played in the last week of December (including the afternoon of Christmas Day from 1976 to 1979). The 1971 inaugural game featured another top-ten Arizona State squad against top-twenty opponent Florida State. The 1974 game featured WAC champ BYU and their new coach, future Hall of Fame member LaVell Edwards in their first ever bowl game vs. Oklahoma State. BYU was in control until BYU's first All-American quarterback Gary Sheide went down with a leg injury and eventually lost 16–6. By 1975, the game was able to attract Big Eight co-champion Nebraska to play undefeated Arizona State in a matchup of top-five teams. In 1977, the game was again able to attract a top-five opponent in Penn State, despite WAC champion #16 BYU refusing to play in the bowl due to its being held on Sunday.
In 1978, Arizona and Arizona State both joined the Pac-10 Conference and the Fiesta Bowl's tie-in with the WAC ended as its champ went to the newly inaugurated Holiday Bowl. From then until the advent of the Bowl Coalition, Fiesta Bowl matchups typically featured runners-up of major conferences and/or major independents.
1980s
The game continued to attract high quality matchups; beginning with the 1981 season, it shifted to New Year's Day alongside the major bowl games—the Cotton, Orange, Sugar, and Rose. At the time, NBC had the broadcast rights to the Fiesta, Rose, and Orange; the Fiesta was played first and had a late morning kickoff (11:30 a.m. MST). It was the first bowl game to acquire a corporate title sponsor, via an agreement with Sunkist Growers in September 1985, making the game the "Sunkist Fiesta Bowl" starting with the January 1986 edition. The Tangerine Bowl had previously reached agreement in March 1983 with the Florida Citrus Commission, a state government agency, to rename itself as the Florida Citrus Bowl.
A major breakthrough occurred after the 1986 season when the top two teams in the country, Miami and Penn State, agreed to play for the de facto national championship in the Fiesta Bowl. At the time, the traditional four "major" bowl games granted automatic bids to their conference champions. Both Miami and Penn State were independents at that time, and were thus free to choose a bowl. As such, the Fiesta Bowl and the Florida Citrus Bowl, each free from the obligation of conference tie-ins, vied to host the Miami–Penn State matchup in order to ensure that they would meet on the field. The Fiesta Bowl won the bidding and the game was set to be played on Friday, January 2, 1987—the night after the "big four" bowls of New Year's Day. Penn State won and the game drew the largest television audience in the history of college football at the time. Two years later, #1 Notre Dame played undefeated #3 West Virginia for the national championship at the 1989 Fiesta Bowl on January 1.
The 1987 and 1989 games were two of four straight matchups of teams ranked in the AP Top 10 going into the bowl season to close out the 1980s. This significantly increased the Fiesta Bowl's prestige, to the point that it was now considered a major bowl by many fans and pundits. The 1988 game returned to New Year's Day, and the 1989 game kicked off three hours later (2:30 p.m. MST on NBC) and opposite the Rose Bowl, which had switched networks to ABC.
1990s
Before the 1991 game, several major universities declined invitations due to the State of Arizona's decision at that time not to adopt the Martin Luther King Holiday. However, in 1992, the Fiesta Bowl was invited to participate in the Bowl Coalition, a predecessor to the Bowl Championship Series. This assured the game would feature major conference champions or prestigious runners-up and cemented its status as a major bowl. Had the two top-ranked teams in the Bowl Coalition not come from the SEC, Big Eight or SWC, the Fiesta Bowl would have hosted the Bowl Coalition's "national championship game," though this never happened during the three years of the Bowl Coalition's run.
When the Bowl Coalition was reconfigured as the Bowl Alliance for the 1995 season, the Fiesta was included as one of the three top games. In that season, it hosted the Bowl Alliance National Championship game featuring undefeated #1 Nebraska playing undefeated #2 Florida for the national championship. Nebraska won the game 62–24, the largest win margin in the history of the national championship game, and the most points ever scored in a national championship game. Finally, with the addition of the Big Ten and Pac-10 conferences to the new Bowl Championship Series, the Fiesta Bowl became a permanent fixture in the four-year BCS National Championship Game rotation. In 1998, the Fiesta Bowl featured the first BCS National Championship Game, which Tennessee won over Florida State, 23–16.
Starting with the 1999 season, the Big 12 Conference champion received an automatic bid to the Fiesta Bowl in years when it was not slated as the BCS title game, an arrangement that continued to the end of the BCS era.
2000s
In 2002, the Fiesta Bowl had the right to take the Pac-10 Conference Champion, should that team not reach the Rose Bowl, which served as the national championship game that season. Oregon failed to qualify for the championship game, and thus played Colorado in the Fiesta Bowl. A similar arrangement was made for the 2006 Fiesta Bowl. However, instead of gaining the Pac-10 Conference champion in addition to their usual tie-in with the Big 12, the Fiesta Bowl would have had a choice of the two teams. This turned out to be a moot point as both the Big 12 champion Texas and Pac-10 champion Southern California qualified for the National Championship Game (USC's participation has since been vacated).
The BCS National Championship game returned to the Fiesta Bowl in 2003 with the Big Ten champions Ohio State Buckeyes beating the Big East champions Miami Hurricanes in the first overtime national championship game. The game went into double overtime with the Buckeyes coming out on top 31–24 to claim the 2002 national championship.
The Fiesta Bowl was the first BCS bowl to have had a team from outside the automatic qualifying (AQ) BCS conferences (the Big 12, Big Ten, Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), Southeastern Conference (SEC), Pac-10, Big East, and Notre Dame). The 2005 game saw undefeated Utah from the Mountain West Conference become the first BCS non-AQ school ever to play in a BCS game, easily defeating Big East champion Pittsburgh 35–7.
In 2007, the Fiesta Bowl game was played for the first time at the new then-named University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, across the Phoenix metropolitan area from Sun Devil Stadium. The undefeated Boise State Broncos won by defeating the Oklahoma Sooners 43–42 in overtime. It has been called one of the greatest college football games ever played, due to the combination of an underdog team, trick plays, comebacks by each team, and a thrilling overtime finish.
2010s
The 2010 Fiesta Bowl featured #6 Boise State defeating #4 TCU, 17–10. It was the first time a BCS bowl matched-up two non-automatic qualifying teams (i.e. two teams from conferences without automatic BCS bids) and the first time that two teams who went undefeated faced each other in a BCS game outside of the national championship. In the 2012 Fiesta Bowl, Oklahoma State defeated Stanford 41–38. Notable players included Brandon Weeden and Justin Blackmon for Oklahoma State, and Andrew Luck for Stanford.
In November 2016, PlayStation was announced as the bowl's new title sponsor.
The December 2016 and December 2019 editions served as a semifinal for the College Football Playoff. The Fiesta Bowl will host a semifinal, alongside the Peach Bowl, again in 2022 and 2025.
Controversies
Invitations
In 1996, a group of students from Brigham Young University, led by BYU professor Dennis Martin, burned bags of Tostitos tortilla chips in a bonfire and called for a boycott of all Tostitos products. This came after #5 ranked BYU was not invited to play in the 1996 Fiesta Bowl in favor of #7 ranked Penn State. This event is one of those referred to by proponents of college football implementing a playoff series rather than the controversial Bowl Alliance.
Penn State went on to win the game over #20 Texas 38–15, while BYU defeated #14 Kansas State in the Cotton Bowl Classic 19–15.
For the 2010 Fiesta Bowl, the selections of TCU and Boise State caused a great deal of controversy. For the first and only time in the BCS era, two BCS non-AQ teams were chosen to play in BCS bowls in the same bowl season: however, they ended up facing each other in this bowl. Because the two non-AQ teams were placed in the same bowl game, the bowl was derisively referred to as the "Separate But Equal Bowl", the "Quarantine Bowl", the "Fiasco Bowl", the "BCS Kids' Table", etc. Some had called for a boycott because of this arrangement. There was wide speculation that the BCS bowl selection committees maneuvered TCU and Boise State into the same bowl so as to deny them the chances to "embarrass" two AQ conference representatives in separate bowls, as Boise State had done in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl and Utah had done in the 2005 Fiesta Bowl and 2009 Sugar Bowl (prior to the game, non-AQ teams were 3–1 versus AQ teams in BCS bowls). In response, Fiesta Bowl CEO John Junker called those allegations "the biggest load of crap that I've ever heard in my life" and said that "We're in the business of doing things that are on behalf of our bowl game and we don't do the bidding of someone else to our detriment." Beyond the unappealing nature of a "David vs. David" contest which resulted from this pairing in a major bowl, the appeal was further diminished due to the fact that it was a rematch of the Poinsettia Bowl from the previous bowl season.
Financial scandals
In 2009, in the weeks prior to the 2010 Fiesta Bowl, past and present Fiesta Bowl employees alleged that they were encouraged to help maintain its position as one of the four BCS bowls by making campaign contributions to politicians friendly to the Fiesta Bowl, with those contributions subsequently reimbursed to the employees. If true, this would be a violation of both state and federal campaign finance laws. Furthermore, as a non-profit organization, the Fiesta Bowl is prohibited from making political contributions of any kind. The Fiesta Bowl commissioned an "independent review" which found "no credible evidence that the bowl's management engaged in any type of illegal or unethical conduct."
The following year, in a November 2010 article, Sports Illustrated reported that Fiesta Bowl officials, including bowl CEO John Junker, spent $4 million since 2000 to curry favor from BCS bigwigs and elected officials, including a 2008 "Fiesta Frolic", a golf-centered gathering of athletic directors and head coaches. The journal also reported that Junker's annual salary was close to $600,000 and that the bowl, in 2007 turned an $11.6 million profit. While these alleged activities are not illegal, they did result in considerable damage to the reputation of the Fiesta Bowl.
On March 29, 2011, the Fiesta Bowl Board of Directors released a 276-page "scathing internal report", commissioned by them to re-examine the accusations of illegal political activities. The commission determined that $46,539 of illegal campaign contributions were made and the board immediately fired Fiesta Bowl CEO John Junker, who had already been suspended pending the results of this investigation. The scandal threatened the Fiesta Bowl's status as a BCS game, as the BCS said it might replace the bowl in its lineup if officials could not convince them it should remain. The BCS ultimately chose not to expel the Fiesta Bowl, instead fining the organization $1 million.
In June 2011 University of Arizona president Robert Shelton was hired to replace Junker. On February 22, 2012, former CEO John Junker pleaded guilty to a federal felony charge in the campaign financing matter, and two members of his former staff pleaded guilty to misdemeanor charges. Junker was to be sentenced soon after, facing up to 2.5 years in prison as the result of his plea, but his sentencing was repeatedly postponed in return for cooperation in other cases. On March 13, 2014, Junker was sentenced to eight months in prison, with the sentence starting on June 13, 2014; he was released on February 11, 2015. On March 20, 2014, Junker was sentenced to three years of probation on state charges.
Parade
One of the Fiesta Bowl events, the annual Fiesta Bowl Parade, takes place in downtown Phoenix. It features marching bands from high schools as well as the two universities participating in the Fiesta Bowl, and the two universities participating in the Cactus Bowl, along with floats, equestrian units, and a seven-member queen and court. The parade began in 1973. Grand Marshals include celebrities from sports and entertainment.
In 2018, the sponsor was changed from Bank of Arizona to Desert Financial. Appearances in the 2018 parade included Cindy McCain and the marching band from Salem High School in Salem, New Hampshire, which was the group that had traveled the farthest for the parade.
Game results
Rankings are based on the AP Poll prior to the game being played. Italics denote a tie game.
Source:
Denotes Bowl Alliance Championship Game
Denotes BCS National Championship Game
Denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Future games
denotes game is a College Football Playoff semifinal
MVPs
An offensive MVP and defensive MVP are selected for each game.
Most appearances
Updated through the January 2022 edition (51 games, 102 total appearances).
Teams with a single appearance
Won (6): Iowa State, LSU, Louisville, Michigan, Oregon State, Utah
Lost (11): Alabama, Baylor, BYU, Connecticut, Florida, Missouri, Stanford, TCU, USC, Washington, Wyoming
Tied (1): Arkansas
Appearances by conference
Updated through the January 2022 edition (51 games, 102 total appearances).
January 2022 participant
Games marked with an superscript D () were played in December.
Conferences that are defunct or no longer active in FBS are marked in italics.
Records reflect conference affiliations at the time the game was played.
Several teams—such as Penn State and Miami (Florida)—have appeared both as an Independent and as a conference member.
Pac-12 record includes appearances by teams when the conference was the Pac-10 (5–2–1).
Following the 2013 split of the original Big East along football lines, the FBS schools reorganized as the American Athletic Conference ("The American"), which retains the charter of the original Big East. Teams representing the Big East appeared in 7 games, compiling a 2–5 record.
Game records
Source:
Broadcasting
As of the 2010–11 season, the game along with the rest of the BCS and its successor, the College Football Playoff, exclusively airs on ESPN. From 2007 through 2010, Fox telecast the game along with the other BCS games – the Sugar Bowl, Orange Bowl, and BCS National Championship Game from 2006 though 2009, while only the Rose Bowl and the 2010 BCS National Championship Game aired on ABC in that period. From 1999 to 2006, the game aired on ABC as part of the first BCS package, and from 1996 to 1998 the game aired on CBS as part of its bowl coverage. Prior to that, NBC aired the game for several years. This game, along with the Orange Bowl, is one of only two bowl games ever to air on all the "Big 4" broadcast television networks in the United States.
ESPN Radio is the current radio home for the Fiesta Bowl.
In 2013, ESPN Deportes provided the first Spanish U.S. telecast of the Fiesta Bowl.
References
External links
Annual sporting events in the United States
College football bowls
American football in Arizona
Recurring sporting events established in 1971
1971 establishments in Arizona
PlayStation (brand) | [
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226789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhi%20Tree | Bodhi Tree | The Bodhi Tree ("tree of awakening"), also called the Bodhi Fig Tree or Bo Tree, was a large and ancient sacred fig tree (Ficus religiosa) located in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India. Siddhartha Gautama, the spiritual teacher who became known as the Buddha, is said to have attained enlightenment or Bodhi circa 500 BCE under it. In religious iconography, the Bodhi Tree is recognizable by its heart-shaped leaves, which are usually prominently displayed.
The proper term "Bodhi Tree" is also applied to existing sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) trees, also known as bodhi trees. The foremost example of an existing tree is the Mahabodhi Tree growing at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, which is often cited as a direct descendant of the original tree. This tree, planted around 250 BCE, is a frequent destination for pilgrims, being the most important of the four main Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
Other holy bodhi trees with great significance in the history of Buddhism are the Anandabodhi Tree at Jetavana in Sravasti in North India and the Sri Maha Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Both are also believed to have been propagated from the original Bodhi Tree.
Celebrations
Bodhi Day
On December 8, Bodhi Day celebrates Buddha's enlightenment underneath the Bodhi Tree. Those who follow the Dharma greet each other by saying, "Budu saranai!" which translates to "may the peace of the Buddha be yours." It is also generally seen as a religious holiday, much like Christmas in the Christian west, in which special meals are served, especially cookies shaped like hearts (referencing the heart-shaped leaves of the Bodhi) and a meal of kheer, the Buddha's first meal ending his six-year asceticism.
Bodhi Puja
Bodhi Puja, meaning "the veneration of Bodhi-tree" is the ritual to worship the Bodhi tree and the deity residing on it (Pali: rukkhadevata; Sanskrit; vrikshadevata). It is done by giving various offerings such as food, water, milk, lamps, incense, etc. and chanting the verses of glory of Bodhi tree in Pali. The most common verse is:"Ime ete mahabodhi lokanathena pujita
ahampi te namassami bodhi raja namatthu te."
Origin and descendants
Bodh Gaya
The Bodhi tree at the Mahabodhi Temple is called the Sri Maha Bodhi. Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment (bodhi) while meditating underneath a Ficus religiosa. According to Buddhist texts, the Buddha meditated without moving from his seat for seven weeks (49 days) under this tree. A shrine called Animisalocana cetiya, was later erected on the spot where he sat.
The spot was used as a shrine even in the lifetime of the Buddha. Emperor Ashoka the Great was most diligent in paying homage to the Bodhi tree, and held a festival every year in its honour in the month of Kattika. His queen, Tissarakkhā, was jealous of the Tree, and three years after she became queen (i.e., in the nineteenth year of Asoka's reign), she cursed the tree to be killed by means of mandu thorns. The tree, however, grew again, and a great monastery was attached to the Bodhimanda called the Bodhimanda Vihara. Among those present at the foundation Kattika the Mahā Thūpa are mentioned thirty thousand monks from the Bodhimanda Vihara, led by Cittagutta.
The tree was again cut down by King Pushyamitra Shunga in the 2nd century BC, and by King Shashanka in 600 AD. In the 7th century AD, Chinese traveler Xuanzang wrote of the tree in detail.
Every time the tree was destroyed, a new tree was planted in the same place.
In 1862 British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham wrote of the site as the first entry in the first volume of the Archaeological Survey of India:
The celebrated Bodhi tree still exists, but is very much decayed; one large stem, with three branches to the westward, is still green, but the other branches are barkless and rotten. The green branch perhaps belongs to some younger tree, as there are numerous stems of apparently different trees clustered together. The tree must have been renewed frequently, as the present Pipal is standing on a terrace at least 30 feet above the level of the surrounding country. It was in full vigour in 1811, when seen by Dr. Buchanan (Hamilton), who describes it as in all probability not exceeding 100 years of age.
However, the tree decayed further and in 1876 the remaining tree was destroyed in a storm. In 1881, Cunningham planted a new Bodhi tree on the same site.
To Jetavana, Sravasti
It is said that in the ancient Buddhist texts in order that people might make their offerings in the name of the Buddha when he was away on pilgrimage, the Buddha sanctioned the planting of a seed from the Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya in front of the gateway of Jetavana Monastery near Sravasti. For this purpose Moggallana took a fruit from the tree as it dropped from its stalk before it reached the ground. It was planted in a golden jar by Anathapindika with great pomp and ceremony. A sapling immediately sprouted forth, fifty cubits high, and in order to consecrate it, the Buddha spent one night under it, rapt in meditation. This tree, because it was planted under the direction of Ananda, came to be known as the Ananda Bodhi.
To Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
King Asoka's daughter, Sanghamitta, brought a piece of the tree with her to Sri Lanka where it is continuously growing to this day in the island's ancient capital, Anuradhapura.
This Bodhi tree was originally named Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, and was a piece of another Bodhi tree planted in the year 245 B.C. Although the original Bodhi tree deteriorated and died of old age, the descendants of the branch that was brought by Emperor Ashoka's son, Mahindra, and his daughter, Sanghmittra, can still be found on the island.
According to the Mahavamsa, the Sri Maha Bodhi in Sri Lanka was planted in 288 BC, making it the oldest verified specimen of any angiosperm. In this year (the twelfth year of King Asoka's reign) the right branch of the Bodhi tree was brought by Sanghamittā to Anurādhapura and placed by Devānāmpiyatissa his left foot in the Mahāmeghavana. The Buddha, on his death bed, had resolved five things, one being that the branch which should be taken to Ceylon should detach itself. From Gayā, the branch was taken to Pātaliputta, thence to Tāmalittī, where it was placed in a ship and taken to Jambukola, across the sea; finally it arrived at Anuradhapura, staying on the way at Tivakka. Those who assisted the king at the ceremony of the planting of the Tree were the nobles of Kājaragāma and of Candanagāma and of Tivakka.
The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi is also known to be the most sacred Bodhi tree. This came upon the Buddhists who performed rites and rituals near the Bodhi tree. The Bodhi tree was known to cause rain and heal the ill. When an individual became ill, one of his or her relatives would visit the Bodhi tree to water it seven times for seven days and to vow on behalf of the sick for a speedy recovery.
To Honolulu, Hawaii
In 1913, Anagarika Dharmapala took a sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi to Hawaii, where he presented it to his benefactor, Mary Foster, who had funded much Buddhist missionary work. She planted it in the grounds of her house in Honolulu, by the Nuʻuanu stream. On her death, she left her house and its grounds to the people of Honolulu, and it became the Foster Botanical Garden.
To Chennai, India
In 1950, Jinarajadasa took three saplings of the Sri Maha Bodhi to plant two saplings in Chennai, one was planted near the Buddha temple at the Theosophical Society another at the riverside of Adyar Estuary. The third was planted near a meditation center in Sri Lanka.
To Thousand Oaks, California, USA
In 2012, Brahmanda Pratap Barua, Ripon, Dhaka, Bangladesh, took a sapling of Bodhi tree from Buddha Gaya, Maha Bodhi to Thousand Oaks, California, where he presented it to his benefactor, Anagarika Glenn Hughes, who had funded much Buddhist work and teaches Buddhism in the USA. He and his students received the sapling with a great thanks, later they planted the sapling in the ground in a nearby park.
To Nihon-ji, Japan
In 1989, the government of India presented Nihon-ji with a sapling from the Bodhi Tree as a gesture of world peace.
The trees of the previous Buddhas
According to the Mahavamsa, branches from the Bodhi trees of all the Buddhas born during this kalpa were planted in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) on the spot where the sacred Bodhi tree stands today in Anurādhapura. The branch of Kakusandha's tree was brought by Rucānandā, Konagamana's by Kantakānandā (or Kanakadattā), and Kassapa's by Sudhammā.
See also
Sahabi Tree
Atamasthana
Bodhi
Sacred related
Sacred trees
Largest Banyan trees
Sacred groves
Sacred groves of India
Tree worship
Sacred mountains
Sacred natural site
Sacred rivers
Sacred site
General
List of types of formally designated forests
Superlative trees
Tree hugger (disambiguation)
World mountain
References
External links
Bodh Gaya
Trees in religion
Individual trees in India
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Trees in Buddhism
Individual fig trees
Gautama Buddha | [
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226795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Quine | Robert Quine | Robert Wolfe Quine (December 30, 1942 – May 31, 2004) was an American guitarist. A native of Akron, Ohio, Quine worked with a wide range of musicians, though he himself remained relatively unknown. Critic Mark Deming wrote that "Quine's eclectic style embraced influences from jazz, rock, and blues players of all stripes, and his thoughtful technique and uncompromising approach led to rewarding collaborations with a number of visionary musicians."
His collaborators included Richard Hell & the Voidoids, Lou Reed (notably on The Blue Mask), Brian Eno, John Zorn, Ikue Mori, Marc Ribot, Marianne Faithfull (Strange Weather), Lloyd Cole, Matthew Sweet and Tom Waits.
Lester Bangs wrote that he was a "pivotal figure" and "the first guitarist to take the breakthroughs of early Lou Reed and James Williamson and work through them to a new, individual vocabulary, driven into odd places by obsessive attention to On the Corner-era Miles Davis." Quine was ranked 80th by Rolling Stone magazine's David Fricke in his list of "100 Greatest Guitarists".
Early life
Quine was born in Akron, Ohio, the son of Rosalie (née Cohen) and Robert Cloyd Quine. He was a nephew of philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine. After graduating from Earlham College in 1965, Quine earned a law degree "out of inertia" from Washington University in St. Louis in 1968. Although he never practiced law and failed the California bar exam on several occasions, Quine wrote tax law textbooks for Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey-based publisher Prentice Hall for three years after moving to New York City in 1971 by virtue of his admission to the Missouri bar in 1969. Quine also enrolled at the Berklee School of Music at an indeterminate point without taking a degree.
Career
In 1969, Quine made a series of cassette recordings of the Velvet Underground performing live in St. Louis and San Francisco, where he lived between late 1969 and 1971. These saw official release in 2001 by Polydor Records, titled Bootleg Series Volume 1: The Quine Tapes. Though lo-fi in sound quality, the album is an important document of the group. In the liner notes, Quine writes: "I got a lot of pleasure and inspiration from these performances. As a guitar player, they were an important element in shaping what musical direction I wanted to take." While in St. Louis, he performed in a band called Bruce's Farm that specialized in Byrds covers.
Throughout his San Francisco years (coinciding with his attempts to pass the California bar exam), Quine "sort of began to come up with my own style," often performing under the influence of LSD; nevertheless, he disdained such psychedelic rock groups as Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead. During this period, his influences included John Coltrane's Ascension (1966), Elvis Presley's singles for Sun Records, Fats Domino, Bo Diddley, James Burton, Mickey Baker and Little Richard. Upon moving to New York, he began to gravitate toward a new array of influences, including the 1972-1975 electric oeuvre of Miles Davis (especially the guitar sounds on 1972's On the Corner and 1975's Agharta), The Stooges' Raw Power (1973) and Brian Eno.
After leaving Prentice Hall to focus on his musical career in the mid-1970s, he worked at the Greenwich Village bookstore Cinemabilia with Richard Hell and Tom Verlaine, the co-founders of the influential punk band Television. Later, Hell invited him to join his new band The Voidoids. Hell's two Voidoid albums feature Quine's distinctive guitar work; guitarist Marc Ribot once said about Quine that "in terms of punk rock guitar soloing, [Quine] could definitely be called the inventor," while critic Ira Robbins describes his work as "stunning and underrated".
After The Voidoids broke up, Quine recorded with Lydia Lunch, Jody Harris and Material. From September 1979 to July 1980, Quine and Harris recorded various guitar improvisations with a drum machine. In 1981, some of those experiments were released as the Harris/Quine album, Escape. With Material bandmate Fred Maher, Quine recorded his only other solo album, Basic, released in 1984.
In the early 1980s, Lou Reed drafted Quine to join his group. He appeared on The Blue Mask (1982), widely regarded as one of Reed's best albums. The Reed-Quine guitar work crafted interlocking duels that blur the lines between rhythm and leads. Reed's 1983 album Legendary Hearts featured most of the same group, but Quine eventually quit due to tensions with Reed, exacerbated when Reed mixed down or entirely removed most of Quine's guitar parts on Legendary Hearts. Quine claimed that when he got his advance copy of the album, he was so disgusted by this, he smashed the cassette into "smithereens" with a hammer. Reed persuaded Quine to rejoin for a world tour, which is documented on the video A Night with Lou Reed (1983) and the album Live in Italy (1984); Quine disliked touring, but agreed to the tour for financial reasons. He ended his partnership with Reed for good in 1985.
Although Quine frequently collaborated with Eno from the late 1970s to the mid-1980s (coinciding with the producer's residency in New York), "almost none of [their work] ever came out." In a 1997 interview with Perfect Sound Forever, he claimed to have introduced Eno to "He Loved Him Madly," a thirty-two minute 1974 Miles Davis song that Eno has cited as a pivotal influence in his development of ambient music.
Throughout the 1980s, Quine made appearances as a session player on records by Tom Waits, John Zorn, Marianne Faithfull and Scritti Politti. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Quine began collaborations with a few musicians who would introduce him to new audiences, and who would raise his profile a bit. Saxophonist/composer John Zorn hired Quine for several experimental projects. He appeared on They Might Be Giants' 1994 album John Henry, and he also worked with pop songwriters/singers Lloyd Cole and Matthew Sweet during this period. Sweet's biggest hit song, "Girlfriend," is anchored by Quine's frenetic, squealing guitar work.
Death
After the death of his wife Alice in August 2003, Quine died by suicide due to a heroin overdose in his New York home on May 31, 2004.
Discography
Solo
Escape (with Jody Harris) (1981)
Basic (with Fred Maher) (1984)
Come Together: Guitar Tribute to the Beatles, Vol. 2 (with Jody Harris) (1995)
Richard Hell and the Voidoids
Blank Generation (1977)
Destiny Street (1982)
R.I.P.: The ROIR Sessions (1984)
Funhunt (Live at CBGB & Max's) (1990)
Oh (2000)
He is also featured in the 1980 film Blank Generation.
Richard Hell
Time (2002)
Lou Reed
The Blue Mask (1982)
Legendary Hearts (1983)
Live in Italy (1984)
Between Thought and Expression: The Lou Reed Anthology (1992)
Matthew Sweet
Earth (1989)
Girlfriend (1991)
Altered Beast (1993)
Son of Altered Beast (1994)
100% Fun (1995)
Lloyd Cole
Lloyd Cole (1990)
Don't Get Weird on Me Babe (1991)
Love Story (1995)
Etc. (2001)
Material
Temporary Music (1981)
Red Tracks (1982)
Secret Life (1998)
Best of Material (1999)
John Zorn
The Big Gundown (Elektra/Nonesuch, 1984)
Spillane (Elekra/Nonesuch, 1986)
Filmworks 1986-1990 (Toys Factory, 1992)
Filmworks III: 1990-1995 (Toys Factory, 1996)
Filmworks V: Tears of Ecstasy (Tzadik, 1996)
Filmworks IV: S&M + More (Tzadik, 1997)
Filmworks VII: Cynical Hysterie Hour (Tzadik, 1997)
Great Jewish Music: Burt Bacharach (Tzadik, 1997)
The Bribe (Tzadik, 1998)
Godard/Spillane (Tzadik, 1999)
Taboo & Exile (Tzadik, 1999)
Other artists
Let It Blurt – Lester Bangs (1977)
Queen of Siam – Lydia Lunch (1979)
Off White – James White & the Blacks (1979)
Get Crazy – film soundtrack (1983)
Rain Dogs – Tom Waits (1985)
Cupid & Psyche 85 – Scritti Politti (1985)
Dirtdish – Wiseblood (1986)
Strange Weather – Marianne Faithfull (1987)
Quilt – The Shams (1991)
Dim Stars – Dim Stars (1992)
Nerve Net – Brian Eno (1992)
To Hell With Love – Suzanne Rhatigan (1992)
Weird Nightmare: Meditations on Mingus – Hal Willner (1992)
Bedbugs – The Odds (1993)
I Don't Like Myself – Sion (1993)
John Henry – They Might Be Giants (1994)
El Abrazo Del Erizo Mikel Erentxun (1995)
Love is Wild... Life is Violent... – Katy Clements (1996)
Don't Tell Me – Eddie Skuller (1996)
Valdun—Voices of Rumantsch- Corin Curschellas (1997)
Painted Desert – Ikue Mori (with Marc Ribot) (1997)
Vibe of Life – Reiss (1998)
Cold Tube – Kazuyoshi Saito (2000)
Singles: Individually Wrapped – The Odds (2000)
Songs – Sion (2000)
Michael Maxwell – Michael Maxwell (2000)
dust! – Dusty Wright (2000)
Presents Beyond Cyberpunk – Wayne Kramer (2001)
Bait and Switch – Andre Williams (2001)
Bootleg Series Volume 1: The Quine Tapes – The Velvet Underground (2001)(Recorded by Quine, though he did not play on it himself.)
Lustro – Michael DuClos (2002)
Cross-Eyed and Bow-Legged – Tom Clark and the High Action Boys (2002)
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly – Sonny Vincent (2003)
Nowhere Land – Kazuyoshi Saito (2003)
Lys Guillorn – Lys Guillorn (2003)
Notes
External links
Unofficial website
Billy Bob Hargus interview
i94bar interview
Fan page and list of obituaries family web site
Tribute to Quine in Perfect Sound Forever
1942 births
2004 suicides
Musicians from Akron, Ohio
Washington University School of Law alumni
Earlham College alumni
American punk rock guitarists
E.G. Records artists
Deaths by heroin overdose in New York (state)
Drug-related suicides in New York (state)
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Ohio
Richard Hell and the Voidoids members
Deadline (band) members
Suicides in New York City
Drug-related deaths in New York City
2004 deaths
Dim Stars members | [
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226804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Times%20of%20India | The Times of India | The Times of India (also known by its abbreviation TOI) is an Indian English-language daily newspaper and digital news media owned and managed by The Times Group. It is the third-largest newspaper in India by circulation and largest selling English-language daily in the world. It is the oldest English-language newspaper in India, and the second-oldest Indian newspaper still in circulation, with its first edition published in 1838. It is nicknamed as "The Old Lady of Bori Bunder", and is an Indian "newspaper of record".
Near the beginning of the 20th century, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India, called The Times of India "the leading paper in Asia". In 1991, the BBC ranked The Times of India among the world's six best newspapers.
It is owned and published by Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. (B.C.C.L.), which is owned by the Sahu Jain family. In the Brand Trust Report India study 2019, The Times of India was rated as the most trusted English newspaper in India. Reuters rated The Times of India as India's most trusted media news brand in a survey.
History
Beginnings
The Times of India issued its first edition on 3 November 1838 as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce. The paper was published on Wednesdays and Saturdays under the direction of Raobahadur Narayan Dinanath Velkar, a Maharashtrian social reformer, and contained news from Britain and the world, as well as the Indian Subcontinent. J. E. Brennan was its first editor. In 1850, it began to publish daily editions.
In 1860, editor Robert Knight (1825–1892) bought the Indian shareholders' interests, merged with rival Bombay Standard, and started India's first news agency. It wired Times dispatches to papers across the country and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service. In 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay Times and Standard to The Times of India. Knight fought for a press free of prior restraint or intimidation, frequently resisting the attempts by governments, business interests, and cultural spokesmen; and led the paper to national prominence. In the 19th century, this newspaper company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India and Europe.
Bennett and Coleman ownership
Subsequently, The Times of India saw its ownership change several times until 1892 when an English journalist named Thomas Jewell Bennett, along with Frank Morris Coleman (who later drowned in the 1915 sinking of the SS Persia), acquired the newspaper through their new joint stock company, Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.
Dalmia ownership
Sir Stanley Reed edited The Times of India from 1907 until 1924 and received correspondence from major figures of India such as Mahatma Gandhi. In all he lived in India for fifty years. He was respected in the United Kingdom as an expert on Indian current affairs.
Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd was sold to sugar magnate Ramkrishna Dalmia of the industrial family, for in 1946, as India became independent and the British owners left. In 1955 the Vivian Bose Commission of Inquiry found that Ramkrishna Dalmia, in 1947, had engineered the acquisition of the media giant Bennett Coleman & Co. by transferring money from a bank and an insurance company of which he was the chairman. In the court case that followed, Ramkrishna Dalmia was sentenced to two years in Tihar Jail after having been convicted of embezzlement and fraud.
Most of the jail term he managed to spend in hospital. Upon his release, his son-in-law, Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain, to whom he had entrusted the running of Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd., rebuffed his efforts to resume command of the company.
Jain family (Shanti Prasad Jain)
In the early 1960s, Shanti Prasad Jain was imprisoned on charges of selling newsprint on the black market. And based on the Vivian Bose Commission's earlier report which found wrongdoings of the Dalmia – Jain group, that included specific charges against Shanti Prasad Jain, the Government of India filed a petition to restrain and remove the management of Bennett, Coleman and Company. Based on the pleading, the Justice directed the Government to assume control of the newspaper which resulted in replacing half of the directors and appointing a Bombay High Court judge as the chairman.
Under the Government of India
Following the Vivian Bose Commission report indicating serious wrongdoings of the Dalmia–Jain group, on 28 August 1969, the Bombay High Court, under Justice J. L. Nain, passed an interim order to disband the existing board of Bennett, Coleman & Co and to constitute a new board under the Government. The bench ruled that "Under these circumstances, the best thing would be to pass such orders on the assumption that the allegations made by the petitioners that the affairs of the company were being conducted in a manner prejudicial to public interest and to the interests of the Company are correct". Following that order, Shanti Prasad Jain ceased to be a director and the company ran with new directors on board, appointed by the Government of India, with the exception of a lone stenographer of the Jains. Curiously, the court appointed D K Kunte as chairman of the board. Kunte had no prior business experience and was also an opposition member of the Lok Sabha.
Back to the Jain family
In 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Government transferred ownership of the newspaper back to Ashok Kumar Jain, who was Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain's son and Ramkrishna Dalmia's grandson. He is the father of the current owners Samir Jain and Vineet Jain). The Jains too often landed themselves in various money laundering scams and Ashok Kumar Jain had to flee the country when the Enforcement Directorate pursued his case strongly in 1998 for alleged violations of illegal transfer of funds (to the tune of US$1.25 million) to an overseas account in Switzerland.
During the Emergency
On 26 June 1975, the day after India declared a state of emergency, the Bombay edition of The Times of India carried an entry in its obituary column that read "D.E.M. O'Cracy, beloved husband of T.Ruth, father of L.I.Bertie, brother of Faith, Hope and Justice expired on 25 June". The move was a critique of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's 21-month state of emergency, which is now widely known as "the Emergency" and seen by many as a roundly authoritarian era of Indian government.
The Times in the 21st century
In late 2006, Times Group acquired Vijayanand Printers Limited (VPL). VPL previously published two Kannada newspapers, Vijay Karnataka and Usha Kiran, and an English daily, Vijay Times. Vijay Karnataka was the leader in the Kannada newspaper segment then.
The paper launched a Chennai edition, 12 April 2008. It launched a Kolhapur edition, February 2013.
TOIFA Awards
Introduced in 2013 and awarded for the second time in 2016, "The Times of India Film Awards" or the "TOIFA" is an award for the work in Film Industry decided by a global public vote on the nomination categories.
Editions and publications
The Times of India is published by the media group Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. The company, along with its other group of companies, known as The Times Group, also publishes Ahmedabad Mirror, Bangalore Mirror, Mumbai Mirror, Pune Mirror; Economic Times; ET Panache (Mumbai, Delhi and Bangalore on Monday to Friday) and Times of India ET Panache (Pune and Chennai on every Saturday); Ei Samay, (a Bengali daily); Maharashtra Times, (a Marathi daily); Navbharat Times, (a Hindi daily).
The Times of India has its editions in major cities such as Mumbai, Agra, Ahmedabad, Allahabad, Aurangabad, Bareilly, Bangalore, Belgaum, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Coimbatore, Chandigarh, Chennai, Dehradun, Delhi, Gorakhpur, Gurgaon, Guwahati, Gwalior, Hubli, Hyderabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Jammu, Kanpur, Kochi, Kolhapur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Ludhiana, Madurai, Malabar, Mangalore, Meerut, Mysore, Nagpur, Nashik, Navi Mumbai, Noida, Panaji, Patna, Pondicherry, Pune, Raipur, Rajkot, Ranchi, Shimla, Surat, Thane, Tiruchirapally, Trivandrum, Vadodara, Varanasi, Vijayawada and Visakhapatnam.
Times Group Network
Speaking Tree: A spiritual network intended to allow spiritual seekers to link spiritual seekers with established practitioners.
Healthmeup: A health, diet, and fitness website.
Cricbuzz: In November 2014, Times Internet acquired Cricbuzz, a website focused on cricket news.
Criticism and controversies
Paid news
The Times of India has been criticized for being the first to institutionalize the practice of paid news in India, where politicians, businessmen, corporations and celebrities can pay the newspaper and its journalists would carry the desired news for the payer. The newspaper offers prominence with which the paid news is placed and the page on which it is displayed based on the amount of the payment. According to this practice, a payment plan assures a news feature and ensures positive coverage to the payer. In 2005, The Times of India began the practice of "private treaties", also called as "brand capital", where new companies, individuals or movies seeking mass coverage and public relations, major brands and organizations were offered sustained positive coverage and plugs in its news columns in exchange for shares or other forms of financial obligations to Bennett, Coleman & Company, Ltd. (B.C.C.L.) – the owners of The Times of India. The B.C.C.L., with its "private treaties" program, acquired stakes in 350 companies and generated 15% of its revenues by 2012, according to a critical article in The New Yorker. The "paid news" and "private treaties" practice started by The Times of India has since been adopted by The Hindustan Times group, the India Today group, the Outlook group, and other major media groups in India including Indian television channels. This division of the company was later renamed Brand Capital and has contracts in place with many companies in diverse sectors.
The "paid news" and "private treaties" blur the lines between content and advertising, with the favorable coverage written by the staff reporters on the payroll of The Times of India. The newspaper has defended its practice in 2012 by stating that it includes a note of disclosure to the reader – though in a small font – that its contents are "advertorial, entertainment promotional feature", that they are doing this to generate revenues just like "all newspapers in the world do advertorials" according to The Times of India owners. According to Maya Ranganathan, this overlap in the function of a journalist to also act as a marketing and advertisement revenue seeker for the newspaper raises conflict of interest questions, a problem that has morphed into ever-larger scale in India and recognized by India's SEBI authority in July 2009.
Under an ad sales initiative called Medianet, if a large company or Bollywood studio sponsored a news-worthy event, the event would be covered by the Times of India but the name of the company or studio that sponsored it will not be mentioned in the paper unless they paid the Times of India for advertising. In 2010, a report by a subcommittee of India's Press Council found that Medianet's paid news strategy had spread to a large number of newspapers and more than five hundred television channels.
Critics state that the company's paid news and private treaties skew its coverage and shield its newspaper advertisers from scrutiny. The Hoot, a media criticism website, has pointed out that when an elevator in a 19-storey luxury apartment complex in Bangalore crashed killing two workers and injuring seven, all the English language and Kannada language newspapers with the exception of the Times of India called out the name of the construction company, Sobha Developers, which was a private-treaty partner. An article titled "reaping gold through bt cotton," which first appeared in the Nagpur edition of the Times of India in 2008, reappeared unchanged in 2011, this time with a small print alert that the article was a "marketing feature". In both cases, the article was factually incorrect and made false claims about the success of Monsanto's genetically modified cotton. According to a critical article published in the Indian investigative newsmagazine The Caravan, when the Honda Motors plant in Gurgaon experienced an eight-month-long conflict between management and non-unionized workers over wages and work conditions in 2005, the Times of India covered the concerns of Honda and the harm done to India's investment climate and largely ignored the issues raised by workers.
Vineet Jain, managing director of B.C.C.L., has insisted that a wall does exist between sales and the newsroom, and that the paper does not give favorable coverage to the company's business partners. "Our editors don’t know who we have," Jain said, although he later acknowledged that all private-treaty clients are listed on the company's Web site. Ravindra Dhariwal, the former CEO of B.C.C.L. had defended private treaties in a 2010 interview with the magazine Outlook and claims that the partners in the private treaties sign contracts where they agree to clauses that they will not receive any favorable editorial coverage.
Anti-competitive behavior
There have been claims that The Times of India would strike deals with advertisers only if they removed their advertisements from other competitor newspapers.
The Times of India is also embroiled in an active lawsuit against the Financial Times. In 1993, when the Financial Times was preparing to enter the Indian market, Samir Jain, the vice-chairman of B.C.C.L., registered the term "Financial Times" as a trademark of his company and declared it his intellectual property in an attempt to stymie the Financial Times and prevent them from competing with The Economic Times, which is owned by B.C.C.L.
In 1994, when the Hindustan Times was the top-selling paper in New Delhi, The Times of India slashed their prices by a third, to one and a half rupees after having built up their ads sales force in preparation for the price drop to make up for the lost circulation revenue. By 1998, the Hindustan Times had dropped to second place in Delhi. The Times of India took a similar strategy in Bangalore where they dropped the price to one rupee despite protests from Siddharth Varadarajan, one of the editors of the newspaper at the time, who called the strategy "predatory pricing".
Cobrapost sting operation
In 2018, Vineet Jain, managing director of B.C.C.L., and Sanjeev Shah, executive president of B.C.C.L., were caught on camera as part of a sting operation by Cobrapost agreeing to promote right-wing content through the group's many media properties for a proposed spend of ₹500 crore, some of which the client said could only be paid with black money. B.C.C.L. has responded to the sting claiming that the video that was released by Cobrapost was "doctored" and "incomplete" and that the CEO Vineet Jain was engaged in a "reverse-sting" of his own to expose the undercover reporter during the filming of the video. The company is yet to release the video evidence.
Notable employees
Sham Lal, Editor and Stream black swan
Girilal Jain, Editor and Scholar
Samir Jain, Vice-chairman
Publisher
Vineet Jain, MD
Jug Suraiya (associate editor, columnist, "Jugular Vein," cartoonist, Dubyaman II)
Swaminathan Aiyar (columnist, "Swaminomics")
R. K. Laxman (You Said It editorial cartoon, featuring the famous Common Man)
M. J. Akbar, Columnist, "The Siege Within" and former Editorial Team
Chetan Bhagat, Columnist, Sunday TOI
Shashi Tharoor, Columnist of "Shashi on Sunday"
V. D. Trivadi, Humorist
Twinkle Khanna, Columnist of "Mrs. Funnybones"
Swapan Dasgupta, Columnist, Sunday TOI
See also
Times LitFest, an annual literary festival in Delhi, organised by the Times in partnership with Rajnigandha
References
Further reading
Auletta, Ken: "Citizens Jain – Why India's Newspaper Industry is Thriving". The New Yorker, 8 October 2012, Pages 52 to 61.
Hirschmann, Edwin. "An Editor Speaks for the Natives: Robert Knight in 19th Century India," Journalism Quarterly (1986) 63#2 pp. 260–267
Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp. 330–33
Menon Malhan, Sangita P. The TOI Story: How a Newspaper Changed the Rules of the Game (2013) HarperCollins India
External links
The Times of India ePaper (E-Paper – Digital replica of the newspaper)
External links
The Times of India ePaper (E-Paper – Digital replica of the newspaper)
1838 establishments in India
Asian news websites
English-language newspapers published in India
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Daily newspapers published in India
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Newspapers published in Mumbai
Newspapers published in Patna
Newspapers established in 1838
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Newspapers published in Vijayawada | [
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226806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Kingsford%20Smith | Charles Kingsford Smith | Sir Charles Edward Kingsford Smith, MC, AFC (9 February 18978 November 1935), often called by his nickname Smithy, was an early Australian aviator.
In 1928, he made the first transpacific flight from the United States to Australia. He also made the first non-stop crossing of the Australian mainland, the first flights between Australia and New Zealand, and the first eastward Pacific crossing from Australia to the United States; and, also, made a flight from Australia to London, setting a new record of 10.5 days.
Early and personal life
Charles Edward Kingsford Smith was born on 9 February 1897 at Riverview Terrace, Hamilton in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, the son of William Charles Smith and his wife Catherine Mary (née Kingsford, daughter of Richard Ash Kingsford, a Member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly and mayor in both Brisbane and Cairns municipal councils). His birth was officially registered and announced in the newspapers under the surname Smith, which his family used at that time. The earliest use of the surname Kingsford Smith appears to be by his older brother Richard Harold Kingsford Smith, who used the name at least informally from 1901, although he married in New South Wales under the surname Smith in 1903.
In 1903, his parents moved to Canada where they adopted the surname Kingsford Smith. They returned to Sydney in 1907.
Kingsford Smith first attended school in Vancouver, Canada. From 1909 to 1911, he was enrolled at St Andrew's Cathedral School, Sydney, where he was a chorister in the school's cathedral choir, and then at Sydney Technical High School, before becoming an engineering apprentice with the Colonial Sugar Refining Company at 16.
Kingsford Smith married Thelma Eileen Hope Corboy in 1923. They divorced in 1929. He married Mary Powell in December 1930.
Shortly after his second marriage he joined the New Guard, a radical monarchist, anti-communist, and allegedly fascist-inspired organisation.
World War I and early flying experience
In 1915, he enlisted for duty in the 1st AIF (Australian Army) and served at Gallipoli. Initially, he performed duty as a motorcycle dispatch rider, before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps, earning his pilot's wings in 1917.
In August 1917, while serving with No. 23 Squadron, Kingsford Smith was shot down and received injuries which required amputation of two toes. He was awarded the Military Cross for his gallantry in battle. As his recovery was predicted to be lengthy, Kingsford Smith was permitted to take leave in Australia where he visited his parents. Returning to England, Kingsford Smith was assigned to instructor duties and promoted to Captain.
On 1 April 1918, along with other members of the Royal Flying Corps, Kingsford Smith was transferred to the newly established Royal Air Force. On being demobilised in England, in early 1919, he joined Tasmanian Cyril Maddocks, to form Kingsford Smith, Maddocks Aeros Ltd, flying a joy-riding service mainly in the North of England, during the summer of 1919, initially using surplus DH.6 trainers, then surplus B.E.2s. Later Kingsford Smith worked as a barnstormer in the United States before returning to Australia in 1921. He did the same in Australia and also flew airmail services, and began to plan his record-breaking flight across the Pacific.
Applying for a commercial pilot's licence on 2 June 1921 (in which he gave his name as "Charles Edward Kingsford-Smith"), he became one of Australia's first airline pilots when he was chosen by Norman Brearley to fly for the newly formed West Australian Airways.
A young Kingsford Smith piloted a Western Australian Airways Bristol Type 28 Coupe Tourers plane (G-AUDF) that made bi-weekly mail drops to the astronomers during the 1922 Solar Eclipse expedition at Wallal, Western Australia.
During the First World War, Ken Richards had been the observer in Kingsford Smith's plane in France. Later Richards moved to Cowra, New South Wales. Kingsford Smith owned an old Avro plane and in 1922 flew to Cowra to see his old comrade. Kingsford Smith and Richards flew under the Cowra traffic bridge. They also attempted to fly under the nearby railway bridge, but Richards fortunately noticed the telephone lines and pulled the aircraft away only seconds from impact.
1928 Trans-Pacific flight
In 1928, Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm arrived in the United States and began to search for an aircraft. Famed Australian polar explorer Sir Hubert Wilkins sold them a Fokker F.VII/3m monoplane, which they named the Southern Cross.
At 8:54 a.m. on 31 May 1928, Kingsford Smith and his 4-man crew left Oakland, California, to attempt the first trans-Pacific flight to Australia. The flight was in three stages. The first, from Oakland to Wheeler Army Airfield, Hawaii, was , taking an uneventful 27 hours 25 minutes (87.54 mph). They took off from Barking Sands on Mana, Kauai, since the runway at Wheeler was not long enough. They headed for Suva, Fiji, away, taking 34 hours 30 minutes (91.45 mph). This was the most demanding portion of the journey, as they flew through a massive lightning storm near the equator. The third leg was the shortest, in 20 hours (84.15 mph), and crossed the Australian coastline near Ballina before turning north to fly to Brisbane, where they landed at 10.50 a.m. on 9 June. The total flight distance was approximately . Kingsford Smith was met by a huge crowd of 26,000 at Eagle Farm Airport, and was welcomed as a hero. Australian aviator Charles Ulm was the relief pilot. The other crewmen were Americans, they were James Warner, the radio operator, and Captain Harry Lyon, the navigator and engineer.
The National Film and Sound Archive of Australia has a film biography of Kingsford Smith, called An Airman Remembers, and recordings of Kingsford Smith and Ulm talking about the journey.
A stamp sheet and stamps, featuring the Australian aviators Kingsford Smith and Ulm, were released by Australia Post in 1978, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the flight.
A young New Zealander named Jean Batten attended a dinner in Australia featuring Kingsford Smith after the trans-Pacific flight and told him "I'm going to learn to fly." She later convinced him to take her for a flight in the Southern Cross and went on to become a record-setting aviator, following his example instead of his advice ("Don't attempt to break men's records – and don't fly at night", he told her in 1928 and remembered wryly later).
1928 Trans-Tasman flight
After making the first non-stop flight across Australia from Point Cook near Melbourne to Perth in Western Australia in August 1928, Kingsford Smith and Ulm registered themselves as Australian National Airways (see below). They then decided to attempt the Tasman Sea crossing to New Zealand not only because it had not yet been done, but also in the hope the Australian Government would grant Australian National Airways a subsidised contract to carry scheduled mail regularly. The Tasman had remained unflown after the failure of the first attempt in January 1928, when New Zealanders John Moncrieff and George Hood had vanished without trace.
Kingsford Smith's flight was planned for take off from Richmond, near Sydney, on Sunday 2 September 1928, with a scheduled landing around 9:00 a.m. on 3 September at Wigram Aerodrome, near Christchurch, the principal city in the South Island of New Zealand. This plan drew a storm of protest from New Zealand churchmen about the "sanctity of the Sabbath being set at naught."
The mayor of Christchurch supported the churchmen and cabled a protest to Kingsford Smith. As it happened, unfavourable weather developed over the Tasman and the flight was deferred, so it is not known whether or how Kingsford Smith would have heeded the cable.
Accompanied by Ulm, navigator Harold Arthur Litchfield, and radio operator Thomas H. McWilliams, a New Zealander made available by the New Zealand Government, Kingsford Smith left Richmond in the evening of 10 September, planning to fly overnight to a daylight landing after a flight of about 14 hours. The planned route was only just over half the distance between Hawaii and Fiji. After a stormy flight, at times through icing conditions, the Southern Cross made landfall in much improved weather near Cook Strait, the passage between New Zealand's two main islands. At an estimated out from New Zealand, the crew dropped a wreath in memory of the two New Zealanders who had disappeared during their attempt to cross the Tasman earlier that year.
There was a tremendous welcome in Christchurch, where the Southern Cross landed at 0922 after a flight of 14 hours and 25 minutes. About 30,000 people made their way to Wigram, including many students from state schools, who were given the day off, and public servants, who were granted leave until 11 a.m. The event was also broadcast live on radio.
While the New Zealand Air Force overhauled the Southern Cross free of charge Kingsford Smith and Ulm were taken on a triumphant tour of New Zealand, flying in Bristol Fighters.
The return to Sydney was made from Blenheim, a small city at the north of the South Island. Hampered by fog, severe weather and a minor navigational error, the flight to Richmond took over 23 hours; on touchdown the aircraft had enough fuel for only another 10 minutes flying.
Dangerous forced landing 1929
On 31 March 1929, en route from Sydney to England, the Southern Cross with Kingsford Smith at the helm made an emergency landing on a mudflat near the mouth of the Glenelg River, in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia. The Southern Cross was found and rescued after a fortnight's searching, with George Innes Beard, Albert Barunga and Wally from the Kunmunya Mission the first overland party to reach the downed aircraft.
While on their way to help with the search, two friends of Kingsford Smith crash landed in the Tanami Desert in Central Australia and died of thirst and exposure on 12 April 1929. The pair, Keith Vincent Anderson and Henry Smith "Bobby" Hitchcock, had been flying a Westland Widgeon plane named Kookaburra. Some in the media, creating a ‘beat up’ to sell papers, trivialised the dangerous forced landing of the Southern Cross, which they dubbed the "Coffee Royal" incident after coffee the fliers allegedly drank (media hacks were not present) while waiting for rescue; and was fair game to be trivialized as a publicity stunt, and blamed Kingsford Smith for the two deaths. He was traumatised by their loss.[40][41]
In pioneering civil aviation for air mail and other purposes, Smithy spent his life endeavouring to demonstrate its safety and reliability. Media hacks, in claiming he was making a stunt out of demonstrating the opposite, lack of safety and reliability, were illogical. But logic was irrelevant, a media ‘beat up’ is its own purpose in sales.
An official inquiry was convened into the incident, fuelled by the media ‘beat up’. One of the criticisms levelled at Kingsford Smith was that he could have been spotted and rescued much more quickly had he set a fire with engine oil. The foundation for the attack was not tested by the inquiry at the time but Dick Smith (no relation) rediscovered the landing site in 1981 and carried out an experiment burning brush with and without engine oil and found that the latter actually created a more visible effect as viewed from the air against the dark mud and surface terrain.
Sir Charles Kingsford Smith had been right.[40]
Kingsford Smith was exonerated by an exhaustive inquiry. The bodies of Anderson and Hitchcock were later recovered from the Tanami Desert. Hitchcock's body was returned to Perth for burial at Karrakatta Cemetery, while Anderson's body was returned to Sydney.
The power of a media ‘beat up’ was evidenced by 6000 mourners attending the funerals of two fliers they did not know, and had not heard of until this instance. Keith Anderson's funeral was an elaborate affair befitting a national hero. Anderson was buried at Rawson Park, Mosman, on 6 July 1929. A grand memorial was later erected at the gravesite in his honour.[42]
Australian National Airways
In partnership with Ulm, Kingsford Smith established Australian National Airways in 1929. The passenger, mail and freight service commenced operations flying between Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne, in January 1930, with five aircraft but closed after crashes in March and November the next year.
Later flights, the MacRobertson Air Race, the 1934 Pacific Flight
After collecting his 'old bus', Southern Cross, from the Fokker aircraft company in the Netherlands where it had been overhauled, in June 1930 he achieved an east–west crossing of the Atlantic from Ireland to Newfoundland in 31½ hours, having taken off from Portmarnock Beach (The Velvet Strand), just north of Dublin. New York gave him a tumultuous welcome. The Southern Cross continued on to Oakland, California, completing a circumnavigation of the world, begun in 1928. In 1930, he competed in an England to Australia air race, and, flying solo, won the event taking 13 days. He arrived in Sydney on 22 October 1930.
In 1931, he purchased an Avro Avian he named the Southern Cross Minor, to attempt an Australia-to-England flight. He later sold the aircraft to Captain W.N. "Bill" Lancaster who vanished on 11 April 1933 over the Sahara Desert; Lancaster's remains were not found until 1962. The wreck of the Southern Cross Minor is now in the Queensland Museum. In the early 1930s, Smith began developing the Southern Cross automobile as a side project.
In 1933, Seven Mile Beach, New South Wales, was used by Kingsford Smith as the runway for the first commercial flight between Australia and New Zealand.
In 1934, he purchased a Lockheed Altair, the Lady Southern Cross, with the intention of competing in the MacRobertson Air Race. The issue of handicapping became evident. This was managed by the British at the entry start point, ‘interpreted’ and applied by them, on a plane by plane basis. Various entrants, including the Italians, withdrew citing the overtly unfair handicapping ensured that none but the British could win. The organising in Britain was all in ‘slow motion’ as the start date loomed. Far away in Australia there was little they could do to oversight the handicapping issue as it now arose and start day was ever nearer.
The British Comet had been purpose built for the race. The three British teams were issued with this plane, its new space age design would cause crowds everywhere to literally gasp, the like of which had never been seen before. The technology and power within was equally startling. This technology would scarcely be bettered for another 40 years.
Naturally Smithy and all Australians preferred that a British, rather than some other ‘foreign’ plane, be flown by him.
Smithy was not issued with a Comet, or anything else. The British endlessly demurred: a Comet would never be available for Smithy. There were no other aircraft anywhere “even remotely approaching” performance, range or speed: “…it would have been quite futile to compete in these circumstances” (Pacific Flight. The Story of the Lady Southern Cross, P.G. Taylor . p.3.) (Taylor was navigator and pilot with Smithy on the race preparation, the Pacific and other flights).
Smithy was undaunted. Instead he personally purchased the far less, next best, there was, a second hand American Lockheed, naming it the Lady Southern Cross. Other entrants also purchased whatever they could get or afford. An approximate analogy would be a field of ‘Puffing Billy’ steam trains competing against three space age Bullet trains.
The British would not accept entry of a plane without certification from the country of origin, and the Americans were unfussed at the necessity of genuflecting to the British ‘rules’, and it only arrived at the final moment. (P.G. Taylor, p. 29)
The British handicap rules made the Lady Southern Cross carry a radically reduced fuel load to what she could fly with, requiring her to make many more stops than she need do, and many more stops than the faster Comets. (P.G. Taylor. p.4 & 5).
Smithy was determined to try and put in as a ”good a show as possible" (p. 30, 31), despite the fuel “loading now being cut down so that it was impossible to reach the control points non-stop”. (p. 30).
Race withdrawal:
At the point of all testing and meticulous preparations done, Smithy and P.G. Taylor took off in the Lady Southern Cross for England and the Air Race. It was over northern QLD that the secondhand plane formed further age faults, the engine cowling was cracking (p.32) Smithy undaunted turned back and had the workshop work night and day, and despite excellent work spinning a new aluminium cowling, the fitting to the old second hand plane was complex and it could not be readied in time. (p.34)
Smithy was not allowed by the British to fly a Comet.
The Turks:
Meanwhile, the Turks, who had to approve entrants for passage through their airspace, accepted all fliers except Smithy. He had, much earlier, had an unauthorised forced landing, being dazed, ill and collapsed with carbon monoxide poisoning during a previous race. (P.G. Taylor p. 13–15).
Having unfortunately come down in a restricted military area, he was threatened with a gun and arrested, despite being too ill to move. Eventually there was diplomatic assistance, Smithy was treated well, was released, any misunderstanding cleared up, and Smithy "left the country perfectly good friends with everybody concerned.”(p. 13)
The British were not unwilling to find or fan any flames against this courageous and famous Australian flier, who had not genuflected to the Establishment in Britain. And this rankled. Now this refusal issue was sent to Australia and Prime Minister Hughes well known for capricious irascibility, anxious to genuflect, conveyed his verdict to Smithy.
In England the press, whose interest is ‘selling papers’, seeking to embellish or create news, did a lurid media ‘beat-up’ (p.13) making fake attributions about the situation, to which the Turkish government took exception, (p.14) and unbeknownst to Smithy this was now the reason for the refusal. The media ‘beat up’, not of Smithy's making, had to be put right, and took energy and distraction to achieve this, received just prior to departure time. (p.14)
The Turks had in fact accepted a sincere apology, again, from Smithy for any unwitting offence his forced landing had caused, and are on record for praise of his outstanding character.
Lost Comet over A.L.B.U.R.Y.:
Even Smithy, known for courageous planned risks, could see the handicap of compulsory extreme fuel under load, “was futile”. The race was inevitably won by a Comet, necessarily with British fliers on board, notwithstanding that they became hopelessly lost over Victoria, rescued only by the quick thinking and actions by the people of Albury. Their plane could be heard flying aimlessly to and fro in the night, one person instantly understood the situation, and asked via local radio for all residents to switch off their lights, sped to the town generator, and flashing the towns lights in morse code, tapped out A.L.B.U.R.Y. to tell the hapless fliers where they were.
True to character, Smithy did not allow any personal disappointment at his constructed exclusion from the race to show publicly.
Instead Smithy and his navigator P.G. Taylor undertook a new venture, the Pacific flight from Brisbane to San Francisco, landing 3 November 1934.
Pacific Flight: The Story of the Lady Southern Cross by P.G. Taylor was published by Angus & Robertson in November 1935. It carries the dedication: To Air Commodore SIR CHARLES KINGSFORD SMITH KT, M.C., A.F.C., whose unfailing leadership, sound judgment, and fine airmanship were grand companions on the Pacific flight of “Lady Southern Cross”.
Disappearance and death
Kingsford Smith and co-pilot John Thompson "Tommy" Pethybridge were flying the Lady Southern Cross overnight from Allahabad, India, to Singapore, as part of their attempt to break the England-Australia speed record held by C. W. A. Scott and Tom Campbell Black, when they disappeared over the Andaman Sea in the early hours of 8 November 1935. Aviator Jimmy Melrose claimed to have seen the Lady Southern Cross fighting a storm from shore and over the sea with fire coming from its exhaust. Despite a search for 74 hours over the Bay of Bengal by one person, British pilot Eric Stanley Greenwood, OBE, their bodies were never recovered.
In the preparation for the 1934 Pacific Flight Taylor notes again that Smithy was always meticulous in all aviation and planning. He records Smithy saying Wasp “engines do not stop” and are particularly reliable.
(Pacific Flight, P.G. Taylor, p.69. -- The book was published prior to Smithy's final flight.)
Taylor documents that the Lady Southern Cross construction and corked filled areas would float if ditched into the water. (p. 39)
Taylor documents that the fuel load could be instantly dumped if necessary. (p. 59)
Taylor documents that new wireless contact enabled constant information of their position location to be given.(p. 63)
What, or who, stopped the engine; so unusually, so spectacularly?
As their position was known (from Melrose's plane and Smithy's) why were they not picked up or a raft dropped?
Why was only one person sent to search?
Eighteen months later, Burmese fishermen found an undercarriage leg and wheel, with its tyre still inflated, which had been washed ashore at Aye Island in the Gulf of Martaban, off the southeast coastline of Burma, some south of Mottama (formerly known as Martaban). Lockheed confirmed the undercarriage leg to be from the Lady Southern Cross. Botanists who examined the weeds clinging to the undercarriage leg estimated that the aircraft lies not far from the island at a depth of approximately . The undercarriage leg is now on public display at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia.
In 2009, filmmaker and explorer Damien Lay stated he was certain he had found the Lady Southern Cross. The location of the claimed find was widely misreported as "in the Bay of Bengal". However, the 2009 search, was in fact, at the same location where the landing gear had been found in 1937, at Aye Island in the Andaman Sea.
Kingsford Smith was survived by his wife, Mary, Lady Kingsford Smith, and their three-year-old son Charles Jnr. Kingsford Smith's autobiography, My Flying Life, was published posthumously in 1937 and became a best-seller.
Following The Joint Australian Myanmar Lady Southern Cross Search Expedition II (LSCSEII) in 2009, Lay conducted a total of ten further expeditions to Myanmar to recover wreckage from the site. In 2011, Lay claimed to have found the wreckage, but that claim has been widely disputed, and no evidence confirming the claim has been forthcoming. The location of the site, approximately 1.8 miles off the coast of Myanmar, has never been publicly released.
Lay has worked closely with both the Kingsford Smith and Pethybridge families since 2005. The privately funded project was supported by the government and people of Myanmar. , Lay was still searching for parts of the Lady Southern Cross.
Honours and legacy
In 1930 Kingsford Smith was the inaugural recipient of the Segrave Trophy, awarded for "Outstanding Skill, Courage and Initiative on Land, Water [or] in the Air".
Kingsford Smith was knighted in the 1932 King's Birthday Honours List as a Knight Bachelor. He received the accolade on 3 June 1932 from His Excellency Sir Isaac Isaacs, the Governor-General of Australia, for services to aviation and later was appointed honorary Air Commodore of the Royal Australian Air Force.
In 1986, Kingsford Smith was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
[[Image:Sydney Airport (2004) By Air.jpg|thumb|right|Kingsford Smith International Airport]]
The major airport of Sydney, located in the suburb of Mascot, was named Kingsford Smith International Airport in his honour. The federal electorate surrounding the airport is named the Division of Kingsford Smith, and includes the suburb of Kingsford.
His most famous aircraft, the Southern Cross, is now preserved and displayed in a purpose-built memorial to Kingsford Smith near the International Terminal at Brisbane Airport. Kingsford Smith sold the plane to the Australian Government in 1935 for £3000 so it could be put on permanent display for the public. The plane was carefully stored for many years before the current memorial was built.
Kingsford Smith Drive in Brisbane passes through the suburb of his birth, Hamilton. Another Kingsford Smith Drive, which is located in the Canberra district of Belconnen, intersects with Southern Cross Drive.
Opened in 2009, Kingsford Smith School in the Canberra suburb of Holt was named after the famous aviator, as was Sir Charles Kingsford-Smith Elementary School in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
He was pictured on the Australian $20 paper note (in circulation from 1966 until 1994, when the $20 polymer note was introduced to replace it), to honour his contribution to aviation and his accomplishments during his life. He was also depicted on the Australian one-dollar coin of 1997, the centenary of his birth.
Albert Park in Suva, where he landed on the trans-Pacific flight, now contains the Kingsford Smith Pavilion.
A memorial stands at Seven Mile Beach in New South Wales commemorating the first commercial flight to New Zealand.
Qantas named its sixth Airbus A380 (VH-OQF) after Kingsford Smith.
KLM named one of its Boeing 747s (PH-BUM) after Kingsford Smith.
A trans-Encke propeller moonlet, an inferred minor body, of Saturn is named after him.
Australian aviation enthusiast Austin Byrne was part of the large crowd at Sydney's Mascot Aerodrome in June 1928 to welcome the Southern Cross and its crew following their successful trans-Pacific flight. Witnessing this event inspired Byrne to make a scale model of the Southern Cross to give to Kingsford Smith. After the aviator's disappearance, Byrne continued to expand and enhance his tribute with paintings, photographs, documents, and artworks he created, designed or commissioned. Between 1930 and his death in 1993, Byrne devoted his life to creating and touring his Southern Cross Memorial.
In popular culture
Kingsford Smith made a cameo appearance as himself in the feature film Splendid Fellows (1934)
A popular documentary was made about his life: The Old Bus (1934)
The 1946 Australian film Smithy was based on his life, with Ron Randell as Kingsford Smith and John Tate as Ulm
The 1985 Australian television mini-series A Thousand Skies, has John Walton as Kingsford Smith and Andrew Clarke as Ulm
New Zealand author and documentarian Ian Mackersey's 1998 biography Smithy: The Life of Sir Charles Kingsford Smith (hardback , paperback
Bill Bryson details Kingsford Smith's life in his book Down Under.
Australian author Peter FitzSimons's book Charles Kingsford Smith and Those Magnificent Men details an extensive exploration of Smithy's life and of aviation history (published by Harper Collins, Australia. 2009; ()
The songs "Kingsford Smith, Aussie is Proud of You" and "Smithy" (1928) by Len Maurice
The songs "Smithy" and "Heroes of the Air" (1928) by Fred Moore
The songs "Smithy The King of the Air" and "The Southern Cross Monologue" by Clement Williams
Kingsford Smith is depicted on the cover art of the Icehouse album Code Blue which includes their song "Charlie's Sky"
The song "Charles Kingsford Smith" by Don McGlashan is on his Lucky Star album
See also
History of Aviation
List of firsts in aviation
List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea
Notes
An aircraft similar to the Southern Cross, the Bird of Paradise, had made the first flight over (though not across) the Pacific, from California to Hawaii for the United States Army Air Corps, in 1927.
References
Sources
Grant, James Ritchie. "Anti-Clockwise: Australia the Wrong Way". Air Enthusiast'', No. 82, July–August 1999, pp. 60–63.
External links
The Pioneers – Charles Kingsford Smith
Charles Kingsford Smith biography Ace Pilots
Sir Charles Kingsford Smith Australian Heroes
Charles Kingsford Smith about the Tasman flight
Charles Kingsford Smith (includes photos of Sir Charles Kingsford Smith and his aeroplane, the Southern Cross)
Sir Charles Kingsford Smith Sound Recordings and Newsreels
Photographs from an album kept by Charles Ulm's wife, Mary, including many of Charles Kingsford Smith: National Museum of Australia
Austin Byrne and the Kingsford Smith Southern Cross Memorial
"Our Heroes of the Air" (audio recordings of Kingsford Smith and Ulm on the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's website)
Australian people of English descent
1897 births
1935 deaths
Australian aviators
Aviation pioneers
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents
People from Brisbane
Australian Knights Bachelor
Australian recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)
Australian recipients of the Military Cross
Royal Flying Corps officers
Royal Air Force officers
Royal Australian Air Force officers
Honorary air commodores of the Royal Australian Air Force
Segrave Trophy recipients
People educated at Sydney Technical High School
Missing aviators
1930s missing person cases
Q150 Icons
Australian aviation record holders
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1935 | [
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226808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20Buddhism | Chinese Buddhism | Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism () is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine and material culture. Chinese Buddhism is the largest institutionalized religion in Mainland China. Currently, there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in the People's Republic of China It is also a major religion in Taiwan and among the Chinese Diaspora.
Buddhism was first introduced to China during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations (along with Taoist and Confucian works) into a Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the East Asian cultural sphere, including Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai, Huayan, Chan Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism.
From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by native Chinese religions and philosophy, especially Confucianism and Taoism, but also Chinese folk religion.
History
Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)
Various legends tell of the presence of Buddhism in Chinese soil in very ancient times. While the scholarly consensus is that Buddhism first came to China in the first century CE during the Han dynasty, through missionaries from India, it is not known precisely when Buddhism entered China.
Generations of scholars have debated whether Buddhist missionaries first reached Han China via the maritime or overland routes of the Silk Road. The maritime route hypothesis, favored by Liang Qichao and Paul Pelliot, proposed that Buddhism was originally practiced in southern China, the Yangtze River and Huai River region. On the other hand, it must have entered from the northwest via the Gansu corridor to the Yellow River basin and the North China Plain in the course of the first century CE. The scene becomes clearer from the middle of the second century onward, when the first known missionaries started their translation activities in the capital, Luoyang. The Book of the Later Han records that in 65 CE, prince Liu Ying of Chu (present day Jiangsu) "delighted in the practices of Huang-Lao Daoism" and had both Buddhist monks and laypeople at his court who presided over Buddhist ceremonies. The overland route hypothesis, favored by Tang Yongtong, proposed that Buddhism disseminated through Central Asia – in particular, the Kushan Empire, which was often known in ancient Chinese sources as Da Yuezhi ("Great Yuezhi"), after the founding tribe. According to this hypothesis, Buddhism was first practiced in China in the Western Regions and the Han capital Luoyang (present day Henan), where Emperor Ming of Han established the White Horse Temple in 68 CE.
In 2004, Rong Xinjiang, a history professor at Peking University, reexamined the overland and maritime hypotheses through a multi-disciplinary review of recent discoveries and research, including the Gandhāran Buddhist Texts, and concluded:
The French sinologist Henri Maspero says it is a "very curious fact" that, throughout the entire Han dynasty, Daoism and Buddhism were "constantly confused and appeared as single religion". A century after prince Liu Ying's court supported both Daoists and Buddhists, in 166 Emperor Huan of Han made offerings to the Buddha and sacrifices to the Huang-Lao gods Yellow Emperor and Laozi. The first Chinese apologist for Buddhism, a late second-century layman named Mouzi, said it was through Daoism that he was led to Buddhism—which he calls dàdào (, the "Great Dao").
I too, when I had not yet understood the Great Way (Buddhism), had studied Taoist practises. Hundreds and thousands of recipes are there for longevity through abstention from cereals. I practised them, but without success; I saw them put to use, but without result. That is why I abandoned them.
Early Chinese Buddhism was conflated and mixed with Daoism, and it was within Daoist circles that it found its first adepts. Traces are evident in Han period Chinese translations of Buddhist scriptures, which hardly differentiated between Buddhist nirvana and Daoist immortality. Wuwei, the Daoist concept of non-interference, was the normal term for translating Sanskrit nirvana, which is transcribed as nièpán () in modern Chinese usage.
Traditional accounts
A number of popular accounts in historical Chinese literature have led to the popularity of certain legends regarding the introduction of Buddhism into China. According to the most popular one, Emperor Ming of Han (28–75 CE) precipitated the introduction of Buddhist teachings into China. The (early third to early fifth century) Mouzi Lihuolun first records this legend:
The emperor then sent an envoy to Tianzhu (Southern India) to inquire about the teachings of the Buddha. Buddhist scriptures were said to have been returned to China on the backs of white horses, after which White Horse Temple was named. Two Indian monks also returned with them, named Dharmaratna and Kaśyapa Mātaṅga.
An eighth-century Chinese fresco at Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu portrays Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) worshiping statues of a golden man; "golden men brought in 121 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads". However, neither the Shiji nor Book of Han histories of Emperor Wu mentions a golden Buddhist statue (compare Emperor Ming).
The first translations
The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures from various Indian languages into Chinese occurs in 148 CE with the arrival of the Parthian prince-turned-monk An Shigao (Ch. ). He worked to establish Buddhist temples in Luoyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. An Shigao translated Buddhist texts on basic doctrines, meditation, and abhidharma. An Xuan (Ch. ), a Parthian layman who worked alongside An Shigao, also translated an early Mahāyāna Buddhist text on the bodhisattva path.
Mahāyāna Buddhism was first widely propagated in China by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. , active c. 164–186 CE), who came from the ancient Buddhist kingdom of Gandhāra. Lokakṣema translated important Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahāyāna sūtras on topics such as samādhi, and meditation on the buddha Akṣobhya. These translations from Lokakṣema continue to give insight into the early period of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This corpus of texts often includes emphasizes ascetic practices and forest dwelling, and absorption in states of meditative concentration:
Early Buddhist schools
During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian early Buddhist schools recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas.
The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China, and they had great success in doing so. Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted the Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs. According to A.K. Warder, in some ways in those East Asian countries, the Dharmaguptaka sect can be considered to have survived to the present. Warder further writes that the Dharmaguptakas can be credited with effectively establishing Chinese Buddhism during the early period:
Six Dynasties (220–589)
Early translation methods
Initially, Buddhism in China faced a number of difficulties in becoming established. The concept of monasticism and the aversion to social affairs seemed to contradict the long-established norms and standards established in Chinese society. Some even declared that Buddhism was harmful to the authority of the state, that Buddhist monasteries contributed nothing to the economic prosperity of China, that Buddhism was barbaric and undeserving of Chinese cultural traditions. However, Buddhism was often associated with Taoism in its ascetic meditative tradition, and for this reason a concept-matching system was used by some early Indian translators, to adapt native Buddhist ideas onto Daoist ideas and terminology.
Buddhism appealed to Chinese intellectuals and elites and the development of gentry Buddhism was sought as an alternative to Confucianism and Daoism, since Buddhism's emphasis on morality and ritual appealed to Confucianists and the desire to cultivate inner wisdom appealed to Daoists. Gentry Buddhism was a medium of introduction for the beginning of Buddhism in China, it gained imperial and courtly support. By the early fifth century Buddhism was established in south China.
During this time, Indian monks continued to travel along the Silk Road to teach Buddhism, and translation work was primarily done by foreign monks rather than Chinese.
The arrival of Kumārajīva (334–413 CE)
When the famous monk Kumārajīva was captured during the Chinese conquest of the Buddhist kingdom of Kucha, he was imprisoned for many years. When he was released in AD 401, he immediately took a high place in Chinese Buddhism and was appraised as a great master from the West. He was especially valued by Emperor Yao Xing of the state of Later Qin, who gave him an honorific title and treated him like a god. Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high-quality translations (from AD 402–413), which are still praised for their flowing smoothness, clarity of meaning, subtlety, and literary skill. Due to the efforts of Kumārajīva, Buddhism in China became not only recognized for its practice methods, but also as high philosophy and religion. The arrival of Kumārajīva also set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, effectively doing away with previous concept-matching systems.
The translations of Kumārajīva have often remained more popular than those of other translators. Among the most well-known are his translations of the Diamond Sutra, the Amitabha Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, and the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
A completed Sūtra Piṭaka
Around the time of Kumārajīva, the four major Sanskrit āgamas were also translated into Chinese. Each of the āgamas was translated independently by a different Indian monk. These āgamas comprise the only other complete surviving Sūtra Piṭaka, which is generally comparable to the Pali Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. The teachings of the Sūtra Piṭaka are usually considered to be one of the earliest teachings on Buddhism and a core text of the Early Buddhist Schools in China. It is noteworthy that before the modern period, these āgama were seldom if ever used by Buddhist communities, due to their Hīnayāna attribution, as Chinese Buddhism was already avowedly Mahāyāna in persuasion.
Early Chinese Buddhist traditions
Due to the wide proliferation of Buddhist texts available in Chinese and the large number of foreign monks who came to teach Buddhism in China, much like new branches growing from a main tree trunk, various specific focus traditions emerged. Among the most influential of these was the practice of Pure Land Buddhism established by Hui Yuan, which focused on Amitābha Buddha and his western pure land of Sukhāvatī. Other early traditions were the Tiantai, Huayan and the Vinaya school. Such schools were based upon the primacy of the Lotus Sūtra, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, respectively, along with supplementary sūtras and commentaries. The Tiantai founder Zhiyi wrote several works that became important and widely read meditation manuals in China such as the "Concise samatha-vipasyana", and the "Great samatha-vipasyana".
Daily life of nuns
An important aspect of a nun was the practice of a vegetarian as it was heavily emphasized in the Buddhist religion to not harm any living creature for the purpose of them to consume. There were also some nuns who did not eat regularly, as an attempt of fasting. Another dietary practice of nuns was their practice of consuming fragrant oil or incense as a "preparation for self-immolation by fire".
Some daily activities of nuns include the reading, memorizing, and reciting of Buddhist scriptures and religious text. Another was meditation as it is seen as the "heart of Buddhist monastic life". There are biographers explaining when nuns meditate they enter a state where their body of becomes hard, rigid, and stone-like where they are often mistaken as lifeless.
Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE)
Chan: pointing directly to the mind
In the fifth century, the Chan (Zen) teachings began in China, traditionally attributed to the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma, a legendary figure. The school heavily utilized the principles found in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, a sūtra utilizing the teachings of Yogācāra and those of Tathāgatagarbha, and which teaches the One Vehicle (Skt. Ekayāna) to buddhahood. In the early years, the teachings of Chan were therefore referred to as the "One Vehicle School". The earliest masters of the Chan school were called "Laṅkāvatāra Masters", for their mastery of practice according to the principles of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.
The principal teachings of Chan were later often known for the use of so-called encounter stories and koans, and the teaching methods used in them. Nan Huai-Chin identifies the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) as the principle texts of the Chan school, and summarizes the principles succinctly:
Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)
Xuanzang's journey to the west
During the early Tang dynasty, between 629 and 645, the monk Xuanzang journeyed to India and visited over one hundred kingdoms, and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. During his travels he visited holy sites, learned the lore of his faith, and studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nālanda University. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. Xuanzang also returned with relics, statues, and Buddhist paraphernalia loaded onto twenty-two horses. With the emperor's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only".
The force of his own study, translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lack the necessary background in Indian logic. Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.
Xuanzang's translations were especially important for the transmission of Indian texts related to the Yogācāra school. He translated central Yogācāra texts such as the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra and the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, as well as important texts such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra and the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja Sūtra (Medicine Buddha Sūtra). He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun (Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi Śāstra) as composed from multiple commentaries on Vasubandhu's Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā. His translation of the Heart Sūtra became and remains the standard in all East Asian Buddhist sects. The proliferation of these texts expanded the Chinese Buddhist canon significantly with high-quality translations of some of the most important Indian Buddhist texts.
Caves, art, and technology
The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture-filled caves and structures surviving from this period. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned examples from the Northern Wei, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the eighth century during the Tang dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.
At the Longmen cave complex, Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) –– a notable proponent of Buddhism during the Tang dynasty (reigned as Zhou)–– directed mammoth stone sculptures of Vaircōcana Buddha with Bodhisattvas. As the first self-seated woman emperor, these sculptures served multiple purposes, including the projection of Buddhist ideas that would validate her mandate of power.
Monks and pious laymen spread Buddhist concepts through story-telling and preaching from sutra texts. These oral presentations were written down as bianwen (transformation stories) which influenced the writing of fiction by their new ways of telling stories combining prose and poetry. Popular legends in this style included Mulian Rescues His Mother, in which a monk descends into hell in a show of filial piety.
Making duplications of Buddhist texts was considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks and from clay or metal movable type proved much more efficient than hand copying and eventually eclipsed it. The Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) of 868 CE, a Buddhist scripture discovered in 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, is the first dated example of block printing.
Arrival of Esoteric Buddhism
The Kaiyuan's Three Great Enlightened Masters, Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, established Esoteric Buddhism in China from AD 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor Xuanzong. They came to Daxing Shansi (, Great Propagating Goodness Temple), which was the predecessor of Temple of the Great Enlightener Mahavairocana. Daxing Shansi was established in the ancient capital Chang'an, today's Xi'an, and became one of the four great centers of scripture translation supported by the imperial court. They had translated many Buddhist scriptures, sutra and tantra, from Sanskrit to Chinese. They had also assimilated the prevailing teachings of China: Taoism and Confucianism, with Buddhism, and had further evolved the practice of the Chinese Esoteric Buddhist tradition.
They brought to the Chinese a mysterious, dynamic, and magical teaching, which included mantra formula and detailed rituals to protect a person or an empire, to affect a person's fate after death, and, particularly popular, to bring rain in times of drought. It is not surprising, then, that all three masters were well received by the emperor Tang Xuanzong, and their teachings were quickly taken up at the Tang court and among the elite. Mantrayana altars were installed in temples in the capital, and by the time of emperor Tang Daizong (r. 762–779) its influence among the upper classes outstripped that of Daoism. However, relations between Amoghavajra and Daizong were especially good. In life the emperor favored Amoghavajra with titles and gifts, and when the master died in 774, he honored his memory with a stupa, or funeral monument. Master Huiguo, a disciple of Amoghavajra, imparted some esoteric Buddhist teachings to Kūkai, one of the many Japanese monks who came to Tang China to study Buddhism, including the Mandala of the Two Realms, the Womb Realm and the Diamond Realm. Master Kukai went back to Japan to establish the Japanese Esoteric school of Buddhism, later known as Shingon Buddhism. The Esoteric Buddhist lineages transmitted to Japan under the auspices of the monks Kūkai and Saicho, later formulated the teachings transmitted to them to create the Shingon sect and the Tendai sect.
Unlike in Japan, Esoteric Buddhism in China was not seen as a separate and distinct "school" of Buddhism but rather understood as a set of associated practices and teachings that could be integrated together with the other Chinese Buddhist traditions such as Chan. Hence, the other schools of Chinese Buddhism such as Chan and Tiantai began to adopt esoteric practices such as deity visualization and dharani chanting.
Tang state repression of 845
Opposition to Buddhism accumulated over time during the Tang dynasty, culminating in the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution under Emperor Tang Wuzong.
There were several components that led to opposition of Buddhism. One factor is the foreign origins of Buddhism, unlike Taoism and Confucianism. Han Yu wrote, "Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak the language of China and wore clothes of a different fashion. His sayings did not concern the ways of our ancient kings, nor did his manner of dress conform to their laws. He understood neither the duties that bind sovereign and subject, nor the affections of father and son."
Other components included the Buddhists' withdrawal from society, since the Chinese believed that Chinese people should be involved with family life. Wealth, tax-exemption status and power of the Buddhist temples and monasteries also annoyed many critics.
As mentioned earlier, persecution came during the reign of Emperor Wuzong in the Tang dynasty. Wuzong was said to hate the sight of Buddhist monks, who he thought were tax-evaders. In 845, he ordered the destruction of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries and 40,000 temples. More than 400,000 Buddhist monks and nuns then became peasants liable to the Two Taxes (grain and cloth). Wuzong cited that Buddhism was an alien religion, which is the reason he also persecuted the Christians in China. David Graeber argues that Buddhist institutions had accumulated so much precious metals which the government needed to secure the money supply.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period () was an era of political upheaval in China, between the fall of the Tang dynasty and the founding of the Song dynasty. During this period, five dynasties quickly succeeded one another in the north, and more than 12 independent states were established, mainly in the south. However, only ten are traditionally listed, hence the era's name, "Ten Kingdoms". Some historians, such as Bo Yang, count eleven, including Yan and Qi, but not Northern Han, viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han. This era also led to the founding of the Liao dynasty.
After the fall of the Tang dynasty, China was without effective central control during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. China was divided into several autonomous regions. Support for Buddhism was limited to a few areas. The Huayan and Tiantai schools survived, but they still suffered from the changing circumstances, since they had depended on imperial support. The collapse of Tang society also deprived the aristocratic classes of wealth and influence, which meant a further drawback for Buddhism. Shenxiu's Northern Chan School and Henshui's Southern Chan School didn't survive the changing circumstances. Nevertheless, Chan emerged as the most popular tradition within Chinese Buddhism, but with various schools developing various emphasises in their teachings, due to the regional orientation of the period. The Fayan school, named after Fayan Wenyi (885–958), became the dominant school in the southern kingdoms of Nan-Tang (Jiangxi, Chiang-hsi) and Wuyue (Che-chiang).
Song Dynasty (960–1279)
The Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (, 960–1127), the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. The Southern Song (, 1127–1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin dynasty. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song Dynasty had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song Empire contained 60 percent of China's population and a majority of the most productive agricultural land.
During the Song dynasty, Chan () was used by the government to strengthen its control over the country, and Chan grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. An ideal picture of the Chan of the Tang period was produced, which served the legacy of this newly acquired status.
During the early Song dynasty, Chan and Pure Land practices became especially popular.
Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty, including Zhu Xi (wg: Chu Hsi), sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism.
During the Song dynasty, in 1021 CE, it is recorded that there were 458,855 Buddhist monks and nuns actively living in monasteries. The total number of monks was 397,615, while the total number of nuns was recorded as 61,240.
Mongol Yuan rule (1279–1368)
During the Mongol Yuan domination, the Mongol emperors made Esoteric Buddhism an official religion of their empire which China was a part of, and Tibetan lamas were given patronage at the court. A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Mongol Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
During the Ming dynasty, there was a significant revival of Tiantai, Huayan and Yogacara traditions, as well as ordination ceremonies. While there were sometimes disagreements between certain lineage holders of the various Buddhist schools on doctrines, mixed practice of rituals and traditions from all the different schools remained the norm among monastics and lay people as opposed to strict sectarian divides. According to Weinstein, by the Ming dynasty, the Chan school became especially popular such that, at one point, most monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Caodong school.
Eminent Monks
During the Ming dynasty, Hanshan Deqing was one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods, and advocated the use of the nianfo ("Mindfulness of the Buddha") technique to purify the mind for the attainment of self-realization. He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and admired for his strict adherence to the precepts. According to Jiang Wu, for Chan masters in this period such as Hanshan Deqing, training through self-cultivation was encouraged, and clichéd or formulaic instructions were despised. Eminent monks who practiced meditation and asceticism without proper Dharma transmission were acclaimed for having acquiring "wisdom without a teacher".
Another eminent monastic in this era was the monk Youxi Chuandeng (1554-1628), who spearheaded the revival of the Tiantai teachings and lineage. While revitalizing Tiantai, he made an effort to harmonize rather than criticize other Buddhist schools. For instance, he incorporated the important intellectual themes of the late Ming, especially those found in the Śūraṃgama Sūtra, with traditional Tiantai thought; by drawing upon the notions of pure mind and the seven elements found in the Śūraṃgama Sūtra, he reinterpreted nature-inclusion and the Dharma-gate of inherent evil emphasizing inherent evil as pure rather than defiled.
Eminent Nuns
During the Ming Dynasty, women of different ages were able to enter the monastic life from as young as five or six years old to seventy years old. There were various reasons why a Ming woman entered the religious life of becoming a nun. Some women had fallen ill and believed by entering the religious life they were able to relieve their sufferings. There were other women, who had become widowed due to the death of her husband or betrothed so out of choice chose to join a convent. Many women who were left widowed were affected financially as they often had to support their in-laws, and parents, therefore, joining a convent was not a bad option. By devoting themselves to religion, they received less social criticism from society because during the Ming time women were expected to remain faithful to their husband. An example of this is Xia Shuji. Xia's husband Hou Xun, (1591-1645), had led a resistance in Jiading which arrested the Qing troops who later on beheaded him. Xia Shuji who secluded herself from the outside life to devote herself to religion and took on the religious name of Shengyin.
During the time of late Ming, a period of social upheaval, the monastery or convent provided shelter for these women who no longer had protection from a male in their family: husband, son or father due to death, financial constraint and other situations. However, in most circumstances, a woman who wanted to join a nunnery was because they wanted to escape a marriage or they felt isolated as her husband has died- she also had to overcome many difficulties that arose socially from this decision. For most of these women, a convent was seen as a haven to escape their family or an unwanted marriage. Such difficulties were due to the social expectation of the women as it was considered unfilial to leave their duty as a wife, daughter, mother or daughter in law. There were also some cases where some individuals were sold by their family to earn money in a convent by reciting sutras, and performing Buddhist services because they weren't able to financially support them. Jixing entered into a religious life as a young girl due to the fact that her family had no money to raise her.
Lastly, there were some who became part of the Buddhist convent because of a spiritual calling where they found comfort to the religious life, an example would be Zhang Ruyu. Zhang took the religious name, Miaohui, and just before she entered the religious life she wrote the poem below:
Drinking at Rain and Flowers Terrace,
I Compose a Description the Falling Leaves
For viewing the vista, a 1000-chi terrace.
For discussing the mind, a goblet of wine.
A pure frost laces the tips of the trees,
Bronze leaves flirt with the river village.
Following the wave, I float with the oars;
Glory and decay, why sigh over them?
This day, I’ve happily returned to the source.
Through her poetry, Miaohui (Zhang Ruyu) she conveys the emotions of fully understanding and concluding the difference in the life outside without devotion to religion and the life in a monastery, known as the Buddhist terms between "form and emptiness". Women like Miaohui, Zhang, had found happiness and fulfillment in the convent that they could not seek in the outside world. Despite the many reasons for entering the religious life, most women had to obtain permission from a male in their life (father, husband, or son). Most of the nuns who have entered the religious life seclude themselves from the outside life away from their family and relatives.
Most nuns participated in religious practices with devotions to many different bodhisattva and Buddha. Some examples of bodhisattvas are Guanyin, Amitabha Buddha, Maitreya, and Pindola. One of the most prominent bodhisattvas in Chinese Buddhism is Guanyin, known as Goddess of Compassion, Mercy and Love is also a protector and savior for those who worship and needs Guanyin's aid.
Qing dynasty (1644–1911)
The Qing court endorsed the Gelukpa School of Tibetan Buddhism. Early in the Taiping rebellion, the Taiping rebels targeted Buddhism. In the Battle of Nanjing (1853), the Taiping army butchered thousands of monks in Nanjing. But from the middle of the Taiping rebellion, Taiping leaders took a more moderate approach, demanding that monks should have licences.
Around 1900, Buddhists from other Asian countries showed a growing interest in Chinese Buddhism. Anagarika Dharmapala visited Shanghai in 1893, intending "to make a tour of China, to arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole world", but eventually limiting his stay to Shanghai. Japanese Buddhist missionaries were active in China in the beginning of the twentieth century.
Republic of China (established 1912)
Pre-Communist Revolution
The modernisation of China led to the end of the Chinese Empire, and the installation of the Republic of China, which lasted on the mainland until the Communist Revolution and the installation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 which also led to the ROC government's exodus to Taiwan.
Under influence of the western culture, attempts were being made to revitalize Chinese Buddhism. Most notable were the Humanistic Buddhism of Taixu and Yin Shun, and the revival of Chinese Chan by Hsu Yun. Hsu Yun is generally regarded as one of the most influential Buddhist teachers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Other Buddhist traditions were similarly revitalized as well. In 1914, Huayan University, the first modern Buddhist monastic school, was founded in Shanghai to further systemize Huayan teachings to monastics and helped to expand the Huayan tradition. The university managed to foster a network of educated monks who focused on Huayan Buddhism during the twentieth century. Through this network, the lineage of the Huayan tradition was transmitted to many monks, which helped to preserve the lineage down to the modern day via new Huayan-centred organizations that these monks would later found. For Tiantai Buddhism, the tradition's lineage (specifically the Lingfeng lineage) was carried from the late Qing into the twentieth century by the monk Dixian. His student, the monk Tanxu (1875 – 1963), is known for having rebuilt various temples during the Republican era (such as Zhanshan temple in Qingdao) and for preserving the Tiantai lineage into the PRC era. Other influential teachers in the early twentieth century included Pure land Buddhist master Yin Guang () and Vinaya master Hong Yi. Upasaka Zhao Puchu had worked very hard on the revival.
Until 1949, monasteries were built in the Southeast Asian countries, for example by monks of Guanghua Monastery, to spread Chinese Buddhism. Presently, Guanghua Monastery has seven branch monasteries in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. Several Chinese Buddhist teachers left mainland China during the Communist Revolution, and settled in Hong Kong and Taiwan.
Post-Communist Revolution
After the communist takeover of Mainland China, many monastics followed the ROC's exodus to Taiwan. In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by these monastics, which would later come to become influential back in Mainland China after the end of the Cultural Revolution.
Four Heavenly Kings
Master Hsing Yun (1927–present) is the founder of Fo Guang Shan monastic order and the Buddha's Light International Association lay organization. Born in Jiangsu Province in mainland China, he entered the Sangha at the age of 12, and came to Taiwan in 1949. He founded Fo Guang Shan monastery in 1967, and the Buddha's Light International Association in 1992. These are among the largest monastic and lay Buddhist organizations in Taiwan from the late twentieth to early twenty-first centuries. He advocates Humanistic Buddhism, which the broad modern Chinese Buddhist progressive attitude towards the religion.
Master Sheng Yen (1930–2009) was the founder of the Dharma Drum Mountain, a Buddhist organization based in Taiwan which mainly advocates for Chan and Pure Land Buddhism. During his time in Taiwan, Sheng Yen was well known as one of the progressive Buddhist teachers who sought to teach Buddhism in a modern and Western-influenced world.
Master Cheng Yen (born 14 May 1937) is a Taiwanese Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni), teacher, and philanthropist. She was a direct student of Master Ying Shun, a major figure in the early development of Humanistic Buddhism in Taiwan. She founded the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation, ordinarily referred to as Tzu Chi in 1966. The organization later became one of the largest humanitarian organizations in the world, and the largest Buddhist organization in Taiwan.
Master Wei Chueh was born in 1928 in Sichuan, mainland China, and ordained in Taiwan. In 1982, he founded Lin Quan Temple in Taipei County and became known for his teaching on Chan practices by conducting many lectures and seven-day Chan meditation retreats, and eventually founded the Chung Tai Shan Buddhist order. The order has established more than 90 meditation centers and branches in Taiwan and abroad, including branches in Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines, and Thailand.
Huayan
Several new Huayan-centred Buddhist organizations have been established since the latter half of the twentieth century. In contemporary times, the largest and oldest of the Huayan-centered organizations in Taiwan is the Huayan Lotus Society (Huayan Lianshe 華嚴蓮社), which was founded in 1952 by the monk Zhiguang and his disciple Nanting, who were both part of the network fostered by the Huayan University. Since its founding, the Huayan Lotus Society has been centered on the study and practice of the Huayan Sutra. It hosts a full recitation of the sutra twice each year, during the third and tenth months of the lunar calendar. Each year during the eleventh lunar month, the society also hosts a seven-day Huayan Buddha retreat (Huayan foqi 華嚴佛七), during which participants chant the names of the buddhas and bodhisattvas in the text. The society emphasizes the study of the Huayan Sutra by hosting regular lectures on it. In recent decades, these lectures have occurred on a weekly basis. Like other Taiwanese Buddhist organization's, the Society has also diversified its propagation and educational activities over the years. It produces its own periodical and runs its own press. It also now runs a variety of educational programs, including a kindergarten, a vocational college, and short-term courses in Buddhism for college and primary-school students, and offers scholarships. One example is their founding of the Huayan Buddhist College (Huayan Zhuanzong Xueyuan 華嚴專宗學院) in 1975. They have also established branch temples overseas, most notably in California's San Francisco Bay Area. In 1989, they expanded their outreach to the United States of America by formally establishing the Huayan Lotus Society of the United States (Meiguo Huayan Lianshe 美國華嚴蓮社). Like the parent organization in Taiwan, this branch holds weekly lectures on the Huayan Sutra and several annual Huayan Dharma Assemblies where it is chanted. It also holds monthly memorial services for the society's spiritual forebears.
Another Huayan-focused organization is the Huayan Studies Association (Huayan Xuehui 華嚴學會) which was founded in Taipei in 1996 by the monk Jimeng (繼夢), also known as Haiyun (海雲). This was followed in 1999 by the founding of the larger Caotangshan Great Huayan Temple (Caotangshan Da Huayansi 草堂山大華嚴寺). This temple hosts many Huayan-related activities, including a weekly Huayan Assembly. Since 2000, the association has grown internationally, with branches in Australia, Canada, and the United States.
Tangmi
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism is also subject to a revitalization in both Taiwan and China, largely through connections and support from Kongōbu-ji, the head temple of the Kōyasan Shingon-shū (the school of Shingon Buddhism of Mount Kōya) and its affiliate temples.
The revival is mainly propagated by Chinese Buddhist monks who travel to Mount Kōya to be initiated and receive dharma transmission as acharyas in the Shingon tradition and who bring the esoteric teachings and practices back to Taiwan after their training has ended. While some of these Chinese acharyas have chosen to officially remain under the oversight of Kōyasan Shingon-shū and minister as Chinese branches of Japanese Shingon, many other acharyas have chosen to distinguish themselves from Shingon by establishing their own Chinese lineages after their return from Japan. Members from the latter group, while deriving their orthodoxy and legitimacy from Shingon, view themselves as re-establishing a distinctly Chinese tradition of Esoteric Buddhism rather than merely acting as emissaries of Japanese Shingon, in the same way that Kūkai started his own Japanese sect of Esoteric Buddhism after learning it from Chinese teachers. One pertinent example is Master Wuguang (悟光上師), who was initiated as a Shingon acharya in Japan in 1971. He established the Mantra School Bright Lineage the following year in Taiwan, which recognizes itself as a resurrection of the Chinese Esoteric Buddhist transmission rather than a branch of Shingon. Some Tangmi organizations in Taiwan that have resulted from the revival are:
Mantra School Bright Lineage (真言宗光明流), which has branches in Taiwan and Hong Kong.
Zhenyan Samantabhadra Lineage (真言宗普賢流), which is mainly located in Taiwan.
Malaysian Mahā Praṇidhāna Parvata Mantrayāna (马来西亚佛教 真言宗大願山), an offshoot organization of the Mantra School Bright Lineage which is located in Malaysia.
Mahavairocana Temple (大毘盧寺), which has branches in Taiwan and America.
Mount Qinglong Acala Monastery (青龍山不動寺), located in Taiwan.
People's Republic of China (1949—present)
Chinese Buddhist Association
Unlike Catholicism and other branches of Christianity, there was no organization in China that embraced all monastics in China, nor even all monastics within the same sect. Traditionally each monastery was autonomous, with authority resting on each respective abbot. In 1953, the Chinese Buddhist Association was established at a meeting with 121 delegates in Beijing. The meeting also elected a chairman, 4 honorary chairmen, 7 vice-chairmen, a secretary general, 3 deputy secretaries-general, 18 members of a standing committee, and 93 directors. The 4 elected honorary chairmen were the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama, the Grand Lama of Inner Mongolia, and Venerable Master Hsu Yun.
Persecution during the Cultural Revolution
Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until Mao Zedong's death in 1976). Maoist propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of the four olds, as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as counter-revolutionary. Buddhist Clergy were attacked, disrobed, arrested and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries and art were systematically destroyed and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public displays of their religion.
Reform and opening up – Second Buddhist Revival
Since the implementation of Boluan Fanzheng by Deng Xiaoping, a new revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place in 1982. Some of the ancient Buddhist temples that were damaged during the Cultural Revolution were allowed to be restored, mainly with the monetary support from oversea Chinese Buddhist groups. Monastic ordination were finally approved but with certain requirements from the government and new Buddhist temples are being built. Monastics who had been imprisoned or driven underground during the revolution were freed and allowed to return to their temples to propagate Buddhist teachings. For example, the monks Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, travelled widely throughout China as well as other countries such as the United States and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings. Haiyun, the monk who founded the Huayan Studies Association in Taiwan, was a tonsured disciple of Mengcan.
Monks who had fled the mainland to Taiwan, Hong Kong or other overseas Chinese communities after the establishment of the People's Republic of China also began to be welcome back onto the mainland. Buddhist organizations who had been founded by these monks thus began to gain influence, revitalizing the various Buddhist traditions on the mainland. Recently, some Buddhist temples, administrated by local governments, became commercialized by sales of tickets, incense, or other religious items; soliciting donations. In response, the State Administration for Religious Affairs announced a crackdown on religious profiteering in October 2012. Many sites have done enough repairs and have already cancelled ticket fares and are receiving voluntary donation instead.
In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum, an event now held every two years, and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains. In May of the same year, in Changzhou, the world's tallest pagoda was built and opened. Currently, there are about 1.3 billion Chinese living in the People's Republic. Surveys have found that around 18.2% to 20% of this population adheres to Buddhism. Furthermore, PEW found that another 21% of the Chinese population followed Chinese folk religions that incorporated elements of Buddhism.
Revival of Buddhist traditions
One example of the revitalization of Buddhist traditions on the Mainland is the expansion of Tiantai Buddhism. The monk Dixian was a lineage holder in Tiantai Buddhism during the early twentieth century. During the Chinese Civil War, various dharma heirs of Dixian moved to Hong Kong, including Tanxu and Baojing. They helped establish the Tiantai tradition in Hong Kong, where it remains a strong living tradition today, being preserved by their dharma heirs. After the reforms in Mainland China, Baojing's dharma heir, Jueguang, helped to transmit the lineage back to Mainland China, as well as other countries including Korea, Indonesia, Singapore and Taiwan. The monk Yixing (益行), a dharma heir of Dixian who was the forty-seventh generation lineage holder of Tiantai Buddhism, was appointed as the acting abbot of Guoqing Temple and helped to restore Guanzong Temple, both of which remain major centres of Tiantai Buddhism in China.
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism was also revived on the mainland, similar to the situation in Taiwan. Organizations and temples propagating this tradition in China include Daxingshan Temple in Xi'an, Qinglong Temple in Xi'an, Yuanrong Buddhist Academy (圓融佛學院) in Hong Kong as well as Xiu Ming Society (修明堂), which is located primarily in Hong Kong, but also has branches in Mainland China and Taiwan.
Over the years, more and more Buddhist organizations have been approved to operate in the mainland. One example is the Taiwan-based organizations Tzu Chi Foundation and Fo Guang Shan, which were approved to open a branch in mainland China in March 2008.
Chinese Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Chinese Buddhism is mainly practiced by Overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.
Chinese Buddhism in the West
The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Chan and other traditions of Chinese Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a monastery and retreat center located on a 237-acre (959,000 m2) property near Ukiah, California. Chuang Yen Monastery and Hsi Lai Temple are also large centers.
Sheng Yen also founded dharma centers in the US.
With the rapid increase of immigrants from mainland China to Western countries in the 1980s, the landscape of the Chinese Buddhism in local societies has also changed over time. Based on fieldwork research conducted in France, some scholars categorize three patterns in the collective Buddhism practice among Chinese Buddhists in France: An ethnolinguistic immigrant group, a transnational organizational system, and information technology. These distinctions are made according to the linkages of globalization.
In the first pattern, religious globalization is a product of immigrants’ transplantation of local cultural traditions. For example, people of similar immigration experiences establish a Buddha hall (佛堂) within the framework of their associations for collective religious activities.
The second pattern features the transnational expansion of a large institutionalized organization centered on a charismatic leader, such as Fo Guang Shan (佛光山), Tzu Chi (慈濟) and Dharma Drum Mountain (法鼓山).
In the third pattern, religious globalization features the use of information technology such as websites, blogs, Emails and social media to ensure direct interaction between members in different places and between members and their leader. The Buddhist organization led by Jun Hong Lu is a typical example of this kind of group.
Sects
Unrecognised sects
There are many sects and organisations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (fo or fu: "awakening", "enlightenment") that are not recognised as legitimate Buddhism by the Chinese Buddhist Association and the government of the People's Republic of China. This group includes:
Guanyin Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] ( Guānyīn Fójiào) or Guanyin Church ( Guānyīn Huì)
True Buddha School ( Zhēnfó Zōng)
Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] of the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity ( Shòushān Wànlóng Tiānzhǔ Fójiào)
Wulian Jingang Dadao ("Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening")
Hanmi Chinese esoteric buddhism, Living Buddha Dechan Jueren
Teachings
Basic concepts
Chinese Buddhism incorporates elements of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
Common practices include
paying homage to Triple Gems
veneration of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
through offerings of incense, flowers, food, etc.
offerings to Devas who reside in the heavenly realm
paying respect to one's own ancestors during Qingming and Zhong Yuan Festival
conducting or participate religious services to pray for one's own ancestors and the souls of deceased to attain peace and liberation ()
creating positive affinities with other people, through gifts of Dharma books and acts of charity or social service ()
vegetarianism: monastics are required to be vegetarian, devout laity are also often vegetarian on certain sacred days or festivals.
compassion towards all living beings through activities such as "life release"
Common beliefs include
existence of gods, ghosts and hell realm
reincarnation (), or more technically, rebirth, according to one's karma
karmic retribution (), ethically cause and effect
Incense burning
Burning incense, translated to "shaoxiang" in Chinese, is a traditional and ubiquitous religious practice for almost all prayers, and other forms of worship. During the Zhou dynasty, Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning of sandalwood would act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits.
The philosophy behind incense burning is to sacrifice oneself for the benefit of others, the true spirit of Buddhism. The specific knowledge of incense as a healing tool was assimilated into the religious practices of the time from traditional Chinese medicine.
It can be seen that incense burning as it is known today is a merger between Chinese folk religious, Taoist, Confucian, ancestral worship and Chinese Buddhist practice and traditions.
Laypeople in Chinese Buddhism
In Chinese Buddhism, lay Buddhist practitioners have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism in China. Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci which provide extensive and revealing accounts to the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.
Traditional practices such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people. It is known from accounts in the Ming Dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chan traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sūtras. The Heart Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra were the most popular, followed by the Lotus Sūtra and the .
Laypeople are also commonly devoted to the practice of mantras, and mantras such as the Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī are very popular. Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the populace and the elite.
Mahāyāna figures such as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva, Amitābha Buddha, and the Medicine Buddha, are all widely known and revered. Beliefs in karma and rebirth are held at all levels of Chinese society, and pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and the four holy mountains of China are undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.
Festivals
These are the holy days that Chinese Buddhists celebrate by visiting temples to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers
and donations. On such days they observe the moral precepts very strictly as well as a full day's vegetarian diet, a practice
originally from China.
The dates given are based on the Chinese calendar system so that 8.4 means the Eighth day of the fourth month in Chinese calendar and so on.
8.12 — Enlightenment Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
1.1 — Birthday of Maitreya Buddha
9.1 — Birthday of Śakra, Lord of the Devas
8.2 — Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
15.2 — Mahāparinirvāṇa Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
19.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guan Yin)
21.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra
4.4 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī
8.4 — Birthday of Śākyamuni Buddha
15.4 — Vesak Day
13.5 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama (Qie Lan)
3.6 — Birthday of Skanda (Wei Tuo)
19.6 — Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
13.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta
15.7 — Ullambana Festival Ghost Festival
24.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna
30.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha
22.8 — Birthday of Dīpaṃkara Buddha (an ancient buddha)
19.9 — Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
30.9 — Birthday of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha (Medicine Buddha)
5.10 — Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma
17.11 — Birthday of Amitābha Buddha
See also
Avalokitesvara (Guanyin)
Budai (Maitreya)
Buddhism in East Asia
Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Buddhism in Hong Kong
Buddhism in Taiwan
Buddhist Association of China
Buddhism and Eastern religions
Chan Buddhism
Chinese Buddhist canon
Chinese Buddhist cuisine
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
Chinese folk religion
Dharma Drum Mountain
Fo Guang Shan
Huayan school
Kṣitigarbha (Di Zang)
List of Buddhist architecture in China
List of converts to Buddhism
Manjusri (Wen Shu)
Nianfo
Samantabhadra (Pu Xian)
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Tiantai
Three Disasters of Wu
Persecution of Buddhists in the People's Republic of China
Timeline of Buddhism
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Chen, Kenneth Kuan Sheng. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1964.
Han Yu. Sources of Chinese Tradition. c. 800.
Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. .
Liebenthal, Walter. Chao Lun - The Treatises of Seng-Chao Hong Kong, China, Hong Kong University Press, 1968.
Liebenthal, Walter. Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, 1952 http://data.datacite.org/10.5169/seals-145467
Mullin, Glenn H. The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations (2001) Clear Light Publishers. .
Saunders, Kenneth J. (1923). "Buddhism in China: A Historical Sketch", The Journal of Religion, Vol. 3.2, pp. 157–169; Vol. 3.3, pp. 256–275.
Welch, Holmes. The Practice of Chinese Buddhism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967.
Welch, Holmes. The Buddhist Revival in China. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968.
Welch, Holmes. Buddhism under Mao. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Further reading
History
Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (1999). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 1: A General Survey. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 1, 91–103. Archived from the original
Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2001). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 2: The Earliest Period; Chapter 3: Hui-yuan of Mt.Lu; and Chapter 4: The Translation of Texts-Spurious Scriptures. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 241–275. Archived from the original
Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2002). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter Five: The Early Pure Land Faith: Southern China, and Chapter Six: The Early Pure Land Faith: Northern China. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 4, 259–279. Archived from the original
Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2000). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 7: T'an-luan. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 2, 149–165. Archived from the original
First Buddhist revival
Contemporary Chinese Buddhism
List first published in:
External links
China Buddhist Association
Timeline of China Buddhism
About Buddhism in China: A Selected Bibliography
Chinese Buddhism
the Confucian Impact on Chan Buddhism
Buddhist Studies net
Wisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF)
China
History of Buddhism in Asia | [
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226809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost%20knifefish | Ghost knifefish | The ghost knifefishes are a family, Apteronotidae, of ray-finned fishes in the order Gymnotiformes. These fish are native to Panama and South America. They inhabit a wide range of freshwater habitats, but more than half the species in the family are found deep in rivers (typically deeper than ) where there is little or no light.
The Apteronotidae should not be confused with the unrelated Notopteridae, which are also commonly called knifefishes.
They are distinguished from other gymnotiform fishes by the presence of a caudal fin (all other families lack a caudal fin) as well as a fleshy dorsal organ represented by a longitudinal strip along the dorsal midline. They vary greatly in size, ranging from about in total length in the smallest species to in the largest. It has been claimed that Apteronotus magdalenensis is up to , but this is not supported by recent studies, which indicate that it does not surpass about . These nocturnal fish have small eyes. Also, sexual dimorphism exists in some genera in snout shape and jaws.
Apteronotids use a high frequency tone-type (also called wave-type) electric organ discharge (EOD) to communicate.
Many Apteronotids are aggressive predators of small aquatic insect larvae and fishes, though there are also piscivorous and planktivorous species. Sternarchella spp. are very unusual, preying on the tails of other electric fishes. Other species, such as Sternarchorhynchus and Sternarchorhamphus, have tubular snouts and forage on the beds of aquatic insect larvae and other small animals which burrow into the river bottom. At least one species (Sternarchogiton nattereri) eats freshwater sponges which grow on submerged trees, stumps, and other woody debris.
The genus Apteronotus is artificial and some of the species do not actually belong in it.
The black ghost knifefish (Apteronotus albifrons) and brown ghost knifefish (Apteronotus leptorhynchus) are readily available as aquarium fish. Others are known to appear in the trade but are quite rare.
Species
FishBase lists 89 species in 15 genera, However, after a number of recent taxonomic advances, Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes recognizes 94 species in 16 genera.
Genus Adontosternarchus
Genus Apteronotus
Genus Compsaraia
Genus Megadontognathus
Genus Melanosternarchus
Genus Orthosternarchus
Genus Parapteronotus
Genus Pariosternarchus
Genus Platyurosternarchus
Genus Porotergus
Genus Sternarchella
Genus Sternarchogiton
Genus Sternarchorhamphus
Genus Sternarchorhynchus
Genus Tembeassu
Genus Tenebrosternarchus
References
Fish of South America
Taxa named by David Starr Jordan | [
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226810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain%20of%20title | Chain of title | A chain of title is the sequence of historical transfers of title to a property. It is a valuable tool to identify and document past owners of a property and serves as a property's historical ownership timeline. The "chain" runs from the present owner back to the original owner of the property. In situations where documentation of ownership is important, it is often necessary to reconstruct the chain of title. To facilitate this, a record of title documents may be maintained by a registry office or civil law notary.
Chain of title for real property
Real estate is one field where the chain of title has considerable significance. In real estate transactions in the United States, insurance companies issue title insurance based upon the chain of title to the property when it is transferred. Title insurance companies sometimes maintain private title plants that track real estate titles in addition to the official records. In other cases, the chain of title is established by an abstract of title, sometimes, although not always, certified by an attorney. In the United States, some holders of mortgage debt may be unable to establish chain of title, despite the fact that clear chain of title can be required by the mortgage holder before foreclosure can proceed. Widespread lack of clarity in chain of title results from a 1995 decision by many lenders to rely on a third entity—often, a specific company, Mortgage Electronic Registration Systems (MERS)--to hold title nominally, in an effort to enable the buying and selling of mortgage liabilities without registration of changes of ownership with local governments. US states have objected and even sued over this practice.
Chain of title for copyrights, trademarks, and rights of publicity
In the motion picture industry, the chain of title involves the series of documentation which establishes proprietary rights in a film. The chain also applies to compilations in other fields, where many people have contributed to the project, thus acquiring authorship rights, or where materials were culled from many sources. Chain of title is extremely important to film purchasers and to film distributors, as it establishes the veracity of the owner's proprietary rights (or rights under license) in the intellectual property in a film, book or encyclopedia.
Chain of title documentation can include:
copyright clearances on music from the regional collecting society, and to a less common extent, footage of other films;
trademark clearances;
talent agreements, which should incorporate a legal release from the talent, be they actors (including crowds), directors, cinematographers, choreographers, or others, to use their works, images, likeness and other personality rights in the film;
proof of errors and omission insurance (a special form of insurance for motion picture producers which covers omissions in obtaining adequate chain of title).
Specialist organizations engage in the production of copyright property reports for motion picture studios, which cover original or unexploited works, and include the results of United States Copyright Office screening searches, author claimant searches, registration renewal searches and assignment searches. This involves reviewing US Copyright Office records from 1870 to present and numerous trade publications and databases, and Library of Congress records.
References
External links
, U.S. Copyright Office
Property law
Intellectual property law
Real estate terminology
Property law legal terminology | [
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226812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamoto%20no%20Yoshitsune | Minamoto no Yoshitsune | was a military commander of the Minamoto clan of Japan in the late Heian and early Kamakura periods. During the Genpei War, he led a series of battles which toppled the Ise-Heishi branch of the Taira clan, helping his half-brother Yoritomo consolidate power. He is considered one of the greatest and the most popular warriors of his era, and one of the most famous samurai fighters in the history of Japan. Yoshitsune perished after being betrayed by the son of a trusted ally.
Early life
Yoshitsune was the ninth son of Minamoto no Yoshitomo, and the third and final son and child that Yoshitomo would father with Tokiwa Gozen. Yoshitsune's older half-brother Minamoto no Yoritomo (the third son of Yoshitomo) would go on to establish the Kamakura shogunate. Yoshitsune's name in childhood was Ushiwakamaru (). He was born just before the Heiji Rebellion in 1160 in which his father and two oldest brothers were killed. He survived this incident by fleeing the capital with his mother, while his half-brother Yoritomo was banished to Izu Province. When he was 10, Yoshitsune was placed in the care of the monks of Kurama temple (), nestled in the Hiei Mountains near the capital of Kyoto. There he was taught swordsmanship and strategy, according to some legends by Sōjōbō, to others by Kiichi Hōgen (whose book, Six Secret Teachings, Ushiwakamaru stole). Not wanting to become a monk, Yoshitsune eventually left and followed a gold merchant who knew his father well, and in 1174 relocated to Hiraizumi, Mutsu Province, where he was put under the protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira, head of the powerful regional Northern Fujiwara clan.
Career
A skillful swordsman, Yoshitsune defeated the legendary warrior monk Benkei in a duel. From then on, Benkei became Yoshitsune's retainer, eventually dying with him at the Siege of Koromogawa.
In 1180, Yoshitsune heard that Yoritomo, now head of the Minamoto clan, had raised an army at the request of Prince Mochihito to fight against the Taira clan (also known as the Heike) which had usurped the power of the emperor. In the ensuing war between the rival Minamoto and Taira samurai clans, known as the Genpei War, Yoshitsune joined Yoritomo, along with Minamoto no Noriyori, all brothers who had not previously met.
Yoshitsune, together with his brother Noriyori, defeated the Taira in several key battles. He also attacked and killed his cousin Minamoto no Yoshinaka, a rival for control of the Minamoto clan, at the Battle of Awazu in Ōmi Province in early 1184 on the orders of Yoritomo.
Yoshitsune, who had by then been given the rank of general, went on to defeat the Taira at the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani in present-day Kobe in March 1184, and again at the Battle of Yashima in Shikoku in March 1185. He finally destroyed them one month later at the Battle of Dan-no-ura in present-day Yamaguchi Prefecture.
Final years
Following the Genpei War, Yoshitsune was appointed as Governor of Iyo and awarded other titles by cloistered emperor Go-Shirakawa. His suspicious brother Yoritomo, however, opposed the presentation of these titles, and nullified them.
Yoshitsune then secured imperial authorization to ally with his uncle Minamoto no Yukiie in opposing Yoritomo. Incurring Yoritomo's wrath, Yoshitsune fled Kyoto in 1185. His faithful mistress, Shizuka Gozen, carrying his unborn child, fled with him at first, but then was left behind, and soon taken into custody by forces loyal to Yoritomo.
Yoshitsune eventually made his way to Hiraizumi, Mutsu, once again to the protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira, and lived undisturbed for a time. Hidehira's son Fujiwara no Yasuhira had promised upon Hidehira's death to honor his father's wishes and continue to shelter Yoshitsune, but, giving in to pressure from Yoritomo, betrayed Yoshitsune, surrounding his Koromogawa-no-tachi residence with his troops, defeating Yoshitsune's retainers, including Benkei (in a famous "standing death"), and forcing Yoshitsune to commit seppuku. Yasuhira then had Yoshitsune's head preserved in sake, placed in a black-lacquered chest, and sent to Yoritomo as proof of his death. Historical sources differ as to the fate of Yoshitsune's mistress Shizuka and their son.
Yoshitsune is enshrined in the Shirahata Jinja, a Shinto shrine in the city of Fujisawa.
Rumors and legend
The death of Yoshitsune has been very elusive. According to Ainu historical accounts, he did not commit seppuku, but instead escaped the siege at Koromogawa, fleeing to Hokkaido and assuming the name Okikurumi/Oinakamui. An alternate and discredited theory states that after evading death, Yoshitsune made his way past Hokkaido and sailed to the mainland of Asia, re-surfacing as Genghis Khan.
There's a temple Henshoji in Mooka, Tochigi. According to an old temple magazine and tradition, Hitachibō Kaison entrusted a monk Hitachi Nyūdō Nensai with a child of Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Keiwaka, as demanded by Hidehira Fujiwara. Furthermore, according to the tradition of Enmyō-ji temple in Hirosaki, Aomori, Chitose Maru, also known as Keiwakamaru was a child of Yoshitsune, entrusted to Date Tomomune by Kaison. After the adoption Kaison disappeared.
Koshigoe Letter
The "Koshigoe Letter" was written by Yoshitsune on the 24th day of the 5th month of the second year of Genryaku (June 23, 1185) as he waited in Koshigoe for approval from Yoritomo to enter Kamakura. The letter was Yoshitsune's "final appeal" to Yoritomo of his loyalty. The letter is a "mixture of bravado and an almost masochistic indulgence in misfortune." An excerpt:
In literature
Yoshitsune has long been a popular figure in Japanese literature and culture due to his appearance as the main character in the third section of the Japanese literary classic Heike Monogatari (Tale of the Heike). The Japanese term for "sympathy for a tragic hero", , comes from Yoshitsune's title Kurō Hōgan (), which he received from the Imperial Court.
Many of the literary pieces that Yoshitsune appears in are legend rather than historical fact. Legends pertaining to Yoshitsune first began to appear in the fourteenth century. In early works at that time, Yoshitsune was described as a sharp-witted military leader. Then, romantic stories about his early childhood and last years of his life appeared as people began to know more about him.
The legends that deal with his public career show Yoshitsune as a great, virtuous warrior. He was often shown as kind to those around him and honorable, but was also shown to be naive.
Legends dealing with Yoshitsune’s childhood show young Yoshitsune (or Ushiwakamaru) with heroic qualities. He is portrayed as a brave and skilled swordsman, despite being a young boy. He was also skilled in music and his studies, and was also said to be able to easily sway the hearts of young women. These legends delve into fantasy more so than the legends about his later life.
Legends which pertain to the time when his half-brother, Yoritomo, turned against him take away some of Yoshitsune’s heroic qualities. He is no longer portrayed as a great warrior, but he retains his knowledge and skills that are valuable in the emperor’s court.
Yoshitsune's escape through the Ataka barrier is the subject of Noh play Ataka and the Kabuki play Kanjinchō. Kanjinchō was later dramatized by Akira Kurosawa in the 1945 movie The Men Who Tread on the Tiger's Tail.
The Gikeiki, or "Chronicle of Yoshitsune" relates events of Yoshitsune's life after the defeat of the Heike.
Family
Father: Minamoto no Yoshitomo
Mother: Tokiwa Gozen
Wife: Sato Gozen (1168–1189)
Concubine: Shizuka Gozen
Traditional arts
In addition to The Tale of the Heike and Gikeiki, a great many other works of literature and drama feature him, and together form the sekai ("world") of Yoshitsune, a concept akin to the notion of the literary cycle.
These include:
Yoshitsune Shin Takadachi (jōruri)
Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (jōruri and kabuki)
Kanjinchō (kabuki)
In the visual arts, Yoshitsune is commonly depicted as a bishōnen, though this is at odds with contemporary descriptions of his appearance.
See also
Benkei
Kurama-tengu
Kurozuka (novel)
Letter from Koshigoe
Mysteries of Yoshitsune I&II
Seiwa Genji
References
External links
Biographical Summary
1150s births
1159 births
1189 deaths
Minamoto clan
People of Heian-period Japan
People of the Genpei War
People of Kamakura-period Japan
Suicides by seppuku
Deified Japanese people
Japanese legends
Japanese folklore | [
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226816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1599%20in%20literature | 1599 in literature | This article lists notable literary events and publications in 1599.
Events
January – English poet Edmund Spenser is buried near Geoffrey Chaucer at Westminster Abbey, beginning the tradition of Poets' Corner.
Spring/Summer – The Globe Theatre is built in Southwark, then in Surrey, utilising material from The Theatre.
June 4 – The Bishops' Ban of 1599: Middleton's Microcynicon: Six Snarling Satires and Marston's Scourge of Villainy are publicly burned as the English ecclesiastical authorities crack down on the craze for satire in the past year. Richard Bancroft, Bishop of London and John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury tighten their enforcement of existing censorship. Earlier, minor works like pamphlets and plays were being published only with the approval of the Wardens of the Stationers Company and without ecclesiastical review; this arrangement is terminated.
June 7 – John Day kills fellow playwright Henry Porter, allegedly in self-defence.
September 21 – The first recorded performance of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar takes place at the Globe Theatre in London, according to the Swiss traveller Thomas Platter the Younger.
Late – War of the Theatres: Satire, being prohibited in print, breaks out in the London theatres. In Histriomastix, Marston satirizes Jonson's pride through the character Chrisoganus; Jonson responds by satirizing Marstons's wordy style in Every Man out of His Humour, acted by the Lord Chamberlain's Men.
The English comic actor Will Kempe leaves the Lord Chamberlain's Men earlier in the year, probably to be replaced by the end of it by Robert Armin.
King James VI of Scotland arranges for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in his country.
The first printing in England of Richard de Bury's The Philobiblon (1345) is made by Oxford bibliophile Thomas James.
New books
Prose
George Abbot – A Brief Description of the Whole World
Mateo Alemán – Guzmán de Alfarache
John Bodenham – Wits' Theater
Roger Fenton – An Answer to William Alabaster, His Motives
Ferrante Imperato – Dell'Historia Naturale
Thomas Morley – The First Book of Consort Lessons
John Rainolds – Th'Overthrow of Stage Plays
Drama
Anonymous
A Larum for London (or c. 1602)
Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes published (written c. 1570)
A Warning for Fair Women published
Thomas Dekker
Old Fortunatus
Patient Grissel (with Henry Chettle and William Haughton)
The Shoemaker's Holiday
Michael Drayton, Richard Hathwaye, Anthony Munday, & Robert Wilson – Sir John Oldcastle
Robert Greene
Alphonsus King of Aragon (published)
(attributed) George a Greene, the Pinner of Wakefield published
Ben Jonson – Every Man out of His Humour
Hermann Kirchner – Coriolanus tragicomica
John Marston – Antonio and Mellida
Histriomastix
Jack Drum's Entertainment
Henry Porter – The Two Angry Women of Abingdon published
William Shakespeare – As You Like It, Much Ado About Nothing, Henry V, and Julius Caesar (approximate date)
Poetry
Samuel Daniel – Musophilus
Sir John Davies
Hymnes of Astraea
Nosce Teipsum
Thomas Middleton – Microcynicon: Six Snarling Satires
George Peele – The Love of King David and Faire Bethsabe
"W. Shakespeare" (and others unacknowledged) – The Passionate Pilgrime
Births
April 23 – Edward Sheldon, English translator of religious works (died 1687)
May 30 – Samuel Bochart, French Biblical scholar (died 1667)
July 23 – Stephanius, Danish royal historiographer (died 1650)
August 14 – Méric Casaubon, English classicist (died 1671)
October 31 – Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles, English statesman and writer (died 1680)
unknown date
Madeleine de Souvré, marquise de Sablé, French writer of maxims (died 1678)
Zera Yacob, Ethiopian philosopher (died 1692)
Deaths
January 13 – Edmund Spenser, English poet (born 1552)
June – Henry Porter, English dramatist
October 9 – Reginald Scot, English writer on witchcraft (born c. 1538)
October 18 – Daniel Adam z Veleslavína, Czech lexicographer (born 1546)
November 29 – Christopher Barker, English printer to Queen Elizabeth I of England (born c. 1529)
unknown dates
Jerónimo Bermúdez, Spanish dramatist (born 1530)
Dominicus Lampsonius, Flemish humanist poet (born 1532 in literature)
Philip Lonicer, German historian (unknown year of birth)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1598%20in%20literature | 1598 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1598.
Events
Before September – A second edition of Love's Labour's Lost appears in London as the first known printing of a Shakespeare play to have his name on the title page ("Newly corrected and augmented by W. Shakespere").
February 23 – Thomas Bodley refounds the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford.
March 28 – Philip Henslowe contracts Edward Alleyn and Thomas Heywood to act for the Admiral's Men in London for two years.
April 30 – A comedy, by anonymous playwriter about an expedition of soldiers, is very first theatrical performance in North America staged near El Paso for Spanish colonists.
May 3 – The Spanish playwright Lope de Vega marries for the second time, to Juana de Guardo.
c. May – The premiėre of William Haughton's Englishmen for My Money, or, A Woman Will Have Her Will introduces what is seen as the first city comedy, probably by the Admiral's Men at London's Rose Theatre.
c. July/September – Ben Jonson's comedy of humours Every Man in His Humour is probably first performed, by the Lord Chamberlain's Men at the Curtain Theatre, London, perhaps with Shakespeare playing Kno'well.
September 7 – Francis Meres' Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury is registered for publication, including the first list and critical discussion of Shakespeare's works; he also mentions that Shakespeare's "sugar'd sonnets" are circulating privately.
September 22 – Ben Jonson kills actor Gabriel Spenser in a duel in London and is briefly held in Newgate Prison, but escapes capital punishment by pleading benefit of clergy.
October – Edmund Spenser's castle at Kilcolman, County Cork, near Doneraile in Ireland, is burned down by native forces under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. Spenser leaves for London shortly after.
November 25 – Henry Chettle is paid for "mending" a play about Robin Hood to make it suitable for performance at court.
December 28 – London's The Theatre is dismantled.
unknown dates
Lancelot Andrewes turns down the bishoprics of Ely and Salisbury.
The English poet Barnabe Barnes is prosecuted in the Star Chamber for attempted murder of one John Browne, first by offering him a poisoned lemon and then by sweetening his wine with sugar laced with mercury sublimate; Browne survives both attempts.
John Marston's The Metamorphosis of Pigmalion's Image and Certaine Satyres begins a trend in English satirical writing that leads to official suppression in the following year.
New books
Prose
John Bodenham – Politeuphuia (Wits' Commonwealth)
John Florio – A World of Words, Italian/English dictionary, the first dictionary published in England to use quotations ("illustrations") for meaning to the words
Emanuel Ford – Parismus, the Renowned Prince of Bohemia (first part)
King James VI of Scotland – The Trew Law of Free Monarchies
Francis Meres – Palladis Tamia
Merkelis Petkevičius –
John Stow – Survey of London
Zhao Shizhen – Shenqipu (3rd century, possible first publication)
Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer – Enchuyser zeecaertboeck (Enkhuizen book of sea charts)
Drama
Anonymous
The Famous Victories of Henry V earliest known publication
Mucedorus published
The Pilgrimage to Parnassus (earliest possible date of composition)
Jakob Ayrer
Von der Erbauung Roms (The Building of Rome)
Von der schönen Melusina (Fair Melusina)
Samuel Brandon – Virtuous Octavia
Henry Chettle, Henry Porter and Ben Jonson – Hot Anger Soon Cold
Robert Greene – The Scottish History of James IV published
William Haughton – Englishmen for My Money
Ben Jonson – Every Man in His Humour
Anthony Munday – The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon
Anthony Munday (and Henry Chettle?) – The Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon
Henry Porter – Love Prevented
William Shakespeare
Henry IV, Part 1 (published)
Love's Labour's Lost (published)
Poetry
Richard Barnfield
The Encomium of Lady Pecunia
Poems in Divers Humours
George Chapman – translation of Homer's Iliad into English
Lope de Vega – La Arcadia and La Dragontea
Christopher Marlowe – Hero and Leander (completed by Chapman following Marlowe's death)
John Marston – The Metamorphosis of Pigmalian's Image and The Scourge of Villanie
Births
March 12 – Guillaume Colletet, French writer (died 1659)
March 13 – Johannes Loccenius, German historian (died 1677)
July 29 – Henricus Regius, Dutch philosopher and correspondent of René Descartes (died 1679)
August 7 – Georg Stiernhielm, Swedish poet (died 1672)
unknown date – Johann George Moeresius, German poet (died 1657)
Deaths
January 2 - Morris Kyffin, Welsh soldier and author (born c.1555)
January 9 – Jasper Heywood, English translator (born 1535)
February 27 – Friedrich Dedekind, German theologian (born 1524)
April 10 – Jacopo Mazzoni, Italian philosopher (born 1548)
August – Alexander Montgomerie, outlawed Scottish poet (born c. 1545/1550)
December 6 – Paolo Paruta, Venetian historian (born 1540)
December 15 – Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde, Dutch statesman and author (born 1540)
December 31 – Heinrich Rantzau, German humanist writer (born 1526)
unknown date – David Powel, Welsh historian who popularised continuing legends such as that of Prince Madoc (born c. 1549)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1597%20in%20literature | 1597 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1597.
Events
February – Pembroke's Men contract with Francis Langley to play the next year at his new Swan Theatre in London.
By March – Romeo and Juliet becomes the first of Shakespeare's plays to be published as a "bad quarto".
March 17 – After the death of William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham on March 5, his place as Lord Chamberlain of England is taken by George Carey, 2nd Baron Hunsdon, son of a previous Lord Chamberlain. Lord Hunsdon reverses Cobham's policy of hostility toward the actors in English Renaissance theatre and returns to his father's policy of general tolerance and patronage. The playing company under his patronage, which includes William Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, becomes the Lord Chamberlain's Men.
April 23 – The feast for the Order of the Garter at the Palace of Whitehall in London is a likely occasion for the first performance of Shakespeare's comedy The Merry Wives of Windsor.
c. May 1 – The first performance of George Chapman's An Humorous Day's Mirth is the first comedy of humours played by the Admiral's Men at The Rose Theatre in London.
July – The season goes disastrously wrong for Pembroke's Men, when they stage the scandalous play The Isle of Dogs in London. This provokes the authorities to close all of the London theaters for the remainder of the summer. Ben Jonson, co-writer of the play with Thomas Nashe, is arrested on the orders of Queen Elizabeth I of England's "interrogator," Richard Topcliffe, briefly jailed in Marshalsea Prison, and charged with "Leude and mutynous behavior".
December – Miguel de Cervantes is jailed in Seville for discrepancies in his accounts as a tax collector.
New books
Prose
Francis Bacon – Essays
Thomas Beard – The Theatre of God's Judgements
William Burton and Thomas Creede (translated from the Greek of Achilles Tatius) – The Most Delectable and Pleasaunt History of Clitiphon and Leucippe (translated from Leucippe and Clitophon)
Johannes Vodnianus Campanus – Turcicorum tyrannorum qui inde usque ab Otomanno rebus Turcicis praefuerunt, descriptio
Gabriel Harvey – The Trimming of Thomas Nashe Gentleman
Christopher Middleton – The Famous Historie of Chinon of England
Thomas Morley – Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music
Dinko Zlatarić – Ljubav i smrt Pirama i Tizbe, iz veće tuđijeh jezika u hrvacki složene (Love and Death of Pyramus and Thisbe, Translated into Croatian from Several Foreign Languages)
Drama
George Chapman – An Humorous Day's Mirth
Richard Hathwaye – King Arthur
John Lyly – The Woman in the Moon published
John Marston – Histriomastix
Anthony Munday and Michael Drayton – Mother Redcap
Thomas Nashe and Ben Jonson – The Isle of Dogs
William Shakespeare
The Merry Wives of Windsor
Richard II, Richard III, and Romeo and Juliet (the "bad quarto") published
Poetry
Michael Drayton – Englands Heroicall Epistles
Births
February 24 – Vincent Voiture, French poet (died 1648)
July 5 – Sigismondo Boldoni, Italian writer, poet, and physician (died 1630)
December 23 – Martin Opitz von Boberfeld, German poet (died 1639)
Unknown date – Wang Wei (王微), Chinese poet and prostitute (died 1647)
Approximate year – Thomas Cage, English writer and cleric (died 1656)
Deaths
February 2 – James Burbage, English actor (born c. 1530)
February 6 – Franciscus Patricius, Italian philosopher and scientist (born 1529)
June 6 – William Hunnis, English poet
July 20 – Franciscus Raphelengius, Flemish-born printer and bookseller (born 1539)
October 28 – Aldus Manutius the Younger, Italian grammarian and proprietor of the Aldine Press (born 1547)
December 11 – Jakob Miller, Catholic reformist theologian (born 1550)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1596%20in%20literature | 1596 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1596.
Events
January 20 – The first complete edition of The Faerie Queene is published in six books.
February – James Burbage buys the disused Blackfriars Theatre from Sir William More for £600, but is prevented from using it for theater by the opposition of wealthy influential neighbors.
June 22 – Lord Hunsdon dies; his place as Lord Chamberlain will be taken by William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham, who is sympathetic to the Puritans and hostile to the English Renaissance theatre. With Cobham's allowance, Thomas Skinner, Lord Mayor of the City of London bans players from the City and tears down several inn-yard theatres: the Bel Savage Inn, the Cross Keys Inn, and others. Cobham dies the next year, 1597.
July – English forces under Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, returning from the Capture of Cádiz, burn Faro, Portugal, but seize books from the library of scholar Fernando Martins Mascarenhas, Bishop of Faro, which will be transferred to the Bodleian Library in the University of Oxford.
date unknown – The novel Jin Ping Mei (金瓶梅, The Plum in the Golden Vase) by "Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng" circulates in manuscript in China.
New books
Prose
Thomas Harriot – Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia
Richard Johnson – The Famous Historie of the Seaven Champions of Christendom
Thomas Nashe – Have with You to Saffron-Walden
Drama
Anonymous – Captain Thomas Stukeley
William Burton – De Amoribus Perinthii et Tyanthes
George Chapman – The Blind Beggar of Alexandria
Antoine de Montchrestien – Sophonisbe
Lope de Vega
Los comendadores de Córdoba
El marqués de Mantua
El remedio en la desdicha
Thomas Kyd (probably, perhaps with Shakespeare) – The Raigne of King Edward the Third (published)
William Shakespeare – Henry IV, Part 1
Poetry
Thomas Campion – Poemata
Bartholomew Griffin – Fidessa
Francisco Rodrigues Lobo – Romances
Edmund Spenser – Colin Clouts Come Home Againe
Births
March 31 – René Descartes, French philosopher (died 1650)
August 18 – Jean Bolland, Flemish Jesuit writer (died 1665)
September
Moses Amyraut, French Protestant theologian (died 1664)
James Shirley, English dramatist (died 1666)
September 4 – Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet (died 1687)
Unknown date – Lucas Holstenius, German humanist (died 1661)
Probable year of birth – Udriște Năsturel, Wallachian scholar and poet (died c. 1658)
Deaths
February 16 – Friedrich Sylburg, German classical scholar (born 1536)
February 19 – Blaise de Vigenère, French cryptographer, diplomat, scientist, and author (born 1523)
August 11 (bur.) – Hamnet Shakespeare, English schoolboy, son of William (born 1585)
October 3 – Florent Chrestien, French writer (born 1541)
November 1 – Pierre Pithou, French lawyer and scholar (born 1539)
November 9 (bur.) – George Peele, English dramatist and poet (born 1556)
Unknown date
Madeleine de l’Aubespine, French poet and patron (born 1546)
Jean Bodin, French political philosopher (born 1530)
Probable year of death – Henry Willobie, English poet (born 1575)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1595%20in%20literature | 1595 in literature | This article is a summary of the literary events and publications of 1595.
Events
May 24 – The Nomenclator of Leiden University Library appears as the first printed catalog of an institutional library.
December 9 – Shakespeare's Richard II is possibly acted privately at the Canon Row house of Sir Edward Hoby, with Sir Robert Cecil attending.
unknown dates
The first part of Ginés Pérez de Hita's Historia de los bandos de los Zegríes y Abencerrajes (Guerras civiles de Granada) appears. Supposedly a chronicle of the Morisco rebellions in Granada based on an Arabic original, it is probably the earliest historical novel and certainly the first to gain popularity.
Lope de Vega leaves the service of the Duke of Alba and returns to Madrid, after the death of his first wife Isabel in the previous year.
New books
Prose
Mikalojus Daukša – Kathechismas, arba Mokslas kiekvienam krikščioniui privalus
Justus Lipsius – De militia romana
Nicholas Remy – Daemonolatreiae libri tres
Sir Philip Sidney (posthumous, written 1580–83) – An Apology for Poetry
Vincentio Saviolo – His practise, in two bookes. (first manual of fencing in English)
Fausto Veranzio – Dictionarium quinque nobilissimarum Europæ linguarum, Latinæ, Italicæ, Germanicæ, Dalmatiæ, & Vngaricæ published in Latin in Venice
Drama
Anonymous – Locrine (published claiming to be revised by "W. S.")
Jakob Ayrer – Von der Erbauung Roms (Of the Building of Rome)
Gervase Markham – The Most Honorable Tragedy of Sir Richard Grinville
Antoine de Montchrestien – Sophonisbe
Robert Wilson? – The Pedlers Prophecie
Approximate year
William Alabaster, Roxana
William Shakespeare, Richard II
Romeo and Juliet
A Midsummer Night's Dream
Poetry
Barnabe Barnes – A Divine Century of Spiritual Sonnets
Richard Barnfield – Cynthia
Thomas Campion – Poemata
George Chapman (anonymous) – Ovid's Banquet of Sense
Gervase Markham – The Poem of Poems, or Syon's Muse
Robert Southwell (anonymous) – Saint Peter's Complaint
Edmund Spenser
Amoretti and Epithalamion ("written not long since")
Colin Clouts Come Home Againe
Births
March 21 – Ferdinando Ughelli, Italian church historian (died 1670)
before June – Thomas Carew, English poet (died 1640)
October 18 – Edward Winslow, English theologian, pamphleteer and New England politician (died 1655)
December 4 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (died 1674)
Unknown dates
Bihari Lal, Hindi poet (died 1663)
Jean Desmarets, French writer and dramatist (died 1676)
Juan Eusebio Nieremberg, Spanish Jesuit writer and mystic (died 1658)
Deaths
February – William Painter, English translator (born c. 1540)
February 21 – Robert Southwell, English poet and Catholic martyr (born c. 1561)
March 18 – Jean de Sponde, French poet (born 1557)
April 25 – Torquato Tasso, Italian poet (born 1544)
May 25 – Valens Acidalius, German poet and critic writing in Latin (born 1567)
June 23 – Louis Carrion, Flemish scholar (born 1547)
October 5 – Faizi, Indian poet and scholar (born 1547)
November 5 – Luis Barahona de Soto, Spanish poet 1548)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1594%20in%20literature | 1594 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1594.
Events
c. February – The Shakespeare play Titus Andronicus is the first to be published, anonymously in London. His poem The Rape of Lucrece is published after May.
Spring – The London theaters reopen after two years of general inactivity due to the bubonic plague epidemic of 1592–94. Many actors who used to be Lord Strange's Men form a new company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men, under the patronage of Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon, Lord Chamberlain of England at the time.
April 6 and April 9 – Members of Queen Elizabeth's Men and Sussex's Men perform the early King Leir at the Rose Theatre in London.
May 14 – The reorganized Admiral's Men begin performances with Christopher Marlowe's The Jew of Malta.
October – The first firmly recorded performance of Marlowe's The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus is given by the Admiral's Men with Edward Alleyn in the title role.
Christmas – Students of Gray's Inn in London perform The Maske of Proteus and the Adamantine Rock before Queen Elizabeth. Written by Francis Davison with music by Thomas Campion, it is probably the first staged masque in England.
December 28 – Shakespeare's The Comedy of Errors is performed at Gray's Inn.
unknown date – Franciscus Gomarus becomes professor of theology at Leiden University.
New books
Prose
Sir John Davys – The Seamans Secrets
Richard Hooker – Of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Politie
Thomas Nashe – The Unfortunate Traveller
Drama
Anonymous
The Famous Victories of Henry V (first recorded)
A Knack to Know an Honest Man
Selimus published
The Taming of a Shrew (published)
The True Tragedy of Richard III (published)
Samuel Daniel – Cleopatra
Lope de Vega – El maestro de danzar (The Dancing Master)
Robert Greene (published)
Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay
Orlando Furioso
Thomas Lodge and Robert Greene – A Looking Glass for London (published)
Thomas Lodge – The Wounds of Civil War (published)
John Lyly – Mother Bombie (published)
Christopher Marlowe (k. 1593)
Edward II (earliest known edition)
The Massacre at Paris (earliest edition, undated, probable year)
(with Thomas Nashe?) – Dido, Queen of Carthage (published)
William Shakespeare:
The Comedy of Errors (performed)
Titus Andronicus (published)
Robert Wilson – The Cobbler's Prophecy (published)
Poetry
Richard Barnfield – The Affectionate Shepherd
George Chapman – The Shadow of Night
William Shakespeare – The Rape of Lucrece
Thomas Storer – Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey
Henry Willobie – Willobie His Avisa
Births
January 24 – Pierre de Marca, French historian and bishop (died 1662)
March 25 – Maria Tesselschade Visscher, Dutch poet (died 1649)
September 30 – Antoine Gérard de Saint-Amant, French poet (died 1661)
Unknown date – John Spelman, English historian (died 1643)
Deaths
c. February 7 – Barnabe Googe, English poet (born 1540)
April 29 – Thomas Cooper, English lexicographer, controversialist and bishop (born c. 1517)
May 30 – Bálint Balassi, Hungarian lyric poet (born 1554)
June 3 – John Aylmer, English constitutionalist, translator and bishop (born 1521)
July – Girolamo Mei, Italian historian (born 1519)
c. July 16 – Thomas Kyd, English dramatist (born 1558)
November 29 – Alonso de Ercilla, Spanish noble, soldier and epic poet (born 1533)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1593%20in%20literature | 1593 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1593.
Events
Ongoing – London theatres remain closed for almost the whole year as a result of the previous year's outbreak of bubonic plague. In the summer, Edward Alleyn and other actors make a provincial tour. Some performances take place in the winter, when plague tends to abate. Lord Strange's Men act three times in January a play called Titus – perhaps Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus.
After April – William Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis probably becomes his first published work, printed from his own manuscript. In his lifetime it will be his most frequently reprinted work: at least nine times.
May 5 – "Dutch church libel" bills posted in London threaten Protestant refugees from France and the Netherlands, alluding to Christopher Marlowe's plays.
May 12 – The English dramatist Thomas Kyd is arrested over the "Dutch church libel". "Atheist" literature found in his home is claimed to be Marlowe's.
May 18 – A warrant for the arrest of Christopher Marlowe is issued. On May 20 he presents himself to the Privy Council.
May 29 – The Welsh-born Protestant John Penry is executed for involvement in the Marprelate Controversy.
May 30 – Christopher Marlowe is stabbed to death by a speculator, Ingram Frizer, in a dispute over a bill at a lodging house in Deptford kept by the widow Eleanor Bull.
New books
Prose
Bible of Kralice, first complete translation of Bible into Czech
Fray Juan de Plasencia – Doctrina Christiana, first book published in the Philippines, in Spanish and Tagalog
John Eliot – Ortho-epia Gallica
Claudius Hollyband (Claude de Sainliens) – A Dictionarie French and English
Richard Hooker – Of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Politie
Antonio Possevino – Bibliotheca selecta
Drama
Daniel Cramer – Plagium
Thomas Kyd (probably, perhaps with Shakespeare) – The Raigne of King Edward the Third (approximate date)
George Peele – Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First
George Peele (possibly) – The Life and Death of Jack Straw (first published)
Poetry
Barnabe Barnes – Parthenophil and Parthenophone
Anthony Chute – Beauty Dishonoured, written under the title of Shore's wife
Michael Drayton
Idea: The Shepherd's Garland
The Legend of Piers Gaveston
William Shakespeare – Venus and Adonis
Thomas Watson (posthumously, as T. W.) – The Tears of Fancie, or Love Disdained (sonnets)
Births
April 3 – George Herbert, Welsh-born poet (died 1633)
May 20 – Salomo Glassius, German theologian (died 1656)
Unknown date – Robert Creighton, Scottish classicist, politician and bishop (died 1672)
Approximate year – Aodh Buidhe Mac an Bhaird (Hugh Ward), Irish poet and hagiographer (died 1635)
Deaths
January 12 – Amadis Jamyn, French poet (born 1538)
February 6 – Jacques Amyot, French translator (born 1513)
May 30 – Christopher Marlowe, English dramatist and poet (born 1564)
August 19 – Antonio Veneziano, Italian poet writing in Sicilian (born 1543)
Unknown date – Jeong Cheol, Korean poet and statesman (born 1536)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1592%20in%20literature | 1592 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1592.
Events
February 5–7 – Ulysses Redux, a Latin play by William Gager, is staged by members of Christ Church, Oxford. Two days later, they revive Gager's 1583 Latin play Rivales (now lost).
February 26 – The first firmly recorded performance of Christopher Marlowe's The Jew of Malta is given by Lord Strange's Men in London.
June 23 – The London theatres close and apart from a brief spell around January 1593 remain so for about 16 months due to an epidemic of bubonic plague.
September 3 – The English writer Robert Greene dies in London of a "banquet of Rhenish wine and pickled herring", having apparently completed Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit (published soon after), including a reference to "an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers", taken to be the first published (critical) reference to Shakespeare as a playwright.
September 26 – Rivales is performed again by members of Christ Church, with Queen Elizabeth I of England in the audience, during her second visit to the University of Oxford.
October–December – Pembroke's Men, an English playing company, is known to be in existence, acting in Leicester and at Court in London.
December 18 – An entry in the Stationers' Register may refer to Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, perhaps marking the year of its first performance.
New books
Prose
Antonio Agustin – , with woodcuts by Geronima Parasole (the first known printed book with illustrations by a woman)
Isaac Casaubon – New edition of Theophrastus's Characteres
Blaise de Montluc (died 1577) –
'P. F.' (translator) – The Historie of the Damnable Life, and Deserved Death of Doctor Iohn Faustus
Robert Greene (died September 3)
The Black Books Messenger
A Disputation Between a Hee Conny-Catcher and a Shee Conny-Catcher
The Third and Last Part of Conycatching
Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit, Bought with a Million of Repentance
Greene's Vision, Written at the Instant of his Death
Philomela
A Quip for an Upstart Courtier
Muhammad al-Idrisi (died 1165) – De geographia universali or Kitāb Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī dhikr al-amṣār wa-al-aqṭār wa-al-buldān wa-al-juzur wa-al-madā’ in wa-al-āfāq
Richard Johnson – Nine Worthies of London
Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer – Thresoor der Zeevaert (Treasure of navigation)
Wu Cheng'en (died 1580/2; attributed) – Journey to the West (Xī Yóu Jì)
Drama
Anonymous (variously attributed to Thomas Kyd, William Shakespeare and/or Christopher Marlowe) – Arden of Faversham (published)
Anonymous – A Knack to Know a Knave
William Gager – Ulysses Redux (Latin)
Thomas Kyd – The Spanish Tragedy (undated first printing, almost certainly between October and December in this year; first performed around 1587; first recorded performance November in this year)
John Lyly – Gallathea and Midas published
Christopher Marlowe – Edward II
Thomas Nashe – Summer's Last Will and Testament
William Shakespeare – The Taming of the Shrew (approximate date)
Poetry
Henry Constable – Diana
Michael Drayton – The Shepherd's Garland
Gabriel Harvey – Foure Letters and certaine Sonnets
Births
January 16 (baptised) – Henry King, English poet and bishop (died 1669)
January 22 – Pierre Gassendi, French philosopher and scientist (died 1655)
March 28 – John Amos Comenius (Jan Amos Komenský), Czech teacher and writer (died 1670)
April 4 – Abraham Elzevir, Dutch printer (died 1652)
May 8 – Francis Quarles, English poet (died 1644)
July 10 – Pierre d'Hozier, French historian (died 1660)
August 1 – François le Métel de Boisrobert, French poet (died 1662)
Deaths
July 22 – Ludwig Rabus, German Lutheran theologian (born 1523)
September 3 – Robert Greene, English writer (born 1558)
September 13 – Michel de Montaigne, French essayist (born 1533)
September 26 (burial) – Thomas Watson, English lyric poet writing in English and Latin (born 1555)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1591%20in%20literature | 1591 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1591.
Events
May – A dispute with James Burbage impels the Admiral's Men to leave The Theatre and move to Philip Henslowe's Rose Theatre in London.
Summer – Sir Walter Ralegh secretly marries Elizabeth Throckmorton.
October 4 – John Lyly's Midas is entered in the Stationers' Register.
November 8 – Publisher Thomas Millington becomes a "freeman" (full member) of the Stationers' Company.
Poet and historian Andrea Cornaro founds in Candia (modern-day Heraklion on Crete) the philological academy L’Accademia degli Stravaganti ("Academy of the Strange"), his brother, poet Vitsentzos Kornaros, being among the other members.
Publication of the first of the Conimbricenses commentaries on Aristotle by the Jesuits of the University of Coimbra, Commentarii Collegii Conimbricensis Societatis Jesu in octo libros physicorum Aristotelis Stagyritæ, on Aristotle's Physics.
New books
Prose
Andrea Alciato – Emblemata
Robert Greene – Greene's Farewell to Folly
John Greenwood – A Breife Refutation of Mr George Giffard, etc.
Melis Stoke – Rijmkroniek (History of the Netherlands, written in the 14th century)
"A. W." – A Book of Cookrye
Children
Anonymous – A Pretty and Splendid Maiden's Mirror (in Swedish)
Drama
Anonymous
Fair Em, the Miller's Daughter of Manchester (approximate date of first performance)
Mucedorus (approximate date of first performance)
The Troublesome Reign of King John (perhaps by George Peele; published)
John Lyly – Endymion, the Man in the Moon (published)
Muretus – Julius Caesar (published)
Robert Wilmot – Tancred and Gismund (published)
Poetry
Sir John Harington – Orlando Furioso in English Heroical Verse
James VI of Scotland – Lepanto
Sir Philip Sidney (died 1586) – Astrophel and Stella
Births
March 6 – Tommaso Tamburini, Italian Jesuit theologian (died 1675)
August – Robert Herrick, English poet (died 1674)
Unknown dates
Thomas Goffe, English dramatist (died 1629)
Ivan Bunić Vučić, Ragusa poet (died 1658)
Deaths
February 28 – Arthur Faunt, English Jesuit missionary (born 1554)
July 7 – Noël du Fail, French short story writer (born c. 1520)
July 22 – Veronica Franco, Venetian poet and courtesan (born 1546)
August 23 – Luis de León, Castilian poet, theologian and orator (born 1527)
December 21 – John of the Cross, Castilian poet and friar (born 1542)
Unknown date – Johann Fischart, German satirist (born c. 1545)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1590%20in%20literature | 1590 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1590.
Events
January – The Children of Paul's perform at the English Court twice in the first week; one of the plays act may be John Lyly's Midas. Later this year they are banned from performing over of the involvement of Lily, their chief script-writer, in the Marprelate controversy.
unknown date – The Teatro all'antica at Sabbioneta (Italy), designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, is completed.
New books
Robert Greene
Greene's Mourning Garment
Never Too Late
Thomas Lodge – Rosalynde
Thomas Nashe – An Almond for a Parrat
New drama
Anonymous (approximate date)
Fair Em, the Miller's Daughter of Manchester
King Leir
Mucedorus
Robert Greene
The Comical History of Alphonsus, King of Aragon (approximate date)
The History of Orlando Furioso
The Scottish History of James the Fourth (approximate date)
with Thomas Lodge – A Looking Glass for London (approximate date)
Christopher Marlowe – Tamburlaine (both parts published)
George Peele – Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First
Robert Wilson – The Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (published)
Poetry
Sir Philip Sidney – Arcadia
Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, Books 1-3
Births
January 30 – Lady Anne Clifford, English literary patron (died 1676)
March 18 – Manuel de Faria e Sousa, Portuguese historian and poet (died 1649)
June 24 – Samuel Ampzing, Dutch poet (died 1632)
July 26 – Johannes Crellius, German-born Polish theologian (died 1633)
September 12 – María de Zayas, Spanish poet and dramatist (died 1661)
October 11 (or December) – William Pynchon, English-born New England theologian (died 1662)
unknown dates
Alonso Andrada, Spanish biographer (died 1672)
François Annat, French anti-Jansenist theologian (died 1670)
Thomas Carve, Irish historian writing in Latin (died c. 1672)
Faqi Tayran, Kurdish poet (died 1660)
Grigore Ureche, Moldavian chronicler (died 1647)
Théophile de Viau, French poet and dramatist (died 1626)
Deaths
January 7 – Jakob Andreae, German theologian (born 1528)
February 1 – Lawrence Humphrey, English theologian (born c. 1527)
March – Petru Cercel, Wallachian prince and poet
July – Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas, French poet (born 1544)
September 20 – Robert Garnier, French poet (born 1544)
November 23 – André Thévet, French cosmographer (born 1502)
November 29 – Philipp Nicodemus Frischlin, German poet and dramatist (born 1547)
December 5 – Johann Habermann, German theologian (born 1516)
probable
Lambert Daneau, French theologian (born c. 1535)
Giuseppe Leggiadri Gallani, Italian poet and dramatist (born 1516)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-velocity | Four-velocity | In physics, in particular in special relativity and general relativity, a four-velocity is a four-vector in four-dimensional spacetime that represents the relativistic counterpart of velocity, which is a three-dimensional vector in space.
Physical events correspond to mathematical points in time and space, the set of all of them together forming a mathematical model of physical four-dimensional spacetime. The history of an object traces a curve in spacetime, called its world line. If the object has mass, so that its speed is necessarily less than the speed of light, the world line may be parametrized by the proper time of the object. The four-velocity is the rate of change of four-position with respect to the proper time along the curve. The velocity, in contrast, is the rate of change of the position in (three-dimensional) space of the object, as seen by an observer, with respect to the observer's time.
The value of the magnitude of an object's four-velocity, i.e. the quantity obtained by applying the metric tensor to the four-velocity , that is , is always equal to , where is the speed of light. Whether the plus or minus sign applies depends on the choice of metric signature. For an object at rest its four-velocity is parallel to the direction of the time coordinate with . A four-velocity is thus the normalized future-directed timelike tangent vector to a world line, and is a contravariant vector. Though it is a vector, addition of two four-velocities does not yield a four-velocity: the space of four-velocities is not itself a vector space.
Velocity
The path of an object in three-dimensional space (in an inertial frame) may be expressed in terms of three spatial coordinate functions xi(t) of time t, where i is an index which takes values 1, 2, 3.
The three coordinates form the 3d position vector, written as a column vector
The components of the velocity (tangent to the curve) at any point on the world line are
Each component is simply written
Theory of relativity
In Einstein's theory of relativity, the path of an object moving relative to a particular frame of reference is defined by four coordinate functions xμ(τ), where μ is a spacetime index which takes the value 0 for the timelike component, and 1, 2, 3 for the spacelike coordinates. The zeroth component is defined as the time coordinate multiplied by c,
Each function depends on one parameter τ called its proper time. As a column vector,
Time dilation
From time dilation, the differentials in coordinate time t and proper time τ are related by
where the Lorentz factor,
is a function of the Euclidean norm u of the 3d velocity vector :
Definition of the four-velocity
The four-velocity is the tangent four-vector of a timelike world line.
The four-velocity at any point of world line is defined as:
where is the four-position and is the proper time.
The four-velocity defined here using the proper time of an object does not exist for world lines for massless objects such as photons travelling at the speed of light; nor is it defined for tachyonic world lines, where the tangent vector is spacelike.
Components of the four-velocity
The relationship between the time t and the coordinate time x0 is defined by
Taking the derivative of this with respect to the proper time τ, we find the Uμ velocity component for μ = 0:
and for the other 3 components to proper time we get the Uμ velocity component for μ = 1, 2, 3:
where we have used the chain rule and the relationships
Thus, we find for the four-velocity :
Written in standard four-vector notation this is:
where is the temporal component and is the spatial component.
In terms of the synchronized clocks and rulers associated with a particular slice of flat spacetime, the three spacelike components of four-velocity define a traveling object's proper velocity i.e. the rate at which distance is covered in the reference map frame per unit proper time elapsed on clocks traveling with the object.
Unlike most other four-vectors, the four-velocity has only 3 independent components instead of 4. The factor is a function of the three-dimensional velocity .
When certain Lorentz scalars are multiplied by the four-velocity, one then gets new physical four-vectors that have 4 independent components.
For example:
Four-momentum: , where is the mass
Four-current density: , where is the charge density
Effectively, the factor combines with the Lorentz scalar term to make the 4th independent component
and
Magnitude
Using the differential of the four-position in the rest frame, the magnitude of the four-velocity can be obtained:
in short, the magnitude of the four-velocity for any object is always a fixed constant:
In a moving frame, the same norm is:
so that:
which reduces to the definition of the Lorentz factor.
See also
Four-acceleration
Four-momentum
Four-force
Four-gradient
Algebra of physical space
Congruence (general relativity)
Hyperboloid model
Rapidity
Remarks
References
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226830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1589%20in%20literature | 1589 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1589.
Events
January – The Children of Paul's perform twice at the English royal court during the first two weeks of the year.
March – Marprelate Controversy: Bishop Thomas Cooper's Admonition prompts Marprelate's response in the form of a tract entitled Hay any Worke for Cooper.
July – John Penry's printing press produces two tracts purporting to be by sons of Martin Marprelate, but probably by Martin himself: Theses Martinianae by "Martin Junior", and The Just Censure of Martin Junior by "Martin Senior".
1588–1589 – This is the earliest probable date for the composition of Christopher Marlowe's The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus and its first performance, in London.
New books
Prose
Jane Anger –
Thoinot Arbeau – Orchésographie
Giovanni Botero – (The Reason of State)
Robert Greene – Menaphon
Richard Hakluyt – The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation, vol. 1
John Lyly (attr.) – Pappe with an Hatchet (Part of the Marprelate Controversy)
Lorenzo Scupoli – Il combattimento spirituale
Water Margin (水浒传, Shui Hu Zhuan; earliest known complete printed edition)
Drama
Girolamo Bargagli – La Pellegrina (The Pilgrim Woman)
Robert Greene – Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay
Thomas Kyd? – Hamlet (the "Ur-Hamlet", latest date)
Christopher Marlowe – The Jew of Malta (probably written 1589–90)
George Peele? – The Troublesome Reign of King John (approximate year)
The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune (anonymous; published)
Poetry
Anne Dowriche (AD) – The French Historie
Christopher Marlowe – The Passionate Shepherd to His Love
Births
March 3 – Gisbertus Voetius, Dutch Calvinist theologian (died 1676)
Unknown dates
Heinrich Petraeus, German physician and writer (died 1620)
Antonio de León Pinelo, Peru-born Spanish historian (died c. 1675)
Deaths
March 22 – Lodovico Guicciardini, Italian merchant and writer (born 1521)
March 23 – Marcin Kromer, Polish historian (born 1512)
July 1 – Christophe Plantin, French-born Dutch printer (born c. 1520)
August 31 – Jurij Dalmatin, Slovenian writer and translator (born c. 1547)
September 16 – Michael Baius, Belgian theologian (born 1513)
September 19 – Jean-Antoine de Baïf, French poet (born 1532)
October 12 – Samuel de Medina, Talmudist and author from Thessaloniki (born 1505)
October 15 – Jacopo Zabarella, Italian philosopher (born 1532)
Unknown date – Thomas Sampson, English theologian and translator (born c. 1517)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1588%20in%20literature | 1588 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1588.
Events
January 1 – The Children of Paul's perform at the court of Queen Elizabeth I of England, probably acting John Lyly's Gallathea.
February 2 – The Children of Paul's return to the English court, probably with Lyly's Endymion.
February 28 – The gentlemen of Gray's Inn perform Thomas Hughes' play The Misfortunes of Arthur before Queen Elizabeth I of England, at Greenwich Palace.
May–December – Lope de Vega serves in the Spanish Armada, where he begins writing his epic poem La Hermosura de Angélica.
November – Marprelate Controversy: The first tract by "Martin Marprelate", known as the Epistle, appears at Molesey.
Venice's Biblioteca Marciana is completed by Vincenzo Scamozzi on the Piazza San Marco after more than a century of construction following a plan by the late Jacopo Sansovino.
John Dee finishes Libri mysteriorum I-XVIII (Spiritual Diaries).
Welsh author Morris Kyffin publishes the first translation into English of a comedy by Terence, Andria, in London. It is possibly the first printed English text to include an ellipsis (...) as a mark of omission.
Agostino Ramelli publishes Le diverse et artificiose Machine del Capitano Agostino Ramelli, Dal Ponte Della Tresia Ingegniero del Christianissimo Re di Francia et di Pollonia in Paris, including a design for a bookwheel to permit consultation of multiple volumes.
1588–1589 – Earliest probable date for the composition and first performance of Christopher Marlowe's The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus in London.
New books
Prose
William Allen – An Admonition to the nobility and people of England
John Dee – De heptarchia mystica
Robert Greene – Pandosto: The Triumph of Time
Thomas Hariot – A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia
Thomas Nashe – The Anatomie of Absurditie
William Rankins – The English Ape
Welsh Bible (translation by William Morgan)
Drama
Thomas Hughes – The Misfortunes of Arthur
George Peele – The Battle of Alcazar (first performed)
Poetry
Felipe Fernandez-Armesto – Two Prayers and a Sailor's Lilt Aboard the Spanish Armada
Heinrich Meibom –
Jean de Sponde – Essai de quelques poèmes chrétiens
Births
April 5 – Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher (died 1679)
April 15 – Claudius Salmasius (Claude Saumaise), French classicist (died 1653)
June 11 (probably) – George Wither, English poet and pamphleteer (died 1667)
September 8 – Marin Mersenne, French theologian and philosopher (died 1648)
October 16 – Luke Wadding, Irish Franciscan annalist (died 1657)
Unknown dates
Leonard Digges (writer), English poet and Hispanist (died 1635)
Francis Higginson, English-born New England writer (died 1630)
Johannes Maccovius (Jan Makovszki), Polish theologian (died 1644)
Deaths
February 24 – Johann Weyer, Dutch demonologist (born c. 1515)
March 29 – Christian Wurstisen, Swiss theologian and historian (born 1544)
September 3 – Richard Tarlton, English actor (born 1530)
October 2 – Bernardino Telesio, Italian philosopher (born 1509)
November 1 – Jean Daurat, French poet (born 1508)
Unknown date – Sperone Speroni, Italian scholar and dramatist (born 1500)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1587%20in%20literature | 1587 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1587.
Events
April 14 – A clandestine Roman Catholic printing press is discovered in a cave on the Little Orme on the North Wales coast, where it has been used by the recusant Robert Pugh (squire of Penrhyn Old Hall) and his chaplain, Father William Davies, to print the first part of Y Drych Cristianogawl (The Christian Mirror), the first book to be printed in Wales. Attributed to G. R. of Milan (Gruffydd Robert or perhaps Robert Gwyn (c. 1540/50–1592/1604)), the book is given a false imprint of "Rouen, 1585".
Autumn – Poet Torquato Tasso travels to Rome to stay with his friend Cardinal Scipione Gonzaga, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem.
October 31 – Leiden University Library opens its doors after its foundation in 1575.
Late (probable date) – The first part of Christopher Marlowe's drama Tamburlaine the Great is performed in London by the Admiral's Men, with Edward Alleyn in the lead. Marlowe is known to be engaged in confidential government work.
The Rose Theatre is built by Philip Henslowe in Southwark on the south bank of the River Thames.
The chapbook Historia von D. Johann Fausten, printed by Johann Spies in Frankfurt, is the first published version of the Faust story.
New books
Prose
George Gifford – A discourse of the subtill practises of deuilles by witches and sorcerers
Raphael Holinshed – Holinshed's Chronicles, 2nd edition, revised
John Penry – The Æquity of an Humble Supplication
William Rankins – A Mirror of Monsters
Drama
Thomas Kyd – The Spanish Tragedy (approximate date)
Christopher Marlowe
Tamburlaine
(with Thomas Nashe?) – Dido, Queen of Carthage (earliest likely date)
George Peele (possibly) – The Life and Death of Jack Straw (approximate date)
Poetry
Cristóbal de Virués – El Monserrate
Births
February 24 – Matthias Faber, German religious writer (died 1653)
June 21 – Kaspar von Barth, German philologist (died 1658)
October 17 – Nathan Field, English dramatist (died 1620)
November 17 – Joost van den Vondel, Dutch dramatist (died 1679)
November 18 – Lady Mary Wroth, English poet and dramatist (died c. 1651–1653)
Unknown dates
Michael Alford, English Jesuit writer (died 1652)
Francesco Angeloni, Italian historian (died 1652)
Francis Kynaston, English poet (died 1642)
Deaths
March 15 – Kaspar Olevianus, German Protestant theologian (born 1536)
April 18 – John Foxe, martyrologist (born 1517)
September 19 – Pamelius, Belgian theologian (born 1536)
November – Mother and daughter:
Madeleine Des Roches, French poet and author (born c. 1520)
Catherine Des Roches, French poet and author (born 1542)
Unknown date
Dudley Fenner, English theologian (born c. 1558)
In literature
Friedrich Schiller's drama Maria Stuart (1800) depicts the last days of Mary, Queen of Scots
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1586%20in%20literature | 1586 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1586.
Events
September 19 – The English poet Chidiock Tichborne, imprisoned in the Tower of London on the eve of being hanged, drawn and quartered for his part in the Babington Plot, writes his Elegy ("My prime of youth is but a frost of cares").
September 22 – The English poet, critic, courtier and soldier Sir Philip Sidney is fatally wounded at the Battle of Zutphen.
unknown dates
Francis Bacon takes a new seat as MP in the Parliament of England, that of Taunton.
Oxford University Press is recognised in a decree of the Star Chamber in England.
New books
Prose
Caesar Baronius – Roman martyrology (new edition)
William Camden – Britannia (in Latin)
Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert – Zedekunst (Art of Ethics)
Angel Day – The English Secretary
Robert Greene – Morando, the Tritameron of Love (part 2)
John Knox – Historie of the Reformatioun of Religioun within the Realms of Scotland
John Lyly – Pappe with an hatchet, alias a figge for my Godsonne
Jerónimo Osório – De rebus Emmanuelis
George Puttenham (attributed) – The Arte of English Poesie
Luis Barahona de Soto – Primera parte de la Angélica
George Whetstone – English Myrror
Drama
Anonymous – Locrine (estimated year of writing)
Miguel de Cervantes (attributed) – La conquista de Jerusalén por Godofre de Bullón (first recorded performance)
Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Nashe – Dido, Queen of Carthage (estimated year of writing)
Poetry
Luis Barahona de Soto – Primera parte de la Angélica
William Warner – Albion's England
See also 1586 in poetry
Births
c. April – John Ford, English dramatist (died c. 1640)
Unknown dates
Antony Hickey, Irish Franciscan theologian (died 1641)
Francisco de Moncada, Spanish diplomat, soldier and historian (died 1635)
Lady Mary Wroth, English poet (died c. 1651)
Deaths
March 20 – Richard Maitland, Scottish statesman and historian (born 1496)
April 8 – Martin Chemnitz, German Lutheran theologian (born 1522)
June 1 – Martín de Azpilcueta, Spanish theologian (born 1491)
June 28 – Primož Trubar, author of first printed book in Slovene (born 1508)
August 1 – Richard Maitland, Scottish poet (born 1496)
September 20 – Chidiock Tichborne, English poet and conspirator (executed, born 1558)
October 17 – Sir Philip Sidney, English poet and critic (of wounds, born 1554)
Unknown dates
Antonio Agustín y Albanell, Spanish historian (born 1516)
Birbal, Indian poet and wit (born 1528)
Giulio Cesare Brancaccio, Italian writer and entertainer (born 1515)
Sur (Surdas), Hindu devotional poet (born between 1478 and 1483)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1585%20in%20literature | 1585 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1585.
Events
February 2 – Hamnet and Judith, twin children of William Shakespeare and his wife Anne, are baptised at Stratford-upon-Avon.
March 3 – The Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, designed by Andrea Palladio, and completed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, opens with a production of Sophocles' Oedipus Rex), using trompe-l'œil scenery in one-point perspective.
December 13 – The blind poet, playwright and actor Luigi Groto dies in Venice, having just come from the theatre, where he has played the role of the blind Oedipus Rex.
New books
Prose
John Calvin – The Commentaries... upon the Actes of the Apostles, Faithfully translated out of Latine into English for the great profite of our countrie-men, by Christopher Fetherstone, student in divinitie
Miguel de Cervantes – La Galatea
Drama
Nicolas de Montreux – Athlette
Richard Tarlton (attributed) – The Seven Deadly Sins
Poetry
See 1585 in poetry
Thomas Watson – Amyntas (pastoral epic in Latin)
Births
January 6 – Claude Favre de Vaugelas, French grammarian (died 1650)
January 31 – Daniel Schwenter, German Orientalist, polymath, poet and librarian (died 1636)
March 16 – Gerbrand Bredero, Dutch poet and playwright (died 1618)
June 24 – Johannes Lippius, German Protestant theologian, philosopher, and theorist of music (died 1612)
October 11 – Johann Heermann, German poet (died 1647)
December 4 – John Cotton, English-born American theologian and minister (died 1652)
December 13 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (died 1649)
Uncertain dates
Elizabeth Cary, Lady Falkland, née Elizabeth Tanfield, English poet, translator and dramatist (died 1639)
Diego Jiménez de Enciso, Spanish dramatist (died 1634)
Deaths
January – Anthony Gilby, English Puritan and Bible translator (born c. 1510)
February 6 – Edmund Plowden, English lawyer and theorist (born 1518)
February 13 – Alfonso Salmeron, Spanish Jesuit Biblical commentator (born 1515)
March 10 – Rembert Dodoens, Flemish botanist (born 1517)
June 4 – Muretus, French humanist poet and writer in Latin (born 1526)
June 20 – Christian Kruik van Adrichem, Dutch Catholic theologian (born 1533)
July 30 – Christian Schesaus, German humanist poet (born 1535)
September 1 – Alexander Arbuthnot, Scottish printer (year of birth unknown)
September 18 – Molanus, Flemish theologian of the Counter Reformation (born 1533)
December 8 – Piero Vettori, Italian humanist philologist and writer (born 1499)
December 27 – Pierre de Ronsard, French poet (born 1524)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1584%20in%20literature | 1584 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1584.
Events
date unknown – Master Thomas Giles takes charge of the Children of Paul's, a company of boy actors. This is the start of a close association with the works of John Lyly.
New books
Prose
Giordano Bruno – La Cena de le Ceneri (Ash Wednesday Supper)
John Dee – 48 Claves angelicae (48 Angelic Keys, written in Kraków)
James VI of Scotland – Some Reulis and Cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis poesie
David Powel – The Historie of Cambria, now called Wales (first printed history of Wales)
Reginald Scot – The Discoverie of Witchcraft
Richard Stanihurst – De rebus in Hibernia gestis (Of matters in the history of Ireland)
Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer – Spiegel der Zeevaerdt (Mariners' Mirror, English 1588, Latin 1591)
Drama
'A.M.' (probably Anthony Munday) – Fidele and Fortunio
Robert Wilson (attributed) – The Three Ladies of London
Poetry
See 1584 in poetry
Thomas Watson – Hekatompathia or Passionate Centurie of Love (publication)
Births
May – André Duchesne, French geographer and historian (died 1640)
August 29 – Patrick Young, Scottish scholar and royal librarian (died 1652)
September 15 – Georg Rudolf Weckherlin, German poet (died 1653)
December 16 – John Selden, English polymath (died 1654)
unknown dates
Francis Beaumont, English dramatist and poet (died 1616)
Anna Ovena Hoyer, German/Swedish poet (died 1655)
Hu Zhengyan, Chinese artist, printmaker, calligrapher and publisher (died 1674)
Deaths
February 18 – Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Italian prose writer (born 1503)
March 10 – Thomas Norton, English lawyer, politician and poet (born 1532)
June 13 – János Zsámboky, Hungarian humanist, philologist and historian (born 1531)
July 23 – John Day, English Protestant printer (born c. 1522)
August 12 – Carolus Sigonius, Italian humanist writer (born c. 1524)
November 21 – Turrianus, Spanish Jesuit Hellenist and polemicist (born c. 1509)
unknown dates
Stephen Batman, English translator (date of birth unknown)
Gerhard Dorn, Flemish philosopher, translator and polymath (born c. 1530)
Alonso Gutiérrez, Spanish philosopher (born c. 1507)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1583%20in%20literature | 1583 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1583.
Events
Early – Accademia della Crusca established in Florence to regulate the Italian language.
March 10 – Queen Elizabeth's Men, an acting troupe, is founded by royal order in England.
June 11 – Rivales, a play in Latin by William Gager, is acted by members of Christ Church, Oxford. Criticized for its "filth", it is never printed and does not survive, although it is revived for two performances in 1592, one before Queen Elizabeth I of England.
June 12 – Dido, another play in Latin by Gager, is performed by members of Christ Church, Oxford.
September – The English occult philosopher John Dee leaves England to travel on the Continent; his library at Mortlake is dispersed in his absence.
Lodewijk Elzevir produces the first publication from the House of Elzevir in Leiden, Drusii Ebraicarum quaestionum ac responsionum libri duo.
New books
Prose
Justus Lipsius – De Constantia (On constancy)
Joseph Justus Scaliger – De emendatione temporum (Study on the Improvement of Time)
Sir Thomas Smith – De Republica Anglorum: the Maner of Gouernement or Policie of the Realme of England (written 1562–65)
Philip Stubbes – The Anatomy of Abuses
Drama
William Gager – Dido (Latin)
Luigi Groto – La Dalida
Richard Mulcaster – Ariodante and Genevra
Poetry
See 1583 in poetry
Births
January 8 – Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian (died 1643)
February 2 – Anna Visscher, Dutch artist, poet and translator (died 1651)
April 4 – Franciscus Quaresmius, Italian writer (died 1650)
April 10 – Hugo Grotius, Dutch philosopher, dramatist and poet (died 1645 in literature)
November – Philip Massinger, English playwright (died 1640)
Unknown dates
Johann Heinrich Alting, German theologian (died 1644)
John Beaumont, English poet (died 1627)
Deaths
January 1 – François de Belleforest, French poet and translator (born 1530)
January 5 – Juan Maldonado, Spanish Jesuit theologian (born 1533)
March 4 – Bernard Gilpin, English theologian (born 1517)
April – Lucas David, Prussian historian (born 1503)
May 6 – Zacharias Ursinus, German theologian (born 1534)
July 8 – Fernão Mendes Pinto, Portuguese explorer and memoirist (born c. 1509)
December 31 – Thomas Erastus, Swiss theologian (born 1524)
Unknown dates
Alexander Arbuthnot, Scottish poet (born 1538)
Henry Bynneman, English printer (date of birth unknown)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1582%20in%20literature | 1582 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1582.
Events
February – Meleager, a Latin play on the mythological figure of Meleager by "Gulielmus Gagerus" (William Gager), is performed by members of Christ Church, Oxford.
November 29 – Marriage of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway at Temple Grafton in England.
Publication in England of the first part of Richard Mulcaster's textbook on the teaching of English, the {{Proper name|Elementarie, including "a generall table [of eight thousand words] we commonlie use}}" in regularized spelling.
Earliest reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing (China).
New books
Prose
Robert Bellarmine – Disputationes
George Buchanan – Rerum Scoticarum Historia
Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx – Balet comique de la Royne
"Douay–Rheims Bible", New Testament
Richard Hakluyt – Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America
John Leland – (posthumous translation)
Anthony Munday – English Romayne Lyfe (i. e. Life of an Englishman in Rome)
Drama
Anonymous – The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune
Miguel de Cervantes – El cerco de Numancia
William Gager – Meleager
Giovanni Battista Guarini –
Poetry
See 1582 in poetry
Births
January 6 – Alonso de Contreras, Spanish adventurer and writer (died 1641)
January 28 – John Barclay, Scottish satirist and poet (died 1621)
February 6 – Mario Bettinus, Italian philosopher (died 1657)
April 8 (baptised) – Phineas Fletcher, English poet (died 1650)
October 17 – Johann Gerhard, German Lutheran theologian (died 1637)
November 21 – François Maynard, French poet (died 1646)
Unknown dates
Giovanni Francesco Abela, Maltese writer (died 1655)
Richard Corbet, English poet and bishop (died 1635)
William Lithgow, Scottish traveller and author (died 1645)
Deaths
January 26 – Thomas Platter, Swiss humanist writer (born 1499)
July/August – Jacques Pelletier du Mans, French humanist poet (born 1517)
September 28 – George Buchanan, Scottish historian (born 1506)
October 4 – Teresa of Ávila, Spanish mystical writer (born 1515)
Unknown dates
Arnoldus Arlenius, Dutch humanist philosopher and poet (born c.1510)
Natalis Comes, Italian mythographer, poet and historian (born 1520)
Jobus Fincelius, German humanist writer
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1581%20in%20literature | 1581 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1581.
Events
January – Francis Bacon takes his seat as an MP in the Parliament of England for the Cornish pocket borough of Bossiney.
June 24 – Torquato Tasso's epic poem Jerusalem Delivered (La Gerusalemme liberata) is first published complete, a pirated edition printed in Parma being followed by an authorized edition from Ferrara, where the poet is confined in the Ospedale di Sant'Anna. Also this year, Aldus Manutius the Younger prints a selection of Tasso's lyrics and prose in Venice.
Uncertain dates
Stationer Thomas Marsh publishes Seneca's Tragedies in English, a collected edition of ten dramas written by Seneca the Younger (or attributed to him), translated by Jasper Heywood, John Studley, Alexander Neville, Thomas Newton, and Thomas Nuce. Most of the texts have been printed previously, from 1559 onward; but Newton's version of Thebais is new, and earlier printed texts of Studley's versions of Hercules Oetaeus and Hippolytus, if they ever existed, have not survived.
John Dee starts to write Libri mysteriorum I-XVIII (Spiritual Diaries).
First record of bookselling at No. 1, Trinity Street, Cambridge, England; it will continue to be a bookshop for at least 430 years.
New books
Church of Scotland – The Second Book of Discipline<ref=></ref>
William Lambarde – Eirenarcha: or of the Office of the Justices of Peace
Ostrog Bible
Barnabe Riche – Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession verie pleasaunt discourses fit for a peaceable tyme
New drama
Edward Forsett – Pedantius (Latin)
George Peele – The Arraignment of Paris (a pastoral)
Nathaniel Woodes – The Conflict of Conscience
Poetry
Torquato Tasso – Jerusalem Delivered
Births
January 4 – James Ussher, Anglo-Irish archbishop and scholar (died 1656)
March 16 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch Golden Age writer (died 1647)
June 18 (date of baptism) – Thomas Overbury, English poet and essayist (died 1613)
August 15 – Jeremias Drexel, German Jesuit writer (died 1638)
November 11 (date of baptism) – Henry Adamson, Scottish poet and historian (died 1637)
Uncertain dates
Christoph Helvig, German historian and theologian (died 1617)
Charles Malapert, Belgian Jesuit writer (died 1630)
Hieronim Morsztyn, Polish poet (died 1623)
Probable year
Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Mexican dramatist (died 1639)
Deaths
June 16 – Thomas Wilson, English rhetorician (born 1524)
September 1 – Guru Ram Das, Sikh guru (born 1534)
September 6 – Guillaume Postel, French linguist (born 1510)
September 28 – Achilles Statius, Portuguese humanist writer (born 1524)
September 29 Andreas Musculus, German theologian (born 1514)
November 7 – Richard Davies, Welsh bishop and scholar (born c. 1505)
Uncertain dates
Georgette de Montenay, French courtier and author of emblem book (born 1540)
Morys Clynnog, Welsh author writing in Welsh (born c. 1525)
Nicholas Sanders, English Catholic propagandist (born 1530)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580%20in%20literature | 1580 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1580.
Events
March – Thomas Legge's Latin play about Richard III of England, Richardus Tertius, the first known history play performed in England, is acted by students at St John's College, Cambridge.
July 12 – The Ostrog Bible, the first complete printed Bible translation into a Slavic language (Old Church Slavonic), is first printed at Ostroh in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern-day Ukraine) by Ivan Fyodorov.
New books
Book of Concord
Jean Bodin – De la demonomanie des sorciers
Veronica Franco – Lettere familiari a diversi
Robert Greene – Mamillia
John Lyly – Euphues and his England
Michel de Montaigne – Essais
Anthony Munday – Zelauto
New drama
Robert Garnier – Antigone
Thomas Legge – Richardus Tertius
Poetry
Luís Vaz de Camões – Luís Vaz de Camões
Jan Kochanowski – Laments (Treny)
Births
March 5 – Christophe Justel, French scholar (died 1649)
April 18 (date of baptism) – Thomas Middleton, English poet and dramatist (died 1627)
June 9 – Daniel Heinsius, Dutch scholar (died 1655)
September 17 – Francisco de Quevedo, Spanish Golden Age writer (died 1645)
October 12 – Hortensio Félix Paravicino, Spanish poet (died 1633)
unknown dates
Charles François d'Abra de Raconis, French theologian (died 1646)
Manuel de Almeida, Spanish historian (died 1646)
Francisco de Araujo, Spanish theologian (died 1664)
Philipp Clüver, German historian (died 1623)
Ling Mengchu (凌濛初), Chinese vernacular writer (died 1644)
Francisco Rodrigues Lobo, Portuguese poet (died 1621)
Francisco de Lugo, Spanish theologian (died 1652)
Deaths
May 3 – Thomas Tusser, English poet (born 1524)
June 10 – Luís de Camões, Portuguese poet (born c.1524)
June 22 – Hernando de Acuña, Spanish translator (born c.1520)
August 20 – Jeronymo Osorio, Portuguese historian (born 1506)
October 8 – Hieronymus Wolf, German historian (born 1516)
November 3 – Jeronimo Zurita y Castro, Spanish historian (born 1512)
unknown dates
Sebastián de Horozco, Spanish poet and dramatist (born 1510)
Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, Scottish chronicler (born c.1532)
probable – Raphael Holinshed, chronicler
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-acceleration | Four-acceleration | In the theory of relativity, four-acceleration is a four-vector (vector in four-dimensional spacetime) that is analogous to classical acceleration (a three-dimensional vector, see three-acceleration in special relativity). Four-acceleration has applications in areas such as the annihilation of antiprotons, resonance of strange particles and radiation of an accelerated charge.
Four-acceleration in inertial coordinates
In inertial coordinates in special relativity, four-acceleration is defined as the rate of change in four-velocity with respect to the particle's proper time along its worldline. We can say:
where
, with the three-acceleration and the three-velocity, and
and
is the Lorentz factor for the speed (with ). A dot above a variable indicates a derivative with respect to the coordinate time in a given reference frame, not the proper time (in other terms, ).
In an instantaneously co-moving inertial reference frame , and , i.e. in such a reference frame
Geometrically, four-acceleration is a curvature vector of a worldline.
Therefore, the magnitude of the four-acceleration (which is an invariant scalar) is equal to the proper acceleration that a moving particle "feels" moving along a worldline. A worldline having constant four-acceleration is a Minkowski-circle i.e. hyperbola (see hyperbolic motion)
The scalar product of a particle's four-velocity and its four-acceleration is always 0.
Even at relativistic speeds four-acceleration is related to the four-force:
where m is the invariant mass of a particle.
When the four-force is zero, only gravitation affects the trajectory of a particle, and the four-vector equivalent of Newton's second law above reduces to the geodesic equation. The four-acceleration of a particle executing geodesic motion is zero. This corresponds to gravity not being a force. Four-acceleration is different from what we understand by acceleration as defined in Newtonian physics, where gravity is treated as a force.
Four-acceleration in non-inertial coordinates
In non-inertial coordinates, which include accelerated coordinates in special relativity and all coordinates in general relativity, the acceleration four-vector is related to the four-velocity through an absolute derivative with respect to proper time.
In inertial coordinates the Christoffel symbols are all zero, so this formula is compatible with the formula given earlier.
In special relativity the coordinates are those of a rectilinear inertial frame, so the Christoffel symbols term vanishes, but sometimes when authors use curved coordinates in order to describe an accelerated frame, the frame of reference isn't inertial, they will still describe the physics as special relativistic because the metric is just a frame transformation of the Minkowski space metric. In that case this is the expression that must be used because the Christoffel symbols are no longer all zero.
See also
Four-vector
Four-velocity
Four-momentum
Four-force
Four-gradient
Proper acceleration
References
External links
Curvature vector on Britannica
Four-vectors
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226842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Park | Ken Park | Ken Park is a 2002 erotic drama which revolves around the abusive and dysfunctional lives of several teenagers, set in the city of Visalia, California. It was written by Harmony Korine, who based it on Larry Clark's journals and stories. The film was directed and shot by Clark and Edward Lachman. The film is an international co-production of the United States, the Netherlands, and France.
Plot
The title character Ken Park (nicknamed "Krap Nek": his name spelled and pronounced backward), is a teenager skateboarding across Visalia, California. He arrives at a skate park, where he casually sets up a camcorder, smiles, and shoots himself in the temple with a handgun. His death is used to bookend the film, which follows the lives of four other teenagers who knew him.
Shawn is the most stable of the four main characters. He is polite and caring. Throughout the story, he has an ongoing sexual relationship with his girlfriend's mother Rhonda, whom he tells that he fantasizes that he is with her when having sex with her daughter Hannah. He casually socializes with their family, the rest of whom are completely unaware of the affair.
Claude fends off physical and emotional abuse from his alcoholic father while he tries to take care of his neglectful pregnant mother, who never does anything to defend him. Claude's father detests him for not being masculine enough. However, after coming home drunk one night, he attempts to perform oral sex on Claude, which prompts the boy to run away from home.
Peaches is a girl who lives alone with her obsessive and highly-religious father, who fixates on her as the innocent embodiment of her deceased mother. When he catches her having sex with her boyfriend Curtis – whom she has playfully tied to her bed – he beats the boy and savagely disciplines her, then forces her to participate in a quasi-incestuous wedding ritual with him.
Tate is an unstable and sadistic adolescent living with his grandparents, whom he resents and frequently abuses verbally. He engages in autoerotic asphyxiation while masturbating to a video of a woman playing tennis. He eventually kills his grandparents, in retaliation for petty grievances. He finds that the act arouses him sexually. He records himself on his tape recorder so that the police will know how and why he did it, puts his grandfather's dentures in his mouth, lies naked in his bed, and falls asleep. He is later arrested.
The film cuts frequently between these subplots, with no overlap of characters or events until the end, when Shawn, Claude, and Peaches meet and have polyamorous threesome. In their conversation afterward, they refer to an unnamed person they know who is now dead. The film returns briefly to Ken Park, who has impregnated his girlfriend. Arguing against aborting the pregnancy, she asks Ken rhetorically if he's glad his mother didn't abort him; Ken does not answer.
Cast
Tiffany Limos as "Peaches"
James Bullard as Shawn
Stephen Jasso as Claude
James Ransone as Tate
Adam Chubbuck as Ken Park
Maeve Quinlan as Rhonda
Bill Fagerbakke as Bob
Eddie Daniels as Shawn's Mother
Seth Gray as Shawn's Brother
Patricia Place as Tate's Grandmother
Harrison Young as Tate's Grandfather
Amanda Plummer as Claude's Pregnant Mother
Wade Williams as Claude's Father
Julio Oscar Mechoso as Peaches' Father
Zara McDowell as Zoe
Mike Apaletegui as Curtis
Richard Riehle as "Murph" Murphy
Larry Clark as Hot Dog Vendor
Production
Clark attempted to write the first script for Ken Park, basing it on personal experiences and people with whom he had grown up. Dissatisfied with his own draft, he hired Harmony Korine to pen the screenplay. Clark ultimately used most of Korine's script, but rewrote the ending. The film was given a $1.3 million budget. The arrangement was to film using digital video, but Clark and Lachman used 35mm film instead.
Distribution
Although it was sold for distribution to some 30 countries, the film was not shown in the United Kingdom after director Larry Clark assaulted Hamish McAlpine, the head of the UK distributor for the film, Metro Tartan. Clark is alleged to have been angry over McAlpine's remarks about 9/11. Clark was arrested and spent several hours in custody, and McAlpine was left with a broken nose. The film has not been released in the United States since its initial showing at the Telluride Film Festival in 2002. Clark says that this is because of the producer's failure to get copyright releases for the music used. The film was banned in Australia due to its graphic sexual content and portrayals of underage sexual activity after it was refused a classification by the Australian Classification Board in 2003. A protest screening held in Sydney, hosted by film critic Margaret Pomeranz, was shut down by the police.
Critical reception
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 46% approval rating based on 13 reviews. Ed Gonzales of Slant Magazine noted some redeeming elements in an "otherwise familiar Kids procedural" in which "the parents are all monsters of some kind and there’s an excuse for every teenager’s bad behavior". Rob Gonsalves of eFilmCritic, wrote that the film "is about people lost in a haze of contempt and despair, trying to wrest some love or relief out of the situation." Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter described it as "a ragingly controversial feature that makes it very tricky to distinguish between insightful and incite-ful." Todd McCarthy of Variety described it as "Beautifully crafted but emotionally dispiriting and alienating in its insistence on spotlighting only the negative aspects of life". Lee Marshall of Screen Daily wrote that "Clark, being Clark, pushes things a little too far; so a not entirely constructive tension is set up between the need to show and the desire to shock."
Soundtrack
Bouncing Souls — "Lamar Vannoy"
Rancid — "Antennas"
Gary Stewart — "Out of Hand"
Tha Alkaholks — "Likwit"
KMD — "What a Nigga Know"
Blackalicious — "Deception"
Merle Haggard — "Mom and Dad's Waltz"
Black Star — "Brown Skin Lady"
Jerry Lee Lewis — "Good Time Charlie's Got the Blues"
The Roots — "Do You Want More?!!!??!"
Gary Stewart — "Shady Streets"
Quasimoto — "Put A Curse On You"
Hank Ballard — "Henry's Got Flat Feet"
The Shaggs — "Who Are Parents?"
See also
Kids (film)
Unsimulated sex''
References
External links
Inside Film Magazine's Phillip Cenere reports on Australian ban of Ken Park
Ken Park @ Harmony-Korine.com
2002 films
2000s erotic drama films
American films
American erotic drama films
Dutch films
Dutch erotic drama films
French films
French erotic drama films
2000s English-language films
English-language Dutch films
English-language French films
Films about suicide
Films directed by Larry Clark
Films about child sexual abuse
Films about dysfunctional families
Incest in film
American independent films
Juvenile sexuality in films
American nonlinear narrative films
Skateboarding films
Dutch independent films
French independent films
Adultery in films
Obscenity controversies in film
2002 independent films
Softcore pornography
French nonlinear narrative films
Teensploitation
2002 drama films | [
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226843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison%20of%20multi-paradigm%20programming%20languages | Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages | Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.
Paradigm summaries
A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.
Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behavior)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes what a computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programing)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming
Italic text==Language overview==
See also
Programming paradigm
Categorical list of programming languages
Domain-specific programming language
Domain-specific multimodeling
Notes
Citations
References
Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.
Programming paradigms
Programming language comparisons | [
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226845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores%20Airlines | Azores Airlines | Azores Airlines, previously known as SATA Internacional, is a Portuguese airline based in the municipality of Ponta Delgada, on the island of São Miguel in the autonomous archipelago of the Azores. A subsidiary of SATA Air Açores, the airline operates as the international arm of the regional network, connecting the archipelago with Europe and North America, from its hub at João Paulo II Airport.
History
Early years
The airline was first established in March 1994 under the name of OceanAir and in 1995 was authorized to operate air transport services as a non-scheduled carrier. SATA Air Açores became the major shareholder when OceanAir suspended service in 1994. It later became the sole owner, and on 20 February 1998 it was re-branded as SATA Internacional, resuming operations on 8 April 1998. The airline became a wholly owned subsidiary of Grupo SATA, which also operates SATA Air Açores.
Following its bid by public tender, SATA Internacional was awarded scheduled routes from Ponta Delgada to Lisbon, Madeira Island and Porto. SATA would later own two tour operators in North America: SATA Express in Canada and Azores Express in the United States.
21st century
In May 2009, SATA adopted a new brand image and a new logo which was applied to its first new Airbus A320-200, registered CS-TKO and named "Diáspora". The new scheme was adopted by both SATA Internacional and SATA Air Açores during the fleet upgrades beginning at the end of the 1990s and lasted until 2015.
In January 2015, the airline announced strategic plans to reduce its debts from €179 million to €40 million by 2020 by reducing its fleet and workforce. Under the plan it would also be renamed to Azores Airlines. In October 2015, SATA Internacional subsequently announced a major rebranding, including the name change to Azores Airlines and a change of the colour scheme from blue tones to green tones. At the same time, a fleet renewal with Airbus A330 aircraft had been announced. The first A330 commercial flight took place on 25 March 2016 from Ponta Delgada to Boston.
In September 2016, the airline announced a change of plans regarding its fleet renewal. While plans to phase in a second Airbus A330 were later cancelled, Azores Airlines ordered two Airbus A321neo on interim lease for 2017-2019 and four Airbus A321LRs to be delivered in 2019 to replace the interim A321neos. The A310 fleet was fully retired in October 2018, after which the airline's fleet was composed entirely of narrowbody Airbus aircraft. In July 2019, the airline received its first Airbus A321LR.
In January 2021, an Airbus A321LR operating Azores Airlines Flight S46865 claimed the record for the longest commercial A321LR flight by duration, which operated as a charter from Lisbon to Bogotá in a time of 9 hours and 49 minutes. The airline surpassed the record previously set by Air Transat for its A321LR flight on 26 October 2020 from Montréal Trudeau to Athens, taking a duration of 8 hours and 20 minutes, but was later surpassed by TAP Air Portugal on 29 March 2021 with its A321LR flight from Maputo to Praia, for a flight duration of 10 hours and 7 minutes.
Destinations
Azores Airlines operates scheduled domestic flights from the Azores to the Madeira Islands and mainland Portugal, and international flights from the Azores to destinations in Europe and North America, as well as charter flights. Regional flights within the Azores are operated by its parent company, SATA Air Açores.
Interline agreements
Azores Airlines has interlining agreements with the following airlines:
Alaska Airlines
JetBlue
Porter Airlines
SATA Air Açores
Codeshare agreements
Azores Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:
Air France
TAP Air Portugal
WestJet
Fleet
Current fleet
, Azores Airlines operates the following aircraft in its all-Airbus fleet:
Smaller aircraft are operated by parent SATA Air Açores under its own air operator's certificate, while longer-range aircraft may be wet-leased from Hi Fly on a seasonal basis.
Historical fleet
Azores Airlines has previously operated the following aircraft:
Liveries
The airline over its history as SATA Internacional and later as Azores Airlines has iterated various liveries.
SATA Internacional liveries
The airline's original livery consisted of an all white fuselage with the name SATA Internacional in ocean blue over the front windows, and a dark blue tail with the company logo. Before this, the livery had an idealised logo featuring the bands of crashing waves, superimposed by a sun-disk, with the calligraphic lettering "Fly Azores" below. This tourist-friendly logo was retired at the end of the 20th century, to be replaced with a more corporate image.
The airline as well as its parent company SATA Air Açores adopted new branding in 2009, which included an idealised bird symbol as the new logo. The symbol, called BIA (for "Blue Islands Açor"), consisted of nine geometrical shapes, representing the nine islands of the Azores assembled to form the mythical Açor of Portuguese legend. The "açor" or northern goshawk was thought to have been the bird found circling the islands of the Azores when Portuguese sailors first discovered the archipelago. This form appeared on the tail fin, in addition to a portion located just ahead of the wings on the fuselage.
Azores Airlines liveries
Following the airline's rebranding in 2015 from SATA Internacional to Azores Airlines, the new branding consisted of a change from blue tones to green tones, and the airline's previous açor symbol was changed to a symbol resembling a whale's tail exposed above the ocean surface, though like the previous symbol was also of nine geometrical shapes. The main elements of the new branding on the airline's livery consisted of the word "Azores" written on the aircraft tailfin, the whale tail symbol appearing on the tailfin, engines, and within the airline's name written on the forward fuselage. The airline's first Airbus A330-200 additionally featured a decal of a sperm whale on the main fuselage, with the whale tail symbol and logo also appearing on the wingtips.
In 2017, the airline introduced revisions to its branding and livery upon the delivery of its first Airbus A321neo aircaft, which involved abandoning the green tones in the airline's wordmark and logo in favor of the blue tones originally adopted in 2009, but maintaining the use of the whale tail logo. The wingtips also featured blue geometrical shapes resembling the logo. On the airline's Airbus A321neos and A321LRs, the fuselage prominently features a word, consisting of either "Breathe", "Wonder", "Magical", or "Inspire" in a different colour, accompanied by the text, "That's the feeling when you visit Azores." in a matching colour. The airline's name, logo, and associated websites are also written on either side at the forward and rear boarding doors. The airline's A321neos and the first of two A321LRs collectively delivered between 2017 and 2019 additionally feature a QR code leading to the airline's website.
In late 2020, the airline's second Airbus A321LR featured further revisions to the branding and livery, consisting of the removal of the QR code, and abandoning the use of the whale tail logo in favor of a modified version of the original açor logo adopted in 2009. On the fuselage, the revised version of the livery includes the airline's wordmark written behind the forward boarding door, while the logo is placed between the boarding door and the cockpit windows. On the aircraft tail fin, the açor logo is enlarged compared to previous iterations, with the word "Azores" written in white along the rear edge of the tail fin, while the rest of the tail fin is coloured in dark blue. Two of the airline's Airbus A320 aircraft were repainted to match the branding, each with either the word "Natural" or "Dream" written prominently on their respective fuselages.
Accidents and incidents
On 4 August 2009, a SATA Internacional Airbus A320-200 operating flight S4-129 from Lisbon to Ponta Delgada bounced off the runway then subsequently experienced a severe hard landing of 4.86G, causing damage to the landing gear. Nothing was written in the aircraft's technical maintenance log, both flight crew and maintenance staff were unable to interpret the hard landing report and despite the damage, the aircraft was not removed from service and flew back to Lisbon in customer service as well as flying an additional 6 sectors. SATA said in a statement that the hard landing/load reports are not a mandatory requirement for the aircraft type and drew attention to the amount of time Airbus took to confirm to them the interpretation of the load report. Both landing gear legs subsequently had to be replaced. In their final report the Portuguese accident investigation authority the Aviation Accidents Prevention and Investigation Department determined that the primary cause of the incident was the ground spoilers deploying in flight after the aircraft had bounced 12 ft off the runway. Contributing factors were the failure of the pilot to go-around after the bounce, the failure of the pilot to release the thrust levers before the first touchdown (which inhibited the ground spoilers deploying) and the pilot providing insufficient flare input.
See also
Aviation in the Azores
References
External links
Official website
Airlines of Portugal
Airlines established in 1998
Transport in the Azores
Airlines established in 1990
Portuguese companies established in 1990
Portuguese companies established in 1998
Portuguese brands
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226847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azadirachtin | Azadirachtin | Azadirachtin, a chemical compound belonging to the limonoid group, is a secondary metabolite present in neem seeds. It is a highly oxidized tetranortriterpenoid which boasts a plethora of oxygen-bearing functional groups, including an enol ether, acetal, hemiacetal, tetra-substituted epoxide and a variety of carboxylic esters.
Chemical synthesis
Azadirachtin has a complex molecular structure; it presents both secondary and tertiary hydroxyl groups and a tetrahydrofuran ether in its molecular structure, alongside 16 stereogenic centres, 7 of which are tetrasubstituted. These characteristics explain the great difficulty encountered when trying to prepare this compound from simple precursors, using methods of synthetic organic chemistry.
Hence, the first total synthesis was published over 22 years after the compound's discovery: this first synthesis was completed by the research group of Steven Ley at the University of Cambridge in 2007. The described synthesis was a relay approach, with the required, heavily functionalized decalin intermediate being made by total synthesis on a small scale, but being derived from the natural product itself for the gram-scale operations required to complete the synthesis.
Occurrence and use
Initially found to be active as a feeding inhibitor towards the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), it is now known to affect over 200 species of insects, by acting mainly as an antifeedant and growth disruptor. It was recently found that azadirachtin possesses considerable toxicity towards African cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis), which are resistant to a commonly used biological pesticide, Bacillus thuringiensis. Azadirachtin fulfills many of the criteria needed for a good insecticide. Azadirachtin is biodegradable (it degrades within 100 hours when exposed to light and water) and shows very low toxicity to mammals (the in rats is > 3,540 mg/kg making it practically non-toxic).
This compound is found in the seeds (0.2 to 0.8 percent by weight) of the neem tree, Azadirachta indica (hence the prefix aza does not imply an aza compound, but refers to the scientific species name). Many more compounds, related to azadirachtin, are present in the seeds as well as in the leaves and the bark of the neem tree which also show strong biological activities among various pest insects Effects of these preparations on beneficial arthropods are generally considered to be minimal . Some laboratory and field studies have found neem extracts to be compatible with biological control. Because pure neem oil contains other insecticidal and fungicidal compounds in addition to azadirachtin, it is generally mixed at a rate of of water when used as a pesticide.
Azadirachtin is the active ingredient in many pesticides including TreeAzin, AzaMax, BioNEEM, AzaGuard, and AzaSol, Terramera Proof and Terramera Cirkil.
Azadirachtin has a synergistic effect with the biocontrol agent Beauveria.
Nimbecidine is a natural product insecticide mix which is mostly azadirachtin, with some other limonoids.
Biosynthesis
Azadirachtin is formed via an elaborate biosynthetic pathway, but is believed that the steroid tirucallol is the precursor to the neem triterpenoid secondary metabolites. Tirucallol is formed from two units of farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) to form a C30 triterpene, but then loses three methyl groups to become a C27 steroid. Tirucallol undergoes an allylic isomerization to form butyrospermol, which is then oxidized. The oxidized butyrospermol subsequently rearranges via a Wagner-Meerwein 1,2-methyl shift to form apotirucallol.
Apotirucallol becomes a tetranortriterpenoid when the four terminal carbons from the side chain are cleaved off. The remaining carbons on the side chain cyclize to form a furan ring and the molecule is oxidized further to form azadirone and azadiradione. The third ring is then opened and oxidized to form the C-seco-limonoids such as nimbin, nimbidinin and salannin, which has been esterified with a molecule of tiglic acid, which is derived from L-isoleucine. It is currently proposed that the target molecule is arrived at by biosynthetically converting azadirone into salanin, which is then heavily oxidized and cyclized to reach azadirachtin.
See also
Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI)
Neem
Neem cake
Neem oil
Nimbin, another chemical isolated from Azadirachta indica also thought to contribute to the biological activity of neem
References
External links
PDF Copy
Extoxnet
Neem: The wonder tree
Plant toxin insecticides
Terpenes and terpenoids
Acetate esters
Epoxides
Polyols
Carboxylate esters
Methyl esters
Alkene derivatives
Oxygen heterocycles
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226852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neman | Neman | The Nemunas, Nioman, Neman or Memel is a river in Europe that rises in central Belarus and flows through Lithuania then forms the northern border of Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia's western exclave, which specifically follows its southern channel. It drains into the Curonian Lagoon, narrowly connected to the Baltic Sea. It flows about , so is considered a major Eastern European river. It flows generally west to Grodno within of the Polish border, north to Kaunas, then westward again to the sea.
The largest river in Lithuania, and the third-largest in Belarus, it is navigable for most of its length. It starts from two small headwaters merging about southwest of the town of Uzda – about southwest of capital city Minsk. Only , an eastward meander, contributes to the Belarus–Lithuania border. Thereafter the river includes notable loops along a minor tectonic fault.
Its drainage basin settled in the late Quaternary to be roughly along the edge of the last glacial sheet so dates to about 25,000 to 22,000 years BC. Its depth varies from in its upper courses to in the lower basin.
Numbers
The total length of the Nioman/Nemunas/Neman is . It is the 4th longest river in the Baltic Sea basin. Over its entire length, flows in Belarus and in Lithuania. A stretch is the border between Lithuania and Russia's Kaliningrad oblast.
Its greatest depth is , and at its widest it extends about .
The Nioman/Nemunas/Neman is a slow river; it flows at about .
During floods, water discharge can increase up to 11-fold, to more than . Severe floods occur on the lower reaches of the river about every 12 – 15 years, which sometimes wash out bridges.
The Nioman/Nemunas/Neman is an old river, dating back to the last glacial period. Its valley is now up to deep and broad.
It has about 105 first-class tributaries, the largest being the rivers Neris (Viliya) (), Shchara (), and Šešupė (). Fifteen of the tributaries are longer than .
In the complete Nioman/Nemunas/Neman basin, there are tributaries extending to the 11th order.
The Nemunas basin in Lithuania drains more than 20,000 rivers and rivulets and covers 72% of Lithuania's territory.
The total area of the Nioman/Nemunas/Neman basin is , of which are within Belarus, the Lithuanian portion of this basin is 46,.
Valley of Neman in Grodno Region is the lowest point above sea level in Belarus at .
River course
Neman loops
Due to their location, "The Nemunas loops" are often described using the Lithuanian name for the river. In 1992 Nemunas Loops Regional Park was founded. Its goal is to preserve the loops (Lithuanian: vingis) that the river makes in the Punia forest. Near Prienai, the Nemunas makes a loop (like a teardrop) coming within of completing the loop. The Neman flows along the double bend between Balbieriškis and Birštonas for and then moves in a northerly direction for only . The loops are not conventional river meanders; they follow underlying tectonic structures. The faults are the source of local mineral springs. The area is historically and culturally significant. Its castles served as the first line of defense against forays by the Teutonic knights.
Delta
At its delta the Neman splits into a maze of river branches and canals mixing with polders and wetlands and is a very attractive destination for eco-tourism. The four main distributaries are Atmata, Pakalnė, Skirvytė (the southern mouth, marking the international border) and Gilija. The river plays a crucial part in the ecosystem of the Curonian Lagoon. It provides the main water inflow to the lagoon and keeps the water almost fresh. This allows fresh water and brackish water animals to survive there. As the delta extends north the lagoon opposite narrows. Since the delta is in Lithuania, it is often referred to as Nemunas Delta. Nemunas Delta Regional Park was created in the delta in 1992.
Tributaries
The following rivers are tributaries to the river Neman/Nemunas (from source to mouth):
Left: Servach, Mowchadz’, Shchara, Zelvyanka, Svislach, Lasosna, Czarna Hańcza, Zembrė, Peršėkė, Šešupė, Tylzha
Right: Western Berezina, Gauja, Kotra, Haradnichanka, Merkys, Verknė, Strėva, Neris, Nevėžis, Dubysa, Mituva, Jūra, Minija
Largest settlements on the river
From west to east, the largest settlements are Sovetsk/Tilsit, Neman, Kaunas, Alytus, Druskininkai, Grodno, and Masty.
Significance in culture
Ptolemy referred to Neman as Chronos (although competing theories suppose Chronos was in fact Pregolya).
The river has lent its name to the Neman Culture, a Neolithic archaeological subculture.
In German, the part of the river flowing through historic Prussia has been called at least since about 1250, when Teutonic Knights built castle and the town of at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon, naming it after the indigenous name of the river, Memel. The city of Memel, now in Lithuania, is known today as Klaipėda (confusingly, another city of Memel was on the Dange River, now called the Danė). In German road maps and lexika, only the section within Prussia (starting at Schmalleningken) was named Memel; the bulk of the river was the Niemen.
The border between the State of the Teutonic Order and Lithuania was fixed in 1422 by the Treaty of Lake Melno and remained stable for centuries. The Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I was signed on a raft in the river in 1807. Napoleon's crossing at the outset of the 1812 French invasion of Russia is described in War and Peace and also mentioned in Pan Tadeusz. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles made the river the border separating the Memel Territory from German East Prussia as of 1920. At that time, Germany's Weimar Republic adopted the as its official national anthem. In the first stanza of the song, written in 1841, the river is mentioned as the eastern border of a (then politically yet-to-be united) Germany:
Lithuanians refer to the Nemunas as "the father of rivers" (Nemunas is a masculine noun in Lithuania). Countless companies and organizations in Lithuania have "Nemunas" in their name, including a folklore ensemble, a weekly magazine about art and culture, a sanatorium, and numerous guest houses and hotels. Lithuanian and Polish literature often mention the Nemunas. One of the most famous poems by Maironis starts:
Almost every Lithuanian can recite these words by heart.
Smaller rivers and rivulets in Lithuania with names morphologically derived or cognate are the Nemunykštis, Nemuniukas, Nemunynas, Nemunėlis and Nemunaitis.
The etymology is disputed: some say that "Nemunas" is an old word meaning "a damp place", while others that it is "mute, soundless river" (from nemti, nėmti "to become silent", also memelis, mimelis, mėmė "slow, worthless person"). The name is possibly derived from the Finnic word niemi "cape".
Art critics praised its depiction in the paintings by Michał Kulesza.
Economic significance
Much of the river is used for fishing, hydropower generation, water supply, industry, agriculture, recreation, tourism, and water transport.
Lithuania has tabled local plans to dredge it, below Kaunas, to make it more consistently usable.
The largest cities on the river are Grodno in Belarus, Alytus and Kaunas in Lithuania, and Sovetsk in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia. The river basin has a population of 5.4 million inhabitants. Industrial activities in the Belarusian section include metal processing, chemical industries, pulp and paper production, and manufacturing of building materials, as well as food-processing plants. In Lithuania, the city of Kaunas, with about 400,000 inhabitants, is the country's principal user of the river; the local industries that impact the river are hydropower generation, machinery, chemical, wood processing and paper production, furniture production, textile and food-processing. In Kaliningrad, industrial centers near the river include Sovetsk and Neman, which have large pulp and paper production facilities.
Above Kaunas a dam was built in 1959 to serve the Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant. The resulting Kaunas Reservoir () is the largest such lake in Lithuania. It occupies ; its length is ; its greatest depth is . The reservoir is a popular destination for Lithuanian yachting.
The Augustów Canal, built in the 19th century, connects the Neman to the Vistula River.
Biological communities
Fish found include the: perch, pike, zander, roach, tench, bream, rudd, ruffe, and bleak.
Its tributaries have borne stone loach, three-spined stickleback, minnows, trout, sculpins, gudgeon, dace and chub.
Atlantic salmon migrated upstream to spawn; however, dams on the river, most of them built in the 20th century, have depleted them. The dam at Kaunas does not provide fish ladders. The spawning season took place in the fall. Ethnographic studies, from before the dams, state night fishing, using torches and harpoons, was a common technique.
Environmental issues
A report by the Swedish EPA (Environmental Protection Administration) rates the river's quality in Lithuania as moderately polluted to polluted. High concentrations of organic pollutants, nitrates and phosphates occur in parts of the river. Environmental issues include water quality (eutrophication and pollutants largely due to outdated technology sewage treatment works), changes in the hydrological regime, and flooding control. The environmental problems in each of the countries that make up the basin are slightly different. In Belarus, the main problems are oil products as well as nitrogen and BOD (biological oxygen demand). The environmental issues in the Kaliningrad section include high concentrations of BOD, lignosulphates, and nitrogen. In Lithuania, the Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant barrage affects the riparian ecosystem.
Co-operation which would be beneficial is complicated by the geographical split between three nations but water quality improvement initiatives are underway.
See also
List of rivers of Europe
Normandie-Niemen (a fighter squadron, later regiment (of three squadrons) of the French Air Force)
Memelland
East Prussia
Notes
References
External links
Niemen (the Neman) in the Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland (1886)
Glaciation in Lithuania
Biotopes in the Neman and its tributaries
Atlantic salmon in the Neman River
Agata Lewandowski, Łosośna - the Unknown Valley. Not the Last Arrival for...Puciłki, „Znad Wilii”, nr 3(79) z 2019 r., p. 58–64, (in Polish)http://www.znadwiliiwilno.lt/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Znad-Wilii-3-79m-1.pdf
Helena i Leonard Drożdżewiczowie, Antologia Doliny Łosośny, (in Polish)http://193.0.118.54/search/query?term_1=Antologia+Doliny+%C5%81oso%C5%9Bny&theme=nukat
Rivers of Grodno Region
Rivers of Minsk Region
Rivers of Lithuania
Rivers of Kaliningrad Oblast
International rivers of Europe
Lithuania–Russia border
Belarus–Lithuania border
Rivers of Belarus | [
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226854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dingoes | The Dingoes | The Dingoes are an Australian country rock band. They were initially active from 1973 to 1979, and reformed in 2009. Initially based in Melbourne, the band relocated to the United States from 1976. The most stable line-up comprised John Bois on bass guitar, John Lee on drums, Broderick Smith on vocals and harmonica, Chris Stockley on guitar, and Kerryn Tolhurst on guitar. Mal Logan (who provided keyboards on the first LP) on keyboards joined after Stockley was hospitalised when shot in the stomach by Melbourne drug-dealer, Dennis Allen, who was attempting to gate crash a party. The Dingoes' debut single, "Way Out West", was released in November 1973, and peaked in the top 40 of the Australian Kent Music Report singles chart. Subsequent singles were "Boy on the Run", "Smooth Sailing", and "Into the Night", which did not reach the top 50. They had three top 40 albums, The Dingoes in 1974, Five Times the Sun in 1977, and Orphans of the Storm in 1979.
On 27 August 2009, The Dingoes were inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame alongside Kev Carmody, Little Pattie, Mental As Anything, and John Paul Young. The Dingoes reformed in late 2009 and released a new album, Tracks in 2010 which was followed by a tour of Australia. A live album Live at Last came out after the tour, which prompted another tour – this time without Bois who could not get away from his day job.
Previous bands
Kerryn Tolhurst, lead guitarist, mandolin-player, and singer-songwriter founded Adderley Smith Blues Band in 1964 in Melbourne, which was one of Australia's first authentic blues bands. Lead vocalist and harmonica-player Broderick Smith joined in 1966, both Smith and Tolhurst were conscripted into the Army as part of National Service during the Vietnam War for two years from 1968 to 1970. Smith was unable to continue with the band but Tolhurst was able to keep a line-up performing, including Joe Camilleri on saxophone in 1970. After National Service, Tolhurst formed Sundown, with singer-songwriter Keith Glass, as a country rock group, Smith briefly joined Sundown before going on to blues boogie band, Carson in 1971. After Sundown, Tolhurst joined singer-songwriter Greg Quill in his country rock group Country Radio during 1972–1973. Quill and Tolhurst co-wrote their hit singles "Gypsy Queen" and "Wintersong".
Both Carson (with Smith) and Country Radio (before Tolhurst joined) had performed at the inaugural Sunbury Pop Festival in January 1972. At the second festival in January 1973, Carson (with Smith) performed and recorded their set, including a track called "Dingo", which was released on their live album, On the Air in April. Country Radio (with Tolhurst) had also performed, and live tracks from both bands were included on the first ever Mushroom Records album, as a triple-LP, The Great Australian Rock Festival Sunbury 1973. After the 1973 festival, both Smith and Tolhurst left their respective bands. Tolhurst briefly joined Mississippi which later became Little River Band. Smith, in March, played the role of "The Father" in the Australian production of the rock opera Tommy, which was staged in Sydney and Melbourne.
Guitarist, Chris Stockley (ex-Roadrunners, Delta Set), formed psychedelic rock group Cam-Pact with Keith Glass in 1967, both had left by late 1969. Stockley joined rock group Axiom, which had top ten hits with "Arkansas Grass" and "A Little Ray Of Sunshine", before they disbanded in 1971. John Lee (ex-Sayla) had been drummer for Blackfeather from February to April 1973. John Strangio was bass guitarist for St James Infirmary and Middle Earth.
Formation and early years
The Dingoes with John Lee on drums, Broderick Smith on lead vocals and harmonica, Chris Stockley on lead guitar, John Strangio on bass guitar, and Kerryn Tolhurst on guitar and mandolin, were formed in Melbourne in April 1973. Strangio left in August and was replaced on bass guitar by John Bois, who had been a member of Melbourne '60s pop band New Dream and was later a member (with Tolhurst) of Country Radio. The Dingoes combined R&B, country and rock 'n' roll with songs that used Australian themes and imagery.
The Dingoes were an early signing to the fledgling Mushroom Records label, it issued their debut single "Way Out West" which was jointly credited to Lee, Bois, Smith, Stockley, and Tolhurst although Bois' book confirms that the song was written by Tolhurst alone. A week before the single was released Stockley received a serious gunshot wound during an incident at a party in Melbourne that resulted in a two-month stay in hospital, initially described as an 'accidental shooting', according to music historian, Ian McFarlane's Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop, Stockley was shot by notorious drug dealer Dennis Allen, who was trying to gate crash the party. An eight-hour benefit concert was held for Stockley on 4 November 1973 at Leggett's Ballroom, Greville Street, Prahran. While recuperating, Stockley was replaced by keyboard player Mal Logan (ex Healing Force, Carson), who stayed on, after Stockley returned, until the end of 1974.
Released in October 1973, "Way Out West" peaked into the top 40 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart, and reached No. 26 in Melbourne, it became their signature tune. The Dingoes appeared at the third Sunbury Pop Festival in 1974, held on the Australia Day long weekend, and their performance featured on Mushroom's Highlights of Sunbury '74, released later that year. The same month, they recorded their self-titled debut LP, The Dingoes, which was produced by John French. Logan contributed keyboards on several tracks, including "Goin' Down" and "Sydney Ladies". "Way Out West" was later covered by James Blundell and James Reyne (ex-Australian Crawl) in 1992, their version peaked at No. 2 on the ARIA Singles Charts, Smith supplied harmonica for this version.
Lee left in May 1974 to join Ariel and was replaced on drums by Ray Arnott, (ex-Cam-Pact with Stockley, Spectrum, Mighty Kong). The Dingoes was released in June 1974, along with a second single "Boy on the Run", co-written by Stockley and Smith, which peaked at No. 24 in Melbourne but did not break into the top 50 nationally. The LP reached No. 24 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart in July, it was the Federation of Australian Broadcasters' "Album of the Year" for 1974. A non-album single, "Smooth Sailing", written by Tolhurst, and backed with "Dingoes Lament" (an instrumental written by Bois), was released in October. During the year The Dingoes toured nationally with various artists including Bad Company, Leo Sayer, Bo Diddley, and Freddy Fender.
North America
Early in 1975, after appearing at the fourth Sunbury Pop Festival, The Dingoes received a phone call from expatriate Australian roadie Billy McCartney, who had seen them when visiting from the United States, where he had established himself as a tour manager for Elvis Presley and Rod Stewart. Returning to the US, McCartney recommended the band to Peter Rudge, who was then tour manager for The Rolling Stones and Lynyrd Skynyrd, and, after ten months negotiations, Rudge agreed to manage The Dingoes in the US.
The following months frustrated the band—with an expected summons from Rudge at any time, they were unable to commit to long-term tours or to recording—they lost valuable ground in Australia when they could have consolidated on the success of the LP and singles. Meanwhile, they provided two tracks, "Marijuana Hell" and the Percy Sledge cover "When a Man Loves a Woman" to the Various Artists live album Live at the Station which was released on Lamington Records in 1976. An American tour was finally arranged for mid-1976, by the time they arrived Rudge's attention was focused on Lynyrd Skynyrd. Just prior to leaving, Arnott quit the group by "mutual agreement" and Lee returned to the fold, meeting up with the band in North America. Arnott pursued a solo career and was later with Renée Geyer Band, Cold Chisel, and Jimmy Barnes.
The Dingoes signed a two-album deal with US-based, A&M records, on recommendations from McCartney and Rudge, and undertook three months of rehearsals in Canada, then headed for the US, where they set up base in Mill Valley, Northern California, at the start of 1977. They recorded tracks for their A&M album, Five Times the Sun, in San Francisco during January and February, produced by Elliot Mazer (Janis Joplin, Neil Young), with session contributions from keyboardists Nicky Hopkins and Garth Hudson; it featured liner notes by author Emmett Grogan. Five Times the Sun, which peaked at No. 25 on the Australian albums chart in August, included re-recorded versions of tracks from their first album. "Way Out West" and "Smooth Sailing", released in September, as a double A-single in Australia, did not peak into the top 50. Soon after, band members were granted their prized green cards, allowing them to base themselves in US, in their two-year stay they toured 40 states by road. A serious blow to the band's future came on 20 October when several members of proposed tour mates, Lynyrd Skynyrd, were killed in a plane crash, a tragedy which destroyed the morale of The Dingoes' management team.
Stockley left the band and returned to Australia in early 1978, initially he joined Greg Quill's new band Southern Cross, and later founded Stockley, See & Mason. He was replaced in The Dingoes by American session guitarist Andrew Jeffers-Hardin, the group had moved east and settled near Woodstock, in upstate New York. In mid-1978, they recorded a third album, Orphans of the Storm, at New York's famed The Hit Factory, and continued to tour around the US until late 1978, but their efforts to enter the US record charts were unrealised. Orphans of the Storm was released in February 1979, along with a final single, "Into the Night", but by this time Smith had returned to Australia and The Dingoes had split.
They are touring with Joe Cocker in Australia for the 2011 "Day on the Green" concerts.
After The Dingoes
Smith came back to Australia in late 1978 and fronted his own bands including Broderick Smith's Big Combo. He branched out into TV acting with appearances in the Australian series Janus, Law of the Land, Snowy River: The McGregor Saga, Blue Heelers, and State Coroner. He worked in an acoustic duo with musical partner Mick Ahearne and played harmonica with Backsliders, alternating with Ian Collard (Collard, Greens and Gravy) as a replacement for founding member Jim Conway. and has continued to record and release solo albums. In 2013, Smith collaborated with the psychedelic band King Gizzard & The Lizard Wizard, which his son Ambrose is a member of, on their album Eyes Like the Sky. The record is structured around a story that was written and narrated by Smith.
Bois, Lee, and Tolhurst, all remained in the US. Bois returned to study, gained a master's degree and became a high school biology teacher, living and working in Maryland, USA, and later moving to Florida, USA. As an amateur expert on dinosaurs he contributed to the BBC TV series Walking with Dinosaurs. During his teaching years, he also wrote a creative memoir of his time in The Dingoes, entitled The Dingoes' Lament (named after his track on their debut album), which remained unpublished until 2012. He later had an article published in the Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology in 2017.
After The Dingoes, Lee joined a later lineup of cult Washington group Root Boy Slim & the Sex Change Band, and eventually settled in Washington DC, where he worked with local group Johnny Bombay & the Reactions, before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. During his time in the USA Lee worked with a wide variety of artists (including Steve Marriott) until his return to Australia in the late 1990s. Unfortunately, by this time, years of alcohol abuse had taken a heavy toll on his health and John died from liver failure in July 1999. A posthumously-released CD compilation, Back 2 3 4, included The Dingoes' "So Long For So Little", a track recorded at Atlantic Studios in New York in the late 1970s, which had previously been included on The Dingoes Way Out West compilation (1992).
Tolhurst lived and worked in New York for many years, and continued his career as a songwriter, performer, and producer, both in Australia and in the US. A slightly reworked version of his song "All Fired Up" became a major hit for Pat Benatar in 1988, making the Top 20 in the US and Canada, and reaching No. 2 in Australia, where it was No. 16 on the End of Year Singles Chart. In 1995, Tolhurst collaborated with Paul Kelly on his Deeper Water album, in NYC. He was co-producer and performer in the "Spirit Returns" album and concert, which featured the reformed Goanna, Ross Hannaford (ex-Daddy Cool), and Liam O'Maonlai (Hothouse Flowers) at the Melbourne Festival in 1998. He produced numerous albums in NY including 'Little Pieces ' and 'The Way I See It' for R& B legend Jimmy Norman. In 2006 he moved to Tucson, Arizona, and set up a studio where he recorded Shane Howard's 'Goanna Dreaming' and The Dingoes reunion album 'Tracks'. After touring with The Dingoes and producing their live album, 'Live at Last', Tolhurst returned to live in Australia in 2010 and continues to work as a producer and live performer.
Reformation
On 27 August 2009, The Dingoes were inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame alongside Kev Carmody, Little Pattie, Mental As Anything, and John Paul Young. They were inducted into the Hall of Fame by Richard Clapton and performed "Way Out West" and "Boy on the Run". Melbourne drummer Ashley Davies (ex-Wild Pumpkins at Midnight) joined Bois, Smith, Stockley, and Tolhurst in the reformed group which recorded Tracks in late 2009 and early 2010. The new album was released on 6 August 2010, coinciding with an Australia tour, it debuted at No. 14 on the ARIA Country Music Top 20 Chart. In October 2010, their debut album, The Dingoes (1974) was listed in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums.
In 2012 John Bois' memoir The Dingoes' Lament was published by Melbourne Books and at the end of December 2012 the group reformed (for possibly the last time) for a short series of concerts in Victoria. The lineup again comprised the four surviving original members, with Ashley Davies on drums, and the mini-tour included three sold-out shows at the Caravan Music Club in Oakleigh, Melbourne, where they were supported by Steve Hoy and Ross Hannaford.
Members
Current Members
Broderick Smith – lead vocals, harmonica (1973–1979, 2009–present)
Chris Stockley – lead guitar, vocals (1973–1978, 2009–present)
John Bois – bass guitar, lead guitar, keyboards, vocals (1973–1979, 2009–present)
Ashley Davies – drums (2009–present)
Kerryn Tolhurst – guitar, mandolin, vocals (1973–1979, 2009–present
Former Members
John Lee – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1973–1974, 1976–1979)
John Strangio – bass guitar (1973)
Mal Logan – keyboards (1973–1974)
Ray Arnott – drums, backing vocals (1974–1976)
Andrew Jeffers-Hardin – guitar (1978–1979)
Discography
Albums
Singles
Other appearances
Notes
References
External links
[ The Dingoes] at AllMusic
The Dingoes discography at MusicBrainz
The Dingoes at Milesago
ARIA Award winners
ARIA Hall of Fame inductees
Victoria (Australia) musical groups
Musical groups established in 1973
Musical groups disestablished in 1979
Pub rock musical groups
Mushroom Records artists
A&M Records artists | [
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226856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norton%27s%20theorem | Norton's theorem | In direct-current circuit theory, Norton's theorem, also called the Mayer–Norton theorem, is a simplification that can be applied to networks made of linear time-invariant resistances, voltage sources, and current sources. At a pair of terminals of the network, it can be replaced by a current source and a single resistor in parallel.
For alternating current (AC) systems the theorem can be applied to reactive impedances as well as resistances.
The Norton equivalent circuit is used to represent any network of linear sources and impedances at a given frequency.
Norton's theorem and its dual, Thévenin's theorem, are widely used for circuit analysis simplification and to study circuit's initial-condition and steady-state response.
Norton's theorem was independently derived in 1926 by Siemens & Halske researcher Hans Ferdinand Mayer (1895–1980) and Bell Labs engineer Edward Lawry Norton (1898–1983).
To find the equivalent, the Norton current Ino is calculated as the current flowing at the terminals into a short circuit (zero resistance between A and B). This is Ino. The Norton resistance Rno is found by calculating the output voltage produced with no resistance connected at the terminals; equivalently, this is the resistance between the terminals with all (independent) voltage sources short-circuited and independent current sources open-circuited. This is equivalent to calculating the Thevenin resistance.
When there are dependent sources, the more general method must be used. The voltage at the terminals is calculated for an injection of a 1Amp test current at the terminals. This voltage divided by the 1 A current is the Norton impedance Rno. This method must be used if the circuit contains dependent sources, but it can be used in all cases even when there are no dependent sources.
Example of a Norton equivalent circuit
In the example, the total current Itotal is given by:
The current through the load is then, using the current divider rule:
And the equivalent resistance looking back into the circuit is:
So the equivalent circuit is a 3.75 mA current source in parallel with a 2 kΩ resistor.
Conversion to a Thévenin equivalent
A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thévenin equivalent by the equations:
Queueing theory
The passive circuit equivalent of "Norton's theorem" in queuing theory is called the Chandy Herzog Woo theorem. In a reversible queueing system, it is often possible to replace an uninteresting subset of queues by a single (FCFS or PS) queue with an appropriately chosen service rate.
See also
Ohm's Law
Millman's theorem
Source transformation
Superposition theorem
Thévenin's theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Extra element theorem
References
External links
Norton's theorem at allaboutcircuits.com
Circuit theorems
Linear electronic circuits | [
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226861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mister%20Peepers | Mister Peepers | Mister Peepers is an American sitcom that aired on NBC from July 3, 1952, to June 12, 1955.
Overview
Wally Cox starred as Robinson J. Peepers, Jefferson City's junior high school science teacher. Others in the cast included Tony Randall as history teacher Harvey Weskit; Georgann Johnson as Harvey's wife, Marge; Patricia Benoit as school nurse Nancy Remington; Marion Lorne as oft-confused English teacher Mrs. Gurney; Jack Warden as athletic coach Frank Whip; and Ernest Truex and Sylvia Field as Nancy's parents.
The series began as a live summer replacement show, and was so popular that thousands wrote to NBC praising the series. When the Fall 1952 television season began, the filmed series Doc Corkle was so unpopular that additional scripts for Mr. Peepers were quickly written, and that series replaced Doc Corkle in October.
The series often involved Peepers coping with misbehaving inanimate objects or embarrassing moments. In a typical scene, Peepers sees a hopscotch grid chalked on a sidewalk, and thinking himself alone, plays the game with abandon, only to discover that his girlfriend Nancy has been silently watching the entire time.
The principal's dithering wife, Mrs. Gurney, played by Marion Lorne, is kind and gracious, but absentminded. In one episode, Peepers injures his finger with a hammer, and Mrs. Gurney solicitously bandages his finger to at least five times its actual size. After Mrs. Gurney leaves the room, Peepers tells Nancy that the wrong finger had been bandaged.
Tony Randall played history teacher Harvey Weskit. Popular and confident Weskit becomes the best friend of timid, bespectacled Peepers. In one episode, Weskit points out a packet of unopened love letters that women have sent him, complaining that he is always getting them. He begins to look inside Peepers' locker to see the stack of similar letters he expects to find there, and Peepers quickly closes the locker door, commenting that he has to keep the door closed so that they will not all fall out.
Patricia Benoit, as Nancy Remington, is Peepers' love interest, although for a time, she seems unaware of his attraction to her. By February of 1954, though, the couple's romance had progressed to the point of Mr. Peepers presenting Nancy with a photograph of himself, inscribed "Scientifically yours, Robinson". Peepers proposed on the April 18th episode, and the couple wed on the May 30, 1954, show. The marriage episode was one of the major television events of 1954. The American TV magazine TV Guide used the picture of the couple's television wedding on its cover page.
Mister Peepers was aired live, on stage before an audience at the New Century Theatre, 932 7th Avenue, New York City—preserved in the form of 16 mm kinescopes.
Wally Cox was somewhat typecast by the role of the mild-mannered Peepers, but continued on to a long career in movies and television. He later starred in a comedy/adventure series, The Adventures of Hiram Holliday, and is remembered as the voice of the cartoon superhero Underdog. He is best remembered by game-show fans as a regular panelist on The Hollywood Squares from 1966 until his death in 1973. He also wrote and published a novel,
Mr. Peepers (1955),
based on scripts from the televised adventures of the character.
Episode status
Reportedly 102 of the 127 episode Kinescopes of Mister Peepers survive. RetroTV aired episodes of the show on Wednesday mornings, but as of 2021, no longer does.
DVD release
In 2005, the first 26 episodes of Mister Peepers, which had been preserved by the UCLA Film and Television Archive, were released on DVD by S'more Entertainment. In November 2008, the second boxed set of Mister Peepers was released by S'more Entertainment. The tagline at the bottom of the box reads: "America's Favorite Science Teacher, Underdog and All-Round Nice Guy." The Underdog comment coyly references Cox's later role as the voice of the title character in the Underdog cartoon.
Mister Peepers began as a summer replacement series in 1952. The first DVD set, titled Mr. Peepers, contains the summer episodes, as well as those from October 1952 to March 1953 episodes of the first full season. The Mister Peepers - Season 2" DVD sets picks up where the first set left off, containing episodes from the remainder of the first season and part of the second season, from March 1953 to November 1953.
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1952 American television series debuts
1955 American television series endings
1950s American high school television series
1950s American sitcoms
American workplace comedy television series
Black-and-white American television shows
English-language television shows
Peepers, Robinson J.
NBC original programming
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Television series about educators | [
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226863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dj%C5%8D%20Masako | Hōjō Masako | was Japanese Buddhist nun and politician who exercised significant power in the early years of the Kamakura period, which was reflected by her contemporary sobriquet of the "nun shogun". She was the eldest daughter of Hōjō Tokimasa and sister of Hōjō Yoshitoki, both of them shikkens of the Kamakura shogunate. She was the wife of Minamoto no Yoritomo, and mother of
Minamoto no Yoriie and Minamoto no Sanetomo, the first, second and third shōguns of the Kamakura period.
Early life to marriage (1156–1182)
Hōjō Masako was born in 1156, eldest child of Hōjō Tokimasa, leader of the influential Hōjō clan of Izu province, and his wife, Hōjō no Maki. Masako's parents were still in their teens, so she was raised by many ladies-in-waiting and nannies. Masako was born into a world of war and strife. In Kyoto, the capital of Japan, the Hōgen Rebellion was in full swing. Cloistered Emperor Toba and Emperor Sutoku warred over who would be the next emperor. The Hōjō clan wisely chose to stay out of the rebellion, even though the Hōjō family was descended from the Taira clan and thus was related to the imperial family.
During the Heiji Rebellion in 1159, the Taira clan under Taira no Kiyomori, defeated the Minamoto clan with the support of Cloistered Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Minamoto no Yoshitomo, leader of the Minamoto clan, was executed while his sons and daughters were either executed or sent to nunneries. Of his surviving sons, Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Minamoto no Noriyori were forced into priesthood, while Minamoto no Yoritomo, at the age of thirteen, was exiled to Izu in the domain of Hōjō Tokimasa. While this was happening, Masako was barely an infant. The Taira under Kiyomori now were in successful control of Japan.
Masako was the oldest child of fifteen. She was instructed in horseback riding, hunting, fishing, and she ate with men rather than with the women of the household. Her brother, Hōjō Yoshitoki, was born in 1163 would eventually become a member of the Rokuhara Tandai. Another of her brothers, Hōjō Tokifusa, would become the second Hōjō shikken (regent) of the Kamakura shogunate and head of the Hōjō clan.
Masako married Yoritomo around 1177, against her father's wishes. In 1179, they had their first daughter, Ō-Hime. As Yoritomo's wife, she participated in the government administration and eventually became a representation of power for men of the Hōjō clan.
The same year a disillusioned Imperial Prince Mochihito, son of Emperor Go-Shirakawa, called on the Minamoto members remaining in Japan to overthrow the Taira. Mochihito thought the Taira had denied him the throne to offer the throne to Emperor Antoku, who was half Taira. Minamoto no Yoshitomo considered himself the head of the Minamoto and responded. He had the full support of the Hōjō and Hōjō Tokimasa, not to mention Masako. The Minamoto center was at the city of Kamakura, to the east of Izu in Sagami Province.
Thus, the Genpei War, the final war between Minamoto and Taira had begun. In 1180, Masako's elder brother Munetoki was killed at Battle of Ishibashiyama and Yoshitoki became heir of Hōjō clan. In 1181, Taira no Kiyomori died, leaving the Taira in the hands of his son Taira no Munemori. In 1182, Masako and Yoritomo had their first son, Minamoto no Yoriie, who would be the heir.
The Genpei War and its aftermath (1182–1199)
In 1183, Yoritomo's rival and cousin Minamoto no Yoshinaka took Kyoto, forcing the Taira (and Emperor Antoku) to Shikoku. Quickly, Emperor Go-Toba was installed by the Minamoto. Nonetheless, Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Minamoto no Noriyori, Yoritomo's half brothers who had joined Yoritomo drove Yoshinaka out and executed him, and took Kyoto in the name of Yoritomo (and the Hōjō.)
By 1185, the Taira were completely defeated at the Battle of Dan-no-ura. Munemori was executed, while the remaining Taira either were executed or drowned, including the young Emperor Antoku. Minamoto no Yoritomo was now the undisputed leader of Japan. Hōjō Masako and her family had stood by Yoritomo through it all. She rode with him on his campaigns and was never defeated in battle.
His new allegiance to his wife's family and her dislike of her brothers-in-law, as well as an internal power struggle brought up by the three brothers, eventually resulted in the arrest and execution of Yoshitsune and Noriyori. Yoritomo even created new titles, such as shugo and jitō, which Hōjō Tokimasa received approval from Cloistered Emperor Go-Shirakawa in Kyoto. The capital was not moved to Kyoto, but remained away from the court in Kamakura.
In 1192, Yoritomo was named shōgun by Cloistered Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who died later that year. He was now the most powerful man in Japan, and gave that power over to Masako and the Hōjō clan. That same year Masako and Yoritomo had another son, Minamoto no Sanetomo.
Death, corruption, and familial strife (1199–1205)
In 1199, Minamoto no Yoritomo died. He was succeeded as shōgun by his son, Minamoto no Yoriie. Since he was only eighteen, Hōjō Tokimasa proclaimed himself shikken or regent for Yoriie. Masako also had a strong position since her son was shōgun. Since her husband was dead, she shaved her head and became a Buddhist nun, receiving a tonsure from the priest Gyōyū. However, she did not take up residence in a monastery or a nunnery, and still involved herself in politics. Along with her father Tokimasa and her brother Yoshitoki, Masako created a council of regents for the eighteen-year-old Yoriie. The headstrong shōgun hated his mother's family and preferred his wife's family, the Hiki clan, and his father-in-law, Hiki Yoshikazu.
Hōjō Masako overheard a plot that Yoshikazu and Yoriie were hatching, and turned in her own son to Tokimasa, who did not hurt Yoriie but had Yoshikazu executed in 1203. Now, Shōgun Yoriie was very sick and retired to Izu Province. He was murdered in 1204, no doubt by Tokimasa's orders. Masako had not been aware of this. During the murders and purges of the Hiki clan, Minamoto no Ichiman, Yoriie's eldest son and heir and Masako's grandson, was also executed since he was part Hiki himself.
In 1203, Masako's other son by Yoritomo, Minamoto no Sanetomo, became the third shōgun with Tokimasa as regent. Sanetomo was closer to his mother than his elder brother was, and still a child when appointed shōgun, by contrast his brother, who was forced to abdicate as shōgun was now an adult. Nonetheless, Masako and Yoshitoki, the heir to the Hōjō, were angry with their father, especially after their mother, Hōjō no Maki, died in 1204. Masako's sister's husband, Hatakeyama Shigetada, was wrongfully executed on Tokimasa's orders even after Yoshitoki, Masako, and Tokifusa told Tokimasa he was not guilty of the "treason" charges. Hōjō Tokimasa was by 1205 the most powerful man in Kamakura.
Masako heard rumors that Tokimasa was planning to execute Sanetomo and replace him with one of his allies, so Masako and Yoshitoki immediately ordered Tokimasa to step down and go into priesthood or they would rebel. Hōjō Tokimasa abdicated in 1205, and was sent off to a monastery in Kamakura, where he shaved his head and became a monk, dying in 1215.
The later years (1205–1225)
Tokimasa was ousted in 1205 when Minamoto no Sanetomo became shōgun. The position of the Hōjō clan was still secure. Masako's brother, Hōjō Yoshitoki, succeeded as shikken for Sanetomo, and Masako herself remained in a powerful position as a negotiator with the court. In 1218, Masako was awarded the Junior Second Rank (Ritsuryō (律令)) by the imperial government. She continued to work towards the creation of an advisory council. During this time, she was sent by Regent Yoshitoki on a mission to the Cloistered Emperor Go-Toba, to ask if Minamoto no Sanetomo might adopt one of the emperor's sons as an heir. The emperor refused.
In 1219, Sanetomo was killed by his nephew Kugyō, son of his murdered elder brother Yoriie. Sanetomo's death marked the end of the Minamoto line of shōguns. Masako and Hōjō Yoshitoki selected Kujō Yoritsune, known as Fujiwara no Yoritsune, as the next shōgun. Because Yoritsune was still an infant, Masako was able to act as de facto shōgun until her death. Yoritsune belonged to the Kujō clan (itself part of the Fujiwara clan) but his grandmother was the niece of first shōgun Yoritomo. This meant that whilst he was not strictly a member of the Hōjō clan he was still a figurehead for them.
During the Jōkyū War of 1221, Go-Toba rebelled against the Hōjō. Kamakura was greatly upset by that news, but Masako is said to have calmed it down with her celebrated speech to Kamakura vassals. Azuma Kagami, the official chronicle of the Kamakura shogunate, tells that Masako summoned the vassals and had these words delivered to them by Adachi Kagemori, the Vice-Governor of Akita Fortress:
Regent Yoshitoki and his eldest son, Hōjō Yasutoki, responded to the rebellion by regaining Kyoto,resulting in the exile of Go-Toba. Masako continued to consolidate rule under the advisory council, manage relationships and connections between imperial and aristocratic families, and administer judgments and postwar rewards. In an era that acknowledged the authority and legitimacy of women in rule, Masako's dominance enabled the Hōjō clan to dominate the Kamakura Shogunate until the downfall of the government in 1333.
Hōjō Masako died in 1225 at the age of 69. Due to her lifestyle of cloistered rule, she was known as the ama-shōgun, or the "nun-shōgun". Azuma Kagami portrayed her as a peer of Empress Lü in China and Empress Jingū of Japan.
In Fiction
Kusa Moeru 1979 Taiga drama, Shima Iwashita played Hōjō Masako.
See also
Hōjō clan
Hōjō Tokimasa
Hōjō Yoshitoki
Hōjō Yasutoki
Hōjō Tokifusa
Kugyō
Minamoto no Yoritomo
Minamoto no Yoriie
Minamoto no Sanetomo
Kujō Yoritsune
Emperor Go-Toba
Emperor Go-Shirakawa
Taira no Kiyomori
Kamakura shogunate
References
Sources
External links
Samurai Archives: Hojo Masako
History Detective Podcast: The Nun Shogun Hōjō Masako
1150s births
1225 deaths
12th-century Buddhist nuns
12th-century Japanese women
12th-century women rulers
13th-century Buddhist nuns
13th-century Japanese women
13th-century women rulers
Masako
Japanese Buddhist nuns
Japanese women in warfare
Minamoto clan
People of Kamakura-period Japan
People of Heian-period Japan
Women in 12th-century warfare
Women of medieval Japan | [
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226864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9venin%27s%20theorem | Thévenin's theorem | As originally stated in terms of direct-current resistive circuits only, Thévenin's theorem states that "For any linear electrical network containing only voltage sources, current sources and resistances can be replaced at terminals A–B by an equivalent combination of a voltage source Vth in a series connection with a resistance Rth."
The equivalent voltage Vth is the voltage obtained at terminals A–B of the network with terminals A–B open circuited.
The equivalent resistance Rth is the resistance that the circuit between terminals A and B would have if all ideal voltage sources in the circuit were replaced by a short circuit and all ideal current sources were replaced by an open circuit.
If terminals A and B are connected to one another, the current flowing from A to B will be Vth/Rth. This means that Rth could alternatively be calculated as Vth divided by the short-circuit current between A and B when they are connected together.
In circuit theory terms, the theorem allows any one-port network to be reduced to a single voltage source and a single impedance.
The theorem also applies to frequency domain AC circuits consisting of reactive and resistive impedances. It means the theorem applies for AC in an exactly same way to DC except that resistances are generalized to impedances.
The theorem was independently derived in 1853 by the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz and in 1883 by Léon Charles Thévenin (1857–1926), an electrical engineer with France's national Postes et Télégraphes telecommunications organization.
Thévenin's theorem and its dual, Norton's theorem, are widely used to make circuit analysis simpler and to study a circuit's initial-condition and steady-state response. Thévenin's theorem can be used to convert any circuit's sources and impedances to a Thévenin equivalent; use of the theorem may in some cases be more convenient than use of Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
Calculating the Thévenin equivalent
The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VTh in series with a resistance RTh.
The Thévenin-equivalent voltage VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the output terminals of the original circuit. When calculating a Thévenin-equivalent voltage, the voltage divider principle is often useful, by declaring one terminal to be Vout and the other terminal to be at the ground point.
The Thévenin-equivalent resistance RTh is the resistance measured across points A and B "looking back" into the circuit. The resistance is measured after replacing all voltage- and current-sources with their internal resistances. That means an ideal voltage source is replaced with a short circuit, and an ideal current source is replaced with an open circuit. Resistance can then be calculated across the terminals using the formulae for series and parallel circuits. This method is valid only for circuits with independent sources. If there are dependent sources in the circuit, another method must be used such as connecting a test source across A and B and calculating the voltage across or current through the test source.
As a mnemonic, the Thevenin replacements for voltage and current sources can be remembered as we turn the sources' values (meaning their voltage or current) to zero. A zero valued voltage source would create a potential difference of zero volts between its terminals, just like an ideal short circuit would do, with two leads touching; therefore we replace the source with a short circuit. Similarly, a zero valued current source and an open circuit both pass zero current.
Example
In the example, calculating the equivalent voltage:
(Notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as above calculations are done in an open-circuit condition between A and B, therefore no current flows through this part, which means there is no current through R1 and therefore no voltage drop along this part.)
Calculating equivalent resistance ( is the total resistance of two parallel resistors):
Conversion to a Norton equivalent
A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thévenin equivalent by
Practical limitations
Many circuits are only linear over a certain range of values, thus the Thévenin equivalent is valid only within this linear range.
The Thévenin equivalent has an equivalent I–V characteristic only from the point of view of the load.
The power dissipation of the Thévenin equivalent is not necessarily identical to the power dissipation of the real system. However, the power dissipated by an external resistor between the two output terminals is the same regardless of how the internal circuit is implemented.
A proof of the theorem
The proof involves two steps. The first step is to use superposition theorem to construct a solution. Then, uniqueness theorem is employed to show that the obtained solution is unique. It is noted that the second step is usually implied in literature.
By using superposition of specific configurations, it can be shown that for any linear "black box" circuit which contains voltage sources and resistors, its voltage is a linear function of the corresponding current as follows
Here, the first term reflects the linear summation of contributions from each voltage source, while the second term measures the contributions from all the resistors.
The above expression is obtained by using the fact that the voltage of the black box for a given current is identical to the linear superposition of the solutions of the following problems: (1) to leave the black box open circuited but activate individual voltage source one at a time and, (2) to short circuit all the voltage sources but feed the circuit with a certain ideal voltage source so that the resulting current exactly reads (Alternatively, one can use an ideal current source of current ). Moreover, it is straightforward to show that and are the single voltage source and the single series resistor in question.
As a matter of fact, the above relation between and is established by superposition of some particular configurations. Now, the uniqueness theorem guarantees that the result is general. To be specific, there is one and only one value of once the value of is given. In other words, the above relation holds true independent of what the "black box" is plugged to.
In three-phase circuits
In 1933, A. T. Starr published a generalization of Thévenin's theorem in an article of the magazine Institute of Electrical Engineers Journal, titled A New Theorem for Active Networks, which states that any three-terminal active linear network can be substituted by three voltage sources with corresponding impedances, connected in wye or in delta.
See also
Millman's theorem
Source transformation
Superposition theorem
Norton's theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Extra element theorem
References
Further reading
First-Order Filters: Shortcut via Thévenin Equivalent Source — showing on p. 4 complex circuit's Thévenin's theorem simplication to first-order low-pass filter and associated voltage divider, time constant and gain.
External links
Circuit theorems
Linear electronic circuits | [
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226866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khlong | Khlong | A khlong (, ), alternatively spelt as klong (), commonly refers to a canal in Thailand. These canals are spawned by the Chao Phraya, the Tha Chin, the Mae Klong Rivers, and their tributaries particularly in the low-lying areas of central Thailand. The Thai word khlong is not limited to artificial canals. Many smaller rivers are referred to as "khlongs", followed by the name of the stream.
Khlongs in Bangkok
there are 1,682 canals in Bangkok, totalling 2,604 kilometres in length. Nine canals are primary flood drainage conduits.
In years past, the Thai capital was crisscrossed by khlongs, and so gained the nickname, "Venice of the East". Khlongs were used for transportation, for floating markets, but also for sewage disposal. Today, most of the khlongs of Bangkok have been filled in, although the Thonburi side of Bangkok (covering areas west of Chao Phraya River) still retains several of its larger khlongs.
Khlong Saen Saep in central Bangkok is a significant thoroughfare in traffic-congested Bangkok's public transportation network.
Floating markets
Traditional floating markets now exist mainly as tourist attractions. The best-known is the Damnoen Saduak floating market in Ratchaburi Province.
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226872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1579%20in%20literature | 1579 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1579.
Events
January 28 – Burmese language poets Nawrahta Minsaw and Hsinbyushin Medaw become king and queen consort of Lanna respectively.
February – Torquato Tasso arrives in Ferrara. Shortly afterwards he is confined in the Ospedale di Sant'Anna as insane; he remains here until 1586.
unknown dates – Bible of Kralice begins publication. The first complete translation of the Bible into the Czech language (with notes) is prepared by the Unity of the Brethren and published at Kralice nad Oslavou in Bohemia.
New books
John Frampton
A discourse of the Navigation which the Portugales doe Make to the Realmes and Provinces of the East Partes of the Worlde, and of the knowledge that growes by them of the great thinges, which are in the Dominion of China, first English work (translated from Bernardino de Escalante) devoted to China
The most noble and famous travels of Marco Polo, first English translation of The Travels of Marco Polo
Stephen Gosson – The Schoole of Abuse, containing a pleasant invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters and such like Caterpillars of the Commonwealth
Martin de Hoyarçabal – Les voyages aventureux du Capitaine Martin de Hoyarsal, habitant du çubiburu
Thomas Lodge – Honest Excuses
Thomas North – The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romanes (Plutarch's Parallel Lives translated from Amyot's French version)
Piotr Skarga – Żywoty świętych (Lives of the Saints)
Poetry
Edmund Spenser – The Shepheardes Calender
Births
February 9 – Johannes Meursius, Dutch classical scholar (died 1639)
August 1 – Luís Vélez de Guevara, Spanish dramatist and novelist (died 1644)
August 23 – Thomas Dempster, Scottish Catholic scholar and historian (died 1625)
September 16 – Samuel Coster, Dutch dramatist (died 1665)
October 4 – Guido Bentivoglio, Italian statesman and historian (died 1644)
December 20 (baptised) – John Fletcher, English dramatist (died 1625)
Unknown dates
Chimalpahin, Aztec historian (died 1660)
Arthur Johnston, Scottish poet and physician (died 1641)
Johannes Messenius, Swedish historian and dramatist (died 1636)
Rhys Prichard, Welsh-language religious poet (died 1644)
Francis Rous, English religious writer (died 1659)
Walter Yonge of Colyton, English diarist (died 1649)
Deaths
March 12 – Alessandro Piccolomini, Italian philosopher (born 1508)
June 10 – William Whittingham, English Biblical scholar and translator (born 1524)
November 21 – Cipriano Piccolpasso, Italian poet and author (born 1524)
Unknown dates
Giovanni Battista Adriani, Italian historian (born 1511 or 1513)
Alonso de Molina, Spanish grammarian and lexicographer (born c. 1513)
William Seres, English printer
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1578%20in%20literature | 1578 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1578.
Events
December – Publication of John Lyly's didactic prose romance Euphues: the Anatomy of Wyt, originating the ornate English prose style known as Euphuism.
unknown date – Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga is sent on a mission to Zaragoza by King Philip II of Spain.
New books
Prose
Diogo de Payva de Andrada – Defensio Tridentinæ fidei (posthumously published)
George Best – A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie…under the Conduct of Martin Frobisher
John Florio – First Fruits
Jaroš Griemiller – Rosarium philosophorum
Gabriel Harvey – Smithus, vel Musarum lachrymae
John Lyly – Euphues: the Anatomy of Wit
Margaret Tyler, The Mirrour of Princely Deedes and Knighthood
Drama
Jan Kochanowski – Odprawa posłów greckich ("The Dismissal of the Greek Envoys")
George Whetstone – Promos and Cassandra
Poetry
See 1578 in poetry
Births
April 2 – Francesco Amico, Italian theologian
June – Mary Fitton, possible inspiration for Shakespeare's The Dark Lady (died 1647)
August 24 – John Taylor, English poet and waterman (died 1653)
unknown dates
Giambattista Andreini, Italian dramatist and actor (died 1650)
Jacob Bidermann, German dramatist (died 1627)
George Hakewill, English author and cleric (died 1649)
Deaths
May 4 – Martin Eisengrein, German theologian and polemicist (born 1535)
July 27 – Jane Lumley, English translator from Greek and Latin (born 1537)
August 11 – Pedro Nunes, Portuguese polymath (born 1502)
October 12 – Cornelius Gemma, Dutch physician, astronomer and astrologer (born 1535)
unknown date – Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari, Italian printer (born c. 1508)
probable – Johann Stumpf, Swiss writer on history and topography (born 1500)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1577%20in%20literature | 1577 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1577.
Events
The Curtain Theatre is built in London.
December 4 – John of the Cross, while imprisoned in Toledo, Spain, composes his Spiritual Canticle.
New books
Prose
Certain Selected Histories for Christian Recreations (translation of Gesta Romanorum)
Richard Eden – The History of Travayle in the West and East Indies
John Frampton – , translated from the 1565 Spanish edition of Nicolás Monardes' Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales
Thomas Hill – The Gardener's Labyrinth
Raphael Holinshed – The Chronicles of England, Scotland and Irelande
Marcin Kromer – Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo
Teresa of Ávila – Camino de Perfección
Johann Weyer – De praestigiis daemonum
Drama
Arthur Golding – Abraham's Sacrifice published (translated from Theodore Beza's French play)
Poetry
See 1577 in poetry
Births
February 8 – Robert Burton, English scholar and author (died 1640)
March/April – Gerhard Johann Vossius, Dutch theologian (died 1649)
November 10 – Jacob Cats, Dutch poet (died 1660)
November 20 (baptized) – Samuel Purchas, English travel writer (died 1626)
unknown dates
Richard Sibbes, English theologian (died 1635)
Gabriel Sionita, Lebanese-born Maronite Bible translator (died 1648)
Samuel Ward, English Puritan preacher and writer (died 1640)
Deaths
March 6 – Remy Belleau, French poet (born 1528)
April 21 – Girolamo Parabosco, Italian poet and musician (born c. 1524)
May 5 – Viglius, Frisian statesman and writer (born 1507)
October 7 – George Gascoigne, English poet (born c. 1535)
Unknown dates
Richard Jugge, English printer (date of birth unknown)
Ralph Robinson, English writer and translator (born 1520 in literature)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1576%20in%20literature | 1576 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1576.
Events
December – James Burbage opens The Theatre, the second permanent public playhouse in London (and the first to have a substantial life – 22 years), ushering in the great age of Elizabethan drama.
unknown dates
The composer Richard Farrant opens the first Blackfriars Theatre in London, presenting plays performed by the Children of the Chapel.
The composer Thomas Whythorne writes a Booke of songs and sonetts with longe discourses sett with them, an early example of autobiographical writing in English.
New books
Prose
Jean Bodin – Les Six livres de la République (The Six Books of the Republic)
Ulpian Fulwell – Ars adulandi, or, The Art of Flattery (dialogues)
Étienne de La Boétie (died 1563) – Discourse on Voluntary Servitude (Discours de la servitude volontaire, published as Le Contr'un)
George Pettie – A Petite Palace of Pettie His Pleasure
Peter Martyr Vermigli (died 1562; edited by Robert le Maçon) – Loci Communes
George Whetstone – The Rocke of Regard
Drama
Luigi Pasqualigo – Il Fedele
George Wapull – The Tide Tarrieth No Man published
Poetry
See 1576 in poetry
Tulsidas – Ramcharitmanas
The Paradise of Dainty Devices, the most popular of the Elizabethan verse miscellanies
Births
January 12 – Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian (died 1660)
May 27 – Caspar Schoppe, German controversialist (died 1649)
June 6 – Giovanni Diodati, Bible translator (died 1649)
October – John Marston, English dramatist and poet (died 1634)
October 30 – Enrico Caterino Davila, Italian historian (died 1631)
unknown dates
William Ames, English philosopher (died 1633)
Johann Bogermann, Dutch translator (died 1637)
Samuel Collins, theologian (died 1651)
Charles Fitzgeoffrey, Elizabethan poet (died 1638)
Goldastus, Swiss Calvinist historian (died 1635)
John Weever, English poet and antiquary (died 1632)
Deaths
January 19 – Hans Sachs, German poet and dramatist (born 1494)
February 10 – Wilhelm Xylander, German classical scholar (born 1532)
March 18 – Johann Stössel, German Lutheran theologian (born 1524; died in prison)
May 2 – Bartolomé Carranza, Spanish theologian (born 1503)
June 30 – Franciscus Sonnius, Flemish theologian (born 1506)
October 14 – Konrad Heresbach, Calvinist writer (born 1496)
unknown dates
Basil Faber, German theologian (born 1520)
Aloysius Lilius, Italian philosopher (born c. 1510)
Lancelot Ridley, English theologian
Mavro Vetranović, Croatian Benedictine poet and author (born 1482)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1575%20in%20literature | 1575 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1575.
Events
July – Sir Philip Sidney meets Penelope Devereux, the inspiration for his Astrophel and Stella.
September 26 – Miguel de Cervantes is captured by Barbary pirates.
unknown date
The first primer in the Estonian language is published.
First printed version of Don Juan Manuel's Tales of Count Lucanor appears. It was originally written in 1335.
New books
Prose
Anonymous – Arbatel de magia veterum
Ulpian Fulwell – The Flower of Fame (appendices in verse)
Drama
George Gascoigne – The Glass of Government
Poetry
Veronica Franco – Terze rime
Births
April – Jakob Böhme, German theologian (died 1624)
August 14 – Robert Hayman, Newfoundland poet (died 1624)
August 15 – Bartol Kašić, Croatian linguist (died 1650)
Unknown dates
David Calderwood, Scottish historian (died 1650)
John Cotta, English physician and writer (died 1650)
Giovanni Stefano Menochio, Italian Jesuit scholar (died 1655)
Cyril Tourneur, English dramatist (died 1626)
William Vaughan, Welsh writer and colonist (died 1641)
Deaths
March 11 – Matthias Flacius, Croatian theologian writing in Latin (born 1520)
June 9 – Paulus Aemilius, Hebrew bibliographer and publisher
July 14 – Richard Taverner, English Bible translator (born c. 1505)
August 14 – Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, Spanish novelist and poet (born 1503)
September 17 – Heinrich Bullinger, Swiss theologian (born 1504)
December 1 – Diogo de Paiva de Andrada, Portuguese theologian (born 1528)
December 18 – Marcin Bielski, Polish chronicler and poet (born 1495)
unknown dates
Sir William Stevenson, English poet (born 1530)
Isabel de Josa, Catalan writer (born 1508)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1574%20in%20literature | 1574 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1574.
Events
unknown dates
Exercicio quotidiano, a religious manuscript in the Nahuatl language, is created.
The Russian printer Ivan Fyodorov prints the second edition of his Apostolos and the first Azbuka (alphabet book) in Cyrillic script.
Prose
Jean-Antoine de Baïf –
Matthias Flacius et al. – Magdeburg Centuries
Nicolás Monardes – Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales
Elizabeth Tyrwhitt – Morning and Evening Prayers
Poetry
See 1574 in poetry
Births
September – Thomas Gataker, English theologian (died 1654)
September 18 – Claudio Achillini, Italian philosopher, theologian and poet (died 1640)
November 4 – Erycius Puteanus, Dutch philologist (died 1646)
Unknown dates
Richard Barnfield, English poet (died 1627)
Nicolas Coeffeteau, French theologian, poet and historian (died 1623)
John Day, English dramatist (died c. 1640)
Feng Menglong (馮夢龍), Chinese vernacular poet (died 1645)
Paul Laymann, Austrian moralist (died 1635)
Deaths
January 30 – Damião de Góis, Portuguese humanist philosopher (born 1502)
April 17 – Joachim Camerarius, German classical scholar (born 1500)
June 27 – Giorgio Vasari, artist and biographer of artists (born 1511)
November 7 – Solomon Luria, Jewish legal author (born 1510)
November 28 – Georg Major, German Lutheran theologian (born 1502)
December 10 – Ascanio Condivi, biographer of Michelangelo (born 1525)
Unknown dates
Gáspár Heltai (Kaspar Helth), Transylvanian writer in German (born c. 1490)
Paulus Manutius, Venetian printer (born 1512)
Antonio Minturno, Italian poet and critic (born 1500)
Cornelio Musso, Italian orator and writer (born 1511)
Ioannes Sommerus, Saxon theologian (born 1542)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1573%20in%20literature | 1573 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1573.
Events
Torquato Tasso's pastoral play Aminta is first performed by I Gelosi in palace gardens in Ferrara.
New books
Drama
Anonymous – New Custom (published)
Jean de La Taille – La Famine, ou les Gabéonites
George Gascoigne (published in A Hundred Sundry Flowers)
Jocasta
Supposes
The Montague Masque
Torquato Tasso – Aminta
Poetry
Jean-Antoine de Baïf – Œuvres en rime (Works in verse)
George Gascoigne – A Hundred Sundry Flowers Bound Up in One Small Poesy... (first collected edition of his verse and drama)
See also 1573 in poetry
Births
November 30 – Aubert Miraeus, Netherlandish ecclesiastical historian (died 1640 in literature)
December 21 – Mathurin Régnier, French satirist (died 1613 in literature)
Unknown dates
Severin Binius, German historian (died 1641 in literature)
Daniel Naborowski, Polish poet (died 1640 in literature)
Approximate year of birth – Samuel Rowlands, English prose and verse pamphleteer (died 1630)
Deaths
January 1 – Johann Pfeffinger, German Protestant theologian (born 1493)
February – William Lauder, Scottish poet (born c. 1520)
May 14 (burial) – Richard Grafton, English merchant and printer (born c.1506/7)
July – Étienne Jodelle, French dramatist and poet (born 1532)
October 24 – François Baudouin, French controversialist and historian (born 1520)
November 17 – Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Spanish philosopher and theologian (born 1494)
December – Donato Giannotti, Italian political writer, playwright and poet (born 1492)
December 30 – Giovanni Battista Giraldi, Italian novelist and poet (born 1504)
Late – Reginald Wolfe, English printer
Unknown dates
Richard Grafton, English chronicler and King's Printer (born c. 1506–1511)
Paul Skalich, Croatian encyclopedist (born 1534)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1572%20in%20literature | 1572 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1572.
Events
January 3 – James Burbage, on behalf of Leicester's Men, writes to their patron, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, requesting that they be given the special status of "household servants".
unknown dates
Vagabonds Act in England prescribes punishment for rogues. This includes actors' companies lacking formal patronage.
George Gascoigne becomes a "soldier of fortune" in the Low Countries.
New books
Remy Belleau – La Bergerie (2nd edition)
Rafael Bombelli – L'Algebra
John Field – A View of Popish Abuses yet remaining in the English Church
Libro d'Oro of Corfu
Bishops' Bible (revised version)
New drama
Jean de la Taille – Saül le furieux
Poetry
Luís de Camões – Os Lusiadas
Fernando de Herrera – Canción por la Victoria del Señor don Juan
Thomas Palfreyman – Divine Meditations
Births
January 7 – Antoine de Gaudier, French Jesuit theologian (died 1622)
January 22 (earliest possible date) – John Donne, English poet and Dean of St Paul's (died 1631)
June 11 (approximate) – Ben Jonson, English Renaissance dramatist, poet and actor (died 1637)
July 25 – Theodorus Schrevelius, Dutch Golden Age poet (died 1649)
Unknown date – James Mabbe, English scholar, poet and translator (died 1642)
Deaths
March 27 – Girolamo Maggi, Italian poet and polymath (born c. 1523)
April 12 – Jean Crespin, French martyrologist and printer (born c. 1520)
June 28 – Johannes Goropius Becanus, Dutch humanist writer and linguist (born 1519)
September 23 – Henry Scrimgeour, Scottish diplomat and book collector (born 1505)
September – Denis Lambin, French classicist (born 1520)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1571%20in%20literature | 1571 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1571.
Events
October 7 – Naval Battle of Lepanto: Miguel de Cervantes's left arm is rendered useless; Venetian playwright Luigi Pasqualigo commands a galleon.
unknown dates
Michel de Montaigne retires from public life and isolates himself in the tower of the Château de Montaigne.
First printing in the Irish language, Aibidil Gaoidheilge agus Caiticiosma, a primer printed by John Kearney in Dublin.
Laurentian Library in Florence opens to scholars.
Edict of Gaillon in France places enforcement of censorship laws with the state Chancellor's office instead of the University of Paris.
A tidal wave affects parts of Lincolnshire, England. It would be the subject of Jean Ingelow's narrative poem "The High-Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire" (c.1883).
New books
Prose
François de Belleforest – La Pyrénée (or La Pastorale amoureuse) (the first French "pastoral novel")
Bishop John Jewel – Second Book of Homilies
Alonso de Molina
Arte de la lengua mexicana y castellana
Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana
Drama
Richard Edwards – Damon and Pythias
Poetry
See 1571 in poetry
Deaths
May 4 – Pierre Viret, Swiss theologian (born 1511)
May 29 – Joachim Mörlin, German Lutheran theologian (born 1514)
July 17 – Georg Fabricius, German poet and historian (born 1516)
November 24 – Jan Blahoslav, Czech poet and translator (born 1523)
December 28 – John Hales, English writer and administrator (born c. 1516)
Unknown dates
Lodovico Castelvetro, Italian literary critic (born c. 1505)
Bartolomeo Maranta, Italian literary theorist (born 1500)
Andrés de Olmos, Spanish grammarian (born c. 1485)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1570%20in%20literature | 1570 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1570.
Events
December (approximate date) – Torquato Tasso travels to Paris in the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este.
unknown date – The Académie de Poésie et de Musique is founded in France by the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf and the musician Joachim Thibault de Courville.
New books
Prose
Roger Ascham – The Scholemaster (posthumous)
William Baldwin – Beware the Cat (new edition)
Thomas North – The Fables of Bidpai: The Morall Philosophie of Doni (translation of the Panchatantra from the Italian of Anton Francesco Doni)
Abraham Ortelius – Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (the first modern atlas)
Poetry
See 1570 in poetry
Births
October 4 – Péter Pázmány, Hungarian philosopher and theologian (died 1637)
December 29 – Wilhelm Lamormaini, Netherlandish theologian (died 1648)
Unknown dates
Sir Robert Aytoun, Scottish poet (died 1638)
Pedro de Oña, Chilean poet (died 1643)
Alexander Leighton, Scottish pamphleteer (died 1649)
Deaths
February 28 – Domingo de Santo Tomás, Spanish grammarian (born 1499)
March 25 – Johann Walter, German poet and composer (born 1496)
July 3 – Aonio Paleario, Italian humanist, reformer and pamphleteer (born c. 1500)
October 20 – João de Barros, Portuguese historian (born 1496)
November – Jacques Grévin, French dramatist (born c. 1539)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1569%20in%20literature | 1569 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1569.
Events
unknown dates
Publication of the first complete Spanish translation of the Bible, Reina-Valera (the Bible of the Bear)
Performance of the 14th-century York Mystery Plays in England is suppressed.
New books
Prose
Henry de Bracton (died c. 1268) – De legibus & consuetudinibus Angliæ (On the Laws and Customs of England), first printed
Robert Henryson (died c. 1500) – The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian, publication begins
Magdeburge Centurien (Magdeburg Centuries), volume XII
Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde – Biëncorf der Heilige Roomsche Kercke (Beehive of the Holy Roman Church, satire)
Drama
Thomas Preston – A lamentable tragedy mixed ful of pleaſant mirth, the life of Cambises King of Percia ("Cambyses", publication)
Poetry
See 1569 in poetry
Alonso de Ercilla – La Araucana, part 1
Births
January 2 – Heribert Rosweyde, Netherlandish hagiographer (died 1629)
April 16 – Sir John Davies, English poet (died 1626)
c. December? – Henry Ainsworth, English theologian (died 1622)
Unknown dates
Guillén de Castro y Bellvis, Spanish dramatist (died 1631)
Heo Gyun, Korean politician, scholar, and writer (died 1618)
Emilia Lanier, English poet (died 1645)
Hieronymus Medices, Italian philosopher and editor of work of Thomas Aquinas
Piotr Zbylitowski, Polish poet and satirist (died 1649)
probable – Barnabe Barnes, English poet and dramatist (baptised 1571; died 1609)
Deaths
January 20 – Myles Coverdale, English Bible translator (born c. 1488)
May 10 – Saint John of Avila, Spanish preacher and author (born 1500)
September 5 – Bernardo Tasso, Italian poet (born 1493)
September/October – Mikołaj Rej, Polish poet and author (born 1505)
November 29 – António Ferreira, Portuguese poet (born 1528)
Unknown date – Georg Pictorius, German physician and author (born c. 1500)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1568%20in%20literature | 1568 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1568.
Events
October – The Bishops' Bible (inscribed The Holie Bible) is published as a translation into English made under the authority of the Church of England.
New books
Prose
Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki – De optimo senatore
Petar Hektorović – Ribanje i ribarsko prigovaranje (Discourse on Fishing and Fishermen)
Hans Sachs and Jost Amman (illustrations) – Das Ständebuch (Book of Trades)
William Turner
Of Sage
A New Boke on the Natures and Properties of all Wines
Giorgio Vasari – Le Vite delle più eccellenti pittori, scultori, ed architettori (Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects; revised edition)
Christopher Watson (translator) – The hystories of the most famous and worthy chronographer Polybius
Children
Niels Bredal – The Child's Mirror (in Danish)
Drama
Ulpian Fulwell – Like Will to Like
William Wager – The Longer Thou Livest, The More Foole Thou Art
Poetry
François d'Amboise – Élégie sur le trépas d'Anne de Montmorency
See also 1568 in poetry
Births
January 20 – Daniel Cramer, German Lutheran theologian (died 1637)
February 11 – Honoré d'Urfé, French novelist (died 1625)
March 30 – Henry Wotton, English diplomat and author (died 1639)
July 7 – Richard Burbage, English actor and theater owner (died 1619)
September 5 – Tommaso Campanella, Italian philosopher and poet (died 1639)
Unknown date – Richard Baker, English chronicler (died 1645)
Deaths
April 7 – Onofrio Panvinio, Italian historian (born 1529)
September 14 – Jan van Casembroot, Flemish humanist poet (executed, born c. 1525)
December 23 – Roger Ascham, English didact (born c. 1515)
Unknown dates
Antoine Héroet, French poet
Garcia de Orta, Portuguese Jewish physician, naturalist, and medical writer (born 1501/2)
Dirk Philips, Frisian Anabaptist theologian (born 1504)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1567%20in%20literature | 1567 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1567.
Events
October 14 – António Ferreira becomes Desembargador da Casa do Civel and leaves Coimbra for Lisbon.
unknown dates
John Brayne builds the Red Lion theatre just east of the City of London. It is for touring productions and the first known playhouse to be purpose-built in the British Isles since Roman times. However, there is little evidence that the theatre survives beyond this summer's season. The only play known to be presented here is The Story of Sampson.
Spanish playwright Lope de Rueda's works are published posthumously by Timoneda, who tones down certain passages.
Approximate date – Isabella Whitney becomes the earliest identified woman to publish secular poetry in the English language with The Copy of a Letter, Lately Written in Meter by a Young Gentlewoman: to her Unconstant Lover (signed "I.W."), The Admonition by the Author to all Young Gentlewomen: And to all other Maids being in Love and An Order Prescribed, by Is. W., to two of her Younger Sisters Serving in London.
New books
Prose
Séon Carsuel, Bishop of the Isles – Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh, translation of John Knox's Book of Common Order, with some poems and prayers, into Classical Gaelic, the first publication in any Goidelic language, (printed in Latin script by Robert Lekprevik in Edinburgh and published April 24)
Joan Perez de Lazarraga – Silbero, Silbia, Doristeo, and Sirena (MS in Basque)
Magdeburger Centurien Magdeburg Centuries, volumes X–XI
William Salesbury – Testament Newydd ein Arglwydd Iesv Christ, translation of the New Testament into Welsh (printed by Humphrey Toy in London and published October 7)
Drama
Jean-Antoine de Baïf – Le Brave
John Pickering – Horestes, based on the myth of Orestes
Poetry
Pey de Garros – Poesias Gasconas
Births
January 6 – Richard Burbage, English actor-manager (died 1619)
February 12 – Thomas Campion, English poet (died 1620)
February 27 – William Alabaster, English poet, dramatist and religious writer (died 1640)
August 21 – Francis de Sales, Savoyard theologian (died 1622)
November – Thomas Nashe, English poet and satirist (died c. 1601)
unknown dates
Valens Acidalius, German critic and Latin poet (died 1595)
Bzovius, Polish historian (died 1637)
Deaths
May 2 – Marin Držić, Croatian dramatist (born 1508)
May 31 – Guido de Bres, author of the Belgic Confession (executed, born 1522)
October 1 – Pietro Carnesecchi, humanist philosopher (executed, born 1508)
unknown dates
Nicolaus Mameranus, Luxembourgeois poet and historian (born 1500)
Gómez Pereira, Spanish humanist philosopher (born 1500)
In literature
Walter Scott – The Abbot (1820)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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] |
226887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1566%20in%20literature | 1566 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1566.
Events
September 2 – The stage collapses during a performance of Richard Edwardes' play Palamon and Arcite at Oxford, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth I of England. Three deaths are caused. The show goes on and "the Queen laughed heartily thereat."
Ordonnance of Moulins in France prohibits writing, printing or selling of defamatory books and requires all books published to carry a seal of state approval.
New books
Prose
Historia Caroli Magni (12th century forged chronicle – first printing, at Frankfurt)
Magdeburg Centuries, volume IX
François de Belleforest (translated from Matteo Bandello) – Histoires tragiques begins publication)
Diego de Landa – Relación de las cosas de Yucatán
William Painter – Palace of Pleasure
The Flower Triod (Триод Цветни)
Drama
George Gascoigne – Supposes (translation into English prose from Ludovico Ariosto's I suppositi, for performance by gentlemen of Gray's Inn in London)
(with Francis Kinwelmersh) – Jocasta (translation from Lodovico Dolce's Giocasta, a version of Euripides' The Phoenician Women, for performance by gentlemen of Gray's Inn)
Gismund of Salerne (written and produced for Queen Elizabeth I of England by the gentlemen of Inner Temple in London)
Poetry
See 1566 in poetry
Births
September 1 – Edward Alleyn, English actor (died 1626)
Unknown date – John Hoskins, English poet (died 1638)
Deaths
January 6 – Jan Utenhove, Flemish translator (born 1516)
March – António de Gouveia, Portuguese legal writer and humanist (born c. 1505)
April 25 – Louise Labé, French poet (born c. 1524)
July 13 – Thomas Hoby, English translator (born 1530)
October 10 – Hentenius, Flemish biblical commentator (born 1499)
October 31 – Richard Edwardes, English poet and dramatist (born 1525)
unknown date – Alexius Pedemontanus, Italian physician and alchemist, author of a "book of secrets" (born c. 1500)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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] |
226888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1565%20in%20literature | 1565 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1565.
Events
March 1 – Poet and missionary José de Anchieta co-founds Rio de Janeiro.
October – Torquato Tasso enters the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este at Ferrara.
unknown dates
Philip Neri founds the Biblioteca Vallicelliana in Rome.
Approximate date of composition of the Bannatyne Manuscript.
New books
Prose
Giovanni Battista Giraldi – Hecatommithi
Pierre Pithou –
Camillo Porzio – La Congiura dei baroni
John Stow – Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles
Bernardino Telesio – De natura juxta propria principia (On the Nature of Things according to their Own Principles)
Drama
Jean-Antoine de Baïf – L'Eunuque
Poetry
See 1565 in poetry
Births
September 28 – Alessandro Tassoni, Italian poet (died 1635)
Unknown dates
Gonzalo de Illescas, Spanish historian (died 1633)
Francis Meres, English author and cleric (died 1647)
Anthony Shirley, English traveler and writer (died 1635)
Deaths
March 17 – Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian (born 1500)
March – Lope de Rueda, Spanish dramatist (born c. 1510)
May 14 – Nicolaus von Amsdorf, German theologian (born 1483)
August 27 – William Rastell, English printer (born 1508)
October 7 – Johannes Mathesius, German theologian (born 1504)
October 22 – Jean Grolier de Servières, French bibliophile (born 1479)
December 13 – Conrad Gessner, Swiss naturalist and bibliographer (born 1516)
Unknown dates
Paolo Pino, Italian painter and writer on art (born 1534)
Benedetto Varchi, Italian poet and historian (born c. 1502)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1564%20in%20literature | 1564 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1564.
Events
January – János Zsámboky (Johannes Sambucus) completes the preface to his Emblemata.
February 6 – John Calvin, in the throes of his final illness, preaches his last sermon.
March 1 – Ivan Fyodorov with Pyotr Mstislavets prints the Acts and Epistles of the Apostles (an Apostolos), the first printed work in the Russian language that can be dated, at the Moscow Print Yard.
unknown dates
A revised edition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, authorised by the Council of Trent, is printed in Venice.
A chained library (librije) with access for the public is attached to the church of St. Walburgis in Zutphen, Netherlands. It will still be extant with its original fittings in the 21st century.
New books
Prose
John Dee – Monas Hieroglyphica
Magdeburger Centurien (Magdeburg Centuries), volumes VII and VIII
Girolamo Maggi – Miscellanorum, seu Variarum Lectionum
Drama
Vishnu Varamballi – Virata Parva (earliest copy)
Poetry
See 1564 in poetry
Births
February 26 (baptised) – Christopher Marlowe, English dramatist and poet (died 1593)
March 9 – David Fabricius, German theologian (died 1617)
March 20 – Thomas Morton, English polemicist and bishop (died 1659)
April 26 (baptism, traditional date of birth April 23) – William Shakespeare, English dramatist and poet (died 1616)
Unknown dates
Jean D'Espagnet, French lawyer, politician and author (died c. 1637)
Kryštof Harant, Czech nobleman, traveller, humanist, soldier, writer and composer (died 1621)
Henry Reynolds, English poet, schoolmaster and literary critic (died 1632)
Juan de Aguilar Villaquirán, Spanish writer and translator (died 1618)
Probable birth year – Henry Chettle, English dramatist and pamphleteer (died c. 1607)
Deaths
March 5 – Friedrich Staphylus, German theologian (born 1512)
April – Pierre Belon, French naturalist and travel writer (murdered, born 1517)
April 1 – Christoph Froschauer, Swiss printer (plague, born c. 1490)
April 9 – Georg Hartmann, German humanist engineer, author and printer (born 1489)
May 27 – John Calvin, French-born theologian (born 1509)
August 11 – Edward Ferrers, credited as an English dramatist (unknown date of birth)
September 26 – Theodor Bibliander, German theologian and publisher (plague, born c. 1505)
Argula von Grumbach, German Protestant reformer (b. 1490)
References
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226890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1563%20in%20literature | 1563 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1563.
Events
February 12–14 – The French poet Pierre de Bocosel de Chastelard is twice caught hiding under the bed of Mary, Queen of Scots – at Holyrood and then at Rossend). He is arrested by the Earl of Moray on his second attempt and executed at St Andrews Castle on February 22.
March 27 – As part of the English Reformation, the House of Commons passes legislation approving Bible translations into Welsh. This allows Henry Denham to publish his Welsh New Testament in 1567.
c. April – A year into the French Wars of Religion, Pierre de Ronsard composes two defenses of French Catholicism against the Huguenots. On the Huguenot side, anonymous leaflets parody his "remonstrance" genre until a ban on libels is placed by Charles IX of France.
April – As a hostage at Iperoig in Tupi territory, José de Anchieta composes De Beata Virgine Dei Matre (The Blessed Virgin Mary), a devotional poem that is among the early accomplishments in Brazilian literature.
April 3 – From the Electoral Palatinate, Caspar Olevian reports to John Calvin that the Heidelberg Catechism will be ready "by next market day". The contributors, including Olevian, Zacharias Ursinus, and Calvin himself, are not mentioned in print, "so that the Germans would not refuse to read it."
May – The Ottoman poet and historian Mustafa Âlî accepts a post in Aleppo Eyalet. On his way there he visits his mentor, Ramazanoğlu Piri Mehmet Paşa, in Adana.
June 27 – Gómez Suárez de Figueroa fails to return to his native Peru from Seville. After November, he begins signing his name Garcilaso de la Vega, a step toward Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, his literary signature.
August – Michel de Montaigne writes a letter to his father describing the death of his friend Étienne de La Boétie.
c. September/November – In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł commissions the Brest Bible from various translators, as the first complete translation into Polish. It becomes the standard edition for the Polish Lutheran and Reformed churches.
November 5 – Outside Suceava, Moldavia, Prince Iacob Heraclid, a Renaissance humanist, is lynched by crowds after a siege; the rival pretender, Ștefan Tomșa, probably delivers the first blow.
December – Primož Trubar of the South Slavic Bible Institute draws up a plan to sustain the Reformation in Italy with translations from Martin Luther.
December 4 – The closure of the Council of Trent marks the official start of the Counter-Reformation and encouragement of artistic Mannerism, which sometimes extended to literature. Though its full impact is delayed to 1587, it is visible in the Republic of Venice: by 1567, most books put out by Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari are devotional.
At Basel in the Old Swiss Confederacy, the Dutch physician Johann Weyer publishes De praestigiis daemonum, with its rationalist interpretation of witchcraft. It proposes that accused witches are "deluded victims" rather than instruments of the Devil. Though rejected by "witch-hunters", De praestigiis sells well and will inspire Reginald Scot's refutation of magic. Also in Basel, Pietro Perna prints Bernardino Ochino's Dialogi XXX (Thirty Dialogues) criticizing the Radical Reformation. Their apparent preaching of polygamy is used against him by the Daig, causing him and his family to be banished from the city.
John Foxe's Actes and Monuments, known later as Foxe's Book of Martyrs, becomes "the most influential book" of the Elizabethan era "upon the formation of English Protestant identity and nationhood."
Printing is brought to Goa and Portuguese India, probably by the Society of Jesus, producing Garcia de Orta's Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India. With its rhyming preface by Luís de Camões, it is "the third [book] in a European language to be printed in Asia."
The future John of the Cross is tonsured a Carmelite at Medina del Campo in the Crown of Castile.
In the Kingdom of Poland, Stanisław Orzechowski publishes Rozmowa, albo Dyjalog około egzekucyjej polskiej korony (Conversation, or a Dialogue about Government of the Polish Crown), with allegorical engravings and designs resembling hieroglyphs. It defends the Catholic Church in Poland as an ideal political model, so marking Orzechowski's own transition from Lutheranism.
New books
Prose
Brest Bible
Heidelberg Catechism
Ten Articles of Religion
João de Barros – Terceira Década da Ásia (Third Decade of Asia)
Pierino Belli – De re militari et de bello (On Military Matters and on War)
Francesco Cattani da Diacceto – Opera omnia (posthumous)
Coresi – Apostolul românesc (Apostolos in Romanian)
John Foxe – Actes and Monuments
Richard Grafton – Abridgement of the Chronicles of England
Joseph Karo – Shulchan Aruch
Bernardino Ochino – Dialogi XXX (Thirty Dialogues)
Garcia de Orta – Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India
Stanisław Orzechowski – Rozmowa, albo Dyjalog około egzekucyjej polskiej korony (Conversation, or a Dialogue about the Government of the Polish Crown)
Pierre Viret – Les Cauteles et canon de la Messe (The Cautels, Canons, and Ceremonies)
Johann Weyer – De praestigiis daemonum
Poetry
José de Anchieta – De Beata Virgine Dei Matre (The Blessed Virgin Mary)
Barnaby Googe – Eclogues, Epitaphs, and Sonnets
Klemens Janicki
Vitae regum Polonorum (The Lives of Polish Kings, posthumous)
In Polonici vestitus varietatem et inconstantiam dialogus (A Dialogue against the Diversity and Changeability of Polish Dress, posthumous)
Dinko Ranjina – Pjesni razlike (Various Poems)
Pierre de Ronsard
(Remonstrance to the People of France)
(Response to the Insults and Calumnies of Some Preachers and Ministers of Geneva)
Births
January 6 – Martin Becanus, Flemish Catholic theologian and polemicist (died 1624)
January 19 – Leonhard Hutter, German Lutheran theologian (died 1616)
January 30 – Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch Calvinist theologian (died 1641)
April 15 – Guru Arjan, Sikh Guru and compiler of scriptures (died 1606)
June 30 – Silvestre de Balboa, Canarian and Cuban poet (died c. 1647)
July 16 – Manuel Godinho de Erédia, Portuguese and Malay historian (died 1623)
August 14 – Johannes Malderus, Flemish Catholic theologian (died 1633)
November 11 – Martinus Smiglecius, Polish logician, Catholic theologian, and economist (died 1618)
November 28 – Hosokawa Tadaoki, Japanese samurai and poet (died 1646)
December 19 – William Howard, English antiquarian and publisher (died 1640)
Unknown dates
Abdias Assheton, English historian and biographer (died 1633)
William Baldwin, English Catholic theologian (died 1632)
Louise Bourgeois Boursier, French midwife and essayist (died 1636)
Theophilos Corydalleus, Greek philosopher and translator (died 1646)
Henry Cuffe, English translator and poet (died 1601)
Matija Divković, Bosnian Catholic theologian and printer (died 1631)
Michael Drayton, English poet (died 1631)
Scipione Gentili, Italian-born legal scholar, translator, and critic (died 1616)
Heo Nanseolheon, Korean poet (died 1589)
Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, Dutch historian and travel writer (died 1611)
Naw'i Khabushani, Indo-Persian poet (died 1610)
Christoph Knoll, Silesian-born Lutheran theologian and poet (died 1630)
Pierre Matthieu, French poet and dramatist (died 1621)
Adriaan van Meerbeeck, Flemish historian and translator (died 1627)
Valeria Miani, Paduan playwright (died 1620)
Robert Naunton, English politician and historian (died 1635)
Mavro Orbini, Ragusan chronicler (died 1614)
Thomas Preston, English Catholic theologian and polemicist (died c. 1640)
John Ross of the Inner Temple, English poet (died 1607)
John Stradling, English poet and translator (died 1637)
Josuah Sylvester, English poet (died 1618)
Daniel Tilenus, Silesian-born Arminian theologian (died 1633)
Clemens Timpler, German philosopher (died 1624)
Yi Su-gwang, Korean encyclopedist (died 1628)
Approximate year – Robert Armin, English actor and comic author (died 1615)
Deaths
c. January–June – Matija Popović, Serb scribe and printer (born c. 1490, murdered)
January – Seydi Ali Reis, Ottoman navigator, geographer, and travel writer (born 1498)
January 12 – Macarius of Moscow, Russian Orthodox theologian, essayist, and illuminator (born 1482)
February 2 – Lawrence Torrentinus, Dutch and Italian humanist and printer (born 1499)
February 22 – Pierre de Bocosel de Chastelard, French poet (born 1540, executed)
March 2 – Ercole Gonzaga, Mantuan Catholic theologian (born 1505)
March 11 – Jacopo Nardi, Florentine historian (born 1476)
March 13 – Hieronymus Froben, Swiss printer (born 1501)
March 17 – Girolamo Seripando, Italian and Aragonese Catholic theologian (born 1493)
March 27 – Heinrich Glarean, Swiss poet and humanist (born 1488)
April 18 – Francisco Marroquín, Guatemalan Catholic theologian and translator (born 1499)
April 30 – Henry Stafford, English translator, publisher, and polemicist (born 1501)
May 21 – Martynas Mažvydas, Lithuanian compiler, poet, and editor (born 1510)
July 9 – Richard Smyth, English Catholic theologian (born c. 1500)
July 24 – Giambattista Gelli, Florentine historian and philosopher (born 1498)
August 18 – Étienne de La Boétie, French philosopher (born 1530)
August 30 – Wolfgang Musculus, Lorrainian-born Calvinist theologian (born 1497)
November – John Bale, English historian (born 1495)
November 5 – Iacob Heraclid, Maltese-born humanist and military theorist (born 1527, lynched)
December 29
Sebastian Castellio, French Calvinist theologian (born 1515)
Thomas Naogeorgus, German dramatist and Lutheran theologian (born 1508)
Unknown dates
John Barret, English Protestant theologian (birth year not known)
Walter Deloenus, Dutch translator and Anabaptist theologian (born c. 1500)
Marcantonio Genua, Genoan philosopher (born 1491)
Felipe de Guevara, Spanish art critic and humanist (birth year not known)
Gerard Legh, English writer on heraldry (birth year not known)
Jean Poldo d'Albenas, French historian and translator (born 1512)
Pedro de Soto, Spanish Catholic theologian (born 1493)
John Véron, Huguenot polemicist and lexicographer (birth year not known)
Probable year – Arthur Brooke, English poet (birth year not known)
Approximate year
William Baldwin, English writer, editor and theatrical director (born c. 1515)
Gaspar Correia, Portuguese Goan historian (born c. 1492)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1562%20in%20literature | 1562 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1562.
Events
January 18 – First performance of Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville's play Gorboduc before Queen Elizabeth I of England. It is the first known English tragedy and the first English-language play to employ blank verse.
July 12 – Fray Diego de Landa, acting Bishop of Yucatán, burns the Maya codices (sacred books of the Maya) during the Spanish conquest of Yucatán.
New books
Prose
Magdeburger Centurien (Magdeburg Centuries), volumes V and VI
Melchior Cano – De Locis theologicis (posthumously published)
Petrus Ramus – Grammaire française
Richard Smyth – De Missa Sacrificio
Drama
Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville – Gorboduc
Jacke Jugeler
Poetry
Arthur Brooke – The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet
Births
January 20 – Ottavio Rinuccini, Italian poet (died 1621)
January 31 (bapt.) – Edward Blount, English publisher (died 1632)
March – Francis Johnson, English Separatist theologian and polemicist (died 1618)
March 27 – Jacob Gretser, German Jesuit writer (died 1625)
August – Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola, Spanish poet and historian (died 1631)
November 25 – Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and dramatist (died 1635)
Unknown dates
Samuel Daniel, English poet (died 1619)
Johann Mechtel, German chronicler (died c. 1631)
Deaths
July 23 – Götz von Berlichingen, German knight immortalized by Goethe (born c. 1480)
September 5 – Katharina Zell, Protestant writer (born c. 1497)
November 6 – Achille Bocchi, Italian humanist writer (born 1488)
November 12 – Pietro Martire Vermigli, Italian theologian (born 1499)
Probable year – George Cavendish, English biographer (born 1494)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1561%20in%20literature | 1561 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1561.
Events
August 21 – The Peresopnytsia Gospels are completed.
September – Serbian Orthodox hieromonks Jovan Maleševac and Matija Popović begin to collaborate with the Protestant reformer Primož Trubar on printing the New Testament and other religious books in Cyrillic letters, at Urach in Germany.
unknown dates
William Baldwin's Beware the Cat, written 1553), is first published anonymously in London. It is an early example of extended fiction (and specifically of horror fiction) in English, but it appears to have been suppressed and no copies survive.
The Tian Yi Ge library in Ningbo is established by Fan Qin in Ming dynasty China.
New books
Prose
John Calvin – Institution of the Christian Religion (English translation by Thomas Norton)
Bartolomé de las Casas – History of the Indies (completed; first published 1875)
Gabriele Fallopius – Observationes anatomicae
Francesco Guicciardini (posthumously) – Storia d'Italia (History of Italy, first 16 of 20 books)
Sir Thomas Hoby – The Book of the Courtier (Il Cortegiano, translation)
Julius Caesar Scaliger – Poetices
Drama
Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville – Gorboduc
Poetry
See 1561 in poetry
Births
January 22 – Sir Francis Bacon, English philosopher, scientist and statesman (died 1626)
June – Samuel Harsnett, English religious writer and archbishop (died 1631)
July 11 – Luís de Góngora y Argote, Spanish poet (died 1627)
August 14 – Sir Christopher Heydon, English writer on astrology (died 1623)
October 27 – Mary Sidney, English poet and translator (died 1621)
unknown dates
Gaspar Aguilar, Spanish poet and dramatist (died 1623)
Bernardo de Balbuena, Spanish-born Latin American poet (died 1627)
Deaths
February 26 – Jorge de Montemayor, Portuguese novelist and poet (born c. 1520)
March 19 – Lady Jane Seymour, English writer (born c. 1541)
March 25 – Conrad Lycosthenes, Alsatian humanist and encyclopedist (born 1518)
July 5 – Ambrosius Pelargus, German theologian (born c. 1493)
October 21 – Johannes Vasaeus, Flemish teacher and historian (born 1511)
October 28 – Jakob Beurlin, German Lutheran theologian (born 1520)
December 10 – Caspar Schwenckfeld, German theologian and preacher (born c. 1490)
unknown dates
Marie Dentière, Genevan theologian (born 1495)
Claude Garamond, French publisher (born 1480)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1560%20in%20literature | 1560 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1560.
Events
August 27 – The Parliament of Scotland approves the Scots Confession of faith.
unknown date – Paolo Veronese completes his work on the interior decoration of the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice.
New books
Prose
Geneva Bible (first full edition)
Giachem Bifrun (translator) – L'g Nuof Sainc Testamaint da nos Signer Jesu Christ (New Testament in Putèr variety of Romansh language)s
Thomas Churchyard – The Contention Churchyeard and Camell, upon David Dycers Dreame
Scots Confession, officially The Confession of Faith of the Kirk of Scotland, etc.
Drama
Jacques Grévin – Jules César
Thomas Preston – Cambises (possible date of first performance)
Poetry
See 1560 in poetry
Births
January 5 – John Bois, English Bible translator (died 1643)
Baptised August 4 – Sir John Harington, English courtier, poet and inventor (died 1612)
October 10 – Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian (died 1609)
December 3 – Jan Gruter, Netherlandish critic and scholar (died 1627)
Unknown dates
Constantino Cajetan, Italian ecclesiastical historian (died 1650)
Álvarez de Paz, Spanish Jesuit theologian (died 1620)
Mark Ridley, English lexicographer of Russian and physician (died in or before 1624)
probable
Heinrich Khunrath, German hermetic philosopher writing in Latin (died 1605)
Anthony Munday, English dramatist and miscellanist (died 1633)
Deaths
January 1 – Joachim du Bellay, French poet (born c. 1522)
April 7 – Robert Céneau, French bishop and historian (born 1483)
April 19 – Philipp Melanchthon, German Protestant theologian (born 1497)
July 9 – John Slotanus, Dutch Catholic polemical writer (date of birth unknown)
September 30 – Melchior Cano, Spanish theologian (born c. 1509)
November 15 – Domingo de Soto, Spanish theologian (born 1494)
December 21 – Georg Thym, German poet (born c. 1520)
Unknown date – Didacus Ximenes, Spanish theologian and philosopher
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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] |
226897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitch | Aitch | Aitch may refer to:
Aitch, a phonetic representation of the letter H
Aitch (artist), a Romanian comics creator
Aitch (rapper) (born 1999), British rapper
Aitch (surname)
Aitch, Pennsylvania, an extinct town in Huntingdon County
Aitch bone, the rump bone in cattle; see Rump steak
See also
Aich (surname)
Aitch-dropping, in phonetics
H (disambiguation) | [
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226898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublime%20Porte | Sublime Porte | The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( or Babıali, from and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire.
History
The name has its origins in the old practice in which the ruler announced his official decisions and judgements at the gate of his palace. This was the practice in the Byzantine Empire and it was also adopted by Ottoman Turk sultans since Orhan I, and therefore the palace of the sultan, or the gate leading to it, became known as the "High Gate". This name referred first to a palace in Bursa, Turkey. After the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, now Istanbul, the gate now known as the Imperial Gate (), leading to the outermost courtyard of the Topkapı Palace, first became known as the "High Gate", or the "Sublime Porte".
When Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent sealed an alliance with King Francis I of France in 1536, the French diplomats walked through the monumental gate then known as Bab-ı Ali (now Bâb-ı Hümâyûn) in order to reach the Vizierate of Constantinople, seat of the Sultan's government. French being the language of diplomacy, the French translation Sublime Porte (the adjective being unusually placed ahead of the word to emphasise its importance) was soon adopted in most other European languages, including English, to refer not only to the actual gate but as a metaphor for the Ottoman Empire.
In the 18th century, a new great Italian-styled office building was built just west of Topkapi Palace area, on the other side of Alemdar Caddesi street. This became the location of the Grand Vizier and many ministries. Thereafter, this building, and the monumental gate leading to its courtyards, became known as the Sublime Porte (Bab-ı Ali); colloquially it was also known as the Gate of the Pasha (paşa kapusu). The building was badly damaged by fire in 1911. Today, the buildings house Istanbul Governor's Office.
Diplomacy
"Sublime Porte" was used in the context of diplomacy by Western states, as their diplomats were received at the porte (meaning "gate"). During the Second Constitutional Era of the Empire after 1908 (see Young Turk Revolution), the functions of the classical Divan-ı Hümayun were replaced by the reformed Imperial Government, and "porte" came to refer to the Foreign Ministry. During this period, the office of the Grand Vizier came to refer to the equivalent to that of a prime minister, and viziers became members of the Grand Vizier's cabinet as government ministers.
See also
Bab (disambiguation)
The Court of St James's, another synecdochic term, for the United Kingdom in diplomatic relations
Raid on the Sublime Porte
References
Gates
Government of the Ottoman Empire
1911 fires
History of Istanbul | [
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226903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1559%20in%20literature | 1559 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1559.
Events
April – The Act of Uniformity sets the order of prayer in accordance with a new version of the Book of Common Prayer.
Before August – Pope Paul IV promulgates the Pauline Index, an early version of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
New books
Prose
Jacques Amyot (translator)
Daphnis et Chloë, from Longus' Daphnis and Chloe
Vies des hommes illustres, from Plutarch's Parallel Lives (begins)
Joachim du Bellay – Discours au roi
Realdo Colombo – De Re Anatomica
Jorge de Montemayor – Diana
Die Magdeburger Centurien (Magdeburg Centuries, first three volumes, publication continues up to 1574)
Drama
Jasper Heywood – Translation of Seneca the Younger's Troas
Poetry
See 1559 in poetry
Births
February 18 – Isaac Casaubon, Genevan classicist and church historian (died 1614)
October 12 – Jacques Sirmond, Jesuit scholar (died 1651)
December – Lupercio Leonardo de Argensola, dramatist and poet (died 1613)
unknown dates
Luis Cabrera de Córdoba, Spanish historian (died 1623)
Christopher Holywood, Jesuit writer (died 1626)
John Penry, Protestant pamphleteer and martyr (died 1593)
Deaths
January – Steven Mierdman, printer (born c. 1510)
May 19 – Pierre Doré, theologian (born c. 1500)
August 15 – Luigi Lippomano, hagiographer (born 1500)
August 25 – Nicholas Tacitus Zegers, Bible exegete (born c. 1495)
September 7 – Robert Estienne, printer (born 1503)
Probable year of death – Sebastián Fox Morcillo, philosopher
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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] |
226904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Saints | All Saints | All Saints' Day is a Christian holiday.
All Saints, All Saints Day or Feast of All Saints may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
All Saints (group), an English-Canadian girl group
All Saints (All Saints album)
All Saints (David Bowie album)
"All Saints" (David Bowie song)
All Saints Records, a British record label
"All St. Day", a song by ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead from The Secret of Elena's Tomb
All Saints (TV series), an Australian hospital drama
The Boondock Saints II: All Saints Day, a 2009 film
The Feast of All Saints (novel), a 1979 novel by Anne Rice
All Saints (film), a 2017 Christian drama film
Churches
All Saints Church (disambiguation)
Places
All Saints, Devon, a civil parish in Devon, England
All Saints, Wolverhampton, an inner city area of Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England
All Saints (Kettering BC Ward), an electoral ward in Northamptonshire, England
Allhallows, Kent, a village in Kent, England, named after its church
All Saints DLR station, a railway station in East London, England
All Saints, Antigua and Barbuda, a town on the island of Antigua
All Saints Estate Winery, a winery in Victoria, Australia
Schools
All Saints Academy (disambiguation)
All Saints College (disambiguation)
Aruba
Aureus University School of Medicine, formerly All Saints University of Medicine, Oranjestad
Australia
All Saints Anglican School in Gold Coast, Queensland
Canada
All Saints Catholic Secondary School, Whitby, Ontario
All Saints Catholic High School (Ontario), Ottawa, Ontario
All Saints Catholic Elementary School, Markham, Ontario
Dominica
All Saints University School of Medicine, Roseau, Dominica
India
All Saints High School (Andhra Pradesh), Hyderabad
All Saints School, Bhopal
United Kingdom
All Saints Catholic School, Dagenham, England
All Saints Catholic School, West Wickham, England
All Saints Roman Catholic School, York, England
United States
All Saints Catholic School (Connecticut)
All Saints Catholic School (Omaha)
Sports
All Saints GAC, a Gaelic Athletic Association football club
See also
AllSaints, a British high street retailer
All Hallows (disambiguation)
"For All the Saints", Christian hymn
For All the Saints: A Prayer Book for and by the Church, Lutheran breviary | [
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226905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1558%20in%20literature | 1558 in literature | Events from the year 1558 in literature.
Events
November 17 – The Elizabethan era begins in England: the Catholic Queen Mary dies and is succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth.
unknown dates
Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, sets up in his Munich Residenz a court library that is the predecessor of the Bavarian State Library, with the collection of the late Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter at its core.
Italian exile Pietro Perna sets up his printing press in Basel, Switzerland.
New books
Prose
John Dee – Propaedeumata Aphoristica
Ser Giovanni Fiorentino – Il Pecorone (The Simpleton)
John Knox (published anonymously) –
Marguerite de Navarre (died 1549) – Heptaméron (Histoires des amans fortunez) (edited by Pierre Boaistuau)
Giambattista della Porta – Magia Naturalis
Thomas Watson –
Drama
Jacques Grévin –
Poetry
See 1558 in poetry
Births
July 11 (baptism) – Robert Greene, English writer (died 1592)
November 3 – Thomas Kyd, English dramatist (died 1594)
Probable year – Thomas Lodge, English writer (died 1625)
Deaths
January 28 – Jacob Micyllus, German writer (born 1503)
May 17 – Francisco de Sá de Miranda, Portuguese poet (born 1481)
August 11 – Justus Menius, German Lutheran theologian (born 1499)
September 5 – Robert Broke, English legal writer (birth date unknown)
October 14 – Mellin de Saint-Gelais, French poet (born c. 1491)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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226906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1557%20in%20literature | 1557 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1557.
Events
May 4 – The Stationers' Company in the City of London, a printers' guild, receives a Royal Charter.
June 5 – The London publisher Richard Tottel produces Tottel's Miscellany ,the first printed anthology of English poetry, edited by himself and including first publication of original poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (beheaded 1547) and Sir Thomas Wyatt (died 1542)
June 10 – The New Testament of the Geneva Bible, a Protestant Bible translation into English, supervised by William Whittingham and printed in Roman type, is published in Geneva.
New books
Prose
Thomas North – The Diall of Princes (translation from French version of Antonio de Guevara's Reloj de Principes, chiefly from Marcus Aurelius's Meditations)
Robert Recorde – The Whetstone of Witte
Hans Staden – (True history and description of wild, ferocious man-eaters in the New World of America)
, a version of The Three Princes of Serendip published by Michele Tramezzino, allegedly after an Italian translation by Cristoforo Armeno
Drama
Lodovico Dolce – Medea
Poetry
Giovanni Battista Giraldi – Ercole
Tottel's Miscellany
Births
February 15 – Alfonso Fontanelli, Italian composer and writer (died 1622)
Unknown date – Jean de Sponde, Basque French poet (died 1595)
Deaths
April 9 – Mikael Agricola, Finnish scholar (born c. 1510)
August 1 – Olaus Magnus, Swedish ecclesiastic and writer (born 1490)
September 13 – John Cheke, English classical scholar and statesman (born 1514)
October 20 – Jean Salmon Macrin, French poet (born 1490)
Unknown dates
Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Spanish historian (born 1478 in literature)
Nicolas de Herberay des Essarts, French translator (birth year unknown)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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] |
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