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227165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20DeBusschere | Dave DeBusschere | David Albert DeBusschere (October 16, 1940 – May 14, 2003) was an American professional National Basketball Association (NBA) player and coach and Major League Baseball (MLB) player. He played for the Chicago White Sox of MLB in 1962 and 1963 and in the NBA for the Detroit Pistons from 1962 through 1968 and for the New York Knicks from 1968 to 1974. He was also the head coach for the Pistons from 1964 through 1967.
DeBusschere was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1983. In 1996, DeBusschere was named as one of the 50 greatest players in NBA history. In October 2021, DeBusschere was again honored as one of the league's greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team.
Early life
DeBusschere was born in Detroit to parents Peter Marcell and Dorothy DeBusschere. He attended Austin Catholic Preparatory School and inspired the "White Shirted Legion" (the tradition of wearing white shirts to the school's games to make fans more visible). As a junior, he was named all-state, and in his senior year of 1957–58, in just the school's third year of organized basketball, he led his team to the Michigan Class A high school basketball championship, scoring 32 points despite fouling out midway through the fourth quarter as the Friars defeated Benton Harbor High School and DeBusschere's future NBA rival forward Chet Walker.
College career
DeBusschere starred in both basketball and baseball at the University of Detroit. He averaged 24 points a game in basketball, helping Detroit reach the National Invitation Tournament twice and the NCAA basketball tournament once. He also pitched the Titans to three NCAA baseball tournament berths.
Baseball career
In 1962, DeBusschere was signed by the Chicago White Sox as an amateur free agent. He was a pitcher for the White Sox from 1962 to 1963. He pitched a shutout on August 13, 1963, against the Cleveland Indians, giving up six hits, one walk and striking out three. In 22 career at-bats, he had only one hit, a single off Bennie Daniels on July 17, 1963. He pitched in the White Sox's minor league system for two more seasons before giving up pitching to focus on both playing and coaching basketball.
He is one of only 13 athletes to have played in both the National Basketball Association and Major League Baseball. The 13 are: Danny Ainge, Frank Baumholtz, Hank Biasatti, Gene Conley, Chuck Connors, DeBusschere, Dick Groat, Steve Hamilton, Mark Hendrickson, Cotton Nash, Ron Reed, Dick Ricketts and Howie Schultz.
Basketball career
Detroit Pistons
DeBusschere was selected by the Detroit Pistons in 1962 NBA draft as a territorial draft selection. During his rookie season, he averaged 12.7 points and 8.7 rebounds per game, and was later named to the NBA All-Rookie Team. However, DeBusschere was injured during his second season and only played in 15 games, resulting in the Pistons finishing with a disappointing record of 23–59.
In the 1964–1965 season, at the age of 24, he was given the position of player-coach for the Pistons, and thus became the youngest-ever coach in league history. However, this stint as coach was not successful and he became a full-time player. During the 1968–1969 season, DeBusschere was traded to the New York Knicks for Walt Bellamy and Howard Komives.
While a member of the Pistons, DeBusschere appeared as himself on the April 29, 1963 episode of the game show To Tell the Truth. He received two votes.
New York Knicks
DeBusschere, along with future Hall of Famers Willis Reed, Bill Bradley and Walt Frazier, became an NBA champion when the Knicks defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in the 1970 NBA Finals. With Earl Monroe in the backcourt, they became champions again in 1973, beating the Lakers 4–1 in the finals.
DeBusschere was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1983 after a 12-year career (1962–1974) in which he averaged 16.1 points and 11 rebounds while being named to eight NBA All-Star teams. He became a member of the NBA 50th Anniversary All-Time Team in 1996. He was renowned for his physical style of play and tenacious defense, and he was named to the NBA All-Defensive first team six times.
Life after basketball
DeBusschere retired as a player in 1974, and his no. 22 jersey was retired by the Knicks, though not until many years later; it is thought the delay was due to his taking a front office job with the rival New York Nets of the American Basketball Association upon his retirement. The next year DeBusschere became the ABA's commissioner for the 1975–76 season, which would be the last for the league. He helped bring about the merger between the NBA and the ABA that year. He was later the assistant coach and director of basketball operations of the Knicks during the 1980s, when he drafted fellow Knicks legend Patrick Ewing with the first overall selection in 1985.
DeBusschere and some partners purchased Ring magazine in 1979.
DeBusschere authored a book entitled The Open Man, a chronicle of the New York Knicks' 1969–70 championship season.
Death
In May 2003, DeBusschere collapsed on a Manhattan street from a heart attack and was pronounced dead at New York University Hospital. DeBusschere was interred at Saint Joseph's Church Cemetery in Garden City, New York. DeBusschere, who lived in Garden City, was survived by his wife, Gerri (who died of cancer in 2009), sons Peter and Dennis, and daughter Michelle.
In his honor, the University of Detroit Mercy inaugurated the Dave DeBusschere Scholarship in 2003. It provides support to two student-athletes that must have a minimum grade point average of 3.0 and have demonstrated exceptional leadership skills.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 80 || || 29.4 || .430 || || .718 || 8.7 || 2.6 || || || 12.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 15 || || 20.3 || .391 || || .581 || 7.0 || 1.5 || || || 8.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 79 || || 35.1 || .425 || || .700 || 11.1 || 3.2 || || || 16.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 79 || || 34.1 || .408 || || .659 || 11.6 || 2.6 || || || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 78 || || 37.1 || .415 || || .705 || 11.8 || 2.8 || || || 18.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 80 || || 39.1 || .442 || || .664 || 13.5 || 2.3 || || || 17.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 29 || || 37.7 || .447 || || .723 || 12.2 || 2.2 || || || 16.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 47 || || 39.4 || .442 || || .682 || 11.4 || 2.7 || || || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 79 || || 33.3 || .451 || || .688 || 10.0 || 2.5 || || || 14.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 81 || || 35.7 || .421 || || .696 || 11.1 || 2.7 || || || 15.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 80 || || 38.4 || .427 || || .728 || 11.3 || 3.6 || || || 15.4
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 77 || || 36.7 || .435 || || .746 || 10.2 || 3.4 || || || 16.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 71 || || 38.0 || .461 || || .756 || 10.7 || 3.6 || .9 || .5 || 18.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 875 || || 35.7 || .432 || || .699 || 11.0 || 2.9 || .9 || .5 || 16.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 8 || 1 || 20.9 || .457 || || .750 || 6.4 || 1.4 || .1 || .0 || 9.6
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1963
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 4 || || 39.8 || .424 || || .682 || 15.8 || 1.5 || || || 20.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1968
| style="text-align:left;"|Detroit
| 6 || || 43.8 || .425 || || .578 || 16.2 || 2.2 || || || 19.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1969
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 10 || || 41.9 || .351 || || .820 || 14.8 || 3.3 || || || 16.3
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|1970
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 19 || || 36.9 || .421 || || .662 || 11.6 || 2.4 || || || 16.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1971
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 12 || || 40.7 || .416 || || .659 || 13.0 || 1.8 || || || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1972
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 16 || || 38.5 || .450 || || .750 || 12.1 || 2.3 || || || 16.6
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|1973
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 17 || || 37.1 || .442 || || .775 || 10.5 || 3.4 || || || 15.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1974
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 12 || || 33.7 || .380 || || .621 || 8.3 || 3.2 || .6 || .3 || 12.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 96 || || 38.4 || .416 || || .698 || 12.0 || 2.6 || .6 || .3 || 16.0
See also
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 30 or more rebounds in a game
List of NCAA Division I men's basketball career rebounding leaders
References
External links
Dave DeBusschere at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
Dave DeBusschere Legends profile at NBA.com
1940 births
2003 deaths
All-American college men's basketball players
American Basketball Association executives
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
American people of Belgian descent
Baseball players from Michigan
Basketball coaches from Michigan
Basketball players from Detroit
Catholics from Michigan
Chicago White Sox players
Detroit Pistons draft picks
Detroit Pistons head coaches
Detroit Pistons players
Detroit Mercy Titans baseball players
Detroit Mercy Titans men's basketball players
Indianapolis Indians players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
New York Knicks players
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)
Power forwards (basketball)
Small forwards
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227167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia%20with%20Lewy%20bodies | Dementia with Lewy bodies | Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is a type of dementia characterized by changes in sleep, behavior, cognition, movement, and regulation of automatic bodily functions. Memory loss is not always an early symptom. The disease worsens over time and is usually diagnosed when cognitive impairment interferes with normal daily functioning. Together with Parkinson's disease dementia, DLB is one of the two Lewy body dementias. It is a common form of dementia, but the prevalence is not known accurately and many diagnoses are missed. The disease was first described by Kenji Kosaka in 1976.
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)—in which people lose the muscle paralysis (atonia) that normally occurs during REM sleep and act out their dreams—is a core feature. RBD may appear years or decades before other symptoms. Other core features are visual hallucinations, marked fluctuations in attention or alertness, and parkinsonism (slowness of movement, trouble walking, or rigidity). A presumptive diagnosis can be made if several disease features are present, such as symptoms or certain results of blood tests, neuropsychological tests, imaging, and sleep studies. A definitive diagnosis usually requires an autopsy.
Most people with DLB do not have affected family members, although occasionally DLB runs in a family. The exact cause is unknown but involves formation of abnormal clumps of protein in neurons throughout the brain. Manifesting as Lewy bodies (discovered in 1912 by Frederic Lewy) and Lewy neurites, these clumps affect both the central and the autonomic nervous systems. Heart function and every level of gastrointestinal function—from chewing to defecation—can be affected, constipation being one of the most common symptoms. Low blood pressure upon standing can also occur. DLB commonly causes psychiatric symptoms, such as altered behavior, depression, or apathy.
DLB typically begins after the age of fifty, and people with the disease have a life expectancy of about four years after diagnosis. There is no cure or medication to stop the disease from progressing, and people in the latter stages of DLB may be unable to care for themselves. Treatments aim to relieve some of the symptoms and reduce the burden on caregivers. Medicines such as donepezil and rivastigmine can temporarily improve cognition and overall functioning, and melatonin can be used for sleep-related symptoms. Antipsychotics are usually avoided, even for hallucinations, because severe reactions occur in almost half of people with DLB, and their use can result in death. Management of the many different symptoms is challenging, as it involves multiple specialties and education of caregivers.
Classification and terminology
Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is a type of dementia, a group of diseases involving progressive neurodegeneration; it is characterized by degeneration of the central nervous system that worsens over time.
Dementia with Lewy bodies can be classified in other ways. It is one of the two Lewy body dementias, along with Parkinson's disease dementia. The atypical parkinsonian syndromes include DLB, along with other conditions. Lastly, DLB is a synucleinopathy, meaning that it is characterized by abnormal deposits of alpha-synuclein protein in the brain. The synucleinopathies include Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and other rarer conditions.
The vocabulary associated with Lewy pathology causes confusion. Lewy body dementia (the umbrella term that encompasses the clinical diagnoses of dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia) differs from Lewy body disease (the term used to describe pathological findings of Lewy bodies on autopsy). Because individuals with Alzheimer's are often found on autopsy to also have Lewy bodies, DLB has been characterized as an Alzheimer disease-related dementia; the term Lewy body variant of Alzheimer disease is no longer used because the predominant pathology for these individuals is related to Alzheimer's.
Signs and symptoms
DLB is dementia that occurs with "some combination of fluctuating cognition, recurrent visual hallucinations, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD), and parkinsonism", according to Armstrong (2019), when Parkinson's disease is not well established before the dementia occurs. DLB has widely varying symptoms and is more complex than many other dementias. Several areas of the nervous system (such as the autonomic nervous system and numerous regions of the brain) can be affected by Lewy pathology, in which the alpha-synuclein deposits cause damage and corresponding neurologic deficits.
In DLB, there is an identifiable set of early signs and symptoms; these are called the prodromal, or pre-dementia, phase of the disease. These early signs and symptoms can appear 15 years or more before dementia develops. The earliest symptoms are constipation and dizziness from autonomic dysfunction, hyposmia (reduced ability to smell), RBD, anxiety, and depression. RBD may appear years or decades before other symptoms. Memory loss is not always an early symptom.
Manifestations of DLB can be divided into essential, core, and supportive features. Dementia is the essential feature and must be present for diagnosis, while core and supportive features are further evidence in support of diagnosis (see diagnostic criteria below).
Essential feature
A dementia diagnosis is made after cognitive decline progresses to a point of interfering with normal daily activities, or social or occupational function. While dementia is an essential feature of DLB, it does not always appear early on, and is more likely to present as the condition progresses.
Core features
While specific symptoms may vary, the core features of DLB are fluctuating cognition, alertness or attention; REM sleep behavior disorder; one or more of the cardinal features of parkinsonism, not due to medication or stroke; and repeated visual hallucinations.
The 2017 Fourth Consensus Report of the DLB Consortium determined these to be core features based on the availability of high-quality evidence indicating they are highly specific to the condition.
Fluctuating cognition and alertness
Fluctuations in cognitive function are the most characteristic feature of the Lewy body dementias. They are the most frequent symptom of DLB, and are often distinguishable from those of other dementias by concomitant fluctuations of attention and alertness, described by Tsamakis and Mueller (2021) as "spontaneous variations of cognitive abilities, alertness, or arousal". They are further distinguishable by a "marked amplitude between best and worst performances", according to McKeith (2002). These fluctuations vary in severity, frequency and duration; episodes last anywhere from seconds to weeks, interposed between periods of more normal functioning. When relatively lucid periods coincide with medical appointments, cognitive testing may inaccurately reflect disease severity, with subsequent assessments of cognition showing improvements from baseline.
Unlike the deficits in memory and orientation that are characteristic of Alzheimer disease, the distinct impairments in cognition seen in DLB are most commonly in three domains: attention, executive function, and visuospatial function. These fluctuating impairments are present early in the course of the disease. Individuals with DLB may be easily distracted, have a hard time focusing on tasks, or appear to be "delirium-like", "zoning out", or in states of altered consciousness with spells of confusion, agitation or incoherent speech. They may have disorganized speech and their ability to organize their thoughts may change during the day.
Executive function describes attentional and behavioral controls, memory and cognitive flexibility that aid problem solving and planning. Problems with executive function surface in activities requiring planning and organizing. Deficits can manifest in impaired job performance, inability to follow conversations, difficulties with multitasking, or mistakes in driving, such as misjudging distances or becoming lost.
The person with DLB may experience disorders of wakefulness or sleep disorders (in addition to REM sleep behavior disorder) that can be severe. These disorders include daytime sleepiness, drowsiness or napping more than two hours a day, insomnia, periodic limb movements, restless legs syndrome and sleep apnea.
REM sleep behavior disorder
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is a parasomnia in which individuals lose the paralysis of muscles (atonia) that is normal during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and consequently act out their dreams or make other abnormal movements or vocalizations. About 80% of those with DLB have RBD. Abnormal sleep behaviors may begin before cognitive decline is observed, and may appear decades before any other symptoms, often as the first clinical indication of DLB and an early sign of a synucleinopathy. On autopsy, 94 to 98% of individuals with polysomnography-confirmed RBD have a synucleinopathy—most commonly DLB or Parkinson's disease in about equal proportions. More than three out of four people with RBD are diagnosed with a neurodegenerative condition within ten years, but additional neurodegenerative diagnoses may emerge up to 50 years after RBD diagnosis. RBD may subside over time.
Individuals with RBD may not be aware that they act out their dreams. RBD behaviors may include yelling, screaming, laughing, crying, unintelligible talking, nonviolent flailing, or more violent punching, kicking, choking, or scratching. The reported dream enactment behaviors are frequently violent, and involve a theme of being chased or attacked. People with RBD may fall out of bed or injure themselves or their bed partners, which may cause bruises, fractures, or subdural hematomae. Because people are more likely to remember or report violent dreams and behaviors—and to be referred to a specialist when injury occurs—recall or selection bias may explain the prevalence of violence reported in RBD.
Parkinsonism
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome characterized by slowness of movement (called bradykinesia), rigidity, postural instability, and tremor; it is found in DLB and many other conditions like Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's disease dementia, and others. Parkinsonism occurs in more than 85% of people with DLB, who may have one or more of these cardinal features, although tremor at rest is less common.
Motor symptoms may include shuffling gait, problems with balance, falls, blank expression, reduced range of facial expression, and low speech volume or a weak voice. Presentation of motor symptoms is variable, but they are usually symmetric, presenting on both sides of the body. Only one of the cardinal symptoms of parkinsonism may be present, and the symptoms may be less severe than in persons with Parkinson's disease.
Visual hallucinations
Up to 80% of people with DLB have visual hallucinations, typically early in the course of the disease. They are recurrent and frequent; may be scenic, elaborate and detailed; and usually involve animated perceptions of animals or people, including children and family members. Examples of visual hallucinations "vary from 'little people' who casually walk around the house, 'ghosts' of dead parents who sit quietly at the bedside, to 'bicycles' that hang off of trees in the back yard".
These hallucinations can sometimes provoke fear, although their content is more typically neutral. In some cases, the person with DLB has insight that the hallucinations are not real. Among those with more disrupted cognition, the hallucinations can become more complex, and they may be less aware that their hallucinations are not real.
Visual misperceptions or illusions are also common in DLB but differ from visual hallucinations. While visual hallucinations occur in the absence of real stimuli, visual illusions occur when real stimuli are incorrectly perceived; for example, a person with DLB may misinterpret a floor lamp for a person.
Supportive features
Supportive features of DLB have less diagnostic weight, but they provide evidence for the diagnosis. Supportive features may be present early in the progression, and persist over time; they are common but they are not specific to the diagnosis. The supportive features are:
marked sensitivity to antipsychotics (neuroleptics);
marked dysautonomia (autonomic dysfunction) in which the autonomic nervous system does not work properly;
hallucinations in senses other than vision (hearing, touch, taste, and smell);
hypersomnia (excessive sleepiness);
hyposmia (reduced ability to smell);
false beliefs and delusions organized around a common theme;
postural instability, loss of consciousness, and frequent falls;
apathy, anxiety, or depression.
Partly because of loss of cells that release the neurotransmitter dopamine, people with DLB may have neuroleptic malignant syndrome, impairments in cognition or alertness, or irreversible exacerbation of parkinsonism including severe rigidity, and dysautonomia from the use of antipsychotics.
Dysautonomia (autonomic dysfunction) occurs when Lewy pathology affects the peripheral autonomic nervous system (the nerves dealing with the unconscious functions of organs such as the intestines, heart, and urinary tract). The first signs of autonomic dysfunction are often subtle. Manifestations include blood pressure problems such as orthostatic hypotension (significantly reduced blood pressure upon standing) and supine hypertension; constipation, urinary problems, and sexual dysfunction; loss of or reduced ability to smell; and excessive sweating, drooling, or salivation, and problems swallowing (dysphagia).
Alpha-synuclein deposits can affect cardiac muscle and blood vessels. "Degeneration of the cardiac sympathetic nerves is a neuropathological feature" of the Lewy body dementias, according to Yamada Almost all people with synucleinopathies have cardiovascular dysfunction, although most are asymptomatic. Between of individuals with DLB have orthostatic hypotension due to reduced blood flow, which can result in lightheadedness, feeling faint, and blurred vision.
From chewing to defecation, alpha-synuclein deposits affect every level of gastrointestinal function. Almost all persons with DLB have upper gastrointestinal tract dysfunction (such as gastroparesis, delayed gastric emptying) or lower gastrointestinal dysfunction (such as constipation and prolonged stool transit time). Persons with Lewy body dementia almost universally experience nausea, gastric retention, or abdominal distention from delayed gastric emptying. Problems with gastrointestinal function can affect medication absorption. Constipation can present a decade before diagnosis, and is one of the most common symptoms for people with Lewy body dementia. Dysphagia is milder than in other synucleinopathies and presents later. Urinary difficulties (urinary retention, waking at night to urinate, increased urinary frequency and urgency, and over- or underactive bladder) typically appear later and may be mild or moderate. Sexual dysfunction usually appears early in synucleinopathies, and may include erectile dysfunction and difficulty achieving orgasm or ejaculating.
Among the other supportive features, psychiatric symptoms are often present when the individual first comes to clinical attention and are more likely, compared to AD, to cause more impairment. About one-third of people with DLB have depression, and they often have anxiety as well. Anxiety leads to increased risk of falls, and apathy may lead to less social interaction.
Agitation, behavioral disturbances, and delusions typically appear later in the course of the disease. Delusions may have a paranoid quality, involving themes like a house being broken in to, infidelity, or abandonment. Individuals with DLB who misplace items may have delusions about theft. Capgras delusion may occur, in which the person with DLB loses knowledge of the spouse, caregiver, or partner's face, and is convinced that an imposter has replaced them. Hallucinations in other modalities are sometimes present, but are less frequent.
Sleep disorders (disrupted sleep cycles, sleep apnea, and arousal from periodic limb movement disorder) are common in DLB and may lead to hypersomnia. Loss of sense of smell may occur several years before other symptoms.
Causes
Like other synucleinopathies, the exact cause of DLB is unknown. No trigger for the build-up of alpha-synuclein deposits in the central nervous system has been conclusively identified. Synucleinopathies are typically caused by interactions of genetic and environmental influences; infectious causes have also been considered, but arguments in their favor are controversial and lacking in support. Most people with DLB do not have affected family members, although occasionally DLB runs in a family. The heritability of DLB is thought to be around 30% (that is, about 70% of traits associated with DLB are not inherited).
There is overlap in the genetic risk factors for DLB, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease, and Parkinson's disease dementia. The APOE gene has three common variants. One, APOE ε4, is a risk factor for DLB and Alzheimer's disease, whereas APOE ε2 may be protective against both. Mutations in GBA, a gene for a lysosomal enzyme, are associated with both DLB and Parkinson's disease. Rarely, mutations in SNCA, the gene for alpha-synuclein, or LRRK2, a gene for a kinase enzyme, can cause any of DLB, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's disease dementia. This suggests some shared genetic pathology may underlie all four diseases.
The greatest risk of developing DLB is being over the age of 50. Having REM sleep behavior disorder or Parkinson's disease confers a higher risk for developing DLB. The risk of developing DLB has not been linked to any specific lifestyle factors. Risk factors for rapid conversion of RBD to a synucleinopathy include impairments in color vision or the ability to smell, mild cognitive impairment, and abnormal dopaminergic imaging.
Pathophysiology
DLB is characterized by the development of abnormal collections of alpha-synuclein protein within diseased brain neurons, manifesting as Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. When these clumps of protein form, neurons function less optimally and eventually die. Neuronal loss in DLB leads to profound dopamine dysfunction and marked cholinergic pathology; other neurotransmitters might be affected, but less is known about them. Damage in the brain is widespread, and affects many domains of functioning. Loss of acetylcholine-producing neurons is thought to account for degeneration in memory and learning, while the death of dopamine-producing neurons appears to be responsible for degeneration of behavior, cognition, mood, movement, motivation, and sleep. The extent of Lewy body neuronal damage is a key determinant of dementia in the Lewy body disorders.
The precise mechanisms contributing to DLB are not well understood and are a matter of some controversy. The role of alpha-synuclein deposits is unclear, because individuals with no signs of DLB have been found on autopsy to have advanced alpha-synuclein pathology. The relationship between Lewy pathology and widespread cell death is contentious. It is not known if the pathology spreads between cells or follows another pattern. The mechanisms that contribute to cell death, how the disease advances through the brain, and the timing of cognitive decline are all poorly understood. There is no model to account for the specific neurons and brain regions that are affected.
Autopsy studies and amyloid imaging studies using Pittsburgh compound B (PiB) indicate that tau protein pathology and amyloid plaques, which are hallmarks of AD, are also common in DLB and more common than in Parkinson's disease dementia. Amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposits are found in the tauopathies—neurodegenerative diseases characterized by neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein—but the mechanism underlying dementia is often mixed, and Aβ is also a factor in DLB.
A proposed pathophysiology for RBD implicates neurons in the reticular formation that regulate REM sleep. RBD might appear decades earlier than other symptoms in the Lewy body dementias because these cells are affected earlier, before spreading to other brain regions.
Diagnosis
Dementia with Lewy bodies can only be definitively diagnosed after death with an autopsy of the brain (or in rare familial cases, via a genetic test), so diagnosis of the living is referred to as probable or possible.
Diagnosing DLB can be challenging because of the wide range of symptoms with differing levels of severity in each individual. DLB is often misdiagnosed or, in its early stages, confused with Alzheimer's disease. The majority of individuals with Lewy body dementias receive an inaccurate initial diagnosis—such as Alzheimer's, parkinsonism, other dementias or a psychiatric diagnosis—resulting in reduced support and increased fear and uncertainty, sometimes for many years. Comparing the rates of detection of DLB in autopsy studies to those diagnosed while in clinical care indicates that as many as one in three diagnoses of DLB may be missed. Another complicating factor is that DLB commonly occurs along with Alzheimer's; autopsy reveals that half of people with DLB have some level of changes attributed to AD in their brains, which contributes to the wide-ranging variety of symptoms and diagnostic difficulty.
Living with an uncertain diagnosis and prognosis is a concern expressed by both individuals with DLB and their caregivers and difficulty gaining a diagnosis and differing interactions with healthcare professionals are common experiences; once diagnosed, there are still difficulties finding a doctor knowledgeable in treating DLB. Despite the difficulty in diagnosis, a prompt diagnosis is important because of the serious risks of sensitivity to antipsychotics and the need to inform both the person with DLB and the person's caregivers about those medications' side effects. The management of DLB is difficult in comparison to many other neurodegenerative diseases, so an accurate diagnosis is important.
Criteria
The 2017 Fourth Consensus Report established diagnostic criteria for probable and possible DLB, recognizing advances in detection since the earlier Third Consensus (2005) version. The 2017 criteria are based on essential, core, and supportive clinical features, and diagnostic biomarkers.
The essential feature is dementia; for a DLB diagnosis, it must be significant enough to interfere with social or occupational functioning.
The four core clinical features (described in the Signs and symptoms section) are fluctuating cognition, visual hallucinations, REM sleep behavior disorder, and signs of parkinsonism. Supportive clinical features are marked sensitivity to antipsychotics; marked autonomic dysfunction; nonvisual hallucinations; hypersomnia (excessive sleepiness); hyposmia (reduced ability to smell); false beliefs and delusions organized around a common theme; postural instability, loss of consciousness and frequent falls; and apathy, anxiety, or depression.
Direct laboratory-measurable biomarkers for DLB diagnosis are not known, but several indirect methods can lend further evidence for diagnosis. The indicative diagnostic biomarkers are: reduced dopamine transporter uptake in the basal ganglia shown on PET or SPECT imaging; low uptake of 123iodine-metaiodobenzylguanidine shown on myocardial scintigraphy; and loss of atonia during REM sleep evidenced on polysomnography. Supportive diagnostic biomarkers (from PET, SPECT, CT, or MRI brain imaging studies or EEG monitoring) are: lack of damage to medial temporal lobe (damage is more likely in AD); reduced occipital activity; and prominent slow-wave activity on EEG.
Probable DLB can be diagnosed when dementia and at least two core features are present, or when one core feature and at least one indicative biomarker are present. Possible DLB can be diagnosed when dementia and only one core feature are present or, if no core features are present, then at least one indicative biomarker is present.
DLB is distinguished from Parkinson's disease dementia by the time frame in which dementia symptoms appear relative to parkinsonian symptoms. DLB is diagnosed when cognitive symptoms begin before or at the same time as parkinsonian motor signs. Parkinson's disease dementia would be the diagnosis when Parkinson's disease is well established before the dementia occurs (the onset of dementia is more than a year after the onset of parkinsonian symptoms). Known as the one-year rule, the distinction is acknowledged to be arbitrary; it recognizes overlap between the conditions along with key differences, while allowing for variations in treatment and prognosis and providing a framework for research.
DLB is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) as major or mild neurocognitive disorder with Lewy bodies. The differences between the DSM and DLB Consortium diagnostic criteria are: 1) the DSM does not include low dopamine transporter uptake as a supportive feature, and 2) unclear diagnostic weight is assigned to biomarkers in the DSM. Lewy body dementias are classified by the World Health Organization in its ICD-10, the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, in chapter VI, as diseases of the nervous system, code 31.8.
Clinical history and testing
Diagnostic tests can be used to establish some features of the condition and distinguish them from symptoms of other conditions. Diagnosis may include taking the person's medical history, a physical exam, assessment of neurological function, testing to rule out conditions that may cause similar symptoms, brain imaging, neuropsychological testing to assess cognitive function, sleep studies, or myocardial scintigraphy. Laboratory testing can rule out other conditions that can cause similar symptoms, such as abnormal thyroid function, syphilis, HIV, or vitamin deficiencies that may cause symptoms similar to dementia.
Typical dementia screening tests used are the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). The pattern of cognitive impairment in DLB is distinct from other dementias, such as AD; the MMSE mainly tests for the memory and language impairments more commonly seen in those other dementias and may be less suited for assessing cognition in the Lewy body dementias, where testing of visuospatial and executive function is indicated. The MoCA may be better suited to assessing cognitive function in DLB, and the Clinician Assessment of Fluctuation scale and the Mayo Fluctuation Composite Score may help understand cognitive decline relative to fluctuations in DLB. For tests of attention, digit span, serial sevens, and spatial span can be used for simple screening, and the Revised Digit Symbol Subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale may show defects in attention that are characteristic of DLB. The Frontal Assessment Battery, Stroop test and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test are used for evaluation of executive function, and there are many other screening instruments available.
If DLB is suspected when parkinsonism and dementia are the only presenting features, PET or SPECT imaging may show reduced dopamine transporter activity. A DLB diagnosis may be warranted if other conditions with reduced dopamine transporter uptake can be ruled out.
RBD is diagnosed either by sleep study recording or, when sleep studies cannot be performed, by medical history and validated questionnaires. In individuals with dementia and a history of RBD, a probable DLB diagnosis can be justified (even with no other core feature or biomarker) based on a sleep study showing REM sleep without atonia because it is so highly predictive. Conditions similar to RBD, like severe sleep apnea and periodic limb movement disorder, must be ruled out. Prompt evaluation and treatment of RBD is indicated when a prior history of violence or injury is present as it may increase the likelihood of future violent dream enactment behaviors. Individuals with RBD may not be able to provide a history of dream enactment behavior, so bed partners are also consulted. The REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Single-Question Screen offers diagnostic sensitivity and specificity in the absence of polysomnography with one question: "Have you ever been told, or suspected yourself, that you seem to 'act out your dreams' while asleep (for example, punching, flailing your arms in the air, making running movements, etc.)?" Because some individuals with DLB do not have RBD, normal findings from a sleep study cannot rule out DLB.
Since 2001, 123iodine-metaiodobenzylguanidine myocardial scintigraphy has been used diagnostically in East Asia (principally Japan), but not in the US. MIBG is taken up by sympathetic nerve endings, such as those that innervate the heart, and is labeled for scintigraphy with radioactive 123iodine. Autonomic dysfunction resulting from damage to nerves in the heart in patients with DLB is associated with lower cardiac uptake of
There is no genetic test to determine if an individual will develop DLB and, according to the Lewy Body Dementia Association, genetic testing is not routinely recommended because there are only rare instances of hereditary DLB.
Differential
Many neurodegenerative conditions share cognitive and motor symptoms with dementia with Lewy bodies. The differential diagnosis includes Alzheimer's disease; such synucleinopathies as Parkinson's disease dementia, Parkinson's disease, and multiple system atrophy; vascular dementia; and progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, and corticobasal syndrome.
The symptoms of DLB are easily confused with delirium, or more rarely as psychosis; prodromal subtypes of delirium-onset DLB and psychiatric-onset DLB have been proposed. Mismanagement of delirium is a particular concern because of the risks to people with DLB associated with antipsychotics. A careful examination for features of DLB is warranted in individuals with unexplained delirium. PET or SPECT imaging showing reduced dopamine transporter uptake can help distinguish DLB from delirium.
Lewy pathology affects the peripheral autonomic nervous system; autonomic dysfunction is observed less often in AD, frontotemporal, or vascular dementias, so its presence can help differentiate them. MRI scans almost always show abnormalities in the brains of people with vascular dementia, which can begin suddenly.
Alzheimer's disease
DLB is distinguishable from AD even in the prodromal phase. Short-term memory impairment is seen early in AD and is a prominent feature, while fluctuating attention is uncommon; impairment in DLB is more often seen first as fluctuating cognition. In contrast to AD—in which the hippocampus is among the first brain structures affected, and episodic memory loss related to encoding of memories is typically the earliest symptom—memory impairment occurs later in DLB. People with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (in which memory loss is the main symptom) may progress to AD, whereas those with non-amnestic mild cognitive impairment (which has more prominent impairments in language, visuospatial, and executive domains) are more likely to progress towards DLB. Memory loss in DLB has a different progression from AD because frontal structures are involved earlier, with later involvement of temporoparietal brain structures. Verbal memory is not as severely affected as in AD.
While 74% of people with autopsy-confirmed DLB had deficits in planning and organization, they show up in only 45% of people with AD. Visuospatial processing deficits are present in most individuals with DLB, and they show up earlier and are more pronounced than in AD. Hallucinations typically occur early in the course of DLB, are less common in early AD, but usually occur later in AD. AD pathology frequently co-occurs in DLB and is associated with more rapid decline; cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing may reveal an "Alzheimer's pattern" of higher tau and lower amyloid beta.
PET or SPECT imaging can be used to detect reduced dopamine transporter uptake and distinguish AD from DLB. Severe atrophy of the hippocampus is more typical of AD than DLB. Before dementia develops (during the mild cognitive impairment phase), MRI scans show normal hippocampal volume. After dementia develops, MRI shows more atrophy among individuals with AD, and a slower reduction in volume over time among people with DLB than those with AD. Compared to people with AD, FDG-PET brain scans in people with DLB often show a cingulate island sign.
In East Asia, particularly Japan, is used in the differential diagnosis of DLB and AD, because reduced labeling of cardiac nerves is seen only in Lewy body disorders. Other indicative and supportive biomarkers are useful in distinguishing DLB and AD (preservation of medial temporal lobe structures, reduced occipital activity, and slow-wave EEG activity).
Synucleinopathies
Dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia are clinically similar after dementia occurs in Parkinson's disease. Delusions in Parkinson's disease dementia are less common than in DLB, and persons with Parkinson's disease are typically less caught up in their visual hallucinations than those with DLB. There is a lower incidence of tremor at rest in DLB than in Parkinson's disease, and signs of parkinsonism in DLB are more symmetrical. In multiple system atrophy, autonomic dysfunction appears earlier and is more severe, and is accompanied by uncoordinated movements, while visual hallucinations and fluctuating cognition are less common than in DLB. Urinary difficulty is one of the earliest symptoms with multiple system atrophy, and is often severe.
Frontotemporal dementias
Corticobasal syndrome, corticobasal degeneration and progressive supranuclear palsy are frontotemporal dementias with features of parkinsonism and impaired cognition. Similar to DLB, imaging may show reduced dopamine transporter uptake. Corticobasal syndrome and degeneration, and progressive supranuclear palsy, are usually distinguished from DLB by history and examination. Motor movements in corticobasal syndrome are asymmetrical. There are differences in posture, gaze and facial expressions in the most common variants of progressive supranuclear palsy, and falling backwards is more common relative to DLB. Visual hallucinations and fluctuating cognition are unusual in corticobasal degeneration and progressive supranuclear palsy.
Management
Palliative care is offered to ameliorate symptoms, but there are no medications that can slow, stop, or improve the relentless progression of the disease. No medications for DLB are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as of 2020, although donepezil is licensed in Japan and the Philippines for the treatment of DLB. As of 2020, there has been little study on the best management for non-motor symptoms such as sleep disorders and autonomic dysfunction; most information on management of autonomic dysfunction in DLB is based on studies of people with Parkinson's disease.
Management can be challenging because of the need to balance treatment of different symptoms: cognitive dysfunction, neuropsychiatric features, impairments related to the motor system, and other nonmotor symptoms. Individuals with DLB have widely different symptoms that fluctuate over time, and treating one symptom can worsen another; suboptimal care can result from a lack of coordination among the physicians treating different symptoms. A multidisciplinary approach—going beyond early and accurate diagnosis to include educating and supporting the caregivers—is favored.
Medication
Pharmacological management of DLB is complex because of adverse effects of medications and the wide range of symptoms to be treated (cognitive, motor, neuropsychiatric, autonomic, and sleep). Anticholinergic and dopaminergic agents can have adverse effects or result in psychosis in individuals with DLB, and a medication that addresses one feature might worsen another. For example, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) for cognitive symptoms can lead to complications in dysautonomia features; treatment of movement symptoms with dopamine agonists may worsen neuropsychiatric symptoms; and treatment of hallucinations and psychosis with antipsychotics may worsen other symptoms or lead to a potentially fatal reaction.
Extreme caution is required in the use of antipsychotic medication in people with DLB because of their sensitivity to these agents. Severe and life-threatening reactions occur in almost half of people with DLB, and can be fatal after a single dose. Antipsychotics with D2 dopamine receptor-blocking properties are used only with great caution. According to Boot (2013), "electing not to use neuroleptics is often the best course of action". People with Lewy body dementias who take neuroleptics are at risk for neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a life-threatening illness. There is no evidence to support the use of antipsychotics to treat the Lewy body dementias, and they carry the additional risk of stroke when used in the elderly with dementia.
Medications (including tricyclic antidepressants and treatments for urinary incontinence) with anticholinergic properties that cross the blood-brain barrier can cause memory loss. The antihistamine medication diphenhydramine (Benadryl), sleep medications like zolpidem, and benzodiazepines may worsen confusion or neuropsychiatric symptoms. Some general anesthetics may cause confusion or delirium upon waking in persons with Lewy body dementias, and may result in permanent decline.
Cognitive symptoms
There is strong evidence for the use of AChEIs to treat cognitive problems; these medications include rivastigmine and donepezil. Both are first-line treatments in the UK. Even when the AChEIs do not lead to improvement in cognitive symptoms, people taking them may have less deterioration overall, although there may be adverse gastrointestinal effects. The use of these medications has demonstrated a reduced burden on caregivers, and improvement in activities of daily living for the individual with DLB. The AChEIs are initiated carefully as they may aggravate autonomic dysfunction or sleep behaviors. There is less evidence for the efficacy of memantine in DLB, but it may be used alone or with an AChEI because of its low side effect profile. Anticholinergic drugs are avoided because they worsen cognitive symptoms.
To improve daytime alertness, there is mixed evidence for the use of stimulants such as methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine; although worsening of neuropsychiatric symptoms is not common, they can increase the risk of psychosis. Modafinil and armodafinil may be effective for daytime sleepiness.
Motor symptoms
Motor symptoms in DLB appear to respond somewhat less to medications used to treat Parkinson's disease, like levodopa, and these medications can increase neuropsychiatric symptoms. Almost one out of every three individuals with DLB develops psychotic symptoms from levodopa. If such medications are needed for motor symptoms, cautious introduction with slow increases to the lowest possible dose may help avoid psychosis.
The anticonvulsant zonisamide has been approved in Japan since 2009 for treating Parkinson's disease and since 2018 to treat parkinsonism in DLB. There is high certainty according to the GRADE certainty rating approach that it is effective for treating motor symptoms in DLB.
Neuropsychiatric symptoms
Neuropsychiatric symptoms of DLB (aggression, anxiety, apathy, delusions, depression and hallucinations) do not always require treatment. The first line of defense in decreasing visual hallucinations is to reduce the use of dopaminergic drugs, which can worsen hallucinations. If new neuropsychiatric symptoms appear, the use of medications (such as anticholinergics, tricyclic antidepressants, benzodiazepines and opioids) that might be contributing to these symptoms is reviewed.
Among the AChEIs, donepezil and rivastigmine can help reduce neuropsychiatric symptoms and improve the frequency and severity of hallucinations in the less severe stages of DLB. For treating psychosis and agitation in DLB, there is low evidence for memantine, olanzapine and aripiprazole, and very low evidence for the efficacy of quetiapine. Although clozapine has been shown effective in Parkinson's disease, there is very low evidence for its use to treat visual hallucinations in DLB, and its use requires regular blood monitoring.
Apathy may be treated with AChEIs, and they may also reduce hallucinations, delusions, anxiety and agitation. Most medications to treat anxiety and depression have not been adequately investigated for DLB. Antidepressants may affect sleep and worsen RBD. Mirtazapine and SSRIs can be used to treat depression, depending on how well they are tolerated, and guided by general advice for the use of antidepressants in dementia. Antidepressants with anticholinergic properties may worsen hallucinations and delusions. People with Capgras syndrome may not tolerate AChEIs.
Sleep disorders
Injurious dream enactment behaviors are a treatment priority. RBD may be treated with melatonin or clonazepam. Sleep medications are carefully evaluated for each individual as they carry increased risk of falls, increased daytime sleepiness, and worsening cognition. Melatonin may be more helpful in preventing injuries, and it offers a safer alternative, because clonazepam can produce deteriorating cognition, and worsen sleep apnea. For some people, memantine is useful. Modafinil may be used for hypersomnia, but no trials support its use in DLB. Antidepressants (SSRIs, SNRIs, tricyclics, and MAOIs), AChEIs, beta blockers, caffeine, and tramadol may worsen RBD.
Autonomic symptoms
Decreasing the dosage of dopaminergic or atypical antipsychotic drugs may be needed with orthostatic hypotension, and high blood pressure drugs can sometimes be stopped. When non-pharmacological treatments for orthostatic hypotension have been exhausted, fludrocortisone, droxidopa, or midodrine are options, but these drugs have not been specifically studied for DLB as of 2020. Delayed gastric emptying can be worsened by dopaminergic medications, and constipation can be worsened by opiates and anticholinergic medications. Muscarinic antagonists used for urinary symptoms might worsen cognitive impairment in people with Lewy body dementias.
Other
There is no high-quality evidence for non-pharmacological management of DLB, but some interventions have been shown effective for addressing similar symptoms that occur in other dementias. For example, organized activities, music therapy, physical activity and occupational therapy may help with psychosis or agitation, while exercise and gait training can help with motor symptoms. Cognitive behavioral therapy can be tried for depression or hallucinations, although there is no evidence for its use in DLB. Cues can be used to help with memory retrieval.
The first steps in managing sleep disorders are to evaluate the use of medications that impact sleep and provide education about sleep hygiene. Frequency and severity of RBD may be lessened by treating sleep apnea, if it is present.
For autonomic dysfunction, several non-medication strategies may be helpful. Dietary changes include avoiding meals high in fat and sugary foods, eating smaller and more frequent meals, after-meal walks, and increasing fluids or dietary fiber to treat constipation. Stool softeners and exercise also help with constipation. Excess sweating can be helped by avoiding alcohol and spicy foods, and using cotton bedding and loose fitting clothing.
Physical exercise in a sitting or recumbent position, and exercise in a pool, can help maintain conditioning. Compression stockings and elevating the head of the bed may also help, and increasing fluid intake or table salt can be tried to reduce orthostatic hypotension. To lessen the risk of fractures in individuals at risk for falls, bone mineral density screening and testing of vitamin D levels are used, and caregivers are educated on the importance of preventing falls. Physiotherapy has been shown helpful for Parkinson's disease dementia, but as of 2020, there is no evidence to support physical therapy in people with DLB.
Caregiving
Teaching caregivers how to manage neuropsychiatric symptoms (such as agitation and psychosis) is recommended. Because of the neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with DLB, the demands placed on caregivers are higher than in AD, but education for caregivers has not been studied as thoroughly as in AD or Parkinson's disease. Contributing factors to the caregiver burden in DLB are emotional fluctuations, apathy, psychosis, aggression, agitation, and night-time behaviors such as parasomnias, that lead to a loss of independence earlier than in AD. Caregivers may experience depression and exhaustion, and they may need support from other people. Other family members who are not present in the daily caregiving may not observe the fluctuating behaviors or recognize the stress on the caregiver, and conflict can result when family members are not supportive. Caregiver education reduces not only distress for the caregiver, but symptoms for the individual with dementia.
Visual hallucinations associated with DLB create a particular burden on caregivers. Educating caregivers on how to distract or change the subject when confronted with hallucinations is more effective than arguing over the reality of the hallucination. Coping strategies may help and are worth trying, even though there is no evidence for their efficacy. These strategies include having the person with DLB look away or look at something else, focus on or try to touch the hallucination, wait for it to go away on its own, and speak with others about the visualization. Delusions and hallucinations may be reduced by increasing lighting in the evening, and making sure there is no light at night when the individual with DLB is sleeping.
With the increased risk of side effects from antipsychotics for people with DLB, educated caregivers are able to act as advocates for the person with DLB. If evaluation or treatment in an emergency room is needed, the caregiver may be able to explain the risks associated with neuroleptic use for persons with DLB. Caregiver training, watchful waiting, identifying sources of pain, and increasing social interaction can help minimize agitation. Individuals with dementia may not be able to communicate that they are in pain, and pain is a common trigger of agitation. Medical alert bracelets or notices about medication sensitivity are available and can save lives. A home safety assessment can be done when there is risk of falling. Handrails and shower chairs can help avoid falls.
Individuals and their caregivers can be counselled about the need to improve bedroom safety for RBD symptoms. Sleep-related injuries from falling or jumping out of bed can be avoided by lowering the height of the bed, placing a mattress next to the bed to soften the impact of a fall, and removing sharp objects from around the bed. Sharp surfaces near the bed can be padded, bed alarm systems may help with sleepwalking, and bed partners may find it safer to sleep in another room. According to St Louis and Boeve, firearms should be locked away, out of the bedroom.
Driving ability may be impaired early in DLB because of visual hallucinations, movement issues related to parkinsonism, and fluctuations in cognitive ability, and at some point it becomes unsafe for the person to drive. Driving ability is assessed as part of management, and family members generally determine when driving privileges are removed.
Prognosis
As of 2021, no cure is known for DLB. The prognosis for DLB has not been well studied; early studies had methodological limitations, such as small sample size and selection bias. Relative to AD and other dementias, DLB generally leads to higher rates of disability, hospitalization and institutionalization, and lower life expectancy and quality of life, with increased costs of care. Depression, apathy, and visual hallucinations contribute to the reduced quality of life. Decline may be more rapid when the APOE gene is present, or when AD—or its biomarkers—is also present. The severity of orthostatic hypotension also predicts a worse prognosis. Visuospatial deficits early in the course of DLB were thought to be a predictor of rapid decline, but more recent studies did not find an association.
The trajectory of cognitive decline in DLB is difficult to establish because of the high rate of missed diagnoses; the typical delay of a year in the US, and 1.2 years in the UK, for diagnosis of DLB mean that a baseline from which deterioration can be measured is often absent. Compared to AD, which is better studied, memory is thought to be retained longer, while verbal fluency may be lost faster, but the most common tools used to assess cognition may miss the most common cognitive deficits in DLB, and better studies are needed.
There are more neuropsychiatric symptoms in DLB than AD, and they may emerge earlier, so those with DLB may have a less favorable prognosis, with more rapid cognitive decline, more admissions to residential care, and a lower life expectancy. An increased rate of hospitalization compared to AD is most commonly related to hallucinations and confusion, followed by falls and infection.
Life expectancy is difficult to predict, and limited study data are available. Survival may be defined from the point of disease onset, or from the point of diagnosis. There is wide variability in survival times, and as DLB may be rapidly or slowly progressing. A 2019 meta-analysis found an average survival time after diagnosis of 4.1 years—indicating survival in DLB 1.6 years less than after a diagnosis of Alzheimer's. A 2017 review found survival from disease onset between 5.5 and 7.7 years, and survival from diagnosis between 1.9 and 6.3 years. The difference in survival between AD and DLB could be because DLB is harder to diagnose, and may be diagnosed later in the course of the disease. An online survey with 658 respondents found that, after diagnosis, more than 10% died within a year, 10% lived more than 7 years, and some live more than 10 years; some people with Lewy body dementias live for 20 years. Shorter life expectancy is more likely when visual hallucinations, abnormal gait, and variable cognition are present early on.
Fear and anxiety feature strongly for both people with Lewy body dementia and their caregivers; a range of emotional responses to living with Lewy bodies includes fear of hallucinations, fear of falls and frightening nightmares as a result of RBD, and being scared of the effects of tiredness and fatigue. The symptoms of fluctuations, depression, delirium and violence are also experienced as frightening. An immense amount of physical support from friends and family is often required to maintain social and supporting relationships. Individuals with Lewy body dementias describe feeling a burden in the wider social context, as they reduce attending social events due to their increasing physical needs. Frequently reported burden dimensions include personal strain and interference with personal life, which can lead to relationship dissatisfaction and resentment.
In the late part of the disease, people may be unable to care for themselves. Falls—caused by many factors including parkinsonism, dysautonomia, and frailness—increase morbidity and mortality. Failure to thrive and aspiration pneumonia, a complication of dysphagia (difficulty swallowiing) that results from dysautonomia, commonly cause death among people with the Lewy body dementias. Cardiovascular disease and sepsis are also common causes of death.
Epidemiology
The Lewy body dementias are as a group the second most common form of neurodegenerative dementia after AD as of 2021. DLB itself is one of the three most common types of dementia, along with AD and vascular dementia.
The diagnostic criteria for DLB before 2017 were highly specific, but not very sensitive, so that more than half of cases were missed historically. Dementia with Lewy bodies was under-recognized as of 2021, and there is little data on its epidemiology. The incidence and prevalence of DLB are not known accurately, but estimates are increasing with better recognition of the condition since 2017.
About 0.4% of those over the age 65 are affected with DLB, and between per 1,000 people develop the condition each year. Symptoms usually appear between the ages of 50 and 80, (median 76) and it is not uncommon for it to be diagnosed before the age of 65. DLB is thought to be slightly more common in men than women, but a 2014 review challenged that view, and said that the gender distribution was unclear. An estimated 10 to 15% of diagnosed dementias are Lewy body type, but estimates range as high as 23% for those in clinical studies.
A French study found an incidence among persons 65 years and older almost four times higher than a US study per 100,000 person-years), but the US study may have excluded people with only mild or no parkinsonism, while the French study screened for parkinsonism. Neither of the studies assessed systematically for RBD, so DLB may have been underdiagnosed in both studies. A door-to-door study in Japan found a prevalence of 0.53% for persons 65 and older, and a Spanish study found similar results.
History
Frederic Lewy (1885–1950) was the first to discover the abnormal protein deposits in the early 1900s. In 1912, studying Parkinson's disease (paralysis agitans), he described findings of these inclusion bodies in the vagus nerve, the nucleus basalis of Meynert and other brain regions. He published a book, The Study on Muscle Tone and Movement. Including Systematic Investigations on the Clinic, Physiology, Pathology, and Pathogenesis of Paralysis agitans, in 1923 and except for one brief paper a year later, never mentioned his findings again.
In 1961, Okazaki et al. published an account of diffuse Lewy-type inclusions associated with dementia in two autopsied cases. Dementia with Lewy bodies was fully described in an autopsied case by Japanese psychiatrist and neuropathologist Kenji Kosaka in 1976. Kosaka first proposed the term Lewy body disease four years later, based on 20 autopsied cases. DLB was thought to be rare until it became easier to diagnose in the 1980s after the discovery of alpha-synuclein immunostaining that highlighted Lewy bodies in post mortem brains. described thirty-four more cases in 1984, which were mentioned along with four UK cases by in 1987 in the journal Brain, bringing attention of the Japanese work to the Western world. A year later, published the first general description of diffuse Lewy body disease.
With Japanese, UK, and US researchers finding in the 1990s that DLB was a common dementia, there were nonetheless no diagnostic guidelines, and each group was using different terminology. The different groups of researchers began to realize that a collaborative approach was needed if research was to advance. The DLB Consortium was established, and in 1996, the term dementia with Lewy bodies was agreed upon and the first criteria for diagnosing DLB were elaborated.
Two 1997 discoveries highlighted the importance of Lewy body inclusions in neurodegenerative processes: a mutation in the SNCA gene that encodes the alpha-synuclein protein was found in kindreds with Parkinson's disease, and Lewy bodies and neurites were found to be immunoreactive for alpha-synuclein. Thus, alpha-synuclein aggregation as the primary building block of the synucleinopathies was established.
Between 1995 and 2005, the DLB Consortium issued three Consensus Reports on DLB. DLB was included in the fourth text revision of the DSM (DSM-IV-TR, published in 2000) under "Dementia due to other general medical conditions". In the 2010s, the possibility of a genetic basis began to emerge. The Fourth Consensus Report was issued in 2017, giving increased diagnostic weighting to RBD and myocardial scintigraphy.
Society and culture
The British author and poet Mervyn Peake died in 1968 and was diagnosed posthumously as a probable case of DLB in a 2003 study published in JAMA Neurology. Based on signs in his work and letters of progressive deterioration, fluctuating cognitive decline, deterioration in visuospatial function, declining attention span, and visual hallucinations and delusions, his may be the earliest known case where DLB was found to have been the likely cause of death.
At the time of his suicide on August 11, 2014, Robin Williams, the American actor and comedian, had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. According to his widow, Williams had experienced depression, anxiety and increasing paranoia. His widow said that his autopsy found diffuse Lewy body disease, while the autopsy used the term diffuse Lewy body dementia. Dennis Dickson, a spokesperson for the Lewy Body Dementia Association, clarified the distinction by stating that diffuse Lewy body dementia is more commonly called diffuse Lewy body disease and refers to the underlying disease process. According to Dickson, "Lewy bodies are generally limited in distribution, but in DLB, the Lewy bodies are spread widely throughout the brain, as was the case with Robin Williams." Ian G. McKeith, professor and researcher of Lewy body dementias, commented that Williams' symptoms and autopsy findings were explained by DLB.
Research directions
The identification of prodromal biomarkers for DLB will enable treatments to begin sooner, improve the ability to select subjects and measure efficacy in clinical trials, and help families and clinicians plan for early interventions and awareness of potential adverse effects from the use of antipsychotics. Criteria were established in 2020 to help researchers better recognize DLB in the pre-dementia phase. Three syndromes of prodromal DLB have been proposed: 1) mild cognitive impairment with Lewy bodies (MCI-LB); 2) delirium-onset DLB; and 3) psychiatric-onset DLB. The three early syndromes may overlap. As of 2020, the DLB Diagnostic Study Group's position is that criteria for MCI-LB can be recommended, but that it remains difficult to distinguish delirium-onset and psychiatric-onset DLB without better biomarkers. Nonetheless, severe late-onset psychiatric disorders can be an indication to consider Lewy body dementia, and unexplained delirium raises the possibility of prodromal DLB.
The diagnosis of DLB is made using the DLB Consortium criteria, but a 2017 study of skin samples from 18 people with DLB found that all of them had deposits of phosphorylated alpha-synuclein, while none of the controls did, suggesting that skin samples offer diagnostic potential. Other potential biomarkers under investigation are quantitative electroencephalography, imaging examination of brain structures, and measures of synucleinopathy in CSF. Commercial skin biopsy tests for DLB are available in the US, and the FDA has given a 'breakthrough device' authorization for CSF testing. As of 2021, the role of these tests in clinical practice has not been established. Other tests to detect alpha-synuclein with blood tests are under study as of 2021.
Cognitive training, deep brain stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation have been studied more in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease than they have in dementia with Lewy bodies, and all are potential therapies for DLB. Four clinical trials for treating parkinsonian symptoms in DLB have been completed as of 2021, but more studies are needed to assess risk vs. benefits, adverse effects, and longer-term usage.
Strategies for future intervention involve modifying the course of the disease using immunotherapy, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy, and reducing amyloid beta or alpha-synuclein accumulation. Therapies under study as of 2019 aim to reduce brain levels of alpha-synuclein (with the pharmaceuticals ambroxol, NPT200-11, and E2027) or to use immunotherapy to reduce widespread neuroinflammation resulting from alpha-synuclein deposits.
Notes
References
Works cited
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
External links
Aging-associated diseases
Ailments of unknown cause
Geriatrics
Lewy body dementia
Cognitive disorders | [
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|
227168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Eliot%20Norton | Charles Eliot Norton | Charles Eliot Norton (November 16, 1827 – October 21, 1908) was an American author, social critic, and professor of art based in New England. He was a progressive social reformer and a liberal activist whom many of his contemporaries considered the most cultivated man in the United States. He was from the same notable Eliot family as the 20th-century poet T. S. Eliot, who made his career in the United Kingdom.
Early life
Norton was born in 1827 at Cambridge, Massachusetts. His father, Andrews Norton (1786–1853), was a Unitarian theologian, and Dexter professor of sacred literature at Harvard; his mother was Catherine Eliot, a daughter of the merchant Samuel Eliot. Charles William Eliot, president of Harvard, was his cousin. Norton graduated from Harvard in 1846, where he was a member of the Hasty Pudding, and started in business with an East Indian trading firm in Boston, travelling to India in 1849.
After a tour in Europe, where he was influenced by John Ruskin and pre-Raphaelite painters, he returned to Boston in 1851, and devoted himself to literature and art. He translated Dante's Vita Nuova (1860 and 1867) and the Divina Commedia (1891-91-92, 3 vols, 1902 being the publication year of Norton's thorough final edit). He worked tirelessly as secretary to the Loyal Publication Society during the Civil War, communicating with newspaper editors across the country. These included journalist Jonathan Baxter Harrison, who became a lifelong friend.
From 1864 to 1868, he edited the highly influential magazine North American Review, in association with James Russell Lowell. In 1861 he and Lowell had helped Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his translation of Dante and in the starting of the informal Dante Club.
Marriage and family life
In 1862 Norton, at the age of 35, married 24-year-old Susan Ridley Sedgwick (21 February 1838 – 17 February 1872), daughter of Theodore Sedgwick III and Sara Morgan Ashburner. They had six children together: Eliot (1863), Sarah (1864), Elizabeth (1866), Rupert (1867), Margaret (1870) and Richard (1872). Susan died at age thirty-three in Dresden, Germany, following the birth of their sixth child.
Concept of Western civilization
According to , "Probably only someone with Norton’s experiences and scholarly range – who had written about the Mound Builders, roamed India, organized classical archaeology, scoured medieval archives, published nineteenth-century painting – could have concocted Western Civilization. And only then if he had filtered these materials through the sieve of college teaching during years of curricular anarchy. For Western civilization had a scholarly and pedagogical specificity about it."
Travel and friendships
From 1855 to 1874 Norton spent much time in travel and residence on the continent of Europe and in England. During this period, he began friendships with Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, Edward FitzGerald and Leslie Stephen, an intimacy which did much to bring American and English men of letters into close personal relation.
Another friend was John Lockwood Kipling, father of Rudyard Kipling. Father and son visited Norton in Boston; the younger Kipling recalled the visit years later in his autobiography:
Norton was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1860. He began teaching at Harvard in 1874. In 1875, he was appointed professor of the history of art at Harvard, a chair which was created for him and which he held until retirement in 1898. He "centered his teaching upon the golden ages of art history -- classical Athens, the Italian Gothic style of Venetian architecture, and the Florence of the early Renaissance."
The Archaeological Institute of America chose him as its first president (1879–1890).
Norton had a peculiar genius for friendship. He is notable for his personal influence rather than for his literary productions. In 1881 he inaugurated the Dante Society, whose first presidents were Longfellow, Lowell, and Norton himself. From 1882 onward he confined himself to the study of Dante, his professorial duties, and the editing and publication of the literary memorials of many of his friends.
In 1883 he published the Letters of Carlyle and Emerson; in 1886, 1887 and 1888, Carlyle's Letters and Reminiscences; in 1894, the Orations and Addresses of George William Curtis and the Letters of Lowell. Norton was appointed as Ruskin's literary executor, and he wrote various introductions for the American "Brantwood" edition of Ruskin's works.
His other publications include Notes of Travel and Study in Italy (1859), and an Historical Study of Church-building in the Middle Ages: Venice, Siena, Florence (1880). He organized exhibitions of the drawings of Turner (1874) and of Ruskin (1879), for which he compiled the catalogues. In 1886, he opposed the opening of a "drinking saloon" on the main street near his home, in a letter which reveals little empathy for, or understanding of the significance of, Irish immigration to Cambridge in that era. Like his friend Ruskin, Norton believed one of the best things one could do for working-class people was to give them opportunities to gain satisfaction by engaging in workmanship, as opposed to monotonous routine labor where they have to work like machines. T. J. Jackson Lears has described Norton as the foremost American proponent of the Arts and Crafts movement. Norton was a founding member of The Society of Arts and Crafts of Boston.
Later years
In 1881 he helped found the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. During the first years of the twentieth century, Norton spoke out in favor of legalized euthanasia. He lent his name to a movement led by Ohio socialite Anna S. Hall to pass physician-assisted suicide legislation in Ohio and Iowa.
Norton died at "Shady Hill," the house where he had been born, on October 21, 1908, and was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery.
Legacy
Norton was widely admired for the breadth of his intellectual interests, remarkable scholarship and interest in the common good. He was awarded the honorary degrees of Litt.D. (Cambridge) and D.C.L. (Oxford), as well as the L.H.D. from Columbia and the LL.D. from both Harvard and Yale. One of his many students at Harvard was James Loeb, who in 1907 created the "Charles Eliot Norton Memorial Lectureship" in archaeology. The Charles Eliot Norton Lectures are given annually by distinguished professors at Harvard. Norton bequeathed the more valuable portion of his library to Harvard.
References
Sources
Dowling, Linda. Charles Eliot Norton: The Art of Reform in Nineteenth-Century America. (University of New Hampshire Press, 2007) 245pp .
Sullivan, Mark W. "Charles Eliot Norton", in Tiffany K. Wayne, ed., Ralph Waldo Emerson: A Critical Companion (Facts on File, 2010).
Turner, James C. The Liberal Education of Charles Eliot Norton. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999)
Verduin, Kathleen, "The Medievalism of Charles Eliot Norton," in: Cahier Calin: Makers of the Middle Ages. Essays in Honor of William Calin , ed. Richard Utz and Elizabeth Emery (Kalamazoo, MI: Studies in Medievalism, 2011), pp. 59–61.
External links
Charles Eliot Norton Papers at Houghton Library, Harvard University
Guide to Charles Eliot Norton. Correspondence 1891-1908 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
1827 births
1908 deaths
Harvard University alumni
Harvard University faculty
Eliot family (America)
Euthanasia in the United States
American art historians
American magazine editors
American translators
American non-fiction writers
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Translators of Dante Alighieri
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
American social reformers
Hasty Pudding alumni
Male non-fiction writers | [
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|
227171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm%20tides%20of%20the%20North%20Sea | Storm tides of the North Sea | Storm tides of the North Sea are coastal floods associated with extratropical cyclones crossing over the North Sea, the severity of which are affected by the shallowness of the sea and the orientation of the shoreline relative to the storm's path, as well as the timing of tides. The water level can rise to more than 5 metres (17 ft) above the normal tide as a result of storm tides.
Northern Germany and Denmark are particularly susceptible to storm tides. The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest. Also vulnerable are the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, where the sea shallows and is funnelled toward the English Channel.
Storm tides are a regular occurrence in the North Sea basin; several form each year. Although most do not cause significant damage, the impact of some has been devastating. During one, the February flood of 1825, the Danish coastline changed, as the North Jutlandic Island became separated from the Jutland Peninsula.
Major storm tides
838, December 26, Netherlands, more than 2,400 deaths
1014, September 28, Netherlands, several thousands of deaths
1099, November 11, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, that in London "On the festival of St Martin, the sea flood sprung up to such a height and did so much harm as no man remembered that it ever did before".
1164, February 16, Saint Juliana flood, Netherlands and Germany, several thousands of deaths
1170, November 1, All Saints' Flood, Netherlands, marks beginning of creation of Zuiderzee
1206, Netherlands, 60,000 deaths
1219, January 16, Saint Marcellus flood, Netherlands and Germany, 36,000 deaths struck West Friesland
1248, a year with three storm tides in The Netherlands with major inundations
1277, Netherlands and Germany, formation of Dollart
1277, Netherlands and Germany, formation of Lauwerszee
1282, Netherlands, separates island of Texel from mainland
1287, December 13, Saint Lucia flood, Netherlands, formation of Waddenzee and Zuiderzee, 50,000–80,000 deaths. Major impact on Cinque Ports in England.
1288, February 5, Saint Agathaflood, Netherlands, several thousands of deaths
1322, Netherlands and Belgium, Flanders loses all coastal islands, many deaths especially in Holland, Zeeland and Flanders
1334, November 23, Netherlands, several thousands of deaths
1362, January 16, Grote Mandrenke (big drowner of men) or Saint Marcellus flood, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany and Denmark, created a great part of the Wadden Sea and caused the end of the city of Rungholt; 25,000 to 40,000 deaths, according to some sources 100,000 deaths
1404, November 19, first Saint Elisabeth flood, Belgium and Netherlands, major loss of land
1421, November 19, second Saint Elisabeth flood, Netherlands, storm tide in combination with extreme high water in rivers due to heavy rains, 10,000 to 100,000 deaths
1424, November 18, third Saint Elisabeth flood, Netherlands
1468, Ursula flood, should have been more forceful than second Saint Elisabeth flood
1477, first Cosmas- and Damianus flood, Netherlands and Germany, many thousands of deaths
1530, November 5, St. Felix's Flood, Belgium and Netherlands, many towns disappear, more than 100,000 deaths
1532, November 1, All Saints flood, Belgium, Netherlands and Germany, several towns disappear, many thousands of deaths
1570, November 1, All Saints flood, Belgium and Netherlands, several towns disappear, more than 20,000 deaths
1571–72, unknown date, marine flooding on the Lincolnshire coast between Boston and Grimsby resulted in the loss of "all the saltcotes where the best salt was made".
1634, October 11–12, Burchardi flood, broke the Island of Strand into parts (Nordstrand and Pellworm) in Nordfriesland
1651, February 22 in Germany, March 4–5 Netherlands, St. Peter's Flood
1663, December 7, The diarist Samuel Pepys noted "the greatest tide that ever was remembered in England to have been in this river, all Whitehall having been drowned."
1686, November 12, Saint Martin flood, Netherlands, 1586 deaths
1703, December 7, Great Storm of 1703, England, Belgium, Netherlands and Germany, many thousands of deaths
1717, December 24, Christmas flood 1717, Netherlands, Germany and Scandinavia, more than 14,000 deaths
1810, November 10, In Boston, Lincolnshire up to 10 deaths are thought to have occurred in the town due to a storm surge.
1825, February 3–5, February flood of 1825, Germany and Netherlands, 800 deaths
1916, January 13–14, Zuiderland flood Netherlands, 16 casualties and ~300 km2 flooded around the Zuiderzee this flood led to the construction of the Afsluitdijk, creating the IJsselmeer.
1949, January 8, Storm disturbance in the North Sea.
1953, January 31 – February 1, North Sea flood of 1953, most severe in the Netherlands, leading to the Delta Works, 2533 deaths
1962, February 16–17, North Sea flood of 1962, flooded one fifth of Hamburg and claimed 315 lives
1976, January 3–4, Gale of January 1976
1978, January 11–12, 1978 North Sea storm surge, East coast of England.
1981, November 24–25, North Frisian Flood, severe surge with dike breaches in Denmark.
1982, December 19, the largest negative surge recorded in the North Sea coincided with a high tide, water levels dropped rapidly posing a navigational hazard.
1993, February 21, an internal surge in the North Sea and high waves brought flooding to the Norfolk Broads.
1999, December 3, Cyclone Anatol
2007, November 8–9, North Sea flood of 2007 (Tilo)
2011, November 24–27, Cyclone Berit (Xaver) and "Lille Berit" (Yoda).
2013, October 10, east coast of England surge (Xenon), Environment Agency warning of minor flooding and disruption, tide passed without major flooding.
2013, December 5–7, On 4 December the Environment Agency released a warning to communities along the East Coast of England to prepare for the most serious tidal surge in 30 years, with a significant threat of coastal flooding, associated with Cyclone Xaver.
2017, January 4–5, storm Axel.
2017, January 12–13, (incl. Vidar NO).
Recent storm tides
The flood of 1976 and the "North Frisian Flood" of 1981 brought the highest water levels measured to date on the North Sea coast, but because of sea defences such as improved warning systems and dikes built and modified after the flood of 1962, these led only to property damage.
Comparative table of surge heights along the east coast of Britain
See also
Floods in the Netherlands
Geography of Germany
List of settlements lost to floods in the Netherlands
Storm surge
References
Further reading
Gevaar van water, water in gevaar uit 2001
Methode voor de bepaling van het aantal slachtoffers ten gevolge van een grootschalige overstroming, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Netherlands, 2004
External links
Munich Re Historical storm surge events
eSurge Surge Event Database: North Sea
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|
227174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurel%20%28English%20coin%29 | Laurel (English coin) | The Laurel was the third English gold coin with a value of twenty shillings or one pound produced during the reign of King James I. It was named after the laurel that the king is portrayed as wearing on his head, but it is considerably poorer in both quality and style than the sovereign and unite which preceded it. The coin was produced during James I's third coinage (1619-1625), five different busts of the king being used in these years. All the coins were produced at the Tower Mint in London. The laurel weighed 140.5 grains (9.1 grams or just under 0.3 troy ounce), less than the previous Unite but almost exactly the same as the Unite issued under Charles I.
The earlier busts show considerably more detail of the king, who is looking to the left of the coin and has the value "XX" to the right, behind the kings' head. The legend on the obverse reads IACOBUS D G MAG BRI FRA ET HIB REX -- James by the grace of God, of Britain France and Ireland King. The reverse shows a long cross over a crowned shield which shows the arms of the four countries, and the legend FACIAM EOS IN GENTEM UNAM ("I will make them one nation", from Ezekiel 37:22)
See also
English gold coins
Coins of England
Economy of Stuart England
1619 in England | [
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227177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Third%20Republic | French Third Republic | The French Third Republic (, sometimes written as ) was the system of government adopted in France from 4 September 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed during the Franco-Prussian War, until 10 July 1940, after the Fall of France during World War II led to the formation of the Vichy government.
The early days of the Third Republic were dominated by political disruptions caused by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, which the Republic continued to wage after the fall of Emperor Napoleon III in 1870. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace (keeping the Territoire de Belfort) and Lorraine (the northeastern part, i.e. present-day department of Moselle), social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but disagreement as to the nature of that monarchy and the rightful occupant of the throne could not be resolved. Consequently, the Third Republic, originally envisioned as a provisional government, instead became the permanent form of government of France.
The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic. It consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. Calls for the re-establishment of the monarchy dominated the tenures of the first two presidents, Adolphe Thiers and Patrice de MacMahon, but growing support for the republican form of government among the French populace and a series of republican presidents in the 1880s gradually quashed prospects of a monarchical restoration.
The Third Republic established many French colonial possessions, including French Indochina, French Madagascar, French Polynesia, and large territories in West Africa during the Scramble for Africa, all of them acquired during the last two decades of the 19th century. The early years of the 20th century were dominated by the Democratic Republican Alliance, which was originally conceived as a centre-left political alliance, but over time became the main centre-right party. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, between the Democratic Republican Alliance and the Radicals. The government fell less than a year after the outbreak of World War II, when Nazi forces occupied much of France, and was replaced by the rival governments of Charles de Gaulle's Free France () and Philippe Pétain's French State ().
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was the second largest colonial empire in the world only behind the British Empire; it extended over 13,500,000 km2 (5,200,000 sq mi) of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. In terms of population however, on the eve of World War II, France and her colonial possessions totaled only 150 million inhabitants, compared with 330 million for British India alone.
Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least"; however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution. On the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. In spite of France's sharply divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for seventy years, which makes it the longest lasting system of government in France since the collapse of the in 1789; the current Fifth Republic would overtake that record on 11 August 2028.
Politics
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France and the overthrow of Emperor Napoleon III and his Second French Empire. After Napoleon's capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan (1 September 1870), Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president. This first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris (19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). As Paris was cut off from the rest of unoccupied France, the Minister of War, Léon Gambetta, who succeeded in leaving Paris in a hot air balloon, established the headquarters of the provisional republican government in the city of Tours on the Loire river.
After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, and national elections were called with the aim of creating a new French government. French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, nominally ("head of the executive branch of the Republic pending a decision on the institutions of France"). Due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters.
The new government negotiated a peace settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire: the Treaty of Frankfurt signed on 10 May 1871. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of financial laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities, to pay reparations. In Paris, resentment against the government built and from late March – May 1871, Paris workers and National Guards revolted and established the Paris Commune, which maintained a radical left-wing regime for two months until its bloody suppression by the Thiers government in May 1871. The following repression of the would have disastrous consequences for the labour movement.
Parliamentary monarchy
The French legislative election of 1871, held in the aftermath of the collapse of the regime of Napoleon III, resulted in a monarchist majority in the French National Assembly that was favourable to making a peace agreement with Prussia. Planning a restored monarchy, the "Legitimists" in the National Assembly supported the candidacy of a descendant of King Charles X, the last king from the senior line of the Bourbon Dynasty to assume the French throne: his grandson Henri, Comte de Chambord, alias "Henry V." The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, who replaced his cousin Charles X as the French monarch in 1830: his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists had lost legitimacy due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, with the Comte de Paris recognised as his heir; this was the expected line of succession for the Comte de Chambord by France's traditional rule of agnatic primogeniture if the renunciation of the Spanish Bourbons in the Peace of Utrecht was recognised. Consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord.
Chambord believed the restored monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution (including most famously the Tricolour flag) in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered. Compromise on this was impossible, Chambord believed, if the nation were to be made whole again. The general population, however, was unwilling to abandon the Tricolour flag. Monarchists therefore resigned themselves to delay the monarchy until the death of the ageing, childless Chambord, then to offer the throne to his more liberal heir, the Comte de Paris. A "temporary" republican government was therefore established. Chambord lived on until 1883, but by that time, enthusiasm for a monarchy had faded, and the Comte de Paris was never offered the French throne.
Ordre Moral government
Following the French surrender to Prussia in January 1871, concluding the Franco-Prussian War, the transitional Government of National Defence established a new seat of government at Versailles due to the encirclement of Paris by Prussian forces. New representatives were elected in February of that year, constituting the government which would come to evolve into the Third Republic. These representatives – predominantly conservative republicans – enacted a series of legislation which prompted resistance and outcry from radical and leftist elements of the republican movement. In Paris, a series of public altercations broke out between the Versailles-aligned Parisian government and the city's radical socialists. The radicals ultimately rejected the authority of Versailles, responding with the foundation of the Paris Commune in March.
The principles underpinning the Commune were viewed as morally degenerate by French conservatives at large while the government at Versailles sought to maintain the tenuous post-war stability which it had established. In May, the regular French Armed Forces, under the command of Patrice de MacMahon and the Versailles government, marched on Paris and succeeded in dismantling the Commune during what would become known as The Bloody Week. The term ordre moral ("moral order") subsequently came to be applied to the budding Third Republic due to the perceived restoration of conservative policies and values following the suppression of the Commune.
De MacMahon, his popularity bolstered by his victory over the Commune, was later elected President of the Republic in May 1873 and would hold the office until January 1879. A staunch Catholic conservative with Legitimist sympathies and a noted mistrust of secularists, de MacMahon grew to be increasingly at odds with the French parliament as liberal and secular republicans gained a legislative majority during his presidency.
In February 1875, a series of parliamentary acts established the constitutional laws of the new republic. At its head was a President of the Republic. A two-chamber parliament consisting of a directly-elected Chamber of Deputies and an indirectly-elected Senate was created, along with a ministry under the President of the Council (prime minister), who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and the legislature. Throughout the 1870s, the issue of whether a monarchy should replace or oversee the republic dominated public debate.
The elections of 1876 demonstrated strong public support for the increasingly anti-monarchist republican movement. A decisive Republican majority was elected to the Chamber of Deputies while the monarchist majority in the Senate was maintained by only one seat. President de MacMahon responded in May 1877, attempting to quell the Republicans' rising popularity and limit their political influence through a series of actions known as le seize Mai.
On 16 May 1877, de MacMahon forced the resignation of Moderate Republican prime minister Jules Simon and appointed the Orléanist Albert de Broglie to the office. The Chamber of Deputies declared the appointment illegitimate, exceeding the president's powers, and refused to cooperate with either de MacMahon or de Broglie. De MacMahon then dissolved the Chamber and called for a new general election to be held the following October. He was subsequently accused by Republicans and their sympathizers of attempting a constitutional coup d'état, which he denied.
The October elections again brought a Republican majority to the Chamber of Deputies, reiterating public opinion. The Republicans would go on to gain a majority in the Senate by January 1879, establishing dominance in both houses and effectively ending the potential for a monarchist restoration. De MacMahon himself resigned on 30 January 1879 to be succeeded by the moderate Jules Grévy.
Opportunist Republicans
Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, Legitimists were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by "Opportunist Republicans" who supported moderate social and political changes to nurture the new regime. The Jules Ferry laws making public education free, mandatory, and secular (laїque), were voted in 1881 and 1882, one of the first signs of the expanding civic powers of the Republic. From that time onward, the Catholic clergy lost control of public education.
To discourage the monarchists, the French Crown Jewels were broken up and sold in 1885. Only a few crowns were kept, their precious gems replaced by coloured glass.
Boulanger crisis
In 1889, the Republic was rocked by a sudden political crisis precipitated by General Georges Boulanger. An enormously popular general, he won a series of elections in which he would resign his seat in the Chamber of Deputies and run again in another district. At the apogee of his popularity in January 1889, he posed the threat of a coup d'état and the establishment of a dictatorship. With his base of support in the working districts of Paris and other cities, plus rural traditionalist Catholics and royalists, he promoted an aggressive nationalism aimed against Germany. The elections of September 1889 marked a decisive defeat for the Boulangists. They were defeated by the changes in the electoral laws that prevented Boulanger from running in multiple constituencies; by the government's aggressive opposition; and by the absence of the general himself, in self-imposed exile with his mistress. The fall of Boulanger severely undermined the conservative and royalist elements within France; they would not recover until 1940.
Revisionist scholars have argued that the Boulangist movement more often represented elements of the radical left rather than the extreme right. Their work is part of an emerging consensus that France's radical right was formed in part during the Dreyfus era by men who had been Boulangist partisans of the radical left a decade earlier.
Panama scandal
The Panama scandals of 1892, regarded as the largest financial fraud of the 19th century, involved a failed attempt to build the Panama Canal. Plagued by disease, death, inefficiency, and widespread corruption, and its troubles covered up by bribed French officials, the Panama Canal Company went bankrupt. Its stock became worthless, with ordinary investors losing close to a billion francs.
The welfare state and public health
France lagged behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain and Ireland, in developing a welfare state with public health, unemployment insurance and national old age pension plans. There was an accident insurance law for workers in 1898, and in 1910, France created a national pension plan. Unlike Germany or Britain, the programs were much smaller – for example, pensions were a voluntary plan. Historian Timothy Smith finds French fears of national public assistance programs were grounded in a widespread disdain for the English Poor Law. Tuberculosis was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their twenties. Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem. The French medical profession guarded its prerogatives, and public health activists were not as well organized or as influential as in Germany, Britain or the United States. For example, there was a long battle over a public health law which began in the 1880s as a campaign to reorganize the nation's health services, to require the registration of infectious diseases, to mandate quarantines, and to improve the deficient health and housing legislation of 1850.
However, the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians. Because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Implementation finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, and keeping the population growth rate well below Germany's. Another theory put forth is that the low rate of French population growth, relative to Germany, was due to a lower French birth rate perhaps due to the provision under French Revolutionary law that land must be divided up among all the sons (or a large compensation paid) — this led peasants to not want more than one son. There is no evidence to suggest than French life expectancy was lower than that of Germany.
Dreyfus affair
The Dreyfus affair was a major political scandal that convulsed France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906, and then had reverberations for decades more. The conduct of the affair has become a modern and universal symbol of injustice. It remains one of the most striking examples of a complex miscarriage of justice in which a central role was played by the press and public opinion. At issue was blatant anti-Semitism as practiced by the French Army and defended by conservatives and Catholic traditionalists against secular centre-left, left and republican forces, including most Jews. In the end, the latter triumphed.
The affair began in November 1894 with the conviction for treason of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian Jewish descent. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris and sent to the penal colony at Devil's Island in French Guiana (nicknamed la guillotine sèche, the dry guillotine), where he spent almost five years.
Two years later, evidence came to light that identified a French Army major named Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy as the real spy. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy. In response, the Army brought up additional charges against Dreyfus based on false documents. Word of the military court's attempts to frame Dreyfus began to spread, chiefly owing to the polemic J'accuse, a vehement open letter published in a Paris newspaper in January 1898 by the notable writer Émile Zola. Activists put pressure on the government to re-open the case.
In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus (now called "Dreyfusards"), such as Anatole France, Henri Poincaré and Georges Clemenceau, and those who condemned him (the anti-Dreyfusards), such as Édouard Drumont, the director and publisher of the anti-Semitic newspaper La Libre Parole. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against him were demonstrated to be baseless, and in 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated and re-instated as a major in the French Army.
From 1894 to 1906, the scandal divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army "anti-Dreyfusards" composed of conservatives, Catholic traditionalists and monarchists who generally lost the initiative to the anti-clerical, pro-republican "Dreyfusards", with strong support from intellectuals and teachers. It embittered French politics and facilitated the increasing influence of radical politicians on both sides of the political spectrum.
Social history
Newspapers
The democratic political structure was supported by the proliferation of politicized newspapers. The circulation of the daily press in Paris went from 1 million in 1870 to 5 million in 1910; it later reached 6 million in 1939. Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis for publishing, but it did not cover all of the costs involved and had to be supplemented by secret subsidies from commercial interests that wanted favourable reporting. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century. High-speed rotary Hoe presses, introduced in the 1860s, facilitated quick turnaround time and cheaper publication. New types of popular newspapers, especially Le Petit Journal, reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market and forced the rest to lower their prices. The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now Agence France-Presse), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with Reuters to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues. While papers usually gave false circulation figures, Le Petit Provençal in 1913 probably had a daily circulation of about 100,000 and Le Petit Meridional had about 70,000. Advertising only filled 20% or so of the pages.
The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper La Croix. It vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognized the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the lead in attacking Dreyfus as a traitor and stirring up anti-Semitism. After Dreyfus was pardoned, the Radical government closed down the entire Assumptionist order and its newspaper in 1900.
Banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests and hide or cover up misbehaviour. They also took payments for favourable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to publish unfavorable information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favourable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the ante to millions. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort and avoided critical commentary. They seldom reported the achievements of the Allies, crediting all the good news to the French army. In a sentence, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for banking.
The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted, and male replacements could not be found (female journalists were not considered suitable). Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to supervise the press closely. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit:
War News. A half-zeppelin threw half its bombs on half-time combatants, resulting in one-quarter damaged. The zeppelin, halfways-attacked by a portion of half-anti aircraft guns, was half destroyed."
Regional newspapers flourished after 1900. However the Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the war. The major postwar success story was Paris Soir, which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939, its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid Le Petit Parisien. In addition to its daily paper, Paris Soir sponsored a highly successful women's magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine, Match, was modelled on the photojournalism of the American magazine Life.
Modernization of the peasants
France was a rural nation, and the peasant farmer was the typical French citizen. In his seminal book Peasants into Frenchmen (1976), historian Eugen Weber traced the modernization of French villages and argued that rural France went from backward and isolated to modern with a sense of national identity during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and universal military conscription. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of French nationhood was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. Weber's scholarship was widely praised, but was criticized by some who argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.
City department store
Aristide Boucicaut founded Le Bon Marché in Paris in 1838, and by 1852 it offered a wide variety of goods in "departments inside one building." Goods were sold at fixed prices, with guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds. By the end of the 19th century, Georges Dufayel, a French credit merchant, had served up to three million customers and was affiliated with La Samaritaine, a large French department store established in 1870 by a former Bon Marché executive.
The French gloried in the national prestige brought by the great Parisian stores. The great writer Émile Zola (1840–1902) set his novel Au Bonheur des Dames (1882–83) in the typical department store. Zola represented it as a symbol of the new technology that was both improving society and devouring it. The novel describes merchandising, management techniques, marketing, and consumerism.
The Grands Magasins Dufayel was a huge department store with inexpensive prices built in 1890 in the northern part of Paris, where it reached a very large new customer base in the working class. In a neighbourhood with few public spaces, it provided a consumer version of the public square. It educated workers to approach shopping as an exciting social activity, not just a routine exercise in obtaining necessities, just as the bourgeoisie did at the famous department stores in the central city. Like the bourgeois stores, it helped transform consumption from a business transaction into a direct relationship between consumer and sought-after goods. Its advertisements promised the opportunity to participate in the newest, most fashionable consumerism at reasonable cost. The latest technology was featured, such as cinemas and exhibits of inventions like X-ray machines (that could be used to fit shoes) and the gramophone.
Increasingly after 1870, the stores' work force became feminized, opening up prestigious job opportunities for young women. Despite the low pay and long hours, they enjoyed the exciting complex interactions with the newest and most fashionable merchandise and upscale customers.
Radicals' republic
The most important party of the early 20th century in France was the Radical Party, founded in 1901 as the "Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party" ("Parti républicain, radical et radical-socialiste"). It was classically liberal in political orientation and opposed the monarchists and clerical elements on the one hand, and the Socialists on the other. Many members had been recruited by the Freemasons. The Radicals were split between activists who called for state intervention to achieve economic and social equality and conservatives whose first priority was stability. The workers' demands for strikes threatened such stability and pushed many Radicals toward conservatism. It opposed women's suffrage for fear that women would vote for its opponents or for candidates endorsed by the Catholic Church. It favoured a progressive income tax, economic equality, expanded educational opportunities and cooperatives in domestic policy. In foreign policy, it favoured a strong League of Nations after the war, and the maintenance of peace through compulsory arbitration, controlled disarmament, economic sanctions, and perhaps an international military force.
Followers of Léon Gambetta, such as Raymond Poincaré, who would become President of the Council in the 1920s, created the Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD), which became the main center-right party after World War I.
Governing coalitions collapsed with regularity, rarely lasting more than a few months, as radicals, socialists, liberals, conservatives, republicans and monarchists all fought for control. Some historians argue that the collapses were not important because they reflected minor changes in coalitions of many parties that routinely lost and gained a few allies. Consequently, the change of governments could be seen as little more than a series of ministerial reshuffles, with many individuals carrying forward from one government to the next, often in the same posts.
Church and state
Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic (1870–1940), there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church in France among the republicans, monarchists and the authoritarians (such as the Napoleonists). The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families. Republicans were based in the anti-clerical middle class, who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The republicans detested the Church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the Church represented the Ancien Régime, a time in French history most republicans hoped was long behind them. The republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and boards of charity; in 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals; in 1882, the Ferry school laws were passed. Napoleon's Concordat of 1801 continued in operation, but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.
Republicans feared that religious orders in control of schools—especially the Jesuits and Assumptionists—indoctrinated anti-republicanism into children. Determined to root this out, republicans insisted they needed control of the schools for France to achieve economic and militaristic progress. (Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in 1870 was their superior education system.)
The early anti-Catholic laws were largely the work of republican Jules Ferry in 1882. Religious instruction in all schools was forbidden, and religious orders were forbidden to teach in them. Funds were appropriated from religious schools to build more state schools. Later in the century, other laws passed by Ferry's successors further weakened the Church's position in French society. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced, and chaplains were removed from the army.
When Leo XIII became pope in 1878, he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884, he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner toward the State ('Nobilissima Gallorum Gens').
In 1892, he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in republican politics ('Au milieu des sollicitudes'). The Liberal Action was founded in 1901 by Jacques Piou and Albert de Mun, former monarchists who switched to republicanism at the request of Pope Leo XIII. From the Church's perspective, its mission was to express the political ideals and new social doctrines embodied in Leo's 1891 encyclical "Rerum Novarum".
Action libérale was the parliamentary group from which the ALP political party emerged, adding the word populaire ("popular") to signify this expansion. Membership was open to everyone, not just Catholics. It sought to gather all the "honest people" and to be the melting pot sought by Leo XIII where Catholics and moderate Republicans would unite to support a policy of tolerance and social progress. Its motto summarized its program: "Liberty for all; equality before the law; better conditions for the workers." However, the "old republicans" were few, and it did not manage to regroup all Catholics, as it was shunned by monarchists, Christian democrats, and Integrists. In the end, it recruited mostly among the liberal-Catholics (Jacques Piou) and the Social Catholics (Albert de Mun). The ALP was drawn into battle from its very beginnings (its first steps coincided with the beginning of the Combes ministry and its anticlerical combat policy), as religious matters were at the heart of its preoccupations. It defended the Church in the name of liberty and common law. Fiercely fought by the Action française, the movement declined from 1908, when it lost the support of Rome. Nevertheless, the ALP remained until 1914 the most important party on the right.
The attempt at improving the relationship with republicans failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair (1894–1906). Catholics were for the most part anti-Dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal La Croix. This infuriated republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges. The Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry (1899–1902) and the Combes Ministry (1902–05) fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals in the years 1903 and 1904, and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs in 1904.
Emile Combes, when elected Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to defeat Catholicism thoroughly. After only a short while in office, he closed down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject authorization of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty-four orders in France were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain. In 1904, Émile Loubet, the president of France from 1899 to 1906, visited King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in Rome, and Pope Pius X protested at this recognition of the Italian State. Combes reacted strongly and recalled his ambassador to the Holy See. Then, in 1905, a law was introduced that abrogated Napoleon's 1801 Concordat. Church and State were finally separated. All Church property was confiscated. Religious personnel were no longer paid by the State. Public worship was given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. However, in practice, masses and rituals continued to be performed.
Combes was vigorously opposed by all the Conservative parties, who saw the mass closure of church schools as a persecution of religion. Combs led the anti-clerical coalition on the left, facing opposition primarily organized by the pro-Catholic ALP. The ALP had a stronger popular base, with better financing and a stronger network of newspapers, but had far fewer seats in parliament.
The Combes government worked with Masonic lodges to create a secret surveillance of all army officers to make sure that devout Catholics would not be promoted. Exposed as the Affaire Des Fiches, the scandal undermined support for the Combes government, and he resigned. It also undermined morale in the army, as officers realized that hostile spies examining their private lives were more important to their careers than their own professional accomplishments.
In December 1905, the government of Maurice Rouvier introduced the French law on the separation of Church and State. This law was heavily supported by Combes, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 voluntary association law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching. On 10 February 1905, the Chamber declared that "the attitude of the Vatican" had rendered the separation of Church and State inevitable and the law of the separation of church and state was passed in December 1905. The Church was badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy; ever after, the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops, thus Gallicanism was dead.
Foreign policy
Foreign policy of 1871-1914 was based on a slow building of alliances with Russia and Britain in order to counteract the threat from Germany. Bismarck had made a mistake in taking Alsace and Lorraine in 1871, setting off decades of popular hatred of Germany and demand for revenge. Bismarck's decision came in response to popular demand, and the Army's demand for a strong frontier. It was not necessary since France was much weaker militarily than Germany, but it forced Bismarck to orient German foreign policy to block France from having any major allies. Alsace and Lorraine were a grievance for some years, but by 1890 had largely faded away with the French realization that nostalgia was not as useful as modernization. France rebuilt its Army, emphasizing modernization in such features as new artillery, and after 1905 invested heavily in military aircraft. Most important in restoring prestige was a strong emphasis on the growing French Empire, which brought prestige, despite large financial costs. Very few French families settled in the colonies, and they were too poor in natural resources and trade to significantly benefit the overall economy. Nevertheless, they were second in size only to the British Empire, provided prestige in world affairs, and gave an opportunity for Catholics (under heavy attack by the Republicans in Parliament) to devote their energies to spread French culture and civilization worldwide. An extremely expensive investment in building the Panama Canal was a total failure, in terms of money, many deaths by disease, and political scandal. Bismarck was fired in 1890, and after that German foreign policy was confused and misdirected. For example, Berlin broke its close ties with St. Petersburg, allowing the French to enter through heavy financial investment, and a Paris-St Petersburg military alliance that proved essential and durable. Germany feuded with Britain, which encouraged London and Paris to drop their grievances over Egypt and Africa, reaching a compromise whereby the French recognized British primacy in Egypt, while Britain recognized French primacy in Morocco. This enabled Britain and France to move closer together, finally achieving an informal military relationship after 1904.
Diplomats
French diplomacy was largely independent of domestic affairs; economic, cultural and religious interest groups paid little attention to foreign affairs. Permanent professional diplomats and bureaucrats had developed their own traditions of how to operate at the Quai d'Orsay (where the Foreign Ministry was located), and their style changed little from generation to generation. Most of the diplomats came from high status aristocratic families. Although France was one of the few republics in Europe, its diplomats mingled smoothly with the aristocratic representatives at the royal courts. Prime ministers and leading politicians generally paid little attention to foreign affairs, allowing a handful of senior men to control policy. In the decades before the First World War they dominated the embassies in the 10 major countries where France had an ambassador (elsewhere, they sent lower-ranking ministers). They included Théophile Delcassé, the foreign minister from 1898 to 1905; Paul Cambon, in London, 1890–1920; Jules Jusserand, in Washington from 1902 to 1924; and Camille Barrère, in Rome from 1897 to 1924. In terms of foreign policy, there was general agreement about the need for high protective tariffs, which kept agricultural prices high. After the defeat by the Germans, there was a strong widespread anti-German sentiment focused on revanchism and regaining Alsace and Lorraine. The Empire was a matter of great pride, and service as administrators, soldiers and missionaries was a high status occupation.
French foreign policy from 1871 to 1914 showed a dramatic transformation from a humiliated power with no friends and not much of an empire in 1871, to the centerpiece of the European alliance system in 1914, with a flourishing colonial empire that was second in size only to Great Britain. Although religion was a hotly contested matter in domestic politics, the Catholic Church made missionary work and church building a specialty in the colonies. Most Frenchmen ignored foreign policy; its issues were a low priority in politics.
1871–1900
French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germany—whose larger size and fast-growing economy could not be matched—combined with a revanchism that demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time, imperialism was a factor. In the midst of the Scramble for Africa, French and British interest in Africa came into conflict. The most dangerous episode was the Fashoda Incident of 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.
The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt.
France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan's request, Paris sent military missions in 1872–1880, in 1884–1889 and in 1918–1919 to help modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts with China over Indochina climaxed during the Sino-French War (1884–1885). Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. The treaty ending the war put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into Tonkin and Annam.
Under the leadership of expansionist Jules Ferry, the Third Republic greatly expanded the French colonial empire. France acquired Indochina, Madagascar, vast territories in West Africa and Central Africa, and much of Polynesia.
1900–1914
In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, and finally the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 which became the Triple Entente. This alliance with Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia, Britain, and France to enter World War I as Allies.
French foreign policy in the years leading up to the First World War was based largely on hostility to and fear of German power. France secured an alliance with the Russian Empire in 1894 after diplomatic talks between Germany and Russia had failed to produce any working agreement. The Franco-Russian Alliance served as the cornerstone of French foreign policy until 1917. A further link with Russia was provided by vast French investments and loans before 1914. In 1904, French foreign minister Théophile Delcassé negotiated the Entente Cordiale with Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary, an agreement that ended a long period of Anglo-French tensions and hostility. The Entente Cordiale, which functioned as an informal Anglo-French alliance, was further strengthened by the First and Second Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911, and by secret military and naval staff talks. Delcassé's rapprochement with Britain was controversial in France as Anglophobia was prominent around the start of the 20th century, sentiments that had been much reinforced by the Fashoda Incident of 1898, in which Britain and France had almost gone to war, and by the Boer War, in which French public opinion was very much on the side of Britain's enemies. Ultimately, the fear of German power was the link that bound Britain and France together.
Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the period between late 1912 and mid-1914, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in 1913. The rapidly escalating Balkan crisis of July 1914 surprised France, and not much attention was given to conditions that led to the outbreak of World War I.
Overseas colonies
The Third Republic, in line with the imperialistic ethos of the day sweeping Europe, developed a French colonial empire. The largest and most important were in French North Africa and French Indochina. French administrators, soldiers, and missionaries were dedicated to bringing French civilization to the local populations of these colonies (the mission civilisatrice). Some French businessmen went overseas, but there were few permanent settlements. The Catholic Church became deeply involved. Its missionaries were unattached men committed to staying permanently, learning local languages and customs, and converting the natives to Christianity.
France successfully integrated the colonies into its economic system. By 1939, one third of its exports went to its colonies; Paris businessmen invested heavily in agriculture, mining, and shipping. In Indochina, new plantations were opened for rice and natural rubber. In Algeria, land held by rich settlers rose from 1,600,000 hectares in 1890 to 2,700,000 hectares in 1940; combined with similar operations in Morocco and Tunisia, the result was that North African agriculture became one of the most efficient in the world. Metropolitan France was a captive market, so large landowners could borrow large sums in Paris to modernize agricultural techniques with tractors and mechanized equipment. The result was a dramatic increase in the export of wheat, corn, peaches, and olive oil. French Algeria became the fourth most important wine producer in the world. Nickel mining in New Caledonia was also important.
Opposition to colonial rule led to rebellions in Morocco in 1925, Syria in 1926, and Indochina in 1930, all of which the colonial army quickly suppressed.
First World War
Entry
France entered World War I because Russia and Germany were going to war, and France honoured its treaty obligations to Russia. Decisions were all made by senior officials, especially president Raymond Poincaré, Premier and Foreign Minister René Viviani, and the ambassador to Russia Maurice Paléologue. Not involved in the decision-making were military leaders, arms manufacturers, the newspapers, pressure groups, party leaders, or spokesmen for French nationalism.
Britain wanted to remain neutral but entered the war when the German army invaded Belgium on its way to Paris. The French victory at the Battle of the Marne in September 1914 ensured the failure of Germany's strategy to win quickly. It became a long and very bloody war of attrition, but France emerged on the winning side.
French intellectuals welcomed the war to avenge the humiliation of defeat and loss of territory in 1871. At the grass roots, Paul Déroulède's League of Patriots, a proto-fascist movement based in the lower middle class, had advocated a war of revenge since the 1880s. The strong socialist movement had long opposed war and preparation for war. However, when its leader Jean Jaurès, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its anti-militarist positions and joined the national war effort. Prime Minister René Viviani called for unity in the form of a "Union sacrée" ("Sacred Union"), and in France there were few dissenters.
Fighting
After the French army successfully defended Paris in 1914, the conflict became one of trench warfare along the Western Front, with very high casualty rates. It became a war of attrition. Until spring of 1918 there were almost no territorial gains or losses for either side. Georges Clemenceau, whose ferocious energy and determination earned him the nickname le Tigre ("the Tiger"), led a coalition government after 1917 that was determined to defeat Germany. Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France fell under the brutal control of German occupiers. The bloodbath of the war of attrition reached its apogee in the Battles of Verdun and the Somme. By 1917 mutiny was in the air. A consensus among soldiers agreed to resist any German attacks, but to postpone French attacks until the Americans arrived.
A state of emergency was proclaimed and censorship imposed, leading to the creation in 1915 of the satirical newspaper to bypass the censorship. The economy was hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast. Although the occupied area in 1914 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel and 40% of the coal.
War economy
In 1914, the government implemented a war economy with controls and rationing. By 1915, the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers. Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917. This war economy would have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism.
The production of munitions proved a striking success, well ahead of Britain or the United States or even Germany. The challenges were monumental: the German seizure of the industrial heartland in the northeast, a shortage of manpower, and a mobilization plan that left France on the brink of defeat. Nevertheless, by 1918 France was producing more munitions and artillery than its allies, while supplying virtually all of the heavy equipment needed by the arriving American army. Building on foundations laid in the early months of the war, the Ministry of War matched production to the operational and tactical needs of the army, with an emphasis on meeting the insatiable demands for artillery. The elaborately designed link between industry and the army, and the compromises made to ensure that artillery and shells of the required quantity and quality were supplied, proved crucial to French success on the battlefield.
In the end the damages caused by the war amounted to about 113% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing. The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war. Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound.
Morale
To uplift the French national spirit, many intellectuals began to fashion patriotic propaganda. The Union sacrée sought to draw the French people closer to the actual front and thus garner social, political, and economic support for the soldiers. Antiwar sentiment was very weak among the general population. However among intellectuals there was a pacifistic "Ligue des Droits de l'Homme" (League for the Rights of Mankind) (LDH). It kept a low profile in the first two years of war, holding its first congress in November 1916 against the background slaughters French soldiers on the Western Front. The theme was the "conditions for a lasting peace." Discussions focused on France's relationship with its autocratic, undemocratic ally, Russia, and in particular how to square support for all that the LDH stood for with Russia's bad treatment of its oppressed minorities, especially the Poles. Secondly, many delegates wanted to issue a demand for a negotiated peace. This was rejected only after a lengthy debate showed how the LDH was divided between a majority that believed that arbitration could be applied only in times of peace, and a minority that demanded an immediate end to the carnage. In spring 1918 the desperate German offensive failed, and the Allies successfully pushed back. The French people of all classes rallied to Prime Minister George Clemenceau's demand for total victory and harsh peace terms.
Peace and revenge
The entry into war by the United States on the side of the Allies, precipitated a change of fortunes in the late summer and autumn of 1918 led to the defeat of Germany in World War I. The most important factors that led to the surrender of Germany were its exhaustion after four years of fighting and the arrival of large numbers of troops from the United States beginning in the summer of 1918. Peace terms were imposed on Germany by the Big Four: Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy. Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Germany was largely disarmed and forced to take full responsibility for the war, meaning that it was expected to pay huge war reparations. France regained Alsace-Lorraine, and the German industrial Saar Basin, a coal and steel region, was occupied by France. The German African colonies, such as Kamerun, were partitioned between France and Britain. From the remains of the Ottoman Empire, Germany's ally during World War I that also collapsed at the end of the conflict, France acquired the Mandate of Syria and the Mandate of Lebanon.
Interwar period
From 1919 to 1940, France was governed by two main groupings of political alliances. On the one hand, there was the right-center Bloc national led by Georges Clemenceau, Raymond Poincaré and Aristide Briand. The Bloc was supported by business and finance and was friendly toward the army and the Church. Its main goals were revenge against Germany, economic prosperity for French business and stability in domestic affairs. On the other hand, there was the left-center Cartel des gauches dominated by Édouard Herriot of the Radical Socialist party. Herriot's party was in fact neither radical nor socialist, rather it represented the interests of small business and the lower middle class. It was intensely anti-clerical and resisted the Catholic Church. The Cartel was occasionally willing to form a coalition with the Socialist Party. Anti-democratic groups, such as the Communists on the left and royalists on the right, played relatively minor roles.
The flow of reparations from Germany played a central role in strengthening French finances. The government began a large-scale reconstruction program to repair wartime damages, and was burdened with a very large public debt. Taxation policies were inefficient, with widespread evasion, and when the financial crisis grew worse in 1926, Poincaré levied new taxes, reformed the system of tax collection, and drastically reduced government spending to balance the budget and stabilize the franc. Holders of the national debt lost 80% of the face value of their bonds, but runaway inflation did not occur. From 1926 to 1929, the French economy prospered and manufacturing flourished.
Foreign observers in the 1920s noted the excesses of the French upper classes, but emphasized the rapid re-building of the regions of northeastern France that had seen warfare and occupation. They reported the improvement of financial markets, the brilliance of French post-war literature and the revival of public morale.
Great Depression
The world economic crisis known as the Great Depression affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the GDP in the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%. In comparison to countries such as the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, the depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5%, and the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output. In addition, there was no banking crisis.
In 1931 the well-organized veterans movement demanded and received pensions for their wartime service. This was funded by a lottery—the first one allowed in France since 1836. The lottery immediately became popular, and became a major foundation of the annual budget. Although the Great Depression was not yet severe, the lottery appealed to charitable impulses, greed, and respect for veterans. These contradictory impulses produced cash that make possible the French welfare state, at the crossroads of philanthropy, market and public sphere.
6 February 1934 crisis
The 6 February 1934 crisis was an anti-parliamentarist street demonstration in Paris organized by multiple far-right leagues that culminated in a riot on the Place de la Concorde, near the seat of the French National Assembly. The police shot and killed 15 demonstrators. It was one of the major political crises during the Third Republic (1870–1940). Frenchmen on the left feared it was an attempt to organize a fascist coup d'état. As a result of the actions of that day, several anti-fascist organisations were created, such as the Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes, in an attempt to thwart the rise of fascism in France. According to historian Joel Colton, "The consensus among scholars is that there was no concerted or unified design to seize power and that the leagues lacked the coherence, unity, or leadership to accomplish such an end."
Foreign policy
Foreign policy was of growing concern to France during the inter-war period, with fears of German militarism in the forefront. The horrible devastation of the war, including the death of 1.5 million French soldiers, the devastation of much of the steel and coal regions, and the long-term costs for veterans, were always remembered. France demanded that Germany assume many of the costs incurred from the war through annual reparation payments. French foreign and security policy used the balance of power and alliance politics to compel Germany to comply with its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The problem was that the United States and Britain rejected a defensive alliance. Potential allies in Eastern Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were too weak to confront Germany. Russia had been the long term French ally in the East, but now it was controlled by the Bolsheviks, who were deeply distrusted in Paris. France's transition to a more conciliatory policy in 1924 was a response to pressure from Britain and the United States, as well as to French weakness.
France enthusiastically joined the League of Nations in 1919, but felt betrayed by President Woodrow Wilson, when his promises that the United States would sign a defence treaty with France and join the League were rejected by the United States Congress. The main goal of French foreign policy was to preserve French power and neutralize the threat posed by Germany. When Germany fell behind in reparations payments in 1923, France seized the industrialized Ruhr region. The British Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, who viewed reparations as impossible to pay successfully, pressured French Premier Édouard Herriot into a series of concessions to Germany. In total, France received £1600 million from Germany before reparations ended in 1932, but France had to pay war debts to the United States, and thus the net gain was only about £600 million.
France tried to create a web of defensive treaties against Germany with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. There was little effort to build up the military strength or technological capabilities of these small allies, and they remained weak and divided among themselves. In the end, the alliances proved worthless. France also constructed a powerful defensive wall in the form of a network of fortresses along its German border. It was called the Maginot Line and was trusted to compensate for the heavy manpower losses of the First World War.
The main goal of foreign policy was the diplomatic response to the demands of the French army in the 1920s and 1930s to form alliances against the German threat, especially with Britain and with smaller countries in central Europe.
Appeasement was increasingly adopted as Germany grew stronger after 1933, for France suffered a stagnant economy, unrest in its colonies, and bitter internal political fighting. Appeasement, says historian Martin Thomas was not a coherent diplomatic strategy or a copying of the British. France appeased Italy on the Ethiopia question because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany. When Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland—the part of Germany where no troops were allowed—neither Paris nor London would risk war, and nothing was done. The military alliance with Czechoslovakia was sacrificed at Hitler's demand when France and Britain agreed to his terms at Munich in 1938.
Popular Front
In 1920, the socialist movement split, with the majority forming the French Communist Party. The minority, led by Léon Blum, kept the name Socialist, and by 1932 greatly outnumbered the disorganized Communists. When Stalin told French Communists to collaborate with others on the left in 1934, a popular front was made possible with an emphasis on unity against fascism. In 1936, the Socialists and the Radicals formed a coalition, with Communist support, to complete it.
The Popular Front's narrow victory in the elections of the spring of 1936 brought to power a government headed by the Socialists in alliance with the Radicals. The Communists supported its domestic policies, but did not take any seats in the cabinet. The prime minister was Léon Blum, a technocratic socialist who avoided making decisions. In two years in office, it focused on labour law changes sought by the trade unions, especially the mandatory 40-hour work week, down from 48 hours. All workers were given a two-week paid vacation. A collective bargaining law facilitated union growth; membership soared from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 in one year, and workers' political strength was enhanced when the Communist and non-Communist unions joined together. The government nationalized the armaments industry and tried to seize control of the Bank of France in an effort to break the power of the richest 200 families in the country. Farmers received higher prices, and the government purchased surplus wheat, but farmers had to pay higher taxes. Wave after wave of strikes hit French industry in 1936. Wage rates went up 48%, but the work week was cut back by 17%, and the cost of living rose 46%, so there was little real gain to the average worker. The higher prices for French products resulted in a decline in overseas sales, which the government tried to neutralize by devaluing the franc, a measure that led to a reduction in the value of bonds and savings accounts. The overall result was significant damage to the French economy, and a lower rate of growth.
Most historians judge the Popular Front a failure, although some call it a partial success. There is general agreement that it failed to live up to the expectations of the left.
Politically, the Popular Front fell apart over Blum's refusal to intervene vigorously in the Spanish Civil War, as demanded by the Communists. Culturally, the Popular Front forced the Communists to come to terms with elements of French society they had long ridiculed, such as patriotism, the veterans' sacrifice, the honour of being an army officer, the prestige of the bourgeois, and the leadership of the Socialist Party and the parliamentary Republic. Above all, the Communists portrayed themselves as French nationalists. Young Communists dressed in costumes from the revolutionary period and the scholars glorified the Jacobins as heroic predecessors.
Conservatism
Historians have turned their attention to the right in the interwar period, looking at various categories of conservatives and Catholic groups as well as the far right fascist movement. Conservative supporters of the old order were linked with the "haute bourgeoisie" (upper middle class), as well as nationalism, military power, the maintenance of the empire, and national security. The favourite enemy was the left, especially as represented by socialists. The conservatives were divided on foreign affairs. Several important conservative politicians sustained the journal Gringoire, foremost among them André Tardieu. The Revue des deux Mondes, with its prestigious past and sharp articles, was a major conservative organ.
Summer camps and youth groups were organized to promote conservative values in working-class families, and help them design a career path. The Croix de feu/Parti social français (CF/PSF) was especially active.
Relations with Catholicism
France's republican government had long been strongly anti-clerical. The Law of Separation of Church and State in 1905 had expelled many religious orders, declared all Church buildings government property, and led to the closing of most Church schools. Since that time, Pope Benedict XV had sought a rapprochement, but it was not achieved until the reign of Pope Pius XI (1922–39). In the papal encyclical Maximam Gravissimamque (1924), many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and a bearable coexistence made possible.
The Catholic Church expanded its social activities after 1920, especially by forming youth movements. For example, the largest organization of young working women was the Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne/Féminine (JOC/F), founded in 1928 by the progressive social activist priest Joseph Cardijn. It encouraged young working women to adopt Catholic approaches to morality and to prepare for future roles as mothers at the same time as it promoted notions of spiritual equality and encouraged young women to take active, independent, and public roles in the present. The model of youth groups was expanded to reach adults in the Ligue ouvrière chrétienne féminine ("League of Working Christian Women") and the Mouvement populaire des familles.
Catholics on the far right supported several shrill, but small, groupings that preached doctrines similar to fascism. The most influential was Action Française, founded in 1905 by the vitriolic author Charles Maurras. It was intensely nationalistic, anti-Semitic and reactionary, calling for a return to the monarchy and domination of the state by the Catholic Church. In 1926, Pope Pius XI condemned Action Française because the pope decided that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms. Action Française never fully recovered from the denunciation, but it was active in the Vichy era.
Downfall of the Third Republic
The looming threat to France of Nazi Germany was delayed at the Munich Conference of 1938. France and Great Britain abandoned Czechoslovakia and appeased the Germans by giving in to their demands concerning the acquisition of the Sudetenland (the portions of Czechoslovakia with German-speaking majorities). Intensive rearmament programs began in 1936 and were re-doubled in 1938, but they would only bear fruit in 1939 and 1940.
Historians have debated two themes regarding the sudden collapse of the French government in 1940. One emphasizes a broad cultural and political interpretation, pointing to failures, internal dissension, and a sense of malaise that ran through all French society. A second one blames the poor military planning by the French High Command. According to the British historian Julian Jackson, the Dyle Plan conceived by French General Maurice Gamelin was destined for failure, since it drastically miscalculated the ensuing attack by German Army Group B into central Belgium. The Dyle Plan embodied the primary war plan of the French Army to stave off Wehrmacht Army Groups A, B, and C with their much revered Panzer divisions in the Low Countries. As the French 1st, 7th, 9th armies and the British Expeditionary Force moved in Belgium to meet Army Group B, the German Army Group A outflanked the Allies at the Battle of Sedan of 1940 by coming through the Ardennes, a broken and heavily forested terrain that had been believed to be impassable to armoured units. The Germans also rushed along the Somme valley toward the English Channel coast to catch the Allies in a large pocket that forced them into the disastrous Battle of Dunkirk. As a result of this brilliant German strategy, embodied in the Manstein Plan, the Allies were defeated in stunning fashion. France had to accept the terms imposed by Adolf Hitler at the Second Armistice at Compiègne, which was signed on 22 June 1940 in the same railway carriage in which the Germans had signed the armistice that ended the First World War on 11 November 1918.
The Third Republic officially ended on 10 July 1940, when the French parliament gave full powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain, who proclaimed in the following days the État Français (the "French State"), commonly known as the "Vichy Regime" or "Vichy France" following its re-location to the town of Vichy in central France. Charles de Gaulle had made the Appeal of 18 June earlier, exhorting all French not to accept defeat and to rally to Free France and continue the fight with the Allies.
Throughout its seventy-year history, the Third Republic stumbled from crisis to crisis, from dissolved parliaments to the appointment of a mentally ill president (Paul Deschanel). It fought bitterly through the First World War against the German Empire, and the inter-war years saw much political strife with a growing rift between the right and the left. When France was liberated in 1944, few called for a restoration of the Third Republic, and a Constituent Assembly was established by the government of a provisional French Republic to draft a constitution for a successor, established as the Fourth Republic (1946 to 1958) that December, a parliamentary system not unlike the Third Republic.
Interpreting the Third Republic
Adolphe Thiers, first president of the Third Republic, called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least." France might have agreed about being a republic, but it never fully accepted the Third Republic. France's longest-lasting governmental system since before the 1789 Revolution, the Third Republic was consigned to the history books as being unloved and unwanted in the end. Yet, its longevity showed that it was capable of weathering many storms, particularly the First World War.
One of the most surprising aspects of the Third Republic was that it constituted the first stable republican government in French history and the first to win the support of the majority of the population, but it was intended as an interim, temporary government. Following Thiers's example, most of the Orleanist monarchists progressively rallied themselves to the Republican institutions, thus giving support of a large part of the elites to the Republican form of government. On the other hand, the Legitimists remained harshly anti-Republicans, while Charles Maurras founded the in 1898. This far-right monarchist movement became influential in the in the 1930s. It also became a model for various far right leagues that participated to the 6 February 1934 riots that toppled the Second government.
Historiography of decadence
A major historiographical debate about the latter years of the Third Republic concerns the concept of (the decadence). Proponents of the concept have argued that the French defeat of 1940 was caused by what they regard as the innate decadence and moral rot of France. The notion of as an explanation for the defeat began almost as soon as the armistice was signed in June 1940. Marshal Philippe Pétain stated in one radio broadcast, "The regime led the country to ruin." In another, he said "Our defeat is punishment for our moral failures" that France had "rotted" under the Third Republic. In 1942 the Riom Trial was held bringing several leaders of the Third Republic to trial for declaring war on Germany in 1939 and accusing them of not doing enough to prepare France for war.
John Gunther in 1940, before the defeat of France, reported that the Third Republic ("the reductio ad absurdum of democracy") had had 103 cabinets with an average length of eight months, and that 15 former prime ministers were living. Marc Bloch in his book Strange Defeat (written in 1940, and published posthumously in 1946) argued that the French upper classes had ceased to believe in the greatness of France following the Popular Front victory of 1936, and so had allowed themselves to fall under the spell of fascism and defeatism. Bloch said that the Third Republic suffered from a deep internal "rot" that generated bitter social tensions, unstable governments, pessimism and defeatism, fearful and incoherent diplomacy, hesitant and shortsighted military strategy, and, finally, facilitated German victory in June 1940. The French journalist André Géraud, who wrote under the pen name Pertinax in his 1943 book, The Gravediggers of France indicted the pre-war leadership for what he regarded as total incompetence.
After 1945, the concept of was widely embraced by different French political fractions as a way of discrediting their rivals. The French Communist Party blamed the defeat on the "corrupt" and "decadent" capitalist Third Republic (conveniently hiding its own sabotaging of the French war effort during the Nazi-Soviet Pact and its opposition to the "imperialist war" against Germany in 1939–40).
From a different perspective, Gaullists called the Third Republic a "weak" regime and argued that if France had a regime headed by a strong-man president like Charles de Gaulle before 1940, the defeat could have been avoided. In power, they did exactly that and started the Fifth Republic. Then was a group of French historians, centered around Pierre Renouvin and his protégés Jean-Baptiste Duroselle and Maurice Baumont, that started a new type of international history to take into what Renouvin called (profound forces) such as the influence of domestic politics on foreign policy. However, Renouvin and his followers still followed the concept of with Renouvin arguing that French society under the Third Republic was "sorely lacking in initiative and dynamism" and Baumont arguing that French politicians had allowed "personal interests" to override "...any sense of the general interest."
In 1979, Duroselle published a well-known book entitled that offered a total condemnation of the entire Third Republic as weak, cowardly and degenerate. Even more so then in France, the concept of was accepted in the English-speaking world, where British historians such A. J. P. Taylor often described the Third Republic as a tottering regime on the verge of collapse.
A notable example of the thesis was William L. Shirer's 1969 book The Collapse of the Third Republic, where the French defeat is explained as the result of the moral weakness and cowardice of the French leaders. Shirer portrayed Édouard Daladier as a well-meaning, but weak willed; Georges Bonnet as a corrupt opportunist even willing to do a deal with the Nazis; Marshal Maxime Weygand as a reactionary soldier more interested in destroying the Third Republic than in defending it; General Maurice Gamelin as incompetent and defeatist, Pierre Laval as a crooked crypto-fascist; Charles Maurras (whom Shirer represented as France's most influential intellectual) as the preacher of "drivel"; Marshal Philippe Pétain as the senile puppet of Laval and the French royalists, and Paul Reynaud as a petty politician controlled by his mistress, Countess Hélène de Portes. Modern historians who subscribe to argument or take a very critical view of France's pre-1940 leadership without necessarily subscribing to la décadence thesis include Talbot Imlay, Anthony Adamthwaite, Serge Berstein, Michael Carely, Nicole Jordan, Igor Lukes, and Richard Crane.
The first historian to denounce la décadence concept explicitly was the Canadian historian Robert J. Young, who, in his 1978 book In Command of France argued that French society was not decadent, that the defeat of 1940 was due to only military factors, not moral failures, and that the Third Republic's leaders had done their best under the difficult conditions of the 1930s. Young argued that the decadence, if it existed, did not impact French military planning and readiness to fight. Young finds that American reporters in the late 1930s portrayed a calm, united, competent, and confident France. They praised French art, music, literature, theatre, and fashion, and stressed French resilience and pluck in the face of growing Nazi aggression and brutality. Nothing in the tone or content of the articles foretold the crushing military defeat and collapse of June 1940.
Young has been followed by other historians such as Robert Frankenstein, Jean-Pierre Azema, Jean-Louis Crémieux-Brilhac, Martin Alexander, Eugenia C. Kiesling, and Martin Thomas, who argued that French weakness on the international stage was due to structural factors as the impact of the Great Depression had on French rearmament and had nothing to do with French leaders being too "decadent" and cowardly to stand up to Nazi Germany.
Timeline to 1914
September 1870: following the collapse of the Empire of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War the Third Republic was created and the Government of National Defence ruled during the Siege of Paris (19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871).
May 1871: The Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), the peace treaty ending the Franco-Prussian War. France lost Alsace and most of Lorraine, and had to pay a cash indemnity to the new nation of Germany.
1871: The Paris Commune. In a formal sense the Paris Commune of 1871 was simply the local authority that exercised power in Paris for two months in the spring of 1871. It was separate from that of the new government under Adolphe Thiers. The regime came to an end after a bloody suppression by Thiers's government in May 1871.
1872–73: After the nation faced the immediate political problems, it needed to establish a permanent form of government. Thiers wanted to base it on the constitutional monarchy of Britain, however he realized France would have to remain republican. In expressing this belief, he violated the Pact of Bordeaux, angering the Monarchists in the Assembly. As a result, he was forced to resign in 1873.
1873: Marshal MacMahon, a conservative Roman Catholic, was made President of the Republic. The Duc de Broglie, an Orleanist, as the prime minister. Unintentionally, the Monarchists had replaced an absolute monarchy by a parliamentary one.
Feb 1875: Series of parliamentary Acts established the organic or constitutional laws of the new republic. At its apex was a President of the Republic. A two-chamber parliament was created, along with a ministry under the President of the Council, who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and Parliament.
May 1877: with public opinion swinging heavily in favour of a republic, the President of the Republic, Patrice MacMahon, himself a monarchist, made one last desperate attempt to salvage the monarchical cause by dismissing the republic-minded Prime Minister Jules Simon and reappointing the monarchist leader the Duc de Broglie to office. He then dissolved parliament and called a general election. If his hope had been to halt the move towards republicanism, it backfired spectacularly, with the President being accused of having staged a constitutional coup d'état, known as after the date when it happened.
1879: Republicans returned triumphant, finally killing off the prospect of a restored French monarchy by gaining control of the Senate on 5 January 1879. MacMahon himself resigned on 30 January 1879, leaving a seriously weakened presidency in the shape of Jules Grévy.
1880: The Jesuits and several other religious orders were dissolved, and their members were forbidden to teach in state schools.
1881: Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, Legitimists were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by republicans, called Opportunist Republicans as they were in favour of moderate changes to firmly establish the new regime. The Jules Ferry laws on free, mandatory and secular public education, voted in 1881 and 1882, were one of the first sign of this republican control of the Republic, as public education was not any more in the exclusive control of the Catholic congregations.
1882: Religious instruction was removed from all state schools. The measures were accompanied by the abolition of chaplains in the armed forces and the removal of nuns from hospitals. Due to the fact that France was mainly Roman Catholic, this was greatly opposed.
1889: The Republic was rocked by the sudden but short-timed Boulanger crisis spawning the rise of the modern intellectual Émile Zola. Later, the Panama scandals also were quickly criticized by the press.
1893: Following anarchist Auguste Vaillant's bombing at the National Assembly, killing nobody but injuring one, deputies voted the which limited the 1881 freedom of the press laws. The following year, President Sadi Carnot was stabbed to death by Italian anarchist Caserio.
1894: The Dreyfus Affair: a Jewish artillery officer, Alfred Dreyfus, was arrested on charges relating to conspiracy and espionage. Allegedly, Dreyfus had handed over important military documents discussing the designs of a new French artillery piece to a German military attaché named Max von Schwartzkoppen.
1894: The Franco-Russian Alliance was formed.
1898: Writer Émile Zola published an article entitled The article alleged an anti-Semitic conspiracy in the highest ranks of the military to scapegoat Dreyfus, tacitly supported by the government and the Catholic Church. The Fashoda Incident nearly causes an Anglo-French war.
1901: The Radical-Socialist Party is founded and remained the most important party of the Third Republic starting at the end of the 19th century. The same year, followers of Léon Gambetta, such as Raymond Poincaré, who became President of the Council in the 1920s, created the Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD), which became the main center-right party after World War I and the parliamentary disappearance of monarchists and Bonapartists.
1904: French foreign minister Théophile Delcassé negotiated with Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary, the in 1904.
1905: The government introduced the law on the separation of Church and State, heavily supported by Emile Combes, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 voluntary association law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching (more than 2,500 private teaching establishments were by then closed by the state, causing bitter opposition from the Catholic and conservative population).
1906: It became apparent that the documents handed over to Schwartzkoppen by Dreyfus in 1894 were a forgery and Dreyfus was exonerated after previously being pardoned after serving 5 years in prison.
1914: After SFIO (French Section of the Workers' International) leader Jean Jaurès's assassination a few days before the German invasion of Belgium, the French socialist movement, as the whole of the Second International, abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort. First World War begins.
See also
Belle Époque, 1871–1914
Paris in the Belle Époque
Interwar France, 1919–1939
Economic history of France#1789–1914
Economic history of France#1914–1944
Women in France
French colonial empire
List of French possessions and colonies
French Presidential elections under the Third Republic
France in the long nineteenth century
History of France (1900 to present)
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Surveys
Bell, David, et al. A Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders since 1870 (1990), 400 short articles by experts
Bernard, Philippe, and Henri Dubief. The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988) excerpt and text search
Beaupré, Nicolas. Les Grandes Guerres 1914–1945 (Paris: Éditions Belin, 2012) 1152 pp. ; in French; online review in English by James E. Connolly, Nov. 2013)
Brogan, D. W The development of modern France (1870–1939) (1953) online
Bury, J. P. T. France, 1814–1940 (2003) ch 9–16
Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) partly online
full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free
Fortescue, William. The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: Conflicts and Continuities (2000) excerpt and text search
Furet, François. Revolutionary France 1770–1880 (1995), pp 492–537. survey of political history by leading scholar
Hutton, Patrick H., ed. Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940 (Greenwood, 1986)
Larkin, Maurice. France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986 (Oxford UP, 1988)
Mayeur, Jean-Marie, and Madeleine Rebirioux. The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988) excerpt and text search
Shirer, William L. The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969 online free to borrow
Thomson, David. Democracy in France: The third republic (1952) online
Wolf, John B. France: 1815 to the Present (1940) online free pp 349–501.
Wright, Gordon. France in Modern Times (5th erd. 1995) pp 205–382
Foreign policy and colonies
Adamthwaite, Anthony. Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe 1914–1940 (1995) excerpt and text search
Conklin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930 (2000) excerpt and text search
Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939 (2004); Translation of his highly influential La décadence, 1932–1939 (1979)
Gooch, G.P. Franco-German Relations 1871–1914 (1923)
MacMillan, Margaret. The War that Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013).
MacMillan, Margaret. Paris 1919: six months that changed the world (2007).
Nere, J. Foreign Policy of France 1914–45 (2010)
Quinn, Frederick. The French Overseas Empire (2001)
Political ideas and practice
Jackson, Julian. The Politics of Depression in France 1932–1936 (2002) excerpt and text search
Kennedy, Sean. Reconciling France Against Democracy: the Croix de feu and the Parti social français, 1927–1945 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2007)
Kreuzer, Marcus. Institutions and Innovation: Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy—France and Germany, 1870–1939 (U. of Michigan Press, 2001)
Lehning, James R.; To Be a Citizen: The Political Culture of the Early French Third Republic (2001)
Roberts, John. "General Boulanger" History Today (Oct 1955) 5#10 pp 657–669, online
Culture and society
Price, Roger. A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France (1987)
Robb, Graham. The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography, from the Revolution to the First World War (2007)
Weber, Eugen. The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s (1996)
Weber, Eugen. Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914 (1976) excerpt and text search
Weber, Eugen. France, Fin de Siècle (1988)
Zeldin, Theodore. France: 1848–1945: Politics and Anger; Anxiety and Hypocrisy; Taste and Corruption; Intellect and Pride; Ambition and Love (2 vol 1979), topical history
Women, sexuality, gender
Campbell, Caroline. "Gender and Politics in Interwar and Vichy France." Contemporary European History 27.3 (2018): 482–499. online
Copley, A. R. H. Sexual Moralities in France, 1780–1980: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce and Homosexuality (1992)
Diamond, Hanna. Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: choices and constraints (Harlow: Longman, 1999)
Moses, Claire. French Feminism in the 19th Century (1985) excerpt and text search
Pedersen, Jean. Legislating the French Family: Feminism, Theater, and Republican Politics: 1870–1920 (2003) excerpt and text search
World War I
Audoin-Rouzeau, Stephane, and Annette Becker. 14–18: Understanding the Great War (2003)
Becker, Jean Jacques. The Great War and the French People (1986)
Darrow, Margaret H. French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front (2000)
Doughty, Robert A. Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War (2008), 592pp; excerpt and text search, military history
Fridenson, Patrick, ed. The French Home Front, 1914–1918 (1993).
Gooch, G. P. Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1940), pp 269–30 summarizes published memoirs by main participants
Smith, Leonard V. et al. France and the Great War (2003)
Tucker, Spencer, ed. European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1999)
Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919 (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars vol 1 excerpt; vol 2 excerpt and text search
Primary sources
, complete text online
French Republic 3
Modern history of France
French Republic 3
French Republic 3
Republic 3
Republic 3
Republicanism in France
1870 establishments in France
1940 disestablishments in France
States and territories established in 1870
States and territories disestablished in 1940
19th century in France
20th century in France
Former polities of the interwar period | [
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|
227178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replay | Replay | Replay may refer to:
Replay (sports), a replayed match between two sport teams
Technology
Game replay, a recording of a game session.
Instant replay, in motion pictures and television, a showing again of part of a film
Replay Professional, a hardware sound sampling device used by the atari ST
ReplayTV, a digital video recorder (DVR)
Replay attack, in cryptography, an attack involving insertion of a message that has been sent previously
Replay system of NetBurst architecture microprocessors
REPLAY (software), a management system for audiovisual content developed at ETH Zurich
Books
Replay (Grimwood novel), a 1986 science fiction novel by Ken Grimwood
Replay (Creech novel), a 2005 book by Sharon Creech
Replay: The History of Video Games, a 2010 book by Tristan Donovan
RE:Play, a 2006 original English-language manga by Christy Lijewski
Film and television
Replay (2001 film), a 2001 French drama film
Replay (2003 film), a 2003 film starring Rebecca Mader
Replay (TV sports series), a Fox Sports Net series featuring alumni from two sports teams, who replay a notable game from their past
Replay (TV series), a Canadian sports talk show television series
"Replay" (The Twilight Zone), 2019 episode of the television series The Twilight Zone
Replay (web series), a 2021 South Korean web drama.
Music
Albums
Replay (Crosby, Stills & Nash album), a 1980 album by the rock group Crosby, Stills & Nash
Replay (Alison Brown album), a 2002 album by American banjoist Alison Brown
Replay (Play album), a 2003 album by Swedish girl group Play
Replay (Iyaz album), a 2010 album by British Virgin Island singer Iyaz
Replay (The Outfield album), a 2011 album by English rock band The Outfield
Rush Replay X 3, a 2006 set of filmed concerts from Rush
Replay (EP), 2008 EP by South Korean boy band Shinee
Songs
"Replay" (Iyaz song), a 2009 song by Iyaz
"Replay" (Mr. Children song), a 1993 song by Japanese band Mr. Children
"Replay" (Shinee song), a 2008 song by Shinee
"Replay" (Tamta song), a 2019 song that represented Cyprus in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019
"Replay" (Zendaya song), a 2013 song by Zendaya
"Replay", a 1995 song by Millencolin from the album Life on a Plate
"Replay", a 2013 song by Vamps from the single "Ahead/Replay"
"Replay", a 2020 song by Lady Gaga from Chromatica
"Replay", a 2021 song by Senidah
Other uses
Replay pen, the brand name in Europe and Brazil for the Papermate Erasermate pen
Replay XD1080, a tubular action cam. | [
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|
227179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Empire%20architecture%20in%20Europe | Second Empire architecture in Europe | Second Empire architecture in Europe is an architectural style rooted in the 16th-century Renaissance, which grew to its greatest popularity in Europe in the second half of the nineteenth century and early years of the twentieth century. As the style evolved from its origins, it acquired a mix of European styles, most notably the Baroque, often combined with mansard roofs and low, square based domes. It derived its name from the era of the Second French Empire.
Development
The Second Empire style quickly spread throughout Europe and evolved as a loose form of Baroque Revival architecture, where its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings
The style is particularly prominent in Paris and Vienna, both of which were heavily redeveloped in the late 19th century. Rome also saw a huge expansion after the Risorgimento, where the Bank of Italy designed by Gaetano Koch is a notable example.
Second Empire became popular in Britain at the end of the nineteenth century, where it emerged as a fusion of the architecture of the classical Renaissance exemplified by Christopher Wren and the solid mass Baroque of John Vanbrugh, decorated with some of the more ornate Baroque motifs previously found only on mainland Europe. It often featured a low dome, a once complex architectural feat rendered less difficult through the use of iron and reinforced concrete.
In London, the style is exemplified by Methodist Central Hall, Westminster, designed by Edwin Alfred Rickards of the firm Lanchester, Stewart and Rickards. It is an early example of the use of a reinforced concrete frame for a building in Britain. The interior was similarly planned on a Piranesian scale, although the execution was rather more economical.
See also
Beaux-Arts architecture
Second Empire architecture in the United States and Canada
References
Copplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. Hamlyn.
01
Architecture
House styles
Modern history of France
Neoclassical movements
Revival architectural styles
Victorian architectural styles | [
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227181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular%20dementia | Vascular dementia | Vascular dementia (VaD) is dementia caused by problems in the supply of blood to the brain, typically a series of minor strokes, leading to worsening cognitive abilities, the decline occurring step by step. The term refers to a syndrome consisting of a complex interaction of cerebrovascular disease and risk factors that lead to changes in brain structures due to strokes and lesions, resulting in changes in cognition. The temporal relationship between a stroke and cognitive deficits is needed to make the diagnosis.
Signs and symptoms
Differentiating dementia syndromes can be challenging, due to the frequently overlapping clinical features and related underlying pathology. In particular, Alzheimer's disease often co-occurs with vascular dementia.
People with vascular dementia present with progressive cognitive impairment, acutely or sub-acutely as in mild cognitive impairment, frequently step-wise, after multiple cerebrovascular events (strokes). Some people may appear to improve between events and decline after further silent strokes. A rapidly deteriorating condition may lead to death from a stroke, heart disease, or infection.
The disease is described as both a mental disorder and behavioural disorder within the International Classification of Diseases. Signs and symptoms are cognitive, motor, behavioral, and for a significant proportion of patients, also affective. These changes typically occur over a period of 5–10 years. Signs are typically the same as in other dementias, but mainly include cognitive decline and memory impairment of sufficient severity as to interfere with activities of daily living, sometimes with presence of focal neurologic signs, and evidence of features consistent with cerebrovascular disease on brain imaging (CT or MRI). The neurologic signs localizing to certain areas of the brain that can be observed are hemiparesis, bradykinesia, hyperreflexia, extensor plantar reflexes, ataxia, pseudobulbar palsy, as well as gait problems and swallowing difficulties. People have patchy deficits in terms of cognitive testing. They tend to have better free recall and fewer recall intrusions when compared with patients with Alzheimer's disease. In the more severely affected patients, or patients affected by infarcts in Wernicke's or Broca's areas, specific problems with speaking called dysarthria and aphasias may be present.
In small vessel disease, the frontal lobes are often affected. Consequently, patients with vascular dementia tend to perform worse than their Alzheimer's disease counterparts in frontal lobe tasks, such as verbal fluency, and may present with frontal lobe problems: apathy, abulia (lack of will or initiative), problems with attention, orientation, and urinary incontinence. They tend to exhibit more perseverative behavior. VaD patients may also present with general slowing of processing ability, difficulty shifting sets, and impairment in abstract thinking. Apathy early in the disease is more suggestive of vascular dementia.
Rare genetic disorders that cause vascular lesions in the brain have other presentation patterns. As a rule, they tend to occur earlier in life and have a more aggressive course. In addition, infectious disorders, such as syphilis, can cause arterial damage, strokes, and bacterial inflammation of the brain.
Causes
Vascular dementia can be caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic infarcts affecting multiple brain areas, including the anterior cerebral artery territory, the parietal lobes, or the cingulate gyrus. On rare occasion, infarcts in the hippocampus or thalamus are the cause of dementia. A history of stroke increases the risk of developing dementia by around 70%, and recent stroke increases the risk by around 120%. Brain vascular lesions can also be the result of diffuse cerebrovascular disease, such as small vessel disease.
Risk factors for vascular dementia include age, hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and cerebrovascular disease. Other risk factors include geographic origin, genetic predisposition, and prior strokes.
Vascular dementia can sometimes be triggered by cerebral amyloid angiopathy, which involves accumulation of beta amyloid plaques in the walls of the cerebral arteries, leading to breakdown and rupture of the vessels. Since amyloid plaques are a characteristic feature of Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia may occur as a consequence. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy can, however, appear in people with no prior dementia condition. Amyloid beta accumulation is often present in cognitively normal elderly people.
Two reviews of 2018 and 2019 found potentially an association between celiac disease and vascular dementia.
Diagnosis
Several specific diagnostic criteria can be used to diagnose vascular dementia, including the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria, the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition (ICD-10) criteria, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke criteria, Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l'Enseignement en Neurosciences (NINDS-AIREN) criteria, the Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Center criteria, and the Hachinski Ischemic Score (after Vladimir Hachinski).
The recommended investigations for cognitive impairment include: blood tests (for anemia, vitamin deficiency, thyrotoxicosis, infection, etc.), chest X-Ray, ECG, and neuroimaging, preferably a scan with a functional or metabolic sensitivity beyond a simple CT or MRI. When available as a diagnostic tool, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) neuroimaging may be used to confirm a diagnosis of multi-infarct dementia in conjunction with evaluations involving mental status examination. In a person already having dementia, SPECT appears to be superior in differentiating multi-infarct dementia from Alzheimer's disease, compared to the usual mental testing and medical history analysis. Advances have led to the proposal of new diagnostic criteria.
The screening blood tests typically include full blood count, liver function tests, thyroid function tests, lipid profile, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C reactive protein, syphilis serology, calcium serum level, fasting glucose, urea, electrolytes, vitamin B-12, and folate. In selected patients, HIV serology and certain autoantibody testing may be done.
Mixed dementia is diagnosed when people have evidence of Alzheimer's disease and cerebrovascular disease, either clinically or based on neuro-imaging evidence of ischemic lesions.
Pathology
Gross examination of the brain may reveal noticeable lesions and damage to blood vessels. Accumulation of various substances such as lipid deposits and clotted blood appear on microscopic views. The white matter is most affected, with noticeable atrophy (tissue loss), in addition to calcification of the arteries. Microinfarcts may also be present in the gray matter (cerebral cortex), sometimes in large numbers.
Although atheroma of the major cerebral arteries is typical in vascular dementia, smaller vessels and arterioles are mainly affected.
Prevention
Early detection and accurate diagnosis are important, as vascular dementia is at least partially preventable. Ischemic changes in the brain are irreversible, but the patient with vascular dementia can demonstrate periods of stability or even mild improvement. Since stroke is an essential part of vascular dementia, the goal is to prevent new strokes. This is attempted through reduction of stroke risk factors, such as high blood pressure, high blood lipid levels, atrial fibrillation, or diabetes mellitus. Meta-analyses have found that medications for high blood pressure are effective at prevention of pre-stroke dementia, which means that high blood pressure treatment should be started early. These medications include angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, diuretics, calcium channel blockers, sympathetic nerve inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists or adrenergic antagonists. Elevated lipid levels, including HDL, were found to increase risk of vascular dementia. However, six large recent reviews showed that therapy with statin drugs was ineffective in treatment or prevention of this dementia. Aspirin is a medication that is commonly prescribed for prevention of strokes and heart attacks; it is also frequently given to patients with dementia. However, its efficacy in slowing progression of dementia or improving cognition has not been supported by studies. Smoking cessation and Mediterranean diet have not been found to help patients with cognitive impairment; physical activity was consistently the most effective method of preventing cognitive decline.
Treatment
Currently, there are no medications that have been approved specifically for prevention or treatment of vascular dementia. The use of medications for treatment of Alzheimer's dementia, such as cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine, has shown small improvement of cognition in vascular dementia. This is most likely due to the drugs' actions on co-existing AD-related pathology. Multiple studies found a small benefit in VaD treatment with: memantine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist; cholinesterase inhibitors galantamine, donepezil, rivastigmine; Studies have shown that an extract of Ginkgo biloba EGb761 improves cognition, daily activities, and quality of life in treating vascular dementia, and is seen to be effective regardless of the severity of symptoms.
In those with celiac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity, a strict gluten-free diet may relieve symptoms of mild cognitive impairment. It should be started as soon as possible. There is no evidence that a gluten free diet is useful against advanced dementia. People with no digestive symptoms are less likely to receive early diagnosis and treatment.
General management of dementia includes referral to community services, aid with judgment and decision-making regarding legal and ethical issues (e.g., driving, capacity, advance directives), and consideration of caregiver stress. Behavioral and affective symptoms deserve special consideration in this patient group. These problems tend to resist conventional psychopharmacological treatment, and often lead to hospital admission and placement in permanent care.
Prognosis
Many studies have been conducted to determine average survival of patients with dementia. The studies were frequently small and limited, which caused contradictory results in the connection of mortality to the type of dementia and the patient's gender. A very large study conducted in Netherlands in 2015 found that the one-year mortality was three to four times higher in patients after their first referral to a day clinic for dementia, when compared to the general population. If the patient was hospitalized for dementia, the mortality was even higher than in patients hospitalized for cardiovascular disease. Vascular dementia was found to have either comparable or worse survival rates when compared to Alzheimer's Disease; another very large 2014 Swedish study found that the prognosis for VaD patients was worse for male and older patients.
Unlike Alzheimer's disease, which weakens the patient, causing them to succumb to bacterial infections like pneumonia, vascular dementia can be a direct cause of death due to the possibility of a fatal interruption in the brain's blood supply.
Epidemiology
Vascular dementia is the second-most-common form of dementia after Alzheimer's disease (AD) in older adults. The prevalence of the illness is 1.5% in Western countries and approximately 2.2% in Japan. It accounts for 50% of all dementias in Japan, 20% to 40% in Europe and 15% in Latin America. 25% of stroke patients develop new-onset dementia within one year of their stroke. One study found that in the United States, the prevalence of vascular dementia in all people over the age of 71 is 2.43%, and another found that the prevalence of the dementias doubles with every 5.1 years of age. The incidence peaks between the fourth and the seventh decades of life and 80% of patients have a history of hypertension.
A recent meta-analysis identified 36 studies of prevalent stroke (1.9 million participants) and 12 studies of incident stroke (1.3 million participants). For prevalent stroke, the pooled hazard ratio for all-cause dementia was 1.69 (95% confidence interval: 1.49–1.92; P < .00001; I2 = 87%). For incident stroke, the pooled risk ratio was 2.18 (95% confidence interval: 1.90–2.50; P < .00001; I2 = 88%). Study characteristics did not modify these associations, with the exception of sex, which explained 50.2% of between-study heterogeneity for prevalent stroke. These results confirm that stroke is a strong, independent, and potentially modifiable risk factor for all-cause dementia.
See also
Binswanger's disease
Cerebrovascular accident
References
External links
Multi-Infarct Dementia Fact Sheet at ninds.nih.gov
American Academy of Neurology (December 21, 2007). "Walking and Moderate Exercise Help Prevent Dementia". ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 21, 2007, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071219202948.htm
Cognitive disorders
Dementia
Learning disabilities
Mental disorders due to brain damage | [
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|
227182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Mercer | Ray Mercer | Raymond Anthony Mercer (born April 4, 1961) is a retired American professional boxer, kickboxer, and mixed martial artist who competed from 1989 to 2009. Best known for his boxing career, Mercer won a heavyweight gold medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics as an amateur, and later held the WBO heavyweight title from 1991 to 1992 as a professional. Boxrec ranks him as the world's No.9 heavyweight of 1990. As a mixed martial artist, he scored a notable first-round knockout win over former two-time UFC heavyweight champion Tim Sylvia in 2009.
Early years
Mercer, being a son of a retired Army NCO Raymond Mercer Sr., grew up as a military brat in Fort Benning, Georgia, and later in Hanau, West Germany. He later recalled:
Mercer played linebacker at high school in Hanau, didn't plan to go for a college education. After graduating from Richmond County Military Academy in Augusta, Georgia, he coasted for a year before enlisting in the Army.
Military service
Mercer served with the USAREUR, V Corps, infantry, he was stationed with Company D, 1st Battalion, 39th Infantry, in Baumholder, West Germany. His latest military rank was sergeant.
Amateur boxing career
Mercer started boxing at the age of 23 while serving in the U.S. Army in West Germany. Mercer said he had never even put on a pair of gloves until after he enlisted, "The Army taught me everything I know about boxing," explained Mercer. While he had street fights as a youth, it wasn't until he was offered a chance to avoid a 30-day field exercise by serving as a sparring partner for the post's heavyweight champion, which in winter of 1984, with the wind-chill factor driving temperatures below zero, was quite an opportunity, that he found a sanctioned way to use his aggression. The beginnings were tough, "I came back from that first day of sparring with a bleeding nose and my lips swollen. For two months I got pounded. But then it became a challenge. I'm not a quitter. I figured the other guy learned the moves, so could I." He learned quickly enough, winning military titles and a United States Amateur Boxing Federation title. He became 1985 U.S. Army and inter-service heavyweight champion, along with Wesley Watson, who was inter-service superheavyweight champion (Mercer later beat Watson in professionals). But in 1985, when Army Coach Hank Johnson sought to recruit Mercer for a stateside training camp for the 1988 Olympics, Mercer turned down the offer. "I was in my prime at partying. The training was not a sacrifice I wanted to make. I told Hank, you won't see me until the Olympics", he said. He first boxed in organized competition in 1983 at Schweinfurt, West Germany. He won a battalion box-off and then won the brigade championship. "After that, I won the VII Corps novice and open championships and was runner-up at U.S. Army, Europe," Mercer said. When he was reassigned to Baumholder, he won three USAREUR crowns while carrying the banner for V Corps (he won the USAREUR Championship less than a year after his first amateur fight.) As he served with USAREUR, for that reason in 1986—1987 Mercer had several international bouts in Germany, he also competed internationally at Western Europe open tournaments. In summer of 1988 he again won the inter-service heavyweight championship. His next step was to apply for the all-Army boxing trial camp and win a spot on the Army team. "Right now, I want to be the 'woodwork' man. I'm 26 years old and relatively unknown. My plans are to stay healthy, and I need to do well in international competition prior to the Olympics to build confidence."
He won the 1988 United States amateur heavyweight championship. At the USA vs. Cuba match-up, Mercer twice staggered Félix Savón, but was impeded from doing further damage by questionable intervention by the Cuban referee, Alfredo Toledo. At the USA vs. Europe match-up, Mercer with a hard right to the nose turned it into a "No mas!" fight for Yugoslavian Željko Mavrović.
1988 Olympics
Going to the Olympic Team, he was one of the most highly regarded American Olympic boxers. Of all the U.S. 1988 Olympians, Angelo Dundee, a legendary trainer, chose Ray Mercer and Andrew Maynard, as the most likely to develop into world champions after they would have turned into professionals: "Mercer's 27, but that's not too old. The maturity is there. And the punch. Give him 10 fights as a pro and he'd be ready to start moving up," Dundee said on Mercer's potential as a pro. According to Kelvin Richardson of the '88 All-Army Team, Mercer was such a hard puncher, that even 16-ounce gloves weren't of much help for his sparring partners from being knocked off the ring, and his superheavyweight Olympic teammate, Riddick Bowe, didn't want to spar with Mercer for that reason.
Before one of Maynard's fights, Mercer and Anthony Hembrick took off with their flags and good-naturedly dodged the people who tried to get in their way. A few tried to trip the pair, another tried to tackle the heavyweight Mercer, and one security guard even stopped him and tried to steer him back to his seat. Mercer would have none of it. "He didn't speak English, and I don't speak Korean, so he talked his stuff and I talked mine. I don't think we connected, so I just kept on going." said Mercer. Soldiers from his unit back in Germany was rooting for him. Right before the Olympics they made a large banner with everyone's signature on it and shipped it overnight to Seoul. "They've been a big part of my support, and a gold medal would mean almost as much to them as it would to me. That banner really picked me up. I'm fighting for the people of the United States, but especially for the ones back in my unit," he told his audience during one of his post-fight interviews.
Mercer knocked out all four of his Olympic opponents, winning Gold of the 1988 Olympics in Seoul as a heavyweight. When asked if he thought he needed to stop the South Korean in order to win the gold medal, he replied: "Definitely. Or I'll make him wish he was knocked out. One of the two." He was the oldest member of the United States Olympic Boxing Team at 27.
Highlights
USAREUR Boxing Championships (heavyweight), Darmstadt, West Germany, May 1985:
Finals: Defeated Gregory Ellerbee
USA–USSR Duals (heavyweight), Troy, New York, October 1985:
Defeated Renat Trishev (Soviet Union) by split decision, 2–1
United States Armed Forces Championships (heavyweight), Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, November 1985:
(no data available)
Stockholm Box Open (heavyweight), Stockholm, Sweden, January 1986:
Finals: Lost to Magne Havnå (Norway) by split decision, 2–3
USA–FRG Duals (heavyweight), West Berlin, West Germany, July 1987:
Defeated Andre Hoth (West Germany) RSC 2
USA–FRG Duals (heavyweight), Peissenberg, West Germany, July 1987:
Defeated Andre Hoth (West Germany) by unanimous decision, 3–0
USA–FRG & Austria Duals (heavyweight), Neuhausen, West Germany, July 1987:
Defeated Peter Neyer (Austria) by decision
Copenhagen Cup (heavyweight), Copenhagen, Denmark, December 1987:
Finals: Lost to Maik Heydeck (East Germany) by unanimous decision, 0–5
United States Armed Forces Championships (heavyweight), Naval Air Station San Diego, San Diego, California, March 1988:
Defeated Leonard Conway RSCH 1
United States National Championships (heavyweight), Colorado Springs, Colorado, March–April 1988:
1/16: Defeated Mike Sharp KO
1/8: Defeated Lyle McDowell RSC 2
1/4: Defeated Ike Padilla RSC 2
1/2: Defeated Carlton Hollis RSCH 1
Finals: Defeated Jerry Goff by unanimous decision, 5–0
USA–Cuba Duals (heavyweight), Caesars Atlantic City, Atlantic City, New Jersey, April 1988:
Lost to Félix Savón (Cuba) by split decision, 1–2
USA–Europe Duals (heavyweight), Las Vegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nevada, June 1988:
Defeated Željko Mavrović (Yugoslavia) RSC 1
Olympic Trials (heavyweight), Concord Pavilion, Concord, California, July 1988:
1/4: Defeated Tommy Morrison by unanimous decision, 5–0
1/2: Defeated Carlton Hollis by unanimous decision, 5–0
Finals: Defeated Michael Bentt by unanimous decision, 5–0
Olympic Box-offs (heavyweight), Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, Nevada, July 1988:
Day 1: Defeated Michael Bentt by split decision, 3–2
USA–Canada Duals (heavyweight), Charlotte Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina, August 1988:
Defeated Wayne Bernard (Canada) RET 2
Summer Olympics (heavyweight), Seoul, South Korea, September–October 1988:
1/8: Defeated Rudolf Gavenčiak (Czechoslovakia) RSCH 3
1/4: Defeated Luigi Gaudiano (Italy) KO 1
1/2: Defeated Arnold Vanderlyde (Netherlands) RSCH 2
Finals: Defeated Baik Hyun-Man (South Korea) KO 1
Mercer had a total of 70 fights as an amateur, competing all his amateur career in the 201-pound class, and compiling an amateur record of 64 wins, 6 losses (no stoppages.) Upon winning the Olympic Gold Medal, Mercer was approached by boxing promoter Bob Arum, to whom he signed a contract to turn professional. Under the deal, he was to be trained in Las Vegas, Nevada, under Hank Johnson of Fort Bragg, who was the All-Army Coach, and the assistant Olympic coach. Also under the deal, Arum got the rights to promote a certain number of televised bouts, leaving the boxer free to fight for others.
Upon winning the 1988 Olympics he was named Armed Forces Athlete of the Year in November 1988 (which was quite an achievement, considering that the Army branch alone produced 19 Olympians in 1988.) In January 1989, being honorary discharged, Mercer left the Army to pursue a professional boxing career.
Professional boxing career
Mercer turned pro in January 1989 and debuted with a 3rd TKO of Jesse Hughes. He scored a series of knockouts and in August 1990 knocked down and outpointed big punching Smokin' Bert Cooper in a spectacular 12 round brawl that earned him Cooper's NABF title. In January 1991 he challenged undefeated Francesco Damiani for the WBO heavyweight title, scoring a one punch knockout victory in the 9th when behind on points. Later that year he beat undefeated puncher Tommy Morrison in five, and with a major world title fight on the horizon vacated his WBO belt and fought 42-year-old legend Larry Holmes rather than mandatory challenger Michael Moorer. It proved an unwise decision, as the crafty Holmes conned Mercer out of the fight, outjabbing the puzzled Mercer and gaining both the points decision, and Mercer's world title fight with heavyweight king Evander Holyfield.
Having split fights with dangerous veteran Jesse Ferguson (Mercer was investigated for allegedly asking Ferguson to "throw the fight" during their first encounter), labored when overweight to a draw with trialhorse Marion Wilson, and saw a proposed 1994 bout in Hong Kong with Frank Bruno fall through, Mercer enjoyed an unexpected run of form in major fights, losing on points in a thrilling brawl with Holyfield in May 1995, losing a controversial decision in another wild punch up, this time with Lennox Lewis, in June 1996, and scoring a controversial points win over ex-champ Tim Witherspoon in yet another high action bout in December 1996. In the frame for a bout with Andrew Golota in 1997, Mercer suffered a neck injury and was out of action for 14 months. He returned February 1998 with a 2-round KO of Leo Loiacono, but contracted Hepatitis B and was again inactive, this time for 20 months.
Comeback
In February 2001 a 39-year-old Mercer launched a final comeback, knocking out four journeymen before being matched with WBO title holder Wladimir Klitschko in a high-profile bout on HBO. Once famed for his incredible iron chin, Mercer looked his age and was knocked down in the first and stopped in the 6th. A brief dalliance in the mixed martial arts nixed a 2004 bout with DaVarryl Williamson. However, Mercer did return to boxing in 2005, now aged 44, but he was stopped in seven rounds by Shannon Briggs.
Kickboxing career
Continuing to seek a fighting career, Mercer opted to travel to Japan and challenged Musashi in the kickboxing combat sport K-1 on June 6, 2004. Mercer held a reasonable account of himself, but his age and inability to successfully defend kicks was evident as he went on to lose the bout via unanimous decision. On March 19, 2005, he had one more K-1 bout against Remy Bonjasky, to whom he lost via verbal submission. The first and only strike of the night, a head kick, landed square on the head of Mercer. It wasn't your typical fight; Mercer took the head kick and then quit the fight.. As Mercer put it, "I got the shit kicked out of me".
Mixed martial arts career
After a series of scheduled boxing matchups fell through (including a proposed bout against former champion Hasim Rahman), Mercer decided to try mixed martial arts (MMA) and approached Felix Martinez, co-founder of Cage Fury Fighting Championships, about working with the promotion. On March 21, 2007, Cage Fury announced that Mercer had signed to face underground street fighter and Internet legend Kimbo Slice at Atlantic City's Boardwalk Hall on June 23, 2007, as part of Cage Fury Fighting Championship 5. The bout was a non-sanctioned exhibition under the New Jersey Unified MMA rules.
Kimbo Slice won the fight in the first round with a guillotine choke submission. Mercer later stated in the press conference at Adrenaline III: Bragging Rights, when he was scheduled to fight Tim Sylvia under MMA rules instead of Boxing rules, that he had expected Kimbo Slice to box with him, and said that he did not really train in any other aspect of MMA and was unprepared for the guillotine choke.
On June 13, 2009, Mercer made a big splash when he defeated former UFC Heavyweight Champion Tim Sylvia at Adrenaline III: Bragging Rights. He won the fight via knockout in 9 seconds with a huge right hand to the chin, becoming the first man to ever defeat Sylvia by knockout.
In March 2010, it was announced that Mercer had signed with the King of the Cage organization, although no bouts would materialize.
Professional boxing record
Kickboxing record
Mixed martial arts record
Professional record
|-
| Win
| align=center | 1–0
| Tim Sylvia
| KO (punch)
| Adrenaline MMA 3: Bragging Rights
|
| align=center | 1
| align=center | 0:09
| Birmingham, Alabama, United States
|
Exhibition record
|-
| Loss
| align=center | 0–1
| Kimbo Slice
| Submission (guillotine choke)
| Cage Fury Fighting Championship 5
|
| align=center | 1
| align=center | 1:12
| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|
References
External links
1961 births
African-American boxers
African-American mixed martial artists
American male kickboxers
American male mixed martial artists
Boxers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Boxers from Florida
Heavyweight boxers
Heavyweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing
Kickboxers from Florida
Living people
Mixed martial artists from Florida
Olympic boxers of the United States
Sportspeople from Jacksonville, Florida
Heavyweight kickboxers
United States Army soldiers
Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers
World Boxing Organization champions
World heavyweight boxing champions
American male boxers
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in boxing
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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|
227183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binswanger%27s%20disease | Binswanger's disease | Binswanger's disease, also known as subcortical leukoencephalopathy and subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy (SAE), is a form of small vessel vascular dementia caused by damage to the white brain matter. White matter atrophy can be caused by many circumstances including chronic hypertension as well as old age. This disease is characterized by loss of memory and intellectual function and by changes in mood. These changes encompass what are known as executive functions of the brain. It usually presents between 54 and 66 years of age, and the first symptoms are usually mental deterioration or stroke.
It was described by Otto Binswanger in 1894, and Alois Alzheimer first used the phrase "Binswanger's disease" in 1902. However, Jerzy Olszewski is credited with much of the modern-day investigation of this disease which began in 1962.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms include mental deterioration, language disorder, transient ischemic attack, muscle ataxia, and impaired movements including change of walk, slowness of movements, and change in posture. These symptoms usually coincide with multiple falls, epilepsy, fainting, and uncontrollable bladder. Because Binswanger's disease affects flow processing speed and causes impaired concentration, the ability to do everyday tasks such as managing finances, preparing a meal and driving may become very difficult.
Neurological presentation
Binswanger's disease is a type of subcortical vascular dementia caused by white matter atrophy to the brain. However, white matter atrophy alone is not sufficient for this disease; evidence of subcortical dementia is also necessary.
The histologic findings are diffuse, irregular loss of axons and myelin accompanied by widespread gliosis, tissue death due to an infarction or loss of blood supply to the brain, and changes in the plasticity of the arteries. The pathologic mechanism may be damage caused by severe atherosclerosis. The onset of this disease is typically between 54 – 66 years of age and the first symptoms are usually mental deterioration or stroke.
The vessels that supply the subcortical white matter come from the vessels that support basal ganglia, internal capsule, and thalamus. It is described as its own zone by and susceptible to injury. Chronic hypertension is known to cause changes in the tension of the smooth wall vessels and changes in the vessel diameter. Arterioles can become permeable resulting in compromise of the blood brain barrier. It has been shown that Binswanger's disease targets the vessels in this zone of the subcortex, but spares the microcirculation's vessels and capillaries which may be attributed to a difference between Alzheimer's and Binswanger's disease.
Psychiatric presentation
There is a difference between cortical and subcortical dementia. Cortical dementia is atrophy of the cortex which affects ‘higher’ functions such as memory, language, and semantic knowledge whereas subcortical dementia affects mental manipulation, forgetfulness, and personality/emotional changes. Binswanger's Disease has shown correlations with impairment in executive functions, but have normal episodic or declarative memory. Executive functions are brain processes that are responsible for planning, cognitive flexibility, abstract thinking, rule acquisition, initiating appropriate actions and inhibiting inappropriate actions, and selecting relevant sensory information. There have been many studies done comparing the mental deterioration of Binswanger patients and Alzheimer patients. It has been found in the Graphical Sequence Test that Binswanger patients have hyperkinetic perseveration errors which cause the patients to repeat motion even when not asked whereas Alzheimer patients have semantic perseveration because when asked to write a word they will instead draw an image depicting the word.
Diagnosis
Binswanger's disease can usually be diagnosed with a computerized tomography scan, magnetic resonance imaging, and proton magnetic resonance spectrography in addition to clinical examination. Indications include infarctions, lesions, or loss of intensity of central white matter and enlargement of ventricles, and leukoaraiosis. A Mini–Mental State Examination has been created to quickly assess cognitive impairment and serves as a screening test for dementia across different cultures.
Imaging
Leukoaraiosis refers to the imaging finding of white matter changes that are common in Binswanger disease. However, leukoaraiosis can be found in many different diseases and even in normal patients, especially in people older than 65 years of age.
There is controversy whether leukoaraiosis and mental deterioration actually have a cause and effect relationship. Recent research is showing that different types of leukoaraiosis can affect the brain differently, and that proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy would be able to distinguish the different types more effectively and better diagnosis and treat the issue. Because of this information, white matter changes indicated by magnetic resonance imaging or computerized tomography cannot alone diagnose Binswanger disease, but can aid to a bigger picture in the diagnosis process. There are many diseases similar to Binswanger's disease including CADASIL syndrome and Alzheimer's disease, which makes this specific type of white matter damage hard to diagnose. Binswanger disease is best when diagnosed of a team by experts including a neurologist and psychiatrist to rule out other psychological or neurological problems. Because doctors must successfully detect enough white matter alterations to accompany dementia as well as an appropriate level of dementia, two separate technological systems are needed in the diagnosing process.
Much of the major research today is done on finding better and more efficient ways to diagnose this disease. Many researchers have divided the magnetic resonance imaging of the brain into different sections or quadrants. A score is given to each section depending on how severe the white matter atrophy or leukoaraiosis is. Research has shown that the higher these scores, the more of a decrease in processing speed, executive functions, and motor learning tasks.
Other researchers have begun using computers to calculate the percentage of white matter atrophy by counting the hyper-intense pixels of the magnetic resonance images. These and similar reports show a correlation between the amount of white matter alterations and the decline of psychomotor functions, reduced performance on attention and executive control. One recent type of technology is called susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) which is a magnetic resonance technique which has an unusually high degree of sensitivity and can better detect white matter alterations.
Management
Binswanger's disease has no cure and has been shown to be the most severe impairment of all of the vascular dementias. The best way to manage the vascular risk factors that contribute to poor perfusion in the brain is to treat the cause, such as chronic hypertension or diabetes. It has been shown that current Alzheimer's medication, donepezil (trade name Aricept), may help Binswanger's Disease patients as well . Donepezil increases the acetylcholine in the brain through a choline esterase inhibitor which deactivates the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. Alzheimer as well as Binswanger patients have low levels of acetylcholine and this helps to restore the normal levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. This drug may improve memory, awareness, and the ability to function. If no medical interception of the disease is performed then the disease will continue to worsen as the patient ages due to the continuing atrophy of the white matter from whatever was its original cause.
History
Binswanger in 1894 was the first to claim that white matter atrophy caused by 'vascular insufficiency' can result in dementia. He described a patient who had slow progression of dementia as well as subcortical white matter atrophy, ventricle enlargement, aphasia, hemianopsia, and hemiparesis. He named this disease 'encenphailitis subcorticalis chronica progressive.' Binswanger did not conduct any microscopic investigations so many did not believe his findings and attributed the neural damage to neural syphilis. Alzheimer in 1902 studied Binswanger's work with pathological evidence that concluded and supported Binswanger's ideas and hypotheses. Alzheimer renamed this disease Binswanger's disease.
In the late 19th century vascular dementia was heavily studied, however by 1910 scientists were lumping Binswanger's disease with all other subcortical and cortical dementia and labeling everything senile dementia despite all previous research and efforts to distinguish this disease from the rest. In 1962 J. Olszewski published an extensive review of all literature about Binswanger's disease so far. He discovered that some of the information in the original reports was incorrect and that at least some of the patients studied in these cases probably had neurosyphilis or other types of dementia. Even with these errors, Olszewski concluded that Binswanger disease did exist as a subset of cerebral arteriosclerosis. Yet again, in 1974 the term multi-infarct dementia was coined and all vascular dementia was grouped into one category. Because of this, the specific names of these types of this dementia, including Binswanger's disease were lost. This was until 1992 when Alzheimer's diagnostic centers created specific criteria known as the Hachinski Ischemic Scale (after Dr. Vladimir Hachinski) which became the standard for diagnosing MID or vascular dementia.
The complicated history of Binswanger's disease and the fact that it was overlooked as a disease for many years means many patients may have been misdiagnosed with Alzheimer's disease.
References
External links
Neurological disorders
Cognitive disorders
Cerebrovascular diseases
Rare diseases | [
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227185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane%201 | Ariane 1 | Ariane 1 was the first rocket in the Ariane family of expendable launch systems. It was developed and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), which had been formed in 1973, the same year that development of the launcher had commenced.
Ariane 1 was the first launcher to be developed with the primary purpose of sending commercial satellites into geosynchronous orbit. Crucially, it was designed with the ability of sending a pair of satellites into orbit on a single launcher, thus reducing costs. As the size of satellites grew, Ariane 1 quickly gave way to the more powerful Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 launchers, which were heavily based upon the original rocket. The Ariane 4 was the last rocket to heavily draw upon the Ariane 1, as the successor rocket Ariane 5 uses a far greater proportion of all-new elements.
Development
Origins
In 1973, eleven European countries decided to pursue joint collaboration in the field of space exploration and formed a new pan-national organisation to undertake this mission, the European Space Agency (ESA). For some time prior to the ESA's formation, France had been lobbying for the development of a new European expendable launch system to serve as a replacement for the Europa rocket; one proposed successor in the form of a refined Europa, referred to as the Europa IIIB, was studied but was found to be too ambitious and costly. As a result, the Europa IIIB proposal was scaled back and soon reemerged as the L3S. Multinational effort became a quick focus point for the L3S proposal; early on, emphasis was placed upon cooperation on the initiative between Germany and France, while increasing contribution from other countries also came into the picture over time.
In January 1973, Willy Brandt, the Chancellor of Germany, formally agreed to the L3S project following a series of personal approaches by Georges Pompidou, the President of France. On 21 September 1973, the legal agreement for the L3S, was signed. Under this agreement, the Europa III was formally cancelled, while the L3S would be developed as a multinational project. From the onset, the launcher was to be developed for the purpose of sending commercial satellites into geosynchronous orbit, unlike many other competing launchers, which had been typically developed for other purposes and subsequently adapted, such as ballistic missiles. Development of L3S was seen as a crucial test for the ESA, the fortunes of the former being viewed as being highly indicative for the future of the latter. According to author Brian Harvey, L3S was "one of the major European engineering projects in the last quarter of the century".
France was the largest stakeholder in the L3S programme; French aerospace manufacturer Aérospatiale served as the prime contractor and held responsibility for performing the integration of all sections of the vehicle, while French engine manufacturer Société Européenne de Propulsion (SEP) provided both the first and second stage engines (the third stage engines were produced by Air Liquide and German aerospace manufacturer MBB). Other major companies involved included the French electronics firm Matra, Swedish manufacturer Volvo, and German aircraft producer Dornier Flugzeugwerke. The United Kingdom, which held a stake of 2.47 per cent in the project, provided the guidance system, developed by Ferranti, and the central digital computer, from Marconi; British Aerospace had later involvement and workshare as well. Early on, it was felt that the L3S designation lacked public appeal; out of several alternative names, including Phoenix, Lyra, Ganymede and Vega, French minister of industrial and scientific development Jean Charbonnel chose the name Ariane for the new launcher.
Preparation
During mid-1974, work on the Ariane was temporarily suspended as a result of the substantial cost involved; several other French space projects has incurred delays or funding shortages due to the ongoing development, which had led to disruption and greater funding being made available by the French government to their national space agency, the Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES). Development of the third stage was a major focus point for the project - prior to Ariane, only the United States had ever flown a launcher that utilised hydrogen-powered upper stages. During 1977 and 1978, preparations and testing commenced in anticipation of the first Ariane launch; while some issues were encountered during ground tests and engine firings, these had resulted in no meaningful delays and these milestones had been successfully passed. The ESA decided that there should be a total of four development flights flown prior to initiating commercial operations; however, vacant space was made available to operators for these flights on the proviso that success was not guaranteed.
In order to accommodate Ariane launches, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana received extensive modifications. The former Europa launch site was re-designated as ELA 1 (Ensemble de Lancement Ariane 1) and was rebuilt with a lowered base and elongated tower. While all Ariane launches would take place from French Guiana, rocket construction would be performed at Aérospatiale's facility in Les Mureaux, Paris. In order to deliver the rocket from the production facility to the launch site, each stage of the Ariane would be shipped on barges down the Seine to Le Havre, where they would be loaded onto an ocean-going vessel and be conveyed across the Atlantic Ocean to Kourou; a combination of roads and railways would transport the components inland to the space center itself. Once fully assembled, the rocket would be moved a short distance to the launch pad itself on a mobile rail-mounted platform and stored within a fully enclosed air conditioned service tower, where the payload would be installed and final checks performed under clean room conditions.
Prior to Ariane's first launch, there was some scepticism, much coming from American and British figures, that the endeavour was an expensive indulgence that could be unnecessary, and rendered uncompetitive, by the upcoming Space Shuttle, a partially reusable launch system that was then under development by NASA. By 1977, there had only been three initial customers lined up for Ariane; however, in December 1977, communications satellite operator Intelsat was persuaded to placed an order for two Intelsat IVs to be launched using Ariane. This was considered a major coup for the programme as Intelsat was viewed as heavily committed to using the rival Space Shuttle launcher for a large number of its satellites at that point. One week later, ESA announced its commitment to a production run of 10 Ariane 1 launchers.
Maiden flight
There was considerable pressure for Ariane to perform its maiden flight prior to end of 1979. It was decided that Ariane should launch on 15 December 1979 and, 38 hours prior the launch, the countdown was initiated; however, a technical issue was encountered in the final hour which led to an abort. Despite fears that the launch would have to be delayed for a month, it was decided to resume the countdown for a second attempt. However, upon the countdown reaching zero, three seconds following engine ignition, the onboard computer decided to cut engine power due to erroneous sensor information indicating that engine pressure had been falling. Another attempt was quickly scheduled for 24 December 1979; this time, the launch was successfully executed and the first Ariane flight was performed, the firing button having been personally pressed by French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.
For the first flight, designated as L-O1 (Lancement [Launch] 01), the payload consisted of an Aeritalia-built test instrumentation system, known as CAT (Capsule Ariane Technologique), for the purpose of measuring all key stages of the ascent in great detail, such as noise, stress, acceleration, temperature, and pressure; this unit was also designed to simulate a real satellite payload. CAT was successfully placed into an orbit of ; the successful deployment of this payload indicated the end of the American monopoly on commercial satellite launches. On 26 March 1980, almost immediately after the success of LO-1, CNES and ESA created a new company for the purpose of promoting, marketing, and managing Ariane operations, choosing to name the venture Arianespace.
Design
With lift-off mass of , Ariane 1 was able to put in geostationary transfer orbit one satellite or two smaller of a maximal weight of . The cost of program is estimated at 2 billion euros.
The Ariane 1 was a four-stage vehicle (fourth stage put satellite from GTO to GEO is usually not counted as part of rocket, because it is included in 1,850 kg of payload). The first stage was equipped with 4 Viking engines developed by the Société Européenne de Propulsion. The second stage had a single Viking engine. The third stage had one LOX/LH2 bipropellant engine capable of a thrust of . The fourth stage was powered by a single Mage-1 solid rocket booster producing a thrust of .
This design was kept in the Ariane series until Ariane 4.
Launches
On 24 December 1979, the first Ariane launch, designated as L-O1, was conducted, which was successful. However, in 1980, the second launch, L-O2 ended in a failure shortly after takeoff, which had been caused by a combustion instability that had occurred in one of the Viking first stage engines. The third launch, L-O3 succeeded, which resulted in the orbiting of three separate satellites; the fourth and last qualification launch, L-04, was also a success. However, during the fifth launch, which was the first commercial mission to be performed by Ariane, designated as L5, the rocket ceased functioning after 7 minutes of flight. This failure was traced back to a single turbopump in the third stage that had stopped functioning, and a significant re-design of elements of the third stage was performed as a result.
The failure of the first commercial flight had created a tense atmosphere along with a flurry of criticism being aired about the Ariane programme. Following the completion of a complete review of the programme, on 16 June 1983, the second commercial flight, L6 was successfully launched into orbit. This began a run of successful flight for the launcher, the following six flights were all successes. As a result of the repeated successes, orders for the type increased quickly; by early 1984, a total of 27 satellites had been booked for Ariane, which was half of the world market at that time. As a result of the commercial success, after the tenth Ariane mission was flown, the ESA transferred responsibility for Ariane over to Arianespace.
The Giotto mission's spaceprobe was successfully launched on the tenth Ariane 1 mission, V-14, on 2 July 1985. The first SPOT satellite was put into orbit by the eleventh and last launch of Ariane 1 on 22 February 1986. By early 1986, the Ariane 1, along with its Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 derivatives, were the dominant launcher on the world market.
Launch history
References
Citations
Bibliography
Harvey, Brian. Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. Springer Science & Business Media, 2003. .
External links
The Ariane rocket family
Ariane (rocket family)
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|
227188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20of%20Religion | War of Religion | War of Religion may refer to:
European wars of religion, a series of European wars of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
French Wars of Religion, a specific series in the larger conflagration
Crusades, a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period
See also
Crusade (disambiguation)
Holy War (disambiguation)
Jihad (disambiguation)
Sacred War (disambiguation)
Religious conflict (disambiguation) | [
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|
227189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Christoph%20Dahlmann | Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann | Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (13 May 1785, Wismar5 December 1860, Bonn) was a German historian and politician.
Biography
He came of an old Hanseatic family of Wismar, then controlled by Sweden. His father, who was burgomaster of the town, intended him to study theology, but Friedrich preferred classical philology, which he studied from 1802 to 1806 at the University of Copenhagen, University of Halle, and then again at Copenhagen. After finishing his studies, he translated some of the Greek tragic poets, and The Clouds of Aristophanes. But he was also interested in modern literature and philosophy; and the troubles of the times, of which he had personal experience, aroused in him a strong feeling of German patriotism, though throughout his life he was always proud of his connection with Scandinavia, and Gustavus Adolphus was his particular hero.
In 1809, on the outbreak of war in Austria, Dahlmann, together with the poet Heinrich von Kleist, whom he had met in Dresden, went to Bohemia, and was afterwards with the Imperial army, up till the Battle of Aspern, with the somewhat vague object of trying to convert the Austrian war into a German one. This hope was shattered by the defeat of Wagram.
He now decided to try his fortunes in Denmark, where he had influential relations. After taking his doctor's degree at Wittenberg (1810) he qualified at Copenhagen in 1811, with an essay on the origins of the ancient theatre, as a lecturer on ancient literature and history, on which he delivered lectures in Latin. His influential friends soon brought him further advancement. As early as 1812 he was summoned to Kiel, as successor to the historian Dietrich Hermann Hegewisch (1746–1812). This appointment proved in two respects a decisive moment in his career; on the one hand it made him give his whole attention to a subject for which he was admirably suited, but to which he had so far given only a secondary interest; and on the other hand, it threw him into politics.
In 1815 he obtained, in addition to his professorate, the position of secretary to the perpetual deputation of the estates of Schleswig-Holstein. In this capacity he began, by means of memoirs or of articles in the Kieler Bldlter, which he founded himself, to appear as an able and zealous champion of the half-forgotten rights of the Elbe duchies, as against Denmark, and of their close connexion with Germany. It was he upon whom the Danes afterwards threw the blame of having invented the Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his activities form an important link in the chain of events which eventually led to the solution of 1864. So far as this interest affected himself, the chief profit lay in the fact that it deepened his conception of the state, and directed it to more practical ends. Whereas at that time mere speculation dominated both. the French Liberalism of the school of Rotteck, and Karl Ludwig von Haller's Romanticist doctrine of the Christian state, Dahlmann took as his premises the circumstances as he found them, and evolved the new out of the old by a quiet process of development. Moreover, in the inevitable conflict with the Danish crown his upright point of view and his German patriotism were further confirmed.
After transferring to Göttingen around 1829 he had the opportunity of working in the same spirit. As confidant of the duke of Cambridge, he was allowed to take a share in framing the Hanoverian constitution of 1833, which remodelled the old aristocratic government in a direction which had become inevitable since the July revolution in Paris; and when in 1837 the new king Ernst August declared the constitution invalid, Dahlmann inspired the famous protest of the seven professors of Göttingen. Though deprived of his position and banished, he had the satisfaction of knowing that German national feeling received a boost from his courageous action, while public subscriptions saved him from poverty.
After several years in Leipzig and Jena, King Frederick William IV of Prussia appointed him in October 1842 to a professorship at the University of Bonn. The years that followed were those of his greatest fame. His Politik (1835) had already made him a name as a writer; he now published his Dänische Geschichte (1840–1843), a historical work of the first rank; and this was soon followed by histories of the English and French revolutions, which, though of less scientific value, exercised a decisive influence upon public opinion by their open advocacy of the system of constitutional monarchy. As a teacher too he was much beloved. Though no orator, and in spite of a personality not particularly amiable or winning, he produced a profound impression upon young men by the pregnancy of his expression, a consistent logical method of thought based on Immanuel Kant and by the manliness of his character.
When the revolution of 1848 broke out, the "father of German nationality," as the provisional government at Milan called him, found himself the centre of universal interest. Both Mecklenburg and Prussia offered him in vain the post of envoy to the diet of the confederation. Naturally, too, he was elected to the national assembly at Frankfurt, and took a leading part in the constitutional committees appointed first by the diet, then by the parliament. His objective was to make Germany as far as possible a united constitutional monarchy, with the exclusion of the whole of Austria, or at least, of its non-German parts. Prussia was to provide the emperor, but at the same time—and in this lay the doctrinaire weakness of the system—was to give up its separate existence, consecrated by history, in the same way as the other states. When, therefore, Frederick William IV, without showing any anxiety to bind himself by the conditions laid down at Frankfurt, concluded with Denmark the seven months truce of Malmö (26 August 1848), Dahlmann proposed that the national parliament should refuse to recognize the truce, with the express intention of clearing up once for all the relations of the parliament with the court of Berlin. The motion was passed by a small majority (September 5); but the members of Dahlmann's party were just those who voted against it, and it was they who on September 18 reversed the previous vote and passed a resolution accepting the truce, after Dahlmann had failed to form a ministry on the basis of the resolution of the 5th, owing to his objection to the Radicals.
Dahlmann afterwards described this as the decisive turning-point in the fate of the parliament. He did not immediately give up hope. Though he took little active part in parliamentary debates, he was very active on commissions and in party conferences, and it was largely owing to him that a German constitution was at last evolved, and that Frederick William IV was elected hereditary emperor (28 March 1849). He was accordingly one of the deputation which offered the crown to the king in Berlin. The king's refusal came as less of a surprise to him than to most of his colleagues. He counted on being able to compel recognition of the constitution by the moral pressure of the consent of the people. It was only when the attitude of the Radicals made it clear to him that this course would lead to a revolution, that he decided, after a long struggle, to retire from the national parliament (21 May).
He remained one of the chief promoters of the well-known conference of the imperial party at Gotha, the proceedings of which were not, however, satisfactory to him; and he took part in the sessions of the first Prussian chamber (1849–1850) and of the parliament of Erfurt (1850). But finally, convinced that for the moment all efforts towards the unity of Germany were unavailing, he retired from political life, though often pressed to stand for election, and again took up his work of teaching at Bonn. His last years were, however, saddened by illness, bereavement and continual friction with his colleagues. His death followed an apoplectic fit.
Publications
Dahkmann's chief works included:
7th edition of Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde, Leipzig, 1906
Politik, auf den Grund und das Mass der gegebenen Zustände zurückgeführt (1 vol., 1835)
Geschichte Dänemarks (3 vols., 1840–1843)
Geschichte der englischen Revolution (1844)
Geschichte der französischen Revolution (1845).
Notes
References
1785 births
1860 deaths
German historians
Members of the Frankfurt Parliament
People from Wismar
University of Halle alumni
University of Wittenberg alumni
University of Kiel faculty
University of Bonn faculty
University of Göttingen faculty
German male non-fiction writers | [
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|
227190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Langside | Battle of Langside | The Battle of Langside was fought on 13 May 1568 between forces loyal to Mary, Queen of Scots, and forces acting in the name of her infant son James VI. Mary’s short period of personal rule ended in 1567 in recrimination, intrigue, and disaster when, after her capture at Carberry Hill, she was forced to abdicate in favour of James VI, her infant son. Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle, while her Protestant half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, was appointed Regent on behalf of his nephew. In early May 1568 Mary escaped, heading west to the country of the Hamiltons, high among her remaining supporters, and the safety of Dumbarton Castle with the determination to restore her rights as queen. Mary was defeated and went into exile and captivity in England. The battle can be regarded as the start of the Marian civil war.
Queen's Men
Mary's abdication had not been universally popular, even among sections of the Protestant nobility, and news of her escape were widely welcomed. With an escort of fifty horse led by Lord Claud Hamilton she arrived in Lanarkshire, soon to be joined by a wide cross-section of the nobility, including the Earls of Argyll, Cassillis, Rothes, and Eglinton, the Lords Sommerville, Yester, Livingston, Herries, Fleming, Ross, numerous of the feudal barons, and their followers. Within a few days Mary had managed to gather a respectable force of some 6,000 men.
It was openly declared that her abdication, and her consent to the coronation of James, had been extorted from her under threat of death. An act of council was then passed, declaring the whole process by which Moray had been appointed as Regent to be treasonable. A bond was drawn up by those present for her restitution, signed by eight earls, nine bishops, eighteen lords, twelve abbots, and nearly one hundred barons.
Mary's march
It was Mary's intention to avoid battle if possible, retiring instead to Dumbarton Castle, still held for her by John Fleming, 5th Lord Fleming. Here she would be in a virtually impregnable position, well placed to receive the expected reinforcements from the north, and then recover her hold over the country by degrees. With the intention of by-passing Moray she marched to Rutherglen castle meeting loyal supporters and then on a wide circuit past Glasgow, intending to move by way of Langside, Crookston, and Paisley back towards the River Clyde, and then on to Dumbarton on the north side of the Clyde estuary. Moray drew up his army on the moor close to the village of Langside, then several miles south of Glasgow but now well within the city. Kirkcaldy, keeping an eye on the enemy movements, noted that they were keeping to the south of the River Cart, the Regent's army being on the opposite bank. In response he ordered hackbutters (musketeers) to mount behind each of his horsemen, rapidly fording the river, and placing them among the cottages, hedges, and gardens of the village, which bordered each side of a narrow lane, through which Mary's army must defile. Meanwhile Moray continued to deploy the rest of the army, the vanguard under the command of the Earl of Morton leading the march across a nearby bridge. The whole army then deployed the right around the village. No sooner was this complete than the Queen's vanguard, commanded by Lord Hamilton, began its advance through the village. The battle was now under way.
Guns and pikes
Mary's army was commanded by Argyll, who was to show little in the way of real military skill, seemingly hoping simply to push Moray aside by sheer force of numbers: it is even suggested in the sources that he fainted at one point, though this is almost certainly a rumour spread by his enemies. With her army now engaged the Queen stood some distance to the rear, close to Cathcart Castle on a mound since named as the Court Knowe. As Hamilton attempted to force a passage through Langside he was met by close fire from Grange's hackbutters. Many in the front ranks were killed, throwing the remainder back on those following, and adding to the general confusion. Hamilton pushed on, finally reaching the top of a hill, only to find the main enemy army drawn up in good order. Morton with the border pikemen advanced to intercept Mary's vanguard. Both sides now met in 'push of pike'. The forest of inter-locked spears was now so thick it is said that if those behind threw their discharged pistols at the enemy the weapons simply rested on the shafts as on a carpet, rather than falling to the ground.
Grange, whom Moray had allowed considerable leeway, continued to act with courage and distinction; "... the Regent committed unto the laird of Grange, the special care, as an experienced captain, to oversee every danger, to ride to every wing and encourage and make help where the greatest height was." The battle was now at its height and the outcome still doubtful, until Grange saw that the right wing of the Regent's army-consisting of the barons of Renfrewshire-was beginning to lose ground. He immediately galloped to the main battalion and brought reinforcements. This was done so effectively, and the counter-attack pressed with such force, that it broke the enemy ranks. Moray, who hitherto had stood on the defensive, repulsing Mary's cavalry, now charged at the main enemy battalion, the fight now joined all along the line. The Queen's men crumbled, the fugitives being closely pursued by a party of Highlanders. The Battle of Langside, which had lasted for some forty-five minutes, was over.
Aftermath
Mary's biographer, Antonia Fraser, describes the Battle of Langside as a "colossal defeat" for Mary. Only one of Moray's men was killed, whereas over 100 of Mary's men were lost, a figure that almost certainly would have been much higher but for Moray's decision to avoid further bloodshed by ordering a halt to the pursuit. Over 300 of Mary's men were taken prisoner, including Lord Seton and Sir James Hamilton and many of his Clan. Mary and her escort rode off, first trying to reach Dumbarton Castle, but then turning south, eventually arriving at Dundrennan Abbey. From here she left for England, never to see Scotland again.
Mary crossed the Solway Firth to Workington on 16 May 1568 at night with twenty companions. This unexpected event provoked a dispute amongst the English border officials. On the next day she moved to Cockermouth and was greeted by Richard Lowther, the deputy of Lord Scrope at Carlisle Castle. Lowther escorted Mary to Carlisle on 18 May. Meanwhile, the Earl of Northumberland who was at Topcliffe heard the news from Workington, which was in his jurisdiction. The Earl obtained a letter of authority from the Council of the North at York to be the Scottish Queen's host and to "let none of them escape." When the Earl arrived at Carlisle on 22 May, Richard Lowther defied him, and the Vice-Chamberlain of England, Francis Knollys, upheld Lowther's actions.
Over the next five years Mary's supporters in Scotland continued a civil war with the Regents of Scotland.
Queen and King's men
A contemporary list of leading supporters on both sides at the battle survives.For the Queen:
Killed on Queen's side:
For Regent Moray and the King:
Prisoners (taken by Regent Moray):
From this list and other evidence, Gordon Donaldson analysed the allegiances of Scottish families during the 16th century to the cause of Mary, to English or French policy, and to the Scottish Reformation, in his All the Queen's Men (1983).
Notes
References
Bain, Joseph, Calendar of Scottish Papers 1563-1569, Edinburgh, 1900.
Fraser, Antonia, Mary Queen of ScotsOrion, London, 1969.
Melville, Sir James, Memoirs of His Own Life, 1549-1593, 1827.
Tytler, Patrick Fraser The History of Scotland, vol. VII, 1840.
Scott, Alexander Malcolm, The Battle of Langside MDLXVIII, Glasgow, 1885.
External links
Langside Heritage Trail
Langside & Battlefield architecture Features commemorative plaque of battle.
A contemporary report of the battle in French digitised by the Bibliothèque nationale de France
1568 in Scotland
Langside 1568
Langside
History of Glasgow | [
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227193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Billings | William Billings | William Billings (October 7, 1746 – September 26, 1800) is regarded as the first American choral composer, and leading member of the First New England School.
Life
William Billings was born in Boston, Massachusetts. At the age of 14, the death of his father stopped Billings' formal schooling. In order to help support his family, young Billings trained as a tanner. He possibly received musical instruction from John Barry, one of the choir members at the New South Church, but for the most part he was self-taught. Billings had an unusual appearance and a strong addiction to snuff. His contemporary wrote that Billings "was a singular man, of moderate size, short of one leg, with one eye, without any address & with an uncommon negligence of person. Still, he spake & sung & thought as a man above the common abilities." Billings' wife died on March 26, 1795, leaving him with six children under the age of 18. He died in poverty in Boston on September 26, 1800. His funeral was announced in the Columbian Centinel: "Died- Mr. William Billings, the celebrated music composer. His funeral will be tomorrow at 4 o'clock, PM from the house of Mrs. Amos Penniman, in Chamber-street, West-Boston."
Music
Virtually all of Billings' music was written for four-part chorus, singing a cappella. His many hymns and anthems were published mostly in book-length collections, as follows:
The New-England Psalm-Singer (1770)
The Singing Master's Assistant (1778)
Music in Miniature (1779)
The Psalm-Singer's Amusement (1781)
The Suffolk Harmony (1786)
The Continental Harmony (1794)
Sometimes Billings would revise and improve a song, including the new version in his next volume.
Billings' music can be at times forceful and stirring, as in his patriotic song
"Chester"; ecstatic, as in his hymn "Africa"; or elaborate and celebratory, as in his "Easter Anthem" and "Rose of Sharon".
"Jargon," from Singing Master's Assistant, shows his wit. Written as an answer to a criticism of his use of harmony, "Jargon" contains a tongue-in-cheek text, and jarring dissonances that sound more like those of the 20th century than of the 18th. Billings followed up "Jargon" with his address "To the Goddess of Discord".
He also wrote several Christmas carols, including "Judea" in 1778 and "Shiloh" in 1781.
Billings as a writer
Verse
Most of the texts that Billings used in his works come from the poetry of Isaac Watts. Other texts were drawn from Universalist poets and local poets, whereas Billings himself wrote the text to about a dozen of his compositions.
As an example, compare Billings' metrical rendering of Luke 2:8–11 with that of Nahum Tate, thought to be the inspiration for Billings' work:
Tate:
Billings:
Pedagogical writing
Billings wrote long prefaces to his works in which he explained (often in an eccentric prose style) the rudiments of music and how his work should be performed. His writings reflect his extensive experience as a singing master. They also provide information on choral performance practice in Billings's day; for instance, a passage from the preface to The Continental Harmony indicates that Billings liked to have both men and women sing the treble (top) and tenor lines, an octave apart:
Singing schools
Billings was involved in teaching singing schools throughout his life. In 1769, when Billings was twenty-three years old, the following announcement appeared in the Boston Gazette: "John Barrey & William Billings Begs Leave to inform the Publick, that they propose to open a Singing School THIS NIGHT ... where any Person inclining to learn to Sing may be attended upon at said School with Fidelity and Dispatch." He taught a singing school in Stoughton, Massachusetts in 1774 and all the pupils names were listed He was listed as "singing master" in the Boston city directory up until 1798. In the preface to the Singing Master's Assistant, Billings included advice for the practical running of a singing school, including topics such as logistics, expectations for manners and attentiveness in students, and the need for the supremacy of the teacher's musical decisions.
Reception
Billings' work was very popular in its heyday, but his career was hampered by the primitive state of copyright law in America at the time. By the time the copyright laws had been strengthened, it was too late for Billings: the favorites among his tunes had already been widely reprinted in other people's hymnals, permanently copyright-free.
With changes in the public's musical taste, Billings' fortunes declined. His last tune-book, The Continental Harmony, was published as a project of his friends, in an effort to help support the revered but no longer popular composer. His temporary employment as a Boston street sweeper was probably a project of a similar nature.
Billings died in poverty at age 53, and for a considerable time after his death, his music was almost completely neglected in the American musical mainstream. However, his compositions remained popular for a time in the rural areas of New England, which resisted the newer trends in sacred music. Moreover, a few of Billings' songs were carried southward and westward through America, as a result of their appearance in shape note hymnals. They ultimately resided in the rural South, as part of the Sacred Harp singing tradition.
In the latter part of the twentieth century a Billings revival occurred, and a sumptuous complete scholarly edition of his works was published (see Books, below). Works by Billings are commonly sung by American choral groups today, particularly performers of early music. In addition, the recent spread of Sacred Harp music has acquainted many more people with Billings' music: several of his compositions are among the more frequently sung of the works in the Sacred Harp canon.
Other
The Stoughton Musical Society, formed by former students of Billings, has carried on his tradition for over 200 years, and included twenty-seven Billings tunes in their 1878 music collection, The Stoughton Musical Society's Centennial Collection of Sacred Music. Among the favorite tunes by Billings sung by this choral society are: "Majesty" and "Chester".
The modern American composer William Schuman featured Billings' American Revolutionary War anthem "Chester", along with two other of Billings' hymns ("When Jesus Wept" and "Be Glad Then, America"), in his composition New England Triptych (1956).
William Billings was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970.
American composer Roger Lee Hall had the premiere of his choral work in 1980 entitled "The Pleasures of Variety - Homage to William Billings."
In 1996, modern dance choreographer Twyla Tharp premiered a piece entitled "Sweet Fields" using many hymns by Billings and other early American choral composers.
American composer John Cage incorporated chance-derived fragmentations of many of Billings compositions in his works centered around the bicentennial celebration commissions that he received, including "Apartment House 1776", "44 Harmonies", and "Quartets I-VIII". Cage also employed the music of other Colonial-era composers in these works as well.
Billings's works
Complete works of William Billings in four volumes, edited by Karl Kroeger and Hans Nathan:
The New England psalm-singer. University of Virginia Press (1981).
The Singing Masters Assistant, Music in Miniature. University of Virginia Press (1984). .
The Psalm-Singer's Amusement. University of Virginia Press (1987). .
References
Citations
Sources
Gary, Charles & Mark, Michael. (2007). A History of American Music Education. Rowman & Littlefield Education: UK.
External links
William Billings and Stoughton Musical Society
Art of the States: William Billings
"Wake Ev'ry Breath: Recording by William Appling Singers & Orchestra
1746 births
1800 deaths
18th-century American composers
18th-century American musicians
18th century in Boston
18th-century male musicians
American composers
American male composers
Burials in Boston
Musicians from Boston
People from colonial Boston
People of colonial Massachusetts
Shape note
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|
227200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester%20%28song%29 | Chester (song) | "Chester" is a patriotic anthem composed by William Billings and sung during the American Revolutionary War. Billings wrote the first version of the song for his 1770 songbook The New England Psalm Singer, and made improvements for the version in his The Singing Master's Assistant (1778). It is the latter version that is best known today.
The curious title of the song reflects a common practice of Billings's day, in which tunes were labeled with (often arbitrarily chosen) place names. Billings's song evidently has little more to do with any particular town named Chester than his famous hymn "Africa" has to do with Africa. The idea behind this practice was that by labeling the tunes independently, one could sing them to different words without creating confusion (indeed, this later did happen; see below).
Tune in version of 1778
Parts labeled "Treble, Counter, Tenor, and Bass" correspond to the modern SATB four-voice choir. However, the melody is in the tenor part, not the treble part.
Lyrics
Although this cannot be established with certainty, it appears that these lyrics are by Billings himself.
Let tyrants shake their iron rod,
And Slav'ry clank her galling chains,
We fear them not, we trust in God,
New England's God forever reigns.
Howe and Burgoyne and Clinton too,
With Prescot and Cornwallis join'd,
Together plot our Overthrow,
In one Infernal league combin'd.
When God inspir'd us for the fight,
Their ranks were broke, their lines were forc'd,
Their ships were Shatter'd in our sight,
Or swiftly driven from our Coast.
The Foe comes on with haughty Stride;
Our troops advance with martial noise,
Their Vet'rans flee before our Youth,
And Gen'rals yield to beardless Boys.
What grateful Off'ring shall we bring?
What shall we render to the Lord?
Loud Halleluiahs let us Sing,
And praise his name on ev'ry Chord.
Later uses
The song was later provided with religious (as opposed to patriotic) words by Philip Doddridge, and in this form is a favorite of Sacred Harp singers. The Doddridge words are as follows:
Let the high heav'ns your songs invite,
These spacious fields of brilliant light,
Where sun and moon and planets roll,
And stars that glow from pole to pole.
Sun, moon, and stars convey Thy praise,
'Round the whole earth and never stand,
So when Thy truth began its race,
It touched and glanced on ev'ry hand.
A slightly altered version of this text and the music by Billings was recorded in 1975 by the Old Stoughton Musical Society for their LP album, "An Appeal to Heaven".
The modern American composer William Schuman employed the tune of "Chester" in his New England Triptych (1956) and later expanded it into his Chester Overture.
Bernard Herrmann quoted the tune prominently in his score for the Colonial Williamsburg orientation film, Williamsburg: the Story of a Patriot.
An instrumental version of the song was used as background music for CBS's Bicentennial Minutes segments.
HBO's John Adams has a scene in episode 1 where a group of men sang this song out loud together.
Book
The Singing Master's Assistant, in which the final version of "Chester" was published, is in print today in a scholarly edition by Hans Nathan (University Press of Virginia, 1977, ).
The Stoughton Musical Society's Centennial Collection of Sacred Music, which contains a version with the later text and was published in Boston in 1878; reprint by DaCapo Press, 1980, with New Introduction by Roger L. Hall.
External links
Let Tyrants Shake Their Iron Rods at the Cyber Hymnal
Chester
American patriotic songs
1770 compositions
Songs of the American Revolutionary War
Hymn tunes
Compositions by William Billings | [
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|
227208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cane%20Pace | Cane Pace | The Cane Pace is a harness horse race for standardbred pacers run annually since 1955. The race was first run as the William H. Cane Futurity in 1955 at Yonkers Raceway in New York. In 1956 the race joined with the Little Brown Jug and the Messenger Stakes to become the first leg in the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers.
The Cane Pace of 2004 resulted in the only dead heat in the race's history and one where the two horses had the same trainer and owner.
As of 2015, the Cane Pace is run at Meadowlands Racetrack in New Jersey as part of the undercard for the Hambletonian Stakes, the first leg of the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters.
Distances
2016–present: 1 1/8 miles (1810.5 metres, 9.5 furlongs) (If 12 horses start)
1963–present : 1 mile (1609.3 metres, 8 furlongs) (If no more than 11 horses start)
1955–1962 : 1 1/16 miles (1709.9 metres, 8.5 furlongs)
Locations
1955–1997 - Yonkers Raceway
1998–2010 - Freehold Raceway
2011 - Pocono Downs (Originally scheduled for Tioga Downs but had to be moved due to flooding)
2012–2014 - Tioga Downs
2015–present - Meadowlands Racetrack
Records
Most wins by a driver
5 – John Campbell (1985, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2004)
Most wins by a trainer
4 – Stanley Dancer (1970, 1971, 1973, 1976)
Stakes record
1:47 3/5 – Dealt A Winner (2015)
Cane Pace winners
References
Yonkers Raceway
Meadowlands Racetrack
Harness races in the United States
Harness races for three-year-old pacers
Recurring sporting events established in 1955
Cane Pace winners
United States Triple Crown of Harness Racing
1955 establishments in New York (state) | [
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|
227212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Rose | Black Rose | Black Rose or Black Roses may refer to:
Books
Black Rose (.hack), a fictional character from the .hack media franchise
Black Rose (magazine), an anarchist magazine published in Boston during the 1970s and 1980s
Black Roses (novel), 1929 novel by Francis Brett Young
The Black Rose (novel), a 1945 historical novel by Thomas B. Costain
Black Rose Books, a Montréal publishing house primarily known for its anarchist titles
Kodachi Kuno ("The Black Rose"), a character in Rumiko Takahashi's Ranma media franchise
Black Rose, an incarnation of Roxanne Simpson in Ghost Rider comic books
Film and TV
Black Roses (1921 film), a 1921 American crime drama film
Black Roses (1932 film), a Swedish drama film
Black Roses (1935 film), a 1935 German historical drama film
Black Roses (1945 film), a 1945 Swedish drama film
The Black Rose, a 1950 adaptation of the book, starring Orson Welles
Black Roses (1988 film), a 1988 horror film
Black Rose (2014 film), a 2014 action film
Television
Black Rose (Singaporean TV series), a Singaporean television variety show that aired on MediaCorp Channel 8 in 2010 and again in 2014
Black Rose (Turkish TV series), a 2013–2016 Turkish drama television series that aired on Fox Turkey
Music
Classical
"Black Roses", song by Delius
"Black Roses", song by Sibelius
Musical ensembles
Black Rose, a Danish rock band featuring King Diamond
Black Rose (British band), an English heavy metal band
Black Rose (Fiji group), otherwise known as Rosiloa
Albums
Black Rose (Cher album), 1980
Black Rose (J. D. Souther album), 1976
Black Rose (Tyrese album), 2015
Black Rose: A Rock Legend, a 1979 album by Thin Lizzy
The Black Rose EP, a 2007 EP by Blindside
Black Roses (The Rasmus album), 2008
Black Roses, an unreleased album by Foxy Brown (rapper)
Songs
"Black Rose", by Borealis from the album World of Silence
"Black Rose", by Buffalocomotive from the album Tears of the Enchanted Mainframe
"Black Rose", by John Cale from the album Artificial Intelligence
"Black Rose", by Trapt from the album Only Through the Pain
"Black Rose", by Volbeat from the album Seal the Deal & Let's Boogie
"A Black Rose", by Therion, from the album Symphony Masses: Ho Drakon Ho Megas
"Grim Heart/Black Rose", by Converge from the album No Heroes
"Black Roses", by Clare Bowen from the soundtrack The Music of Nashville: Season 2, Volume 2
"Black Roses", by Charli XCX from the album True Romance
"Black Roses", by Inner Circle
"Black Rose", by Billy Joe Shaver, sung by Waylon Jennings, from the album Honky Tonk Heroes
"Black Roses", by Trey Songz from the album Ready
Other
Black rose (symbolism), a rose with black petals
Black Rose (BDSM organization), a BDSM organization headquartered in Washington, DC
Black rose (grape), a grape cultivar
Black Rose (pinball), a pinball machine produced by Midway
Black Rose (wrestler) (born 1981), Puerto Rican wrestler
Black Roses (American Samoan football club)
See also
Blue Rose (disambiguation)
Red rose (disambiguation)
White Rose (disambiguation)
Yellow rose (disambiguation) | [
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|
227214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nekton | Nekton | Nekton or necton (from the ) refers to the actively swimming aquatic organisms in a body of water. The term was proposed by German biologist Ernst Haeckel to differentiate between the active swimmers in a body of water, and the passive organisms that were carried along by the current, the plankton. As a guideline, nektonic organisms have a high Reynolds number (greater than 1000) and planktonic organisms a low one (less than 10). However, some organisms can begin life as plankton and transition to nekton later on in life, sometimes making distinction difficult when attempting to classify certain plankton-to-nekton species as one or the other. For this reason, some biologists choose not to use this term.
History
The term was first proposed and used by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1891 in his article Plankton-Studien where he contrasted it with plankton, the aggregate of passively floating, drifting, or somewhat motile organisms present in a body of water, primarily tiny algae and bacteria, small eggs and larvae of marine organisms, and protozoa and other minute consumers. Today it is sometimes considered an obsolete term because it often does not allow for the meaningful quantifiable distinction between these two groups. Some biologists no longer use it.
Definition
As a guideline, nekton are larger and tend to swim largely at biologically high Reynolds numbers (>103 and up beyond 109), where inertial flows are the rule, and eddies (vortices) are easily shed. Plankton, on the other hand, are small and, if they swim at all, do so at biologically low Reynolds numbers (0.001 to 10), where the viscous behavior of water dominates, and reversible flows are the rule. Organisms such as jellyfish and others are considered plankton when they are very small and swim at low Reynolds numbers, and considered nekton as they grow large enough to swim at high Reynolds numbers. Many animals considered classic examples of nekton (e.g., Mola mola, squid, marlin) start out life as tiny members of the plankton and then, it was argued, gradually transition to nekton as they grow.
Oceanic nekton
Oceanic nekton comprises animals largely from three clades:
Vertebrates form the largest contribution; these animals are supported by either bones or cartilage.
Mollusks are animals such as squids and scallops.
Crustaceans are animals such as lobsters and crabs.
There are organisms whose initial life stage is identified as being planktonic but when they grow and increase in body size they become nektonic. A typical example is the medusa of the jellyfish.
See also
Neuston (organisms, including microscopic, living at the surface of the water)
Plankton (organisms, including microscopic, floating and drifting within water)
Benthos (organisms, including microscopic, living at the bottom of a body of water)
Pelagic fish (fish living in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters – living neither close to the bottom nor near the shore)
References
External links
Stefan Nehring and Ute Albrecht (1997): "Hell und das redundante Benthon: Neologismen in der deutschsprachigen Limnologie". In: Lauterbornia H. 31: 17-30, Dinkelscherben, December 1997 E-Text (PDF-Datei)
Aquatic ecology
Aquatic organisms
Oceanographical terminology | [
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|
227215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total%20Depravity | Total Depravity | Total Depravity is the fifth studio album by London-based band the Veils. It was released by Nettwerk Productions on 26 August 2016.
Track listing
Charts
References
External links
2016 albums
The Veils albums
Albums produced by El-P
Nettwerk Records albums | [
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|
227219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality | Duality | Duality may refer to:
Mathematics
Duality (mathematics), a mathematical concept
Dual (category theory), a formalization of mathematical duality
Duality (optimization)
Duality (order theory), a concept regarding binary relations
Duality (projective geometry), general principle of projective geometry
Duality principle (Boolean algebra), the extension of order-theoretic duality to Boolean algebras
S-duality (homotopy theory)
Philosophy, logic, and psychology
Dualistic cosmology, a twofold division in several spiritual and religious worldviews
Dualism (philosophy of mind), where the body and mind are considered to be irreducibly distinct
De Morgan's laws, specifically the ability to generate the dual of any logical expression
Complementary duality of Carl Jung's functions and types in Socionics
Science
Electrical and mechanical
Duality (electrical circuits), regarding isomorphism of electrical circuits
Duality (mechanical engineering), regarding isomorphism of some mechanical laws
Physics
AdS/CFT correspondence (anti de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence), sometimes called the Maldacena duality
Dual resonance model
Duality (electricity and magnetism)
Englert–Greenberger duality relation
Holographic duality
Kramers–Wannier duality
Mirror symmetry (string theory)
Montonen–Olive duality
Mysterious duality
String duality, a class of symmetries
S-duality
T-duality
U-duality
Wave–particle duality
Music
Albums
Duality (Peter Leitch and John Hicks album), 1994
Duality (Lisa Gerrard and Pieter Bourke album), 1998
Duality (Ra album), 2005
Duality (mixtape), 2012
Duality, a 2014 album and song by orchestral pop-punk band Set It Off
Duality, a 2009 album by Darker Half
Duality, a 2020 album by Duke Dumont
Duality, a 2018 album by Big Scoob
Songs
"Duality", a 2014 single from pop rock/punk rock band Set It Off
"Duality" (song), a 2004 single & Grammy-nominated song by metal band Slipknot
"Duality", a 2007 single from alternative rock/punk band Bayside
Other
Duality (film), a 2001 Star Wars fan film by Dave Macomber and Mark Thomas
Duality, a large format audio mixing console by Solid State Logic
Duality (CoPs), refers to the notion of a duality in a Community of Practice
Dual (grammatical number), grammatical number that some languages use in addition to singular and plural
See also
Double (disambiguation)
Dual (disambiguation)
Duality principle (disambiguation)
List of dualities: philosophy, mathematics, physics and engineering
Nondualism (philosophy)
Triality (mathematics) | [
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|
227223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroStation | MicroStation | MicroStation is a CAD software platform for two- and three-dimensional design and drafting, developed and sold by Bentley Systems and used in the architectural and engineering industries. It generates 2D/3D vector graphics objects and elements and includes building information modeling (BIM) features. The current version is MicroStation CONNECT Edition.
History
MicroStation was initially developed by 3 Individual developers and sold and supported by Intergraph in the 1980s. The latest versions of the software are released solely for Microsoft Windows operating systems, but historically MicroStation was available for Macintosh platforms and a number of Unix-like operating systems.
From its inception MicroStation was designed as an IGDS (Interactive Graphics Design System) file editor for the PC. Its initial development was a result of The developers experience developing PseudoStation released in 1984, a program designed to replace the use of proprietary Intergraph graphic workstations to edit DGN files by substituting the much less expensive Tektronix compatible graphics terminals. PseudoStation as well as Intergraph's IGDS program ran on a modified version of Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX super-mini computer.
In 1985, MicroStation 1.0 was released as a DGN file read-only and plot program designed to run exclusively on the IBM PC-AT personal computer.
In 1987, MicroStation 2.0 was released, and was the first version of MicroStation to read and write DGN files.
Almost two years later, MicroStation 3.0 was released, which took advantage of the increasing processing power of the PC, particularly with respect to dynamics.
Intergraph MicroStation 4.0 was released in late 1990 and added many features: reference file clipping and masking, a DWG translator, fence modes, the ability to name levels, as well as GUI enhancements. The 1992 release of version 4 introduced the ability to write applications using the MicroStation Development Language (MDL).
In 1993, MicroStation 5.0 was released. New capabilities included binary raster support, custom line styles, settings manager, and dimension driven design. The "V5 for Power Macintosh provided a comprehensive tool set for both 2-D and 3-D CAD ... with added several truly useful features ... the high-end PowerPC- native CAD package runs on steroids." This was the last version to be supported in Unix. This version was branded both Intergraph (on CLIX) and Bentley MicroStation (on PC). Later versions were all branded Bentley. This was the last version to run on Intergraph CLIX. All platforms other than the PC used 32-bit processors.
In 1995, Windows 95 was released. Bentley soon followed with a release of MicroStation for that operating system. Aside from being the first version of MicroStation to not include the version number in its name (MicroStation 95 was actually MicroStation v5.5), MicroStation 95 included the ability to be mostly driven by graphic icon buttons. This version introduced a host of new features: Accudraw, dockable dialogs, Smartline, revised view controls, movie generation, and the ability to use two application windows (similar to previous Unix driven Intergraph terminals. Many of these features are among the most popular used today. MicroStation 95 was the first version of MicroStation for a PC platform to use 32-bit hardware.
The last multi-platform release, MicroStation SE (SE standing for special edition, but it was actually MicroStation 5.7) was released late in 1997, and was the first MicroStation release to include color button icons. These icons could also be made borderless, just like in Office 97. This version of MicroStation also included several features to enable more work over the internet. This version also introduced enhanced precision and a very commonly used tool in MicroStation - PowerSelector.
MicroStation/J (a.k.a. MicroStation 7.0, a.k.a. MicroStation V7) was released almost a year after SE. The J in the software title stood for Java, as this version introduced a Java-enhanced version of MDL, called JMDL. Other features included QuickvisionGL and a revised help system. MicroStation/J was the last version to be based upon the IGDS file format; since MicroStation/J was actually Version 7, the file format became known as "V7 DGN". That file format had been used for about 20 years.
However, with the advent of MicroStation V8 in 2001 came a new IEEE-754 based 64-bit file format, referred to as V8 DGN. Along with the new file format came many new enhancements, including unlimited levels, a nearly limitless design plane and no limits on filesize. Other features that were added were: Accusnap, Design History, models, unlimited undo, VBA programming, .Net interoperability, True Scale, and standard definitions for working units (as the new file format stored everything internally in meters, but can recognize rational unit conversions so that it can know the size of geometry)(some of these features were also available in MicroStation 95 to MicroStation/J). It also included the ability to work natively with DWG files.
MicroStation V8 2004 Edition (V8.5) followed nearly three years later with support for newer DWG releases, Multi-snaps, PDF creation, the Standards Checker and Feature modeling.
MicroStation V8 XM Edition (V8.9) was released in May 2006. It builds upon the changes made by V8. The XM edition includes a completely revised Direct3d-based graphics subsystem, PDF References, task navigation, element templates, color books, support for PANTONE and RAL color systems and keyboard mapping.
In MicroStation V8i (V8.11) the task navigation was overhauled and the then newest DWG format was supported. MicroStation now contains a module for GPS data.
The current version is MicroStation CONNECT Edition (V10). This version updated the application architecture to 64-bit and changed to a Ribbon Interface. Future versions are being delivered as (roughly) quarterly updates.
File format support
Its native format is the DGN format, though it can also read and write a variety of standard CAD formats including DWG, DXF, SKP and OBJ and produce media output in such forms as rendered images (JPEG and BMP), animations (AVI), 3D web pages in Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML), and Adobe Systems PDF.
At its inception, MicroStation was used in the engineering and architecture fields primarily for creating construction drawings; however, it has evolved through its various versions to include advanced parametric modeling and rendering features, including Boolean solids, VUE Rendering, raytracing, pathtracing, PBR Materials, and keyframe animation. It can provide specialized environments for architecture, civil engineering, mapping, or plant design, among others.
In 2000, Bentley made revisions to the DGN file format in V8 to add additional features like Digital Rights and Design History - a revision control ability that allows reinstating previous revisions either globally or by selection, and to better support import/export of Autodesk's DWG format. Additionally, the V8 DGN file format removed many data restrictions from earlier releases such as limited design levels and drawing area.
CONNECT Edition versions continue to use the V8 DGN file format.
See also
ProjectWise
GenerativeComponents
Comparison of computer-aided design editors
References
External links
MicroStation home page at Bentley
CONNECT Edition Book Series at Bentley
Computer-aided design software
Computer-aided design software for Windows | [
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|
227224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%20Needham | Col Needham | Colin Needham (born 26 January 1967) is an English entrepreneur who is known as the founder and CEO of IMDb. He has been general manager of IMDb since its acquisition by Amazon in 1998.
Early life
Needham was born in Denton, Lancashire, and grew up on Stockport Road. He attended Audenshaw School and Clarendon Sixth Form College in Hyde. He graduated from the University of Leeds with a BSc (Hons) in Computer Science in 1988.
Career
IMDb was started in 1990 while Needham was working as an engineer in Bristol at Hewlett-Packard (HP). The site evolved from what was initially his personal movie database, which became an internet bulletin board made from simple records, kept on a succession of early computers and contributed to by several persons, all of whom Needham outlasted.
By the summer of 1996, thanks to IMDb's first film-related advertising campaign (for Independence Day), Needham had quit HP to work on IMDb full-time as a paid employee. In 1999, he collected two Webby Awards for IMDb. In February 2017, Needham decided to remove the message boards from IMDb, stating that the message boards "are no longer providing a positive, useful experience for the vast majority of our more than 250 million monthly users worldwide".
Personal life
Needham married Karen Gaskin in 1989. They have twin daughters and live in Filton, Gloucestershire. He is a fan of early 20th-century classical Russian composers, particularly Dmitri Shostakovich.
References
External links
Col Needham interview – The Open Mind, 21 February 2015
British Internet celebrities
Businesspeople from Manchester
Amazon (company) people
1967 births
Living people
People from Denton, Greater Manchester
People from South Gloucestershire District
Alumni of the University of Leeds | [
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|
227225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20West%20College | Golden West College | Golden West College (GWC) is an American community college in Huntington Beach, California.
Organization
Golden West College, Orange Coast College, and Coastline Community College comprise the Coast Community College District (CCCD). The district is a regional organization providing administrative services and funding for post-secondary education. The state of California charters the CCCD to provide community college services.
Clubs
GWC possesses several clubs on campus for students to join. The C.A.R.E. CLUB is for single mothers dedicated to their children and their education. The California Nursing Student Association (CNSA) is to increase professional awareness and the growth of nursing students. The Peace & Leadership Club is for creating a culture of peace. Also the Alpha Gamma Sigma Honor Society - Sigma Pi Chapter is the longest existing organization/club on campus since 1969.
Academics
The mission of GWC is to provide inexpensive education in the trades, licensed trades and skilled professions, as well as remedial and transferable lower-division courses for students who plan to transfer to either a California State University, a campus of the University of California, or another university.
Athletics
GoldenWest is widely known for its success in athletics throughout the state of California. They have won many California State Community College Championships.
California State Community College Championships
Women's Basketball: 1979, 1990, 1991
Field Hockey: 1980
Women's Gymnastics: 1979
Men's Soccer: 1977
Softball:1975, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1984
Men's Swimming: 1985,1986, 1990, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2014, 2015, 2017
Women's Swimming: 1999, 2000, 2001, 2013
Men's Surfing: 1979
Women's Tennis: 1980
Men's Track Shot Put: 2010
Women's Track Hammer: 2010
Men's Volleyball: 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999
Women's Volleyball: 1979, 1984, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997,1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
Men's Water Polo: 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1985, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2001, 2002, 2008, 2009, 2011
Women's Water Polo: 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2009
Golden West's softball team has appeared in one Women's College World Series in 1974 at the college level. Golden West also won the AIAW junior/community college national championship in 1975, 1976 and 1977. The 1975 title came in a perfect game, 22-0 victory over Northeastern Colorado, shortened to 5 innings by the mercy rule.
Notable alumni
Patty Cardenas – silver medalist at the 2008 Summer Olympics in water polo
Vivica A. Fox – actress
Doug Gottlieb – basketball analyst and sports talk radio host
Jack Haley – professional basketball player (NBA 1988–1998)
Jesse Juarez – JUCO All-American and California JC state champion wrestler; an American mixed martial artist
Paul McBeth – 5-time PDGA World Champion; professional disc golfer
James McDonald – professional baseball pitcher (MLB 2008–2013)
John Moses – professional baseball outfielder (MLB 1982–1992)
Tito Ortiz – 2-time NJCAA State Champion wrestler; professional mixed martial artist, former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion, UFC Hall of Fame member
Glenn Parker – professional football player (NFL 1990–2001)
Michelle Pfeiffer – actress
Joseph Santos – artist and painter
Jonathan Uyloan – professional basketball player (international 2009–2018)
References
External links
California Community Colleges
Education in Huntington Beach, California
Educational institutions established in 1965
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
Sports in Huntington Beach, California
William Pereira buildings
1965 establishments in California
Two-year colleges in the United States | [
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|
227227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half%20laurel | Half laurel | The half laurel was a coin of the Kingdom of England minted between 1619 and 1625, with a value of ten shillings (half a pound, or half a laurel).
The half laurel was the third English gold coin with a value of ten shillings produced during the reign of King James I. It was named after the laurel that the king is portrayed as wearing on his head, but it is considerably poorer in both quality and style than both the half sovereign and the double crown which preceded it. The coin was produced during James I's third coinage (1619–1625). All the coins were produced at the Tower Mint in the City of London.
The half laurel was introduced to replace the double crown of 1604, which had an initial value of ten shillings but whose value had been increased to eleven shillings in 1612 because of the increasing value of gold; the need was felt for a ten-shilling coin in circulation again.
The King is looking to the left of the coin and has the value "X" to the right, behind the kings' head. The legend on the obverse reads IACOBUS D G MAG BRI FRA ET HIB REX – James, by the grace of God King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland – while the reverse shows a long cross over a crowned shield with the arms of the four countries, and the legend HENRIC ROSAS REGNA IACOBUS – Henry [united] the roses, James the kingdoms.
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|
227228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20Coast%20College | Orange Coast College | Orange Coast College (OCC) is a public community college in Costa Mesa in Orange County, California. It was founded in 1947, with its first classes opening in the fall of 1948. It provides Associate of Art and Associate of Science degrees, certificates of achievement, and lower-division classes transferable to other colleges and universities. The school enrolls approximately 24,000 undergraduate students. In terms of population size, Orange Coast College is the third-largest college in Orange County.
History
Orange Coast College was formed after local voters passed a measure in the January 1947 election to establish a new junior college on a site, secured from the War Assets Administration in Washington, D.C, and part of the deactivated Santa Ana Army Air Base.
The first official District board of trustees hired the college's founding president and district superintendent, Basil Hyrum Peterson, on July 28, 1947. Construction of campus classrooms and facilities began when Dr. Peterson hired Fran Albers as the college's carpenter in February 1948. Albers' crew of 35 workers (mostly Coast football players paid 60 cents an hour) turned an Army movie theatre into an auditorium and concert hall; a service club into a 500-seat gymnasium; an Army chapel into a facility for theatre productions and student/staff weddings; a military storage building into a library; an Army PX into a student center; a battalion headquarters building into an administration building; and several cadet barracks into student dormitories and married student and faculty housing.
The first campus building phase occurred in the early 1950s, when renowned architect Richard Neutra was brought in to re-design the campus. Leaving many of the original buildings intact, Neutra added several modernist structures including the strikingly minimalist Campus Theater and two large lecture halls. These were laid out on a 45-degree angle to the city street grid, in much the same manner as The Parkinsons' layout of USC. The second and largest building phase occurred in the 1970s, when local architect William Blurock was hired to replace many of the original Army buildings with structures more suitable for educational purposes.
In December 2002, Rabbit Island, a island located in the North Gulf Islands of the Georgia Strait west of the city of Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada, was donated to the Orange Coast College Foundation. Since then the OCC Foundation, using funds designated for the Orange Coast College School of Sailing & Seamanship, has refurbished the facilities on the island, made significant capital improvements, and has helped fund the use of the island as a field station to teach summer classes in Island Ecology, Biological Diversity, Vertebrate Biology, Intertidal Ecology, kayaking, and photography. It is now referred to as "Wheeler Station" at Rabbit Island (in honor of the donor, Henry Wheeler). OCC marine science and biology instructors have used the island to conduct research on species diversity, standing stock, species distribution, and oceanography. Plans were underway to find separate funding for the island outside of OCC. Possible funding sources included the National Science Foundation, rental of the island facilities to Canadians, funding from the Associated Students of OCC (ASOCC), and through other foundation grants and private donations. In March 2007, the Orange Coast College Foundation Board of Directors voted to sell the island after determining that keeping and maintaining it was unfeasible. As of July 2007, the island was in talks to be sold to a private party for $2.41 million. However, the sale did not materialize and the island was sold in March 2008 to a privately held Canadian corporation for $2.19 million.
In 2015, a plan is in effect to remove the early Neutra buildings in the center of the campus and open up a large central park around which both the outlying 1970s buildings and several newer buildings will be clustered.
2016 recording controversy
In November 2016, an OCC student recorded a lecture by a professor of human sexuality, violating the school's Student Code of Conduct. In the lecture, the professor criticized President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence, calling their election "an act of terrorism" against members of the LGBTQ community. The student shared the recording with a student club on campus, which then posted it on their public Facebook page. The video promptly went viral, sparking backlash and death threats against the professor.
After an investigation, the student was suspended for one semester, and required to write an essay and apologize to the professor. After public outcry, the punishment was overturned in a special meeting of the Coast Community College District Board of Trustees, in the interest of bringing "closure to a chain of events that has led to the distress for many, most especially, an OCC teacher and student."
In 2017, the professor was awarded the Faculty of the Year award by her peers, which she declined to accept and did not want to participate in related activities.
Organization and admissions
The college is one of three in the Coast Community College District, a regional organization providing administrative services and funding for post-secondary education. The district is chartered by the state of California to provide community college services.
The mission of OCC is to provide inexpensive education in the trades, licensed trades and skilled professions, as well as remedial and transferable lower-division courses for students who plan to transfer to either a California State University or University of California campus.
Orange Coast College is one of the top transfer institutions in the country. OCC ranks third across California for combined UC and CSU transfers. The college ranks 65th out of more than 5,000 community colleges in the United States in awarding associate degrees.
For California residents, costs are $46 (recently raised from $20, mandated by the state) per unit. For non-residents, costs are about $150 per unit. A typical two-year program has 60 units. All students who are over 18 years of age and can benefit from the services at OCC, qualify for admission.
Students who are under 18 years of age must show any one of the following,
A high school diploma
The California High School Certificate of Proficiency or equivalent
Completion of the 10th grade and the Early Start Petition form.
Academics
OCC is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges. It also has specialized accreditation by American Dental Association (Commission on Dental Accreditation), the American Dietetic Association (Commission on Accreditation for Dietetics Education), and the Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology.
Student life
OCC has active clubs, competitive sport teams, and an involved Associated Student Body. However, the campus community is less social than a four-year institution because it is primarily a commuter college serving local people.
On-campus housing is not available, and local housing is expensive, approximately $1100 per month for a small single-bedroom apartment. Local rooms in houses rent for about $750 per month.
Many changes have been going on at Orange Coast College. A new library was opened in January 2008, the Lewis Science Building was remodeled, and a Starbucks was built by the new Art Center. It is the only community college in Orange County that has its own Starbucks.
Construction on a new Math, Business and Computing Center is slated to be complete in the fall of 2015. Constructions projects scheduled to break ground in the near future include a 120-seat Planetarium, and an expanded Recycling Center. The recently remodeled student resource center, Watson Hall, contains:
Counseling Center
Records and Admissions
Transfer Center
Career Center
Career Library
International Center
Academic Honors Office
Re-Entry Center
Financial Aid
Veterans' Services
Assessment Center
Puente Program
Athletics
Orange Coast College sponsors 25 sports programs. The 12 men's sports programs are baseball, basketball, crew, cross country, football, golf, soccer, swimming, tennis, track and field, volleyball and water polo. The 13 women's programs are cheerleading/dance, basketball, beach volleyball, crew, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track and field, volleyball and water polo.
LeBard Stadium is located on the campus.
The Los Angeles Chargers have held training camp and regular season practices at the campus facilities.
Coast Report
The Coast Report has been OCC's campus newspaper since 1948. The Coast Report currently distributes 5,000 copies of their paper throughout the campus every week on Wednesdays. The Coast Report also maintains the Coast Report Online, which is an online version of the paper. The faculty adviser for the paper is Dr. Jeremy Shermak.
Student body
OCC has a total enrollment of 24,783 students, of which 16,384 are degree seeking undergraduates. Ninety-seven percent of incoming students are drawn from California, and 3% are from out of state. Thirty-five percent of students are part-time. As of fall 2007, the proportion of students with a B.A. or higher is 10%.
Notable alumni
Craig Amerkhanian, rower and rowing coach
Pham Xuan An, journalist and spy
Blake Anderson, comedian and actor
Gustavo Arellano, journalist and columnist
Scott Aukerman, writer, actor
Scott Beerer, Major League Baseball player
Carlos Bilbao, Member of the Idaho House of Representatives
Beverly Bivens, lead singer of We Five
Brandon Brennan, MLB pitcher for the Boston Red Sox
David Denman, actor
Adam Devine, comedian and actor
Tom Dumont, guitarist and producer
Clay Busch, entertainment / music executive, producer
Rob Enderle, consultant
Bob Ernst, collegiate and Olympic rowing coach
Paul Frank, artist and fashion designer
Denny Fitzpatrick, basketball player
Rebecca Forstadt, (aka Reba West), actress
Tiki Ghosn, professional mixed martial artist, at one time competing in Strikeforce, the WEC, and the Ultimate Fighting Championship
Roark Gourley, painter, sculptor
Matthew Harper, American politician. California State Assemblyman, 74th District, and the 59th Mayor of Huntington Beach (2013–2014).
Don Hồ, singer
Michael Irby, actor
Chris Jackson, Arena Football League player
Casey Jennings, beach volleyball player
Eddie Johnson, NFL and CFL player
Ross Johnson, politician
William Katt, actor
Diane Keaton, actress
Curtiss King, singer, producer
Brian Krause, actor
Tom Kubis, jazz composer/arranger
Miracle Laurie, actress
Larry Lee, baseball coach
Cliff Livingston, NFL player
Brent Mayne, MLB Catcher
Sabina Mazo, Colombian Mixed Martial Artist
Scott Mosier, film producer
Dustin Nguyen, actor
Henry Nguyen, basketball player for the Hochiminh City Wings
Quinn Norton, journalist
Raymond Obstfeld, author and professor
Dan O'Mahony, singer, author, activist, journalist
Carlos Palomino, professional boxer
Audrina Patridge, reality-show cast member, The Hills and actress
Kenda Perez, model, host
B. J. Porter, writer, actor
Russ Purnell, NFL assistant coach
Dan Quisenberry, MLB pitcher
Benny Ricardo, NFL player
Francisco Rivera, football player; professional mixed martial artist, current UFC Bantamweight
Sergio Romo, MLB pitcher
Jack Scott, Member of the California Senate
Dave Staton, MLB Player
Jim Steffen, NFL player
Shay Spitz, soccer player
Andy Strouse, soccer player
Steve Timmons, 2× Olympic gold medalist, Volleyball
Alika DeRego, US Open National Champion, Volleyball
Patrick Warburton, actor
Greg Willard, basketball referee
John Vallely, NBA player
Minoti Vaishnav, songwriter and screenwriter
Scott Weiland, singer and musician
References
External links
Official website
Coast Report student newspaper
Universities and colleges in Orange County, California
California Community Colleges
Buildings and structures in Costa Mesa, California
Educational institutions established in 1947
Sports in Costa Mesa, California
1947 establishments in California
Richard Neutra buildings
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
Two-year colleges in the United States | [
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|
227230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Lujack | Larry Lujack | Larry Lujack (born Larry Lee Blankenburg; June 6, 1940 – December 18, 2013), also called Superjock, Lawrence of Chicago, Uncle Lar, and King of the Corn Belt, was a Top 40 music radio disc jockey who was well known for his world-weary sarcastic style. Some of his more popular routines included Klunk Letter of the Day, the darkly humorous Animal Stories with sidekick Tommy Edwards as Little Tommy, and the Cheap Trashy Show Biz Report.
Professional life
Lujack came to Chicago to work for WCFL-AM. He spent a few months there before being hired at WLS. While at WCFL, Lujack closed the air studio curtains during public visiting hours.
His Animal Stories routine came about because WLS was still receiving farm magazines long after the station changed to a rock-music format in 1960. Lujack started reading some of them and began airing stories from them instead of reading the grain reports connected with the Farm Report. When the Farm Report was officially discontinued, the feature became Animal Stories. A perfectionist about his work, Lujack would review every word he spoke on the air after each broadcast by listening to an audio cassette skimmer tape which recorded only when the microphone was open.
Lujack retired in 1987, shortly after his son John from his first marriage died in an accident. In 1997, Lujack moved from Palatine, Illinois to the outskirts of Santa Fe, New Mexico and, in May 2000, began working again, for then-WUBT (WKSC-FM) in Chicago, via a remote Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) link from a New Mexico recording studio, teaming up with Matt McCann who was based in the Chicago studio. The ratings for the show out-paced the rest of the radio station. In 2003, he reteamed with his Animal Stories partner, Tommy Edwards (Little "Snot-Nosed" Tommy), on WRLL (1690 AM) in Chicago, to broadcast his signature features on weekday mornings. On August 16, 2006, Lujack was terminated with the entire WRLL on-air staff as it was announced that the station's Real Oldies format would cease on September 17, 2006. The broadcast duo were on the air once again as part of the WLS "The Big 89 Rewind" on Memorial Day, 2007 and 2008 when the station returned to its MusicRadio programming, featuring many of the former WLS personalities and special guests, other DJs, etc.
Lujack was inducted into the Illinois Broadcasters Association's Hall of Fame in June 2002, the National Radio Hall of Fame on November 6, 2004, and the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame on April 15, 2008, during their annual convention in Las Vegas.
Personal life
Born in Quasqueton, Iowa as Larry Lee Blankenburg, the family moved to Caldwell, Idaho when he was 13. He later changed his last name to that of his football idol, Johnny Lujack. He attended the College of Idaho in Caldwell, Idaho, and Washington State University and was a radio disc jockey, starting in 1958, at KCID in Caldwell. His entry into radio while a biology major at College of Idaho was a matter of finances; at the time he was looking for a part-time job. He originally intended to go into wildlife conservation. He subsequently worked at several other radio stations, including KJR (AM) in Seattle, but is best known for his antics on Chicago AM radio stations WLS and WCFL.
Lujack had three children from his first marriage and a stepson from his second.
Away from the job, he was a golf enthusiast. After triple coronary artery bypass surgery in 1991, Lujack marked his calendar for the date his doctor told him he could return to the sport. Not just a "fair weather" golfer, Lujack suited up in winter clothing and snowshoes to play Chicago area golf courses in winter. On January 23, 1985, he played a full 18 holes at Buffalo Grove, Illinois; the temperature was 27 degrees below zero with a windchill of -75 degrees. Lujack collapsed afterward.
Lujack died December 18, 2013 at a Santa Fe, New Mexico hospice of esophageal cancer.
Radio stations
Works
References
External links
Scott Childers' The History of WLS Radio The Rock of Chicago, the 1980s. Read about Lujack in the context of WLS history.
Link does not work*
link does not work*audio file-Reel Radio "The Legendary Lujack" Composite
audio file of Lujack's first day on the job at WLS-1967
Real Oldies 1690 AM WRLL. Through Sept. 17, 2006, hear an automated version of the station where Lujack and Tommy Edwards (Little Tommy of Animal Stories) hosted mornings from October 2003 through August 15, 2006.
1940 births
2013 deaths
People from Buchanan County, Iowa
American radio DJs
College of Idaho alumni
Radio personalities from Chicago
People from Palatine, Illinois
People from Santa Fe, New Mexico
People from Spokane, Washington
Washington State University alumni
Deaths from esophageal cancer | [
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|
227231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%27s%20Friends | Peter's Friends | Peter's Friends is a 1992 British comedy film directed and produced by Kenneth Branagh, and written by Rita Rudner and Martin Bergman.
The film follows six friends (Stephen Fry, Branagh, Alphonsia Emmanuel, Hugh Laurie, Imelda Staunton and Emma Thompson), members of an acting troupe who graduated from Cambridge University in 1982 and went their separate ways. Ten years later, Peter inherits a large estate from his father and invites the group to spend the New Year's holiday with him.
Plot
Peter and his five friends act together in a Cambridge University student comedy troupe. They are shown performing for on New Year's Eve, ringing in 1983 for Peter's father and his own group of middle-aged friends at the family's country estate. The stodgy partygoers are underwhelmed by the stylings of Peter and his friends, whose only supporters seem to be the family housekeeper, Vera, and her young son, Paul.
Ten years later, Peter has recently inherited the family estate, and invites his friends up for the 1992-1993 New Year's weekend.
Peter's friends are Andrew, now a writer in Hollywood; married jingle writers Roger and Mary; glamorous costume designer Sarah; and eccentric Maggie, who works in publishing. Joining them are Carol, Andrew's American TV star wife; and impolite Brian, Sarah's very recently acquired, and still married, lover. Vera, and the now grown Paul, are still at the estate, though Vera has given their notice, intending to leave immediately after the weekend, as Peter plans to sell the house after this last party.
Andrew and Carol's marriage is strained by the demands of her fame, made worse by Mary's inappropriate mention that Andrew and Sarah had been engaged a decade earlier. Roger and Mary are recovering from a devastating personal tragedy, made more difficult by Mary ringing home every view minutes and by Brian suddenly talking at length about using their twins in one of their commercials, which leads to the revelation (to Brian, and the audience) that one of the toddler twins died nine months earlier. Lonely Maggie is determined to persuade Peter they should be more than just friends, and Sarah is not as happy with her life as she appears.
The weekend does not go as planned. After a failed attempt to seduce Peter, where he reveals he is bisexual but no longer sleeping with either sex, Maggie receives a makeover from Carol and successfully seduces Paul. Carol leaves Andrew and returns to America, and after a year of sobriety Andrew returns to the bottle. Roger and Mary reach an emotional breakthrough, share their grief and address her obsessive overprotection of their remaining child. Brian calls his wife, who comes to pick him up, after he realizes that Sarah is not interested in that which she already has, but only in that which belongs to someone else. In the climax of the film, Peter reveals the real reason for his bringing them all together: he is HIV-positive. The friends emerge from their own problems and pledge their assistance to Peter.
Cast
Production and casting
Most of the cast are actually old university friends or have previously collaborated in other films. Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Emma Thompson and Tony Slattery attended the University of Cambridge and had been members of the Cambridge Footlights, a student comedy troupe similar to the one portrayed in the film, at the same time. Co-writer Martin Bergman (husband of co-writer/star Rita Rudner) also attended Cambridge and was a member of the Footlights as well.
Prior to filming, Fry and Laurie were already a successful double act with TV series A Bit of Fry & Laurie and Jeeves and Wooster. At the time the film was made, Branagh was married to Thompson, who had also dated Laurie during their university days. Phyllida Law is Thompson's mother and along with Richard Briers, Imelda Staunton and Alex Lowe appeared with Branagh and Thompson in Branagh's adaptation of Much Ado About Nothing the following year. More than a decade later Fry, Law and Slattery appeared together in the ITV series Kingdom.
Filming took place at Wrotham Park. The central character of Peter is said to have been partly inspired by Nicholas Eden, the son of former British Prime Minister Anthony Eden who was diagnosed with HIV/AIDS after inheriting his father's titles.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack featured many artists from the 1980s, including Tears for Fears (whose song "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was heard over the opening credits of the film), Eric Clapton, The Pretenders, Kiri Te Kanawa and Bruce Springsteen.
The soundtrack album did not, however, feature the cast's rendition of the Jerome Kern standard "The Way You Look Tonight", as performed in the film nor the song, 'Orpheus on the Underground', by John Hudson, which features at the beginning and end of the film.
Reception
Box office
Peter's Friends grossed over $4 million in the United States, and in 1992 alone, it grossed £3.1 million in the U.K.
Critical response
Peter's Friends was well received by most critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 69% based on reviews from 35 critics.
Roger Ebert, film critic of the Chicago Sun-Times, described the film as "more or less predictable", but awarded it three-and-a-half stars, stating, "The structure of Peter's Friends is not blazingly original - The Big Chill comes instantly to mind - but a movie like this succeeds in its particulars. If the dialogue is witty, if the characters are convincingly funny or sad, if there is the right bittersweet nostalgia and the sense that someone is likely to burst into "Those Were the Days," then it doesn't matter that we've seen the formula before. This is a new weekend with new friends."
Critic James Berardinelli spoke poorly of the film, giving it two-and-a-half out of a possible four stars and stating, "At its best, Peter's Friends is warm, touching, and funny. At its worst, it's annoying and preachy. Fortunately, there are a few more moments in the former category than in the latter." While praising Branagh's direction and performances by the cast, Berardinelli attributed most of his discontent to the film's screenplay, concluding, "This is Branagh's worst effort to date and shows, if nothing else, that no matter how talented the director and his cast, he still needs a decent screenplay. And that, ultimately, is where Peter's Friends falls short."
Accolades
Peter's Friends was nominated for a Goya Award and won two Evening Standard British Film Awards. It also ranked in eighth place on the National Board of Review's Top Ten 1992 films.
References
External links
1992 films
1992 romantic comedy films
1992 LGBT-related films
British LGBT-related films
British romantic comedy films
British films
Class reunions in popular culture
The Samuel Goldwyn Company films
Films directed by Kenneth Branagh
Films set in England
Films shot in England
Films set in country houses
Films set around New Year
HIV/AIDS in British films | [
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|
227232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princes%27%20Islands | Princes' Islands | The Princes' Islands (, Pringiponisia, ; the word "princes" is plural, because the name means "Islands of the Princes"), officially just Adalar (); alternatively the Princes' Archipelago; is an archipelago off the coast of Istanbul, Turkey, in the Sea of Marmara.
The islands constitute the Adalar district of Istanbul Province.
They consist of four larger islands, Büyükada ("Big Island") with an area of , Heybeliada ("Saddlebag Island") with an area of , Burgazada ("Fortress Island") with an area of , Kınalıada ("Henna Island") with an area of , and five much smaller ones, Sedef Adası ("Mother-of-Pearl Island") with an area of , Yassıada ("Flat Island") with an area of , Sivriada ("Sharp Island") with an area of , Kaşık Adası ("Spoon Island") with an area of , and Tavşan Adası ("Rabbit Island") with an area of .
Politics
The mayor of the Adalar district is Erdem Gül of the CHP. The provincial governor is Mevlüt Kurban.
Tourism and transport
During the summer months, the Princes' Islands are popular destinations for day trips from Istanbul. As there is almost no motor traffic on the Islands, the only transport being bicycles and horse and cart, they are more peaceful than the city of Istanbul. They are just a short ferry ride from Istanbul, with ferries departing from Bostancı, Kartal and Maltepe on the Asian side, and from Kabataş on the European side. Most ferries call in turn at the four largest of the nine islands: Kınalıada, Burgazada, Heybeliada and, finally, Büyükada. Ferry and ship services are provided by six different companies.
In spring and autumn, the islands are quieter and more pleasant, although the sea can be rough in spring, autumn and winter, and the islands are sometimes cut off from the outside world when the ferry services are cancelled due to storms and high waves. During winter, with the addition of the biting cold and the strong winds and the resulting ferry cancellations, the islands become almost deserted. As for cultural tourism, Büyükada happens to have the first and only city museum in İstanbul, the Museum of the Princes' Islands in Aya Nikola Bay.
History
During the Byzantine period, princes and other royalty were exiled on the islands, and later members of the Ottoman sultans family were exiled there too, giving the islands their present name. They were taken by the Ottoman fleet during the siege of Constantinople in 1453. During the nineteenth century, the islands became a popular resort for Istanbul's wealthy, and Victorian-era cottages and houses are still preserved on the largest of the Princes' Islands.
According to the Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893, the kaza of the Princes' Islands (Adalar) had a total population of 7.937, consisting of 5.501 Greeks, 533 Armenians, 254 Muslims, 133 Catholics, 65 Jews, 27 Latins, 7 Protestants, 3 Bulgarians and 1.404 foreign citizens.
The Halki seminary, formally the Theological School of Halki (Greek: Θεολογική Σχολή Χάλκης and Turkish: Ortodoks Ruhban Okulu), was founded on 1 October 1844 on the island of Halki (Turkish: Heybeliada), the second-largest of the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara. It was the main school of theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church's Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople until the Turkish parliament enacted a law banning private higher education institutions in 1971. The theological school is located at the top of the island's Hill of Hope, on the site of the Byzantine-era Monastery of the Holy Trinity. The premises of the school continue to be maintained by the monastery and are used to host conferences. It is possible to visit the island where it is located via boat in approximately one hour from the shore of Istanbul.
In 1912 on the islands lived 10 250 Greeks and 670 Turks. The islands have become more and more ethnically Turkish in character due to the influx of wealthy Turkish jetsetters, a process which began in the first days of the Turkish Republic when the British Yacht Club on Büyükada was appropriated as Anadolu Kulübü, for Turkish parliamentarians to enjoy Istanbul in the summer. The islands are an interesting anomaly because they allow for a very rare, albeit incomplete, insight into a multicultural society in modern Turkey, possibly akin to the multicultural society that once existed during the Ottoman Empire in places such as nearby Istanbul/Constantinople. Prior to the 1950s, each of the inhabited islands had significant communities of ethnic minorities of Turkey, which is now the case to a much smaller extent. Since the vast majority of the residents and visitors are Turkish, today their legacy is of cultural rather than demographic importance.
Notable residents
Many Turks fondly remember the Islands as home to famous short-story writer Sait Faik Abasıyanık and football legend Lefter Küçükandonyadis. After Leon Trotsky was deported from the Soviet Union in February 1929, his first residing place in exile was a house in Büyükada, the largest of the Princes' Islands, where Trotsky lived for four years between 1929 and 1933. Famous poet Nâzım Hikmet attended the Naval Cadet School in Heybeliada between 1913 and 1918.
Famous Armenian writers and poets have lived on the islands, including Zahrad and Zabel Sibil Asadour, both of whom lived in Kınalıada.
According to Kōnstantinoupolis employee Manuel Gedeon, Ottoman Greek publisher Demetrius Nicolaides had a house in Antigone (Burgazada).
Islands
Büyükada
Büyükada (meaning "Big Island"; ) is the largest of the nine islands comprising the Princes' Islands in the Marmara Sea, close to Istanbul.
As on the other islands, motorized vehicles – except service vehicles – are forbidden, so visitors explore the island by foot; by riding a bicycle (numerous bicycle shops rent them with hourly prices); or in horse-drawn phaeton carriages which function like taxi cabs, also offering "round-the-island" sightseeing tours.
A convent on Büyükada was the place of exile for the Byzantine empresses Irene, Euphrosyne, Theophano, Zoe and Anna Dalassena. After his deportation from the Soviet Union in February 1929, Leon Trotsky also stayed for four years on Büyükada, his first station in exile. Princess Fahrelnissa Zeid was born on the island.
There are several historical buildings on Büyükada, such as the Ayia Yorgi Church and Monastery dating back to the sixth century, the Ayios Dimitrios Church, and the Hamidiye Mosque built by Abdul Hamid II. Büyükada consists of two peaks. The one nearest the iskele (ferry landing), Hristos, is topped by the former Greek Orphanage, a huge wooden building now known as the Prinkipo Environmental Center. In the valley between the two hills sit the church and monastery of Ayios Nikolaos and a former fairground called Luna Park. Visitors can take the 'small tour' of the island by buggy, leading to this point, from where it is an easy climb to Ayia Yorgi, a tiny church with a café on the grounds serving wine, chips and sausage sandwiches, this being part of the "classic" Ayia Yorgi (St. George, in Greek: Άγιος Γεώργιος) experience.
Heybeliada
Heybeliada (meaning "Saddlebag Island"; , also rendered Halki) is the second largest of the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara. It is a neighbourhood in the Adalar district of Istanbul. The large Naval Cadet School overlooks the jetty to the left as you get off the ferry. There are two interesting pieces of architecture on the grounds of the school. One is Kamariotissa, the only remaining Byzantine church on the island, and more importantly the last church to be built before the conquest of Constantinople. The other is the grave of the second English Ambassador to be sent to Constantinople by Elizabeth I of England, Edward Barton, who chose to live on Heybeli to escape the bustle of the city.
To the right of the jetty lies the town with its bars and cafes, a hotel that stays open all year round, and many lovely wooden houses.
At the top of the central mountain is an eleventh-century Greek Orthodox monastery, it houses the Halki seminary, the only Greek Orthodox seminary in Turkey and Theological Seminary of the Ecumenical Patriarchate closed by the Turkish Government in 1971, for no reason. The monastery attracts tourists from all over Greece and Turkey, and despite the Turkish Government's promise to reopen the seminary, it still remains closed.
To prevent the island from becoming polluted, the only motorized vehicles permitted on the island are service vehicles such as ambulances, fire trucks, police cars, and the like. The only forms of transport are by foot, horse and buggy and service transport. There is no airport; the only way of getting there is by boat.
The winter population of the island is around 3,000, but in the summer, the owners of the summer houses return and the population swells to 10,000. The main summer attractions are small-scale open-air concerts sponsored by the local council, a swimming and fitness club next to the sea, and an annual Independence Day march, which is commemorated by a resident naval band touring the island.
Burgazada
Burgazada (meaning "Fortress Island"; ) is the third largest of the Islands, a single hill 2 km across. Demetrius I of Macedon, one of the Diadochi (Successors) of Alexander the Great, built a fort here and named it after his father Antigonus I Monophthalmus. The island took this name, but today is generally known by the Turks simply as "Burgaz" (Turkish for "fort"). In 2003 Burgaz suffered a forest fire, losing 4 square kilometres of woodland.
Burgaz is a common setting and even a major theme for writer Sait Faik Abasıyanık, where he also resided. Today, his residence is kept as a museum. At his favourite restaurant in Kalpazankaya (the counterfeiter's rock) one will also find his bronze statue enjoying the view with a glass of rakı freshly filled everyday by the restaurant owners. Until the mid-20th century, Burgazada was predominantly Jewish.
Kınalıada
Kınalıada (meaning "Henna Island" in Turkish, named after the colour of its earth; , "First") is the nearest island to the European and Asian side of Istanbul, about to the south. This is one of the least forested islands, and the land has a reddish colour from the iron and copper that has been mined here. This was the island most used as a place of exile in Byzantine times (the most notable exile being the former emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, after the Battle of Manzikert, 1071). Also, this island has a historical abbey top of it. From the 19th century to the mid-20th century, Kınalıada was predominantly Armenian, giving it the highest density of Armenians living anywhere in Istanbul, albeit mainly in summer homes. During the summer, approximately 90% of the population on the island was Armenian. The island was also a summer retreat for the Armenian patriarchs of Istanbul.
The islands are reachable by ferry services that depart from Kabataş on the European side. The voyage takes about 25 minutes by fast ferry and 40 minutes by regular ferry (vapur).
Sedef Island
Sedef Island, (, meaning "Mother-of-Pearl Island"; , also in the modern corrupted form Αντιρόβυθος, Antirovythos) is one of the smallest islands of the archipelago, and has 108 private homes. The section that's open to the general public largely consists of a beach hamlet. The island is mostly private property and the current pine forests were largely planted by its owner Şehsuvar Menemencioğlu, who purchased the island in 1956 and also played an important role in the imposition of a strict building code to make sure that the island's nature and environment will be protected. He has forbidden the building of structures with more than 2 floors.
The island's Greek name, Terebinthos, means "terebinth", which suggests a significant presence of the terebinth in earlier times. In 857 AD Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople was exiled to the island and imprisoned for 10 years before being re-elected as Patriarch in 867 AD.
Yassıada
Yassıada (meaning "Flat Island"; ) was used by the Byzantines for sending prominent figures into exile. One such person was the Armenian Patriarch (Catholicos) Narses who was first sent to this island before being imprisoned at Büyükada in the 4th century AD. In the 11th century AD the Byzantines used the island for political prisoners. The remains of the 4 underground prison cells from this period can still be seen. The Byzantines also built a monastery and church on the island. Yassıada (Plati) was captured by the Latin Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.
In 1857, Yassıada was purchased by the British ambassador Henry Bulwer, brother of novelist Edward Bulwer-Lytton, who built himself a mansion and a number of other structures to live undisturbed on this distant island. Henry Bulwer also organized agricultural production on the island to self-sustain his little realm at least to a certain degree, but later sold Yassıada to the Khedive of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan, Ismail Pasha; who, however, didn't construct any new buildings and completely neglected the island.
With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the island became a property of the Turkish state, and in 1947 Yassıada was handed over to the Turkish Navy which built several school buildings. Between 1960 and 1961, these school buildings became the venue for the trials of the members of the former ruling party, Demokrat Parti, after the military coup of 1960. Several of the defendants were sentenced to death, and three of these, including the former Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, were taken to İmralı Island (further southwest, near the southern shoreline of the Sea of Marmara) and executed in 1961.
After the end of the trials, Yassıada was given back to the Turkish Navy and lessons continued to take place at the naval school buildings until 1978.
In 1993, the island became the property of Istanbul University's department of Marine Life and Sea Products, which used it for lessons and research. However, the strong winds on the island made life difficult for the students and eventually classes were held elsewhere.
Today, the island is a favourite location for scuba diving schools like Balıkadam Türkiye as well as amateur divers.
Sivriada
Sivriada (meaning "Sharp Island"; ) currently is deserted. The island was often used by the Byzantine clerics as a distant place for peaceful worship, and by the Byzantine emperors as a convenient prison to detain prominent people whom they deemed troublesome. The first famous person to be imprisoned on the island by the order of emperor Nikephoros I was Plato of Sakkoudion, the uncle of renowned cleric Theodoros Stoudites, for supporting his nephew in his conflict with the emperor. Other famous people who stayed in the island for religious and political reasons were Gebon, Basil Skleros, Nikephoritzes (the chief minister of Michael VII Doukas), Patriarch John of Constantinople and Patriarch Michael II of Constantinople. The graves of those who died in the island during the Byzantine period can still be seen today.
The ruins of a Roman settlement and a ninth-century Byzantine monastery can still be seen on the shore, close to the fishermen's shelter, a small wharf which is often used by yachts. The most important buildings on the island were built in the ninth century AD, including a church, a chapel dedicated to religious martyrs, a monastery on the eastern end (with its walls still seen today) and a cistern in the center of the island (a part of which can still be seen.)
Kaşık Island
Kaşık Island, (, meaning "Spoon Island"; ) is located between the islands of Burgazada and Heybeliada. Kaşık Adası is officially administered by the Burgazada neighborhood in the Adalar district of Istanbul. It is the second-smallest of the Princes' Islands, with an area of .
Tavşan Island
Tavşan Adası (meaning "Rabbit Island"; , the name of a mythological figure) is the smallest of the Princes' Islands, with an area of .
Climate
The islands experience a Mediterranean climate (Csa/Cs) according to both Köppen and Trewartha climate classifications. The islands feature some of the mildest winters in Istanbul, while the summer heat is relatively tepid, as maritime influences and a lack of urban heat island prevail. Therefore, the islands are classified as USDA hardiness zone 9b, and AHS heat zone 3.
International relations
Twin towns — sister cities
Princes' Islands are twinned with:
Cholpon-Ata, Kyrgyzstan
Nacka, Sweden
Palaio Faliro, Greece
Pokhara, Nepal
Santa Ana, Costa Rica
Veles, North Macedonia
References
External links
Princes' Islands virtual web site 360 degree official website
District governor's official website
District municipality's official website
Istanbul's isle of diversity from the Christian Science Monitor, By Yigal Schleifer, 28 July 2005
The islands that refused to motorize Sustainable Transport, an ITDP publication, By Yaakov Garb, Fall 2002
Interactive Maps: MultiMap.com, FallingRain.com
Istanbul islands Turkish Daily News
Cornucopia special edition on the Princes' Islands, Princes' Islands: Paradise Lost?
Princes' Islands Princes' Islands information, know more about Princes' Islands
Map including the Princes' Islands
Islands of the Sea of Marmara
Archipelagoes of Turkey
Adalar
Landforms of Istanbul Province
Districts of Istanbul Province
Car-free zones
Articles containing video clips
Important Bird Areas of Turkey | [
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|
227235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwate | Iwate | Iwate can refer to:
Iwate Prefecture, a prefecture of Japan.
Iwate, Iwate, a town in Iwate Prefecture, Japan.
Japanese cruiser Iwate, an armored cruiser of the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1900 to the end of World War II. | [
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|
227239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative | Dissociative | Dissociatives are a class of hallucinogen which distort perception of sight and sound and produce feelings of detachment – dissociation – from the environment and/or self. Although many kinds of drugs are capable of such action, dissociatives are unique in that they do so in such a way that they produce hallucinogenic effects, which may include sensory deprivation, dissociation, hallucinations, and dream-like states or anesthesia. Some, which are nonselective in action and affect the dopamine and/or opioid systems, may be capable of inducing euphoria. Many dissociatives have general depressant effects and can produce sedation, respiratory depression, analgesia, anesthesia, and ataxia, as well as cognitive and memory impairment and amnesia.
Effects
The effects of dissociatives can include sensory dissociation, hallucinations, mania, catalepsy, analgesia and amnesia. According to Pender (1972), "the state has been designated as dissociative anesthesia since the patient truly seems disassociated from his environment." Both Pender (1970) and Johnstone et al. (1959) reported that patients under anaesthesia due to either ketamine or phencyclidine were prone to purposeless movements and had hallucinations (or "dreams") during and after anaesthesia. Some patients found the hallucinations euphoric while others found them disturbing.
At sub-anesthetic doses, dissociatives alter many of the same cognitive and perceptual processes affected by other hallucinogenic drugs such as mescaline, LSD, and psilocybin; hence they are often contrasted and also considered hallucinogenic. Perhaps the most significant subjective differences between dissociatives and the classical hallucinogens (such as LSD and mescaline) are the detaching effects, including: depersonalization, the feeling of being unreal, disconnected from one's self, or unable to control one's actions; and derealization, the feeling that the outside world is unreal or that one is dreaming.
Use
Medical use
Many dissociatives such as ketamine are used as anesthetics for surgery or pain relief in medical contexts such as in hospitals. However, due to possible psychotomimetic reactions they are sometimes used reluctantly. Certain morphinan dissociatives such as Dextromethorphan are also used in sub-psychoactive dosages to suppress coughing.
Ketamine is also currently being studied and is showing promising results as a possible fast-acting antidepressant It may also function as a possible palliative treatment for C-PTSD and chronic pain.
Recreational use
Some dissociative drugs are used recreationally. Ketamine and nitrous oxide are club drugs. Phencyclidine (PCP or angel dust) is available as a street drug. Dextromethorphan-based cough syrups (often labeled DXM) are taken by some users in higher than medically recommended levels for their dissociative effects. Historically, chloroform and diethyl ether have been used recreationally (as was nitrous oxide, at laughing gas parties).
See also
Arylcyclohexylamine
NMDA receptor antagonist
Hallucinogen
Deliriant
Dissociation (neuropsychology)
Dissociation (psychology)
References
External links
fr:Hallucinogène#Les hallucinogènes dissociatifs | [
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|
227240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Schuman | William Schuman | William Howard Schuman (August 4, 1910February 15, 1992) was an American composer and arts administrator.
Life
Schuman was born into a Jewish family in Manhattan, New York City, son of Samuel and Rachel Schuman. He was named after the 27th U.S. president, William Howard Taft, though his family preferred to call him Bill. Schuman played the violin and banjo as a child, but his overwhelming passion was baseball. He attended Temple Shaaray Tefila as a child. While still in high school, he formed a dance band, "Billy Schuman and his Alamo Society Orchestra", that played local weddings and bar mitzvahs in which Schuman played string bass.
In 1928 he entered New York University's School of Commerce to pursue a business degree, at the same time working for an advertising agency. He also wrote popular songs with E. B. Marks Jr, a friend he had met long before at summer camp. Around that time, Schuman met lyricist Frank Loesser and wrote some forty songs with him. Loesser's first published song, "In Love with a Memory of You", credits the music to William H. Schuman.
On April 13, 1930, Schuman attended a Carnegie Hall concert of the New York Philharmonic, conducted by Arturo Toscanini. According to the Philharmonic's archives, the program included works by Brahms, Mendelssohn, Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Smetana. Of this experience, Schuman later said, "I was astounded at seeing the sea of stringed instruments, and everybody bowing together. The visual thing alone was astonishing. But the sound! I was overwhelmed. I had never heard anything like it. The very next day, I decided to become a composer."
Schuman dropped out of school and quit his part-time job to study music at the Malkin Conservatory with Max Persin and Charles Haubiel. From 1933 to 1938, he studied privately with Roy Harris. In 1935, he received a B.S. degree in music education from Teachers College at Columbia University. Harris brought Schuman to the attention of the conductor Serge Koussevitzky, who championed many of his works and conducted Schuman's Symphony No. 2 in 1939. Possibly Schuman's best known symphony, the Symphony for Strings, was commissioned by the Koussevitzky Foundation, dedicated to the memory of Natalie Koussevitzky, and was first performed under Koussevitzky on November 12, 1943.
Schuman won the inaugural Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1943 for his Cantata No. 2. A Free Song, adapted from poems by Walt Whitman. From 1935 to 1945, he taught composition at Sarah Lawrence College. In 1945, he became president of the Juilliard School, founding the Juilliard String Quartet while there. He left in 1961 to succeed John D. Rockefeller III as president of Lincoln Center, a position he held until 1969. He won a special Pulitzer Prize in 1985 citing "more than half a century of contribution to American music as composer and educational leader" and he received the National Medal of Arts in 1987.
He died at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City at age 81, following hip surgery. Schuman was survived by his wife Frances (they married in 1936); two children, Anthony William and Andrea Frances; and one grandchild.
Music
Schuman left a substantial body of work. His "eight symphonies, numbered Three through Ten", as he himself put it (the first two were withdrawn), continue to grow in stature. His concerto for violin (1947, rev. 1959) has been hailed as among his "most powerful works ... it could almost be considered a symphony for violin and orchestra." Other works include the New England Triptych (1956, based on melodies by William Billings), the American Festival Overture (1939), the ballets Undertow (1945) and Judith (1949) (the latter written for Martha Graham), the Mail Order Madrigals (1972) to texts from the 1897 Sears Roebuck catalog, and two operas, The Mighty Casey (1953, based on Ernest Thayer's "Casey at the Bat"), which reflected his lifelong love of baseball, and A Question of Taste (1989, after a short story by Roald Dahl). He also arranged Charles Ives' organ piece Variations on "America" for orchestra in 1963, in which version it is better known. Another popular work by William Schuman is his George Washington Bridge (1950), for concert band.
Television appearance
William Schuman appeared as the opening guest on the CBS game show, What's My Line? on September 30, 1962 (episode No. 632). Because of his recognizability, panel members Dorothy Kilgallen, Martin Gabel, Arlene Francis and Bennett Cerf were blindfolded. Schuman's title card identified him as "Composer and President of Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (New York City)". Schuman displayed his wit in response to panel questions. After the panel exhausted a few categories, Kilgallen asked, "How about music?" Schuman replied, "How about it, what's the question?" When asked if he was Leonard Bernstein, Schuman replied, "I'm his friend." When asked if he was Rudolf Bing, Schuman repeated, "I'm his friend", prompting Francis to wonder who was not his friend. When asked if he had ever sung for the Metropolitan Opera, Schuman said, "Often desired to, never invited." Cerf identified him after host John Charles Daly had flipped over all the cards. Daly announced that Schuman's Eighth Symphony would be performed at Philharmonic Hall (now David Geffen Hall) the following Thursday, which date, October 4, 1962, marked the première of the work. It was recorded for Columbia Masterworks Records five days later by its performers, the New York Philharmonic conducted by Bernstein.
List of works
Opera
The Mighty Casey (1953, based on Ernest Thayer's "Casey at the Bat")
A Question of Taste (1989, after a short story by Roald Dahl)
Ballet
Undertow (1945, written for Antony Tudor)
Night Journey (1947, written for Martha Graham)
Judith (1949, written for Martha Graham)
Voyage for a Theatre (1953, written for Martha Graham; withdrawn)
The Witch of Endor (1965, written for Martha Graham; withdrawn)
Orchestral
Symphonies
Symphony No. 1 (1935; withdrawn)
Symphony No. 2 (1937; withdrawn)
Symphony No. 3 (1941)
Symphony No. 4 (1941)
Symphony for Strings (Symphony no. 5) (1943)
Symphony No. 6 (1948)
Symphony No. 7 (1960)
Symphony No. 8 (1962)
Symphony No. 9 Le fosse Ardeatine (1968) [viz. Ardeatine massacre]
Symphony No. 10 American Muse (1976)
Potpourri (1932; withdrawn)
Prelude and Fugue (1935; withdrawn)
American Festival Overture (1939)
Prayer in Time of War, originally titled Prayer 1943 (1943)
Circus Overture (1944)
Credendum (1955, commissioned by UNESCO)
New England Triptych (1956, based on melodies by William Billings)
The Orchestra Song (1963)
In Praise of Shahn (1969)
Amaryllis, Variants for Strings on an Old English Round (1976)
American Hymn (1980)
Showcase: A Short Display for Orchestra (1986)
Let's Hear It For Lenny! (1988, written for the 70th Birthday of Leonard Bernstein)
Concertante
Piano Concerto (1938; published but withdrawn)
Piano Concerto (1942; third movement contains material from 1938 concerto)
Violin Concerto (1947; 1st rev., 1954; 2nd rev. 1957–8)
A Song of Orpheus, for cello and orchestra (1962)
To Thee Old Cause, for oboe and orchestra (1968)
Concerto on Old English Rounds, for viola, female chorus and orchestra (1973)
Three Colloquies, for horn and orchestra (1979)
Vocal/Choral
God's World (1932)
Canons (1933)
Prelude for Voices (1939, to texts by Thomas Wolfe)
This Is Our Time (Secular Cantata no.1) (1939, to texts by Genevieve Taggard)
Holiday Song (1942, to a text by Genevieve Taggard)
A Free Song (Secular Cantata no.2) (1942, to texts by Walt Whitman)
Te Deum (1943)
Orpheus with His Lute (1944, to a text by William Shakespeare)
Five Rounds on Famous Words (1956/69)
Carols of Death (1958, to texts by Walt Whitman)
Mail Order Madrigals (1972, to texts from the 1897 Sears Roebuck catalog)
The Young Dead Soldiers (1975, to a text by Archibald MacLeish)
Casey at the Bat (cantata; rev. of the opera The Mighty Casey)
Time to the Old (1980, to texts by Archibald MacLeish)
Perceptions (1982, to texts by Walt Whitman)
Esses (1982)
On Freedom's Ground (1985, to texts by Richard Wilbur)
Chamber/Instrumental
String Quartet No. 1 (1935; withdrawn)
String Quartet No. 2 (1937)
String Quartet No. 3 (1939)
Canon and Fugue for violin, cello and piano (1934; withdrawn)
Pastorale 1 for alto and clarinet (1934; withdrawn)
Pastorale 2 for flute, oboe and clarinet (1934; withdrawn)
Choreographic Poem for 7 instruments (1934; withdrawn)
Quartettino for Four Bassoons (1939)
Three Score Set for piano (1943)
String Quartet No. 4 (1950)
Voyage: a cycle of 5 pieces for piano (1953)
Three Piano Moods (1958)
Amaryllis: Variations for string trio (1964)
In Sweet Music, Serenade on a setting of Shakespeare for flute, viola, voice and harp (1978)
XXV Opera Snatches for trumpet (1978)
American Hymn, for brass quintet (1980)
Dances, for wind quintet and percussion (1985)
Awake, Thou Wintry Earth for clarinet and violin (1987)
Fanfare "Cooperstown" for two trumpets and two trombones (1987)
String Quartet No. 5 (1987)
Chester: Variations for piano (1988)
Band
Newsreel, in Five Shots (1941)
George Washington Bridge (1950)
Chester Overture (1956) from New England Triptych
When Jesus Wept (1958) from New England Triptych
Philharmonic Fanfare (1965; withdrawn)
Dedication Fanfare (1968)
Anniversary Fanfare (1969), commissioned for the Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial to accompany the exhibition "19th Century America"
Be Glad Then, America (1975) from New England Triptych
Arrangements
Circus Overture, for band, arr. Don Owen (originally for orchestra—1944)
Variations on "America", for orchestra (1963, arranged from Ives's organ piece with the same name)
Film Scores
Steel Town (1944), film by the Office of War Information
The Earth Is Born (1957), film for Transfilm, Inc., and Time-Life Pictures
References
Further reading
John W. Clark and William Schuman, "William Schuman on His Symphonies: An Interview", American Music 4, no. 3 (Autumn 1986): 328–36.
Joseph W. Polisi, American Muse: The Life and Times of William Schuman, New York: Amadeus Press, 2008 .
Walter Simmons, The Music of William Schuman, Vincent Persichetti, and Peter Mennin: Voices of Stone and Steel, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2011 .
Steve Swayne, Orpheus in Manhattan: William Schuman and the Shaping of America's Musical Life, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011 .
External links
The William Schuman Music Trust
William Schuman's page at Theodore Presser Company
William Schuman page at G. Schirmer/Associated Music Publishers
William Schuman papers in the Music Division of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.
NewMusicBox: A reprint of Chapter Four, "I Wanted to Run Before I Could Creep," from the book, American Muse: The Life and Times of William Schuman by Joseph W. Polisi
(American Muse: The Life and Times of William Schuman features many photos and excerpts from William Schuman's scores)
Website for Steve Swayne's book Orpheus in Manhattan: William Schuman and the Shaping of America's Musical Life
Interview with William Schuman, April 2, 1986
1910 births
1992 deaths
20th-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
Jewish American classical composers
Jewish classical composers
American opera composers
Male opera composers
Ballet composers
Pulitzer Prize for Music winners
Pulitzer Prize winners
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
Juilliard School faculty
Kennedy Center honorees
Sarah Lawrence College faculty
New York University Stern School of Business alumni
20th-century American composers
Presidents of the Juilliard School
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American Jews | [
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227244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20art | Japanese art | Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including ancient pottery, sculpture, ink painting and calligraphy on silk and paper, ukiyo-e paintings and woodblock prints, ceramics, origami, and more recently manga and anime. It has a long history, ranging from the beginnings of human habitation in Japan, sometime in the 10th millennium BC, to the present-day country.
Japan has been subject to sudden invasions of new ideas followed by long periods of minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability to absorb, imitate, and finally assimilate those elements of foreign culture that complemented their aesthetic preferences. The earliest complex art in Japan was produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with Buddhism. In the 9th century, as the Japanese began to turn away from China and develop indigenous forms of expression, the secular arts became increasingly important; until the late 15th century, both religious and secular arts flourished. After the Ōnin War (1467–1477), Japan entered a period of political, social, and economic disruption that lasted for over a century. In the state that emerged under the leadership of the Tokugawa shogunate, organized religion played a much less important role in people's lives, and the arts that survived were primarily secular. The Meiji Period (1868-1912) saw an abrupt influx of Western styles, which have continued to be important.
Painting is the preferred artistic expression in Japan, practiced by amateurs and professionals alike. Until modern times, the Japanese wrote with a brush rather than a pen, and their familiarity with brush techniques has made them particularly sensitive to the values and aesthetics of painting. With the rise of popular culture in the Edo period, a style of woodblock prints became a major form and its techniques were fine-tuned to produce colorful prints. The Japanese, in this period, found sculpture a much less sympathetic medium for artistic expression; most large Japanese sculpture is associated with religion, and the medium's use declined with the lessening importance of traditional Buddhism.
Japanese pottery is among the finest in the world and includes the earliest known Japanese artifacts; Japanese export porcelain has been a major industry at various points. Japanese lacquerware is also one of the world's leading arts and crafts, and works gorgeously decorated with maki-e were exported to Europe and China, remaining important exports until the 19th century. In architecture, Japanese preferences for natural materials and an interaction of interior and exterior space are clearly expressed.
History of Japanese art
Jōmon art
The first settlers of Japan were the Jōmon people (c. 10,500 – c. 300 BCE), named for the cord markings that decorated the surfaces of their clay vessels, were nomadic hunter-gatherers who later practiced organized farming and built cities with populations of hundreds if not thousands. They built simple houses of wood and thatch set into shallow earthen pits to provide warmth from the soil. They crafted lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels, clay figurines called dogū, and crystal jewels.
Early Jōmon period
During the Early Jōmon period (5000-2500 BCE), villages started to be discovered and ordinary everyday objects were found such as ceramic pots purposed for boiling water. The pots that were found during this time had flat bottoms and had elaborate designs made out of materials such as bamboo. In addition, another important find was the early Jōmon figurines which might have been used as fertility objects due to the breasts and swelling hips that they exhibited.
Middle Jōmon period
The Middle Jōmon period (2500-1500 BCE), contrasted from the Early Jōmon Period in many ways. These people became less nomadic and began to settle in villages. They created useful tools that were able to process the food that they gathered and hunted which made living easier for them. Through the numerous aesthetically pleasing ceramics that were found during this time period, it is evident that these people had a stable economy and more leisure time to establish beautiful pieces. In addition, the people of the Middle Jōmon period differed from their preceding ancestors because they developed vessels according to their function, for example, they produced pots in order to store items. The decorations on these vessels started to become more realistic looking as opposed to the early Jōmon ceramics. Overall, the production of works not only increased during this period, but these individuals made them more decorative and naturalistic.
Late and Final Jōmon period
During the Late and Final Jōmon period (1500-300 BCE), the weather started to get colder, therefore forcing them to move away from the mountains. The main food source during this time was fish, which made them improve their fishing supplies and tools. This advancement was a very important achievement during this time. In addition, the numbers of vessels largely increased which could possibly conclude that each house had their own figurine displayed in them. Although various vessels were found during the Late and Final Jōmon Period, these pieces were found damaged which might indicate that they used them for rituals. In addition, figurines were also found and were characterized by their fleshy bodies and goggle like eyes.
Dogū figurines
Dogū ("earthen figure") are small humanoid and animal figurines made during the later part of the Jōmon period. They were made across all of Japan, except Okinawa. Some scholars theorize the dogū acted as effigies of people, that manifested some kind of sympathetic magic. Dogū are made of clay and are small, typically 10 to 30 cm high. Most of the figurines appear to be modeled as female, and have big eyes, small waists, and wide hips. They are considered by many to be representative of goddesses. Many have large abdomens associated with pregnancy, suggesting that the Jomon considered them mother goddesses.
Yayoi art
The next wave of immigrants was the Yayoi people, named for the district in Tokyo where remnants of their settlements first were found. These people, arriving in Japan about 300 BCE, brought their knowledge of wetland rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells (dōtaku), and wheel-thrown, kiln-fired ceramics.
Kofun art
The third stage in Japanese prehistory, the Kofun period (c. 300 – 710 AD), represents a modification of Yayoi culture, attributable either to internal development or external force. This period is most notable for its tomb culture and other artifacts such as bronze mirrors and clay sculptures called haniwa which were erected outside these tombs. Throughout the Kofun period, the characteristics of these tombs evolved from smaller tombs erected on hilltops and ridges to much larger tombs built on flat land. The largest tomb in Japan, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, houses 46 burial mounds and is shaped like a keyhole, a distinct characteristic found within later Kofun tombs.
Asuka and Nara art
During the Asuka and Nara periods, so named because the seat of Japanese government was located in the Asuka Valley from 542 to 645 and in the city of Nara until 784, the first significant influx of continental Asian culture took place in Japan.
The transmission of Buddhism provided the initial impetus for contacts between China and Japan. The Japanese recognized the facets of Chinese culture that could profitably be incorporated into their own: a system for converting ideas and sounds into writing; historiography; complex theories of government, such as an effective bureaucracy; and, most important for the arts, new technologies, new building techniques, more advanced methods of casting in bronze, and new techniques and media for painting.
Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, however, the major focus in contacts between Japan and the Asian continent was the development of Buddhism. Not all scholars agree on the significant dates and the appropriate names to apply to various time periods between 552, the official date of the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, and 784, when the Japanese capital was transferred from Nara. The most common designations are the Suiko period, 552–645; the Hakuhō period, 645–710, and the Tenpyō period, 710–784.
The earliest Japanese sculptures of the Buddha are dated to the 6th and 7th century. They ultimately derive from the 1st- to 3rd-century AD Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, characterized by flowing dress patterns and realistic rendering, on which Chinese artistic traits were superimposed. After the Chinese Northern Wei buddhist art had infiltrated a Korean peninsula, Buddhist icons were brought to Japan by Various immigrant groups. Particularly, the semi-seated Maitreya form was adapted into a highly developed Ancient Greek art style which was transmitted to Japan as evidenced by the Kōryū-ji Miroku Bosatsu and the Chūgū-ji Siddhartha statues. Many historians portray Korea as a mere transmitter of Buddhism. The Three Kingdoms, and particularly Baekje, were instrumental as active agents in the introduction and formation of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552.
They illustrate the terminal point of the Silk Road transmission of art during the first few centuries of our era. Other examples can be found in the development of the iconography of the Japanese Fūjin Wind God, the Niō guardians, and the near-Classical floral patterns in temple decorations.
The earliest Buddhist structures still extant in Japan, and the oldest wooden buildings in the Far East are found at the Hōryū-ji to the southwest of Nara. First built in the early 7th century as the private temple of Crown Prince Shōtoku, it consists of 41 independent buildings. The most important ones, the main worship hall, or Kondō (Golden Hall), and Gojū-no-tō (Five-story Pagoda), stand in the center of an open area surrounded by a roofed cloister. The Kondō, in the style of Chinese worship halls, is a two-story structure of post-and-beam construction, capped by an irimoya, or hipped-gabled roof of ceramic tiles.
Inside the Kondō, on a large rectangular platform, are some of the most important sculptures of the period. The central image is a Shaka Trinity (623), the historical Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas, sculpture cast in bronze by the sculptor Tori Busshi (flourished early 7th century) in homage to the recently deceased Prince Shōtoku. At the four corners of the platform are the Guardian Kings of the Four Directions, carved in wood around 650. Also housed at Hōryū-ji is the Tamamushi Shrine, a wooden replica of a Kondō, which is set on a high wooden base that is decorated with figural paintings executed in a medium of mineral pigments mixed with lacquer.
Temple building in the 8th century was focused around the Tōdai-ji in Nara. Constructed as the headquarters for a network of temples in each of the provinces, the Tōdaiji is the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan. Appropriately, the 16.2-m (53-ft) Buddha (completed 752) enshrined in the main Buddha hall, or Daibutsuden, is a Rushana Buddha, the figure that represents the essence of Buddhahood, just as the Tōdaiji represented the center for Imperially sponsored Buddhism and its dissemination throughout Japan. Only a few fragments of the original statue survive, and the present hall and central Buddha are reconstructions from the Edo period.
Clustered around the Daibutsuden on a gently sloping hillside are a number of secondary halls: the Hokke-dō (Lotus Sutra Hall), with its principal image, the Fukukenjaku Kannon (不空羂索観音立像, the most popular bodhisattva), crafted of dry lacquer (cloth dipped in lacquer and shaped over a wooden armature); the Kaidanin (戒壇院, Ordination Hall) with its magnificent clay statues of the Four Guardian Kings; and the storehouse, called the Shōsōin. This last structure is of great importance as an art-historical cache, because in it are stored the utensils that were used in the temple's dedication ceremony in 752, the eye-opening ritual for the Rushana image, as well as government documents and many secular objects owned by the Imperial family.
Choukin (or chōkin), the art of metal engraving or sculpting, is thought to have started in the Nara period.
Heian art
In 794 the capital of Japan was officially transferred to Heian-kyō (present-day Kyoto), where it remained until 1868. The term Heian period refers to the years between 794 and 1185, when the Kamakura shogunate was established at the end of the Genpei War. The period is further divided into the early Heian and the late Heian, or Fujiwara era, the pivotal date being 894, the year imperial embassies to China were officially discontinued.
Early Heian art: In reaction to the growing wealth and power of organized Buddhism in Nara, the priest Kūkai (best known by his posthumous title Kōbō Daishi, 774–835) journeyed to China to study Shingon, a form of Vajrayana Buddhism, which he introduced into Japan in 806. At the core of Shingon worship is mandalas, diagrams of the spiritual universe, which then began to influence temple design. Japanese Buddhist architecture also adopted the stupa, originally an Indian architectural form, in its Chinese-style pagoda.
The temples erected for this new sect were built in the mountains, far away from the Court and the laity in the capital. The irregular topography of these sites forced Japanese architects to rethink the problems of temple construction, and in so doing to choose more indigenous elements of design. Cypress-bark roofs replaced those of ceramic tile, wood planks were used instead of earthen floors, and a separate worship area for the laity was added in front of the main sanctuary.
The temple that best reflects the spirit of early Heian Shingon temples is the Murō-ji (early 9th century), set deep in a stand of cypress trees on a mountain southeast of Nara. The wooden image (also early 9th century) of Shakyamuni, the "historic" Buddha, enshrined in a secondary building at the Murō-ji, is typical of the early Heian sculpture, with its ponderous body, covered by thick drapery folds carved in the honpa-shiki (rolling-wave) style, and its austere, withdrawn facial expression.
Fujiwara art: In the Fujiwara period, Pure Land Buddhism, which offered easy salvation through belief in Amida (the Buddha of the Western Paradise), became popular. This period is named after the Fujiwara family, then the most powerful in the country, who ruled as regents for the Emperor, becoming, in effect, civil dictators. Concurrently, the Kyoto nobility developed a society devoted to elegant aesthetic pursuits. So secure and beautiful was their world that they could not conceive of Paradise as being much different. They created a new form of Buddha hall, the Amida hall, which blends the secular with the religious, and houses one or more Buddha images within a structure resembling the mansions of the nobility.
The Hō-ō-dō (Phoenix Hall, completed 1053) of the Byōdō-in, a temple in Uji to the southeast of Kyoto, is the exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls. It consists of a main rectangular structure flanked by two L-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Inside, a single golden image of Amida (c. 1053) is installed on a high platform. The Amida sculpture was executed by Jōchō, who used a new canon of proportions and a new technique (yosegi), in which multiple pieces of wood are carved out like shells and joined from the inside. Applied to the walls of the hall are small relief carvings of celestials, the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from the Western Paradise to gather the souls of believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to Paradise. Raigō paintings on the wooden doors of the Hō-ō-dō, depicting the Descent of the Amida Buddha, are an early example of Yamato-e, Japanese-style painting, and contain representations of the scenery around Kyoto.
E-maki: In the last century of the Heian period, the horizontal, illustrated narrative handscroll, known as e-maki (絵巻, lit. "picture scroll"), came to the fore. Dating from about 1130, the Genji Monogatari Emaki, a famous illustrated Tale of Genji represents the earliest surviving yamato-e handscroll, and one of the high points of Japanese painting. Written about the year 1000 by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady-in-waiting to the Empress Shōshi, the novel deals with the life and loves of Genji and the world of the Heian court after his death. The 12th-century artists of the e-maki version devised a system of pictorial conventions that convey visually the emotional content of each scene. In the second half of the century, a different, livelier style of continuous narrative illustration became popular. The Ban Dainagon Ekotoba (late 12th century), a scroll that deals with an intrigue at court, emphasizes figures in active motion depicted in rapidly executed brush strokes and thin but vibrant colors.
E-maki also serve as some of the earliest and greatest examples of the otoko-e ("men's pictures") and onna-e ("women's pictures") styles of painting. There are many fine differences in the two styles, appealing to the aesthetic preferences of the genders. But perhaps most easily noticeable are the differences in subject matter. Onna-e, epitomized by the Tale of Genji handscroll, typically deals with court life, particularly the court ladies, and with romantic themes. Otoko-e often recorded historical events, particularly battles. The Siege of the Sanjō Palace (1160), depicted in the "Night Attack on the Sanjō Palace" section of the Heiji Monogatari handscroll is a famous example of this style.
Kamakura art
In 1180, a war broke out between the two most powerful warrior clans: the Taira and the Minamoto; five years later the Minamoto emerged victorious and established a de facto seat of government at the seaside village of Kamakura, where it remained until 1333. With the shift of power from the nobility to the warrior class, the arts had to satisfy a new audience: men devoted to the skills of warfare, priests committed to making Buddhism available to illiterate commoners, and conservatives, the nobility and some members of the priesthood who regretted the declining power of the court. Thus, realism, a popularizing trend, and a classical revival characterize the art of the Kamakura period. In the Kamakura period, Kyoto and Nara remained the centres of artistic production and high culture.
Sculpture: The Kei school of sculptors, particularly Unkei, created a new, more realistic style of sculpture. The two Niō guardian images (1203) in the Great South Gate of the Tōdai-ji in Nara illustrate .Unkei's dynamic supra-realistic style. The images, about 8 m (about 26 ft) tall, were carved of multiple blocks in a period of about three months, a feat indicative of a developed studio system of artisans working under the direction of a master sculptor. Unkei's polychromed wood sculptures (1208, Kōfuku-ji, Nara) of two Indian sages, Muchaku and Seshin, the legendary founders of the Hossō sect, are among the most accomplished realistic works of the period; as rendered by Unkei, they are remarkably individualized and believable images. One of the most famous works of this period is an Amitabha Triad (completed in 1195), in Jōdo-ji in Ono, created by Kaikei, Unkei's successor.
Calligraphy and painting: The Kegon Engi Emaki, the illustrated history of the founding of the Kegon sect, is an excellent example of the popularizing trend in Kamakura painting. The Kegon sect, one of the most important in the Nara period, fell on hard times during the ascendancy of the Pure Land sects. After the Genpei War (1180–1185), Priest Myōe of Kōzan-ji sought to revive the sect and also to provide a refuge for women widowed by the war. The wives of samurai had been discouraged from learning more than a syllabary system for transcribing sounds and ideas (see kana), and most were incapable of reading texts that employed Chinese ideographs (kanji).
Thus, the Kegon Engi Emaki combines passages of text, written with a maximum of easily readable syllables, and illustrations that have the dialogue between characters written next to the speakers, a technique comparable to contemporary comic strips. The plot of the e-maki, the lives of the two Korean priests who founded the Kegon sect, is swiftly paced and filled with fantastic feats such as a journey to the palace of the Ocean King, and a poignant mom story.
A work in a more conservative vein is the illustrated version of Murasaki Shikibu's diary. E-maki versions of her novel continued to be produced, but the nobility, attuned to the new interest in realism yet nostalgic for past days of wealth and power, revived and illustrated the diary in order to recapture the splendor of the author's times. One of the most beautiful passages illustrates the episode in which Murasaki Shikibu is playfully held prisoner in her room by two young courtiers, while, just outside, moonlight gleams on the mossy banks of a rivulet in the imperial garden.
Muromachi art
During the Muromachi period (1338–1573), also called the Ashikaga period, a profound change took place in Japanese culture. The Ashikaga clan took control of the shogunate and moved its headquarters back to Kyoto, to the Muromachi district of the city. With the return of government to the capital, the popularizing trends of the Kamakura period came to an end, and cultural expression took on a more aristocratic, elitist character. Zen Buddhism, the Ch'an sect traditionally thought to have been founded in China in the 6th century, was introduced for a second time into Japan and took root.
Painting: Because of secular ventures and trading missions to China organized by Zen temples, many Chinese paintings and objects of art were imported into Japan and profoundly influenced Japanese artists working for Zen temples and the shogunate. Not only did these imports change the subject matter of painting, but they also modified the use of color; the bright colors of Yamato-e yielded to the monochromes of painting in the Chinese manner, where paintings generally only have black and white or different tones of a single color.
Typical of early Muromachi painting is the depiction by the priest-painter Kao (active early 15th century) of the legendary monk Kensu (Hsien-tzu in Chinese) at the moment he achieved enlightenment. This type of painting was executed with quick brush strokes and a minimum of detail. Catching a Catfish with a Gourd (early 15th century, Taizō-in, Myōshin-ji, Kyoto), by the priest-painter Josetsu (active c. 1400), marks a turning point in Muromachi painting. Executed originally for a low-standing screen, it has been remounted as a hanging scroll with inscriptions by contemporary figures above, one of which refers to the painting as being in the "new style". In the foreground a man is depicted on the bank of a stream holding a small gourd and looking at a large slithery catfish. Mist fills the middle ground, and the background mountains appear to be far in the distance. It is generally assumed that the "new style" of the painting, executed about 1413, refers to a more Chinese sense of deep space within the picture plane.
The foremost artists of the Muromachi period are the priest-painters Shūbun and Sesshū. Shūbun, a monk at the Kyoto temple of Shōkoku-ji, created in the painting Reading in a Bamboo Grove (1446) a realistic landscape with deep recession into space. Sesshū, unlike most artists of the period, was able to journey to China and study Chinese painting at its source. Landscape of the Four Seasons (Sansui Chokan; c. 1486) is one of Sesshu's most accomplished works, depicting a continuing landscape through the four seasons.
Azuchi-Momoyama art
In the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603), a succession of military leaders, such as Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, attempted to bring peace and political stability to Japan after an era of almost 100 years of warfare. Oda, a minor chieftain, acquired power sufficient to take de facto control of the government in 1568 and, five years later, to oust the last Ashikaga shōgun. Hideyoshi took command after Oda's death, but his plans to establish hereditary rule were foiled by Ieyasu, who established the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603.
Painting: The most important school of painting in the Momoyama period was that of the Kanō school, and the greatest innovation of the period was the formula, developed by Kanō Eitoku, for the creation of monumental landscapes on the sliding doors enclosing a room. The decoration of the main room facing the garden of the Jukō-in, a subtemple of Daitoku-ji (a Zen temple in Kyoto), is perhaps the best extant example of Eitoku's work. A massive ume tree and twin pines are depicted on pairs of sliding screens in diagonally opposite corners, their trunks repeating the verticals of the corner posts and their branches extending to left and right, unifying the adjoining panels. Eitoku's screen, Chinese Lions, also in Kyoto, reveals the bold, brightly colored style of painting preferred by the samurai.
Hasegawa Tōhaku, a contemporary of Eitoku, developed a somewhat different and more decorative style for large-scale screen paintings. In his Maple Screen (楓図), now in the temple of Chishaku-in (:ja:智積院), Kyoto, he placed the trunk of the tree in the center and extended the limbs nearly to the edge of the composition, creating a flatter, less architectonic work than Eitoku, but a visually gorgeous painting. His sixfold screen, Pine Wood (松林図), is a masterly rendering in monochrome ink of a grove of trees enveloped in mist.
Art of the Edo period
The Tokugawa shogunate gained undisputed control of the government in 1603 with a commitment to bring peace and economic and political stability to the country; in large measure it was successful. The shogunate survived until 1867, when it was forced to capitulate because of its failure to deal with pressure from Western nations to open the country to foreign trade. One of the dominant themes in the Edo period was the repressive policies of the shogunate and the attempts of artists to escape these strictures. The foremost of these was the closing of the country to foreigners and the accoutrements of their cultures, and the imposition of strict codes of behaviour affecting every aspect of life, the clothes one wore, the person one married, and the activities one could or should not pursue.
In the early years of the Edo period, however, the full impact of Tokugawa policies had not yet been felt, and some of Japan's finest expressions in architecture and painting were produced: Katsura Palace in Kyoto and the paintings of Tawaraya Sōtatsu, pioneer of the Rinpa school.
Woodblock printing: Woodblock prints were originally used to translate Buddhist scriptures in the eighth century in Japan. Woodblock printing consist of the engraving of images or pictures on a piece of wood, which is then pressed against a piece of paper. In the eighth century woodblock was considered a convenient method of the reproduction of printed text until further innovations allowed for color to be translated on paper or better known as Nishik-e prints. Wood block printing was the common method of printing from the eleventh until the nineteenth century. Nishiki-e prints produced goods such as calendars that were commonly sold to wealthy members of society during the Edo period. In the Edo period these prints were depicted events and scenes of prominent actors. Ukiyo then was associated to woodblock printing in the early Edo period. These Ukiyo paintings depicted daily lives of prominent members of society. Ukiyo first started out as hand sculpted scrolls depicted life as a normal commoner.
Architecture: Katsura Detached Palace, built in imitation of Genji's palace, contains a cluster of shoin buildings that combine elements of classic Japanese architecture with innovative restatements. The whole complex is surrounded by a beautiful garden with paths for walking.
Many of powerful daimyōs (feudal lords) built a Circuit style Japanese garden in the territory country, and competed for the beauty.
Painting: Sōtatsu evolved a superb decorative style by re-creating themes from classical literature, using brilliantly colored figures and motifs from the natural world set against gold-leaf backgrounds. One of his finest works is the pair of screens The Waves at Matsushima in the Freer Gallery in Washington, D.C. A century later, Kōrin reworked Sōtatsu's style and created visually gorgeous works uniquely his own. Perhaps his finest are the screen paintings of Red and White Plum Blossoms.
Sculpture: The Buddhist monk Enkū carved 120,000 Buddhist images in a rough, individual style.
Ukiyo-e and nanga (bunjinga): The school of art best known in the West is that of the ukiyo-e paintings and woodblock prints of the demimonde, the world of the kabuki theater and the pleasure districts. Ukiyo-e prints began to be produced in the late 17th century; in 1765 Harunobu produced the first polychrome print. Print designers of the next generation, including Torii Kiyonaga and Utamaro, created elegant and sometimes insightful depictions of courtesans.
In the 19th century the dominant figures were Hokusai and Hiroshige, the latter a creator of romantic and somewhat sentimental landscape prints. The odd angles and shapes through which Hiroshige often viewed landscape, and the work of Kiyonaga and Utamaro, with its emphasis on flat planes and strong linear outlines, had a profound impact on such Western artists as Edgar Degas and Vincent van Gogh. Via artworks held in Western museums, these same printmakers would later exert a powerful influence on the imagery and aesthetic approaches used by early Modernist poets such as Ezra Pound, Richard Aldington and H.D.
A school of painting contemporary with ukiyo-e was nanga, or bunjinga, a style based on paintings executed by Chinese scholar-painters. Just as ukiyo-e artists chose to depict figures from life outside the strictures of the Tokugawa shogunate, bunjin artists turned to Chinese culture. The exemplars of this style are Ike no Taiga, Yosa Buson, Tanomura Chikuden, and Yamamoto Baiitsu (:ja:山本梅逸).
Ceramics
Traditional, mostly stoneware, styles continued in many parts of Japan, but Japanese ceramics were transformed around the start of the Edo period, by a large influx of Korean potters, captured or persuaded to emigrate in the course of the Japanese invasions of Korea in the 1590s. Many of these were settled on the southern island of Kyushu, and they brought with them experience of versions of the Chinese-style chambered climbing kiln, called noborigama in Japan, which allowed high temperatures with more precise control. By around 1620 they had discovered deposits of kaolinite, and started to make porcelain for the first time in Japan. The early wares (called "Early Imari") were relatively small and imitated the Chinese underglaze blue and white porcelain, which Japan had been importing for some time.
The porcelain industry greatly expanded in the late 1650s, as the collapse of the Chinese industry from civil war led to very large orders from the Chinese traders and the Dutch East India Company, by then the traders only permitted to do business in Japan. The first great period of Japanese export porcelain lasted until about the 1740s, and the great bulk of Japanese porcelain was made for export, mostly to Europe, but also the Islamic world to the west and south of Japan.
Lacquerware:
With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. After the middle of the Edo period, inrō for portable medicine containers began to be decorated gorgeously with maki-e and raden, and it became popular among samurai class and wealthy merchants in the chōnin class, and at the end of the Edo period, it changed from practical accessories to art collections. The export of lacquerware continued following the Azuchi-Momoyama period. Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known as collectors of Japanese lacquerware in this period.
Art of the Prewar period
When the Emperor of Japan regained ruling power in 1868, Japan was once again invaded by new and alien forms of culture. During the Prewar period, The introduction of Western cultural values led to a dichotomy in Japanese art, as well as in nearly every other aspect of culture, between traditional values and attempts to duplicate and assimilate a variety of clashing new ideas. This split remained evident in the late 20th century, although much synthesis had by then already occurred, and created an international cultural atmosphere and stimulated contemporary Japanese arts toward ever more innovative forms.
The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japanese arts at a succession of world's fairs, beginning with the 1873 Vienna World's Fair.
As well as heavily funding the fairs, the government took an active role organising how Japan's culture was presented to the world. It created a semi-public company — the (First Industrial Manufacturing Company) — to promote and commercialize exports of art and established the (Exhibition Bureau) to maintain quality standards. For the 1876 Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia, the Japanese government created a Centennial Office and sent a special envoy to secure space for the 30,000 items that would be displayed. The Imperial Household also took an active interest in arts and crafts, commissioning works ("presentation wares") as gifts for foreign dignitaries. In 1890, the (Artist to the Imperial Household) system was created to recognise distinguished artists; seventy were appointed from 1890 to 1944. Among these were the painter and lacquer artist Shibata Zeshin, ceramicist Makuzu Kōzan, painter Hashimoto Gahō, and cloisonné enamel artist Namikawa Yasuyuki.
As Western imports became popular, demand for Japanese art declined within Japan itself. In Europe and America, the new availability of Japanese art led to a fascination for Japanese culture; a craze known in Europe as Japonisme. Imperial patronage, government sponsorship, promotion to new audiences, and Western technology combined to foster an era of Japanese artistic innovation. In the decorative arts, Japanese artists reached new levels of technical sophistication.
Today, Masayuki Murata owns more than 10,000 Meiji art works and is one of the most enthusiastic collectors. From that time, most of the excellent works of Meiji Art were bought by foreign collectors and only a few of them remained in Japan, but because he bought back many works from foreign countries and opened the Kiyomizu Sannenzaka Museum, the study and reevaluation of Meiji Art rapidly advanced in Japan after the 21st century. Nasser Khalili is also one of the world's most dedicated collectors of Meiji art, and his collection encompasses many categories of Meiji art. The Japanese Imperial Family also owns excellent works of Meiji Art, some of which were donated to the state and are now stored in the Museum of the Imperial Collections.
Architecture and Garden
By the early 20th century, European art forms were well introduced and their marriage produced notable buildings like the Tokyo Train Station and the National Diet Building that still exist today. Tokyo Station, a building of Giyōfū architecture, full of bricks and pseudo-European style. This style of building was built in urban areas.
Many artistic new Japanese gardens were built by Jihei Ogawa.
Painting
The first response of the Japanese to Western art forms was open-hearted acceptance, and in 1876 the Technological Art School(:ja:工部美術学校) was opened, employing Italian instructors to teach Western methods. The second response was a pendulum swing in the opposite direction spearheaded by Okakura Kakuzō and the American Ernest Fenollosa, who encouraged Japanese artists to retain traditional themes and techniques while creating works more in keeping with contemporary taste. This was a strategy that eventually served to extend the influence of Japanese art as far as Calcutta, London, and Boston in the years leading up to World War I. Out of these two poles of artistic theory—derived from Europe and from East Asia respectively—developed yōga ("Western-style painting") and Nihonga ("Japanese painting"), categories that have maintained currency.
Enamels
During the Meiji era, Japanese cloisonné enamel reached a technical peak, producing items more advanced than any that had existed before. The period from 1890 to 1910 was known as the "Golden age" of Japanese enamels. Artists experimented with pastes and with the firing process to produce ever larger blocks of enamel, with less need for cloisons (enclosing metal strips). Thus enamels became a more pictorial medium, with designs similar to, or copied from, traditional paintings. Enamels with a design unique to Japan, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. In particular, the works of Namikawa Yasuyuki and Namikawa Sōsuke were exhibited at world's fairs and won many awards. Along with the two Namikawa, the Ando Cloisonné Company has produced many high-quality cloisonne. Japanese enamels were regarded as unequalled thanks to the new achievements in design and colouring.
Lacquerware
The Meiji era saw a renewed interest in lacquer as artists developed new designs and experimented with new textures and finishes. Maki-e (decorating the lacquer in gold or silver dust) was the most common technique for quality lacquerware in this period. Shibata Zeshin was a lacquerer who gained a high reputation for his works from the Bakumatsu to the Meiji period. Lacquerware called Shibayama and Somada, created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, and colorful metal and glass, and reached its peak during this period. Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.
Metalwork
At the start of the Meiji era, Japanese metalwork was almost totally unknown outside the country, unlike lacquer and porcelain which had previously been exported. Metalwork was connected to Buddhist practice, for example in the use of bronze for temple bells and incense cauldrons, so there were fewer opportunities for metalworkers once Buddhism was displaced as the state religion. International exhibitions brought Japanese cast bronze to a new foreign audience, attracting strong praise. The past history of samurai weaponry equipped Japanese metalworkers to create metallic finishes in a wide range of colours. By combining and finishing copper, silver and gold in different proportions, they created specialised alloys including shakudō and shibuichi. With this variety of alloys and finishes, an artist could give the impression of full-colour decoration.
Ivory carving
In the Meiji period, Japanese clothes began to be westernized and the number of people who wore kimono decreased, so the craftsmen who made netsuke and kiseru with ivory and wood lost their demand. Therefore, they tried to create a new field, ivory sculptures for interior decoration, and many elaborate works were exported to foreign countries or purchased by the Imperial Family. In particular, the works of Ishikawa Komei and Asahi Gyokuzan won praise in Japan.
Porcelain and Earthenware
Technical and artistic innovations of the Meiji era turned porcelain into one of the most internationally successful Japanese decorative art forms. Satsuma ware was a name originally given to pottery from Satsuma province, elaborately decorated with gilt and enamel. These wares were highly praised in the West. Seen in the West as distinctively Japanese, this style actually owed a lot to imported pigments and Western influences, and had been created with export in mind. Workshops in many cities raced to produce this style to satisfy demand from Europe and America, often producing quickly and cheaply. So the term "Satsuma ware" came to be associated not with a place of origin but with lower-quality ware created purely for export. Despite this, artists such as Yabu Meizan and Makuzu Kōzan maintained the highest artistic standards while also successfully exporting. From 1876 to 1913, Kōzan won prizes at 51 exhibitions, including the World's fair and the National Industrial Exhibition.
Textiles
The 1902 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica wrote, "In no branch of applied art does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results than that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more conspicuous progress during recent years." Very large, colourful pictorial works were being produced in Kyoto. Embroidery had become an art form in its own right, adopting a range of pictorial techniques such as chiaroscuro and aerial perspective.
Art of the Postwar period
Immediately following Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945, large numbers of Japanese artists fell under the influence of, or even joined, the Japan Communist Party, which had just been legalized by the U.S.-led military occupation of Japan after many years of suppression by the prewar and wartime Japanese police. This had to do with the success of the Communist Party had in peddling the notion in the early postwar years that the party had been the only group in Japan to have resisted wartime militarism. In addition, the Japanese word for "vanguard" (前衛, zen'ei), as in "vanguard of the communist revolution," happens to be the same word used for "avant-garde" as in the artistic avant-garde. The Japan Communist Party soon came to dominate the major art societies and exhibitions in Japan, and thus the predominant form of art in the immediate aftermath of the war was socialist realism that depicted the suffering of the poor and the nobility of the working class, in line with Communist Party doctrine that all art should serve the purpose of advancing the cause of revolution. In 1952, the Communist Party even ordered artists such as Hiroshi Katsuragawa and other members of the newly formed Avant-Garde Art Association (前衛美術会, Zen'ei Bijutsukai) out into the mountains to produce socialist realist art in support of "mountain guerrilla squads" that were attempting to foment a violent revolution in Japan.
The 1950s: Struggling to break free of socialist realism
Over the course of the 1950s, many Japanese artists became increasingly disillusioned with the rigid and limited definition of "art" enforced by the Communist Party. However, due to the ongoing preeminence of Communist Party members and supporters in the senior ranks of artistic societies and exhibition juries, artists found it extremely difficult to even show their art unless they conformed to the Party's guidelines. Some artists shied away from formal public exhibitions. Others sought recognition, financial support, and opportunities to show their art overseas, such as the Gutai group of conceptual artists, founded in 1954. Still other artists made use of the few unjuried, "independent" exhibitions in Japan, such as the Yomiuri Indépendant Exhibition sponsored by the Yomiuri Shinbun, which anyone could enter.
A final straw came with the massive 1960 Anpo Protests against the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty (known as "Anpo" in Japanese"), due to the extremely passive role played by the supposedly "vanguard" Communist Party. When the protests failed to stop the treaty, a round of recriminations led to further disillusionment with the Communist Party and socialist realist art, causing many more artists to break away from the Party's influence.
The 1960s: An explosion of new genres
With the dominance of socialist realism fading, the 1960s witnessed an explosion of new art forms in Japan, as the arts expanded in new directions that might best be termed "postmodern." Artist collectives such as Neo-Dada Organizers, Zero Dimension, and Hi-Red Center explored concepts such as "non-art" and "anti-art," and conducted a variety of audacious "events," "happenings," and other forms of performance art designed to erode the boundaries between art and daily life. The Mono-ha group similarly pushed the boundaries dividing art, space, landscape, and the environment. Other artists, such as graphic designer Tadanori Yokoo, drew inspiration from 1960s counterculture and the explosion of new forms of adult-oriented manga comics. In the performing arts, Tatsumi Hijikata pioneered a new form of postmodern dance called Butoh, and playwrights such as Jūrō Kara and Satō Makoto created the Angura style of radical "underground" theater. And in photography, photographers such as Daidō Moriyama pioneered an extremely influential new school of postwar photography that emphasized spontaneity over carefully staged composition and celebrated the characteristics "are, bure, bokeh" (literally "rough, blurred, out-of-focus").
The proliferation of new types of art was supported by the tremendous growth of Japan's economy in the 1960s, remembered as the "Japanese economic miracle." Over the course of the 1960s, the Japanese economy grew by over 10% per year. Rising wealth created a new class of consumers who could afford to spend money on art and support different types of art and artists. For the first time in Japan's modern history, it became viable for significant numbers of artists to make a living purely through selling their art. The 1960s construction boom in Japan, which leveled the old wood-and-paper traditional Japanese architecture and replaced it with sparkling mega-cities of glass and steel, helped inspire brand new schools of Japanese architecture, such as the Metabolism (architecture) movement led by Kenzō Tange, that boldly broke free from conventional models and proved influential around the world.
At the same time, however, the art world remained dominated by cliques that promoted the works of certain (usually male) artists over others. As it became much easier for Japanese to travel overseas in the 1960s, some female artists such as Yayoi Kusama and Yoko Ono found better reception overseas, and decamped for artistic centers such as London, Paris, and New York, as did many male artists as well.
The triumph of the new forms of Japanese art was cemented at the 1970 Osaka World's Fair, where dozens of avant-garde and conceptual artists were hired to design pavilions and artistic experiences for fair-goers. Japanese avant-garde art had gone global, and had become something even the conservative government was proud to display to the world.
The 1970s and 1980s: Riding the economic bubble
The 1970s and 1980s saw Japanese art continue in many of the directions begun in the 1950s and 1960s, but often with much bigger budgets and more expensive materials. As Japan's economy kept rapidly expanding, and eventually grew into one of the largest economic bubbles in history. With Japanese currency becoming incredibly strong in the wake of the 1985 Plaza Accord, Japanese individuals and institutions became major players in the international art market. Extraordinarily wealthy Japanese mega-corporations began constructing their own private art museums and acquiring collections of modern and contemporary art, and Japanese artists greatly benefited from these expenditures as well.
In particular, artistic production continued to trend away from traditional painting and sculpture in the direction of graphic design, pop art, wearable art, performance art, conceptual art, and installation art. Various types of "hybrid" art increasingly came into vogue. As technology advanced, artists increasingly incorporated electronics, video, computers, synthesized music and sounds, and video games into their art. The aesthetics of manga and anime, which so many younger artists had grown up immersed in, exerted an increasing if sometimes quite subtle influence. Above all, artists eschewed anything redolent of "high art" or "fine art" in favor of the personal, the eclectic, the fantastic or phantasmagoric, and the playful. In edition, female artists such as Mika Yoshizawa became more and more accepted and supported by the art world in Japan.
Contemporary art in Japan
Japanese contemporary art takes as many forms and expresses as many different ideas as worldwide contemporary art in general. It ranges from advertisements, anime, video games, and architecture as already mentioned, to sculpture, painting, and drawing in all their myriad forms. Japanese artists have made especially notable contributions to global contemporary art in the fields of architecture, video games, graphic design, fashion, and perhaps above all, animation. While anime at first were derived primarily from manga stories, diverse anime abounds today, and many artists and studios have risen to great fame as artists; Hayao Miyazaki and the artists and animators of Studio Ghibli are generally regarded to be among the best the anime world has to offer.
At the same time, many Japanese artists continue to use traditional Japanese artistic techniques and materials inherited from premodern times, such as traditional forms of Japanese paper and ceramics and painting with black and color ink on paper or silk. Some of these artworks depict traditional subject matters in traditional styles, while others explore new and different motifs and styles, or create hybrids of traditional and contemporary art forms, while using traditional media or materials. Still others eschew native media and styles, embracing Western oil paints or any number of other forms.
In sculpture, the same holds true; some artists stick to the traditional modes, some doing it with a modern flair, and some choose Western or brand new modes, styles, and media. Yo Akiyama is just one of many modern Japanese sculptors. He works primarily in clay pottery and ceramics, creating works that are very simple and straightforward, looking like they were created out of the earth itself. Another sculptor, using iron and other modern materials, built a large modern art sculpture in the Israeli port city of Haifa, called Hanabi (Fireworks). Nahoko Kojima is a contemporary Kirie artist who has pioneered the technique of Paper Cut Sculpture which hangs in 3D.
Takashi Murakami is arguably one of the most well-known Japanese modern artists in the Western world. Murakami and the other artists in his studio create pieces in a style, inspired by anime, which he has dubbed "superflat". His pieces take a multitude of forms, from painting to sculpture, some truly massive in size. But most if not all show very clearly this anime influence, utilizing bright colors and simplified details.
Yayoi Kusama, Yoshitomo Nara, Hiroshi Sugimoto, Chiharu Shiota, Daidō Moriyama, Mariko Mori, Aya Takano, and Tabaimo are considered significant artists in the field of contemporary Japanese art. The Group 1965, an artists' collective, counts contemporary artist Makoto Aida among its members.
Performing arts
Many traditional forms of Japanese music, dance, and theater have survived in the contemporary world, enjoying some popularity through reidentification with Japanese cultural values. Traditional music and dance, which trace their origins to ancient religious use—Buddhist, Shintō, and folk—have been preserved in the dramatic performances of Noh, Kabuki, and bunraku theater. Ancient court music and dance forms deriving from continental sources were preserved through Imperial household musicians and temple and shrine troupes. Some of the oldest musical instruments in the world have been in continuous use in Japan from the Jōmon period, as shown by finds of stone and clay flutes and zithers having between two and four strings, to which Yayoi period metal bells and gongs were added to create early musical ensembles. By the early historical period (6th to 7th centuries), there were a variety of large and small drums, gongs, chimes, flutes, and stringed instruments, such as the imported mandolin-like biwa and the flat six-stringed zither, which evolved into the thirteen-stringed koto. These instruments formed the orchestras for the 7th-century continentally derived ceremonial court music (gagaku), which, together with the accompanying bugaku (a type of court dance), are the most ancient of such forms still performed at the Imperial court, ancient temples, and shrines. Buddhism introduced the rhythmic chants, still used, that underpin Shigin, and that were joined with native ideas to underlay the development of vocal music, such as in Noh.
Aesthetic concepts
Japanese art is characterized by unique polarities. In the ceramics of the prehistoric periods, for example, exuberance was followed by disciplined and refined artistry. Another instance is provided by two 16th-century structures that are poles apart: the Katsura Detached Palace is an exercise in simplicity, with an emphasis on natural materials, rough and untrimmed, and an affinity for beauty achieved by accident; Nikkō Tōshō-gū is a rigidly symmetrical structure replete with brightly colored relief carvings covering every visible surface. Japanese art, valued not only for its simplicity but also for its colorful exuberance, has considerably influenced 19th-century Western painting and 20th-century Western architecture.
Japan's aesthetic conceptions, deriving from diverse cultural traditions, have been formative in the production of unique art forms. Over the centuries, a wide range of artistic motifs developed and were refined, becoming imbued with symbolic significance. Like a pearl, they acquired many layers of meaning and a high luster. Japanese aesthetics provide a key to understanding artistic works perceivably different from those coming from Western traditions.
Within the East Asian artistic tradition, China has been the acknowledged teacher and Japan the devoted student. Nevertheless, several Japanese arts developed their own style, which can be differentiated from various Chinese arts. The monumental, symmetrically balanced, rational approach of Chinese art forms became miniaturized, irregular, and subtly suggestive in Japanese hands. Miniature rock gardens, diminutive plants (bonsai), and ikebana (flower arrangements), in which the selected few represented a garden, were the favorite pursuits of refined aristocrats for a millennium, and they have remained a part of contemporary cultural life.
The diagonal, reflecting a natural flow, rather than the fixed triangle, became the favored structural device, whether in painting, architectural or garden design, dance steps, or musical notations. Odd numbers replace even numbers in the regularity of a Chinese master pattern, and a pull to one side allows a motif to turn the corner of a three-dimensional object, thus giving continuity and motion that is lacking in a static frontal design. Japanese painters used the devices of the cutoff, close-up, and fade-out by the 12th century in yamato-e, or Japanese-style, scroll painting, perhaps one reason why modern filmmaking has been such a natural and successful art form in Japan. Suggestion is used rather than direct statement; oblique poetic hints and allusive and inconclusive melodies and thoughts have proved frustrating to the Westerner trying to penetrate the meanings of literature, music, painting, and even everyday language.
The Japanese began defining such aesthetic ideas in a number of evocative phrases by at least the 10th or 11th century. The courtly refinements of the aristocratic Heian period evolved into the elegant simplicity seen as the essence of good taste in the understated art that is called shibui. Two terms originating from Zen Buddhist meditative practices describe degrees of tranquility: one, the repose found in humble melancholy (wabi), the other, the serenity accompanying the enjoyment of subdued beauty (sabi). Zen thought also contributed a penchant for combining the unexpected or startling, used to jolt one's consciousness toward the goal of enlightenment. In art, this approach was expressed in combinations of such unlikely materials as lead inlaid in lacquer and in clashing poetic imagery. Unexpectedly humorous and sometimes grotesque images and motifs also stem from the Zen kōan (conundrum). Although the arts have been mainly secular since the Edo period, traditional aesthetics and training methods, stemming generally from religious sources, continue to underlie artistic productions.
Modern concepts
Today, Japan has developed a more modern cultural aesthetic often associated with Shojo manga known as "kawaii," which can otherwise be described as "cute". Typically represented through cartoons and animation, kawaii has had a powerful cultural impact and is also a powerful agent for Japanese advertisement and consumption. The concept of "cuteness" that is currently displayed in kawaii has traditionally been revered in Japanese culture spanning back to the Edo period of art in the 15th century.
Traditional aesthetics
Traditional Japanese Aesthetics are forms of beauty in Japanese culture that derive from the earliest centuries. At least over two-hundred years ago. Some of these early aesthetics make up the Japanese Aesthetic as a whole: Syncretic Buddhist Art, Wabi-Sabi, Miyabi, Shibui, and Jo-ha-Kyu.
Syncretic Buddhist art
See Japanese Buddhist architecture.
Wabi-Sabi
This aesthetic in Japanese culture is known for many things such as beauty in all things, even those that are imperfect. Modesty and unconventional things are what are seen as the wabi-sabi aesthetic. Wabi and sabi both make up the aesthetic of beauty in incompleteness together. When separated, both serve as differing terms. Wabi stands for fresh, simple work, denoting all complication and having a very rustic feel to all it relates too. Being made from nature and made from man itself in a tandem. If made by accident, it brings about a certain uniqueness to the work. Sabi is beauty and how it originates from age. The cycle of life plays a great role in sabi, adding to the aesthetic that sense of beauty in works that receive mending damage from aging over time. When bringing wabi and sabi together, it creates the aesthetic that every simple piece developed does not require a complicated design. Nor does it require absolute completeness for beauty to be found in it, and with age comes more delicate beauty.
Wabi-sabi has always been related to tea ceremonies in Japanese culture. It is said that these ceremonies are profound wabi-sabi events. Wabi-sabi is also related to activities such as architecture, fashion, and philosophy. All of these portions of wabi-sabi all share belief in the same theme: all imperfections such as incomplete work holds undeniable beauty. However, not everyone, of course, favors the idea behind wabi-sabi. While this is true, there are many who wish to keep the belief alive despite what others believe. Overall, wabi-sabi seems to be a very mindful approach to everyday life. A calm way to see things, and a way to live without coming off as judgmental. When understanding wabi-sabi, there are terms that strongly relate to the aesthetic as well.
Fukinsei: asymmetry, irregularity.
Kanso: simplicity.
Koko: basic, weathered.
Shizen: without pretense, natural.
Yugen: subtly profound grace, not obvious.
Datsuzoku: unbounded by convention, free.
Seijaku: tranquility, silence.
Each of these terms are used to break down the complete understanding of wabi-sabi. It more so relates to the philosophy aspect of the entire aesthetic and how to view one's surroundings. These can allude to several things including the ideas in humans, the themes behind certain aspects of life, or nature itself. Each term leads back to the point that wabi-sabi is an aesthetic that is about appreciating the small things that are imperfect and or incomplete.
Miyabi
In the ongoing history of Japan, miyabi can stand for many things. However, it seems to be centered around the concept of elegance, beauty, refinement, and courtliness. For this, it is one of the older aesthetics among most of the Japanese aesthetics in the culture. That would explain why it is not as popular as the rest which may be newer compared to miyabi. It is a term that is also used to express aristocratic culture. Miyabi eliminates all forms of rudeness and crudity from the culture. This brings about the proper picture and form of aristocratic culture. Miyabi brings about these changes. Miyabi ensures that refinement of love, literature, feeling, and art is celebrated within the Japanese culture. Refinement is welcomed.
Shibui
Shibui is coming to understand an object or an art piece for what it is. Locating simple and subtle beauty in certain things is a goal when it comes to designing or reviewing certain designs. In many ways, shibui is very similar to wabi-sabi but is not wabi-sabi. Shibui appreciates items and objects for simply being. There is no complication or irrational thinking when it comes down to shibui. Akin to certain aesthetics in the Japanese culture, there are a couple of terms in relation to Shibui: shibumi is the taste of shibui; Shibusa is the state of shibui.
Both these terms relate to subtle, unobtrusive beauty. There are several items and objects that can be considered a part of the shibui aesthetic, not just art or fashion. It can also be people, animals, songs, movies, several different types of media can be seen as shibui. For example, a pair of shoes, a camera, a moped bike, and several different pieces of art or objects used for everyday activity can be seen as shibui. Direct and simple is the way of shibui. Nothing over the top or too flashy.
Jo-ha-kyu
This is an aesthetic that originated from the Noh Theatre and even appeared in the 14th century. It is used in different art forms in Japan even still today. It is a movement that has been applied in several different arts with jo, ha, and kyu standing for individual things to make up its definition: jo, 'beginning'; ha, 'break', 'crack'; kyu: 'rapid', 'over'
Essentially, what this aesthetic means is that when it comes down to pieces that deal with movement, things should start slowly with proper build-up. Almost akin to how a story is told. Then once it reaches its climax, it speeds up. When it reaches its end, then that is when things begin to rapidly speed up until all of a sudden it has reached an ending.
Artists
Traditionally, the artist was a vehicle for expression and was personally reticent, in keeping with the role of an artisan or entertainer of low social status. The calligrapher, a member of the Confucian literati class, or samurai class in Japan, had a higher status, while artists of great genius were often recognized in the Kamakura period by receiving a name from a feudal lord and thus rising socially. The performing arts, however, were generally held in less esteem, and the purported immorality of actresses of the early Kabuki theater caused the Tokugawa government to bar women from the stage; female roles in Kabuki and Noh thereafter were played by men.
After the World War II, artists typically gathered in arts associations, some of which were long-established professional societies while others reflected the latest arts movement. The Japan Artists League, for example, was responsible for the largest number of major exhibitions, including the prestigious annual Nitten (Japan Art Exhibition). The PEN Club of Japan (PEN stands for prose, essay, and narrative), a branch of an international writers' organization, was the largest of some thirty major authors' associations. Actors, dancers, musicians, and other performing artists boasted their own societies, including the Kabuki Society, organized in 1987 to maintain this art's traditional high standards, which were thought to be endangered by modern innovation. By the 1980s, however, avant-garde painters and sculptors had eschewed all groups and were "unattached" artists.
Art schools
There are a number of specialized universities for the arts in Japan, led by the national universities. The most important is the Tokyo Arts University, one of the most difficult of all national universities to enter. Another seminal center is Tama Art University, which produced many of Japan's late 20th-century innovative young artists. Traditional training in the arts, derived from Chinese traditional methods, remains; experts teach from their homes or head schools working within a master-pupil relationship. A pupil does not experiment with a personal style until achieving the highest level of training, or graduating from an arts school, or becoming head of a school. Many young artists have criticized this system as stifling creativity and individuality. A new generation of the avant-garde has broken with this tradition, often receiving its training in the West. In the traditional arts, however, the master-pupil system preserves the secrets and skills of the past. Some master-pupil lineages can be traced to the Kamakura period, from which they continue to use a great master's style or theme. Japanese artists consider technical virtuosity as the sine qua non of their professions, a fact recognized by the rest of the world as one of the hallmarks of Japanese art.
The national government has actively supported the arts through the Agency for Cultural Affairs, set up in 1968 as a special body of the Ministry of Education. The agency's budget for FY 1989 rose to ￥37.8 billion after five years of budget cuts, but still represented much less than 1 percent of the general budget. The agency's Cultural Affairs Division disseminated information about the arts within Japan and internationally, and the Cultural Properties Protection Division (文化財保護部, now 文化財部) protected the nation's cultural heritage. The Cultural Affairs Division is concerned with such areas as art and culture promotion, arts copyrights, and improvements in the national language. It also supports both national and local arts and cultural festivals, and it funds traveling cultural events in music, theater, dance, art exhibitions, and filmmaking. Special prizes are offered to encourage young artists and established practitioners, and some grants are given each year to enable them to train abroad. The agency funds national museums of modern art in Kyoto and Tokyo and The National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, which exhibit both Japanese and international shows. The agency also supports the Japan Art Academy, which honors eminent persons of arts and letters, appointing them to membership and offering ￥3.5 million in prize money. Awards are made in the presence of the Emperor, who personally bestows the highest accolade, the Order of Culture.
Tokyo University of the Arts also taking active roles on several art events in previous years. Their other campuses are also involving varied courses.
Private sponsorship and foundations
Arts patronage and promotion by the government are broadened to include a new cooperative effort with corporate Japan to provide funding beyond the tight budget of the Agency for Cultural Affairs. Many other public and private institutions participate, especially in the burgeoning field of awarding arts prizes. A growing number of large corporations join major newspapers in sponsoring exhibitions and performances and in giving yearly prizes. The most important of the many literary awards given are the venerable Naoki Prize and the Akutagawa Prize, the latter being the equivalent of the Pulitzer Prize in the United States.
In 1989 an effort to promote cross-cultural exchange led to the establishment of a Japanese "Nobel Prize" for the arts, the Premium Imperiale, by the Japan Art Association. This prize of US$100,000 was funded largely by the mass media conglomerate Fujisankei Communications Group and was awarded on a worldwide selection basis.
A number of foundations promoting the arts arose in the 1980s, including the Cultural Properties Foundation set up to preserve historic sites overseas, especially along the Silk Road in Inner Asia and at Dunhuang in China. Another international arrangement was made in 1988 with the United States Smithsonian Institution for cooperative exchange of high-technology studies of Asian artifacts. The government plays a major role by funding the Japan Foundation, which provides both institutional and individual grants, effects scholarly exchanges, awards annual prizes, supported publications and exhibitions, and sends traditional Japanese arts groups to perform abroad. The Arts Festival held for two months each fall for all the performing arts is sponsored by the Agency for Cultural Affairs. Major cities also provides substantial support for the arts; a growing number of cities in the 1980s had built large centers for the performing arts and, stimulated by government funding, were offering prizes such as the Lafcadio Hearn Prize initiated by the city of Matsue. A number of new municipal museums were also providing about one-third more facilities in the 1980s than were previously available. In the late 1980s, Tokyo added more than twenty new cultural halls, notably, the large Bunkamura built by Tokyu Group and the reconstruction of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. All these efforts reflect a rising popular enthusiasm for the arts. Japanese art buyers swept the Western art markets in the late 1980s, paying record highs for impressionist paintings and US$51.7 million alone for one blue period Picasso.
See also
National Treasures of Japan
List of National Treasures of Japan (crafts-others)
Culture of Japan
Eastern art history
History of painting
Buddhist art
Buddhist art in Japan
Japanese architecture
Japanese garden
Japanese calligraphy
Japanese lacquerware
Japanese painting
Japanese pottery and porcelain
Japanese sculpture
Japanese theater
Woodblock printing in Japan
List of collections of Japanese art
Art Galleries
Japan
Tokyo National Museum, est. 1872
Kyoto National Museum, est. 1889
Nara National Museum, est. 1889
Kyushu National Museum, est. 2005
United States
Freer Gallery of Art, est. 1923
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Japanese artists category
Musha-e
References
Sources
This article was originally based on material from WebMuseum Paris - Famous Artworks exhibition .
Japan -
Boardman, John, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity", Princeton University Press, 1994,
Impey, Oliver, in Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 71-74, 1990, Conran Octopus.
Kaempfer, H. M. and W. O. G. Sickinghe The Fascinating World of the Japanese Artist. A Collection of Essays on Japanese Art by Members of the Society for Japanese Arts and Crafts, The Hague, Society for Japanese Arts and Crafts, 1971.
"Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan" (NHK and Tokyo National Museum, 2003)
"De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale", Osmund Bopearachchi, Christine Sachs,
"The Crossroads of Asia, Transformation in image and symbols", 1992,
Further reading
Kato, Kauro (加藤 薫 Katō Kaoru) (Kanagawa University), translator: Saeko Yanagisawa. "Acercamiento a la influencia del movimiento muralista mexicano en el arte contemporáneo de Japón." (日本現代美術におけるメキシコ壁画運動の影響について, Archive) Crónicas. El Muralismo, Producto de la Revolución Mexicana, en América. National Autonomous University of Mexico. December 2008, No. 13, p. 237–264. Spanish: p. 237–255, Japanese: p. 256–264.
External links
Five Thousand Years of Japanese Art Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, online version
Japanese Prints by John Gould Fletcher
e-Museum High definition images of national treasures and important cultural properties owned by four national museums in Japan
Ukiyo-e in the "A World History of Art"
Japan Cultural Profile - national cultural portal for Japan created by Visiting Arts/Japan Foundation
Ruth and Sherman Lee Institute for Japanese Art Collection, online collection of images from the Online Archive of California/University of California Merced
The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum
The Art of Bonsai Project
The Vision and Art of Shinjo Ito: Sculptures, calligraphy, photographs of a buddhist Great Master (Grand Acharya)
"History of Japanese Art" Lecture at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts by Okakura Kakuzo (English Translation)
Japanese Art of the Meiji Period (1868 – 1912) The Khalili Collections
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|
227245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20v%20Lane | Walter v Lane | Walter v Lane [1900] AC 539, was a judgement of the House of Lords on the question of Authorship under the Copyright Act 1842. It has come to be recognised as a seminal case on the notion of originality in copyright law and has been upheld as an early example of the sweat of the brow doctrine.
Facts
Reporters from The Times newspaper took down shorthand notes of a series of speeches given by the Earl of Rosebery, a prominent politician, and later transcribed them, adding punctuation, corrections and revisions to reproduce verbatim the speeches. These were then published in The Times.
The respondent in the case published a book including these speeches, taken substantially from the reports of those speeches in The Times. The question for the court was whether the reporters of the speech could be considered "authors" under the terms of the Copyright Act.
Reasoning
The House of Lords, by a 4-1 majority, reversed the decision of the Court of Appeal. The court held that the reporters were authors under the Copyright Act 1842. The effort, skill and time that spent was sufficient to make them original.
For Lord Brampton, it was crucial that the "preparation [of the reports] involved considerable intellectual skill and brain labour beyond the mere mechanical operation of writing".
Lord Robertson, dissenting, compared the reporters to phonographs and found that there was no authorship even though there was much skill required.
Significance
Although the Copyright Act 1842 did not contain a notion of "originality" (the word original did not appear until the enactment of the Copyright Act 1911), the decision in Walter v Lane would later be treated as authority for the notion of "originality" within English copyright law.
See also
Reynolds v Times Newspapers Ltd: court case involving The Times
References
House of Lords cases
1900 in case law
United Kingdom copyright case law
1900 in British law
The Times | [
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227248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton%20Bowl%20Classic | Cotton Bowl Classic | The Cotton Bowl Classic (also known as the Cotton Bowl) is an American college football bowl game that has been held annually in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex since January 1, 1937. The game was originally played at its namesake stadium in Dallas before moving to Cowboys Stadium (now AT&T Stadium) in nearby Arlington in 2010. Since 2014, the game has been sponsored by the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company and officially known as the Goodyear Cotton Bowl Classic; it was previously sponsored by Mobil (1989–1995) and Southwestern Bell Corporation/SBC Communications/AT&T (1997–2014).
Historically, the game hosted the champion of the Southwest Conference (SWC) against a team invited from elsewhere in the country, frequently a major independent or a runner-up from the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Following the dissolution of the SWC in 1996, the game hosted a runner-up from the Big 12 Conference, facing an SEC team from 1999 to 2014. The Cotton Bowl Classic has served as one of six bowls in the College Football Playoff (CFP) since the 2014 season; it hosted a national semifinal following the 2015, 2018 and 2021 seasons.
History
1930s
The Cotton Bowl Classic was founded in Dallas in 1937 at the Texas State Fair Grounds, when Texas oil executive J. Curtis Sanford financed the first one out of his own pocket. TCU and star quarterback Sammy Baugh took on Marquette, winning 16–6, but the game lost money even though some 17,000 attended. Nonetheless, Sanford persevered, and in 1938 the game made a profit as Rice defeated Colorado 28–14 in front of a crowd of 37,000.
Some 40,000 attended the 1939 match between Saint Mary's College of California and Texas Tech, with the Gaels upsetting the undefeated Red Raiders 20–13.
1940s
In 1940, an underdog Clemson team surprised the Boston College Eagles 6–3, in the first and only appearance at the Cotton Bowl Classic by Tigers coach Frank Howard. Attendance at this game was given as 20,000. Later that year, a group of prominent Dallas citizens took over the staging of the game as the Cotton Bowl Athletic Association. A few months later, the CBAA became an agency of the Southwest Conference. From 1941 to 1994, the SWC's champion hosted the Cotton Bowl Classic.
In 1943, The Texas Longhorns represented the SWC in their first ever bowl game against a highly ranked Georgia Tech team at the time. Prior to the game, sportswriters boasted that Texas did not belong in the same league as Georgia Tech. Texas proved the public wrong by defeating the Yellow Jackets 14–7 in what was mostly a defensive battle. This Cotton Bowl was the first bowl appearance for Texas as the Longhorns would go on to appear in a record 22 Cotton Bowls, the most of any team.
In 1946, Missouri was defeated by Texas, despite the 4th quarter work of freshman fullback Robert (Bob) Lee Clodfelter, who was to mature under Weeb Ewbank at Washington University in St. Louis the next three years.
In 1947 LSU and Arkansas played in front of 38,000 people to a scoreless tie in what would later become known as the "Ice Bowl." LSU got the better of Arkansas most of the game, but the game truly belonged to the weatherman.
In 1948 Penn State, in a bowl game for the first time in 25 years, played Dallas' SMU to a 13–13 tie. Because none of the Dallas hotels would provide accommodations for the two African-American members of the Penn State team, the Penn State team ended up staying at a Naval Air Station 14 miles from Dallas. This was the first interracial game played at the Cotton Bowl Stadium.
1950s
The 1953 Cotton Bowl would be a rematch of the 1951 bowl game as Texas and Tennessee played for the second time. Texas defensive stars shut out the Vols 16–0 as the Longhorns avenged the previous meeting when Tennessee beat Texas 20–14.
The 1954 Cotton Bowl Classic featured one of the most famous plays in college football history. Rice's Dickey Moegle (last name spelling later changed to "Maegle") began a run around end from his team's 5-yard line and down the open field. Alabama's Tommy Lewis jumped off the bench and tackled Moegle. The referee, Cliff Shaw, saw what happened and signaled touchdown even though Moegle was "tackled" at the 42-yard line.
The 1957 Classic matched the TCU Horned Frogs against the Jim Brown-led Syracuse Orangemen. Brown rushed for 135 yards, scored three touchdowns and kicked three extra points but a fourth-quarter blocked extra point by TCU's Chico Mendoza proved the margin of victory as TCU won, 28-27. TCU QB Chuck Curtis passed for 174 yards, threw for two touchdowns and rushed for another to lead the Frogs.
1960s
In 1960, Syracuse defeated Texas 23-14 to win the national championship. Syracuse was led by bowl MVP Ernie Davis, who ran for one touchdown, caught a Cotton Bowl Classic record 87-yard touchdown, and intercepted a pass leading to a third touchdown. There was a brawl on the field just before the end of the first half; some said it was because of Texas taking cheap shots at Ernie Davis. The University of Texas president Logan Wilson called for an NCAA hearing on the fight after the game. Syracuse Athletic Director Lew Andreas asserted that no one from his university had accused Texas of dirty play, and attributed those claims to members of the media. The issue was dropped shortly thereafter. In 1961, Davis became the first black athlete to win the Heisman Trophy, but died of leukemia before his pro career could begin.
Duke defeated Arkansas 7–6 in the 1961 game. Duke scored with 2:45 remaining and recovered a fumble on the ensuing series to win the game.
In 1962, Texas would again be selected to play in the Cotton Bowl after winning another SWC Crown. This time the Longhorns faced a highly talented Mississippi Rebels team. The game was a low scoring meeting that came down to the final quarter as Texas won 12–7.
The 1963 game featured the returning Texas Longhorns and the LSU Tigers, who, like Mississippi, were from the SEC. Lynn Amedee's 23 yard field goal gave the Tigers a 3–0 halftime lead after Texas had missed their own which led to an 80-yard drive. This was the first field goal in the Classic since 1942. Amedee recovered a Longhorn fumble at the 37 early in the third quarter and Jimmy Field scored 5 plays later on a touchdown run. Buddy Hamic recovered a Longhorn fumble to set up an Amedee field goal 13 plays later as the Tigers shut the Longhorns out.
In 1964, No. 1 Texas completed an undefeated season by defeating No. 2 Navy (led by Heisman Trophy winner and future Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach). The game was played six weeks after the assassination of John F. Kennedy (coincidentally, a retired Naval officer) in Dallas. The 1964 game is the second bowl game in college football history to pair the No. 1 and No. 2 teams in the nation (the 1963 Rose Bowl being the first).
In 1965, the Arkansas Razorbacks took an undefeated record (10–0) into the Classic versus a 9–1 Nebraska Cornhuskers team. Although Alabama had been awarded the AP and UPI (Coaches) polls national titles before the bowl games (which was standard at that time), Arkansas still had a chance to claim a share of the national championship with a victory over Nebraska. After a hard-fought defensive battle, the Hogs prevailed 10–7. That victory, coupled with an Alabama loss in the Orange Bowl to Texas (a team Arkansas defeated in Austin, Texas.), gave Arkansas the Grantland Rice Trophy awarded by the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA), signifying the Razorbacks were the true National Champions of the 1964 season.
In the 1966 game, Arkansas put its 22-game winning streak at risk playing LSU, who defeated the Razorbacks, 14–7.
The 1967 game was moved to Saturday, December 31, 1966, due to the Dallas Cowboys hosting the NFL Championship Game at the stadium on New Year's Day, a Sunday. The other major bowl games that year—the Rose Bowl, Sugar Bowl, and Orange Bowl—were played on Monday, January 2.
The 1968 game saw SWC champs Texas A&M, led by coach Gene Stallings defeat former A&M head coach Bear Bryant and the Alabama Crimson Tide. Stallings was one of Bryant's "Junction Boys" as well as a former assistant, and would eventually go on to coach the Tide. After the Aggies defeated the Tide 20-16, Bryant embraced Stallings and carried him off the field.
In 1969, Texas was off and running with its new offensive formation, the Wishbone. After dismantling all opponents of the 1968 season, Texas won the SWC crown again and this time faced the Tennessee Volunteers, in what was a lopsided win for Texas with almost 400 rushing yards. Texas won 36–13.
1970s
The 1970 game featured Notre Dame's return to bowl games after a 45-year self-imposed ban. When the Irish made that decision, 9–1 LSU was overlooked for the game, and the Tigers stayed home instead. The Irish, led by quarterback Joe Theismann, faced top-ranked and undefeated Texas. Notre Dame led 17–14 late in the fourth quarter, but the Longhorns scored a late touchdown to clinch a 21–17 victory and an undisputed national championship. The same two teams met the next year, but this time, the Irish ended the Longhorns' 30-game winning streak with a 24–11 victory, denying Texas the Associated Press national championship (the Longhorns had already clinched the regular season championship in the UPI poll, a pre-bowl poll until the 1974 season; Nebraska won the AP title). Texas and Notre Dame met again in the 1978 game, with the Longhorns again top-ranked, only to see the Irish and quarterback Joe Montana roll to a 38–10 victory. The Irish vaulted from fifth to first in the final polls with the victory.
The 1973 game featured Texas and Alabama once again playing in a bowl game. Alabama led 13–10 going into the 4th quarter when Texas quarterback, Alan Lowry, ran the bootleg to perfection and scrambled 32 yards for the go-ahead touchdown. Again, Texas defeated Alabama and Bear Bryant, 17–13.
The 1976 Cotton Bowl showcased SWC co-Champ Arkansas against SEC stalwart Georgia. The Razorbacks had beaten No. 2 Texas A&M in a blowout to force a tie for the conference crown, and opened the door for Arkansas to stroll to Dallas on New Year's Day. After the Bulldogs jumped out to a 10–0 lead, the Hogs came roaring back, scoring 31 unanswered points, and defeating Georgia, 31–10. Arkansas finished the season 10–2.
The 1977 Cotton Bowl featured SWC Champions Houston Cougars, who were entering the Cotton Bowl for the first time, against the undefeated Maryland Terrapins. Houston won 30-21, handing the Terps their only loss of the year.
The 1979 Cotton Bowl Classic, nicknamed the Chicken Soup Game, featured one of the most historic comebacks in bowl history. Notre Dame trailed Houston 34–12 midway through the fourth quarter. Thanks to a blocked punt and the brilliance of future NFL Hall of Famer Joe Montana, the Irish rallied to win 35–34, their second consecutive Cotton Bowl Classic victory.
1980s
The 1982 game between Texas and Alabama would be the final time that Bear Bryant would face the Longhorns. Having lost to Texas in all meetings prior, Alabama went into the fourth quarter ahead 10–0 and it would appear that the Bear would finally get a win over Texas while at Alabama. But the Longhorns scored their first points with a quarterback draw by Robert Brewer on a 3rd-and-long with 10:38 remaining. On Texas' next possession, Terry Orr scored from eight yards out to cap an 11-play, 80-yard drive to put the Longhorns up 14–10 with 2:05 remaining. Alabama's Joey Jones returned the ensuing kickoff to the Texas 38-yard line, and Tide quarterback Walter Lewis took over with 1:54 left. On the very next play, UT's William Graham picked off a Lewis pass at the one. The Longhorns took a safety to insure better field position and Texas once again stunned Alabama and the Bear with a 14–12 victory.
The 1984 game featured No. 7 Georgia of the SEC against undefeated No. 2 Texas of the SWC. Texas led 9–3 with more than four minutes to play in a battle of field goals between Georgia's Kevin Butler and Texas' Jeff Ward. A Chip Andrews (Georgia) punt was muffed by Texas defensive back Craig Curry late in the fourth quarter, then Georgia quarterback John Lastinger ran 17 yards for a touchdown with 3:22 left to play to capture a 10–9 victory, costing the Longhorns a possible national title.
The 1989 game between UCLA and Arkansas was highly publicized in the Dallas area because Bruin quarterback Troy Aikman was expected to be the top pick in the 1989 NFL Draft; the first pick was held by the Dallas Cowboys. Much was made of Cowboys longtime head coach Tom Landry watching Aikman practice at Texas Stadium, UCLA's practice facility for game preparation. Landry never got to draft Aikman, because he was fired the next month, but his successor, Jimmy Johnson, did. UCLA and Aikman won, 17–3.
The Cotton Bowl Classic has seen its share of great quarterbacks. Sammy Baugh, Davey O'Brien, Babe Parilli, Bobby Layne, Norm Van Brocklin, Y. A. Tittle, Bart Starr, Roger Staubach, Ken Stabler, Joe Theismann, Joe Montana, Dan Marino, Doug Flutie, Troy Aikman, and Eli Manning all have played in the game.
Three of the four Heisman Trophy winners from the 1984–87 seasons finished their college career in the Cotton Bowl Classic: Doug Flutie for Boston College in January 1985, Bo Jackson of Auburn in 1986, and Tim Brown of Notre Dame in 1988.
Brown and fellow Heisman winner Davey O'Brien, who played in the 1937 Cotton Bowl, both attended nearby Woodrow Wilson High School in the Lakewood area. "Woodrow" became the first high school ever to produce two Heisman winners.
1990s
For 53 years, the SWC champion played as the home team in the Cotton Bowl Classic, a tie-in which continued through the 1994 season. Until the mid-1980s, the contest was almost universally counted as a major New Year's Day bowl. However, by the late 1980s, the Cotton Bowl Classic's prestige had fallen significantly. During the 1980s, many SWC teams were left ineligible for postseason play due to NCAA probations for rule violations. Also, the conference's quality of play suffered a marked decline. The SWC champion lost the last seven times in which it received an automatic bid to the game, and the last national champion to play in the Cotton Bowl Classic was Notre Dame in 1977. Finally, the Cotton Bowl Classic was played outdoors during cold weather on occasion (most notably the 1979 game).
Meanwhile, the Fiesta Bowl, unhindered by conference tie-ins and played in generally warm weather, propelled itself to major-bowl status by attracting national championship contenders, most notably with its January 1987 matchup between Penn State and Miami. In the minds of many fans, the Fiesta replaced the Cotton as a major bowl. Despite this, the Cotton Bowl Classic still retained enough prestige that it was included as one of the top bowls in the Bowl Coalition when it was formed in 1992. However, in 1995, the new Bowl Alliance (the predecessor of the BCS) chose to include the Fiesta over the Cotton in its rotation. While it was still capable of landing Top 10 teams, it was no longer in a position to decide the national championship. In 18 of the 21 seasons since 1995, the Cotton Bowl has featured two ranked opponents. In the other three seasons, one of the teams was ranked (2002, 2003, and 2010).
In 1995, the SWC gave up control of the Cotton Bowl Classic as part of its planned dissolution after the season. From 1999 to 2014, the Cotton Bowl Classic had the second pick from the Big 12 after the Bowl Alliance and its successor, the Bowl Championship Series–usually the championship game loser or a division runner-up.
From 1996 to 1998, the other participant was either the champion of the Western Athletic Conference or the runner-up of the Pac-10 Conference. In 1996, the No. 5 BYU Cougars joined Notre Dame as the only programs outside of a major conference to play in the Cotton Bowl in the modern era, defeating the Kansas State Wildcats 19–15, winning an NCAA record 14th game, and finishing the season ranked fifth in the country with a 14–1 record.
In 1999, the Cotton Bowl arranged for a team from the Southeastern Conference to be the Big 12 opponent, and Southwestern Bell (now AT&T) began sponsoring the event. More often than not, the SEC representative was the runner-up from the West Division. However, Tennessee appeared in 2001 and 2005, and Missouri appeared in 2014.
2000s
Through 2008, the Cotton Bowl Classic continued to be played on New Year's Day (except in 2004 and 2006, when the game was moved to January 2) and was usually the second game of the day to kick off, generally following the Outback Bowl.
This decade was kicked off in grand fashion, as two former Southwest Conference rivals faced off in the 2000 Classic. The Arkansas Razorbacks, now a member of the SEC (), and Texas Longhorns, now a member of the Big XII () faced off in the first college football game of the last year of the 20th Century. After a lackluster first half ended with the game tied 3–3, the Razorbacks opened things up, led by Offensive MVP running back Cedric Cobbs. Arkansas beat their former hated rival, 27–6, holding the Longhorns to negative yards rushing, and sacking the Texas QB a bowl-record 8 times.
The 2003 Cotton Bowl Classic saw a rematch between the Texas Longhorns and the LSU Tigers. LSU led at the half 17–7 however Roy Williams of Texas had a tremendous breakout in the second half to lead Texas to victory over the Tigers, 35–20.
The 2004 Cotton Bowl Classic saw the return of the Mississippi Rebels, whose last appearance in the Cotton Bowl Classic was a 12–7 loss to Texas in 1962. The 2004 Cotton Bowl Classic would also be New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning's last college football game. Manning led his team to beat Oklahoma State 31–28.
The 2007 Cotton Bowl Classic was between Auburn Tigers and the Nebraska Cornhuskers; Auburn won 17–14.
In the 2008 Cotton Bowl Classic, Missouri's running back Tony Temple broke the bowl game rushing record by gaining 281 yards on 24 carries. (The record was previously held by Rice's Dickey Maegle, who had rushed for 265 yards.) Missouri beat Arkansas 38–7.
In April 2008, Cotton Bowl Classic officials announced that in 2009 and 2010 the game would be moved from its traditional start time of 10 a.m. CST on January 1 to 1 p.m. CST on January 2.
In the final Cotton Bowl Classic game to be held in the Cotton Bowl stadium, the 8–4, No. 20 Ole Miss Rebels defeated the 11–1, No. 7 Texas Tech Red Raiders, 47–34. Tech quarterback Graham Harrell broke the NCAA record in this game for most touchdown passes thrown by anyone in Cotton Bowl Classic history.
2010s
In 2010, the Cotton Bowl Classic moved to the new Cowboys Stadium (now AT&T Stadium) in Arlington, as part of a bid by bowl officials to make it part of the BCS in 2011. The Cotton Bowl had recently been remodeled and expanded to over 92,000 seats as part of a long-term drive to regain major status for the bowl game. However, Dallas' frequently cold January weather had been a longstanding concern, and was thought to have hampered any prospect of upgrading the game to the BCS. In contrast, the new stadium would offer top amenities and a retractable roof. A new four-year agreement between the BCS and ESPN had forestalled any possibility of the Cotton Bowl Classic joining the BCS until 2015 at the earliest. Later findings that the Fiesta Bowl reimbursed employees more than $46,000 for political contributions could have opened the door for the Cotton Bowl to replace the Fiesta in the BCS bowl rotation; however, the Fiesta Bowl did not lose its BCS rotation.
In the 2010 Cotton Bowl Classic played between the Oklahoma State Cowboys and the Ole Miss Rebels at the new Cowboys Stadium, the Rebels shut down the high scoring Cowboys offense to win the 74th annual Cotton Bowl Classic 21–7.
In 2010, the Cotton Bowl celebrated its 75th Anniversary with a new logo dedicated to the year-long celebration. Texas A&M played Louisiana State University in the 2011 AT&T Cotton Bowl Classic on January 7, 2011. LSU would beat Texas A&M 41–24. This was the first Cotton Bowl Classic to be played in prime time, as well as the latest calendar date for the game.
In the 2012 match-up, the Arkansas Razorbacks defeated the Kansas State Wildcats 29–16. It was a BCS-worthy game, featuring two Top 10 teams. The game was highlighted by Razorback Joe Adams punt return of 51 yards for a touchdown in the second quarter, to give Arkansas early command. It was the first punt returned for a touchdown in the Cotton Bowl Classic since former Razorback Lance Alworth did it in 1961. After the Hogs posted 19 unanswered points, Kansas State responded with 16 consecutive points of their own in the second and third quarters. But the Razorbacks pulled away late in the third quarter and early fourth quarter, led by quarterback Tyler Wilson, the game's offensive MVP. Arkansas improved to 11–2 for the 2011 season, and finished ranked No. 5, while K-State fell to 10–3.
In 2013, the No. 10 Texas A&M Aggies defeated the No. 12 Oklahoma Sooners 41–13 to win the Cotton Bowl Classic and to finish the season with an 11–2 record. Johnny Manziel rushed for 229 yards during the game, a Cotton Bowl record, rushing for two touchdowns and throwing for two more. Though the halftime score was 14–13 Texas A&M, the Aggies went on to score 27 unanswered second half points to win the game.
The Cotton Bowl Classic returned to "major" bowl status in the 2014 season in conjunction with the first year of the new College Football Playoff. It will host a national semifinal once every three years (in the 2015, 2018, 2021, 2024 seasons), and in other years will host two at-large teams that did not get selected to the four-team playoff. As part of this move, television rights will switch to ESPN, which will also televise the other games in the playoff system. The 2014 game, the first Cotton Bowl to be universally recognized as a "major" bowl in almost two decades, featured the No. 9 Missouri Tigers of the Southeastern Conference and the No. 13 Oklahoma State Cowboys of the Big 12 Conference. The Tigers beat the Cowboys by a score of 41–31 to claim the school's second-ever Cotton Bowl Classic championship and set a new AT&T Stadium record with 24 points in the fourth quarter. The 2017 game saw the No. 15 Western Michigan Broncos of the Mid-American Conference and the No. 9 Wisconsin Badgers of the Big 10 Conference. The Badgers beat the Broncos, 16-24. Up until that point, Western Michigan was undefeated, 13-0 overall, 8-0 in the MAC. They also became the first team in the MAC to participate in the Cotton Bowl Classic.
Sponsorship
From 1989 until 1995, the game was sponsored by Mobil Oil and known as the Mobil Cotton Bowl Classic. From 1996 to 2013, the game was sponsored by Southwestern Bell Corporation; however, it went through several name changes, first in 2000 when the firm adopted a standardized "SBC" branding reflecting its name it adopted in 1995, SBC Communications, and since 2006, after their acquisition of AT&T Corporation, and its subsequent name change to AT&T Inc., as the AT&T Cotton Bowl Classic.
On October 15, 2014, ESPN.com reported that AT&T would no longer sponsor the Cotton Bowl since it already holds the naming rights to the stadium in which it is played. On November 7, 2014, it was announced that Goodyear would become the new sponsor of the game, now known for sponsorship reasons as the Goodyear Cotton Bowl Classic.
Venues
Cotton Bowl
The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1930 and became known as "The House That Doak Built" due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas. The Cotton Bowl Classic called its namesake home since the bowl's inception in 1937 until the 2010 game. The NFL's Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium.
Although not the first established bowl game, the Cotton Bowl is a play on the phrase "cotton boll." Texas is the leading producer of cotton in the United States.
AT&T Stadium
AT&T Stadium, formerly Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington, Texas. After failed negotiations to return the Cowboys to the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones along with the city of Arlington, Texas funded the stadium at a cost of $1.15 billion. It was completed on May 29, 2009 and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is the largest domed stadium in the world.
A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its center-hung high-definition television screen, the second largest in the world. The , scoreboard surpasses the screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri.
Game results
All rankings are taken from the AP Poll prior to the game being played.
Source:
Denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Future games
denotes game is a College Football Playoff semifinal
Most Valuable Player Award
Most appearances
Updated through the December 2021 edition (86 games, 172 total appearances).
Teams with multiple appearances
Teams with a single appearance
Won (7): BYU, Duke, Florida State, Kentucky, Miami (FL), Saint Mary's (CA), Wisconsin
Lost (10): Cincinnati, Florida, Fordham, Marquette, Maryland, Memphis, Mississippi State, North Carolina, Pittsburgh, Western Michigan
Tied (2): Air Force, Randolph Field
Oklahoma State's record includes one appearance when the school was known as Oklahoma A&M.
Each of the teams who were members of the Southwest Conference sometime between 1936 and 1995 have appeared in at least one Cotton Bowl.
South Carolina and Vanderbilt are the only members of the SEC that have not played in the Cotton Bowl.
Iowa State, Kansas and West Virginia are the only members of the Big 8 or Big 12 that have not played in the Cotton Bowl. In addition, former Big 12 members Colorado, Missouri, Nebraska, and Texas A&M have all played in multiple Cotton Bowls.
Michigan State, Ohio State, Penn State (also played in the Cotton Bowl prior to being in the Big Ten), and Wisconsin are the only Big Ten teams to have participated in the Cotton Bowl (Maryland and Nebraska participated prior to joining the conference). Prior to 2014, only one Big Ten team had appeared in the Cotton Bowl.
Texas A&M, Texas Tech and Missouri played in the Cotton Bowl as a member of three different conferences. A&M played as the Southwest Conference, the Big 12, and the SEC, Tech played as part of the Border Conference, SWC and Big 12, and Missouri played as part of the Big 8, Big 12 and SEC.
Appearances by conference
Updated through the December 2021 edition (86 games, 172 total appearances).
Games marked with an superscript D () were played in December.
Records reflect conference affiliations at the time each game was played.
Conferences that are defunct or no longer active in FBS are marked in italics.
The Big Eight's record includes one game when the conference was known as the Big Six.
The Pac-12's record includes four games when the conference was known as the Pac-10.
Game records
Note: for ties, the most recent year is shown.
Broadcasting
The first televised edition of the Cotton Bowl Classic was in 1953 by NBC. NBC provided coverage of the game from 1952 to 1957. In 1958, CBS began a streak of broadcasts of the event through 1992. NBC televised the game from 1993 to 1995. The Cotton Bowl returned to CBS in 1996 and remained for three years. From 1999 to 2014, the Cotton Bowl Classic was televised by Fox. As part of the College Football Playoff rotation, ESPN took over rights to the game beginning in 2015.
In 2013, Fox Deportes televised the game nationally for the first time in Spanish. The game returned to Fox Deportes in 2014. In 2015, ESPN Deportes becomes the new Spanish-language television home of the game.
The game is also broadcast nationally on radio by ESPN Radio and ESPN Deportes Radio. ESPN Radio succeeded former longtime Cotton Bowl carrier Westwood One in 2013. 2013 marked the first Spanish radio broadcast of the game.
See also
List of college bowl games
Comerica Bank New Year's Parade, also known as the "Cotton Bowl Parade"
References
External links
Annual sporting events in the United States
College football bowls
American football in Texas
Recurring sporting events established in 1937
1937 establishments in Texas
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|
227252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon%20Corp%20v%20Exxon%20Insurance%20Consultants%20International%20Ltd | Exxon Corp v Exxon Insurance Consultants International Ltd | Exxon Corp. v. Exxon Insurance Consultants International Ltd [1982] Ch. 119 is a leading decision in English law on the existence of copyright in a name alone and the infringement of a trade mark. The Court found that typically there is no copyright in a name, invented or otherwise, and that a trade mark can only be infringed when the infringing party shares part of the market segment.
The Plaintiff, Exxon Corp, had claimed the copyright of the word and went on to file an injunction to stop the defendant company from using the word 'Exxon', under Exxon's copyright claim to its own name under English Copyright law, protecting 'original literary works' and further asked the defendant company to remove the word from the company name. However, Judge Oliver decided to not grant the injunction to an infringement of copyright and noted that the word did not qualify for copyright protection as an ′original literary work′. This is because it conveyed no information, provides no instruction nor pleasure and is furthermore merely a combination of letters from the alphabet.
Judge Graham quoted '"if the plaintiffs' argument is right .... the consequences would be far-reaching and probably in many cases objectionable'. On appeal it was further emphasised by Lord Justice Stevenson that 'I am not sure whether this ["Exxon"] can be said to be a "work" at all; I am clearly of the opinion that it cannot be said to be a 'literary work'.
Trade mark
With regard to the trade mark, the Court found that the use of this word by the defendants, who work in a field that in no way shares a market segment with the plaintiff, in no way dilutes the plaintiff's brand name nor infringes on its trade mark.
References
1981 in British law
1981 in case law
Court of Appeal (England and Wales) cases
ExxonMobil litigation
Trademark case law
United Kingdom copyright case law
United Kingdom intellectual property case law | [
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|
227257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requisite%20organization | Requisite organization | Requisite organization (RO) is a term and methodology developed by Elliott Jaques and Kathryn Cason as a result of the research in stratified systems theory, general theory of bureaucracy, work complexity and human capability over 60 years.
Requisite organization is the system of business organization that aims for effective managerial organization and managerial leadership, based on the systematic application of scientific research about the nature of work and the nature of individual's capacity for work.
Definition
According to Jaques, "the term requisite organization means doing business with efficiency and competitiveness, and the release of human imagination, trust, and satisfaction in work."
Requisite organization is a system designed to get work done with effectiveness in producing valued goods and services to satisfy public needs and at the same time achieving the positive bottom line for the business by means of specialization of functions within vertical stratified and hierarchical organization that is referred to by Dr. Elliott Jaques as Managerial Accountability Hierarchy:
Work outputs are continuously produced by process movement across vertical functions of work.
Work and accountability for bottom line achievement cascade down successive levels and strata and a system of organizational layers or strata of bottom line generation units is formed.
Managers hold immediate subordinates accountable for their own personal effectiveness in getting work done and for the output of their subordinates.
Requisite organization is a triple bottom line management methodology which uncovers dysfunctional aspects of strategy, systems, structures, staff and then realigns them to fit the required complexity of the business with the purpose to increase and sustain maximum economic value.
Business complexity
Companies differ in the values they provide to their societies and the complexity of the business as employment systems they create to deliver those values with the purpose of growing and maintaining their bottom line.
According to requisite organization approach, the higher the complexity (quality and quantity) of a value that a company delivers to the society is, the higher the level of business complexity the company needs to create and maintain to deliver the value to the society effectively:
If the level of the value delivered to the society is lower than the complexity of the business, then there is a probability that the company will struggle to achieve the positive bottom line by maintaining the higher business complexity than is justified by the society.
If the level of the value delivered to the society is higher than the complexity of the business, then there is a probability that the quality and quantity and timeliness of the value delivered by the company to the society will be short of the society's expectations and, as a result, the company will be able to maintain the positive bottom line only over a short-term period – poor business sustainability.
An identification of the level of business complexity for the company is the foundation of requisite organization as all the other Requisite dimensions (Strategy, Systems, Structure, Staff) are aligned to the level of business complexity.
In Requisite Organization, companies are classified into eight levels of business complexity based on such criteria as type of value chain (single or multiple), geography of assets (local, regional, national, international, global), operating revenue, etc.
For example, for a Level 6 International Company with single value chain in multiple countries the following stratified hierarchy of bottom line units may be considered optimal in Requisite Organization:
Stratum VI Corporate Bottom Line Unit
Stratum V Business Bottom Line Unit
Stratum IV Production Bottom Line Unit
Stratum III Operating or Mutual Recognition Unit Bottom Line Unit
Stratum II Output Teams or First Line Mutual Knowledge Bottom Line Unit
Stratum I Direct Output Employees as accountable Stratum I Bottom Line Unit that underpins the key idea of Requisite Organization that every employee contributes to the business bottom line and the importance for an employee to work at their full potential.
Requisite Organization International Institute
The Requisite Organization International Institute (US) was founded in 1999 by Jaques and Cason to continue development and expansion of research on the application of requisite organization. Jacques' tenth book, A General Theory of Bureaucracy (1976) integrates 25 years of basic science research underpinning stratified system theory. Another 27 years of research and 11 books reporting the findings made by Jacques and colleagues forms the foundation of the institute's research and development.
References
External links
Requisite Organization International Institute
Organizational theory | [
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|
227261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20missions%20to%20Imperial%20China | Japanese missions to Imperial China | The Japanese missions to Imperial China were diplomatic embassies which were intermittently sent to the Chinese court. Any distinction amongst diplomatic envoys sent from the Imperial Japanese court or from any of the Japanese shogunates was lost or rendered moot when the ambassador was received in the Chinese capital.
Extant records document missions to China between the years of 607 and 839 (a mission planned for 894 was cancelled). The composition of these Imperial missions included members of the aristocratic kuge and Buddhist monks. These missions led to the importation of Chinese culture, including advances in the sciences and technology. These diplomatic encounters produced the beginnings of a range of Schools of Buddhism in Japan, including Zen.
From the sinocentric perspective of the Chinese Court in Chang'an, the several embassies sent from Kyoto were construed as tributaries of Imperial China; but it is not clear that the Japanese shared this view.
China seems to have taken the initiative in opening relations with Japan. Sui Emperor Yangdi dispatched a message in 605 which read:
The sovereign of Sui respectfully inquires about the sovereign of Wa.
The court of Empress Suiko responded by sponsoring a mission led by Ono no Imoko in 607. A message carried by that mission, believed to have been written by Prince Shōtoku, contains the earliest known written instance in which the Japanese archipelago is referred to by a term meaning "land of the rising sun." The salutation read, in part:
From the sovereign of the land of the rising sun (hi izuru tokoro) to the sovereign of the land of the setting sun."
The included representatives sent to study government and technology.
The are the best known; 19 missions were completed. A 20th mission had been planned for 894 (Kanpyō 6, 8th month), including the appointment of ambassadors. However, shortly before departure, the mission was halted by Emperor Uda because of reports of unsettled conditions in China. The emperor's decision-making was influenced by the persuasive counsel of Sugawara no Michizane.
Envoys to the Sui court
Japanese envoys to the Sui court were received as ambassadors:
607: The first diplomatic mission was led by Japan's first ambassador to China. This Japanese envoy, Ono no Imoko, had the title kenzuishi. The delegation was received in the Imperial Court.
608: Ono no Imoko leads a returning embassy to China. This mission included two others with the title kenzushi: Takamuko no Kuromaro (no Genri) and Minabuchi no Shōan. Kuromaro and Shōan, along with the Buddhist monk Sōmin remained in China for 32 years before returning to Japan.
Envoys to the Tang court
Japanese envoys to the Tang court were received as ambassadors:
Three missions to the Tang court were dispatched during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku.
Emperor Kanmu's planned mission to the Tang court in 804 (Enryaku 23) included three ambassadors and several Buddhist priests, including and ; but the enterprise was delayed until the end of the year. The ambassadors returned in the middle of 805 (Enryaku 24, 6th month). They were accompanied by the monk Saichō, also known by his posthumous name , whose teachings would develop into the Tendai school of Japanese Buddhism. In 806 (Daidō 1, 8th month), the return of the monk Kūkai, also known posthumously as , marks the beginning of what would develop into the Shingon school of Japanese Buddhism.
New ambassadors to China were appointed by Emperor Ninmyō in 834, but the mission was put off.
836–839: The mission was postponed by a typhoon; but the ambassadors did eventually travel to the Tang court, returning in 839 with a letter from Emperor Tang Wenzong.
In China, a steady and conservative Confucianist Song dynasty emerged after the end of the Tang dynasty and subsequent period of disunity during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. During this time, although travel to China was generally safe, Japanese rulers believed there was little to learn from the Song, and so there were no major embassy missions to China.
Adopting Tang models
Ancient Japan was called Wa, which had a primitive culture when compared to Tang culture. The Tang folks referred to Wa as 東夷 (Eastern barbarians).
From 630 onward, Wa sent large groups of monks, students and government officials, up to 600 each time, to the Tang capital of Chang'an to learn the then advanced production technology, social system, history, philosophy, arts and architecture.
Among many items adopted by Wa:
Tang political system
Heian-kyō, the new Japanese capital established in 794, and was a laid out in a grid similar to that of Chang'an, the Tang capital.
Culture, many Han Chinese characters (漢字) were borrowed from Tang civilization to build the Japanese culture.
Tang dress codes (known today as Wafuku 和服), eating habits were the fashion which was imitated and popularized.
Envoys to the Ming court
Japanese envoys to the Ming court were received as ambassadors.
1373-1406 (Ōan 6 – Ōei 13): Embassies between China and Japan.
1397 (Ōei 4, 8th month): an Imperial ambassador is dispatched from Emperor Go-Komatsu to the Ming Court.
1401 (Ōei 8): Ashikaga Yoshimitsu sends a diplomatic mission to China as a tentative first step in re-initiating trade between Japan and Ming China. The formal diplomatic letter conveyed to the Emperor of China was accompanied by a gift of 1000 ounces of gold and diverse objects.
1402 (Ōei 9): A letter from the Jianwen Emperor of China was received by Yoshimitsu; and this formal communication mistakenly accords the title "king of Japan" to the Japanese shōgun.
Envoys to the Qing court
During Japan's self-imposed isolation in the Edo period (1603–1868), Japan's vicarious relationships with China evolved through the intermediary of the Kingdom of Ryukyu. Japan's view of external relations was ambivalent.
1853 (Kaei 6): Hayashi Akira completed Tsūkō ichiran. The work was created under orders from the bakufu to compile and edit documents pertaining to East Asian trade and diplomacy; and, for example, it includes a detailed description of a Ryukyuan tribute embassy to the Qing Chinese court in Beijing.
See also
Japanese missions to Joseon
History of China
History of Japan
Iki no Hakatoko no Sho, 7th-century text
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press.
Goodrich, Luther Carrington and Zhaoying Fang. (1976). Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644 (明代名人傳), Vol. I; Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644 (明代名人傳), Vol. II. New York: Columbia University Press. ; ; OCLC 1622199
Kitagawa, Hiroshi and Bruce T. Tsuchida. (1977). The Tale of the Heike. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. ;
Mizuno, Norihito. (2003). China in Tokugawa Foreign Relations: The Tokugawa Bakufu’s Perception of and Attitudes toward Ming-Qing China, p. 109. excerpt from Japan and Its East Asian Neighbors: Japan's Perceptionf of China and Korea and the Making of Foreign Policy from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century, Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 2004, as cited in Tsutsui, William M. (2009). A Companion to Japanese History, p. 83.
Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 48943301
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1973). Japanese Culture: A Short History. New York: Praeger Publishers. OCLC 590531
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
Yoda, Yoshiie. (1996). The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a comparison with China's Path towards Modernization. Leiden: Brill. ; OCLC 246732011
External links
中日交渉史料目録
Ancient international relations
China–Japan relations
Diplomacy
Foreign relations of Imperial China
History of the foreign relations of Japan | [
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227263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biarritz | Biarritz | Biarritz ( , , , ; Basque also ; ) is a city on the Bay of Biscay, on the Atlantic coast in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in the French Basque Country in southwestern France. It is located from the border with Spain. It is a luxurious seaside tourist destination known for the Hôtel du Palais (originally built for the Empress Eugénie circa 1855), its casinos in front of the sea and its surfing culture.
Geography
Biarritz is located in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is adjacent to Bayonne and Anglet and from the border with Spain. It is in the traditional province of Labourd in the French Basque Country.
Etymology
In Basque, its name is Biarritz or Miarritze. Its current Gascon name is Biàrrits. The name for an inhabitant is Biarrot in French and Biarriztar or Miarriztar in Basque. The suffix -itz, as in Isturitz, is a Basque locative. The name appears as Bearriz in 1170, Bearids in 1186 and Bearritz in 1249.
Biarritz appears as Bearids and Bearriz in 1150, Beiarridz in 1165, Bearriz and Beariz in 1170, Bearidz (1186), Bearriz and Beariz (12th century), lo port de Beiarriz and Bearridz in 1261 (cartulaire de Bayonne). Other forms include Beiarid (1199), Bearritz (1249), Beiarriz and Beiarrids (1261), Bearridz (1281), Bearrits (1338), (rôles gascons), Bearritz (1498, chapitre de Bayonne38), Sanctus Martinus de Biarriz (1689, collations du diocèse de Bayonne, mearritcen (1712), Biarrits (1863, Dictionnaire topographique Béarn-Pays basque) and Biarritze and Miarritze.
History
Prehistory
Analysis of stones from the Middle Paleolithic show that the Biarritz area was inhabited at that time.
Middle Ages
The oldest mention of the city appears in a cartulary, Bayonne's Golden book, from 1186, where it is named Bearids; some years later the name used was Beiarrids. The first urban development was to the south, at the top and at the interior. Today this is near the location of the church of San Martin, the oldest church in Biarritz.
In 1152, Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England, who became suzerain of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Prince Edward, oldest son of Henry III of England, was invested with the duchy, and betrothed to Eleanor of Castile, who brought him rights over Gascony.
Two population centers are attested in the Middle Ages. On the one hand, the église Saint-Martin was active in the neighborhoods in the territory's interior, which were:
On the other hand, the château of Belay (first mentioned in 1342), also called château de Ferragus, protected the coast and the current Port-Vieux (old port), while religious life and community assemblies took place at Notre-Dame-de-Pitié (a chapel mentioned in 1498), dominating the Port-des-Pêcheurs, or fishing port.
A document dated May 26, 1342 attested to this fishing activity, authorising les Biarrots to "(…) remit to Bayonne all the fresh fish that we and succeeding inhabitants of Biarritz can fish from the salt sea".
Construction of the château de Ferragus was decided by the English, on the foundations of a Roman work, at the summit of the promontory overlooking the sea, named Atalaye, used as a whale-observation post. This château had a double crenulated wall two meters thick, a drawbridge and four towers. Mentions of this château occur as late as 1603, in the letters patent of Henry IV. One tower remained as of 1739, when a daymark was established there, called de la Haille, then de la Humade. The tower disappeared in 1856.
Whaling
Most of the documents, records and official agreements gathered in the archives from Biarritz mention whaling. This was the principal local industry. Consequently, the town's coat of arms features the image of a whale below a rowing boat manned by five sailors wearing berets, one of whom is preparing to throw a harpoon. This inscription is written on it: Aura, sidus, mare, adjuvant me (The air, the stars and the seas are helping me).
Biarritz has long made its living from the sea: from the 12th century onwards, it was a whaling town. In the 18th century, doctors claimed that the ocean at Biarritz had therapeutic properties, inspiring patients to make pilgrimages to the beach for alleged cures for their ailments. After the 7th century, Biarritz had many confrontations with Bayonne, with the Kingdom of England – Lapurdi was under its control – and with the Bishop of Bayonne. Almost all of the disputes were about whale hunting. In 1284, the town's right to hunt whales was reinstated by the authorities of Lapurdi and the Duchy of Aquitaine.
From the Middle Ages and Early modern period a watchtower has looked down over the sea at Biarritz, from "La Humade", waiting for the sight of a whale. Whenever those keeping watch saw a whale, they would burn wet straw, to create a large amount of smoke and thus communicate the news to their fellow countrymen. Eventually, however, the tower disappeared.
In the 16th century, as a consequence of the attacks suffered in this area, or for other reasons, the whales migrated to other places. Whale hunters from Lapurdi, therefore, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in pursuit of them, and they spent over a century in the Labrador Peninsula and on Newfoundland. Later, instead of hunting whales, they started cod fishing in Newfoundland. A century later, due to the ban on fishing off the coasts of North America and the steely competence of English and Dutch fishermen, the number of fishing boats from Biarritz diminished and nowadays, the Biarritz fishing industry in these areas has come to an end.
Even though the population from Biarritz was originally Basque, it is hard to assert whether the main language of the village was Basque or French.
The first lighthouse of the village was built in 1650.
18th century
Biarritz was an independent municipality, until 1784, a clergyman, four sworn and the city was governed by twelve deputies. Deputies were democratically chosen: there were four neighbourhoods (Portua, Bustingorri, Hurlaga and Alto), and three deputies had to be chosen from each of them. However, deputies were chosen by the abbot and sworn. Since they had no Town House, they gathered in a ward near the church. As they did not have a place for all the attending people, they made their meetings in the cemetery. That time, Biarritz was composed of around 1,700 citizens.
In the mid-18th century, the city began to change into a worldwide known bath-city.
19th century
From 1784 onwards, after the French Revolution, taking a bath at the sea was no longer a behaviour of those who were fools; sea-baths were fashionable. In 1808, Napoleon himself broke prejudices and took a bath on the Basque Country's coastal water.
In 1840, the Town House or Municipality of Biarritz started to organize an initiative in order to promote and attract those who loved most the sea.
From the 11th century, Biarritz was a village dedicated to whale hunting, until Victor Hugo, found it in 1843. This writer made to Biarritz the following compliments on his book "Alpeak eta Pirinioak" :
« I have not met in the world any place more pleasant and perfect than Biarritz. I have never seen the old Neptune throwing joy and glory with such a force in the old Cybele. All this coast is full of humming. Gascony's sea grinds, scratches, and stretches on the reefs its never-ending whisper. Friendly population and white cheerful houses, large dunes, fine sand, great caves and proud sea, Biarritz is amazing. My only fear is Biarritz becoming fashionable. Whether this happens, the wild village, rural and still honest Biarritz, will be money-hungry. Biarritz will put poplars in the hills, railings in the dunes, kiosks in the rocks, seats in the caves, trousers worn on tourists. »
Either for good or for bad, Victor Hugo's prophecy was fulfilled. Biarritz planted poplars, tamarinds, hydrangeas, roses and pittosporums on the slopes and the hills, set railings on the dunes, covered moats with elegant stairs... and polluted with the speculation of the land and the money-hunger.
Humble and proud tourists praise Biarritz's coast, from the beach at the limit of Bidarte (Plage des Basques), to the cape of San Martin. There it can be found a white lighthouse tall, built in 1834 replacing the one Louis XIV ordered to build. Various hotels were made, as well as a municipal casino, the club Belleuve and the casino were opened in 1857, the thalassotherapy house, and wonderful luxury houses. Luxurious store shops from London and Paris were also set up in Biarritz, and 36 small newspapers were published in the village.
Biarritz became more renowned in 1854 when Empress Eugenie (the wife of Napoleon III) built a palace on the beach (now the Hôtel du Palais). European royalty, including British monarchs Queen Victoria and King Edward VII (who caused a minor scandal when he called H. H. Asquith to kiss hands at Biarritz in 1908 rather than return to London for the purpose), and the Spanish king Alfonso XIII, were frequent visitors.
Biarritz's casino (opened 10 August 1901) and beaches make the town a notable tourist centre for Europeans and East Coast North Americans. The city has also become a prime destination for surfers from around the world, developing a nightlife and surf-based culture.
Originally, there were two settlement sites: the neighborhood that was around the church of San Martin, and the fishing-port defended by château of Belay (also known as château of Ferragus). The coat of arms was a whaler, which was a symbol of the town.
Opened in June 1893, Biarritz's salt baths were designed and built by the architect Lagarde. From the gatzagas of Beskoitz and after passing through a pipe, water ten times saltier than the sea was used. The baths were closed in 1953 and demolished in 1968.
The presence of French Republic's authorities and the fact of having launched the Paris-Henday train led Biarritz to become one of the most outstanding tourist areas all over Europe. The queen of the beaches became the beach of the kings: Oscar II of Sweden, Leopold of Belgium, tireless traveller, empress of Russia Maria Feodorovna, mother of Nicholas II of Russia, Empress Elisabeth of Austria, Natalie of Serbia and her son Alexander I of Serbia, George V from Britain, Edward VII and Britain's Queen Victoria, Alfonso XIII of Spain, aristocrats, rich people, actors, from Europe and South America... In the summer-time, high-status people gathered in Biarritz. Therefore, the number of population remarkably increased, from 5,000 to 18,000. At the end of the 19th century, 50,000 vacationers were gathering in Biarritz.
Belle Époque
During the Belle Époque of European peace and prosperity, the department store called Biarritz Bonheur, created in 1894, enlarged twice (in 1911 and 1926), and still operating, became the temple of luxury and fashion. At the start of the 20th century, most of its workers spoke in English.
After World War II
At the end of World War II in Europe, the U.S. Army's Information and Educational Branch was ordered to establish an overseas university campus for demobilized American service men and women in the French resort town of Biarritz. Under General Samuel L. McCroskey, the hotels and casinos of Biarritz were converted into quarters, labs, and class spaces for U.S. service personnel. The University opened 10 August 1945 and about 10,000 students attended an eight-week term. This campus was set up to provide a transition between army life and subsequent attendance at a university in the US, so students attended for just one term. After three successful terms, the G.I. University closed in March 1946 (see G. I. American Universities).
The arrival of surfing in Europe
In 1957, the American film director Peter Viertel was in Biarritz with his British actress wife Deborah Kerr working on the film The Sun Also Rises. One of his Californian friends came for a visit, and his use of a surfboard off Biarritz is recognized as the first time surfing was practised in Europe. Biarritz eventually became one of the most popular European surfing spots.
Main sights
Sights in Biarritz include:
The Asiatica Museum houses a significant collection of Asian art primarily from India, Nepal, Tibet, and China.
Museum of the Sea has 24 aquariums containing sharks and seals.
Museum of the Ocean and Surf
The Historical Museum of Biarritz, housed in the deconsecrated Anglican Church, St Andrew's.
The annual Biarritz Surf Festival, founded in 1993 at the Côte des Basques, is one of the premier surf events in Europe and longboarding events in the world.
St-Martin's Church, constructed in the 12th century, restored in the mid-16th century.
The Russian Orthodox Church, built in the 19th century for visiting Russian aristocrats, has a famous blue dome.
The Chapelle Imperiale built for Empress Eugenie has an intricately decorated roof interior and elegant wall tiling. She also built a palace on the beach which is now the Hôtel du Palais.
The Museum of Chocolate explains the history and manufacture of chocolate.
Two large casinos, the Barrière and the Bellevue, sit on the waterfront near the Grande Plage.
Cliffs and lookouts lie to the west of the main beach.
Climate
Biarritz has a temperate oceanic climate, Cfb in the Köppen climate classification. It is one of the wettest cities in Metropolitan France.
Politics
Mayors
Demography
Economy
Although Biarritz's economy was based on fishing before, nowadays it has a modern economy due to the metropolitan location of Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz.
Together with Bayonne and Anglet, Biarritz takes part in the management of the BAB Airport.
The most important economic activities are:
Spa tourism
Sport (golf, surf and rugby)
Thalassotherapy
Industry. The most important industries are the following:
Séguier, French publishing house
Dassault Aviation, manufacturer of fuselage for Falcon planes.
Culture
Languages
As in the cases of Anglet and Bayonne, also located in the approximate cultural border between Gascony and the Basque Country, it is uncertain if the historic language of Biarritz was Basque or Gascon.
According to the book Atlas Linguistique de Gascogne, Biarritz is considered a Gascon town. But in 1863, Luis Luciano Bonaparte located the northern frontier of Basque in Biarritz, and in some neighborhoods it was without any doubt the most used language. However, over the course of the 20th century, French became the main language. Beginning in the 1990s, the municipal government of Biarritz has promoted the Basque language and culture. At the same time, Gascon has been promoted by various private institutions, for instance the group of Gascon culture Ací Gasconha. [19]
Museums
Sea Museum. Constructed in 1993 in the rock of Atalaia, it is an Art Déco building. It has a huge collection of sea animals and birds.
Museum of Chocolate
Asiatica, museum of the Eastern art. Art from India, Tibet, Nepal and China can be found
Museum of the History of Biarritz. Located in the Angelican Church of Saint Andrew in the 1980 decade
Cité de l'Ocean et du Surf, opened in 2011.
Music and dance
The city has the Ballet of Biarritz, which is the choreography location of France. Furthermore, it has the cultural centre Atabal and the chorus Oldarra, created in 1946.
Theatre
The emperors Napoleon III and Eugene of Montijo brought the sea-theater on the Old Port neighborhood into fashion. Nowadays, the light works made by Pierre Bideau can be seen at night in the clift.
Cinema
Two film festivals of cinema are celebrated in Biarritz:
Festival of Latinoamerican Cinema of Biarritz.
International Festival of Audio-Visual Programs (FIPA)
Civil buildings
Hôtel du Palais or Eugénie House
Building of the Hotel of England, built in 1870 by Louis Moussempés
Natasha House
Sacchino or Castel Biarritz, house of Natalia of Serbia
Plaza Hotel
Casino of Biarritz, of "Art déco" style
Lighthouse, built in 1834 in San Martin cape
Villa Black or Black House. Built by Alphonse Bertrand between 1880 and 1895
Goëland House, which from 2003 on is a hotel
Françon Castle
Boulard Castle
Pavilion of England
Fishermen House, in the port
The formerly health resort in the Old Port
Miremont sweet shop
Religious buildings
Imperial Chapel
Saint Martin church
Saint Eugene church, built between 1898 and 1903
and God's Mother Protection Church
Synagogue of Biarritz
Rocks
The Rocks of Biarritz are an important part of the city's attractions. Every year they erode by an estimated 70 centimeters.
Beaches
Biarritz has six beaches: Miramar, Big, Old Port, Coast of the Basque, Marbella and Milady
Gardens and Parks
Biarritz has 120 hectares of parks and two recreational lakes (Marion and Muriskot)
In the city centre there are three gardens: the Pierre Forsans public garden (across from the Gare du Midi performance centre) and two others nearby (Lahouze Garden and Parc Mazon). The center of town also includes a number of open-air sports fields.
Infrastructures
Sport
Surfing in Biarritz is of a world-class standard and first appeared in 1957. The town has a strong surfing culture, and is known worldwide for its surfing scene and the competitions it hosts yearly, including the Quiksilver/Roxy Jam tournament. In July 2011, Biarritz also hosted the Roxy Pro event, a tournament part of the ASP Women's World Tour.
The town is home to a prominent rugby union club, Biarritz Olympique.
Basque pelota is a very popular sport of the Basque country. Several local and international competitions take place in Biarritz.
The golf course near the lighthouse (Le Phare) was created in 1888 by British residents. In addition, the town has a large circular golf range area on the border with illbaritz.
Education
Schools
The city has two public schools (Villa Fal and Jean Rostand) and one private (Immaculée-Conception).
High schools
Malraux High Schools is the only one in Biarritz. There is also a tourism high school in the border of the Western neighborhood of La Négresse.
Transport
Biarritz is easily accessible from Paris by France's high-speed train, the TGV, and more regionally from Bordeaux, by TGV or TER. Trains are also available to travel east towards Nice. Night trains regularly depart from Irun, south of Biarritz and pass through the city before heading to Paris during an overnight trip. Many tourists and regulars to the city have begun using the night train to take weekend trips to Biarritz and saving travel time by traveling at night. The Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport is located about from the city. It is near N10 road towards Anglet and is served by airlines from France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Ireland and Germany.
Notable people and popular culture
Biarritz was the birthplace of:
Yannick Bellon (1924–2019), film director
Jacques Bergerac (1927–2014), actor
Jean Borotra (1898–1994), tennis player
Léopold Eyharts (born 1957), astronaut
Ernest Fourneau (1872–1949), chemist
Maurice Hankey, 1st Baron Hankey (1877–1963), British civil servant
Maurice Journeau (1898–1999), composer
Arnaud Massy (1877–1950), professional golfer
Other notable people associated with Biarritz:
Aaron Bank (1902–2004), World War II Office of Strategic Services (OSS) agent and co-founder of the U.S. Army's Special Forces Group (later, Green Berets), a lifeguard and medical (physical) therapist's aide at Biarritz before he enlisted in the army in the late 1930s
John Deacon (b. 1951), bass player for the band Queen. Deacon and his wife Veronica loved spending their holidays in Biarritz, and bought a holiday apartment there at the end of the 1980s, where they especially spent many months living in 1990.
Louis Dewis (1872–1946), born Louis DeWachter, Belgian Post-Impressionist who, after fleeing Paris at the beginning of World War II, settled here in 1940, living at Villa Pat in Bellefontaine until his death
Aimée de Heeren, born Soto-Maior de Sá (1903–2006) WW2 Secret Service agent for President Getúlio Vargas, owned many jewels of Eugenie de Montijo and the villa La Roseraie, 12 rue Martias, where she spent summers for half a century, receiving kings, heads of state, and many famous guests
Eugénie de Montijo (1826–1920), the wife of Napoléon III, who built the villa Eugénie, today the Hôtel du Palais
Pablo de Sarasate (10 March 1844 – 20 September 1908), a well known Romantic Era Spanish composer born in Pamplona, Spain, who died in this city
International relations
Biarritz is twinned with:
Festivities
The major festivities are celebrated on November 11, for Saint Martin. That day, the new gentleman of the Confrérie de l'Operne de Biarritz are proclaimed. Barnacle is their logotype and people who work in favor of ecology are chosen.
Since Biarritz is a city based in tourism, there are acts during the whole summer, such as pelota festivity, equestrian competition, concerts and recitals, folklore festivals, water acrobatic ski, sea trips, performances, rugby competitions, bullfights and night parties.
Since summer 2018, Biarritz hosts the festival of pop music "Biarritz en été" whose second edition took place on July 19, 20 and 21, 2019.
References
INSEE commune file
External links
Official website
Tourist Information Office Biarritz
Biarritz Real Estate
Communes of Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Labourd
Populated coastal places in France
Seaside resorts in France
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|
227269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailment | Bailment | Bailment is a legal relationship in common law, where the owner transfers physical possession of personal property ("chattel") for a time, but retains ownership. The owner who surrenders custody to a property is called the "bailor" and the individual who accepts the property is called a "bailee". The bailee is the person who possesses the personal property in trust for the owner for a set time and for a precise reason and who delivers the property back to the owner when he or she has accomplished the purpose that was initially intended.
General
Bailment is distinguished from a contract of sale or a gift of property, as it only involves the transfer of possession and not its ownership. To create a bailment, the bailee must both intend to possess, and actually physically possess, the bailable chattel. Although a bailment relationship is ordinarily created by contract, there are circumstances where lawful possession by the bailee creates a bailment relationship without an ordinary contract, such as an involuntary bailment. A bailment relationship between the bailor and bailee is generally less formal than a fiduciary relationship.
In addition, unlike a lease or rental, where ownership remains with the lessor but the lessee is allowed to use the property, the bailee is generally not entitled to the use of the property while it is in his possession. However, a lease of personal property is the same as a bailment for hire, where the bailee gains the right to use the property.
A common example of bailment is leaving one's car with a valet. Leaving a car in an unattended parking garage, however, is typically a lease or license of a parking space rather than a bailment, as the garage does not take possession of (i.e. exercise dominion or control over) the car. However, bailments arise in many other situations, including terminated leases of property, warehousing (including store-it-yourself), or in carriage of goods.
Governing law
In the United States, bailments are frequently governed by statute. For example, the UCC regulates personal property leases. State bailment for hire statutes may also regulate the rights and duties of parties in the bailment relationship.
Bailment is a typical common law concept, although similar concepts exists in civil law.
Purposes
There are three types of bailments, based on the purpose of the relationship:
for the benefit of the bailor and bailee
for the sole benefit of the bailor; and
for the sole benefit of the bailee.
Examples
A bailment for the mutual benefit of the parties is created when there is an exchange of performances between the parties (e.g. a bailment for the repair of an item when the owner is paying to have the repair accomplished).
A bailor receives the sole benefit from a bailment when a bailee acts gratuitously (e.g. the owner leaves the precious item such as a car or a piece of jewelry in the safekeeping of a trusted friend while the owner is traveling abroad without any agreement to compensate the friend).
A bailment is created for the sole benefit of the bailee when a bailor acts gratuitously (e.g., the loan of a book to a patron, the bailee, from a library, the bailor).
Damages
Plaintiffs will be able to sue for damages based on the duty of care. Often this will be normal tort damages. Plaintiff may elect also to sue for conversion, either in the replevin or trover, although these are generally considered older, common law damages.
Terms
Bailment can arise in a number of situations and is often described by the type of relationship that gave rise to the bailment. Two common distinctions are:
For consideration versus gratuitous. If a person agrees to accept a fee or other good consideration for holding possession of goods, they are generally held to a higher standard of care than a person who is doing so without being paid (or receives no benefit). Consider a paid coat-check counter versus a free coat hook by the front door and the respective obligations of the bailee. Some establishments even post signs to the effect that "no bailment" is created by leaving your personal possessions in their care, but local laws may prevent unfair enforcement of such terms (especially attended car parks).
Fixed-term versus indefinite-term. A bailor who leaves property for a fixed term may be deemed to have abandoned the property if it is not removed at the end of the term, or it may convert to an involuntary bailment for a reasonable time (e.g., abandoned property in a bank safe, eventually escheats to the state, and the treasurer may hold it for some period, awaiting the owner). However, if there is no clear term of bailment agreed upon, the goods cannot be considered abandoned unless the bailee is given notice that the bailor wishes to give up possession of the goods. Frequently, in the case of storage of goods, the bailee also acquires a contractual or statutory right to dispose of the goods to satisfy overdue rent.
Cases
Coggs v Bernard (1703)
References
See also
Bail
Interest in securities
Trover
Replevin
Personal property law | [
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|
227273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic%20Heroes | Sonic Heroes | is a 2003 3D platform game developed by Sonic Team USA and published by Sega as part of the Sonic the Hedgehog series. The player races a team of series characters through levels to amass rings, defeat robots, and collect the seven Chaos Emeralds needed to defeat Doctor Eggman. Within each level, the player switches between the team's three characters, who each have unique abilities, to overcome obstacles. Sonic Heroes abandons the action-adventure and exploration-based gameplay of its predecessors Sonic Adventure (1998) and Sonic Adventure 2 (2001) and instead returns to the linear style of Sega Genesis-era Sonic games.
The game was the first multi-platform Sonic game, produced for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Windows platforms. Sonic Team USA's Yuji Naka and Takashi Iizuka led the game's 20-month development. The team wanted Sonic Heroes to appeal beyond Sonic series fans and so designed a game that did not depend on the continuation of its predecessors. The team revived elements not seen since the Genesis Sonic games, such as special stages and the Chaotix characters. Sega released Sonic Heroes in Japan in December 2003 and worldwide in early 2004.
Reviewers were polarized. They praised the game's focus on fast gameplay and noted its similarities to the series' original 2D entries, a choice that some considered an improvement from the Sonic Adventure games. Reviewers also highlighted its graphic design and detailed environments and textures. Critics, however, derided the game for not addressing the problems of previous series games, such as poor camera, controls and voice acting. Despite mixed reviews, the game was commercially successful, with 3.41 million copies sold by 2007.
Gameplay
Sonic Heroes is a 3D platformer. While the preceding Sonic Adventure games for the Dreamcast featured elements of action-adventure and exploration, Sonic Heroes focuses on linear platforming and action, similar to the Sonic the Hedgehog games for the Sega Genesis. The story is also simpler than those of the Sonic Adventure games. In it, series antagonist Doctor Eggman threatens to use a weapon to destroy the world and sends out legions of robots. Four groups of three characters from the franchise's history separately team up to put a stop to Eggman's plans. The player navigates using one of the teams, who serve as the player characters. The teams include Team Sonic, which consists of series regulars Sonic the Hedgehog, Miles "Tails" Prower, and Knuckles the Echidna; Team Dark, which includes Shadow the Hedgehog and Rouge the Bat from Sonic Adventure 2, and new character E-123 Omega (considered a spiritual successor to E-102 Gamma from Sonic Adventure); Team Rose, which has Amy Rose, Cream the Rabbit from Sonic Advance 2, and Big the Cat from Sonic Adventure; and Team Chaotix, consisting of Espio the Chameleon, Charmy Bee, and Vector the Crocodile from Knuckles' Chaotix. Each team has its own campaign, called a story. Each also represents a different difficulty. Amy's team, for example, is designed for beginners, while Shadow's is aimed at more experienced players.
The game begins with a tutorial followed by fourteen normal levels and seven boss fights. Gameplay is generally similar in each story: the player must race through levels to advance the story and collect rings for protection and lives. Level themes vary from beaches to casinos. When the player reaches the end of a level, they are graded based on their performance; an "A" rank is highest, while an "E" is lowest. Enemy robots are scattered around levels and must be defeated by jumping on them or other means of attack. The level designs differ slightly between each story. Espio, Charmy, and Vector's levels are distinguished from the other teams' because they are mission-based, requiring players to fulfill a specific objective, like collecting items, to clear a level.
Teams contain three character types: Speed (such as Sonic), Flight (such as Tails), and Power (such as Knuckles), which the player toggles between. Speed characters can perform attacks that allow them to lock onto enemies and objects, dash across lines of rings, and can form whirlwinds to climb up poles. Flight characters can temporarily fly and attack airborne enemies, while Power characters can break through objects and glide on gusts of air. By acquiring certain items or enemies, characters can level up, becoming more efficient when fighting enemies.
By collecting keys hidden within levels and reaching the end of a level without getting hit, players can enter special stages. In special stages, players dash across a tube, collecting spheres containing boost power while avoiding obstacles. There are two types of special stages: Bonus Challenge and Emerald Challenge. Bonus Challenges are optional and award the player with extra lives. Emerald Challenges task the player with catching a Chaos Emerald before it disappears. If players collect all seven Emeralds and clear each story, an additional Last Story is unlocked. The Last Story reveals the plot was orchestrated by Metal Sonic, Eggman's top enforcer and a robotic copy of Sonic, in an effort to destroy his namesake. Outside the main game, players can unlock promotional trailers to view and music to listen to. The game also features a split screen multiplayer mode, in which two players can race or battle. Challenges in the multiplayer mode include kart racing and collecting as many rings as possible.
Development
Sonic Heroes was developed by the 19-member Sonic Team USA in San Francisco to commemorate the Sonic series' 12th anniversary. Development was led by producer Yuji Naka and director/lead designer Takashi Iizuka, and lasted 20 months. The majority of the development team had worked on previous Sonic games. Iizuka did not want to make a sequel to Sonic Adventure 2 (2001), as he worried it would only appeal to Sonic fans. Interested in returning to gameplay similar to the Genesis games, Sonic Team decided to design Sonic Heroes so casual players not familiar with Sonic could adapt. Iizuka said the development period of Sonic Heroes was the most stressful of his career because of deadlines and Sega management. A fellow designer became ill, so he worked relentlessly, lost 22 pounds, and suffered from insomnia.
Sonic Heroes was the first multi-platform Sonic game: it was developed for the GameCube, PlayStation 2 (PS2), and Xbox. Unlike the Sonic Adventure games, made using proprietary software, Sonic Team partnered with Criterion Software to use the RenderWare game engine so the game could be programmed and ported with ease to each platform. Though Sonic Team was able to transfer some textures and models from the Sonic Adventure games into Sonic Heroes, most of their work started from scratch. Sonic Team found challenges in working with the Xbox and PS2, platforms with which they had little experience. The content in all versions is the same, but the PS2 version runs at 30 frames per second (FPS) in contrast to the other versions running at 60 FPS. Sega's Noah Musler explained that running the PS2 version at 60 FPS would have caused performance problems. Iizuka also noted the system is less powerful than the GameCube and Xbox. Iizuka and Naka decided against including console-exclusive content so players could have the same experience regardless of console.
Sonic Team was interested in making Sonic Heroess narrative feature characters teaming up to overcome evil, rather than Sonic Adventures approach of individual character stories. This led to the conception of the "team action" concept. Iizuka stated Sonic Team had a considerable amount of freedom in designing the game due to its new scope. The Chao-raising system—a staple of the Sonic Adventure games—was removed because Sonic Team feared it would disrupt the pace. To improve replay value, the grading system was made more difficult. The special stages from the 2D games were revived to "refresh players' minds" and change the pace. Player reactions to previous games influenced the design; for example, the team did not include modes like Big's fishing from Sonic Adventure and Tails' shooting from Sonic Adventure 2 after both were criticized.
The Chaotix, who had appeared in the 1995 spinoff game Knuckles' Chaotix, were revived for Sonic Heroes because Sonic Team thought they were unique and had never used them. Iizuka said he did not consider the Chaotix in Sonic Heroes the same team from Knuckles' Chaotix, claiming to have created new characters using the same designs from 1995. The game marks the debut of E-123 Omega in the Sonic series. Sonic Team wanted to include as many teams as possible, but time constraints and a desire to keep the gameplay balanced prevented this. The game features several computer animated cutscenes produced by Vision Scape Interactive. Jun Senoue composed the majority of the soundtrack. His band Crush 40 performed the main theme, "Sonic Heroes", and the final boss theme, "What I'm Made Of". The theme songs for each team were performed by Ted Poley, Tony Harnell, Kay Hanley, Julien-K, and Gunnar Nelson. Iizuka said that the intention was for the music "to return to the roots of the Sonic experience" and be exciting and fast-paced.
Naka believed that Sonic Heroes, a Sonic-themed McDonald's Happy Meal toy line, and the anime series Sonic X would expose the franchise to a new generation. Sega released Sonic Heroes in Japan on December 30, 2003, two weeks later than intended, to ensure there were "no compromises" in the final product. The GameCube version was released in North America on January 6, 2004, followed by the Xbox and PS2 versions on January 27. The European version was released on February 2, 2004. A Windows version was released in North America on November 22, 2004, followed by Europe on November 26 and Japan on December 9. The game was rereleased through the Sonic PC Collection for Windows on October 2, 2009, and the PS2 Classics line for the PlayStation 3 (PS3) on February 22, 2012.
Reception
Reviews for Sonic Heroes were "mixed or average", according to the review aggregator Metacritic. Some reviewers felt the game was better than the previous 3D Sonic games but still below the quality of the 2D games. The PS2 version's reviews were considerably worse than others; reviewers noted clipping, graphic faults, and its lower frame rate.
The aesthetics and sound were generally well received. IGN lauded detailed, varied, and realistic character models, and wrote that the textures were detailed and crisp. They also praised the realistic shading and lighting effects. Although GameSpot thought the graphics were not much of an improvement from previous games—comparing them to "a glorified Dreamcast game"—they still praised its steady frame rate, art design, and vibrant colors. Eurogamer disliked the shiny models, but was still pleased by the imaginative aesthetics. In regards to the soundtrack, Game Revolution found it upbeat and catchy, offering particular praise for the music of Bingo Highway. Although they called the music laughable and not an improvement from previous games, IGN thought the rest of the sound was high quality, and praised its "perfectly implemented" sound effects running in Dolby Pro Logic II.
Multiple reviewers found the gameplay similar to that of the Genesis Sonic games. GameSpot found Sonic Heroes the closest Sonic Team ever got to recreating the classic 2D Sonic gameplay in 3D. They praised the game for stripping away the shooting and hunting elements from the Sonic Adventure games, and called it "a purer, more action-packed Sonic experience" than previous games. IGN considered Sonic Heroes a major improvement from Sonic Adventure, writing "Sonic Heroes does an absolutely sensational job of re-creating the intensely fast and unpredictable looping, corkscrewing stages from the classic games in 3D". 1UP.com and GameSpy agreed that the game was a step in the right direction for the series. Reviewers called the casino level, Bingo Highway, a highlight.
Reviewers were generally divided over the team-based gameplay. GameSpy argued it was well-balanced and thought it greatly increased the replay value. IGN offered similar praise, praising its easy-to-learn, strategic controls. Game Revolution wrote the system added diversity. However, IGN also thought it was not as ambitious as expected and did not change the overall experience. GameSpot agreed the controls were easy, but considered the large number of teams unnecessary: "no one cares about these peripheral characters... People play Sonic games to play as Sonic the Hedgehog". 1UP found the concept was more repetitive than innovative. Eurogamer considered the gameplay original but "boring and obvious" and thought that the controls were clunky and unorthodox. While Eurogamer argued Sonic Heroes was not difficult, Game Revolution described it as hard to a fault, exclaiming they "[died] all the time."
The game was criticized for not addressing the problems of prior Sonic games. 1UP wrote the problems with the camera and "hit-or-miss lock-on attacks that leave you plunging to your doom" that plagued the Sonic Adventure games were still present in Sonic Heroes and hurt the experience greatly. GameSpot said although the camera worked well most of the time, coordination between camera position and character movement caused problems, such that pushing forward may not move the character in the same direction the camera is facing. They also wrote that the game suffered from problems with the collision detection and noted all the shortcomings were present in the Sonic Adventure games. IGN agreed the camera had not been improved. The voice acting was especially derided; IGN joked players should "turn down the volume during cut-scenes", and GameSpy compared the voice work to the likes of Playskool.
The editors of GameSpot ultimately named Sonic Heroes the best GameCube game of January 2004, and called it "the fastest and most authentic 3D Sonic experience we've seen yet."
Sales
Sonic Heroes was a major commercial success. By October 2004, the game had sold over one million copies in Europe. The PlayStation 2 version received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association, indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. According to Sega's financial reports, Sonic Heroes sold 1.42 million units from its release to March 2004 (850,000 in the U.S., 420,000 in Europe, and 150,000 in Japan), 1.57 million units from March 2004 to March 2005, and 420,000 units in the U.S. from March 2006 to March 2007, for total sales of at least 3.41 million. By the end of 2004, it had been branded as part of the Player's Choice line on the GameCube, the Greatest Hits line on the PS2, and the Platinum Hits line on the Xbox.
Legacy
After Sonic Heroes, Sonic Team USA was renamed Sega Studios USA. Their next project was Shadow the Hedgehog (2005), a spinoff starring Shadow set shortly after the events of Sonic Heroes. In 2008, after working on a few more games, the division was merged with Sonic Team in Japan. In 2017 series retrospective, USgamer ranked Sonic Heroes among the franchise's bottom half of games. They wrote that the system of switching between characters was unwieldy and annoying, but still interesting because it made the game feel like a puzzle video game. They also praised the design of E-123 Omega.
Sonic Heroes marked the debut of recurring Sonic character E-123 Omega, and reintroduced the obscure Chaotix. Its concept of switching between characters as necessary was reused in Sonic Team's Sonic Forces (2017) and Sumo Digital's Team Sonic Racing (2019); Sumo Digital cited it as inspiration for their game. The Seaside Hill level reappears in the 20th anniversary game Sonic Generations for PS3, Xbox 360, and Windows, while the Nintendo 3DS version includes the special stages and the Egg Emperor boss fight. Seaside Hill has also appeared in Mario and Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games (2009), Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing (2010), and its 2012 sequel.
See also
List of RenderWare games
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Official minisite
2003 video games
3D platform games
GameCube games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation Network games
Xbox games
Windows games
Sega video games
Sega Studio USA games
Sonic the Hedgehog video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games about cloning
Video games featuring female protagonists
RenderWare games
Video games scored by Jun Senoue
Video games scored by Fumie Kumatani
Video games scored by Tomoya Ohtani
Video games produced by Yuji Naka
Video games with pre-rendered 3D graphics
Platform games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games scored by Mariko Nanba
Video games scored by Hideaki Kobayashi
Video games scored by Keiichi Sugiyama | [
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|
227278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20Lacombe%20%28painter%29 | Georges Lacombe (painter) | Georges Lacombe (18 June 1868 – 29 June 1916) was a French sculptor and painter.
Early life
Born to a distinguished family of Versailles, he received his artistic training at the Académie Julian from the impressionists Alfred Philippe Roll and Henri Gervex.
The Nabis
At the Académie Julian he met Émile Bernard and Paul Sérusier in 1892, shortly afterwards becoming a member of their artist group, Les Nabis.
Like many other Nabi he spent the summers from 1888 to 1897 in Brittany, some sources record that he met Bernard and Sérusier there. He became Le Nabi sculpteur: the sculptor of the group. In fact many sources refer to him solely as sculptor.
Death
Georges Lacombe died in Alençon, Orne on 29 June 1916, eleven days after his 48th birthday.
References and sources
References
Sources
Frèches-Thory, Claire, & Perucchi-Petry, Ursula, ed.: Die Nabis: Propheten der Moderne, Kunsthaus Zürich & Grand Palais, Paris & Prestel, Munich 1993.
External links
1868 births
1916 deaths
19th-century French painters
French male painters
20th-century French painters
20th-century male artists
Post-impressionist sculptors
20th-century French sculptors
19th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
Alumni of the Académie Julian | [
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227280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projected%20coordinate%20system | Projected coordinate system | A projected coordinate system, also known as a projected coordinate reference system, a planar coordinate system, or grid reference system, is a type of spatial reference system that represents locations on the Earth using cartesian coordinates (x,y) on a planar surface created by a particular map projection. Each projected coordinate system, such as "Universal Transverse Mercator WGS 84 Zone 26N," is defined by a choice of map projection (with specific parameters), a choice of geodetic datum to bind the coordinate system to real locations on the earth, an origin point, and a choice of unit of measure. Hundreds of projected coordinate systems have been specified for various purposes in various regions.
When the first standardized coordinate systems were created during the 20th Century, such as the Universal Transverse Mercator, State Plane Coordinate System, and British National Grid, they were commonly called grid systems; the term is still common in some domains such as the military that encode coordinates as alphanumeric grid references. However, the term projected coordinate system has recently become predominant to clearly differentiate it from other types of spatial reference system. It is used in international standards such as the EPSG and ISO 19111 (also published by the Open Geospatial Consortium as Abstract Specification 2), and in most geographic information system software.
History
The map projection and the Geographic coordinate system (GCS, latitude and longitude) date to the Hellenistic period, proliferating during the Enlightenment Era of the 18th Century. However, their use as the basis for specifying precise locations, rather than latitude and longitude, is a 20th Century innovation.
Among the earliest was the State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), which was developed in the United States during the 1930s for surveying and engineering, because calculations such as distance are much simpler in a Cartesian coordinate system than the three-dimensional trigonometry of GCS. In the United Kingdom, the first version of the British National Grid was released in 1938, based on earlier experiments during World War I by the Army and the Ordnance Survey.
During World War II, modern warfare practices required soldiers to quickly and accurately measure and report their location, leading to the printing of grids on maps by the U.S. Army Map Service (AMS) and other combatants. Initially, each theater of war was mapped in a custom projection with its own grid and coding system, but this resulted in confusion. This led to the development of the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system, possibly adopted from a system originally developed by the German Wehrmacht. To facilitate unambiguous reporting, the alphanumeric Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) was then created as an encoding scheme for UTM coordinates to make them easier to communicate.
After the War, UTM gradually gained users, especially in the scientific community. Because UTM zones do not align with political boundaries, several countries followed the United Kingdom in creating their own national or regional grid systems based on custom projections. The use and invention of such systems especially proliferated during the 1980s with the emergence of geographic information systems. GIS requires locations to be specified as precise coordinates and performs numerous calculations on them, making cartesian geometry preferable to spherical trigonometry when computing horsepower was at a premium. In recent years, the rise of global GIS datasets and satellite navigation, along with an abundance of processing speed in personal computers, have led to a resurgence in the use of GCS. That said, projected coordinate systems are still very common in the GIS data stored in the Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) of local areas, such as cities, counties, states and provinces, and small countries.
System Specification
Because the purpose of any coordinate system is to accurately and unambiguously measure, communicate, and perform calculations on locations, it must be defined precisely. The EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset is the most common mechanism for publishing such definitions in a machine-readable form, and forms the basis for many GIS and other location-aware software programs.
An abstract two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system that allows for the measurement of each location as a tuple (x, y), which are also called the easting and northing in many systems such as UTM. Any coordinate system definition must include a planar surface, an origin point, a set of orthogonal axes to define the direction of each measurement, and a unit of measure (usually the meter or US foot).
A choice of map projection that creates a planar surface for the coordinate system that is connected to locations on the Earth. In addition to the general type of projection (e.g., Lambert Conformal Conic, Transverse Mercator), a coordinate system definition will specify the parameters to be used, such as a center point, standard parallels, scale factor, false origin, and such. With these parameters, the underlying formulas of the projection convert latitude and longitude directly into the (x, y) coordinates of the system.
A choice of geodetic datum, which includes a choice of earth ellipsoid. This binds the coordinate system to actual locations on the Earth by controlling the measurement framework for latitude and longitude (GCS). Thus, there will be a significant difference between the coordinate of a location in "UTM NAD83 Zone 14N" and for the same location in "UTM NAD27 Zone 14N," even though the UTM formulas are identical, because the underlying latitude and longitude values are different. In some GIS software, this part of the definition is called the choice of a particular geographic coordinate system.
Projections
To establish the position of a geographic location on a map, a map projection is used to convert geodetic coordinates to plane coordinates on a map; it projects the datum ellipsoidal coordinates and height onto a flat surface of a map. The datum, along with a map projection applied to a grid of reference locations, establishes a grid system for plotting locations. Conformal projections are generally preferred. Common map projections include the transverse mercator (used in Universal Transverse Mercator, the British National Grid, the State Plane Coordinate System for some states), Lambert Conformal Conic (some states in the SPCS), and Mercator (Swiss coordinate system).
Map projection formulas depend on the geometry of the projection as well as parameters dependent on the particular location at which the map is projected. The set of parameters can vary based on the type of project and the conventions chosen for the projection. For the transverse Mercator projection used in UTM, the parameters associated are the latitude and longitude of the natural origin, the false northing and false easting, and an overall scale factor. Given the parameters associated with particular location or grin, the projection formulas for the transverse Mercator are a complex mix of algebraic and trigonometric functions.
Easting-Northing
Every map projection has a natural origin, e.g., at which the ellipsoid and flat map surfaces coincide, at which point the projection formulas generate a coordinate of (0,0). To ensure that the northing and easting coordinates on a map are not negative (thus making measurement, communication, and computation easier), map projections may set up a false origin, specified in terms of false northing and false easting values, that offset the true origin. For example, in UTM, the origin of each northern zone is a point on the equator 500km west of the central meridian of the zone (the edge of the zone itself is just under 400km to the west). This has the desirable effect of making all coordinates within the zone positive values, being east and north of the origin. Because of this, they are often referred to as the easting and northing.
Grid north
Grid north (GN) is a navigational term referring to the direction northwards along the grid lines of a map projection. It is contrasted with true north (the direction of the North Pole) and magnetic north (the direction in which a compass needle points). Many topographic maps, including those of the United States Geological Survey and Great Britain's Ordnance Survey, indicate the difference between grid north, true north, and magnetic north.
The grid lines on Ordnance Survey maps divide the UK into one-kilometre squares, east of an imaginary zero point in the Atlantic Ocean, west of Cornwall. The grid lines point to a Grid North, varying slightly from True North. This variation is zero on the central meridian (north-south line) of the map, which is at two degrees West of the Prime Meridian, and greatest at the map edges. The difference between grid north and true north is very small and can be ignored for most navigation purposes. The difference exists because the correspondence between a flat map and the round Earth is necessarily imperfect.
At the South Pole, grid north conventionally points northwards along the Prime Meridian. Since the meridians converge at the poles, true east and west directions change rapidly in a condition similar to gimbal lock. Grid north solves this problem.
Grid reference encodings
Locations in a projected coordinate system, like any cartesian coordinate system, are measured and reported as easting/northing or (x, y) pairs. The pair is usually represented conventionally with easting first, northing second. For example, the peak of Mount Assiniboine (at on the British Columbia/Alberta border in Canada) in UTM Zone 11 is at (0594934mE, 5636174mN), meaning that is almost 600km east of the false origin for Zone 11 (95km east of the true central meridian at 117°W) and 5.6 million meters north of the equator.
While such precise numbers are easy to store and calculate in GIS and other computer databases, they can be difficult for humans to remember and communicate. Thus, since the mid 20th Century, there have been alternative encodings that shorten the numbers or convert the numbers into some form of alphanumeric string.
For example, a truncated grid reference may be used where the general location is already known to participants and may be assumed. Because the (leading) most significant digits specify the part of the world and the (trailing) least significant digits provide a precision that is not needed in most circumstances, they may be unnecessary for some uses. This permits users to shorten the example coordinates to 949-361 by concealing , assuming the significant digits (3,4, and 5 in this case) are known to both parties.
Alphanumeric encodings typically use codes to replace the most significant digits by partitioning the world up into large grid squares. For example, in the Military Grid Reference System, the above coordinate is in grid 11U (representing UTM Zone 11 5xxxxxx mN), and grid cell NS within that (representing the second digit 5xxxxxmE x6xxxxxm N), and as many remaining digits as are needed are reported, yielding an MGRS grid reference of 11U NS 949 361 (or 11U NS 9493 3617 or 11U NS 94934 36174).
The Ordnance Survey National Grid (United Kingdom) and other national grid systems use similar approaches. In Ordnance Survey maps, each Easting and Northing grid line is given a two-digit code, based on the British national grid reference system with an origin point just off the southwest coast of the United Kingdom. The area is divided into 100 km squares, each of which is denoted by a two-letter code. Within each 100 km square, a numerical grid reference is used. Since the Eastings and Northings are one kilometre apart, a combination of a Northing and an Easting will give a four-digit grid reference describing a one-kilometre square on the ground. The convention is the grid reference numbers call out the lower-left corner of the desired square. In the example map above, the town Little Plumpton lies in the square 6901, even though the writing which labels the town is in 6802 and 6902, most of the buildings (the orange boxed symbols) are in square 6901.
Precision
The more digits added to a grid reference, the more precise the reference becomes. To locate a specific building in Little Plumpton, a further two digits are added to the four-digit reference to create a six-digit reference. The extra two digits describe a position within the 1-kilometre square. Imagine (or draw or superimpose a Romer) a further 10x10 grid within the current grid square. Any of the 100 squares in the superimposed 10×10 grid can be accurately described using a digit from 0 to 9 (with 0 0 being the bottom left square and 9 9 being the top right square).
For the church in Little Plumpton, this gives the digits 6 and 7 (6 on the left to right axis (Eastings) and 7 on the bottom to top axis (Northings). These are added to the four-figure grid reference after the two digits describing the same coordinate axis, and thus our six-figure grid reference for the church becomes 696017. This reference describes a 100-metre by 100-metre square, and not a single point, but this precision is usually sufficient for navigation purposes. The symbols on the map are not precise in any case, for example the church in the example above would be approximately 100x200 metres if the symbol was to scale, so in fact, the middle of the black square represents the map position of the real church, independently of the actual size of the church.
Grid references comprising larger numbers for greater precision could be determined using large-scale maps and an accurate Romer. This might be used in surveying but is not generally used for land navigating for walkers or cyclists, etc. The growing availability and decreasing cost of handheld GPS receivers enables determination of accurate grid references without needing a map, but it is important to know how many digits the GPS displays to avoid reading off just the first six digits. A GPS unit commonly gives a ten-digit grid reference, based on two groups of five numbers for the Easting and Northing values. Each successive increase in precision (from 6 digit to 8 digit to 10 digit) pinpoints the location more precisely by a factor of 10. Since, in the UK at least, a 6-figure grid reference identifies a square of 100-metre sides, an 8-figure reference would identify a 10-metre square, and a 10-digit reference a 1-metre square. In order to give a standard 6-figure grid reference from a 10-figure GPS readout, the 4th, 5th, 9th and 10th digits must be omitted, so it is important not to read just the first 6 digits.
Examples of Projected CRS
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): not a single coordinate system, but a series of 60 zones (each being a gore 6° wide), each a system with its own Transverse Mercator projection.
Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS): a pair of coordinate systems covering the Arctic and Antarctica using a Stereographic projection.
Ordnance Survey National Grid (OSNG): a transverse mercator projection centered on 2°W that covers Great Britain with its own encoding scheme.
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS): another composite system of more than 120 coordinate systems (zones), each covering a state of the United States or a portion thereof.
Swiss coordinate system (LV95): covers Switzerland, using a Mercator projection.
Irish Transverse Mercator (ITM): jointly created by the Republic of Ireland and United Kingdom to cover the island of Ireland.
Bermuda National Grid
Hellenic Geodetic Reference System 1987 (Greece)
Israeli Transverse Mercator (NIG)
Swedish grid (RT90)
See also
East north up
Geocodes
Geodetic datum
Geographical distance
Graticule (cartography)
Horizontal plane
Map projection
Spatial reference system
Spatial grid
References
Cartography
Navigation
Geographic coordinate systems
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|
227281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bledisloe%20Cup | Bledisloe Cup | The Bledisloe Cup is an annual rugby union competition between the national teams of Australia and New Zealand that has been contested since the 1930s. The frequency at which the competition is held has varied, as has the number of matches played, but it currently consists of an annual three-match series, reduced to a two-match series in World Cup years, with two of the matches also counting towards The Rugby Championship. New Zealand have had the most success, winning the trophy in 2021 for the 49th time (excluding the disputed inaugural competition in 1931), while Australia have won the trophy 12 times.
History
There is some dispute as to when the first Bledisloe Cup match was played. The Australian Rugby Union (ARU) contend that the one-off 1931 match played at Eden Park was first. However, no firm evidence has been produced to support this claim, and it is recorded in the minutes of a New Zealand union management meeting several days later that Lord Bledisloe wished to present a cup for the All Blacks and Wallabies to play for. The New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) believe that the first match was when New Zealand toured Australia in 1932.
Between 1931 and 1981, the Bledisloe Cup was contested irregularly in the course of rugby tours between the two countries, with New Zealand winning it nineteen times and Australia four times; in 1949, Australia won the competition for the first time on New Zealand soil. The trophy itself was apparently 'lost' during this period and reportedly rediscovered in a Melbourne store room. It was contested annually from 1982 to 1995, sometimes as a series of three matches (two in 1995) and other times in a single match. During these years, New Zealand won the trophy eleven times and Australia three times.
Since 1996, the cup has been contested as part of the annual Tri Nations tournament. Until 1998, the cup was contested in a three-match series consisting of the two Tri Nations matches between the two sides and a third match. New Zealand won the series in 1996 and 1997, and Australia won it in 1998.
In 1996, and from 1999 through 2005, the third match was not played; during these years, Australia and New Zealand played each other twice as part of the Tri Nations for the cup. If the two teams won one game each, or if both games were drawn, the cup was retained by its current holder. The non-holder needed to win the two games 2–0 or 1–0 (with a draw) to regain the cup. A criticism of this system was that, with the two sides being very well matched in ability level, it was very common for the teams to win one game each and many rugby fans were dissatisfied with one team keeping the cup in the years when the series was tied at 1–1 (1999, 2000, 2002, 2004).
In 2006, the Tri Nations series was extended so that each team played each other three times, meaning a return of the three-game contest for the Bledisloe Cup. However, the cup reverted to the two-game contest in 2007 because the Tri Nations was abbreviated that year to minimise interference with the teams' preparations for the World Cup.
The three-match format for the Bledisloe Cup continued in 2012, with the first two matches taking place as part of the 2012 Rugby Championship.
Neutral venues
Hong Kong
In 2008 the Bledisloe Cup was contested over an unprecedented four matches, with three games played in Australia and New Zealand, followed by a fourth (and potentially deciding) game in Hong Kong, in an effort to promote the game in Asia. This was the first time Australia and New Zealand had played in a third country outside the Rugby World Cup. The Hong Kong match drew a crowd of 39,000 to see the All Blacks defeat the Wallabies 19–14 (despite New Zealand having already won the Bledisloe Cup for 2008), generating a reported £5.5 million and proving to be a financial success for the two unions. A fourth match was again set in Hong Kong in 2010, but failed to attract sufficient ticket sales.
Japan
The capital Tokyo hosted a fourth Bledisloe Test match on 31 October 2009. Each team expected to clear at least A$3.8 million/NZ$5 million from the Tokyo match.
On 27 October 2018, Bledisloe Cup returned to Japan for the second time and was hosted in Yokohama with the purpose of promoting and preparing for 2019 Rugby World Cup. All Blacks beating Wallabies 37–20 in the third test to sweep the series. The attendance figures was around 46,000 which became the record for a rugby test match in Japan. The relatively poor ticket sales included about 10% arrived via giveaways because of clashing with the fixture between Japan and World XV a day before in Osaka and lack of competitiveness of Wallabies contributing to dead rubber match of the series.
United States
Before the first match in Hong Kong, the two countries' rugby federations were considering taking Cup matches to the United States and Japan in 2009 and 2010. However, the proposed match in the United States did not come to fruition.
Future proposals
Behind the push from World Rugby with their League of Nations concept, only one match result would count for League of Nations points but the new season schedule must be able to accommodate a second Test each year in the new format. The gate receipts from Bledisloe Cup match ups are critical to both Rugby Australia and New Zealand Rugby Union and both nations are firm in their belief that one home match is mandatory. The third Bledisloe, which has long been a cash cow for both nations, could cease to exist. Any cash lost from forfeiting that match would be compensated by A$18 million per year in League of Nations broadcast revenue.
Results
Most titles won:
New Zealand - 49 (+1 in 1931)
Australia - 12
Longest time held by Australia: 5 years (1998–2002) (5 Titles)
Longest time held by New Zealand: 28
years (1951–1978) (12 Titles)
Home Series Wins:
New Zealand - 15
Australia - 5
Away Series Wins:
New Zealand - 12
Australia - 2
Home and Away Series Wins:
New Zealand - 23
Australia - 5
As of: 2021
Matches
As of: 7 Sept, 2021
Venues
In Australia
In New Zealand
By year
Women's format
In 2018 edition, Black Ferns and Wallaroos played Tests as curtain-raisers to both Bledisloe Cup Tests in Sydney and Auckland. The crowd at the end of both women's Tests swelled to about 28,000. The women's double-header concept was deemed as a success by NZR CEO Steve Tew who is open to repeating the concept. For the equivalent match at Eden Park in 2016, also before the men's clash, the crowd size peaked at 12,500.
Media coverage
In Australia, the Bledisloe Cup was televised between 1992 and 1995 by Network Ten. Since 1996, paid service Fox Sports has televised it jointly with (free to air) Seven Network between 1996 and 2010, Nine Network (2011-2012), Network Ten (2013-2020) and Nine Network in 2021.
See also
History of rugby union matches between Australia and New Zealand
Laurie O'Reilly Cup
Rugby union trophies and awards
Notes
History of rugby union matches between Australia and New Zealand
International rugby union competitions hosted by Australia
International rugby union competitions hosted by New Zealand
1931 establishments in Australia
1931 establishments in New Zealand
The Rugby Championship trophies
Recurring sporting events established in 1931 | [
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|
227282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romer | Romer | A Reference Card or "Romer" is a device for increasing the accuracy when reading a grid reference from a map. Made from transparent plastic, paper or other materials, they are also found on most baseplate compasses. Essentially, it is a specially marked-out ruler which matches the scale of the map in use. The scales are laid out in reverse, such that by lining up the numbers given in the grid reference with the gridlines for the square in question, the corner of the Romer lies on the location whose grid reference you wish to read. Some transparent versions have a small hole at the origin when this is not at the corner of the Reference Card. This allows access to the map such that the location could be marked with a pencil if using the Reference Card in reverse having been given a grid reference to start with. They are used in many types of land navigation and map reading, to give a more accurate grid reference than one just estimated by eye from the grid lines on the map.
While Romers of various designs are available commercially, they can easily be made yourself; by hand, by using a computer or by finding a website with instructions.
Invented in 1915 by Temporary Lieutenant (later Captain) Carrol Romer, MC, RE (1883-1951), then “Maps”, First Army: i.e. OC Maps and Printing Section, such Reference Cards were widely used by the British Army in WW1 and after, being described in a Maps GHQ booklet Maps and Artillery Boards in December 1916: the name "Romer" seems only to have been used officially from 1929.
A version was later developed for car navigational rallies by car rally partners Eric Gardner and John Cridford during the early 1950s, the 'Garford Romer' was available for both Imperial and Metric OS maps and is still sold today. Although a registered design when it was first made and sold it was and still is much copied.
The illustration shows how the Romer is used. Here, we are plotting the reference 696018. The marks corresponding to (6, 8) on the Romer are lined up along the gridlines (69, 01). The hole near the corner yields the exact point, the church at Little Plumpton.
References
Cartography
Navigation
Road rallying | [
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|
227284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lachesis%20%28genus%29 | Lachesis (genus) | Lachesis, also known as bushmasters, is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in forested areas of Central and South America. The generic name refers to one of the Three Fates, Lachesis, in Greek mythology who determined the length of the thread of life. Four species are currently recognized.
Description
Adults vary in length from , although some may grow to as much as , making it the longest venomous snake in the Western Hemisphere. Bushmasters are the longest type of viper in the world. L. muta is possibly the largest of the three species currently recognized, although more scant information suggest L. stenophrys broadly overlaps in size and may average at a similar size, while L. melanocephala and L. acrochorda are seemingly slightly smaller than the prior two species. Although they are not the heaviest vipers, being surpassed in mass by the Gaboon viper and the Eastern diamondback rattlesnake, large adults still can weigh up to . Bushmasters are sexually dimorphic in size, with males reaching larger sizes than females. The bushmaster's tail ends with a horny spine which sometimes vibrates when disturbed like rattlesnakes. This has led to some calling it 'the mute rattlesnake'.
Geographic range
Found in central and South America, including the island of Trinidad.
Reproduction
Bushmasters lay eggs: about a dozen in an average clutch. The female reportedly remains with her eggs during incubation and may aggressively defend the nest if approached. The hatchlings average in length and are more colorful than the adults. Lachesis is thought to be unique among New World pit vipers by laying eggs rather than giving birth to live young, although some evidence suggests that the species Bothrocophias colombianus found in Colombia may do the same.
Venom
This snake is capable of multiple-bite strikes and the injection of large amounts of venom. Even the bite of a juvenile specimen can be fatal. However, this snake is rarely encountered so snakebite incidents are not common. The venom of Lachesis has several activities, such as the activation of plasminogen, leading to increased permeability of blood vessels, causing edema and lowering of blood pressure, it also has coagulant activity where thrombin-like enzymes act on fibrinogen, forming small clots that settle in organs such as lungs and kidneys, obstructing capillary blood flow, hemorrhagic activity is caused by metalloproteases, which damage capillary walls, both coagulant and hemorrhagic activities act in combination triggering local and systemic hemorrhagic disorders, proteolytic activity is due to direct action of proteases (thrombin for example), metalloproteases, and important myotoxic and cytolytic factors, myotoxic action occurs due to the action of phospholipase, generating an inflammatory infiltrate composed of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages around necrotic cells. phospholipases can induce necrosis of skeletal muscle fibers, while the defibrinating action results in blood incoagolability, the venom also has a kininogen-like action, it causes the body to release substances such as bradykinin and kallikrein inducing hypotension, bradykinin-enhancing peptides interfere with the bradykinin metabolism causing it to last longer in the blood, leading to lasting hypotension the venom also has a neurotoxic action, isolated from basic phospholipase, is capable of inducing irreversible blockage of neuromuscular transmission in vitro at as low concentrations as 1 mg / ml.
Species
*) Not including the nominate subspecies.
T) Type species.
Taxonomy
Campbell and Lamar (2004) also recognize a fourth species, L. acrochorda (García, 1896), referring to it as the Chochoan bushmaster. It is found in western Panama and northwestern Colombia and Ecuador. Its evolutionary relationships are not certain, but Lachesis acrochorda is thought to be closer to the South American bushmaster L. muta than to the two Central American species L. stenophrys and L. melanocephala. The snake is known to be one of the deadliest snakes in the world.
Cultural depictions
The bushmaster snake is the antagonist in the tenth show of the old time radio show Escape. The show's title was "A Shipment of Mute Fate", and starred Jack Webb and Raymond Lawrence. It was broadcast on 15 October 1947. The story was also adapted for Suspense starring Jack Kelly, broadcast on January 6, 1957. Jack T. Colton killed a bushmaster in the film Romancing the Stone from 1984 when seeking shelter in a crashed plane.
The following weapons and military vehicles are named after this viper:
M242 Bushmaster, a chain gun manufactured by Alliant Techsystems;
Bushmaster IMV, an Australian infantry mobility vehicle;
A variant of the amphibious Landing Vehicle Tracked introduced in 1944, the LVT-3 Bushmaster.
References
Further reading
Eatherley, Dan. Bushmaster: Raymond Ditmars and the Hunt for the World's Largest Viper. 2015 (Arcade: New York City)
Mehrtens, J.M. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 1987. 480 pp. .
O'Shea, Mark. Venomous Snakes of the World. Princeton University Press. 2005. 160 pp. .
External links
Snakes of South America
Snakes of Central America
Reptiles of Nicaragua
Snake genera
Taxa named by François Marie Daudin | [
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|
227288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball%20at%20the%201968%20Summer%20Olympics | Basketball at the 1968 Summer Olympics | Basketball contests at the 1968 Summer Olympics was the seventh appearance of the sport of basketball as an official Olympic medal event. It took place at the Palacio de los Deportes in Mexico City, Mexico from October 13 to October 25, 1968. The United States defeated Yugoslavia to win their seventh straight gold medal in this sport, while the Soviet Union earned the bronze against Brazil.
Medal summary
Qualification
Automatic qualifications were granted to the host country and the first five places at the previous tournament. Additional spots were decided by various continental tournaments held by FIBA plus two additional tournaments that granted two extra berths each.
Format
Two groups of eight teams are formed, where the top two from each group compete for the medals in a knockout round.
The remaining places are defined as follows:
Fifth through eighth places are decided in a separate bracket between the third and fourth places from each group in a separate bracket.
Ninth through sixteenth places are decided between the fifth through eighth places from each group in separate brackets.
Squads
For the team rosters see: Basketball at the 1968 Summer Olympics – Men's team rosters.
Preliminary round
The top two teams from each group advance to the semifinals, while the remaining teams compete for 5th through 16th places in separate brackets. Both group leaders, the United States and the Soviet Union advanced undefeated to the knockout stage.
Group A
October 13
October 14
October 15
October 16
October 18
October 19
October 20
Group B
October 13
October 14
October 15
October 16
October 18
October 19
October 20
Knockout stage
The much anticipated final between The United States and the USSR would have to wait four years. Yugoslavia stunned the Soviets 63-62 in the semifinals. In the championship game the Americans had a slim 32-29 lead at intermission but put the game out of reach with a 22-3 streak to start the second half.
Medal bracket
Classification brackets
5th–8th Place
9th–12th Place
13th–16th Place
Awards
Final standings
References
External links
Official Olympic Report
1968 Summer Olympics events
1968
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|
227290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory%20Corso | Gregory Corso | Gregory Nunzio Corso (March 26, 1930 – January 17, 2001) was an American poet and a key member of the Beat movement. He was the youngest of the inner circle of Beat Generation writers (with Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs).
Early life
Born Nunzio Corso at New York City's St. Vincent's Hospital, Corso later selected the name "Gregory" as a confirmation name. Within Little Italy and its community he was "Nunzio," while he dealt with others as "Gregory." He often would use "Nunzio" as short for "Annunziato," the announcing angel Gabriel, hence a poet. Corso identified with not only Gabriel but also Hermes, the divine messenger.
Corso's mother, Michelina Corso (born Colonna), was born in Miglianico, Abruzzo, Italy, and immigrated to the United States at the age of nine, with her mother and four other sisters. At 16, she married Sam Corso, a first-generation Italian American, also teenage, and gave birth to Nunzio Corso the same year. They lived at the corner of Bleecker and MacDougal, the heart of Greenwich Village and upper Little Italy.
Childhood
Sometime in his first year, Corso's mother mysteriously abandoned him, leaving him at the New York child care
home, a branch of the Catholic Church Charities. Corso's father, Sam "Fortunato" Corso, a garment center worker, found the infant and promptly put him in a foster home. Michelina came to New York from Trenton but her life was threatened by Sam. One of Michelina's sisters was married to a New Jersey mobster who offered to give Michelina her "vengeance," that is to kill Sam. Michelina declined and returned to Trenton without her child. Sam consistently told Corso that his mother had returned to Italy and deserted the family. He was also told that she was a prostitute and was "disgraziata" (disgraced) and forced into Italian exile. Sam told the young boy several times, "I should have flushed you down the toilet." It was 67 years before Corso learned the truth of his mother's disappearance.
Corso spent the next 11 years in foster care in at least five different homes. His father rarely visited him. When he did, Corso was often abused: "I'd spill jello, and the foster home people would beat me. Then my father would visit, and he'd beat me again—a double whammy." As a foster child, Corso was among thousands that the Church aided during the Depression, with the intention of reconstituting families as the economy picked up. Corso went to Catholic parochial schools, was an altar boy and a gifted student. His father, in order to avoid the military draft, brought Gregory home in 1941. Nevertheless, Sam Corso was drafted and sent overseas.
Corso, then alone, became a homeless child on the streets of Little Italy. For warmth he slept in subways in the winter, and then slept on rooftops during the summer. He continued to attend Catholic school, not telling authorities he was living on the streets. With permission, he took breakfast bread from a bakery in Little Italy. Street food stall merchants would give him food in exchange for running errands.
Adolescence
At age 13, Corso was asked to deliver a toaster to a neighbor. While he was running the errand, a passerby offered money (around 94 dollars) for the toaster, and Corso sold it. He used the money to buy a tie and white shirt, and dressed up to see The Song of Bernadette, a movie about the mystical appearance of the Virgin Mary to Bernadette Soubirous at Lourdes. On returning from the movie, the police apprehended him. Corso claimed he was seeking a miracle, namely to find his mother. Corso had a lifelong affection for saints and holy men: "They were my only heroes." Nonetheless, he was arrested for petty larceny and incarcerated in The Tombs, New York's infamous jail. Corso, though only 13 years old, was celled next to an adult, criminally insane murderer who had stabbed his wife repeatedly with a screwdriver. The exposure left Corso traumatized. Neither Corso's stepmother nor his paternal grandmother would post his $50 bond. With his own mother missing and unable to make bail, he remained in the Tombs.
Later, in 1944 during a New York blizzard, a 14-year-old freezing Corso broke into his tutor's office for warmth, and fell asleep on a desk. He slept through the blizzard and was arrested for breaking and entering and booked into the Tombs for a second time with adults. Terrified of other inmates, he was sent to the psychiatric ward of Bellevue Hospital Center and later released.
On the eve of his 18th birthday, Corso broke into a tailor shop and stole an oversized suit to dress for a date. Police records indicate he was arrested two blocks from the shop. He spent the night in the Tombs and was arraigned the next morning as an 18-year-old with prior offenses. No longer a "youthful offender," he was given a two to three years sentence to Clinton State Prison in Dannemora, New York. It was New York's toughest prison, the site of the state's electric chair. Corso always has expressed a curious gratitude for Clinton making him a poet.
Gasoline, his second book of poems, is dedicated to "the angels of Clinton Prison who, in my seventeenth year, handed me, from all the cells surrounding me, books of illumination."
Clinton later became known as the "poets' prison", as rap poets have served time there ("1991").
Corso at Clinton Correctional
While being transported to Clinton, Corso, terrified of prison and the prospect of rape, concocted a story of why he was sent there. He told hardened Clinton inmates he and two friends had devised the wild plan of taking over New York City by means of walkie-talkies, projecting a series of improbable and complex robberies. Communicating by walkie-talkie, each of the three boys took up an assigned position—one inside the store to be robbed, one outside on the street to watch for the police, and a third, Corso, the master-planner, in a small room nearby dictating the orders. According to Corso, he was in the small room giving the orders when the police came. In light of Corso's youth, his imaginative yarn earned him bemused attention at Clinton. Richard Biello, a capo, asked Corso who he was connected with, that is what New York crime family did he come from, talking such big crimes as walkie-talkie robberies. "I'm independent!" Corso shot back, hoping to keep his distance from the mob inmates. A week later, in the prison showers, Corso was grabbed by a handful of inmates, and the 18-year-old was about to be raped. Biello happened in and commented, "Corso! You don't look so independent right now." Biello waved off the would-be rapists, who were afraid of mafia reprisals.
Thus Corso fell under the protection of powerful Mafioso inmates, and became something of a mascot because he was the youngest inmate in the prison, and he was entertaining. Corso would cook the steaks and veal brought from the outside by mafia underlings in the "courts", 55-gallon-barrel barbecues and picnic tables, assigned to the influential prisoners. Clinton also had a ski run right in the middle of "the yards," and Corso learned to downhill ski and taught the mafiosi. He entertained his mobster elders as a court jester, quick with ripostes and jokes. Corso would often cite the three propositions given him by a mafia capo: "1) Don't serve time, let time serve you. 2) Don't take your shoes off because with a two to three you're walking right out of here. 3) When you're in the yard talking to three guys, see four. See yourself. Dig yourself."
Corso was jailed in the very cell just months before vacated by Charles "Lucky" Luciano. While imprisoned, Luciano had donated an extensive library to the prison. (Poet's Work, Poet's Play: Essays on the Practice and the Art. 2008).
The cell was also equipped with a phone and self-controlled lighting as Luciano was, from prison, cooperating with the U.S. government's wartime effort, providing mafia aid in policing the New York waterfront, and later helping in Naples, Italy through his control of the Camorra. In this special cell, Corso read after lights-out thanks to a light specially positioned for Luciano to work late. Corso was encouraged to read and study by his Cosa Nostra mentors, who recognized his genius.
There, Corso began writing poetry. He studied the Greek and Roman classics, and voraciously absorbed encyclopedia and dictionary entries. He credited The Story of Civilization, Will and Ariel Durant's ground-breaking compendium of history and philosophy, for his general education and philosophical sophistication.
Release and return to New York City
In 1951, 21-year-old Gregory Corso worked in the garment center by day, and at night was a mascot yet again, this time at one of Greenwich Village's first lesbian bars, the Pony Stable Inn. The women gave Corso a table at which he wrote poetry. One night a Columbia College student, Allen Ginsberg, happened into the Pony Stable and saw Corso... "he was good looking, and wondered if he was gay, or what." Corso, who was not gay, was not uncomfortable with same sex come-ons after his time in prison, and thought he could score a beer off Ginsberg. He showed Ginsberg some of the poems he was writing, a number of them from prison, and Ginsberg immediately recognized Corso as "spiritually gifted." One poem described a woman who sunbathed in a window bay across the street from Corso's room on 12th Street. The woman happened to be Ginsberg's erstwhile girl friend, with whom he lived in one of his rare forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg invited Corso back to their apartment and asked the woman if she would satisfy Corso's sexual curiosity. She agreed, but Corso, still a virgin, got too nervous as she disrobed, and he ran from the apartment, struggling with his pants. Ginsberg and Corso became fast friends. All his life, Ginsberg had a sexual attraction to Corso, which remained unrequited.
Corso joined the Beat circle and was adopted by its co-leaders, Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, who saw in the young street-wise writer a potential for expressing the poetic insights of a generation wholly separate from those preceding it. At this time he developed a crude and fragmented mastery of Shelley, Marlowe, and Chatterton. Shelley's "A Defence of Poetry" (1821, posthumously published in 1840), with its emphasis on the ability of genuine poetic impulse to stimulate "unapprehended combinations of thought" that led to the "moral improvement of man," prompted Corso to develop a theory of poetry roughly consistent with that of the developing principles of the Beat poets. For Corso, poetry became a vehicle for change, a way to redirect the course of society by stimulating individual will. He referred to Shelley often as a "Revolutionary of Spirit", which he considered Ginsberg and himself to be.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
In 1954, Corso moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where several important poets, including Edward Marshall and John Wieners, were experimenting with the poetics of voice. The center for Corso's life there was not "the School of Boston," as these poets were called, but Harvard University's Widener Library. He spent his days there reading the great works of poetry and also auditing classes in the Greek and Roman Classics. Corso's appreciation of the classics had come from the Durants' books that he had read in prison. At Harvard, he considered becoming a classics scholar. Corso, penniless, lived on a dorm room floor in Elliott house, welcomed by students Peter Sourian, Bobby Sedgwick (brother of Edie), and Paul Grand. He would dress up for dinner and not be noticed. Members of the elite Porcellian Club reported Corso to the Harvard administration as an interloper. Dean Archibald MacLeish met with Corso intending to expel him, but Corso showed him his poems and MacLeish relented and allowed Corso to be a non-matriculating student—a poet in residence. Corso's first published poems appeared in the Harvard Advocate in 1954, and his play In This Hung-up Age—concerning a group of Americans who, after their bus breaks down midway across the continent, are trampled by buffalo—was performed by the esteemed Poets' Theater the following year along with T.S. Eliot's "Murder in the Cathedral."
Harvard and Radcliffe students, notably Grand, Sourian and Sedgwick, underwrote the printing expenses of Corso's first book, The Vestal Lady on Brattle, and Other Poems. The poems featured in the volume are usually considered apprentice work heavily indebted to Corso's reading. They are, however, unique in their innovative use of jazz rhythms—most notably in "Requiem for 'Bird' Parker, musician," which many call the strongest poem in the book—cadences of spoken English, and hipster jargon. Corso once explained his use of rhythm and meter in an interview with Gavin Selerie for Riverside Interviews: "My music is built in—it's already natural. I don't play with the meter." In other words, Corso believed the meter must arise naturally from the poet's voice; it is never consciously chosen.
In a review of The Vestal Lady on Brattle for Poetry, Reuel Denney asked whether "a small group jargon" such as bop language would "sound interesting" to those who were not part of that culture. Corso, he concluded, "cannot balance the richness of the bebop group jargon... with the clarity he needs to make his work meaningful to a wider-than-clique audience." Ironically, within a few years, that "small group jargon", the Beat lingo, became a national idiom, featuring words such as "man," "cool," "dig," "chick," "hung up," etc.
Despite Corso's reliance on traditional forms and archaic diction, he remained a street-wise poet, described by Bruce Cook in The Beat Generation as "an urchin Shelley." Biographer Carolyn Gaiser suggested that Corso adopted "the mask of the sophisticated child whose every display of mad spontaneity and bizarre perception is consciously and effectively designed"—as if he is in some way deceiving his audience. But the poems at their best are controlled by an authentic, distinctive, and enormously effective voice that can range from sentimental affection and pathos to exuberance and dadaist irreverence toward almost anything except poetry itself. Marian Janssen, in her biography of Isabella Gardner, details the relationships that Corso established with the more traditional literary society at the onset of his career. During his time at Cambridge, Corso met Robert Gardner, a member of the elite upper class “Boston Brahmins.” Gardner became a sponsor of sorts to Corso and briefly provided him with financial support. It was Robert Gardner who suggested to Corso that he send one of his poems to his sister, Isabella, who was a noted poet and the assistant editor of Poetry Magazine. Isabella liked the poem and asked Corso to send her three or four more before she took the poems to the editor, Karl Shapiro. Shapiro rejected Corso's poetry and he never appeared in Poetry Magazine while Shapiro was the editor. Gardener sent a letter back to Corso that managed to “salve his poetic pride” and began a lasting but difficult correspondence between the two poets.
San Francisco, "Howl", and the Beat Phenomenon
Corso and Ginsberg decided to head to San Francisco, separately. Corso wound up temporarily in Los Angeles and worked at the L.A. Examiner news morgue. Ginsberg was delayed in Denver. They were drawn by reports of an iconoclast circle of poets, including Gary Snyder, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael McClure, Philip Whalen and Lew Welch. An older literary mentor, the socialist writer Kenneth Rexroth, lent his apartment as a Friday-night literary salon (Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams, an old friend of Rexroth's, had given him an introductory letter).
Wally Hedrick wanted to organize the famous Six Gallery reading, and Ginsberg wanted Rexroth to serve as master of ceremonies, in a sense to bridge generations. Philip Lamantia, Michael McClure, Philip Whalen, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder read on October 7, 1955, before 100 people (including Kerouac, up from Mexico City). Lamantia read poems of his late friend John Hoffman. At his first public reading Ginsberg performed the just-finished first part of "Howl." Gregory Corso arrived late the next day, missing the historic reading, at which he had been scheduled to read.
The Six Gallery was a success, and the evening led to many more readings by the now locally famous Six Gallery poets. It was also a marker of the beginning of the West Coast Beat movement, since the 1956 publication of Howl (City Lights Pocket Poets, no. 4) and its obscenity trial in 1957 brought it to nationwide attention.
Ginsberg and Corso hitchhiked from San Francisco, visiting Henry Miller in Big Sur, and stopped off in Los Angeles. As guests of Anaïs Nin and writer Lawrence Lipton, Corso and Ginsberg gave a reading to a gathering of L.A. literati. Ginsberg took the audience off-guard, by proclaiming himself and Corso as poets of absolute honesty, and they both proceeded to strip bare naked of clothes, shocking even the most avant-garde of the audience.
Corso and Ginsberg then hitchhiked to Mexico City to visit Kerouac who was holed up in a room above a whorehouse, writing a novel, "Tristessa." After a three-week stay in Mexico City, Ginsberg left, and Corso waited for a plane ticket. His lover, Hope Savage, convinced her father, Henry Savage Jr., the mayor of Camden, S.C., to send Corso a plane ticket to Washington, D.C. Corso had been invited by the Library of Congress poet (precursor to U.S. Poet Laureate) Randall Jarrell and his wife Mary, to live with them, and become Jarrell's poetic protege. Jarrell, unimpressed with the other Beats, found Corso's work to be original and believed he held great promise. Corso stayed with the Jarrells for two months, enjoying the first taste of family life ever. However, Kerouac showed up and crashed at the Jarrells', often drunk and loud, and got Corso to carouse with him. Corso was disinvited by the Jarrells and returned to New York.
To Paris and the "Beat Hotel"
In 1957, Allen Ginsberg traveled with Peter Orlovsky to visit William S. Burroughs in Morocco. They were joined by Kerouac, who was researching the French origins of his family. Corso, already in Europe, joined them in Tangiers and, as a group, they made an ill-fated attempt to take Burroughs' fragmented writings and organize them into a text (which later would become Naked Lunch). Burroughs was strung out on heroin and became jealous of Ginsberg's unrequited attraction for Corso, who left Tangiers for Paris. In Paris, Corso introduced Ginsberg and Orlovsky to a Left Bank lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur, that he named the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by William Burroughs and others. It was a haven for young expatriate painters, writers, and musicians. There, Ginsberg began his epic poem Kaddish, Corso composed his poems Bomb and Marriage, and Burroughs (with Brion Gysin's help) put together Naked Lunch from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures of the residents of the hotel until it closed in 1963.
Corso's Paris sojourn resulted in his third volume of poetry, The Happy Birthday of Death (1960), Minutes to Go (1960, visual poetry deemed "cut-ups") with William S. Burroughs, Sinclair Beiles, and Brion Gysin, The American Express (1961, an Olympia Press novel), and Long Live Man (1962, poetry). Corso fell out with the publisher of Gasoline, Lawrence Ferlinghetti of City Lights Bookstore, who objected to "Bomb," a position Ferlinghetti later rued and for which he apologized. Corso's work found a strong reception at New Directions Publishing, founded by James Laughlin, who had heard of Corso through Harvard connections. New Directions was considered the premier publisher of poetry, with Ezra Pound, Dylan Thomas, Marianne Moore, Wallace Stevens, Thomas Merton, Denise Levertov, James Agee, and ironically, Lawrence Ferlinghetti. Corso also wrote again to Isabella Gardner while in Paris after he read her book of poems, Birthdays from the Ocean. Corso's extreme enthusiasm for her work was returned with indifference. Gardner was in the midst of an affair with Allen Tate, one of the leading members of the New Criticism, and his negative opinion of Beat poets influenced Gardner's response to Corso. While in Europe Corso searched for his lover, Hope Savage, who had disappeared from New York, saying she was headed to Paris. He visited Rome and Greece, sold encyclopedias in Germany, hung out with jazz trumpeter Chet Baker in Amsterdam, and with Ginsberg set the staid Oxford Union in turmoil with his reading of "Bomb," which the Oxford students mistakenly believed was pro-nuclear war (as had Ferlinghetti), while they and other campuses were engaged in "ban the bomb" demonstrations. A student threw a shoe at Corso, and both he and Ginsberg left before Ginsberg could read "Howl."
Corso returned to New York in 1958, amazed that he and his compatriots had become famous, or notorious, emerging literary figures.
Return to New York – The "Beatniks"
In late 1958, Corso reunited with Ginsberg and Orlovsky. They were astonished that before they left for Europe they had sparked a social movement, which San Francisco columnist Herb Caen called "Beat-nik," combining "beat" with the Russian "Sputnik," as if to suggest that the Beat writers were both "out there" and vaguely Communist.
San Francisco's obscenity trial of Lawrence Ferlinghetti for publishing Ginsberg's "Howl" had ended in an acquittal, and the national notoriety made "The Beats" famous, adored and ridiculed.
Upon their return, Ginsberg, Corso, Kerouac and Burroughs were published in the venerable Chicago Review, but before the volume was sold, University of Chicago President Robert Hutchins deemed it pornographic and had all copies confiscated. The Chicago editors promptly resigned and started an alternative literary magazine, Big Table. Ginsberg and Corso took a bus from New York for the Big Table launch, which again propelled them into the national spotlight. Studs Terkel's interview of the two was a madcap romp which set off a wave of publicity. Controversy followed them and they relished making the most of their outlaw and pariah image. Time and Life magazines had a particular dislike of the two, hurling invective and insult that Corso and Ginsberg hoped they could bootstrap into yet more publicity. The Beat Generation (so named by Kerouac) was galvanized and young people began dressing with berets, toreador pants, and beards, and carrying bongos. Corso would quip that he never grew a beard, didn't own a beret, and couldn't fathom bongos.
Corso and Ginsberg traveled widely to college campuses, reading together. Ginsberg's "Howl" provided the serious fare and Corso's "Bomb" and "Marriage" provided the humor and bonhomie. New York's Beat scene erupted and spilled over to the burgeoning folk music craze in the Village, Corso's and Ginsberg's home ground. An early participant was a newly arrived Bob Dylan: "I came out of the wilderness and just fell in with the Beat scene, the Bohemian, the Be Bop crowd. It was all pretty connected." "It was Jack Kerouac, Ginsberg, Corso, Ferlinghetti... I got in at the tail end of that and it was magic." -Bob Dylan in America.
Corso also published in the avant garde little magazine Nomad at the beginning of the 1960s.
During the early 1960s, Corso married Sally November, an English teacher who grew up in Cleveland, Ohio and attended Shaker High School, and graduated from the University of Michigan. At first, Corso mimicked "Marriage" and moved to Cleveland to work in Sally's father's florist shop. Then the couple lived in Manhattan and Sally was known to Allen Ginsberg, Peter Orlovsky, Larry Rivers and others in the beat circle at that time. The marriage, while a failure, did produce a child, Miranda Corso. Corso maintained contact with Sally and his daughter sporadically during his lifetime. Sally, who subsequently remarried, resides on the Upper East Side of Manhattan and has kept contact with one of the iconic females associated with the Beat movement, Hettie Jones.
Corso married two other times and had sons and a daughter.
As the Beats were supplanted in the 1960s by the Hippies and other youth movements, Corso experienced his own wilderness years. He struggled with alcohol and drugs. He later would comment that his addictions masked the pain of having been abandoned and emotionally deprived and abused. Poetry was his purest means of transcending his traumas, but substance abuse threatened his poetic output. He lived in Rome for many years, and later married in Paris and taught in Greece, all the while traveling widely. He strangely remained close to the Catholic Church as critic and had a loose identification as a lapsed Catholic. His collection Dear Fathers was several letters commenting on needed reforms in the Vatican.
In 1969, Corso published a volume, Elegiac Feelings American, whose lead poem, dedicated to the recently deceased Jack Kerouac, is regarded by some critics as Corso's best poem. In 1981 he published poems mostly written while residing in Europe, entitled Herald of the Autochthonic Spirit.
In 1972, Rose Holton and her sister met Corso on the second day of their residence at the Hotel Chelsea in New York City:
He sold us on the Chelsea and sold us on himself. Everything that life can throw at you was reflected in his very being. It was impossible for him to be boring. He was outrageous, always provocative, alternately full of indignation or humor, never censoring his words or behavior. But the main thing is that Gregory was authentic. He could play to the audience, but he was never a phony poseur. He was the real deal. He once explained the trajectory of creative achievement: 'There is talent, there is genius, then there is the divine.' Gregory inhabited the divine.
While living at the Chelsea, Corso encountered Isabella Gardner once again. She had moved there after her relationship with Tate ended. In one of the most curious events of his life, Corso blamed her for his lack of writing as his career progressed. He claimed that Gardner had stolen two suitcases from him while they were both at the Chelsea. Corso claimed that the suitcases contained two books of new poetry and all his correspondence between himself and the other Beat poets. Although his claims were clearly false, he valued the suitcases at two thousand dollars and extorted this money from Gardner.
Poetry
Corso's first volume of poetry The Vestal Lady on Brattle was published in 1955 (with the assistance of students at Harvard, where he had been auditing classes). Corso was the second member of the Beats to be published, despite the fact that he was the youngest member of the group. (Jack Kerouac's The Town and the City was published in February 1950.) His poems were first published in the Harvard Advocate. In 1958, Corso had an expanded collection of poems published as number 8 in the City Lights Pocket Poets Series: Gasoline & The Vestal Lady on Brattle. Corso's notable poems include the following: "Bomb,""Elegiac Feelings American," "Marriage," and "The Whole Mess... Almost."
Marriage
"Marriage" (1960) is perhaps Corso's signature poem. It is a 111-line work that lacks a consistent narrative thread. Instead, it offers a rambling debate about the advantages and disadvantages of marriage. It employs a free verse style, with no set meter, no set rhyme scheme, and varying line lengths. Corso acknowledges the length of some of the lines, but argues "they just flow, like a musical thing within me." "Marriage" was among his "title poems," along with "Power," "Army," and others that explore a concept. "Should I get married?" (1), the speaker begins. Could marriage bring about the results that the speaker is looking for? Coming "home to her" (54) and sitting "by the fireplace and she in the kitchen/aproned young and lovely wanting my baby/ and so happy about me she burns the roast beef" (55–57). Idealizing marriage and fatherhood initially, Corso's speaker embraces reality in the second half of the poem admitting, "No, I doubt I'd be that kind of father" (84). Recognizing that the act of marriage is in itself a form of imprisonment, "No, can't imagine myself married to that pleasant prison dream" (103), Corso's speaker acknowledges in the end that the possibility of marriage is not promising for him. Bruce Cook, in The Beat Generation illuminates Corso's skill at juxtaposing humor and serious critical commentary: "Yet as funny and entertaining as all this certainly is, it is not merely that, for in its zany way 'Marriage' offers serious criticism of what is phony about a sacred American institution."
"Marriage" excerpt:
Should I get married? Should I be good?
Astound the girl next door with my velvet suit and faustus hood?
Don't take her to movies but to cemeteries
tell all about werewolf bathtubs and forked clarinets
then desire her and kiss her and all the preliminaries
and she going just so far and I understanding why
not getting angry saying You must feel! It's beautiful to feel!
Instead take her in my arms lean against an old crooked tombstone
and woo her the entire night the constellations in the sky—
When she introduces me to her parents
back straightened, hair finally combed, strangled by a tie,
should I sit knees together on their 3rd degree sofa
and not ask Where's the bathroom?
How else to feel other than I am,
often thinking Flash Gordon soap—
O how terrible it must be for a young man
seated before a family and the family thinking
We never saw him before! He wants our Mary Lou!
After tea and homemade cookies they ask What do you do for a living?
Should I tell them? Would they like me then?
Say All right get married, we're not losing a daughter
but we're gaining a son—
And should I then ask Where's the bathroom?
O God, and the wedding! All her family and her friends
and only a handful of mine all scroungy and bearded
just wait to get at the drinks and food—
Corso's sometimes surreal word mash-ups in the poem—"forked clarinets," "Flash Gordon soap," "werewolf bathtubs"—caught the attention of many. Ethan Hawke recited the poem in the 1994 film Reality Bites, and Corso later thanked Hawke for the resulting royalty check.
Bomb
According to Catharine Seigel, Corso's "Bomb" (published in 1958), was one of the earliest poems to confront the existence of the nuclear bomb. The poem was published as a multiple-paged broadside, with the text shaped as a mushroom cloud. The first 30 lines create a round mushroom top, while lines 30-190 create the pillar of debris and destruction rising up from the ground. Corso recalled the tradition of patterned or shape poetry, but made the irreverent choice to create the shape of the cloud that results from the detonation of a nuclear bomb. Previous uses of shape poetry include angel wings and altars, which Siegel says makes Corso's choice "ironically appropriate." The poem appeared in the volume "The Happy Birthday of Death," which featured a black and white photograph of the mushroom cloud over Hiroshima, Japan.
Corso makes extensive use of onomatopoeia toward the end of the poem, with all-caps font exclaiming "BOOM BOOM BOOM BOOM BOOM" (166). Siegel describes these interruptions as "attempting to sound the reign of a nuclear, apocalyptic chaos." According to Corso himself, "When it's read, it's a sound poem.
"Bomb" was controversial because it mixed humor and politics. The poem was initially misinterpreted by many as being supportive of nuclear war. The opening lines of the poem tend to lead the reader to believe that Corso supported the bomb. He writes, "You Bomb /Toy of universe Grandest of all snatched-sky I cannot hate you [extra spaces Corso's]" (lines 2–3). The speaker goes on to state that he cannot hate the bomb just as he cannot hate other instruments of violence, such as clubs, daggers, and St. Michael's burning sword. He continues on to point out that people would rather die by any other means including the electric chair, but death is death no matter how it happens. The poem moves on to other death imagery and at time becomes a prayer to the bomb. The speaker offers to bring mythological roses, a gesture that evokes an image of a suitor at the door. The other suitors courting the bomb include Oppenheimer and Einstein, scientists who are responsible for the creation of the bomb. He concludes the poem with the idea that more bombs will be made "and they'll sit plunk on earth's grumpy empires/ fierce with moustaches of gold" (lines 87–8).
Christine Hoff Kraemer states the idea succinctly, "The bomb is a reality; death is a reality, and for Corso, the only reasonable reaction is to embrace, celebrate, and laugh with the resulting chaos" ("The Brake of Time: Corso's Bomb as Postmodern God(dess)"). Kraemer also asserts, "Corso gives the reader only one clue to interpreting this mishmash of images: the association of disparate objects is always presented in conjunction with the exploding bomb" ("The Brake of Time: Corso's Bomb as Postmodern God(dess)"). In addition she points to Corso's denial that the poem contained political significance. Instead, he describes the poem as a "death shot" that pokes fun at the preoccupation with death by bomb in the 1950s when death by other causes is much more likely. This irreverent, humorous approach is characteristic of the Beat movement.
"Bomb" and "Marriage" caught the eye of a young Bob Dylan, still in Minnesota. Dylan said, "The Gregory Corso poem 'Bomb' was more to the point and touched the spirit of the times better—a wasted world and totally mechanized—a lot of hustle and bustle—a lot of shelves to clean, boxes to stack. I wasn't going to pin my hopes on that."
Corso in other poetry
In contrast to Corso's use of marriage as a synecdoche for a Beat view of women, postmodern feminist poet Hedwig Gorski chronicles a night with Corso in her poem "Could not get Gregory Corso out of my Car" (1985, Austin, Texas) showing the womanizing typical for heterosexual Beat behavior. Gorski criticizes the Beat movement for tokenism towards women writers and their work, with very few exceptions, including Anne Waldman, and post-beats like Diane DiPrima and herself. Male domination and womanizing by its heterosexual members, along with tokenism by its major homosexual members characterize the Beat Literary Movement. Beats scoffed at the Feminist Movement which offered liberalizing social and professional views of women and their works as did the Beat Movement for men, especially homosexuals. Corso however always defended women's role in the Beat Generation, often citing his lover, Hope Savage, as a primary influence on him and Allen Ginsberg.
Relationship with the Beat Movement
The battle against social conformity and literary tradition was central to the work of the Beats. This group of poets questioned mainstream politics and culture, and they were concerned with changing consciousness and defying conventional writing. Corso's poems "Marriage" and "Bomb" demonstrate his willingness to provide an unconventional, humorous, and irreverent perspective on serious or controversial topics.
Ted Morgan described Corso's place in the Beat literary world: "If Ginsberg, Kerouac and Burroughs were the Three Musketeers of the movement, Corso was their D'Artagnan, a sort of junior partner, accepted and appreciated, but with less than complete parity. He had not been in at the start, which was the alliance of the Columbia intellectuals with the Times Square hipsters. He was a recent adherent, although his credentials were impressive enough to gain him unrestricted admittance ..." It has taken 50 years and the death of the other Beats, for Corso to be fully appreciated as a poet of equal stature and significance.
Later years
In later years, Corso disliked public appearances and became irritated with his own "Beat" celebrity. He never allowed a biographer to work in any "authorized" fashion, and only posthumously was a volume of letters published under the specious artifice of An Accidental Autobiography. He did, however, agree to allow filmmaker Gustave Reininger to make a cinema vérité documentary, Corso: The Last Beat, about him.
Corso had a cameo appearance in The Godfather III where he plays an outraged stockholder trying to speak at a meeting.
After Allen Ginsberg's death, Corso was depressed and despondent. Gustave Reininger convinced him to go "on the road" to Europe and retrace the early days of "the Beats" in Paris, Italy and Greece. While in Venice, Corso expressed on film his lifelong concerns about not having a mother and living such an uprooted childhood. Corso became curious about where in Italy his mother, Michelina Colonna, might be buried. His father's family had always told him that his mother had returned to Italy a disgraced woman, a whore. Filmmaker Gustave Reininger quietly launched a search for Corso's mother's Italian burial place. In an astonishing turn of events, Reininger found Corso's mother Michelina not dead, but alive; and not in Italy, but in Trenton, New Jersey. Corso was reunited with his mother on film. He discovered that she at the age of 17 had been almost fatally brutalized (all her front teeth punched out) and was sexually abused by her teenage husband, his father. On film, Michelina explained that, at the height of the Depression, with no trade or job, she had no choice but to give her son into the care of Catholic Charities. After she had established a new life working in a restaurant in New Jersey, she had attempted to find him, to no avail. The father, Sam Corso, had blocked even Catholic Charities from disclosing the boy's whereabouts. Living modestly, she lacked the means to hire a lawyer to find her son. She worked as a waitress in a sandwich shop in the New Jersey State Office Building in Trenton. She eventually married the cook, Paul Davita, and started a new family. Her child Gregory remained a secret between Michelina and her mother and sisters, until Reininger found them.
Corso and his mother quickly developed a relationship which lasted until his death, which preceded hers. They both spent hours on the phone, and the initial forgiveness displayed in the film became a living reality. Corso and Michelina loved to gamble and on several occasions took vacations to Atlantic City for blackjack at the casinos. Corso always lost, while Michelina fared better and would stake him with her winnings.
Corso claimed that he was healed in many ways by meeting his mother and saw his life coming full circle. He began to work productively on a new, long-delayed volume of poetry, The Golden Dot. Shortly thereafter, Corso discovered he had irreversible prostate cancer. He died of the disease in Minnesota on January 17, 2001. Around two hundred people were present in the "Non-Catholic Cemetery" in Rome, Italy, on Saturday morning, May 5, to pay their last respects to Gregory Corso. In the tranquility of this small and lovely cemetery full of trees, flowers and well-fed cats, with the sun's complicity, more than a funeral, it seemed to be a reunion of long-lost friends, with tales, anecdotes, laughter and poetry readings. The urn bearing Corso's ashes arrived with his daughter Sheri Langerman who had assisted him during the last seven months of his life. Twelve other Americans came with her, among them Corso's old friends Roger Richards and the lawyer Robert Yarra. The cemetery had been closed to newcomers since the mid-century and Robert Yarra and Hannelore deLellis made it possible for Corso to be buried there. His ashes were deposited at the foot of the grave of poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in the Cimitero Acattolico, and not far from John Keats. He wrote his own epitaph:
Spir't
is Life
It flows thru
the death of me
endlessly
like a river
unafraid
of becoming
the sea
Quotes
"…a tough young kid from the Lower East Side who rose like an angel over the roof tops and sang Italian song as sweet as Caruso and Sinatra, but in words.… Amazing and beautiful, Gregory Corso, the one and only Gregory, the Herald."—Jack Kerouac – Introduction to Gasoline
"Corso's a poet's Poet, a poet much superior to me. Pure velvet... whose wild fame's extended for decades around the world from France to China, World Poet.—Allen Ginsberg, "On Corso's Virtues"
"Gregory's voice echoes through a precarious future.... His vitality and resilience always shine through, with a light that is more than human: the immortal light of his Muse.... Gregory is indeed one of the Daddies."—William S. Burroughs
"The most important of the beat poets... a really true poet with an original voice"—Nancy Peters, editor of City Lights
"Other than Mr. Corso, Gregory was all you ever needed to know. He defined the name by his every word or act. Always succinct, he never tried. Once he called you 'My Ira' or 'My Janine' or 'My Allen,' he was forever 'Your Gregory'."—Ira Cohen
"...It comes, I tell you, immense with gasolined rags and bits of wire and old bent nails, a dark arriviste, from a dark river within." – Gregory Corso, How Poetry Comes to Me (epigraph of Gasoline)
"They, that unnamed "they", they've knocked me down but I got up. I always get up-and I swear when I went down quite often I took the fall; nothing moves a mountain but itself. They, I've long ago named them me." – Gregory Corso
Filmography
Pull My Daisy (1959)
Me and My Brother (1969)
The Godfather Part III (1990) – Unruly Stockholder
What About Me (1993) – Hotel Desk Clerk (final film role)
Corso: The Last Beat (2009)
Bibliography
The Vestal Lady and Other Poems (1955, poetry)
This Hung-Up Age (1955, play)
Gasoline (1958, poetry)
Bomb (1958, poetry)
The Happy Birthday of Death (1960, poetry)
Minutes to Go (1960, visual poetry) with Sinclair Beiles, William S. Burroughs, and Brion Gysin.
The American Express (1961, novel)
Long Live Man (1962, poetry)
There is Yet Time to Run Back through Life and Expiate All That's been Sadly Done (1965, poetry)
Elegiac Feelings American (1970, poetry)
The Night Last Night was at its Nightest (1972, poetry)
Earth Egg (1974, poetry)
Writings from OX (1979, with interview by Michael Andre)
Herald of the Autochthonic Spirit (1981, poetry)
Mind Field (1989, poetry)
Mindfield: New and Selected Poems (1989, poetry)
King Of The Hill: with Nicholas Tremulis (1993, album)
Bloody Show: with Nicholas Tremulis (1996, album)
Brink of the World by Stephen R. Pastore and Gregory Corso (2008)
The Whole Shot: Collected Interviews with Gregory Corso (2015)
Sarpedon: A Play by Gregory Corso (1954) (2016)
Melted Parchment (2019)
Collected Plays (2021)
References
Other sources
Aquilone, Matthew. “1991.” 1991 Comments, 12 Mar. 2012, thenervousbreakdown.com/maquilone/2012/02/1991/.
Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. New York: Penguin Books, 1992. (hc);
Kraemer, Christine Hoff. “The Brake of Time: Corso's Bomb as Postmodern God(Dess).” Texas Studies in Literature and Language, vol. 44, no. 2, 2002, pp. 211–229., doi:10.1353/tsl.2002.0011.
Olson, Kirby. Gregory Corso: Doubting Thomist. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 2002.
Skau, Michael. A Clown in a Grave: Complexities and Tensions in the Work of Gregory Corso. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999.
Stephenson, Gregory. Exiled Angel: A Study of the Work of Gregory Corso. London: Hearing Eye Books, 1989.
Tobin, Daniel, and Pimone Triplett. Poet's Work, Poet's Play: Essays on the Practice and the Art. University of Michigan Press, 2008.
Further reading
Gregory Corso biography
Kashner, Sam, When I Was Cool, My Life at the Jack Kerouac School, New York: HarperCollins Perennial, 2005
External links
Archives
Gregory Corso papers at the Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Columbia University Libraries
Records of Gregory Corso at Special Collections and Rare Books, Simon Fraser University
Gregory Corso material in the Robert A. Wilson collection at Special Collections, University of Delaware Library
Gregory Corso collection at Syracuse University Library
Gregory Corso collection of papers at New York Public Library Archives and Manuscripts
Gregory Corso papers at Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford Libraries
Gregory Corso papers at Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford Libraries
Gregory Corso collection at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin
Other links
Gregory Corso
Gregory Corso
Gregory Corso - bio and links
1930 births
2001 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American poets
American poets of Italian descent
American writers of Italian descent
Beat Generation writers
Burials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome
Deaths from cancer in Minnesota
Deaths from prostate cancer
Harvard University people
People from Greenwich Village
Poets from Minnesota
American male novelists
American male poets
American expatriates in France
Novelists from Minnesota
20th-century American male writers | [
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|
227291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Hot%20Chick | The Hot Chick | The Hot Chick is a 2002 American teen fantasy comedy film about a teenage girl whose body is magically swapped with that of a criminal. It was directed by Tom Brady and produced by Rob Schneider and Carr D'Angelo for Happy Madison and Buena Vista Pictures (though Touchstone Pictures), and written by Brady and Rob Schneider. The film stars Schneider, Rachel McAdams, Anna Faris and Matthew Lawrence. The film details a mean-spirited teenager who comes across magic earrings that causes her to switch bodies with an incompetent thief. Together with her cheerleader friends, she searches for her body while dealing with awkward social situations.
Adam Sandler served as executive producer and has a small role in the film as the Mambuza Bongo Player, a character based on one played by Schneider in a Saturday Night Live sketch. Sisters Tia and Tamera Mowry and singers Ashlee Simpson, Angie Stone, and Michelle Branch also had small roles. Parts of the film were shot at Redondo Union High School and El Segundo High School.
Plot
In 50 BC, in an Abyssinian castle, the princess Nawa uses a pair of enchanted earrings to escape an arranged marriage by swapping bodies with a slave girl. When each woman wears one of the earrings, their bodies are magically swapped while their minds remain in place.
In her modern-day suburban home, Jessica Spencer is a beautiful but selfish "hot chick". Jessica's closest friends are April, Keecia, and Lulu. April is Jessica's best friend, and all four girls are cheerleaders. At school one day, Jessica makes fun of an overweight girl named Hildenburg and a Wiccan girl named Eden. After that, Jessica and her friends visit the local mall, where Jessica gets her rival Bianca into trouble and finds the earrings in an African-themed store. The earrings are not for sale, so Jessica steals them.
Shortly afterward, a small-time criminal named Clive Maxtone robs a nearby gas station. When Jessica and her friends stop there and mistake him for an employee, he services their car to avoid raising suspicion. Jessica accidentally drops one of the earrings on the ground, the girls drive away, and Clive picks up the earring. That evening, in their respective homes, Jessica and Clive put on their earrings. When they wake up the next morning, each of them is trapped in the other's body. This is especially difficult for Jessica, who has a cheering competition and the school prom coming up soon.
After Jessica convinces her friends of who she is, they help her investigate the body swap. Hildenburg, Eden, and Bianca are all innocent, Hildenburg and Eden join Jessica after she apologizes to them, and Eden finds a picture of the earrings on the internet. When the girls return to the African store, the owner explains how the earrings work and tells the girls they must find the other earring soon or the change will become permanent.
Meanwhile, Jessica is hired for two jobs while secretly living with April. At her own home, where she works as a gardener, her parents tell her about their marital problems and she helps them rekindle their sex life. At school, while cleaning the boys' locker room as a custodian, she spies on her boyfriend Billy, who truly loves her, and April's boyfriend Jake, who has another girlfriend Monique. Faced with Jake's infidelity, April begins to fall in love with Jessica, who agrees to take her to the prom. At the cheering competition, Jessica signals romantically to Billy while disguised as the school mascot, but when the head of her suit falls off, he becomes confused and leaves with Bianca.
During this time, Clive has been using Jessica's body to make money from men, including Billy, who gives him his money and car, believing he is Jessica. On the evening of the prom, Hildenburg sees a video of Clive robbing a man on the TV news, goes to the scene of the crime, and finds a business card for the club where Clive works as a pole dancer. She informs Jessica at the prom, and the girls go to the club. When they find Clive, Jessica steals his earring and puts it on herself along with the other one. With the two earrings now on the same person, Jessica's and Clive's bodies return to their original owners.
After Jessica makes up with Billy, the film ends with the school's graduation ceremony, followed by a scene in which Clive, running from the law and still dressed in lingerie, is abducted by a bartender who believes he is a homosexual.
Cast
Production
Filming took place at University High School in West Los Angeles.
Casting
Singers Ashlee Simpson and Michelle Branch each make their feature film debut with cameo roles. Wes Takahashi, former animator and visual effects supervisor for Industrial Light & Magic, makes a cameo appearance as a news reporter. Schneider's mother Pilar appears as a judge of the cheerleading contest.
Soundtrack
"Starlight" – Zed
"Mess" – Custom
"Take Tomorrow" – Butch Walker
"Mongoose" – Fu Manchu
"Firecracker" – Roxy Saint
"Ash To Ash" – Loudermilk
"You're Pretty Good Looking" – Whirlwind Heat
"I See You Baby" – Groove Armada, Gram'ma Funk
"Stick Em (Rock Like This)" – Liquid Todd, Dr. Luke
"Get Into Something" – Jenē
"Do Whatcha Gonna Do" – Len
"That's What Girls Do" – No Secrets
Release
The Hot Chick was originally rated R, but several scenes were edited out in order to receive the broader PG-13 rating. The R version was classified 12A in Britain, maintaining the same rating given to the PG-13 theatrical version.
Before the film was released theatrically, previews indicated the title would be Miss Popularity.
Reception
Box office
The film opened at #5 at the U.S. box office on the weekend of December 13–15, 2002, taking in US$7,401,146, averaging $3,338 across the 2,217 theatres where it was shown. It went on to earn a total worldwide gross of $54,639,553.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, as of October 2020, the film had an approval rating of 22% based on reviews from 83 critics, with an average score of 3.83/10. The critical consensus read: "The Hot Chick'''s one-note concept gets stretched thin, and a lot of the jokes fall flat." On Metacritic, as of October 2020, the film had a score of 29 out 100 based on reviews from 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.
Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film two thumbs way down. Ebert gave the film half a star (out of a possible four), declaring, "The MPAA rates this PG-13. It is too vulgar for anyone under 13, and too dumb for anyone over 13." Roeper panned the film saying "it's in color. And, it was mostly in focus."
Dennis Harvey of Variety magazine wrote: "At best routinely assembled—at worst barely competent. The slapstick is labored, and the bigger setpieces flat."
Accolades
Rob Schneider was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Actor of the Decade for his performance in the film.
Home media The Hot Chick was released May 13, 2003 on VHS and DVD. The DVD featured the deleted scenes that would have made the film an R, including an alternate ending.
See also
Big (1988)
Freaky Friday (2003)
13 Going On 30 (2004)
Mr Ya Miss (2005)
17 Again (2009)
The Change-Up (2011)
Freaky Friday (2018 film) (2018)
Little (2019)
Freaky'' (2020)
Switched (2020)
References
External links
2002 films
2000s buddy films
2000s crime comedy films
2000s fantasy-comedy films
2000s high school films
2000s sex comedy films
2000s teen comedy films
American crime comedy films
American fantasy-comedy films
American female buddy films
American films
American high school films
American sex comedy films
American teen comedy films
Body swapping in films
Cheerleading films
2000s English-language films
Films about proms
Films set in shopping malls
Films directed by Tom Brady
Films scored by John Debney
Films shot in Los Angeles
Happy Madison Productions films
Robbery in fiction
Films with screenplays by Rob Schneider
2000s teen fantasy films
Touchstone Pictures films
2002 directorial debut films
2002 comedy films | [
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|
227294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana-class%20battleship | Indiana-class battleship | The Indiana-class was a class of three pre-dreadnought battleships launched in 1893. These were the first battleships built by the United States Navy comparable to contemporary European ships, such as the British . Authorized in 1890 and commissioned between November 1895 and April 1896, these were relatively small battleships with heavy armor and ordnance that pioneered the use of an intermediate battery. Specifically intended for coastal defense, the freeboard was insufficient to deal well with the waves of the open ocean. The turrets lacked counterweights, and the main belt armor was placed too low to be effective under most conditions.
The ships were named , , and and were designated Battleship Number 1 through 3. All three served in the Spanish–American War, although Oregon—which was stationed on the West Coast—had to cruise around South America to the East Coast first. After the war, Oregon returned to the Pacific and participated in the Philippine–American War and Boxer Rebellion, while her sister ships were restricted to training missions in the Atlantic Ocean. After 1903, the obsolete battleships were decommissioned and recommissioned several times, the last time during World War I when Indiana and Massachusetts served as training ships, while Oregon was a transport escort for the Siberian Intervention.
In 1919, all three ships were decommissioned for the final time. Indiana was sunk in shallow water as an explosives test target a year later and sold for scrap in 1924. Massachusetts was scuttled off the coast of Pensacola in 1920 and used as an artillery target. The wreck was never scrapped and is now a Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserve. Oregon was initially preserved as a museum, but was sold for scrap during World War II. The scrapping was later halted and the stripped hulk was used as an ammunition barge during the battle of Guam. The hulk was finally sold for scrap in 1956.
Background
The Indiana class was very controversial at the time of its approval by the United States Congress. A policy board convened by the Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy came up with an ambitious 15-year naval construction program on 16 July 1889, three years after the and the were authorized. The battleships in their plan would include ten first-rate long-range battleships with a top speed and a steaming radius of at — maximum. These ocean-going ships were envisioned as a possible fleet in being, a fleet capable of raiding an enemy's home ports and intended to deter powerful warships from ranging too far from home. Twenty-five short-range second-rate battleships would provide home defense in both the Atlantic and Pacific and support the faster and larger long-range vessels. With a range of roughly at 10 knots and a draft of , they would roam from the St. Lawrence River in the north to the Windward Islands and Panama in the south and would be able to enter all the ports in the southern United States.
It was proposed, probably for cost reasons, that the short-range battleships should have a hierarchy of three subclasses. The first would mount four guns each on eight ships, the second would mount four guns each on ten ships, and the third would mount two 12-inch and two guns each on five ships. The two battleships already under construction, Texas and Maine, were to be grouped under the last class. In addition, 167 smaller ships, including rams, cruisers and torpedo boats, would be built, coming to a total cost of $281.55 million, approximately equal to the sum of the entire US Navy budget during the previous 15 years (adjusted for inflation, $6.6 billion in 2009 dollars).
Congress balked at the plan, seeing in it an end to the United States policy of isolationism and the beginning of imperialism. Even some supporters of naval expansion were wary; Senator Eugene Hale feared that because the proposal was so large, the entire bill would be shot down and no money appropriated for any ships. However, in April 1890, the United States House of Representatives approved funding for three 8,000-long ton battleships. Tracy, trying to soothe tensions within Congress, remarked that these ships were so powerful only twelve would be necessary instead of the 35 called for in the original plan. He also slashed the operating costs of the Navy by giving the remaining Civil War-era monitors—which were utterly obsolete by this time—to navy militias operated by the states. The appropriation was also approved by the Senate, and in total three coast-defense battleships (the Indiana class), a cruiser, and a torpedo boat were given official approval and funding on 30 June 1890.
The first class of short-range ships as envisioned by the policy board were to mount 13-inch/35 caliber and new guns, with of belt armor, of deck armor and of armor over the casemates. The Indiana class, as actually built, exceeded the design in displacement by 25 percent, but most other aspects were relatively similar to the original plan. An belt and a secondary battery of and guns were adopted, the latter because the Bureau of Ordnance did not have the capability to construct rapid-firing 5-inch weaponry. The larger weapons were much slower firing and much heavier, but without the bigger guns, the ships would not be able to penetrate the armor of foreign battleships.
Design
General characteristics
The Indiana-class ships were designed specifically for coastal defense and were not intended for offensive actions. This design view was reflected in their moderate coal endurance, relatively small displacement and low freeboard, which limited seagoing capability. However, they were heavily armed and armored, so much in fact that Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships describes them as "attempting too much on a very limited displacement." They resembled the British battleship , but were shorter and featured an intermediate battery consisting of eight 8-inch guns not found in European ships, giving them a very respectable amount of firepower for their time.
The original design of the Indiana class included bilge keels, but with keels they would not fit in any of the American drydocks at the time, so they were omitted during construction. This meant a reduction in stability and caused a serious problem for Indiana, when both main turrets broke loose from their clamps in heavy seas a year after being commissioned. Because the turrets were not centrally balanced, they swung from side to side with the motion of the ship, until they were secured with heavy ropes. When the ship encountered more bad weather four months later, she promptly steamed back to port for fear the clamps would break again. This convinced the navy that bilge keels were necessary and they were subsequently installed on all three ships.
Armament
Given their limited displacement, the Indiana class had formidable armament for the time: four 13-inch guns, an intermediate battery of eight 8-inch guns and a secondary battery of four 6-inch guns, twenty Hotchkiss 6-pounders, and six Maxim-Nordenfelt 1-pounders, as well as six 18 inch (450 mm) tubes.
The 13-inch gun was 35 calibers long and used black powder, giving a range of about at 15 degrees of elevation. At , a shell was expected to penetrate of side armor. The four guns were mounted in two centerline turrets, located fore and aft. The turrets were originally designed to feature sloping side armor, but space requirements made this impossible without using significantly larger gun turrets or redesigning the gun mounts (which was later done for the s). The ships' low freeboard greatly hindered the use of the main battery in rough weather conditions, because the deck would become awash. Also, because the ship lacked a counterweight to offset the weight of the gun barrels, the ship would list in the direction the guns were aimed. This reduced the maximum arc of elevation (and thus range) to about five degrees, brought the main armor belt under water on that side, and exposed the unarmored bottom on the other. It was considered in 1901 to replace the turrets with new balanced models used in later ships, but that was decided to be too costly as the ships were already obsolete. Instead, counterweights were added, which partially solved the problem. The hydraulic rammers and turning mechanisms of the 8-inch turrets were also replaced by faster and more efficient electric equivalents, new sights were fitted on Indiana and Massachusetts, and new turret hoists were installed to improve the reloading speed, but the gun mountings never performed in an entirely satisfactory manner.
The eight 8-inch guns were mounted in pairs in four wing turrets placed on the superstructure. Their arc of fire, although big on paper, was in reality limited. Adjacent gun positions and superstructure would be damaged by their muzzle blast if the gun was trained alongside it, a defect also suffered by the 13-inch guns. The smaller 6-inch guns were mounted in twin wing casemates midships on the main deck level, with a 6-pounder in between. The other Hotchkiss 6-pounders lined the superstructure and bridge decks. Four of the 1-pounders were placed in hull casemates at the bow and stern of the ship and two more in the fighting tops of the masts. In 1908, all the 6-inch and most of the lighter guns were removed to compensate for the counterweights added to the main battery and because ammunition supply for the guns was considered problematic. A year later, twelve /50-caliber single-purpose guns were added midships and in the fighting tops.
Sources conflict on the number of torpedo tubes originally included in the ships, but it is clear they were located on the berth deck and had above-water ports located on the extreme front and aft and midships. Located too close to the waterline to allow use while moving and vulnerable to gunfire when opened, they were considered useless and were quickly reduced in number, and removed entirely before 1908.
In 1918 there was an proposal to modify the three Indiana-class ships to carry a single 98-caliber gun built by lining down a 50-caliber gun to that size. Preliminary design of the turret for the gun was completed in October for service in mid-1919, but the end of the war the following month caused the program to be converted into a test program for long-range guns. The Bureau of Ordnance decided to first test a gun lined down to 3 inches as a proof of concept, but those tests did not commence until 1922.
Protection
With the exception of the deck armor, 8-inch turrets and conning tower—which consisted of conventional nickel steel—the Indiana class was protected with the new Harvey armor. Its main protection was a belt thick, placed along two-thirds of the length of the hull from above to under the waterline. Beyond this point, the belt gradually grew thinner until it ended under the waterline, where the belt was only thick. Below the belt the ship had no armor, only a double bottom. On both ends the belt was connected to the barbettes of the main guns with armored bulkheads. In the waterline sections outside this central citadel, compartments were filled with compressed cellulose, intended to self-seal when damaged. Between the deck and the main belt, 5-inch hull armor was used. The deck armor was thick inside the citadel and outside it. The hollow conning tower was a single forging 10 inches thick. The 13-inch gun battery had of vertical turret plating and barbettes, while the 8-inch cannons had only 6inches of vertical turret plating and barbettes. The casemates protecting the 6-inch guns were 5inches thick and the other casemates, lighter guns, shell hoists and turret crowns were all lightly armored.
The placement of the belt armor was based on the draft from the design, which was with a normal load of of coal on board. Her total coal storage capacity was , and fully loaded her draft would increase to , entirely submerging the armor belt. During actual service, especially at war, the ships were kept fully loaded whenever possible, rendering her belt armor almost useless. That this was not considered in the design outraged the Walker policy board–convened in 1896 to evaluate the existing American battleships and propose a design for the new s–and they set a standard that the load of coal and ammunition that future ships were designed for had to be at least two-thirds of the maximum, so similar problems would be prevented in new ships.
Propulsion
Two vertical inverted triple expansion reciprocating steam engines powered by four double-ended Scotch boilers drove twin propellers, while two single-ended Scotch boilers supplied steam for auxiliary machinery. The engines were designed to provide , giving the ships a top speed of . During sea trials, which were conducted with limited amounts of coal, ammunition and supplies on board, it was found that the indicated horsepower and top speed exceeded design values and a significant variation between the three ships existed. The engines of Indiana delivered , giving a top speed of . Massachusetts had a top speed of with and Oregon reached a speed of with . Eight Babcock & Wilcox boilers, including four with superheaters, were installed on Indiana in 1904 and the same number on Massachusetts in 1907 to replace the outdated Scotch boilers.
Ships in class
Indiana (BB-1)
Commissioned in 1895, Indiana did not participate in any notable events until the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898, when Indiana was part of the North Atlantic Squadron under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson. His squadron was ordered to the Spanish port of San Juan in an attempt to intercept and destroy Admiral Cevera's Spanish squadron, which was en route to the Caribbean from Spain. The harbor was empty, but Indiana and the rest of the squadron bombarded it for two hours before realizing their mistake. Three weeks later news arrived that Commodore Schley's Flying Squadron had found Cervera and was now blockading him in the port of Santiago de Cuba. Sampson reinforced Schley two days later and assumed overall command. Cervera saw that his situation was desperate and attempted to run the blockade on 3July 1898. Indiana did not join in the chase of the fast Spanish cruisers because of her extreme eastern position on the blockade and low speed caused by engine problems, but was near the harbor entrance when the Spanish destroyers Pluton and Furor emerged. Together with the battleship and armed yacht she opened fire, destroying the lightly armored enemy ships.
After the war, Indiana returned to training exercises before being decommissioned in 1903. The battleship was recommissioned in January 1906 to function as a training vessel until she was decommissioned again in 1914. Her third commission was in 1917 when Indiana served as a training ship for gun crews during World War I. She was decommissioned for the final time on 31 January 1919, shortly after being reclassified Coast Battleship Number 1 so that the name Indiana could be assigned to the newly authorized—but never completed—battleship . She was sunk in shallow water as a target in underwater explosion and aerial bombing tests in November 1920. Her hulk was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924.
Massachusetts (BB-2)
Between being commissioned in 1896 and the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898, Massachusetts conducted training exercises off the eastern coast of the United States. During the war, she was placed in the Flying Squadron under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley. Schley went searching for Cervera's Spanish squadron and found it in the port of Santiago. The battleship was part of the blockade fleet until 3July, but missed the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, because she had steamed to Guantánamo Bay the night before to resupply coal. The next day, the battleship came back to Santiago, where she and Texas fired at the Spanish cruiser Reina Mercedes, which was being scuttled by the Spanish in a failed attempt to block the harbor entrance channel.
During the next seven years, Massachusetts cruised the Atlantic coast and eastern Caribbean as a member of the North Atlantic Squadron and then served for a year as a training ship for Naval Academy midshipmen until she was decommissioned in January 1906. In May 1910, she was placed in reduced commission as a training ship again before entering the Atlantic Reserve Fleet in September 1912, where she stayed until being decommissioned in May 1914. Massachusetts was recommissioned in June 1917 to serve as a training ship for gun crews during World War I. She was decommissioned for the final time on 31 March 1919, after being redesignated Coast Battleship Number 2 two days earlier so her name could be reused for . On 6January 1921 she was scuttled off the coast of Pensacola and used as an artillery target for Fort Pickens. The Navy attempted to sell her for scrap, but no buyer could be found and in 1956 the ship was declared the property of the state of Florida. The wreck is currently one of the Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserves and serves as an artificial reef.
Oregon (BB-3)
Oregon served for a short time with the Pacific Station before being ordered on a voyage around South America to the East Coast in March 1898 in preparation for war with Spain. She departed from San Francisco on 19 March, and reached Jupiter Inlet on 24 May, stopping several times for additional coal on the way. A journey of over 14,000 nautical miles was completed in 66 days, which was considered a remarkable achievement at the time. The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships describes the effect of the journey on the American public and government as follows: "On one hand the feat had demonstrated the many capabilities of a heavy battleship in all conditions of wind and sea. On the other it swept away all opposition for the construction of the Panama Canal, for it was then made clear that the country could not afford to take two months to send warships from one coast to the other each time an emergency arose." After completing her journey, Oregon was ordered to join the blockade at Santiago as part of the North Atlantic Squadron under Rear Admiral Sampson. She took part in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, where she and the cruiser were the only ships fast enough to chase down the Spanish cruiser Cristobal Colon, forcing its surrender. Around this time, she received the nickname "Bulldog of the Navy", most likely because of her high bow wave—known as "having a bone in her teeth" in nautical slang—and perseverance during the cruise around South America and the battle of Santiago.
After the war, Oregon was refitted in New York City before she was sent back to the Pacific, where she served as a guard ship for two years. She served for a year in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War and then spent a year in China at Wusong during the Boxer Rebellion until May 1901, when she was ordered back to the United States for an overhaul. In March 1903, Oregon returned to Asiatic waters and the ship remained in the Far East, returning only shortly before decommissioning in April 1906. Oregon was recommissioned in August 1911, but saw little activity and was officially placed on reserve status in 1914. On 2 January 1915, the ship was returned to full commission and sailed to San Francisco for the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. A year later, she was back to reserve status, only to be returned to full commission in April 1917 when the United States joined World War I. Oregon acted as one of the escorts for transport ships during the Siberian Intervention. In June 1919, she was decommissioned, but a month later she was temporarily recommissioned as the reviewing ship for President Woodrow Wilson during the arrival of the Pacific Fleet at Seattle. In October 1919, she was decommissioned for the final time. As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty, Oregon was declared "incapable of further warlike service" in January 1924. In June 1925, she was loaned to the State of Oregon, who used her as a floating monument and museum in Portland.
In February 1941, Oregon was redesignated . Due to the outbreak of World War II, it was decided that the scrap value of the ship was more important than her historical value, so she was sold. Her stripped hulk was later returned to the Navy and used as an ammunition barge during the battle of Guam, where she remained for several years. During a typhoon in November 1948, she broke loose and drifted out to sea. She was located southeast of Guam and towed back. She was sold on 15 March 1956 and scrapped in Japan.
See also
Battleship Illinois (replica)
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Print references
; cited in
Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
Other
External links
Navsource.org photos of Indiana, Massachusetts and Oregon
U.S. National Park Service photos of BB-2 wreckage off Fort Pickens, Florida
Spanish American War Centennial Website encyclopedic website on the Spanish–American War, has several witness accounts of the Battle of Santiago de Cuba and the events surrounding it.
Battleship classes
World War I battleships of the United States | [
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|
227295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtier | Courtier | A courtier () is a person who attends at the royal court of a monarch or other royalty. The earliest historical examples of courtiers were part of the retinues of rulers. Historically the court was the centre of government as well as the official residence of the monarch, and the social and political life were often completely mixed together.
Background
Monarchs very often expected the more important nobles to spend much of the year in attendance on them at court. Not all courtiers were noble, as they included clergy, soldiers, clerks, secretaries, agents and middlemen with business at court. All those who held a court appointment could be called courtiers but not all courtiers held positions at court. Those personal favourites without business around the monarch, sometimes called the camarilla, were also considered courtiers. As social divisions became more rigid, a divide, barely present in Antiquity or the Middle Ages, opened between menial servants and other classes at court, although Alexandre Bontemps, the head valet de chambre of Louis XIV, was a late example of a "menial" who managed to establish his family in the nobility. The key commodities for a courtier were access and information, and a large court operated at many levels: many successful careers at court involved no direct contact with the monarch.
The largest and most famous European court was that of the Palace of Versailles at its peak, although the Forbidden City of Beijing was even larger and more isolated from national life. Very similar features marked the courts of all very large monarchies, including in India, Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, Ancient Rome, Byzantium or the Caliphs of Baghdad or Cairo. Early medieval European courts frequently travelled from place to place following the monarch as he travelled. This was particularly the case in the early French court. But, the European nobility generally had independent power and was less controlled by the monarch until around the 18th century, which gave European court life greater complexity.
History
The earliest courtiers coincide with the development of definable courts beyond the rudimentary entourages or retinues of rulers. There were probably courtiers in the courts of the Akkadian Empire where there is evidence of court appointments such as that of cup-bearer which was one of the earliest court appointments and remained a position at courts for thousands of years. Two of the earliest titles referring to the general concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In Ancient Egypt we find a title translated as high steward or great overseer of the house.
The courts influenced by the court of the Neo-Assyrian Empire such as those of the Median Empire and the Achaemenid Empire had numerous courtiers After invading the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander the Great returned with the concept of the complex court featuring a variety of courtiers to the Kingdom of Macedonia and Hellenistic Greece.
The imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least a thousand courtiers. The court's systems became prevalent in other courts such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire and Russia. Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century.
Examples of courtiers
Anne Boleyn
Alessandro Cagliostro
John Dee
Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester
Anne Hungerford
Princess Marie Louise of Savoy
The Dukes of Luynes
Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, Marquis of Cinq-Mars
Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon
The Count of St. Germain
Cardinal de Rohan
Ja'far ibn Yahya
Madame de Pompadour
Petronius
Walter Raleigh
James Scudamore
Wei Zhongxian
Cardinal Richelieu
In modern English, the term is often used metaphorically for contemporary political favourites or hangers-on.
Courtiers in literature
In modern literature, courtiers are often depicted as insincere, skilled at flattery and intrigue, ambitious and lacking regard for the national interest. More positive representations include the role played by members of the court in the development of politeness and the arts.
Examples of courtiers in fiction:
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from William Shakespeare's Hamlet.
Sir Lancelot from Arthurian legend,
Gríma Wormtongue from J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings.
Count Hasimir Fenring and Gaius Helen Mohiam from Frank Herbert's Dune.
Petyr Baelish and Varys from George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire.
Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington from J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter books.
See also
The Book of the Courtier, by Baldassare Castiglione
Camarilla
Courtesan
Éminence grise
Royal mistress
Sycophant
Courtly love
References
Court titles
Government occupations
Political professionals | [
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|
227302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegas%20Dream | Vegas Dream | Vegas Dream, released in Japan as is a gambling video game developed by HAL Laboratory for the Nintendo Entertainment System. A sequel, Vegas Stakes, was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1993.
Gameplay
Vegas Dream begins with graphics showing one of the players arriving at Las Vegas by airplane. Featuring a backdrop of old downtown Las Vegas, players choose which of the two game modes to play: "Vegas Dream" (storyline version) or "One Spot" (strictly gaming, no storyline).
Players then start with a bankroll of $700 at the fictional HAL Palace Hotel, to spend on four games: Keno, Blackjack, Roulette or Slot machines. Between rounds of play at the normal casino games, there are randomly occurring social interactions with various characters, such as business people, other patrons, or casino employees (in the "Vegas Dream" version of the game only). These interactions (and the player's responses to them) have different possible results: sometimes the unidentified man is a pickpocket; other times he is just down on his luck and will reward the player's kindness down the road. The results of interactions are reported on a local Las Vegas news station; music with a cheery tone plays for positive happenings, such as the player receiving cash, with more somber music playing for thefts, injuries, etc.
Vegas Dream also allows the player to date and marry as many members of the opposite sex as desired; men marry a woman named Ms. Sophie while women marry a man named Mr. James. Marriage results in increased cash flow for the player, or a loss of funds from theft in the event that the married person is crooked.
There is a password save feature built into the game. The passwords are twenty-six characters long and consist of letters, numbers and symbols. The Japanese version, with gameplay identical to the North American version, uses slightly stronger language in its script and mentions cigarettes. The text within the Japanese version is also entirely in English.
Endings
It is possible to win the game by earning over $10 million, at which point the player is seen reclining by a pool with their household staff (assuming the player has moved into a mansion and has hired servants), and then taking a limousine to a show with their partner.
Should the player lose all their money, the staff at the HAL Palace give the player one final pull on a slot machine in a last-ditch effort to win some more money. If the player wins, they get to resume their gaming; if not, the player is bid goodbye, and a screen appears showing persons heading towards a plane, ready to depart Las Vegas, ending the game.
Music
At this time, Kazuo Sawa was writing music to some of Hal Laboratory's video games such as Tokoro-san no Mamoru mo Semeru mo. Instead, Hal hired professional keyboardist Kuni Kawachi to compose the game's soundtrack while Sawa worked on sound design and provided the sound driver. Vegas Dream is Kuni Kawachi's only video game to date.
Reception
References
External links
1988 video games
Casino video games
Epic/Sony Records games
HAL Laboratory games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in the Las Vegas Valley
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games set in Nevada | [
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|
227308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20Peru | Upper Peru | Upper Peru (; ) is a name for the land that was governed by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. The name originated in Buenos Aires towards the end of the 18th century after the Audiencia of Charcas was transferred from the Viceroyalty of Peru to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776. It comprised the governorships of Potosí, La Paz, Cochabamba, Chiquitos, Moxos and Charcas (since renamed Sucre).
Following the Bolivian War of Independence, the region became an independent country and was renamed Bolivia in honor of Simón Bolívar.
History
By 1821, the Spanish colonial empire in Latin America was falling apart because of the Napoleonic occupation of Spain and the troops of generals Bolivar and Sucre, who had already liberated Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador, were already approaching the Upper Peru region.
Fearing bloodshed that the libertarian troops could cause the local population, in June 1822 the three governors of Upper Peru departments gathered in Cuiabá (Captaincy of Mato Grosso, Brazil) and asked the governor to take sides with the Prince Regent (future Emperor Pedro I) to occupy the territory for the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. It was better (thought the governors) to be occupied by a monarchical State than to entertain the idea of rule by a fragile and uncertain republic.
Immediately, in July of that year, the governor of Mato Grosso sent to Upper Peru the troops stationed in the captaincy and closed the borders to stop the advance of the libertarian troops. He sent to the Prince the proposal of the local authorities and the dispatch order of the troops.
The letter reached Emperor Pedro I only in November 1822, when Brazil had already declared independence and, worse, Brazil was not interested in attaching that territory, because the new country was more concerned with pacifying the northern and northeastern provinces. Thus, the order given by the Emperor was to call back the troops (leaving the way clear for the libertarians to occupy these territories) claiming that "Brazil does not interfere in foreign affairs."
This episode is poorly documented, the curious thing is that the Generals Antonio Jose de Sucre and Simón Bolívar, knowing what was happening, managed to send diplomats in record time to Rio de Janeiro and these diplomats arrived even faster than the letter from the governor of Mato Grosso, so the result was that when he got the letter, the Emperor was already "head made" and the evacuation order was already given.
Spanish province of Charcas
Initially, the province of Charcas was under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1776 when the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was established.
Río de la Plata provinces of Upper Peru
The Assembly of Buenos Aires advanced to the province of Charcas as part of the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata and had elected representatives of the Provinces of Upper Peru for the Congress of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata.
Counterrevolution of Upper Peru
When the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata gained independence, the Viceroy Abascal incorporated Upper Peru to the Viceroyalty of Peru including the province of Charcas.
Portuguese intervention in Upper Peru
The occupation occurred in the region Upper Peru (now Bolivia) between July and December 1822, which mobilized the Portuguese royal troops stationed in the Captaincy of Mato Grosso and occupied three of the Peru departments: La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and the so-called Department Maritmo (Atacama) .
Colombian occupation of Upper Peru
Between 1823 and 1828 Colombian troops occupied Upper Peru with the leadership of marshal Antonio José de Sucre, born in Cumaná, as continuation of the Campaigns of the South. The Republic of Bolivar (based on the Upper Peru) was considered to be a satellite state of the Gran Colombia.
Claims by Argentina and Peru over Upper Peru
Argentina and Peru claimed some territories of Upper Peru for historical reasons.
References
Colonial Bolivia
Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
History of Bolivia
History of Peru
Regions of Bolivia
Spanish-speaking countries and territories | [
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|
227311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dark%20Eye | The Dark Eye | The Dark Eye (German: Das Schwarze Auge, lit. "The Black Eye") is a German tabletop role-playing game with a high fantasy theme created by Ulrich Kiesow and launched by Schmidt Spiel & Freizeit GmbH and Droemer Knaur Verlag in 1984. It is the most successful role-playing game on the German market, outselling Dungeons & Dragons. Many years of work on the game have led to a detailed and extensively described game world.
Droemer Knaur dropped the project in early 1989; after the bankruptcy of the Schmidt Spiel & Freizeit GmbH in 1997, publishing was continued by Fantasy Productions (which had already done all the editorial work). Since the game's launch, it has gone through five editions, making the rules and background more complex. The basic rules of the fourth edition of The Dark Eye were published in 2001, and it became the first edition to be released in English in October 2003. The fifth edition of the game was released in August 2015, with an English translation released in November 2016.
Aventuria, the continent on which the game is set, was first introduced to the English-language market through a series of computer games and novels and later under the name Realms of Arkania. The trademark Realms of Arkania was owned by the now-defunct Sir-tech Software, Inc., which spurred the name change to The Dark Eye; Fantasy Productions was unable to obtain the trademark. In April 2007, Ulisses Spiele assumed the TDE pen-and-paper licence from Fantasy Productions.
Game history
First edition (1984)
The first German edition, released in 1984, was translated into Dutch (), French () and Italian (), but not into English. It has a very simple class and level system. It was published in ("The Dark Eye—Adventure Base Game"). Advanced rules were published in 1985 in the book ("Extended adventure—Additional equipment for all adventures").
Character
The character (called "Hero" in the rules) is defined by five qualities (or attributes): (courage), (wisdom), (charisma), (agility) and (strength). They are determined by 1d6+7 in dice notation (8–13). The weight the character can carry is equal to strength × 100 ounces (1 aventurian ounce is 25 g).
The player can choose five different character types (or classes): adventurer, warrior, dwarf, elf and mage. All characters can be adventurers, but there are attribute conditions that must be met before accessing the other types (for example, a warrior must have at least 12 in both courage and strength).
During the adventures, the character gains adventure points; with a sufficient number of adventure points, they can go to the next level. When attaining a new level the character can increase an attribute by one point, and either the attack or parry value by one point; they also win vitality points equal to one dice roll, or vitality or astral energy points equal to one dice roll for elves and mages. The extended rules add a sixth quality to the hero's definition: stamina. The initial stamina is the sum of the force and vitality points. Stamina represents resistance to exhaustion; it decreases when the hero makes physical efforts such as running, swimming and fighting.
The extended rules also provide four more classes that can be chosen during the creation of the character, or sometimes as an evolution of an adventurer or dwarf: rider, druid, priest or wood elf. It introduces the aptitudes (skills) that are chances to manage definite actions (such as horseback riding or camouflage), whereas the qualities are generic indicators. The aptitudes range between 0 and 18 (and are tested with a d20 in dice notation). They have a base value (some are part of the culture, or are simple tasks). When the character reaches a new level, the player can distribute 10 points to raise the aptitudes. The base value and the cost to increase depend on the type of hero (riding is easier for a warrior than for a mage); the cost also depends on the current aptitude level.
Health
The character type determines the starting value of vitality points (from 20 for a mage to 35 for a dwarf). This is to be compared with the 1d6+4 (dice notation) damage points inflicted by a sword.
In the extended rules, stamina plays a role in the healing of diseases (such as a fever); when it is 20 or more spontaneous healing is possible, and it is faster when stamina is above 25.
Resolution of actions
Actions are resolved by testing the attributes; the action succeeds when:
1d20 ≤ attribute + modifier
The modifier is positive when the action is difficult, and negative when it is easy. The extended rules introduce the aptitudes, which are tested in the same way as the qualities.
Combat
In fights, the characters act in decreasing order of initiative (the character with the highest initiative acts first). Characters have attack and parry values determined by various other values. Typical attack/parry values for a new character are in the range of 14/12 (for fighters) to something like 6/8 (dedicated non-fighters, such as priests of the goddess Tsa). When the attack test of the attacker is successful and the defender misses the parry test, the defender loses the number of vitality points equal to the damage of the weapon minus the protection rating of the armor (chain mail has a protection rating of four, and knight armour has six). When the attacker rolls one or two on the die, they make a master hit; the maximum damage is inflicted, and the armour does not protect.
The extended rules provide for miniature figures which allow a finer representation of movement, with (for example) the possibility to push back an enemy. They also offer various possibilities such as fleeing, charging and successive attacks from the same fighter (assault).
They replace the master hit with the notions of good attack (the attacker makes a throw equal to or less than the good attack score, as shown on a table in relation to her attack score) and good parry (five points less than the parry score with the d20 in dice notation). A good attack not parried by a good parry implies a serious (or critical) impact (throw 1d20 and read the result on a table). When the attack or parry-test die shows 20, this can lead to a fumble. The extended rules also allow dodging thrown weapons, introduce specific rules for empty-hand and horseback fighting and infection (fever) for wounds.
Magic
Elves, druids, shamans, witches and mages can cast spells and have astral energy points; the starting value of astral energy points depends on the attribute values the hero has when created. The system is based on the memory of the player; the player must speak the formula without reading it during the game. When the formula is correct the spell is cast, and the character loses astral energy points corresponding to the spell.
The extended rules introduce new spells. From the fifth level on, it is no longer necessary to speak the words to cast the spell. These rules also describe spells for the druids and wood elves, and priests' miracles: manifestations of the priest's god, which are similar to magic spells. The priests do not have astral energy but karma, which works the same way.
First-edition advanced rules (The Sword Masters, 1988)
Two sets, ("TDE Professional—Sword Masters Set I") and ("TDE Professional II—The Sword Masters' Feast"), were published in 1988 and 1989. This edition was published as advanced rules for the first edition, but is sometimes erroneously considered the second edition. Combat rules are much more elaborate, introducing a hit-location system.
It was written for advanced-level characters (typically level 15). The sets describe a new world: Tharun (pronounced "taroon"), a hollow world. It is the inside of Ethra, lightened by a central sun. Nine archipelagos constitute the realm of this world. A pantheon of nine deities rules over the inhabitants. Divine runes (one of the only sources of magic which can be used by magicians and druids) are scattered all over the world. The sets also provide a divine quest. A third set of campaigns was planned, but has not been released. The Tharun setting was abandoned, but it is said that the world and its pantheon still exist; some deities are worshiped in Myranor.
Second edition (1988)
The second edition was published in 1988. The character is defined by the same five positive attributes (qualities) as in the first edition, as well as five new negative ones: (superstition), (acrophobia), (claustrophobia), (avarice) and (necrophobia). The positive attributes are determined by 1d6+7 in dice notation (8–13), and the negative by 1d6+1 (2–7). The player can choose from over 40 different character types (classes). Again, there are attributes (conditions) to access the types. A character also features over 80 skills, called "talents"; the use of a talent requires testing three attributes, and the character is able to cast over 100 (11×11) spells.
Third edition and Realms of Arkania (1993)
The third edition (1993) was used (with a few limitations) to power the three Realms of Arkania computer games: RoA: Blade of Destiny (1993), Attic/Sir-Tech), RoA: Star Trail (1994, Attic/Sir-Tech) and RoA: Shadows over Riva (1997, Attic/Sir-Tech). Realms of Arkania was also the name of three translated novels: RoA: The Charlatan (January 1996, ), RoA: The Lioness (March 1996, ) and RoA: The Sacrifice (September 1996, ).
The rules are similar to the second edition except for two additional positive attributes: (dexterity) and (intuition); and two additional negative attributes: (curiosity) and (violent temper). The character is thus defined by seven positive and seven negative attributes (qualities), and this edition uses the same system of talents.
Fourth edition (2001)
The fourth edition of The Dark Eye supports a great variety of character choices. Where the older editions forced the player to create a character along very strict lines, the fourth edition is flexible and the player can choose from hundreds of different character classes and cultural backgrounds. The creation rules are somewhat similar to those of Shadowrun (also published by Fantasy Productions) and even more to GURPS. One reason for this development is the large community of professional authors and enthusiastic players, which have helped to define the continent of Aventuria over the last 20 years. Character generation is based on “generation points” from which a race, a culture and a profession must be “paid”. The points are also used for attributes and other skills. After generation, the gained “adventure points” for each adventure can be used for equipping the character with skills. Consequently, the systems intends to balance power levels of different character classes.
The fourth edition was also translated into English. Three books are available in English (all published 2006):
Basic Rules ()
Secret of the Blue Tower / Witching Hour ()
World of Aventuria ()
Fifth edition (2015)
Ulisses started development of the fifth edition in the beginning of 2014. Its development involved a players poll and parts of the publishers internet forum are dedicated to that topic. The beta version (in German) was released 10 May 2014 and can be freely downloaded. The final German version is available as of 31 July 2015. The publisher also created a website concerning the progress of the English version. The English translation was released in November 2016.
Setting
Aventuria
The Dark Eye is set in the fantasy realm of Aventuria. During the 1990s, it was first translated as "Arkania", but the name was later changed to one closer to the original German name. Aventuria is a continent of the planet Ethra (an anagram of "Earth", as the planet's name in the German edition, Dere, is an anagram of , the German word for "Earth"). The other continents of Ethra are Myranor (also called "Gyldenland" in Aventuria), Uthuria and Vaestenland.
Tharun
Tharun was envisioned as the inner side of Ethra, which was supposed to be a hollow world. It is lit by a central sun which also annihilates the usual magic. In today's ingame theory Tharun is a so-called "Globule", a place in another Sphere of reality – or an alternate dimension (although this explanation is very simplified).
The original sun, Glost, was the work of Guerimm, the god of fire. New gods appeared and started to oppose the twelve gods of Aventuria. One of them, Arkan'Zim, destroyed Glost, and another new god, Sindayri, created a new sun, aiming to reduce the influence of the twelve gods in the hollow world. The splinters of Glost were spread everywhere. The inhabitants picked them and drew runes on them. They thus became runestones; the combination of three runestones can lead to the liberation of the energy of Glost, allowing a new magic. Tharun is linked to the surface of Ethra by a double-sided volcano. The upper side is on an island 1,400 km west from Havena, the other side is upside down, and is situated in Tharun on the isle of Hamur. The society is a military dictatorship, with a caste of Sword Masters ruling the rest of the population.
Myranor
Myranor or Gyldenland (In the original , meaning "Golden country") is a large continent west of Aventuria. It was first described in 1990 and released as a separate RPG in 2000. Initially, it was used to play-test an early version of what came to be The Dark Eye 4th edition rules.
In contrast to Aventuria, the setting is high fantasy. There are gigantic Metropolis, flying ships and cities, several races unknown to aventurians including cat-like humanoids and intelligent insects, as well as a country leached by its vampire-like, skull god "Draydalān" worshiping population. The continent is huge and parts of it still are unexplored. While most of Aventuria is set in the central European Middle Ages, Myranor is based on a mixture of classic Greek/Roman as well as medieval Asian background. One notable political structure is a huge empire that has been in degeneration for millennia. At its height, it had been the origin of modern civilization in Aventuria, and the area it still controls is larger than Aventuria itself. In its early years, the empire was controlled by mighty three-eyed wizards called "the old ones", who disappeared thousands of years ago.
After its initial release in 2000, only one additional rule book, one regional description and six adventures were released. After those, nothing further was released for Myranor. Two fans, however, revised Myranor to be played with the "final" 4th edition rules with FanPro's permission. These new rules were released as a hardcover book in January 2006. On 20 January 2007 Ulisses Spiele announced that they would be handling future publications related to Myranor.
Creatures
Humans
There are three human groups, and several smaller cultures:
Middenrealmers: from Gyldenland, they landed on the west coast and spread to the centre of Aventuria.
Andergastans (template: )
Bornlanders (template: Russia at the end of the Middle Ages)
Cyclopeans (template: Ancient Greece and Roman Empire)
Horasians (template: Italy and France, between the Baroque and the Renaissance)
Maraskans (template: Asia—an amalgam of Middenrealers and Tulamydes)
Middenrealmers (template: Germany or rather the German Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages)
Northern-Aventurians (template: )
Nostrians (template: )
Southern-Aventurians (template: )
Svellters (template: )
Tulamydes: natives of Aventuria, probably from the Rashtul Wall; they spread to the south of Aventuria;
Mhanadistanians (template: caricature of the golden age of Arab civilisation)
Novadis (template: Tuareg): nomadic people of the desert of Khom;
Thorwalians (template: Vikings): coming from Hjaldingard in Gyldenland, they settled in northwest Aventuria
Norbards (template: petty, travelling east-European traders): an amalgam of Middenrealers and Tulamydes
Smaller groups, all indigenous to Aventuria:
Nivese (template: Sami)
Forest Folk and Utulus, collectively called Mohas (template: Indigenous peoples of the Americas)
Elves
Forest Elves: fairy-like elves, living mostly in a large wood called the Salamander Stones. They are worldly yet innocent, and dislike humans.
Firn Elves: live in the north, in perpetual ice; for them, life is a hard struggle.
Meadow Elves: live throughout the northern half of Aventuria along rivers; open-minded, they sometimes live in human cities.
Veld Elves: horsemen from the grasslands of northeast Aventuria; they have loose contact with humans and Goblins.
The Elves are indigenous cultures, and generally do not believe in gods. Unbeknownst to most Elves, Firn, Meadow and Veld Elves once had a single common culture (like that of Tolkien's elves).
Dwarves
Ore Dwarves: conservative, concerned with etiquette
Anvil Dwarves: aggressive and stubborn
Brilliant Dwarves: artistic
Hill Dwarves: similar to Tolkien's Hobbits, but here considered Dwarves
Other
Ogres: giants of great strength, these simple-minded, strong creatures are often found in the company of Orcs, swinging large wooden clubs lopped off trees. Common to all Ogres is the consumption of nearly everything they encounter.
Orks: black-coated, monkey-like species native to the veld ("ork land") in northwest Aventuria, with a culture similar to the Orcs of Warcraft
Holberker: a mix between elves and orcs, found only in few areas
Goblins: smaller relatives of the Orks, with red-brown fur, living mostly in northeastern Aventuria. Goblins are second in numbers only to the humans.
Achaz: lizard-men, whose ancient culture is now destroyed
Trolls: large, burly creatures living in the Troll Mountains. Intelligent, they hint at an ancient trollish civilization predating every other.
Further reading
Realms of Arkania: The Charlatan by Ulrich Kiesow, January 1996, ()
Realms of Arkania: The Lioness by Ina Kramer, March 1996, ()
Realms of Arkania: The Sacrifice by Ina Kramer, September 1996, ()
Video games
Realms of Arkania: Blade of Destiny ()
Realms of Arkania: Star Trail ()
Realms of Arkania: Shadows over Riva ()
The Dark Eye: Drakensang ()
The Dark Eye: The River of Time ()
Phileasson's Secret ()
The Dark Eye: Chains of Satinav ()
Realms of Arkania: Blade of Destiny (2013 remake) ()
For the Gods ()
Ogredeath ()
With Blade and Brilliance ()
The Dark Eye: Memoria ()
The Dark Eye: Demonicon ()
The Dark Eye: Blackguards ()
Untold Legends ()
The Dark Eye: Skilltree Saga ()
The Dark Eye: Blackguards 2 ()
Realms of Arkania: Star Trail ()
The Dark Eye: Book of Heroes ()
Mobile adventure series and browser games
The Dark Eye: Herokon Online ()
The Dark Eye: Nedime: The Caliph's Daughter ()
The Dark Eye: Secret of The Cyclopes ()
The Dark Eye: Swamp of Doom ()
The Dark Eye: Among Pirates ()
The Dark Eye: Crypt Raiders ()
The Dark Eye: Dragon Raid ()
The Dark Eye: Arena ()
Other games
A trading card game, Dark Force (Dark Force: Duell um Aventurien)
Aventuria Adventure Card Game
Dark World Board Games
A board game and two expansion games were released based on the Dark Eye gaming system:
Dark World: The Castle of Secrets () (released as simply Dark World in the US)
Dark World: Village of Fear ()
Dark World: Dragon's Gate ()
The games are three-dimensional, where features and structures were built on top of the board, and could also be interacted with the character pieces. The games revolve around a group of Heroes battle against a snake sorcerer named Korak and his minions. The original Dark World game has the Heroes fight through Korak's castle. The Village of Fear expansion game requires the Heroes to rescue two townsfolk to retrieve the keys to enter the castle. In the Dragon's Gate expansion, the heroes must get past the Dragon Golgorath before they can enter the town. Four players can play each game as the Heroes, while a fifth player plays the role of Korak and controls all his monsters.
The Heroes have a corresponding color on their bases. Each game has a shaker or tokens which determine the order of play for each player for each round. The Hero pieces are also designed to hold interchangeable weapons-a base weapon, and a later, more-powerful gold weapon. Heroes are awarded points based upon collecting certain items, and defeating enemies. Special dice with scimitars inscribed on them are used for combat. The winner is the Hero with the most points at the end of the game or the player playing as Korak wins if all the Heroes are defeated.
Reviews
Casus Belli #30 (Jan 1986)
Casus Belli #32 (Apr 1986)
References
External links
Official The Dark Eye website
The Dark Eye Game Reference
Official Das Schwarze Auge homepage
Wiki Aventurica, a wiki dedicated to The Dark Universe universe
The Dark Eye google map software
Fantasy role-playing games
German role-playing games
Role-playing games introduced in 1984 | [
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|
227314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler%20wobble | Chandler wobble | The Chandler wobble or Chandler variation of latitude is a small deviation in the Earth's axis of rotation relative to the solid earth, which was discovered by and named after American astronomer Seth Carlo Chandler in 1891. It amounts to change of about in the point at which the axis intersects the Earth's surface and has a period of 433 days. This wobble, which is a nutation, combines with another wobble with a period of one year, so that the total polar motion varies with a period of about 7 years.
The Chandler wobble is an example of the kind of motion that can occur for a freely rotating object that is not a sphere; this is called a free nutation. Somewhat confusingly, the direction of the Earth's rotation axis relative to the stars also varies with different periods, and these motions—caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and Sun—are also called nutations, except for the slowest, which are precessions of the equinoxes.
Predictions
The existence of Earth's free nutation was predicted by Isaac Newton in Corollaries 20 to 22 of Proposition 66, Book 1 of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, and by Leonhard Euler in 1765 as part of his studies of the dynamics of rotating bodies. Based on the known ellipticity of the Earth, Euler predicted that it would have a period of 305 days. Several astronomers searched for motions with this period, but none was found. Chandler's contribution was to look for motions at any possible period; once the Chandler wobble was observed, the difference between its period and the one predicted by Euler was explained by Simon Newcomb as being caused by the non-rigidity of the Earth. The full explanation for the period also involves the fluid nature of the Earth's core and oceans—the wobble, in fact, produces a very small ocean tide with an amplitude of approximately , called a "pole tide", which is the only tide not caused by an extraterrestrial body. Despite the small amplitude, the gravitational effect of the pole tide is easily detected by the superconducting gravimeter.
Because the Earth is not a rigid body, the Chandler wobble should die down with a time constant of about 68 years. Various theories have been proposed to explain why it still exists even though the earth has been around for much longer than 68 years .
Measurement
The International Latitude Observatories were established in 1899 to measure the wobble. These provided data on the Chandler and annual wobble for most of the 20th century, though they were eventually superseded by other methods of measurement. Monitoring of the polar motion is now done by the International Earth Rotation Service.
The wobble's amplitude has varied since its discovery, reaching its largest size in 1910 and fluctuating noticeably from one decade to another. In 2009, Malkin & Miller's analysis of International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Pole coordinates time series data from January 1946 to January 2009 showed three phase reversals of the wobble, in 1850, 1920, and 2005.
Hypotheses
Since the Chandler wobble should die down in a matter of decades or centuries, there must be influences that continually re-excite it.
While it must be due to changes in the mass distribution or angular momentum of the Earth's outer core, atmosphere, oceans, or crust (from earthquakes), for a long time the actual source was unclear, since no available motions seemed to be coherent with what was driving the wobble.
An investigation was done in 2001 by Richard Gross at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by the California Institute of Technology. He used angular momentum models of the atmosphere and the oceans in computer simulations to show that from 1985 to 1996, the Chandler wobble was excited by a combination of atmospheric and oceanic processes, with the dominant excitation mechanism being ocean‐bottom pressure fluctuations. Gross found that two-thirds of the "wobble" was caused by fluctuating pressure on the seabed, which, in turn, is caused by changes in the circulation of the oceans caused by variations in temperature, salinity, and wind. The remaining third is due to atmospheric pressure fluctuations.
Chandler wobble of Mars
Using radio tracking observations of the Mars Odyssey, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, the Chandler wobble of Mars has been detected. It is the first time it has been detected on a planetary body other than the Earth. The amplitude is 10 cm, the period is 206.9 ± 0.5 days and it is in a nearly circular counterclockwise direction as viewed from the North Pole.
See also
Milankovitch cycles
United States Naval Observatory
References
Further reading
Carter, B. and M. S. Carter, 2003, "Latitude, How American Astronomers Solved the Mystery of Variation," Naval Institute Press, Annapolis.
Lambeck, Kurt, 1980, The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences (Cambridge Monographs on Mechanics), Cambridge University Press, London.
Munk, W. H. and MacDonald, G. J. F., 1960, The Rotation of the Earth, Cambridge University Press, London.
Moritz, H. and I.I. Mueller, 1987, Earth Rotation: Theory and Observation, Continuum International Publishing Group, London.
External links
Mystery of wobbly Earth solved, July 19, 2000
Free Precession of Earth
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|
227319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petter%20Solberg | Petter Solberg | Petter Solberg (born 18 November 1974) is a Norwegian former professional rally and rallycross driver.
Solberg debuted in the World Rally Championship in 1998 and was signed by the Ford factory team in 1999. The following year, Solberg started his successful partnership with the Subaru World Rally Team.
With the Subaru works team, Solberg finished runner-up to Marcus Grönholm in 2002 and then became the first Norwegian to win the drivers' world title in 2003. In the following two seasons, he finished runner-up to Sébastien Loeb. Following Subaru's withdrawal from the WRC at the end of the 2008 season, Solberg secured private backing to start the Petter Solberg World Rally Team and competed with a Citroën Xsara WRC, a Citroën C4 WRC and a Citroën DS3 WRC. In 2012 Petter returned to a factory team, joining the Ford World Rally Team 12 years after making his WRC debut with the same team.
He switched to rallycross for the 2013 season, and in the 2014 he became the inaugural winner of the FIA World Rallycross Championship, after five race wins and nine podium finishes. He repeated his title success the following year. In 2017, Petter set up the PSRX Volkswagen Sweden team in partnership with Volkswagen Motorsport, and won the Team's Championship in both 2017 and 2018 before his retirement from full-time motorsport.
Career
Early career
Solberg won a nationwide RC car championship the Norwegian Tamiya Cup in 1987 at the age of 13 as he inherited his interest of motorsport through his parents, mother Tove and father Terje, who were keen bilcross (an "inexpensive version" of Norwegian rallycross, similar to Swedish folkrace and Finnish jokamiehenluokka) competitors and rallycross enthusiasts. He used to help out around the home farm rebuilding competition cars, as he was not yet old enough to drive. Solberg entered his first bilcross in 1992, three days after his 18th birthday and only one day after he got his driving license. He went on to become Norwegian champion in rallycross as well as hillclimb in both 1995 (winning 19 out of 21 events) and 1996 (winning 15 out of 19 events). In 1995 he took part in his maiden rally, the Norwegian Rally Bjørkelangen, by driving a Volvo 240 in the Volvo Original class. His female co-driver by then was Maud from Sweden, nowadays spouse of his older brother Henning. In 1998 Solberg became the Norwegian Rally Champion, his brother Henning won this title five times in a row between 1999 and 2003.
WRC career
By this time and with the aid of his compatriot John Haugland, who helped him on events in the late 1990s, the World Rally Championship team bosses were starting to recognize Solberg's potential and by the end of 1998, after winning a comparative test drive, he agreed to drive for three years as a junior pilot for the Ford Motor Company. Initially expected by Malcolm Wilson to maintain a somewhat lower profile, Solberg actually became a nominated points-scorer for Ford on, of all events, the gruelling test that was the Safari Rally in early 1999, after usual understudy to the team's star driver Colin McRae, Thomas Rådström, suffered an injury and was subsequently ruled out from taking part. He stunned many by finishing in 5th place and scoring both drivers and manufacturers points.
2000–04
In 2000 however, Solberg was able to leave Ford's M-Sport outfit prematurely, due to an insufficient contract, to sign with the Subaru World Rally Team (SWRT), then led by a driving staff of Richard Burns and Juha Kankkunen. His first podium had to wait until the Acropolis Rally, Greece the following year, as an altruistic Solberg forsook as many of his own points as possible, as he did in dropping voluntarily from 4th to 5th in Corsica, to assist his senior teammate Burns in sneaking to the title.
In 2002 with four-time champion Tommi Mäkinen installed as his new teammate in the light of Burns' departure to Peugeot, Solberg won his first ever WRC event in Wales (Wales Rally GB) after a consistent display of driving prowess and an unlikely accident by Marcus Grönholm. In 2003 Solberg entered the final event, the Wales Rally GB, with himself, Citroën-mounted Sébastien Loeb and Burns in contention for the title. Burns withdrew before the event for health reasons and Solberg finished ahead of Loeb, launching him to his second win in Wales and his first and only World Rally Championship title. Solberg became the first Norwegian to win the drivers' world title.
In his title defence however, Solberg's winning of five of a possible sixteen events, including the hat-trick making Wales Rally GB, proved insufficient to deny the title to a now increasingly efficient Loeb. On Solberg's part, a perhaps unfortunate string of bad luck was encapsulated by three DNFs (retirements) in mid-season.
2005
Welcoming a new teammate for the year in Australian Chris Atkinson, who replaced the disappointing Finn who had been the former Champion's SWRT teammate throughout 2004, Mikko Hirvonen, Solberg started his 2005 season brightly as he sought an immediate answer to Loeb, the Norwegian winning two of the first three events, in Sweden and Mexico. These successes coincided with the early seizing of a championship lead. He was, however, soon overtaken by a rampant Loeb, and was left to score 71 points for the year, pipping Peugeot's Marcus Grönholm to the championship runner-up spot on a tie break.
He added an unwanted Wales Rally GB win after the death in a day three crash of fellow competitor Markko Märtin's co-driver, Michael Park, with Loeb sacrificing his victory on the road in order to avoid having to simultaneously celebrate the title. Solberg won three rallies in all, though was severely affected by bad luck while challenging for wins at the end of the season, most notably on the Telstra Rally Australia, where he was forced to retire after striking a wayward kangaroo.
2006
For 2006, Solberg continued his partnership with the Subaru team, driving a new version of the Impreza WRC. His main sponsor was 24SevenOffice with a 5 million kroner sponsorship deal, a Norwegian record. His results, though, proved patchy in comparison to Loeb. While Loeb went on to register five rally victories on the bounce in a privately (Kronos) run Citroën Xsara WRC, his winning of the title unhampered even by breaking his arm at an advanced stage of the season, Solberg could only comparatively muster a handful of runner-up places on rallies all season — in Mexico, Argentina and Australia. Failure to claw his way any higher than sixth in the year's final points standings duly brought an end to the chain of top three drivers' championship appearances which Subaru had enjoyed since 1994.
2007
The Norwegian did, at least, get his 2007 season off to a rather more auspicious start, managing a joint-career-best finish of sixth place on the Rally Monte Carlo. He surrendered a potential third-place finish in Sweden after a substantial time loss, as well as being bested by his brother, Henning, in the race for the final podium place on the siblings' home event – Rally Norway. In Mexico, Argentina and Sardinia Solberg struggled with his Impreza — technical problems caused two retirements and a plummet down the leaderboard in Italy. Good pace in Portugal and taking third place on the Acropolis Rally at least appeared to mark a turnaround in the quality of the younger Solberg's results, although even Greek event wasn't problem-free for the Norwegian as he experienced some damper problems.
Despite Subaru's confidence in their car performance and reliability built up during summer break tests, Impreza S12A failed again — Solberg had to retire on day two in Finland, after monstrous handling and steering problems which the engineers were unable to deal with. On the next round, Rallye Deutschland, where he finished sixth, the car by itself was reliable, but the Norwegian hit a rock on SS5 heavily damaging the steering, which had cost him considerable amount of time because the team wasn't able to fully repair it. The New Zealand event was another problem-ridden outing for Solberg — he described the handling difficulties as similar to those he had experienced in Finland earlier.
At the next round on Rally Catalunya, it was a difficult rally for Solberg — he struggled to maintain a good pace and in the end finished sixth, almost 3 minutes adrift from the winner, Loeb. He was however pleased with changes in car setup made for day 3, which seemed promising for the following Tour de Corse. Unfortunately for the Norwegian, the setup wasn't as good and he had problems with handling again which, along with a stalled engine on the start of SS5, resulted in a disappointing fifth place, behind young Finn Jari-Matti Latvala. In Japan, his team's home event, Solberg clocked several top-ten times on the early stages, but crashed badly on SS5 then, probably due to damage sustained in accident, his gearbox locked in sixth gear, forcing his retirement for the day. He later rejoined the competition under the SupeRally format and finished 16th, managing to score two points in the Manufacturers' Championship. On the day of his 33rd birthday, Solberg finished fifth on Rally Ireland, calling it "the most difficult rally he has ever done"; he had also found his car's performance better than in previous events.
On the final event of the season, Wales Rally GB, Solberg had consistent pace and won the battle for fourth with Spaniard Dani Sordo even though the Norwegian hit a rock in the morning and again had some minor handling issues. This result allowed Subaru to retain their third place in the Manufacturers' Championship, and Solberg ended the 2007 season in fifth place overall. He also took part in the 2007 Race of Champions, representing Norway, along with his brother, Henning. He didn't manage to win the first race with David Coulthard, but in Nation's Cup Norwegian brothers made their way to the semi-finals.
2008
For the 2008 season, Solberg and Atkinson were retained by SWRT as driving staff. Solberg started his season with a fifth place in Monte Carlo and fourth in Sweden, but went on to retire or finish outside point-scoring positions in the following four events. A radical new hatchback homologation of the long-serving Subaru Impreza, the WRC2008, debuted on the Acropolis Rally, marked by the Norwegian collecting a runner-up spot to Sébastien Loeb.
Although Solberg went on to break his personal record in consecutive point-scoring finishes, Acropolis remained his only podium of the season. He finished sixth overall in the drivers' championship, four points behind teammate Chris Atkinson, while Subaru took third place in the manufacturers' standings.
2009
Subaru announced on 16 December 2008 that they would not be participating in the World Rally Championship any longer, a mere day after Suzuki announced their withdrawal. Solberg and co-driver Phil Mills were left without a ride. Looking at their options with the remaining teams they had to sit out the 2009 season opening Rally Ireland.
After careful evaluation of several privateer options including Ford and Citroën cars, Solberg confirmed having acquired (most likely leased) a Citroën Xsara WRC (in 2006 WRC spec) as of 25 January 2009, and that Phil Mills and himself would return to the WRC in a privateer team for the 2009 Rally Norway. On 1 February 2009, Solberg indicated that five sponsors for the 2009 season were in place. The sponsors announced were Microsoft, Pareto, Hurtigruta Carglass and two undisclosed sponsors.
On 6 February 2009, Solberg officially unveiled the Petter Solberg World Rally Team, with himself as driver and Phil Mills as codriver. The team served Solberg and his 2006-spec. Citroën Xsara WRC with active suspension and diffs. A 13-member team, PSWRT employed ex-Subaru World Rally Team members Ken Rees as team manager, and François-Xavier "FX" Demaison as chief engineer. The PSWRT also returned Solberg's personal friend and ex-SWRT member, Tore Dahl, to the WRC scene as a mechanic. Swede Sven-Inge Neby, for about 40 years the engineer of Petter's father-in-law Per-Inge Walfridsson and his brothers Lars-Erik Walfridsson and Stig-Olov Walfridsson, is another support to the international team.
It took some time to adapt to the new car during their first round in Norway, but eventually Solberg and Mills managed to secure a sixth place and three points in the drivers' championship. Following that result and a new engine from Citroën, Solberg finished third in the Cyprus Rally, being the first true privateer in a privately run team to be in the podium since Malcolm Wilson back in 1993. Solberg managed to repeat this feat in Sardinia.
Solberg and Mills retained their consistent fight for 3rd and 4th position through the three next rallies; Portugal, Argentina (Retired from 3rd position due to loss of fuel pressure on the final stage) and Italy. Solberg "threatened" to swap to a Peugeot 307 WRC, unless he got the 2006 spec upgrades for his Xsara. He received the upgrades (mainly improved intercooler and mechanical differentials) for Sardinia, which made them able to defend a 3rd place, in very hot conditions. Solberg expressed that they were unable to push harder in hot temperatures, and remained open to analyze what to do for the next events. Solberg was believed to be in talks of upgrading to a Peugeot 307 CC but decided to stick with the Xsara. After retiring from Rally Finland, Solberg decided to miss Australia to concentrate on finding a more competitive car. After testing a Citroën C4 WRC in France, and a Ford Focus RS WRC in Britain, Solberg confirmed he would drive a C4 at the final two rounds of the season, Rally Catalunya and Wales Rally GB. The car was to be a 2008-spec C4, but would feature updates to bring it as close as possible to the factory cars of Sébastien Loeb and Dani Sordo. Solberg continued to drive for his own Petter Solberg World Rally Team for Catalunya, but was a nominated points scorer for the Citroën Junior Team at Wales Rally GB, alongside Sebastien Ogier. He finished in 4th position in both of these events, and ended up 5th in the overall 2009 Drivers' Championship standings.
2010
Solberg announced on 12 January 2010 that he had purchased two Citroën C4 WRC (2009-spec) cars from Citroën and that he would compete in the 2010 World Rally Championship.
On the Swedish Rally Solberg was unable to find the rhythm and pace, and finished 9th earning him 2 points. At the second round of the season, the Corona Mexico Rally, Solberg held the lead after day 1, with a 27sec gap down to Loeb on 3rd. With Solberg sweeping the road on Saturday Loeb advanced to a 55 sec lead by the end of the day, with Solberg on 2nd place 2.7 sec ahead of Sebastien Ogier. A great battle for 2nd place played out on Sunday, with Solberg trailing Ogier with 0.6sec going into the last super special stage. Solberg sat a fastest stage time here by 1.4 sec which secured the 2nd place podium finish, marking the best result by PSWRT to date. In the third Round of the season, Rally Jordan, Solberg trailed Latvala (−16s), Ogier (−19s) and Loeb (−43s) going into the last day. Ogier was sacrificed in a new level of tactics, sending him out as first car as road sweeper for Loeb, while receiving penalties and losing his good position. The exploiting of the rules received much criticism, and was subsequently banned for the next rally. The other drivers kept their position with Solberg scoring a 3rd place podium. In Rally Turkey, 16–18 April, Solberg held a good position through the whole rally, and had a serious chance to battle for the victory on the last day, positioned 2nd on the road, 16sec after Loeb. With several stages canceled on safety reasons due to too much mud, and later a scary meet with a tree on the slippery conditions, Solberg wisely stopped fighting and conceded to secure the 2nd place. Hirvonen, Latvala, Sordo and Ogier all had incidents/offs, hindering them to challenge Solbergs position. This result put Solberg second in the Driver's Championship standings, 1 point ahead of Hirvonen and 6 points ahead of Latvala, but a full 40 points after Loeb, with 4 out of 13 rallies completed. In Rally New Zealand Solberg made a tactical blunder, simply by not adapting any road position tactics, and finished in first position on day 1, with a marginal lead. Sweeping Saturday's stages left him 54 sec behind, in 5th place, realistically out of reach of a win. But for the final 30 km stage of the rally, four drivers were within 18 seconds of the lead, which led to an epic four-way battle for the victory, between Ogier, Latvala, Solberg and Loeb. Three of them took a maximum-attack, high-risk approach, which none of them managed to complete without incident. Ogier and Loeb both had a spin that cost them some seconds, and Solberg going too fast around a high speed bend hit a telegraph pole on the road shoulder and retired from 3rd position. Latvala did no serious mistakes and took his 3rd WRC win by 2.4 seconds. Loeb crashed two times during this rally, but still managed to finish only 15 seconds behind.
On 11 June 2010, PSWRT announced that Phil Mills have decided to leave the codriver seat to focus on other things in life. This brings to an end a 152-event unbroken run of the pair competing together, over 11 years since 1999. In their time they have driven for Ford, Subaru and for their own Citroën team, winning 13 individual world rallies and the 2003 world title. 29 June PSWRT announced that Chris Patterson would be Solberg's new codriver.
In their first rally together, the tarmac event Rally Bulgaria, Solberg and Patterson put in an impressive performance; five stage wins and finished third, 6.8 seconds off Dani Sordo in second place.
After more podiums in Japan, France and Spain, Solberg finished second on Rally GB, securing his goal of finishing in the top three in the championship.
2011
On 14 January 2011, PSWRT confirmed that Solberg will compete in the 2011 World Rally Championship in a Citroën DS3 WRC.
In February, Solberg had his driving licence suspended in Sweden after police caught him travelling 32 km/h above the speed limit on the way to the fifth stage of the country's WRC round, forcing co-driver Chris Patterson to take up the wheel.
2012
In December 2011, Ford confirmed that Solberg will return to the factory team of Ford in 2012.
Round 1 in Monte-Carlo saw Solberg's first podium finishing in third. Sweden saw the Norwegian come 4th. Mexico brought Solberg another podium in third. A round later in Portugal he finished fourth before Mikko Hirvonen was stripped of his victory because the car violated some regulations. After that he was promoted to third place giving him yet another podium, and higher location in the overall standings in second, 4 points behind leader, Loeb. On 4 December 2012 Solberg confirmed he would sit out of the WRC 2013 season.
ERX and WRX career
2013
In 2013 Solberg changed discipline, competing in all nine rounds of the FIA European Rallycross Championship (ERX) with his own team, based in Torsby. After a lot of bad luck, including retiring while leading in Finland, he eventually finished the season 8th overall in the Supercars category.
2014
In 2014 he became the first ever FIA World Rallycross Champion (WRX) with his PSRX Citroën DS3 Supercar. Therefore, he is also the first driver ever to claim FIA World titles in two different motorsports.
2015
Solberg partnered with Liam Doran to compete for the Solberg Doran Rallycross (SDRX) team in the 2015 season. He successfully defended his WRX title with this Citroën DS3, clinching the title in the final round of the championship at Rosario in Argentina.
2016
In 2016, Solberg continued in the FIA World Rallycross Championship with a privateer Supercars class Citroën DS3. He won the first round at Portugal, and got three further podiums and a total of eight top 5 finishes, finishing 4th in the overall standings.
2017 & 2018
2017 saw Petter team up with Volkswagen Motorsport to create PSRX Volkswagen Sweden, driving the Polo GTi RX, and the team quickly became a dominant force in World RX. Petter achieved his final World RX win at the legendary Lydden Hill in 2017, and by the end of the year the team were crowned Team's Champions, Petter finished 3rd, and teammate Johan Kristoffersson won his first World Championship title.
In 2018 the team remained the same, albeit driving the rebranded Polo R, and for the second year running the team won the Team's Championship - this time in even more dominant fashion. Across 24 events in 2017 and 2018, PSRX won 19 of them - a level never before seen in the sport.
Petter also made a brief rally comeback and took part in the 2018 Rally Catalunya to give the Volkswagen Polo R5 its WRC debut, and finished in a podium position with 3rd place in the WRC2 category.
2019 - Present
Petter retired from full-time motorsport at the end of 2018, but did complete a 'Farewell Tour' in 2019 consisting of some of his favourite events. He set the fastest RX lap at the Goodwood Festival of Speed, set the lap record at the Norges Råeste Bakkeløp, won Gymkhana Grid and signed off from his WRC career with one final class win at the 2019 Wales Rally GB.
Since then Petter has been a constant and supportive presence in his son's life as Oliver Solberg followed in his father's footsteps and reached the World Rally Championship.
Gymkhana Grid
Solberg won the AWD class of the 2016 Gymkhana Grid at Marathon with a Citroën Xsara. In 2018, he finished second at Johannesburg with a Volkswagen Polo. In 2019 he won the event at Warsaw, again driving a VW Polo.
Personal life
Solberg was born in Askim, but grew up in Spydeberg. He is the younger brother to Henning Solberg. He is married to a Swede, Pernilla Walfridsson, with whom he has a son, Oliver Solberg, who is now a driver in the WRC himself. Pernilla is the daughter of former Volvo factory driver and 1980 European Rallycross Champion, Per-Inge "Pi" Walfridsson (who also claimed a remarkable fourth overall in the 1973 RAC Rally). Pernilla was also, for some time, one of the world's leading female rally drivers. Solberg lives with his family in Mitandersfors, Sweden.
WRC victories
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%; max-width: 49em;" width=100%
! No.
! Event
! Season
! Co-driver
! Car
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 1
| 58th Network Q Rally of Great Britain
| 2002
| rowspan=13 |Phil Mills
| Subaru Impreza WRC02
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 2
| 31st Cyprus Rally
| rowspan=4 |2003
| rowspan=4 |Subaru Impreza WRC03
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 3
| 16th Telstra Rally Australia
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 4
| 47ème Tour de Corse – Rallye de France
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 5
| 59th Wales Rally of Great Britain
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 6
| 34th Propecia Rally New Zealand
| rowspan=5 |2004
| rowspan=6 |Subaru Impreza WRC04
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 7
| 51st Acropolis Rally
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 8
| 1st Rally Japan
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 9
| 60th Wales Rally of Great Britain
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 10
| 1º Supermag Rally d'Italia Sardinia
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 11
| 54th Uddeholm Swedish Rally
| rowspan=3 |2005
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 12
| 19º Corona Rally México
| rowspan=2 |Subaru Impreza WRC05
|-
|align="right" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"| 13
| 61st Wales Rally of Great Britain
|}
Racing record
Complete WRC results
(key)
WRC-2 results
(key)
Complete IRC results
(key)
Complete FIA European Rallycross Championship results
(key)
Supercar
Complete FIA World Rallycross Championship results
(key)
Supercar
References
External links
Petter Solberg's profile at RallyBase.nl
1974 births
Living people
People from Spydeberg
People from Askim
Norwegian rally drivers
Intercontinental Rally Challenge drivers
World Rally Champions
World Rally Championship drivers
European Rallycross Championship drivers
World Rallycross Championship drivers | [
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227321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability%20Discrimination%20Act%201995 | Disability Discrimination Act 1995 | The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (c. 50) (informally, and hereafter, the DDA) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which has now been repealed and replaced by the Equality Act 2010, except in Northern Ireland where the Act still applies. Formerly, it made it unlawful to discriminate against people in respect of their disabilities in relation to employment, the provision of goods and services, education and transport.
The DDA is a civil rights law. Other countries use constitutional, social rights or criminal law to make similar provisions. The Equality and Human Rights Commission combats discrimination. Equivalent legislation exists in Northern Ireland, which is enforced by the Northern Ireland Equality Commission.
History
The Act was the culmination of a public campaign, and at least 100,000 people in demonstrations, to force the government to end state and business discrimination against disabled people. While the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 guaranteed minimum standards for equality on grounds of race and gender, there had been very little concerning disabled people. Prior to the DDA, the first attempt to deal with the issue of disability was the Disabled Persons (Employment) Act 1944. This made it a legal requirement for companies with over 250 employees to employ a quota of disabled persons. This failed as there was not now anyone appointed to monitor these rights and as such was toothless.
Service providers
The Act placed duties on service providers and required "reasonable adjustments" to be made when providing access to goods, facilities, services and premises. These were introduced in three stages:
Since 2 December 1994, it has been unlawful for service providers to treat disabled people less favourably for a reason related to their disability;
Since 1 October 2002, service providers have had to make 'reasonable adjustments' for disabled people, such as providing extra help or making changes to the way they provide their services.
Since 1 October 2004, service providers may have to make other 'reasonable adjustments' in relation to the physical features of their premises to overcome physical barriers to access.
Amending legislation
The Act was amended by the following legislation in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland, where different amendments apply):
The Disability Rights Commission Act 1999, which replaced the National Disability Council with the Disability Rights Commission (DRC);
The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 inserted new provisions in Part 4 of the DDA 1995 in connection with disability discrimination in schools and other educational establishments;
The Private Hire Vehicles (Carriage of Guide Dogs etc) Act 2002, which prevented operators of such vehicles refusing to take assistance dogs, or making additional charges for such dogs.
The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Amendment) Regulations 2003, and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (Pensions) Regulations 2003 which amended the DDA in line with the EU employment directive.
The Disability Discrimination Act 2005, which completed the implementation of the Disability Rights Task Force recommendations, including the extension of the DDA 1995 to cover public transport, and the introduction of a duty on public authorities to promote equality for disabled people.
The Equality Act 2006 which transferred the role of the Disability Rights Commission to the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC). The EHRC took on this role from 1 October 2007, and has powers to issue guidance on and enforce all the equality enactments (covering race, sex, disability, religion and belief, sexual orientation and age).
Principles
The DDA 1995 departed from the fundamental principles of older UK discrimination law (the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and the Race Relations Act 1976). These Acts, also repealed and replaced by the Equality Act 2010, made direct discrimination and indirect discrimination unlawful. However, these concepts are insufficient to deal with the issues of disability discrimination.
The core concepts in the DDA 1995 are, instead:
less favourable treatment for a reason related to a disabled person's disability; and
failure to make a "reasonable adjustment".
"Reasonable adjustment" or, as it is known in some other jurisdictions, 'reasonable accommodation', is the radical concept that makes the DDA 1995 so different from the older legislation. Instead of the rather passive approach of indirect discrimination (where someone can take action if they have been disadvantaged by a policy, practice or criterion that a body with duties under the law has adopted), reasonable adjustment is an active approach that requires employers, service providers etc. to take steps to remove barriers from disabled people's participation. For example:
employers are likely to find it reasonable to provide accessible IT equipment;
many shops are likely to find it reasonable to make their premises accessible to wheelchair users;
councils are likely to find it reasonable to provide information in alternative formats (such as large print) as well as normal written form.
The Disability Rights Commission's Codes of Practice give more information to bodies with duties on assessing whether a particular adjustment is reasonable. In general, the factors to consider would include:
whether the proposed adjustment would meet the needs of the disabled person;
whether the adjustment is affordable;
whether the adjustment would have a serious effect on other people.
Sometimes there may be no reasonable adjustment, and the outcome is that a disabled person is treated less favourably. For example, if a person was not able to understand the implications of entering into a mortgage or loan agreement, and they did not have anyone authorised to act for them, it would not make sense to require a bank or building society to enter into that agreement. The Act therefore permits employers and service providers to justify less favourable treatment (and in some instances failure to make a reasonable adjustment) in certain circumstances.
An example would be a medieval castle open for public tours that didn't have modifications made for wheelchairs. To do so would destroy the castle's historical aspects such as the restrictive nature of the original circular staircases.
Housing
The system of protection of disabled people, especially those with mental health problems to keep their homes, has been greatly enhanced by certain recent rulings in the UK Court of Appeal—City of Manchester v Romano.
Under the act it is unlawful to discriminate against a disabled person by evicting them or subjecting them to other detriment unless justified under the limited number of justifications set out in the act.
In practice the only relevant justification is that the landlord believes and also that it is objectively necessary for the protection of the health or safety of the disabled person or someone else.
Where the cause of the taking of proceedings is e.g. rent arrears which was caused by the disability e.g. by Housing Benefit being cancelled through non response to correspondence and the non response was caused by the disability, then not only is it discrimination, but it is discrimination which cannot be justified on the grounds allowed in the act.
This applies whether or not the landlord knew of the disability.
This applies even if
the landlord has a mandatory ground for possession, e.g.
two months rent arrears or
two months notice no reason in cases of assured shorthold tenancy where the actual reason is rent arrears
the tenancy is one where there is no statutory system of protection, e.g.
where in LA temporary accommodation under the homelessness duty
the tenancy is a business tenancy
The tenant may counter-claim and seek an injunction restraining the landlord from continuing the possession proceedings.
The judges were very worried about the extent of the law and urged Parliament to change it. However, there has since been a new act of Parliament and there was no weakening of this protection.
Cases
Coleman v Attridge Law AG Maduro' opinion and judgment (C‑303/06) [2007] IRLR 88
Paul v National Probation Service [2004] IRLR 190, [2003] UKEAT 0290_03_1311
Chacon Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA (2007) All ER (EC) 59 (C-13/05)
Goodwin v Patent Office [1999] ICR 302, on a person with paranoid schizophrenia
Vicary v British Telecommunications plc [1999] IRLR 680, per Morison J
Leonard v Southern Derbyshire Chamber of Commerce [2001] IRLR 19
Clark v TDG Ltd (t/a Novacold Ltd) [1999] IRLR 318
Jones v Post Office [2001] IRLR 384
Collins v Royal National Theatre Board Ltd [2004] IRLR 395
Archibald v Fife Council [2004] UKHL 32
See also
UK labour law
Disability discrimination act – general definition, and list of acts by country
Disability rights movement Disability rights activism
Easy Access on public transport, etc.
Persons with reduced mobility
Notes
External links
Equality and Human Rights Commission:
Article on DDA from Directgov – UK govt information
Building websites to comply with the UK DDA
Disabled Go List of resources from Disabled Go, a website founded by wheelchair user Gregory Burke
Disability Statistics Some recent disability statistics
Disability law in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1995
Anti-discrimination law in the United Kingdom
Special education in the United Kingdom
Web accessibility
Disability legislation
Disability in Northern Ireland | [
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227322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Issus | Battle of Issus | The Battle of Issus (also Issos) occurred in southern Anatolia, on November 5, 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III. It was the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of Asia, and the first encounter between Darius III and Alexander the Great. The battle resulted in the Macedonian troops defeating the Persian forces.
After the Hellenic League soundly defeated the Persian satraps of Asia Minor (led by Greek mercenary Memnon of Rhodes) at the Battle of the Granicus, Darius took personal command of his army. He gathered reinforcements and proceeded to lead his men in a surprise march behind the Hellenic advance, in order to cut off their line of supply. Alexander was forced to countermarch, and the stage was set for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and the town of Issus.
Location
The battle took place south of the ancient town Issus, which is close to the present-day Turkish town of Iskenderun (the Turkish equivalent of "Alexandria", founded by Alexander to commemorate his victory), on either side of a small river called Pinarus. At that location, the distance from the Gulf of Issus to the surrounding mountains is only , a place where Darius could not take advantage of his superiority in numbers. Speculation on the location of the Pinarus has taken place for over 80 years. Older historians believed it to be the Deli Tchai river, but historians N.G.L. Hammond and A. M. Devine claim that the Pinarus is actually the Payas River, the latter using his own examination of the course of the river, which he considered would not have drastically changed since antiquity. Their evidence is based on Callisthenes' accounts of the measurements of the battlefield and distances marched by both sides' armies in the prelude to the battle and distance given by Diodorus after the battle.
Background
Alexander set out into Asia in 334 BC and defeated the local Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granicus. He then proceeded to occupy all of Asia Minor, with the idea of capturing all coastal settlements so as to negate the power of the vastly superior Persian fleet. He captured several important settlements such as Miletus in 334 BC and Halicarnassus, a siege lasting four months, starting in late December the same year. While Alexander was in Tarsus, he heard of Darius massing a great army in Babylon. If Darius were to reach the Gulf of Issus, he could use the support from the Persian fleet under Pharnabazus still operating in the Mediterranean Sea, thus easing his supply and possibly landing troops behind the enemy. Alexander kept his main army at Tarsus but sent Parmenion ahead to occupy the coast around Issus. In November, Alexander received reports that the great Persian army had advanced into Syria to a town named Sochoi. Alexander decided to mass his scattered army and advance south from Issus through the Pass of Jonah.
Darius knew that Parmenion held the Pass of Jonah and thus chose a northern route of advance. The Persians captured Issus without opposition and cut off the hands of all the sick and wounded that Alexander had left behind. Now Darius found out he had placed his army behind the Hellenic League and had cut their supply lines. He then advanced to the south and got no further than the river Pinarus before his scouts spotted Alexander marching north. Darius had to set up camp on this narrow coastal plain.
Motives
There is much debate as to the motives of Alexander and Darius preceding Issus. One modern perspective, based on Curtius, is that Darius was forced to move camp to terrain that favored Alexander because Alexander was fighting defensively due to a recommendation by his war council and Parmenion. Darius' large army could not be supported in the field during winter and his cities in Phoenicia were already in unrest at the arrival of Alexander. Darius was forced to move his large army to a small battlefield, greatly to the advantage of Alexander's smaller force.
Alexander was waiting for Darius to come south around the Amanus Mountain range because the pass Darius would have used, the Belen Pass, was much closer to Sochi and offered the quickest access to the area Alexander defended. Alexander was waiting to the west of the Belen Pass at Myriandus to spring a trap on Darius as he crossed through the Belen Pass or through the Pillar of Jonah if he moved north, where Darius' army would be disorganized and disjointed in the narrow crossing. Darius instead moved north from Sochi and around the mountains, through the Amanic Gate or another nearby pass, emerging behind Alexander's position and on his supply and communication lines. Thus Alexander was forced to march to Darius, who had caught him off guard in a large flanking maneuver. This gives the illusion that Darius was the one acting defensively, since Alexander was forced to march to him.
Combatants
Persian army
Some ancient sources (Arrian and Plutarch), who based their accounts on earlier Greek sources, estimated 600,000 Persian soldiers in total, while Diodorus and Justin estimated 400,000, and Curtius Rufus estimated 250,000.
Modern historians find Arrian's count of 600,000 men highly unlikely. They argue that the logistics of fielding more than 100,000 soldiers in battle was extremely difficult at the time. Hans Delbrück gives an estimate as small as 25,000, although most (including Engels and Green) estimate the total size of Darius' army to be no larger than 100,000 at Issus, including 11,000 cavalry, 10,000 Persian Immortals, and 10,000 Greek mercenaries. Warry estimates 108,000 in total.
Hellenic army
The size of the Hellenic army may not have exceeded 40,000 men, including their other allies, led by Alexander. Alexander's army may have consisted of about 24,000 heavy infantry (9,000 phalangites, 3,000 hypaspists and 7,000 allied and 5,000 mercenary Greek hoplites), 13,000 light infantry (peltasts, archers, slingers) and 5,850 cavalry.
Battle
The Greeks advanced through the Pillar of Jonah. Alexander led his Companion cavalry on the right flank and he set his Thessalian allied cavalry on the left of the phalanx with Parmenion in command.
Darius formed his line with his heavy cavalry concentrated next to the coast on his right, followed by the Greek mercenary phalanx (historian A. M. Devine places them at a strength of 12,000, comparable to Alexander's Greek phalanx). Next to the Greek phalanx Darius spread his Persian infantry, the Cardaces, along the river and into the foothills, where they wrapped around to the other bank and threatened Alexander's right flank (the formation resembled gamma, Γ). Arrian gives an inflated figure of 20,000 to these troops. Darius positioned himself in the centre with his best infantry, the Greek mercenaries, and his royal cavalry guard. According to some historians, like P. Stratikis, he was trying to replicate the Hellenic battle formation of the Battle of the Granicus.
The Persian cavalry first charged Parmenion and the allied cavalry, crossing the river to open battle. Alexander's right wing became the crux of the battle, as at Gaugamela two years later, where Parmenion held the left wing long enough against superior Persian numbers for Alexander to make his calculated cavalry strike against Darius and break the Persian army. The infantry of the Greek left flank was commanded by the general Craterus, in a promotion from his position commanding a single brigade of pezhetairoi infantry at the Granicus.
Things did not go well for the Macedonians in the beginning. Their center phalanx, having to advance across a river and up a fortified bank, suffered severely against the Greek mercenaries waiting for them on the other side. Arrian noted that a hundred and twenty Macedonians “of note” (probably meaning officers) were slain here, and the Macedonians were forced to retreat across the river. In the left flank, the Thessalian struggled against the outnumbering mass of Persian heavy horse that faced them, delivering charges and retreating again to buy time.
Then the Hypaspists led by Alexander on foot delivered an assault on the Cardaces, and managed to punch a hole through the Persian line. The Agrianians too drove back a mass of Persian skirmishers menacing Alexander's far right, securing the flank of the Companions. Alexander then mounted a horse at the head of his Companions and led a direct assault against Darius and his bodyguards, causing them to flee from the battlefield. Alexander then saw his left flank and center in trouble, and allowing Darius to flee, he crashed into the rear of the Greek mercenaries. The Greek mercenaries broke up and started retreating from the battlefield as well. The Persians saw that their Great King had gone and that the battle was being lost, and they abandoned their positions and fled in full rout. The Hellenic cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as the pursuing Greeks slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe. Arrian notes Ptolemy mentioning that while pursuing Darius, Alexander and his bodyguards came upon a ravine which they easily crossed on the piled up bodies of dead Persians. It was a decisive victory for Alexander.
Aftermath
The Battle of Issus was a decisive Hellenic victory and it marked the beginning of the end of Persian power. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King (Darius III at the time) present. After the battle, the Hellenes captured Darius' wife, Stateira I, his daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis, and his mother, Sisygambis, all of whom had accompanied Darius on his campaign. Alexander, who later married Stateira II, treated the captured women with great respect.
Later, the Spartan king Agis III recruited the Greek mercenary survivors of the Battle of Issus who had served in the Persian army, a force of 8,000 veterans, and used them in his fight against the Macedonians. In the summer of 331 BC, Agis defeated Coragus, the Macedonian general in command of the Peloponnese and the garrison of Corinth, but was finally defeated at the Battle of Megalopolis.
Depictions of the battle
German Renaissance painter and printmaker Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480–1538) dramatically depicted the battle in his 1529 painting The Battle of Alexander at Issus.
The Battle of Issus (c. 1599–1600) by Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625) hangs in the Louvre.
American Abstract Expressionist painter Cy Twombly diagrammed the battle in his 1968 painting Synopsis of a Battle.
The 2004 Oliver Stone film Alexander combined elements of the Battle of the Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela all together, labeled as the Battle of Gaugamela.
Contemporary fine-artist Rossi d'Providence has created an oil painting of the Battle at Issus for the Classics Department at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island.
References
Sources
Ancient
Diodorus Siculus (90–30 BC). Bibliotheca Historica. (Reference 6)
Quintus Curtius Rufus (AD 60–70). Historiae Alexandri Magni.
Plutarch (AD 75). The Life of Alexander the Great, Parallel Lives.
Arrian (AD 86–146). Anabasis Alexandri.
Junianus Justinus (3rd century). Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV.
Modern
Delbrück, Hans (1920). History of the Art of War. University of Nebraska Press. Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. 4 Volumes.
Engels, Donald W. (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London.
Fuller, John F. C. (1960). The Generalship of Alexander the Great. New Jersey: Da Capo Press.
Green, Peter (1974). Alexander of Macedon: A Historical Biography.
Moerbeek, Martijn (1997). The battle of Issus, 333 BC. Universiteit Twente.
Rogers, Guy (2004). Alexander: The Ambiguity of Greatness. New York: Random House.
Warry, J. (1998), Warfare in the Classical World. .
Welman, Nick. Army. Fontys University.
External links
Livius.org: Issus (333 BCE)
330s BC conflicts
333 BC
Issus 333 BC
Issus 333 BC
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|
227323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson%27s%20theorem | Wilson's theorem | In algebra and number theory, Wilson's theorem states that a natural number n > 1 is a prime number if and only if the product of all the positive integers less than n is one less than a multiple of n. That is (using the notations of modular arithmetic), the factorial satisfies
exactly when n is a prime number. In other words, any number n is a prime number if, and only if, (n − 1)! + 1 is divisible by n.
History
This theorem was stated by Ibn al-Haytham (c. 1000 AD), and, in the 18th century, by John Wilson. Edward Waring announced the theorem in 1770, although neither he nor his student Wilson could prove it. Lagrange gave the first proof in 1771. There is evidence that Leibniz was also aware of the result a century earlier, but he never published it.
Example
For each of the values of n from 2 to 30, the following table shows the number (n − 1)! and the remainder when (n − 1)! is divided by n. (In the notation of modular arithmetic, the remainder when m is divided by n is written m mod n.)
The background color is blue for prime values of n, gold for composite values.
Proofs
The proofs (for prime moduli) below use the fact that residue classes modulo a prime number are fields - see the article prime field for more details. Lagrange's theorem, which states that in any field a polynomial of degree n has at most n roots, is needed for all the proofs.
Composite modulus
If n is composite it is divisible by some prime number q, where . Because divides , let for some integer . Suppose for the sake of contradiction that were congruent to where n is composite. Then (n-1)! would also be congruent to −1 (mod q) as implies that for some integer which shows (n-1)! being congruent to -1 (mod q). But (n − 1)! ≡ 0 (mod q) by the fact that q is a term in (n-1)! making (n-1)! a multiple of q. A contradiction is now reached.
In fact, more is true. With the sole exception of 4, where 3! = 6 ≡ 2 (mod 4), if n is composite then (n − 1)! is congruent to 0 (mod n). The proof is divided into two cases: First, if n can be factored as the product of two unequal numbers, , where 2 ≤ a < b ≤ n − 2, then both a and b will appear in the product and (n − 1)! will be divisible by n. If n has no such factorization, then it must be the square of some prime q, q > 2. But then 2q < q2 = n, both q and 2q will be factors of (n − 1)!, and again n divides (n − 1)!.
Prime modulus
Elementary proof
The result is trivial when , so assume p is an odd prime, . Since the residue classes (mod p) are a field, every non-zero a has a unique multiplicative inverse, a−1. Lagrange's theorem implies that the only values of a for which are (because the congruence can have at most two roots (mod p)). Therefore, with the exception of ±1, the factors of can be arranged in unequal pairs, where the product of each pair is . This proves Wilson's theorem.
For example, if ,
Proof using Fermat's little theorem
Again, the result is trivial for p = 2, so suppose p is an odd prime, . Consider the polynomial
g has degree , leading term , and constant term . Its roots are 1, 2, ..., .
Now consider
h also has degree and leading term . Modulo p, Fermat's little theorem says it also has the same roots, 1, 2, ..., .
Finally, consider
f has degree at most p − 2 (since the leading terms cancel), and modulo p also has the roots 1, 2, ..., . But Lagrange's theorem says it cannot have more than p − 2 roots. Therefore, f must be identically zero (mod p), so its constant term is . This is Wilson's theorem.
Proof using the Sylow theorems
It is possible to deduce Wilson's theorem from a particular application of the Sylow theorems. Let p be a prime. It is immediate to deduce that the symmetric group has exactly elements of order p, namely the p-cycles . On the other hand, each Sylow p-subgroup in is a copy of . Hence it follows that the number of Sylow p-subgroups is . The third Sylow theorem implies
Multiplying both sides by gives
that is, the result.
Proof using primitive roots
Let be a primitive root modulo n of . Then , and all other have as a multiplicative inverse, because . As runs through all the integers coprime to , we are done.
Applications
Primality tests
In practice, Wilson's theorem is useless as a primality test because computing (n − 1)! modulo n for large n is computationally complex, and much faster primality tests are known (indeed, even trial division is considerably more efficient).
Quadratic residues
Using Wilson's Theorem, for any odd prime , we can rearrange the left hand side of
to obtain the equality
This becomes
or
We can use this fact to prove part of a famous result: for any prime p such that p ≡ 1 (mod 4), the number (−1) is a square (quadratic residue) mod p. For suppose p = 4k + 1 for some integer k. Then we can take m = 2k above, and we conclude that (m!)2 is congruent to (−1).
Formulas for primes
Wilson's theorem has been used to construct formulas for primes, but they are too slow to have practical value.
p-adic gamma function
Wilson's theorem allows one to define the p-adic gamma function.
Gauss's generalization
Gauss proved that
where p represents an odd prime and a positive integer. The values of m for which the product is −1 are precisely the ones where there is a primitive root modulo m.
This further generalizes to the fact that in any finite abelian group, either the product of all elements is the identity, or there is precisely one element a of order 2 (but not both). In the latter case, the product of all elements equals a.
See also
Wilson prime
Table of congruences
Notes
References
The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae has been translated from Gauss's Ciceronian Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes.
.
.
.
External links
Mizar system proof: http://mizar.org/version/current/html/nat_5.html#T22
Modular arithmetic
Factorial and binomial topics
Articles containing proofs
Theorems about prime numbers
Primality tests | [
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|
227328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Said%20bin%20Taimur | Said bin Taimur | Said bin Taimur (; 13 August 1910 – 19 October 1972) was the 13th Sultan of Muscat and Oman from 10 February 1932 until he was deposed on 23 July 1970 by his son Qaboos bin Said.
He was a member of the House of Al Said who in 1932 became the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, succeeding his father Taimur bin Feisal who had abdicated for financial reasons. The 21-year-old Said inherited an administration that was in debt. He consolidated power, with the help of the British SAS, and regained control of the tribal interior, bringing together Muscat and Oman. Once the country was united, Said left the capital of Muscat and resided in a coastal town in Dhofar. Muscat and Oman became fully sovereign and independent states in 1951 with him as ruler.
Early life and education
Said was born in 1910. He attended Mayo College at Ajmer in Rajputana, India, from 1922–1927 where he mastered English and Urdu. Upon his return to Muscat in May 1927, it was suggested he attend Beirut to further his education. His father, Sultan Taimur bin Feisal, feared that by sending him to Beirut, he would be influenced by Christianity.
Said’s father was strongly against him learning the ways of the Western world and speaking English. When Said was younger, his father found Sa’id and his brother Nadir possessing an English primer, and he ordered all their books be burned. Instead of sending Said to Beirut, his father sent him to Baghdad to study Arabic literature and history for a year.
Early political career
After completing his year-long study in Baghdad, Said participated in the Omani government upon his return home. He became the president of the Council of Ministers in August 1929. Sultan Taimur’s inability to govern the state affairs of Oman created an opportunity for a new leader. The British were very fond of Said and during February 1932, at the age of 21, Said became the new crowned Sultan. Sultan Said inherited a country that was heavily in debt to Britain and British India. In order to break away from Britain and maintain autonomy, his country needed to regain economic independence. Therefore, beginning in 1933, he controlled the budget of the state until being overthrown in 1970.
Family affairs
In 1936, Said married his second wife, Mezoon al-Mashani (cousin of his first wife, Fatima) who in 1940 gave birth to Said's only son and heir Qaboos.
Said had three children
Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al-Said
Sayyida Hujaima bint Sa’id bin Taimur Al-Sa’id
Sayyida Umaima bint Sa’id bin Taimur Al-Sa’id
Reign
Accession
On his accession, he inherited the remains of the Omani Empire, which included the neighbouring provinces of Oman and Dhofar, as well as the last remnants of an overseas empire, including Gwadar in the Arabian Sea. Nevertheless, his petroleum-rich country also had long established ties with the United Kingdom, based on a 1798 Treaty of Friendship, and had been a British protectorate since 1891. He also inherited an administration that was in debt.
Foreign affairs
Once he became Sultan, Said maintained a friendly relationship with the United States. In 1938, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt invited Said and his father to visit the United States. Said landed in San Francisco and began a tour from California to Washington, D.C. During his visit to the White House, Roosevelt presented him with two books he had written. Said toured the FBI Headquarters, and laid a wreath upon George Washington’s tomb, at Mount Vernon.
During World War II, the Sultan cooperated readily with the British; several Royal Air Force landing fields were constructed between Salalah in Dhofar and Mascat. This allowed the channels of supply to remain open between Britain and the Allies.
Leadership
As Sultan, oil wealth would have allowed Said to modernize his country. He secured British recognition of its independence in 1951. Nevertheless, he also faced serious internal opposition, from Imam Ghalib bin Ali, a religious leader of Oman, who claimed power in the sultanate for himself. The Imam's revolt in Jebel Akhdar was suppressed in 1955, with British help, but this in turn earned Said the animosity of Saudi Arabia, which supported the Imam, and of Egypt, which regarded British involvement in suppressing the revolt as not conducive to the cause of Arab nationalism. In 1957, these two countries supported a renewed revolt by the Imam, which was similarly suppressed by 1959.
In 1958 Said sold Gwadar to Pakistan for $1 million, while in 1967 Britain returned the Khuriya Muriya Islands.
Said became more reclusive from his people and country. In 1965, after making concessions to export oil with Iraq, Iran and Britain, he did little to improve the life of his people. The benefits of this deal would not come to fruition until his was deposed in 1970 in a palace coup.
In 1965, the province of Dhofar revolted, this time with the support of the People's Republic of China and some of the nationalist Arab states, followed by an assassination attempt in 1966. It had a marked effect on Said, causing him to become even more erratic in governing the country. It was forbidden to smoke in public, to play football, to wear sunglasses or to speak to anyone for more than 15 minutes. No one was safe from the sultan's paranoia, not even his own son, Qaboos, who was kept under virtual house arrest at the Sultan's palace in Salalah.
Before he was overthrown in 1970, because of his backwards policies, Oman had an under 5 mortality rate of around 25%. Trachoma, venereal disease and malnutrition were widespread. There were only three schools, the literacy rate was 5%, and there were only of paved roads.
Deposition
Qaboos returned from his educational studies in the United Kingdom at the Royal Military Academy, and a year of service in the British Army infantry in 1964, and was placed under house arrest. Said did not speak to his son during the last 14 months before the coup, even though they lived in the same palace.
On 23 July 1970 at the Sultan’s palace in Salalah, Qaboos executed a successful coup against his father with the help of the British and his uncle, and exiled his father to the United Kingdom. Said lived his last two years at the Dorchester Hotel in London. He was originally buried in Brookwood Cemetery, Woking, Surrey, England. His remains were then disinterred and transported back to Oman, and he was buried in the royal cemetery in Muscat.
Honours
Hon. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE: 1 January 1945; Hon. KCIE: 30 March 1938)
Hon. Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (GCMG): 1965
Ancestry
Sources
Harris M. Lentz III, Heads of States and Governments: A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Over 2,300 Leaders, 1945 through 1992. McFarland & Company, Inc., 1994, p. 604. .
External links
Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs
The Death of the Last Feudal Arab State
Sultan Said touring British tanks
References
1910 births
1972 deaths
20th-century rulers in Asia
20th-century Omani people
Al Said dynasty
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Honorary Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Omani Ibadi Muslims
People from Dhofar Governorate
People from Muscat, Oman
Sons of Omani sultans
Sultans of Oman
World War II political leaders | [
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|
227331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudding%20Lane | Pudding Lane | Pudding Lane is a small street in London, widely known as the location of Thomas Farriner's bakery, where the Great Fire of London started in 1666. It runs between Eastcheap and Thames Street in the historic City of London, and intersects Monument Street, the site of Christopher Wren's Monument to the Great Fire.
Farriner's bakery stood immediately opposite the Monument, on the eastern side of Pudding Lane. The site was paved over when Monument Street was built in 1886–7, but is marked by a plaque on the wall of nearby Farynors House, placed there by the Bakers' Company in 1986.
Pudding Lane was given its name by the butchers of Eastcheap Market, who used it to transport "pudding" or offal down to the river to be taken away by waste barges. There was a wharf at its lower end called Rothersgate (from the "rothers" or cattle that were landed there), and it was also known as Rother Lane. Another name for it was Red Rose Lane, from a shop sign that once hung in it.
Pudding Lane was one of the world's first one-way streets. An order restricting cart traffic to one-way travel on Pudding Lane and 16 other lanes around Thames Street was issued in 1617, an idea not copied until Albemarle Street became a one-way street in 1800.
The nearest Underground station to Pudding Lane is Monument, a short distance to the west. The closest main-line railway stations are Fenchurch Street and Cannon Street.
In popular culture
Sarah Addington was the author of some children's books referring to the lane:
The Boy Who Lived in Pudding Lane: Being a True Account, If Only You Believe It, of the Life and Ways of Santa, Oldest Son of Mr. & Mrs. Claus. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1922.
Pied Piper of Pudding Lane. Illustrated by Gertrude Alice Kay. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1923.
Round the Year in Pudding Lane. Illustrated by Gertrude Alice Kay. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1924.
Pudding Lane People. Illustrated by Janet Laura Scott. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1926.
Pudding Lane and Farriner's bakery feature prominently in the 2016 musical show Bumblescratch.
In the 1982 Doctor Who episode "The Visitation", aliens visit 17th century London and cause an explosion in Pudding Lane, which is revealed to be the true source of the Great Fire.
References
Bibliography
Streets in the City of London
History of the City of London
Great Fire of London | [
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|
227335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia%20Hussey | Olivia Hussey | Olivia Hussey (née Osuna; 17 April 1951) is an English film, stage, and television actress. Her accolades include a Golden Globe Award and a David di Donatello Award. The daughter of Argentine opera singer Andrés Osuna, Hussey was born in Buenos Aires but spent the majority of her early life in her mother's native England. She aspired to become an actress at a young age and studied drama for five years at London's Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts.
Hussey began acting professionally as an adolescent and appeared in a 1966 London production of The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, opposite Vanessa Redgrave. This led to her being scouted for the role of Juliet in Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 film adaptation of Romeo and Juliet. Hussey received widespread acclaim and international recognition for her performance.
In 1974, she appeared as the lead character Jess Bradford in the cult slasher film Black Christmas. This role, along with her subsequent horror films, earned her the title of scream queen. She reunited with Zeffirelli in the miniseries Jesus of Nazareth (1977) as Mary and appeared in John Guillermin's Agatha Christie adaptation Death on the Nile (1978). She appeared in several international productions throughout the 1980s, including the Japanese production Virus (1980) and the Australian dystopian action film Turkey Shoot (1982). She appeared in two made-for-television horror productions: Psycho IV: The Beginning and Stephen King's It, both first screened in 1990.
In addition to screen acting, Hussey has worked as a voice actress, providing voice roles in multiple Star Wars video games, including Star Wars: Rogue Squadron, Star Wars: Force Commander, and Star Wars: The Old Republic.
Early life
Hussey was born Olivia Osuna on 17 April 1951 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, the first child of Argentine opera singer Andrés Osuna (who performed under the stage name Osvaldo Ribó), and Joy (née Hussey), a legal secretary originally from England. Her parents were both Roman Catholics, and she was raised in that denomination. "My mother was a devout Catholic," Hussey recalled. "I grew up with a mini-altar at home that she had, a candle was always alight on it. She always had a great love for God and she instilled that in me." When Hussey was two years old, her parents separated.
Hussey was fascinated by acting from a young age, and as a child, would dress herself and pretend to be a nun. At the age of seven, she moved with her mother and younger brother to London, where she spent the remainder of her early life. There, Hussey's mother enrolled her in the Italia Conti Academy drama school, which she attended for five years. At 13, she began acting professionally on the stage.
Career
1968–1969: Career beginnings and Romeo and Juliet
Assuming her mother's maiden name as her stage name, Hussey appeared on the London stage in a West End production of The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, playing the role of Jenny opposite Vanessa Redgrave. During the run of this play, Italian film director Franco Zeffirelli noticed her because "she was the only choice mature enough with experience and natural beauty to play Juliet while still looking 14." At 15, she was chosen out of 500 actresses to star as Juliet in Zeffirelli's film version of Romeo and Juliet (1968), opposite 17-year-old Leonard Whiting's Romeo. Prior to her role in Romeo and Juliet, she had appeared in minor roles in two films: The Battle of the Villa Fiorita and Cup Fever (both 1965), and an episode of the television series Drama 61–67 (1964). In 1969, she won a special David di Donatello Award and the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year - Actress for her performance in Romeo and Juliet.
After the success of Romeo and Juliet, Hollywood producer Hal B. Wallis offered her the title role in Anne of the Thousand Days (1969) and to co-star with John Wayne in True Grit (1969). In her 2018 memoir Hussey stated that she had "mumbled something about being interested in Anne of the Thousand Days" but added that she "couldn't see herself with Wayne". She claims that this "adolescent and opinionated" remark inevitably ended her professional relationship with Wallis and he immediately withdrew his offer from her. "It had taken me less than a minute to talk my way out of it" Hussey stated.
1970–2000: Black Christmas and continued acting
In 1971, she appeared in the British drama All the Right Noises, followed by the crime film The Summertime Killer (1972), and the musical Lost Horizon (1973), opposite Liv Ullmann, John Gielgud, and Sally Kellerman. In 1974, she played the leading role of Jess Bradford in the Canadian horror film, Black Christmas (1974), which became influential as a forerunner of the slasher film genre of horror films. She played Mary, the mother of Jesus, in the 1977 television production of Jesus of Nazareth (her second work for director Zeffirelli). In 1978, she played Rosalie Otterbourne in Death on the Nile with Peter Ustinov, and appeared in The Cat and the Canary (1979). She also starred as Marit in the Japanese film Virus (1980), and played Rebecca of York in the 1982 remake of Ivanhoe (1982); the same year, she had a lead role in the Australian horror film Turkey Shoot (1982).
In 1987, Hussey appeared in a clip for the Michael Jackson video Liberian Girl, among others, who also included Steven Spielberg, John Travolta, Olivia Newton-John, Whoopi Goldberg, Lou Ferrigno, and Billy Dee Williams. In 1990, Hussey appeared in two horror projects, playing Norma Bates, the mother of Norman Bates, in Psycho IV: The Beginning, a prequel to Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), and in the miniseries It, an adaptation of the Stephen King novel.
2000–present: Later films and voice work
Hussey played the lead in Mother Teresa of Calcutta (2003), a biographical film about Mother Teresa, for which she was presented with a Character & Morality in Entertainment Award on 12 May 2007 in Hollywood. She stated in an interview that it had been her dream and wish to portray the role of Mother Teresa of Calcutta since she finished her role as the Virgin Mary in Jesus of Nazareth. Hussey and Leonard Whiting reunited as on-screen partners in the film Social Suicide (2015), the only film that they both appeared in since Romeo and Juliet (1968). Hussey's daughter, actress India Eisley, played their fictional daughter Julia Coulson, in the project.
Hussey has also worked as a voice actress, and was nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Television Production" at the Annie Awards for her work in the DC animated universe, as Talia, daughter of Ra's al Ghul. She voiced the character of Kasan Moor in the PC/Nintendo 64 game, Star Wars: Rogue Squadron (1998) and was also in the massively multiplayer online role-playing game Star Wars: The Old Republic (2011) as Jedi Master Yuon Par. She also lent her voice to Star Wars: Force Commander in 2000.
Personal life
Hussey quit acting for two years following the success of Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet, due to an ongoing struggle with agoraphobia. As teenagers, she and Whiting dated for a brief period following the production of the film and have remained friends since, reportedly speaking "at least once every ten days."
In 1971, she married actor Dean Paul Martin, the son of singer Dean Martin, on the day of her twentieth birthday. They had a son, Alexander Gunther Martin (who became an actor), in 1973, before divorcing in 1978. Dean Paul Martin died in 1987, when his National Guard F-4 Phantom jet fighter crashed in California's San Bernardino Mountains during a snowstorm.
In 1980, Hussey married Japanese singer Akira Fuse, in two ceremonies: one at home in Los Angeles, and a second, an Indian wedding, in Miami. She gave birth to their son Max in 1983 and divorced Fuse in 1989. In 1991, she married the American rock musician David Glen Eisley, a son of actor Anthony Eisley. In October 1993, she gave birth to their daughter, India Eisley, also an actress.
Hussey was diagnosed with breast cancer in 2008. Rather than pursuing chemotherapy or radiation, she underwent a double mastectomy to treat the cancer. After being in remission for nearly a decade, Hussey learned in 2018 that the breast cancer had returned when a small tumor was discovered growing between her heart and lungs. She opted to use radiation and chemotherapy to treat the tumor, stating: "I'd refused chemotherapy and radiation treatment 10 years ago, wanting to avoid those poisons, but last year I had no choice and they saved my life. The tumour shrank, I'm hoping to the size of a pea, and I'm doing well now. I'm healthy and happy."
Hussey's memoir, The Girl on the Balcony: Olivia Hussey Finds Life After Romeo and Juliet, was released on 31 July 2018.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Stage credits
Awards and nominations
References
Sources
External links
Olivia Hussey at the British Film Institute
1951 births
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses
Actresses from Buenos Aires
Actresses from London
Argentine emigrants to England
Alumni of the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts
British women memoirists
David di Donatello winners
English film actresses
English memoirists
English Roman Catholics
English Shakespearean actresses
English television actresses
English video game actresses
English voice actresses
Living people
New Star of the Year (Actress) Golden Globe winners | [
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|
227340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCdwestpfalz | Südwestpfalz | Südwestpfalz is a district (Kreis or more precise Landkreis) in the south of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Saarpfalz, the district-free city Zweibrücken, the districts Kaiserslautern and Bad Dürkheim, the district-free city Landau (the Taubensuhl/Fassendeich forest part of the city), Südliche Weinstraße, and the French département Bas-Rhin. The district-free city Pirmasens is surrounded by the district.
History
The district was created 18 February 1818 as the Landkommisariat Pirmasens. During the communal reforms of 1968-72 several changes were made to the district. In 1969 the neighboring district Bad Bergzabern was dissolved and some part of it was added, while other municipalities were incorporated into the city Pirmasens. In 1972 the district Landkreis Zweibrücken was dissolved and added into the district Landkreis Pirmasens, which on 1 January 1997 renamed itself to Südwestpfalz.
Geography
The district is located in the hills of the Palatinate, the Palatinate forest. The river Lauter has its spring near the city of Pirmasens.
Coat of arms
The three red bars on golden ground in the left half is the coat of arms of Hanau-Lichtenberg, while the lion in the right half is the lion of the Electorate of the Palatinate. These mark the two historic states which were located on the district's area until the end of the 18th century.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
(German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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|
227341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%20Allen%20%28politician%29 | Graham Allen (politician) | Graham William Allen (born 11 January 1953) is a British Labour Party politician, who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Nottingham North from 1987 to 2017. He stood down at the 2017 general election.
Early life
Born in 1953 in Aspley, Nottingham, he was educated at the local Robert Shaw Primary School and Forest Fields Grammar School in Forest Fields. He graduated from City of London Polytechnic, and received an MA from the University of Leeds.
He joined the Labour Party in 1971 whilst working as a warehouse worker. He worked from 1978 to 1983 as a Research Officer with the Labour Party. In 1982 he was elected as a councillor to the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, which he served until 1986. He was a local government officer at the Greater London Council between 1983 and 1984, before working for the trade union movement, running the first political fund ballots, and then with the GMB until his election in 1987.
Parliamentary career
Allen was elected as the Labour MP for the Nottingham North constituency at the 1987 general election, gaining the seat from the Conservative's Richard Ottaway with a majority of 1,665 votes. His majority at the 2010 general election was 8,138.
After helping to organise Tony Blair's leadership campaign, Allen was given a series of shadow portfolios, including social security, transport and the environment. After the Labour Party came to power at the 1997 general election Allen became a government whip until after the 2001 general election, when he returned to the backbenches.
Allen was liberated by his move to the backbenches, which freed him to speak out publicly on the few elements of government policy he opposed. Allen took a stand against the Iraq War, and with his Constituency Agent Ian Murphy, he stood at the forefront of a successful campaign to recall Parliament in September 2002, attempting to organise an unofficial recall if the House would not formally sit.
Allen sat on a number of parliamentary select committees, and was the Chair of the Political and Constitutional Reform Select Committee in the House of Commons from 2010 to 2015. He is also a member of the Speaker's Committee on the Electoral Commission.
Allen is a patron of Humanists UK (formerly British Humanist Association) and has campaigned against faith schools in the United Kingdom. He is an honorary associate of the National Secular Society.
Allen announced he would stand down at the 2017 general election due to ill health.
Democratic Reform
Allen was a proponent of democratic reform and supported independent local government, some proportional representation and a fully elected House of Lords. He introduced a bill calling for a written constitution in the UK.
In 1995, he wrote "Reinventing Democracy" and in November 2002 he published The Last Prime Minister: Being Honest About the UK Presidency, claiming that the UK effectively had a presidency. He argued that the Prime Minister (or 'President', as he referred to the office throughout the book) should be directly and separately elected in order for a better separation of powers. This new arrangement, he argued, would be best spelled out "in plain English" in a written constitution. Allen argues that a codified constitution would institutionalise the informal powers that the British prime minister has obtained, subsequently creating a system of checks and balances that act to limit the power of the prime minister.
Allen expanded on this in 2019, when he launched plans for a Citizens Convention on UK Democracy with cross-party support from MPs including Vince Cable, David Davis, Dominic Grieve, Caroline Lucas and Tom Watson. The Convention aims to involve millions of people in a process of recommending changes to improve democracy including a review of the Parliamentary "Second Chamber", the House of Lords, devolution and the regions, paying for politics, the voting system and a written constitution to enshrine in law things done by convention that do not currently exist in a statute.
The Convention is planned to convene in 2020 and run through to the end of 2021.
Early Intervention
Allen was a strong advocate of early intervention in social issues. He wrote "Early Intervention, good parents, great kids, better citizens" with Iain Duncan Smith in 2009. He wrote two reports for the government on the topic in 2011.
Constituency
In October 2005, Allen became the first MP to Chair a Local Strategic Partnership, which was subsequently renamed One Nottingham. Allen set it the mission of making Nottingham an "Early Intervention City".
References
External links
Graham Allen Profile at New Statesman
1953 births
Living people
Alumni of London Guildhall University
Alumni of the University of Leeds
British secularists
Councillors in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
English humanists
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Politicians from Nottingham
Transport and General Workers' Union-sponsored MPs
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017 | [
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|
227343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Anderson%2C%20Baron%20Anderson%20of%20Swansea | Donald Anderson, Baron Anderson of Swansea | Donald Anderson, Baron Anderson of Swansea (born 17 June 1939) is a Welsh Labour politician, who was one of the longest-serving Members of Parliament in recent years, his service totalling 34 years. Since 2005, he has served as a Labour peer in the House of Lords.
Education
Anderson was born in Swansea and educated at the local Brynmill Primary School and Swansea Grammar School before studying at Swansea University.
Political career
He entered the House of Commons in 1966 for Monmouth until being defeated in 1970 by the Conservative John Stradling Thomas.
From 1971 to 1974, he was a resident in Kensington and Chelsea and councillor in a neighbouring borough.
He then re-entered the Commons in October 1974, as MP for Swansea East. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 2000, and retired from Parliament at the 2005 general election.
In the 2005 Dissolution Honours, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Anderson of Swansea, of Swansea in the County of West Glamorgan. He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of the County of West Glamorgan in January 2006. Anderson belongs to Labour Friends of Israel.
References
External links
1939 births
Living people
Welsh Labour Party MPs
Labour Friends of Israel
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Swansea constituencies
Alumni of Swansea University
Deputy Lieutenants of West Glamorgan
Anderson of Swansea
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
National Union of Railwaymen-sponsored MPs
Politicians from Swansea
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
People educated at Bishop Gore School
People educated at Liberton High School | [
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|
227347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary%20Armstrong | Hilary Armstrong | Hilary Jane Armstrong, Baroness Armstrong of Hill Top, (born 30 November 1945) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for North West Durham from 1987 to 2010.
Early life
Armstrong was born on 30 November 1945 to Hannah P. Lamb and Ernest Armstrong, a Labour Party politician. She attended Monkwearmouth Grammar School before going on to take a BSc in sociology at West Ham Technical Institute (now the University of East London) and a Diploma in Social Work from the University of Birmingham. A former social worker and university lecturer, Armstrong worked for VSO in Kenya before entering politics. She was first elected as Durham County Councillor for Crook North Division in 1985.
She was shortlisted for the vacant Sedgefield constituency in 1983, only to lose out to Tony Blair, who went on to be elected MP. Four years later, at the 1987 general election, she was elected to her father's North West Durham seat on his retirement, increasing his majority by 3,806 to 10,162.
Parliamentary career
Armstrong was parliamentary private secretary to John Smith during his time as Labour leader, and played a large part in his successful fight to institute One member, one vote at Labour's party conference.
Armstrong was seen as a politician on the right of the Labour Party, and was close politically to her near neighbour Tony Blair and the New Labour agenda. However, she is also a member of the Amicus trades union (formerly MSF), and her trade union links were useful when she helped to shore up support for the rewriting of Clause IV.
In the 1992 general election, Armstrong retained her North West Durham constituency by defeating two future party leaders, Theresa May of the Conservatives, who became Prime Minister in 2016, and Tim Farron of the Liberal Democrats.
In government
Armstrong spent two years as Minister for Housing and Planning and four years as Minister for Local Government in the Department for the Environment, Transport, and the Regions and then the Department for Transport, Local Government, and the Regions, before being promoted into the Cabinet of the United Kingdom as Chief Whip after the 2001 election. This was the high point of a political career which was low-key but generally successful; though she endured controversies over select committee membership and over allegations of strong arm tactics with Labour dissenters over military action in Afghanistan.
Armstrong also faced criticism after government defeats in the Commons over the length of time suspected terrorists could be detained without charge, and incitement to religious hatred provisions in the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005. Press commentators speculated that in losing these votes through miscalculating government support, and in one instance letting the Prime Minister off the "Whip" because she believed the vote was won, Armstrong's position had become vulnerable. However the rumours that she would resign the post proved unfounded.
Afterwards, Conservative leader David Cameron mocked Armstrong during an exchange with Tony Blair, saying "She must be the first Chief Whip in history to put the Prime Minister in the frame for losing a key vote—which is an interesting career move, to say the least." This was the second time David Cameron had attacked her during Prime Minister's Questions; on his debut as Leader of the Opposition on 7 December 2005, Cameron singled her out by saying, "That's the problem with these exchanges—the chief whip on the Labour side shouting like a child. Is she finished? Are you finished?"
On 5 May 2006 Armstrong was appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Minister for the Cabinet Office and Minister for Social Exclusion. In 2006, Armstrong launched a petition on behalf of the Bethnal Green and Bow Labour Party against Labour turned Respect MP George Galloway's participation in Channel 4's Celebrity Big Brother. She criticised Galloway for being paid as an MP during the time he was in the Big Brother house. Galloway responded by saying he planned to refund the taxpayer after his exit from the show as he would not know how much to refund until then.
She formally resigned from the government on 27 June 2007 when Tony Blair resigned as Prime Minister, she was succeeded by Ed Miliband the following day. On becoming Prime Minister, Gordon Brown announced Armstrong's appointment as Chair of a Parliamentary Labour Party Manifesto Committee drawing up policy ideas covering children.
Post-Government
On 4 July 2009, Armstrong announced her intention to stand down at the 2010 general election.
On 18 June 2010, she was created a life peer as Baroness Armstrong of Hill Top, of Crook in the County of Durham, and was introduced in the House of Lords on 6 July 2010.
She was interviewed in 2014 as part of The History of Parliament's oral history project.
She is a member of the Joint Committee on the Draft Domestic Abuse Bill.
On 19 July 2019, Armstrong's North West Durham constituency party voted to expel her from the party after she and 67 other Labour peers published an advert in The Guardian on 17 July claiming that Jeremy Corbyn had “failed the test of leadership” over his handling of antisemitism complaints within Labour. However, the vote was non-binding as only the National Executive has the mandate to expel members. She is a member of Labour Friends of Israel.
Personal life
Armstrong is married to Paul Corrigan.
References
External links
Hilary Armstrong MP official site
10 Downing Street – Hilary Armstrong official biography
North West Durham Labour Party – Hilary Armstrong MP official site
East London Futures
UEL Alumni Event – Hilary Armstrong
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1945 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Alumni of the University of East London
British Methodists
Deputy Lieutenants of Durham
Female life peers
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Female members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Labour Friends of Israel
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
20th-century British women politicians
21st-century British women politicians
People educated at Monkwearmouth School | [
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|
227355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Regan%20%28comedian%29 | Brian Regan (comedian) | Brian Joseph Regan () (born June 2, 1958) is an American stand-up comedian who uses observational, sarcastic, and self-deprecating humor. He is known for incorporating body language and facial expressions into his act. His performances are often described as clean as he refrains from profanity as well as taboo subject matter. Regan's material typically covers everyday events, such as shipping a package with UPS, mortgages, and visits to the optometrist. While he does not define himself as youth-oriented, Regan makes frequent references to childhood, including little league baseball, grade school spelling bees, and science projects.
Regan started out doing standup comedy in the 1980s and made his television debut on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson in 1991. Regan subsequently released his first standup album, Brian Regan: Live in 1997 and has performed on various talk shows including The Dennis Miller Show, Late Show with David Letterman, Late Night with Conan O'Brien and The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon. He has since gained acclaim among fans and comedians, selling out nationwide tours and continuing to release comedy albums. In 2014 he made his film debut making an appearance in Chris Rock's comedy Top Five (2014). Since 2017, he has starred in Peter Farrelly's dark comedy series Loudermilk (2017-2020) on Amazon Prime. He has appeared twice on Jerry Seinfeld's show Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee and has released three Netflix comedy specials. In 2018, Regan's sketch comedy series Standup and Away! with Brian Regan which was produced by Seinfeld, was released on Netflix.
Early life and education
Born in Miami, Florida to a Catholic Irish-American family, Brian Regan was raised in Westchester, Florida. He has seven siblings, including brother Dennis Regan, who is also a stand-up comedian. He attended Christopher Columbus High School. Regan was always a fan of Steve Martin, The Smothers Brothers and Johnny Carson.
He attended Heidelberg College in Ohio, where he played wide receiver on the football team. Originally he had plans of being an accountant, but one of his football coaches saw his comic routines and encouraged him to consider theater and communications. During his last semester in 1980, Regan dropped out of school to pursue stand-up comedy. He finished his degree in 1997.
Career
In 1991, Regan made his first late night appearance on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson. Regan continued standup comedy making his way in the clubs, before releasing his first comedy album, Brian Regan Live, in 1997. In 2004, Regan self-released a DVD of his performance at the Irvine Improv, titled I Walked on the Moon. He was a featured comedian in a Comedy Central's animated stand-up series Shorties Watchin' Shorties. In April 2007, Regan signed a deal with Comedy Central to star in two one-hour stand-up specials, release the specials on DVD, develop a show for the network, and headline a theater tour, Brian Regan in Concert: A Comedy Central Live Event, which began June 8, 2007.
Brian's first one-hour special, Standing Up, debuted on Comedy Central on June 10, 2007. The special was recorded in April at The Barclay Theater in Irvine, CA, and a DVD of the performance was released August 14, 2007. His second Comedy Central special, entitled The Epitome of Hyperbole, premiered on September 6, 2008. A DVD of the performance was released September 9, 2008. His performance, All By Myself, is available via CD, exclusively on his website.
In 2012, Regan was the featured guest on Jerry Seinfeld's web series Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Season 1 episode 3. He is also one of the few comedians to be featured on that show twice appearing in the 2018 episode: "Are There Left Handed Spoons?". After seeing him perform standup in New Jersey, Chris Rock invited Regan to appear in his film, Top Five (2014). This would be Regan's first appearance in a film.
In 2015, Regan made his 28th and final stand-up performance on The Late Show With David Letterman which is more than any other comic since the show began on CBS. Regan recorded on September 26, 2015, the first ever live special on Comedy Central, Brian Regan: Live from Radio City Music Hall. It was released as a video/audio album in Feb 2016.
In 2017, Regan was cast as Mugsy in Peter Farrelly's dark comedy series Loudermilk starring Ron Livingston. The series has earned critical acclaim with a 92% on Rotten Tomatoes. Creator Farrelly praised Regan on his dark subversive performance in the show by saying, “the performance [Regan] gives this year is the best performance on television this year". That same year, Regan signed a deal with Netflix and Jerry Seinfeld to release two stand-up specials, Nunchucks and Flamethrowers (2017), and Standup and Away! with Brian Regan (2018). On February 23, 2021, Regan released a stand-up special, On the Rocks, on Netflix.
Influences and acclaim
Regan has stated that his comedy influences include Johnny Carson, Steve Martin, George Carlin, Richard Pryor, and David Letterman.
Regan has received acclaim among his comedy peers including Jerry Seinfeld who has described him as "one of my favorite, favorite stand-up comedians". Seinfeld has invited Regan on his show Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee twice in 2012 and in 2018. Seinfeld also served as an executive producer on Regan's sketch series Standup and Away! (2018). In an interview with CBS News Seinfeld stated, "He's really the most beloved guy out there by other comedians because of the quality of his stuff". Other comedians to have praised Regan include Norm Macdonald, Chris Rock, Jimmy Fallon, Patton Oswalt, David Letterman, and Bill Burr.
Discography
1997: Brian Regan: Live [CD]
2004: I Walked on the Moon [DVD/MP3]
2007: Standing Up [DVD/MP3]
2008: The Epitome of Hyperbole [DVD/MP3]
2010: All by Myself [CD/MP3]
2015: Live From Radio City Music Hall [DVD/CD/MP3]
2017: Nunchucks and Flamethrowers [Netflix]
2021: On the Rocks [Netflix]
Filmography
References
External links
1958 births
American stand-up comedians
Heidelberg University (Ohio) alumni
Living people
People from Miami
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
American people of Irish descent | [
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227357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Seyss-Inquart | Arthur Seyss-Inquart | Arthur Seyss-Inquart (German: Seyß-Inquart, ; 22 July 1892 16 October 1946) was an Austrian Nazi politician who served as Chancellor of Austria in 1938 for two days before the Anschluss. His positions during the Third Reich included "deputy governor to Hans Frank in the General Government of Occupied Poland, and Reich commissioner for the German-occupied Netherlands" including shared responsibility "for the deportation of Dutch Jews and the shooting of hostages".
During World War I, Seyss-Inquart fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army with distinction. After the war he became a successful lawyer, and went on to join the governments of Chancellors Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg. In 1938, Schuschnigg resigned in the face of a German invasion, and Seyss-Inquart was appointed his successor. The newly installed Nazis proceeded to transfer power to Germany, and Austria subsequently became the German province of Ostmark, with Seyss-Inquart as its governor (Reichsstatthalter).
During World War II, Seyss-Inquart served briefly as the Deputy Governor General in occupied Poland and, following the fall of the Low Countries in 1940, he was appointed Reichskommissar of the occupied Netherlands. He was a member of the Schutzstaffel (SS) and held the rank of SS-Obergruppenführer. He instituted a reign of terror, with Dutch civilians subjected to forced labour and the vast majority of Dutch Jews deported and murdered.
At the Nuremberg trials, Seyss-Inquart was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, sentenced to death, and executed.
Early life
Seyss-Inquart was born in 1892 in Stannern (), a German-speaking village in the neighbourhood of the predominantly German-speaking town of Iglau (). This area constituted a German linguistic island in the midst of a Czech-speaking region; this may have contributed to the outspoken national consciousness of the family, and the young Arthur in particular. Iglau was an important town in Moravia, one of the Czech provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in which there was increasing competition between Germans and Czechs. His parents were the school principal Emil Zajtich (who changed his surname to Seyss-Inquart) and Augusta Hirenbach. His father was Czech and his mother was German.
The family moved to Vienna in 1907. Seyss-Inquart later studied law at the University of Vienna. At the beginning of World War I in August 1914 Seyss-Inquart enlisted with the Austrian Army and was given a commission with the Tyrolean Kaiserjäger, subsequently serving in Russia, Romania and Italy. He was decorated for bravery on a number of occasions, and while recovering from wounds in 1917, he completed his final examinations for his degree. Seyss-Inquart had five older siblings: Hedwig (born 1881), Richard (born 3 April 1883, became a Catholic priest, but left the Church and ministry, married in a civil ceremony and became Oberregierungsrat (senior government counsel) and prison superior by 1940 in the Ostmark), Irene (born 1885), Henriette (born 1887) and Robert (born 1891).
In 1911, Seyss-Inquart met Gertrud Maschka. The couple married in December 1916 and had three children: Ingeborg Carolina Augusta Seyss-Inquart (born 18 September 1917), Richard Seyss-Inquart (born 22 August 1921) and Dorothea Seyss-Inquart (born 7 May 1928).
Political career and the Anschluss
He went into law after the war and in 1921 set up his own practice. During the early years of the Austrian First Republic, he was close to the Fatherland Front. A successful lawyer, he was invited to join the cabinet of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1933. Following Dollfuss' murder in 1934, he became a State Councillor from 1937 under Kurt Schuschnigg. A keen mountaineer, Seyss-Inquart became the head of the German-Austrian Alpine Club. He later became a devotee of Heinrich Himmler's concepts of racial purity and sponsored various expeditions to Tibet and other parts of Asia in hopes of proving Aryan racial concepts and theories. He was not initially a member of the Austrian National Socialist party, though he was sympathetic to many of their views and actions. By 1938, however, Seyss-Inquart knew which way the political wind was blowing and became a respectable frontman for the Austrian National Socialists.
In February 1938, Seyss-Inquart was appointed Austrian Minister of the Interior by Schuschnigg, after Hitler had threatened Schuschnigg with military actions against Austria in the event of non-compliance. On 11 March 1938, faced with a German invasion aimed at preventing a plebiscite on independence, Schuschnigg resigned as Austrian Chancellor. Under growing pressure from Berlin, President Wilhelm Miklas reluctantly appointed Seyss-Inquart his successor. On the next day German troops crossed the border of Austria at the telegraphed invitation of Seyss-Inquart. This telegram had actually been drafted beforehand and was released after the troops had begun to march, so as to justify the action in the eyes of the international community. Before his triumphant entry into Vienna, Hitler had planned to leave Austria as a pro-Nazi puppet state headed by Seyss-Inquart. However, the acclamation for the German army from the majority of the Austrian population led Hitler to change course and opt for a full Anschluss, in which Austria was incorporated into the Third Reich as the province of Ostmark. Only then, on 13 March 1938, did Seyss-Inquart join the Nazi Party.
Head of Ostmark and Southern Poland
Seyss-Inquart drafted the legislative act reducing Austria to a province of Germany and signed it into law on 13 March. With Hitler's approval, he became Governor (Reichsstatthalter) of the newly named Ostmark, thus becoming Hitler's personal representative in Austria. Ernst Kaltenbrunner served as chief minister and Josef Burckel as Commissioner for the Reunion of Austria (concerned with the "Jewish Question"). Seyss-Inquart also received an honorary SS rank of Gruppenführer and in May 1939 he was made a Reichsminister without Portfolio in Hitler's cabinet. Almost as soon as he took office, he ordered the confiscation of Jewish property and sent Jews to concentration camps. Late in his regime, he collaborated in the deportation of Jews from Austria.
Following the invasion of Poland, Seyss-Inquart was named as the Chief of Civil Administration for Southern Poland, but did not take up that post before the General Government was created, in which he became Deputy to the Governor General Hans Frank, remaining in this position until 18 May 1940. He fully supported the heavy-handed policies put into effect by Frank, including persecution of Jews. He was also aware of the Abwehr's murder of Polish intellectuals.
Reichskommissar in the Netherlands
Following the capitulation of the Low Countries Seyss-Inquart was appointed Reichskommissar for the Occupied Netherlands in May 1940, charged with directing the civil administration, with creating close economic collaboration with Germany and with defending the interests of the Reich. In April 1941, he was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer. Among the Dutch people he was mockingly referred to as "Zes en een kwart" (six and a quarter), a play on his name, and the fact that Seyss-Inquart suffered from a limp. He supported the Dutch NSB and allowed them to create the paramilitary Nederlandse Landwacht, which acted as an auxiliary police force. Other political parties were banned in late 1941 and many former government officials were imprisoned at Sint-Michielsgestel. The administration of the country was controlled by Seyss-Inquart himself and he answered directly to Hitler. He oversaw the politicization of cultural groups from the Nederlandsche Kultuurkamer "right down to 'the chessplayers' club", and set up a number of other politicised associations.
He introduced measures to combat resistance, and when there was a widespread strike in Amsterdam, Arnhem and Hilversum in May 1943, special summary court-martial procedures were brought in, and a collective fine of 18 million guilders was imposed. Up until the liberation, Seyss-Inquart authorized about 800 executions, although some reports put the total at over 1,500, including executions under the so-called "Hostage Law", the death of political prisoners who were close to being liberated, the Putten raid, and the reprisal executions of 117 Dutchmen for the attack on SS and Police Leader Hanns Albin Rauter. Although the majority of Seyss-Inquart's powers were transferred to the military commander in the Netherlands and the Gestapo in July 1944, he remained a force to be reckoned with. It is thought he met with Haj Amin al-Husseini, an exiled leader of Palestinian Arabs, Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, somewhere in Germany in 1943.
There were three concentration camps in the Netherlands: the smaller KZ Herzogenbusch near Vught, Kamp Amersfoort near Amersfoort, and Westerbork transit camp (a "Jewish assembly camp"); there were a number of other camps variously controlled by the military, the police, the SS or Seyss-Inquart's administration. These included a "voluntary labour recruitment" camp at Ommen (Camp Erika). In total around 530,000 Dutch civilians were forced to work for the Germans, of whom 250,000 were sent to factories in Germany. There was an unsuccessful attempt by Seyss-Inquart to send only workers aged 21 to 23 to Germany, and he refused demands in 1944 for a further 250,000 Dutch workers and in that year sent only 12,000 people.
Seyss-Inquart was an unwavering anti-Semite; within a few months of his arrival in the Netherlands, he took measures to remove Jews from the government, the press and leading positions in industry. Anti-Jewish measures intensified after 1941: approximately 140,000 Jews were registered, a "ghetto" was created in Amsterdam and a transit camp was set up at Westerbork. Subsequently, in February 1941, 600 Jews were sent to Buchenwald, a concentration camp located within Germany's borders, and to Mauthausen, located in Upper Austria. Later, the Dutch Jews were sent to Auschwitz, the notorious complex operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland. As Allied forces approached in September 1944, the remaining Jews at Westerbork were removed to Theresienstadt, the SS-established concentration camp/ghetto in the Nazi German-occupied region of Czechoslovakia. Of the 140,000 that were registered, only 30,000 Dutch Jews survived the war.
When the Allies advanced into the Netherlands in late 1944, the Nazi regime had attempted to enact a scorched earth policy, and some docks and harbours were destroyed. Seyss-Inquart, however, was in agreement with Armaments Minister Albert Speer over the futility of such actions, and with the open connivance of many military commanders, they greatly limited the implementation of the scorched earth orders. At the very end of the "hunger winter" in April 1945, Seyss-Inquart was with difficulty persuaded by the Allies to allow airplanes to drop food for the hungry people of the occupied north-west of the country. Although he knew the war was lost, Seyss-Inquart did not want to surrender.
Before Hitler committed suicide in April 1945, he named a new government headed by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz in his last will and testament, in which Seyss-Inquart replaced Joachim von Ribbentrop, who had long since fallen out of favour, as Foreign Minister. It was a token of the high regard Hitler felt for his Austrian comrade, at a time when he was rapidly disowning or being abandoned by so many of his other key lieutenants in the Third Reich. Unsurprisingly, at such a late stage in the war, Seyss-Inquart failed to achieve anything in his new office.
He remained in his posts until 7 May 1945, when, after a meeting with Dönitz to confirm his rescission of the scorched earth orders, he was arrested on the Elbe Bridge in Hamburg by two soldiers of the Royal Welsh Fusiliers, one of whom was Norman Miller (birth name: Norbert Mueller), a German Jew from Nuremberg who had escaped to Britain at the age of 15 on a Kindertransport just before the war and then returned to Germany as part of the British occupation forces. Miller's entire family had been killed at the Jungfernhof Camp in Riga, Latvia in March 1942. The Anglo-Dutch art dealer Edward Speelman was also involved in Seyss-Inquart's arrest.
Nuremberg trials
At the Nuremberg trials, Seyss-Inquart was defended by Gustav Steinbauer and faced four charges: conspiracy to commit crimes against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression; war crimes; and crimes against humanity. During the trial, Gustave Gilbert, an American army psychologist, was allowed to examine the Nazi leaders who were tried at Nuremberg for war crimes. Among other tests, a German version of the Wechsler-Bellevue IQ test was administered. Arthur Seyss-Inquart scored 141, the second highest among the defendants, behind Hjalmar Schacht.
In his final statement, Seyss-Inquart denied knowledge of various war crimes including the shooting of hostages, and said that while he had moral objections to the deportation of Jews, there must sometimes be justifications for mass evacuations, and pointed to the Allies forcibly resettling millions of Germans after the war. He added that his "conscience was untroubled" as he improved the conditions of the Dutch people while Commissioner. Seyss-Inquart concluded by saying, "My last word is the principle by which I have always acted and to which I will adhere to my last breath: I believe in Germany."
Seyss-Inquart was acquitted of conspiracy, but convicted on all other counts and sentenced to death by hanging. The final judgment against him cited his involvement in harsh suppression of Nazi opponents and atrocities against the Jews during all his billets, but particularly stressed his reign of terror in the Netherlands. It was these atrocities that sent him to the gallows.
Upon hearing of his death sentence, Seyss-Inquart was fatalistic: "Death by hanging... well, in view of the whole situation, I never expected anything different. It's all right."
Before his execution, Seyss-Inquart returned to the Catholic church, receiving absolution in the sacrament of confession from prison chaplain Father Bruno Spitzl.
He was hanged in Nuremberg Prison on 16 October 1946, at the age of 54, together with nine other Nuremberg defendants. He was the last to mount the scaffold, and his last words were the following: "I hope that this execution is the last act of the tragedy of the Second World War and that the lesson taken from this world war will be that peace and understanding should exist between peoples. I believe in Germany."
His body, with those of the other nine executed men and that of Hermann Göring, was cremated at the Ostfriedhof in Munich, and their ashes were scattered into the river Isar.
Cultural references
In Doris Orgel's children's novel, The Devil in Vienna, he is the father of Lise, the only Gentile friend of its Jewish character Inge Dournenvald, and his only daughter, second born after his son, Heinz. In the Disney Channel movie, A Friendship in Vienna, based on this novel, he is Herr Mueller, played by John Hartley, the SA officer of that film.
See also
List of SS-Obergruppenführer
Nazi plunder
The Holocaust in the Netherlands
Kajetan Mühlmann
Anschluss
References
Further reading
Graf, Wolfgang: Österreichische SS-Generäle. Himmlers verlässliche Vasallen. Hermagoras-Verlag, Klagenfurt/Ljubljana/Wien 2012, .
Koll, Johannes: Arthur Seyß-Inquart und die deutsche Besatzungspolitik in den Niederlanden (1940–1945). Böhlau, Wien [u. a.] 2015, .
Koll, Johannes: From the Habsburg Empire to the Third Reich: Arthur Seyß-Inquart and National Socialism. In: Günter Bischof, Fritz Plasser, Eva Maltschnig (Hrsg.): Austrian Lives (= Contemporary Austrian Studies, Bd. 21). University of New Orleans Press/Innsbruck University Press, New Orleans/Innsbruck 2012, S. 123–146, .
Zebhauser, Helmuth: Alpinismus im Hitlerstaat. Gedanken, Erinnerungen, Dokumente. Dokumente des Alpinismus, Band 1. Rother, München 1998, .
External links
Arthur Seyss-Inquart at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
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1892 births
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227361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession%20planning | Succession planning | Succession planning is a process and strategy for replacement planning or passing on leadership roles. It is used to identify and develop new, potential leaders who can move into leadership roles when they become vacant. Succession planning in dictatorships, monarchies, politics, and international relations is used to ensure continuity and prevention of power struggle. Within monarchies succession is settled by the order of succession. In business, succession planning entails developing internal people with managing or leadership potential to fill key hierarchical positions in the company. It is a process of identifying critical roles in a company and the core skills associated with those roles, and then identifying possible internal candidates to assume those roles when they become vacant. Succession planning also applies to small and family businesses (including farms and agriculture) where it is the process used to transition the ownership and management of a business to the next generation.
Business succession planning
Effective succession or talent-pool management concerns itself with building a series of feeder groups up and down the entire leadership pipeline or progression. In contrast, replacement planning is focused narrowly on identifying specific back-up candidates for given senior management positions. Thought should be given to the retention of key employees, and the consequences that the departure of key employees may have on the business.
Fundamental to the succession-management process is an underlying philosophy that argues that top talent in the corporation must be managed for the greater good of the enterprise. Merck and other companies argue that a "talent mindset" must be part of the leadership culture for these practices to be effective.
Organizations use succession planning as a process to ensure that employees are recruited and developed to fill each key role within the company. Through one's succession-planning process, one recruits superior employees, develops their knowledge, skills, and abilities, and prepares them for advancement or promotion into ever more-challenging roles.
Actively pursuing succession planning ensures that employees are constantly developed to fill each needed role. As one's organization expands, loses key employees, provides promotional opportunities, or increases sales, one's succession planning aims to ensure that one has employees on hand ready and waiting to fill new roles. Succession planning is one of important processes in leadership pipeline.
According to a 2006 Canadian Federation of Independent Business survey, slightly more than one third of owners of independent businesses plan to exit their business within the next 5 years - and within the next 10 years two-thirds of owners plan to exit their business. The survey also found that Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are not adequately prepared for their business succession: only 10% of owners have a formal, written succession plan; 38% have an informal, unwritten plan; and the remaining 52% do not have any succession plan at all. A 2004 CIBC survey suggests that succession planning is increasingly becoming a critical issue. The CIBC estimated that by 2010, $1.2 trillion in business assets would be poised to change hands.
Research indicates many succession-planning initiatives fall short of their intent. "Bench strength", as it is commonly called, remains a stubborn problem in many if not most companies. Studies indicate that companies that report the greatest gains from succession planning feature high ownership by the CEO and high degrees of engagement among the larger leadership team.
Companies well known for their succession planning and executive-talent development practices include: General Electric, Honeywell, IBM, Marriott, Microsoft, Pepsi and Procter & Gamble.
Research indicates that clear objectives are critical to establishing effective succession planning. These objectives tend to be core to many or most companies that have well-established practices:
Identify those with the potential to assume greater responsibility in the organization
Provide critical development experiences to those that can move into key roles
Engage the leadership in supporting the development of high-potential leaders
Build a database that can be used to make better staffing decisions for key jobs
In other companies these additional objectives may be embedded in the succession process:
Improve employee commitment and retention
Meet the career development expectations of existing employees
Counter the increasing difficulty and costs of recruiting employees externally
Process and practices
Companies devise elaborate models to characterize their succession and development practices. Most reflect a cyclical series of activities that include these fundamentals:
Identify key roles for succession or replacement planning
Define the competencies and motivational profile required to undertake those roles
Assess people against these criteria - with a future orientation
Identify pools of talent that could potentially fill and perform highly in key roles
Develop employees to be ready for advancement into key roles - primarily through the right set of experiences.
In many companies, over the past several years, the emphasis has shifted from planning job assignments to development, with much greater focus on managing key experiences that are critical to growing global-business leaders. North American companies tend to be more active in this regard, followed by European and Latin American countries.
PepsiCo, IBM and Nike provide current examples of the so-called "game-planning" approach to succession and talent management. In these and other companies annual reviews are supplemented with an ongoing series of discussions among senior leaders about who is ready to assume larger roles. Vacancies are anticipated and slates of names are prepared based on highest potential and readiness for job moves. Organization realignments are viewed as critical windows-of-opportunity to utilize development moves that will serve the greater good of the enterprise.
Assessment is a key practice in effective succession-planning. There is no widely accepted formula for evaluating the future potential of leaders, but many tools and approaches continue to be used today, ranging from personality and cognitive testing to team-based interviewing and simulations and other Assessment centre methods. Elliott Jaques and others have argued for the importance of focusing assessments narrowly on critical differentiators of future performance. Jaques developed a persuasive case for measuring candidates' ability to manage complexity, formulating a robust operational definition of business intelligence. The Cognitive Process Profile (CPP) psychometric is an example of a tool used in succession planning to measure candidates' ability to manage complexity according to Jaques' definition.
Companies struggle to find practices that are effective and practical. It is clear that leaders who rely on instinct and gut to make promotion decisions are often not effective. Research indicates that the most valid practices for assessment are those that involve multiple methods and especially multiple raters. "Calibration meetings" composed of senior leaders can be quite effective in judging a slate of potential senior leaders with the right tools and facilitation.
With organisations facing increasing complexity and uncertainty in their operating environments some suggest a move away from competence-based approaches. In a future that is increasingly hard to predict leaders will need to see opportunity in volatility, spot patterns in complexity, find creative solutions to problems, keep in mind long-term strategic goals for the organisation and wider society, and hold onto uncertainty until the optimum time to make a decision.
Professionals in the field, including academics, consultants and corporate practitioners, have many strongly-held views on the topic. Best practice is a slippery concept in this field. There are many thought-pieces on the subject that readers may find valuable, such as "Debunking 10 Top Talent Management Myths", Talent Management Magazine, Doris Sims, December 2009. Research-based writing is more difficult to find. The Corporate Leadership Council, The Best Practice Institute (BPI) and the Center for Creative Leadership, as well as the Human Resources Planning Society, are sources of some effective research-based materials.
Over the years, organizations have changed their approach to succession planning. What used to be a rigid, confidential process of hand-picking executives to be company successors is now becoming a more fluid, transparent practice that identifies high-potential leaders and incorporates development programs preparing them for top positions. corporations consider succession planning a part of a holistic strategy called "talent management". According to the company PEMCO, "talent management is defined as the activities and processes throughout the employee life cycle: recruiting and hiring, Onboarding, training, professional development, performance management, workforce planning, leadership development, career development, cross-functional work assignments, succession planning, and the employee exit process". When managing internal talent, companies must "know whether the right people, are moving at the right pace into the right jobs at the right time". An effective succession-planning strategy, coupled with solid career-development programs, will help paint a more promising future for employees.
Succession management
A substantial body of literature discusses succession planning. The first book that addressed the topic fully was "Executive Continuity" by Walter Mahler. Mahler was responsible in the 1970s for helping to shape the General Electric succession process which became the gold standard of corporate practice. Mahler, who was heavily influenced by Peter Drucker, wrote three other books on the subject of succession, all of which are out of print. His colleagues, Steve Drotter and Greg Kesler, as well as others, expanded on Mahler's work in their writings. "The Leadership Pipeline: How to Build the Leadership Powered Company", by Charan, Drotter and Noel is noteworthy. A new edited collection of materials, edited by Marshall Goldsmith, describes many contemporary examples in large companies.
Most large corporations assign a process owner for talent and succession management. Resourcing of the work varies widely - from numbers of highly dedicated internal consultants to limited professional support embedded in the roles of human-resources generalists. Often these staff resources are separate from external staffing or recruiting functions. some companies seek to integrate internal and external staffing. Others are more inclined to integrate succession management with the performance management process in order simplify the work for line managers.
Succession advisors
A prior preparation needs to be done for the replacement of a CEO in family firms. The role of advisors is important as they help with the transition of leadership between the current-generation leaders and the successors. Advisors help family-owned businesses establish their own leadership skills. This process is relatively long if the successors want to be accepted by all employees. They need to take higher managing positions gradually to be respected. During this process, the successors are asked to develop different skills such as leadership. This is where the role of advisors fully exemplifies its importance. It is when the managing position is shared between the first-generation leader, the second and the advisors. An advisor helps with communication because emotional factors between family members can badly affect the company. The advisors help manage everything during a predetermined period of time and make the succession process less painful and eventful for everybody. In these cases, an interim leadership is usually what is best for the company. The employees can get accustomed to changes while getting to know the future CEO.
Business Exit Planning
With the global proliferation of SMEs, issues of business succession and continuity have become increasingly common. When the owner of a business becomes incapacitated or passes away, it is often necessary to shut down an otherwise healthy business. Or in many instances, successors inherit a healthy business, which is forced into bankruptcy because of lack of available liquidity to pay inheritance taxes and other taxes. Proper planning helps avoid many of the problems associated with succession and transfer of ownership.
Business Exit Planning is a body of knowledge which began developing in the United States towards the end of the 20th century, and is now spreading globally. A Business Exit Planning exercise begins with the shareholder(s) of a company defining their objectives with respect to an eventual exit, and then executing their plan, as the following definition suggests:
Business Exit Planning is the process of explicitly defining exit-related objectives for the owner(s) of a business, followed by the design of a comprehensive strategy and road map that take into account all personal, business, financial, legal, and taxation aspects of achieving those objectives, usually in the context of planning the leadership succession and continuity of a business. Objectives may include maximizing (or setting a goal for) proceeds, minimizing risk, closing a Transaction quickly, or selecting an investor that will ensure that the business prospers. The strategy should also take into account contingencies such as illness or death.
All personal, financial, and business aspects should be taken into consideration. This is also a good time to plan an efficient transfer from the point of view of possibly applicable estate taxes, capital gains taxes, or other taxes.
Sale of a business is not the only form of exit. Forms of exit may also include initial public offering, management buyout, passing on the firm to next-of-kin, or even bankruptcy. Bringing on board financial strategic or financial partners may also be considered a form of exit, to the extent that it may help ensure succession and survival of the business.
In developed countries, the so-called "baby boomer" demographic wave is now reaching the stage where serious consideration needs to be given to exit. Hence, the importance of Business Exit Planning is expected to further increase in the coming years.
Family business
Small business succession tends to focus on how a business will continue to operate once its founder or initial leadership team retires or otherwise leaves the business. While small businesses on the whole often fail after the departure of their initial leadership team, succession planning can result in significantly improved chances for a business's continuation.
Within the context of succession planning, where a small business is owned by a group of managers or partners, thought should be given to the transition of the business to the partners, how departure from a business will be managed, and how shares or ownership interest will be valued for purposes of sale or buy-out.
When succession occurs within a company's hierarchy, succession plans should consider issues that may arise relating to retention of the intended successor, the possibility of jealousy by other employees, and how other employees will respond when they learn of the succession plan. Additional issues are likely to arise if succession is to a family member, particularly if more than one child of the managing owner works for the business or if siblings who do not work for the business will gain shares without having invested time and energy in the business.
Small businesses and perhaps especially family businesses benefit from creating a disciplined succession process, involving,
Discussion and commitment by the shareholders;
Careful candidate selection; and
Integration and development of the selected successor.
No part of the process should be rushed, with the integration process being expected to take roughly two years.
References
Planning
Human resource management | [
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|
227362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6kar | Kökar | Kökar () is an island municipality to the south-east of the Åland archipelago, Finland.
It is also one of the municipalities of Åland. It is reachable by boat from Långnäs on Åland or from Galtby with access to mainland Finland.
The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density is .
The municipality is unilingually Swedish.
The natural reserve of Östra Långskär is located there. Other notable islands include Kyrkogårdsö.
Ulla-Lena Lundberg, a Finnish author, was born in Kökar in 1947.
History
Kökar was first inhabited over 3,000 years ago by seal hunters. A Franciscan monastery was founded in Hamnö in the 15th century. Today the monastery is in ruins. The church dedicated to St. Anne was built in 1784 in the place of the old monastery church.
Sights
The church of St. Anne was built in the site of the old monastery church during the reign of king Gustav III and is located on the island of Hamnö. It is next to the ruins of the monastery. The clocktower was built in the 19th century. The clocktower had to be restored after an Autumn storm damaged it in 1978. A model of a sailing ship hangs in the church. It was given by a local sailor who had been captured by Turkish pirates but who later managed to escape. The model has 64 cannons.
The local museum was opened in 1988 and its purpose is to show how the people of Kökar lived in the 19th century and onwards to the 1940s. The now museum building, built in 1913, used to be an old school.
There is also a Bronze Age site dating back to 1150–1050 BC. It was found in 1918.
References
External links
Municipality of Kökar – Official website
The museum of Kökar's web site
Municipalities of Åland
Finnish islands in the Baltic
Landforms of Åland | [
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|
227363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parens%20patriae | Parens patriae | Parens patriae is Latin for "parent of the nation" (lit., "parent of one's country"). In law, it refers to the public policy power of the state to intervene against an abusive or negligent parent, legal guardian, or informal caretaker, and to act as the parent of any child, individual or animal who is in need of protection. For example, some children, incapacitated individuals, and disabled individuals lack parents who are able and willing to render adequate care, thus requiring state intervention.
In U.S. litigation, parens patriae can be invoked by the state to create its standing to sue; the state declares itself to be suing on behalf of its people. For example, the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvement Act of 1976 (15 USC 15c), through Section 4C of the Clayton Act, permits state attorneys general to bring parens patriae suits on behalf of those injured by violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act.
Discussion
Parens patriae relates to a notion initially invoked by the King's Bench in the sixteenth century in cases of non compos mentis adults. The notion dates from at least 1608, as recorded in Coke's report of Calvin's Case, wherein it is said "that moral law, honora patrem… doubtless doth extend to him that is pater patriae."
The parens patrae doctrine was gradually applied to children throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and has since evolved from one granting absolute rights to the sovereign to one more associated with rights and obligations of the state and courts towards children and incapacitated adults.
Many jurisdictions incorrectly apply the "best interests" standards in family law cases however, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Reno v. Flores, 507 US 292 - 1993 that the ..."Similarly, "the best interests of the child" is not the legal standard that governs parents' or guardians' exercise of their custody: So long as certain minimum requirements of child care are met...". In order for the court to invade on the custody or control of fit parent or guardian "harm" to the child needs to be established in some way. Absent the establishment of that harm a constitutional violation would be taking place.
In some situations, the parties may have submitted their dispute to formal arbitration proceedings. Such proceedings, whether judicial or quasi-judicial, cannot displace the supervisory power of the court in the exercise of its parens patriae function to the child. To the extent that such an award conflicts with the best interests of the child, the courts will treat it as void in respect of the child, even though it might be binding on the parents. The test of the best interests of the child can always be the basis of a challenge by a parent, grandparent, an interested relative, or the child acting through a friend.
Thus, for example, the spouses might already have been through a religious form of divorce known as the get before the Beth Din, the Jewish rabbinical court, which included provision for the children. Even though there might appear to be a grant of custody in absolute terms by this court, public policy always requires that it can be reviewed by a secular court and, if the state court is of the view that it is not in the best interests of the child, it will be set aside (see Stanley G. v. Eileen G. New York Law Journal, 10-13-94, P.22, Col.6, Sup. Ct., NY Co.).
Within the EU, the right of the child to be heard in any proceedings is a fundamental right provided in Article 24 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The views of the child shall be considered on matters which concern them in accordance with their age and maturity. It also provides that the child's best interest shall be the primary consideration in all actions relating to children, whether taken by public authorities or private institutions.
The same principles apply to individuals whose mental capacity is impaired and who are being abused by carers or other individuals, whether family members or otherwise. Since these individuals cannot protect themselves, the courts have an inherent jurisdiction to appoint a guardian ad litem for particular proceedings. In English Law, long-term care is arranged through the Court of Protection.
In US federal courts
The concept of the parens patriae suit has been greatly expanded in the United States federal courts beyond those that existed in England.
In Louisiana v. Texas, the State of Louisiana brought suit to enjoin officials of the State of Texas from so administering the Texas quarantine regulations as to prevent Louisiana merchants from sending goods into Texas. The US Supreme Court recognized that Louisiana was attempting to sue, not because of any particular injury to a particular business of the state, but as parens patriae for all its citizens. While the Court found that parens patriae could not properly be invoked in that case, the propriety and utility of parens patriae suits were clearly recognized, thus setting a precedent. Thus, in a series of cases after Louisiana v. Texas the Supreme Court followed that precedent to allow states to sue as parens patriae:
Missouri v. Illinois, 180 U.S. 208 (1901) (holding that Missouri was permitted to sue Illinois and a Chicago sanitation district on behalf of Missouri citizens to enjoin the discharge of sewage into the Mississippi River);
Kansas v. Colorado, 206 U.S. 46 (1907) (holding that Kansas was permitted to sue as parens patriae to enjoin the diversion of water from an interstate stream);
Georgia v. Tennessee Copper Co., 206 U.S. 230 (1907) (holding that Georgia was entitled to sue to enjoin fumes from a copper plant across the state border from injuring land in five Georgia counties);
New York v. New Jersey, 256 U.S. 296 (1921) (holding that New York could sue to enjoin the discharge of sewage into the New York harbor);
Pennsylvania v. West Virginia, 262 U.S. 553 (1923) (holding that Pennsylvania might sue to enjoin restraints on the commercial flow of natural gas);
North Dakota v. Minnesota, 263 U.S. 365 (1923) (holding that Minnesota could sue to enjoin changes in drainage which increase the flow of water in an interstate stream).
The Supreme Court recognized a different kind of parens patriae suit in Georgia v. Pennsylvania R. Co. While the earlier cases were common-law actions to prevent or repair harm to a state's "quasi-sovereign" interests. Georgia now sought relief under the federal antitrust statute, alleging that twenty railroads had conspired to restrain trade and to fix prices in a manner that would favor shippers in other states (particularly northern states) to the detriment of Georgia shippers and the state's economy. The court upheld Georgia's claim as parens patriae with respect to injunctive relief, but did not consider whether the antitrust laws also authorized damages for an injury to the state's economy, because the ICC's approval of the challenged rates barred any damage recovery.
Then, three decades later, in Hawaii v. Standard Oil Co., the court considered a generally similar damages action Hawaii brought under the antitrust laws for damages to its general economy resulting from a price fix by four oil companies. The court held that the state could sue as parens patriae only for injunctive relief and not for damages. Its citizens would have to sue individually for damages.
In Massachusetts v. EPA, a group of states (mostly coastal states) sought to sue the EPA to require it to regulate greenhouse gas emissions because they were causing global warming and rising sea levels. "These rising seas have already begun to swallow Massachusetts' coastal land." The court stated:
Therefore, states such as Massachusetts had standing as parens patriae to sue EPA to seeks to require it to regulate to protect their coastlines. The Court held that EPA would have to consider the matter and give a reasoned explanation of whatever its decision on the merits would be.
In Pennsylvania v. Mid-Atlantic Toyota Distributors, Inc., the Fourth Circuit held that several state attorney generals were proper parens patriae plaintiffs to sue a group of car dealers for price fixing, in order to recover damages for their citizen injured by overcharges. The court held that because plaintiffs were authorized to pursue antitrust litigation against defendants on behalf of their states' natural-person residents under both 15 U.S.C. §§ 15c-15h and state laws and constitutions, they could sue on behalf of their citizens.
Animals
Supreme Court of India invoked the doctrine of parens patriae in Animal Welfare Board Of India vs A. Nagaraja & Ors, the court observed, "PCA Act (Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act), is a welfare legislation which has to be construed bearing in mind the purpose and object of the Act and the Directive Principles of State Policy. It is trite law that, in the matters of welfare legislation, the provisions of law should be liberally construed in favour of the weak and infirm. Court also should be vigilant to see that benefits conferred by such remedial and welfare legislation are not defeated by subtle devices. Court has also a duty under the doctrine of parens patriae to take care of the rights of animals, since they are unable to take care of themselves as against human beings."
See also
Child custody
in loco parentis
Joint custody
Qui tam
Pater Patriae
Private attorney general
Further reading
Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries: Government Litigation as Public Health Prescription by Donald G. Gifford. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 2010.
Antitrust Parens Patriae Amendments: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Monopolies and Commercial Law of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, Ninety-fourth Congress, First Session on H.R. 38 and H.R. 2850 ... February 20 and March 6, 1975. United States, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975.
Sosin, Michael. Parens Patriae and Dispositions in Juvenile Courts. United States: University of Wisconsin, 1978.
References
Latin legal terminology
Legal procedure
Child custody | [
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|
227367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distro | Distro | Distro may refer to:
Linux distribution, a specific vendor's operating system-package composed of the Linux kernel, GNU tools and libraries, additional software based on a package management system.
Software distro, a set of software components (i.e. open source components) assembled into a working whole and distributed to a user community.
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227381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel%20tetracarbonyl | Nickel tetracarbonyl | Nickel carbonyl (IUPAC name: tetracarbonylnickel) is the organonickel compound with the formula Ni(CO)4. This colorless liquid is the principal carbonyl of nickel. It is an intermediate in the Mond process for producing very high-purity nickel and a reagent in organometallic chemistry, although the Mond Process has fallen out of common usage due to the health hazards in working with the compound. Nickel carbonyl is one of the most dangerous substances yet encountered in nickel chemistry due to its very high toxicity, compounded with high volatility and rapid skin absorption.
Structure and bonding
In nickel tetracarbonyl, the oxidation state for nickel is assigned as zero. The formula conforms to 18-electron rule. The molecule is tetrahedral, with four carbonyl (carbon monoxide) ligands. Electron diffraction studies have been performed on this molecule, and the Ni–C and C–O distances have been calculated to be 1.838(2) and 1.141(2) angstroms respectively.
Preparation
Ni(CO)4 was first synthesised in 1890 by Ludwig Mond by the direct reaction of nickel metal with carbon monoxide. This pioneering work foreshadowed the existence of many other metal carbonyl compounds, including those of vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, and cobalt. It was also applied industrially to the purification of nickel by the end of the 19th century.
At , carbon monoxide is passed over impure nickel. The optimal rate occurs at 130 °C.
Laboratory routes
Ni(CO)4 is not readily available commercially. It is conveniently generated in the laboratory by carbonylation of commercially available bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0). It can also be prepared by reduction of ammoniacal solutions of nickel sulfate with sodium dithionite under an atmosphere of CO.
Reactions
Thermal decarbonylation
On moderate heating, Ni(CO)4 decomposes to carbon monoxide and nickel metal. Combined with the easy formation from CO and even very impure nickel, this decomposition is the basis for the Mond process for the purification of nickel or plating onto surfaces. Thermal decomposition commences near 180 °C and increases at higher temperature.
Reactions with nucleophiles and reducing agents
Like other low-valent metal carbonyls, Ni(CO)4 is susceptible to attack by nucleophiles. Attack can occur at nickel center, resulting in displacement of CO ligands, or at CO. Thus, donor ligands such as triphenylphosphine react to give Ni(CO)3(PPh3) and Ni(CO)2(PPh3)2. Bipyridine and related ligands behave similarly. The monosubstitution of nickel tetracarbonyl with other ligands can be used to determine the Tolman electronic parameter, a measure of the electron donating or withdrawing ability of a given ligand.
Treatment with hydroxides gives clusters such as [Ni5(CO)12]2− and [Ni6(CO)12]2−. These compounds can also be obtained by reduction of nickel carbonyl.
Thus, treatment of Ni(CO)4 with carbon nucleophiles (Nu−) results in acyl derivatives such as [Ni(CO)3C(O)Nu)]−.
Reactions with electrophiles and oxidizing agents
Nickel carbonyl can be oxidized. Chlorine oxidizes nickel carbonyl into NiCl2, releasing CO gas. Other halogens behave analogously. This reaction provides a convenient method for precipitating the nickel portion of the toxic compound.
Reactions of Ni(CO)4 with alkyl and aryl halides often result in carbonylated organic products. Vinylic halides, such as PhCH=CHBr, are converted to the unsaturated esters upon treatment with Ni(CO)4 followed by sodium methoxide. Such reactions also probably proceed via oxidative addition. Allylic halides give the π-allylnickel compounds, such as (allyl)2Ni2Cl2:
2 Ni(CO)4 + 2 ClCH2CH=CH2 → Ni2(μ-Cl)2(η3-C3H5)2 + 8 CO
Toxicology and safety considerations
The hazards of Ni(CO)4 are far greater than that implied by its CO content, reflecting the effects of the nickel if released in the body. Nickel carbonyl may be fatal if absorbed through the skin or more likely, inhaled due to its high volatility. Its LC50 for a 30-minute exposure has been estimated at 3 ppm, and the concentration that is immediately fatal to humans would be 30 ppm. Some subjects exposed to puffs up to 5 ppm described the odour as musty or sooty, but because the compound is so exceedingly toxic, its smell provides no reliable warning against a potentially fatal exposure.
The vapours of Ni(CO)4 can autoignite. The vapor decomposes quickly in air, with a half-life of about 40 seconds.
Nickel carbonyl poisoning is characterized by a two-stage illness. The first consists of headaches and chest pain lasting a few hours, usually followed by a short remission. The second phase is a chemical pneumonitis which starts after typically 16 hours with symptoms of cough, breathlessness and extreme fatigue. These reach greatest severity after four days, possibly resulting in death from cardiorespiratory or acute kidney injury. Convalescence is often extremely protracted, often complicated by exhaustion, depression and dyspnea on exertion. Permanent respiratory damage is unusual. The carcinogenicity of Ni(CO)4 is a matter of debate, but is presumed to be significant.
It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.
In popular culture
"Requiem for the Living" (1978), an episode of Quincy, M.E., features a poisoned, dying crime lord who asks Dr. Quincy to autopsy his still-living body. Quincy identifies the poison—nickel carbonyl.
In the novella Amanda Morgan by Gordon R. Dickson, the remaining inhabitants of a mostly evacuated village resist an occupying military force by directing the exhaust from a poorly-tuned internal combustion engine onto a continually renewed "waste heap" of powdered nickel outside a machine shop (under the guise of civilian business) in order to eliminate the occupiers, at the cost of their own lives.
References
Further reading
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0064
National Pollutant Inventory – Nickel carbonyl fact sheet
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
IARC Monograph "Nickel and Nickel compounds"
Organonickel compounds
Nickel compounds
Carbonyl complexes
IARC Group 1 carcinogens
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|
227398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaughter | Slaughter | Slaughter may refer to:
Animals
Animal slaughter, killing animals for food
Ritual slaughter, the practice of slaughtering livestock for meat in a ritual manner
Dhabihah, the prescribed method of ritual slaughter of animals excluding camels, locusts, fish and most sea life in Islamic law
Shechita, the ritual slaughter of mammals and birds according to Jewish dietary laws
Slaughterhouse, the place where animals are killed for food
Murder
Murder
Manslaughter
Massacre
Mass murder
People
Slaughter (surname)
Sgt. Slaughter (born 1948), stage name of Robert Rudolph Remus, a pro wrestler
Places
Lower Slaughter, in Gloucestershire, England
Upper Slaughter, also in Gloucestershire
Slaughter, Louisiana, United States
Slaughter, Washington, United States renamed Auburn, Washington February 21, 1893
Slaughter Lane, a former name of Brewer Street, Oxford, England
Entertainment
Film
Slaughter (1972 film), a 1972 film starring Jim Brown and Stella Stevens
Snuff (film), originally titled Slaughter in 1972, retitled for its wider 1976 release
Slaughter (2009 film), a 2009 film from After Dark Films
Music
Slaughter (band), an American hard rock band
Slaughter (Canadian band), a Canadian thrash metal band
"Slaughter" (song), Billy Preston's theme song to the 1972 film of the same name
Slaughter (album), a 2015 album by Young Wicked
The Slaughter, an album by American heavy metal band Incite
Slaughter & the Dogs, a British punk band
Slaughterhouse (group), an American hip hop group
Other
Chicago Slaughter, professional indoor football team
Slaughter and May, a City of London law firm
Slátur, an Icelandic food like haggis or blood pudding
See also
Bloodbath (disambiguation)
Butchering | [
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|
227399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga%20Unix | Amiga Unix | Amiga Unix (informally known as Amix) is a discontinued full port of AT&T Unix System V Release 4 operating system developed by Commodore-Amiga, Inc. in 1990 for the Amiga computer family as an alternative to AmigaOS, which shipped by default.
Overview
Bundled with the Amiga 3000UX, Commodore's Unix was one of the first ports of SVR4 to the 68k architecture. The Amiga A3000UX model even got the attention of Sun Microsystems, though ultimately nothing came of it.
Unlike Apple's A/UX, Amiga Unix contained no compatibility layer to allow AmigaOS applications to run under Unix. With few native applications available to take advantage of the Amiga's significant multimedia capabilities, it failed to find a niche in the quite-competitive Unix workstation market of the early 1990s. The A3000UX's price tag of $4,998 () was also not very attractive compared to other Unix workstations at the time, such as the NeXTstation ($5,000 for a base system, with a full API and many times the number of applications available), the SGI Indigo (starting at $8,000), or the Personal DECstation 5000 Model 25 (starting at $5,000). Sun, HP, and IBM had similarly priced systems. The A3000UX's 68030 was noticeably underpowered compared to most of its RISC-based competitors.
Unlike typical commercial Unix distributions of the time, Amiga Unix included the source code to the vendor-specific enhancements and platform-dependent device drivers (essentially any part that wasn't owned by AT&T), allowing interested users to study or enhance those parts of the system. However this source code was subject to the same license terms as the binary part of the system it was not free software. Amiga Unix also incorporated and depended upon many open source components, such as the GNU C Compiler and X Window System, and included their source code.
Like many other proprietary Unix variants with small market shares, Amiga Unix vanished into the mists of computer history when its vendor, Commodore, went out of business. Today, Unix-like operating systems such as Minix, NetBSD, and Linux are available for the Amiga platform.
See also
Atari TT030, Unix workstation from Atari
References
External links
Manual: Commodore, Amiga Unix, System V Release 4, Learning Amiga Unix (11/1990)
The Very Unofficial Commodore Amiga Unix (AMIX) Wiki
Video of AMIX running under FS-UAE
Amiga
Discontinued operating systems
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|
227400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathetic%20fallacy | Pathetic fallacy | The phrase pathetic fallacy is a literary term for the attribution of human emotion and conduct to things found in nature that are not human. It is a kind of personification that occurs in poetic descriptions, when, for example, clouds seem sullen, when leaves dance, or when rocks seem indifferent. The British cultural critic John Ruskin coined the term in Volume 3 of his work, Modern Painters (1856).
History of the phrase
Ruskin coined the term "pathetic fallacy" to attack the sentimentality that was common to the poetry of the late 18th century, and which was rampant among poets including Burns, Blake, Wordsworth, Shelley, and Keats. Wordsworth supported this use of personification based on emotion by claiming that "objects ... derive their influence not from properties inherent in them ... but from such as are bestowed upon them by the minds of those who are conversant with or affected by these objects." However Tennyson, in his own poetry, began to refine and diminish such expressions, and introduced an emphasis on what might be called a more scientific comparison of objects in terms of sense perception. The old order was beginning to be replaced by the new just as Ruskin addressed the matter, and the use of the pathetic fallacy markedly began to disappear. As a critic, Ruskin proved influential and is credited with having helped to refine poetic expression.
The meaning of the term has changed significantly from the idea Ruskin had in mind. Ruskin's original definition is "emotional falseness", or the falseness that occurs to one's perceptions when influenced by violent or heightened emotion. For example, when a person is unhinged by grief, the clouds might seem darker than they are, or perhaps mournful or perhaps even uncaring.
There have been other changes to Ruskin's phrase since he coined it: The particular definition that Ruskin used for the word fallacy has since become obsolete. The word fallacy nowadays is defined as an example of flawed reasoning, but for Ruskin and writers of the 19th century and earlier, "fallacy" could be used to mean simply a "falseness". In the same way, the word pathetic simply meant for Ruskin "emotional" or "pertaining to emotion".
Setting aside Ruskin's original intentions, and despite this linguistic 'rocky road', the two-word phrase has survived, though with a significantly altered meaning.
Examples of Ruskin's original meaning
In his essay, Ruskin demonstrates his original meaning by offering lines of a poem:
They rowed her in across the rolling foam—
The cruel, crawling foam...
Ruskin then points out that "the foam is not cruel, neither does it crawl. The state of mind which attributes to it these characters of a living creature is one in which the reason is unhinged by grief"—yet, Ruskin did not disapprove of this use of the pathetic fallacy:
Now, so long as we see that the feeling is true, we pardon, or are even pleased by, the confessed fallacy of sight, which it induces: we are pleased, for instance, with those lines ... above quoted, not because they fallaciously describe foam, but because they faithfully describe sorrow.
Ruskin intended that pathetic fallacy may also refer to any "untrue" quality: as in the description of a crocus as "gold", when the flower is, according to Ruskin, saffron in colour.
The following, a stanza from the poem "Maud" (1855) by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, demonstrates what John Ruskin, in Modern Painters, said was an "exquisite" instance of the use of the pathetic fallacy:
There has fallen a splendid tear
From the passion-flower at the gate.
She is coming, my dove, my dear;
She is coming, my life, my fate.
The red rose cries, "She is near, she is near;"
And the white rose weeps, "She is late;"
The larkspur listens, "I hear, I hear;"
And the lily whispers, "I wait." (Part 1, XXII, 10)
Science
In science the term "pathetic fallacy" is used in a pejorative way in order to discourage the kind of figurative speech in descriptions that might not be strictly accurate and clear, and that might communicate a false impression of a natural phenomenon. An example is the metaphorical phrase "Nature abhors a vacuum", which contains the suggestion that nature is capable of abhorring something. There are more accurate and scientific ways to describe nature and vacuums.
Another example of a pathetic fallacy is the expression, "Air hates to be crowded, and, when compressed, it will try to escape to an area of lower pressure." It is not accurate to suggest that air "hates" anything or "tries" to do anything. One way to express the ideas that underlie that phrase in a more scientific manner can be found and described in the kinetic theory of gases: effusion or movement towards lower pressure occurs because unobstructed gas molecules will become more evenly distributed between high- and low-pressure zones, by a flow from the former to the latter.
See also
Animism
Anthropocentrism
Anthropomorphism
Figure of speech
Morgan's Canon
List of narrative techniques
Hypallage
References
Further reading
Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 7th edition. Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999. .
Groden, Michael, and Martin Kreiswirth (eds.). The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. .
Ruskin, J., "Of the Pathetic Fallacy", Modern Painters Vol. III (1856).
1843 introductions
Anthropomorphism
Figures of speech
Literary criticism
Neologisms
1850s neologisms | [
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227405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitofish | Mosquitofish | The western Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) is a species of freshwater fish, also known commonly, if ambiguously, as simply Mosquitofish or by its generic name, Gambusia, or by the common name gambezi. Its sister species, the eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) is also referred to by these names.
Mosquitofish are small in comparison to many other freshwater fish, with females reaching a maximum length of and males a maximum length of . The female can be distinguished from the male by her larger size and a gravid spot at the posterior of her abdomen. The name "Mosquitofish" was given because the fish eats mosquito larvae, and has been used more than any other fishes for the biological control of mosquitoes. Gambusia typically eat zooplankton, beetles, mayflies, caddisflies, mites, and other invertebrates; mosquito larvae make up only a small portion of their diet.
Mosquitofish were introduced directly into ecosystems in many parts of the world as a biocontrol to lower mosquito populations which in turn negatively affected many other species in each distinct bioregion. Mosquitofish in Australia are classified as a noxious pest and may have exacerbated the mosquito problem in many areas by outcompeting native invertebrate predators of mosquito larvae. Several counties in California distribute mosquitofish at no charge to residents with human-made fish ponds and pools as part of their mosquito abatement programs. The fish are made available to residents only and are intended to be used solely on their own property, not introduced into natural habitat. On 24 February 2014, Chennai Corporation in India introduced western mosquitofish in 660 ponds to control the mosquito population in freshwater bodies.
Fertilization is internal; the male secretes milt into the genital aperture of the female through his gonopodium. Within 16 to 28 days after mating, the female gives birth to about 60 young. The males reach sexual maturity within 43 to 62 days. The females, if born early in the reproductive season, reach sexual maturity within 21 to 28 days; females born later in the season reach sexual maturity the next season, in six to seven months.
Description
Mosquitofish are small and of a dull grey coloring, with a large abdomen, and have rounded dorsal and caudal fins and an upturned mouth. Sexual dimorphism is seen; mature females reach a maximum overall length of , while males reach only . Sexual dimorphism is also seen in the physiological structures of the body. The anal fins on adult females resemble the dorsal fins, while the anal fins of adult males are pointed. This pointed fin, referred to as a gonopodium, is used to deposit milt inside the female. Adult female mosquitofish can be identified by a gravid spot they possess on the posterior of their abdomens. Other species considered similar to G. affinis include Poecilia latipinna, Poecilia reticulata, and Xiphophorus maculatus; they are commonly misidentified as mosquitofish.
Naming and taxonomy
The mosquitofish is a member of the family Poeciliidae of order Cyprinodontiformes. The genus name Gambusia is derived from the Cuban Spanish term gambusino, meaning "useless". The common name, mosquitofish, is derived from their use for biological control of mosquitoes, which itself was based on early observations that, in certain circumstances, they can reduce mosquito abundances. Classification of the western mosquitofish has been difficult due to their similarity to the eastern mosquitofish, and according to ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System), G. holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) may be an invalid taxonomic name, and could be considered a subspecies of G. affinis.
Diet
Mosquitofish are diet generalists, but they are considered "larvivorous" because they consume the larvae of mosquitoes and other aquatic insects. Their diet consists of zooplankton, small insects and insect larvae, and detritus material. Mosquitofish feed on mosquito larvae at all stages of life, if mosquito larvae are available in the environment. Adult females can consume up to hundreds of mosquito larvae in one day. Maximum consumption rate in a day by one mosquitofish has been observed to be from 42%–167% of its own body weight. However, they can suffer mortality if fed only mosquito larvae, and survivors of this diet shows poor growth and maturation. As generalists, mosquitofish have also shown cannibalistic behavior on the young of their own species.
Habitat
The native range of the mosquitofish is from southern parts of Illinois and Indiana, throughout the Mississippi River and its tributary waters, to as far south as the Gulf Coast in the northeastern parts of Mexico. They are found most abundantly in shallow water protected from larger fish.
Mosquitofish can survive relatively inhospitable environments, and are resilient to low oxygen concentrations, high salt concentrations (up to twice that of sea water), and temperatures up to for short periods. Because of their notable adaptability to harsh conditions and their global introduction into many habitats for mosquito control, they have been described as the most widespread freshwater fish in the world. Some of their natural predators include the bass, catfish and bluegill.
Environmental impact
Mosquitofish were intentionally introduced in many areas with large mosquito populations to decrease the population of mosquitoes by eating the mosquito larvae. However, retrospectively, many introductions could be considered ill-advised; in most cases native fishes supplied control of mosquito populations, and introducing mosquitofish has been harmful to indigenous aquatic life. Mosquitofish introduction outside of their native range can also be harmful to ecosystems. Mosquitofish can consume or injure other small fish or otherwise harm them through competition. The ecological impacts of mosquitofish are partly dictated by their sex ratio, which can vary dramatically across their introduced range. Mosquitofish in Australia are considered noxious pests where they pose a threat to native fish and frog populations and little evidence indicates they have controlled mosquito populations or mosquito-borne diseases. They have been dubbed by scientists as "one of the most problematic animals on the planet".
However, from the 1920s to the 1950s, mosquitofish were considered by some to be a significant factor in eradicating malaria in South America, southern Russia, and Ukraine. A somewhat famous example of mosquitofish eradicating malaria is on the coast of the Black Sea near Sochi in Russia. In Sochi, the mosquitofish is commemorated for eradicating malaria by a monument of the fish. Mosquitofish are still employed for biological control of mosquitoes in some places. In 2008, in some parts of California and in Clark County, Nevada, mosquitofish were bred in aquariums so people could stock stagnant pools of water with the mosquitofish to reduce the number of West Nile virus cases.
Reproduction
Reproduction of the mosquitofish starts with the male arranging the rays of the gonopodium (modified anal fin) into a slight tube. The male mosquitofish uses this tubular fin to secrete milt into the female's genital aperture in the process of internal fertilization. The female's genital aperture is located just behind the anal fin and is an opening for the milt to fertilize the ova within the ovary. Mosquitofish are within the infraclass Teleostei and as all teleosts, mosquitofish lack a uterus, so production of oocytes and gestation occur within the ovary of a female mosquitofish. Inside the female, sperm from multiple males can be stored to later fertilize ova. Based on laboratory experiments, female mosquitofish become vitellogenic when springtime temperatures reach , and then the oocytes mature when the average temperature reaches about . Then late in the summer when the photoperiod is less than 12.5 hours long, the next clutch of oocytes develops. In one reproductive season, a female may fertilize, with stored milt, two to six broods of embryos, with the size of the brood decreasing as the season progresses. Reproduction rates are highly dependent on temperature and ration level. As temperature increases from 20 to 30 °C, mean age at first reproduction decreases from 191 to 56 days, and brood size and mass of offspring increase significantly. Interbrood interval estimates at 25 and 30 °C are 23 and 19 days, respectively.
Embryology
Mosquitofish have a 16- to 28-day gestation period. They are lecithotrophic, which means during gestation, nutrients are provided to the embryos by a yolk sac. If the gestation period is shorter, each newborn will at birth still have a yolk sac connected through a slit located on the ventral side of the body wall. Brood size of females depends on the size of the given female; larger females are more capable of a larger brood quantity than smaller females. Many females have a brood quantity of up to or more than 60 young. Mosquitofish are viviparous, which means after the gestation of a brood, the female will have live birth. In most cases, the newborn brood will have an equal male to female sex ratio.
Growth
After birth, newborn mosquitofish are about in length. As juveniles, they grow at a rate of about per day, but growth is highly temperature-dependent. Growth rates of juvenile mosquitofish reach their peak when the water temperature is within a range of , depending on resource availability. As temperatures rise above or dip below this range, growth rates decrease. Consistent temperatures at or above are typically lethal, while growth stops when temperatures are at or below . For male mosquitofish, sexual maturity is reached in about 43 to 62 days, but maturation age is also dependent on temperature and resources. Female mosquitofish reach sexual maturity in about 21 to 28 days if born early within the reproductive season. The lifespan of a mosquitofish averages less than a year and the maximum is about 1.5 years. However, mosquitofish kept as pets can live much longer, with owners reporting lifespans of over three years. Male mosquitofish lifespans are considerably shorter than females.
References
Bibliography
External links
FishBase:
ITIS: Gambusia affinis
Using Mosquitofish to Control Mosquito Larvae at About.com
Gambusia Control Homepage
Gambusia
Live-bearing fish
Freshwater fish of the United States
Freshwater fish of Mexico
Fish described in 1853
Taxa named by Spencer Fullerton Baird | [
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|
227407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnow | Minnow | Minnow is the common name for a number of species of small freshwater fish, belonging to several genera of the family Cyprinidae. They are also known in Ireland as pinkeens.
Smaller fish in the subfamily Leuciscinae are considered by anglers to be "true" minnows.
Types of minnows
Bluntnose minnow (Pimephales notatus): The bluntnose minnow is a primary bait fish for Northern America, and has a very high tolerance for variable water qualities, which helps its distribution throughout many regions. The snout of the bluntnose minnow overhangs the mouth, giving it the bluntnose. There is a dark lateral line which stretches from the opercle to the base of the tail, where a large black spot is located. The average size of the adult is approximately 5 cm (2 in). 'PimephalesCommon shiner Notropis cornutus: These fish are one of the most common type of bait fish and are almost exclusively stream dwellers. The common shiner can be identified by the nine rays on its anal fin and terminal mouth. This minnow is typically bluish silver on the sides and greenish blue on the back., save for breeding season in which case the male gains a rose colored tail and anal fin. The shiner grows about 5–10 cm (2–4 in) within one year and reach a size of 13 cm (5 in) at adulthood. Another common "shiner" bait fish is the young version of the European chub (Leuciscus cephalus or Squalius cephaloides) which is quite easy to catch. Notropis potteri is known as the chub shiner.
Common emerald shiner (Notropis atherinoides atherinoides): Common shiners are most abundant in the Great Lakes of North America, primarily Lake Erie. The name of the emerald shiner comes from the greenish emerald band that expands from the back of the gill cover to the tail. This type of minnow has a short, rounded snout, the only difference between the common emerald shiner and the silver shiner is that the silver shiner has a longer snout and a larger eye. These fish grow to an average length of about 6 cm. This is one of the most common bait fish used in the Lake Erie region of Ohio and many fisherman hold it over all other bait.
Topminnow (Poeciliopsis occidentalis occidentalis): An endangered minnow species which are found primarily in southern New Mexico and Arizona. The drop in the topminnow population can be linked to the introduction of the common mosquitofish. This type of minnow grows to a length of 6 cm ( in) with the females growing to be larger than the males. During times of breeding males turn black while females and non-breeding males are tan or olive-green. The diet of the topminnow consists of bottom debris, vegetation, and small crustaceans.
Common mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis): The mosquitofish is a very small minnow which has received its name for its fondness for mosquito larvae. The mosquitofish usually reaches a length of only 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) long. This is a peculiar fish because the male has a "modified" anal fin and female gives birth to live young, much like their related cousins the guppy.
Cheat minnow, a species in the genus Pararhinichthys Cutlips minnow, a species in the genus Exoglossum Desert minnows, fishes in the genus Dionda Eurasian minnows, fishes in the genus Phoxinus Fathead minnow (rosy-red minnow), a species in the genus Pimephales Loach minnow, a species of the genus Rhinichthys Short levered minnow, a species of the genus Minnellinus Pikeminnows, fishes in the genus Ptychocheilus Pugnose minnow, a species in the genus Opsopoeodus Silverjaw minnow, a species in the genus Notropis Longjaw minnow, a species in the genus Ericymba Silvery minnows, fishes in the genus Hybognathus Suckermouth minnows, fishes in the genus Phenacobius Vietnamese cardinal minnow, a species in the genus Tanichthys White Cloud Mountain minnow, a species in the genus TanichthysOther fish specifically called minnows include
in the Southern Hemisphere, some fish in the family Galaxiidae, in particular those of genus Galaxias in Southeast Asia, the danionins
the Drakensberg minnow (Labeobarbus aspius) from the Congo Democratic Republic
the Maluti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae) from Lesotho
the Falklands minnow from the Falkland Islands
the pike topminnow (Belonesox belizanus) are confused for the northern pike, (Esox lucius), also called "minnow" for the little size.
the minnows of the deep (Cyclothone sp.''), small bioluminescent bristlemouth fish approximately long
As food
While primarily used for bait, minnows can also be eaten directly by humans. Some Native American cultures have used minnows as food. If minnows are small enough, they can be eaten whole.
Threats and conservation issues
Minnows are more reproductively resilient than anticipated. Generally, minnows breed with the slightest rainfall and within a wide temperature range. Contrary to the long-standing presumptions, climate change poses 'negligible' threat to minnows' reproduction. Also, they are flexible in attaining pre-spawning fitness, which makes them avoid 'skipped spawning' decisions while facing climatic variabilities.
See also
Sharks and minnows
Mud minnow (disambiguation)
Rosy-red minnow
Cape Fear shiner
References
External links
Fish common names
Fishing | [
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|
227411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte%20Carlo%20Rally | Monte Carlo Rally | The Monte Carlo Rally or Rallye Monte-Carlo (officially Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo) is a rallying event organised each year by the Automobile Club de Monaco. The rally now takes place along the French Riviera in Monaco and southeast France. Previously, competitors would set off from various starting points around Europe and 'rally' (in other words, meet) in Monaco to celebrate the end of a unique event. From its inception in 1911 by Prince Albert I, the rally was intended to demonstrate improvements and innovations to automobiles, and promote Monaco as a tourist resort on the Mediterranean shore.
History
1911 beginnings and controversy
In 1909 the Automobile Club de Monaco (Sport Automobile Velocipédique Monégasque) started planning a car rally at the behest of Albert I, Prince of Monaco. The Monte Carlo Rally was to start at points all over Europe and converge on Monte Carlo. In January 1911 23 cars set out from 11 different locations and Henri Rougier was among the nine who left Paris to cover a route. The event was won by Rougier in a Turcat-Méry 25 Hp. The rally comprised both driving and then somewhat arbitrary judging based on the elegance of the car, passenger comfort and the condition in which it arrived in the principality. The outcry of scandal when the results were published changed nothing, so Rougier was proclaimed the first winner.
Following the Second World War, works or works-supported teams became more and more important. From 1949 onwards, there was a special Team prize. First winners were the three Allards of Potter, Godsall and Imhof. Simca, Delahaye, Sunbeam-Talbot, Jaguar were subsequent winners. Sydney Allard – as the first and only winner driving his own car – was driving a "works" car in 1952, but Gatsonides also participated in a factory prepared Ford Zephyr in 1953, a year that saw no fewer than eight factory backed Sunbeam-Talbots.
1966 controversy
The 1966 event was the most controversial in the history of the Rally. The first four finishers, driving three Mini-Coopers, Timo Mäkinen, Rauno Aaltonen and Paddy Hopkirk, and Roger Clark's 4th-placed Ford Cortina were all disqualified because they used non-dipping single filament quartz iodine bulbs in their headlamps, in place of the standard double filament dipping glass bulbs, which are fitted to the series production version of each models sold to the public. This elevated Pauli Toivonen (Citroën ID) into first place overall. Rosemary Smith (Hillman Imp) was also disqualified from sixth place, after winning the Coupe des Dames, the ladies' class. In all, ten cars were disqualified. Teams threatened to boycott the event. The headline in Motor Sport read "The Monte Carlo Fiasco".
Recent history
From 1973 to 2008 the rally was held in January as the first event of the FIA World Rally Championship, but between 2009 to 2011 it has been the opening round of the Intercontinental Rally Challenge (IRC) programme, a championship for N/A 4WD cars, before returning to the WRC championship season again in 2012. As recently as 1991, competitors were able to choose their starting points from approximately five venues roughly equidistant from Monte Carlo (one of Monaco's administrative areas) itself.
With often varying conditions at each starting point (typically comprising dry tarmac, wet tarmac, snow, and ice, sometimes all in a single stage of the rally), this event places a big emphasis on tyre choices, as a driver has to balance the need for grip on ice and snow with the need for grip on dry tarmac. For the driver, this is often a difficult choice as the tyres that work well on snow and ice normally perform badly on dry tarmac.
The Automobile Club de Monaco confirmed on 19 July 2010 that the 79th Monte-Carlo Rally would form the opening round of the new Intercontinental Rally Challenge season. To mark the centenary event, the Automobile Club de Monaco has also confirmed that Glasgow, Barcelona, Warsaw and Marrakesh have been selected as start points for the rally.
Col de Turini
This rally features one of the most famous special stages in the world. The stage is run from La Bollène-Vésubie to Sospel, or the other way around, over a steep and tight mountain road with many hairpin turns. On this 31 km route it passes over the Col de Turini, a mountain pass road which normally has ice and/or snow on sections of it at that time of the year. Spectators also throw snow on the road—in 2005, Marcus Grönholm and Petter Solberg both ripped a wheel off their cars when they skidded on snow probably placed there by spectators, and crashed into a wall. Grönholm went on to finish fifth, but Solberg was forced to retire as the damage to his car was extensive. In the same event, Sébastien Loeb set one of the fastest times in the modern era, with 21 minutes 40 seconds.
Sospel has an elevation of 479m, and the D70 has a maximum elevation of 1603m, for an average gradient of 6.7%. The Turini is also driven at night, with thousands of fans watching the "Night of Turini", also known as the "Night of the Long Knives" due to the strong high beam lights cutting through the night. In the 2007 edition of the rally, the Turini was not used, but it returned for the 2008 route. For both the 2009 and 2010 event the stage was run at night and shown live on Eurosport.
The event as part of FIA Championships: ERC, WRC and IRC
From its introduction in 1953 to 1972 the Rallye was part of the European Rally Championship, except in 1968 and 1969. From 1973 to 2008 the rally was held in January as the first event of the FIA World Rally Championship, but between 2009 to 2011 it has been the opening round of the Intercontinental Rally Challenge (IRC) programme, a championship for N/A 4WD cars, before returning to the WRC championship season again in 2012. As recently as 1991, competitors were able to choose their starting points from approximately five venues roughly equidistant from Monte Carlo (one of Monaco's administrative areas) itself.
With often varying conditions at each starting point (typically comprising dry tarmac, wet tarmac, snow, and ice, sometimes all in a single stage of the rally), this event places a big emphasis on tyre choices, as a driver has to balance the need for grip on ice and snow with the need for grip on dry tarmac. For the driver, this is often a difficult choice as the tyres that work well on snow and ice normally perform badly on dry tarmac.
The Automobile Club de Monaco confirmed on 19 July 2010 that the 79th Monte-Carlo Rally would form the opening round of the new Intercontinental Rally Challenge season. To mark the centenary event, the Automobile Club de Monaco has also confirmed that Glasgow, Barcelona, Warsaw and Marrakesh have been selected as start points for the rally.
Past winners of the event, including second and third places
1911–1972
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
! rowspan=2 | Year & Edition
! colspan=4 | Winner
! colspan=4 style="background:#e2e2e2" | Second
! colspan=4 | Third
|-
! Entrant/Nationality
! Car & Type (engine displacement)
! Starting #/ License plate
! Place of departure (Km)
! style="background:#e2e2e2" | Entrant/Nationality
! style="background:#e2e2e2" | Car & Type (engine displacement)
! style="background:#e2e2e2" | Starting #/ License plate
! style="background:#e2e2e2" | Place of departure (Km)
! Entrant/Nationality
! Car & Type (engine displacement)
! Starting #/ License plate
! Place of departure (Km)
|-
! 1911 I
| Henri Rougier (F)
| Turcat-Méry 25HP Double coupé
| #1793 WI
| Paris (1020 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | J.A. de Aspiazu (6 travellers)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Gobron-Brillié 40CV torpedo cabriolet (7600cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #3...6-E
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Paris (1020 km)
| Julius Beutler (D)
| Martini 28/35 HP landaulet
| #13?
| Berlin (1700 km)
|-
! 1912 II
| Julius Beutler (D)
| Berliet 16CV
| #69IA-5135
| Berlin (1700 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | (Captain) Karl Friedrich Von Esmarch (D)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Dürkopp 12/64 HP
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #26IA-6028
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Berlin (1700 km)
| Paul Meunier (F) (7 travellers)
| Delaunay-Belleville 40 CV Conduite Interieure (double rear tyres)
| #9
| Le Havre (1229 km)
|-
! 1913–23
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" |Not held
| colspan="4" style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| colspan="4" |
|-
! 1924 III
| Jacques Edouard Ledure & Madame Ledure (B) (4 travellers)
| Bignan 11CV conduite interieure (1975 cc)
| #62
| Glasgow (2006 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | M.G. Marquet Fils
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Métallurgique 2 litres, conduite interieure Vanden Plas (1970 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #64
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Amsterdam (1527 km)
| Barbillon
| Bignan 11CV conduite interieure (1975 cc)
| #77
| Boulogne-sur-Mer (1269 km)
|-
! 1925 IV
| François Repusseau & Madame Repusseau (F) (6 travellers)
| Renault 40CV Conduite Interieure (9131 cc)
| #4
| Tunis (3860 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Madame Mertens (& Monsieur Mertens) (2 travellers)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Lancia Lambda (2400 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #425829 G8
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Tunis (3860 km)
| Lt. Lamarche
| FN (1460 cc)
| #21
| Tunis (3860 km)
|-
! 1926 V
| Victor A. Bruce / William J Brunell (GB) (2 travellers)
| Autocarrier AC Six twoseater drophead coupé (1991 cc)
| #12PE 7799
| John O'Groats (2461 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Pierre Bussienne (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Sizaire Frères (1993 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #35
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Brest
| Madame "Marika"
| Citroën B2/B10 (1452 cc)
| #36
| Brest
|-
! 1927 VI
| Marcel Lefebvre-Despeaux (F) (5 travellers)
| Amilcar CGSS Sedan (cozette) (1089 cc)
| #299053 X3
| Königsberg (2643 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Pierre Clause (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Celtic-Bignan (1100 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #19
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Königsberg (2643 km)
| Pierre Bussienne (F)
| Sizaire-Frères (1993 cc)
| #32
| Königsberg (2643 km)
|-
! 1928 VII
| Jacques Bignan (F) (5 travellers)
| Fiat 509 Sedan (990 cc)
| #242212 X3
| Bucharest
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | E. P. Malaret (5 travellers)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Fiat 509 (990 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #160???
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Königsberg
| Charlotte Versigny (F)
| Talbot 70 sedan (1672 cc)
| #2
| Bucharest
|-
! 1929 VIII
| Jacques Johan Sprenger van Eijk (NL) / Frits Rodrigo (NL) / Loten van Doelen Grothe<ref>Octane Magazine (Dutch edition, No 034); Matthijs Diepraam: This participant died as a result of an accident during the 1930 RMC, when near Valence the Graham Paige was hit from behind by a Rolls Royce of another participant while changing a tyre (p118/119)</ref> (NL) / van Soeren (NL)(4 travellers)
| Graham-Paige 619 (4718 cc)
| #43P-4910
| Stockholm (2961 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Viktor Szmick (HU) / Emánuel Csajkovszky / Laszlo Wolfner ? / Ferenc Pesti ?
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Weiss Manfréd prototype (875 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #418 27 193
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Bucharest
| IJsbrand Visser (NL)
| Lancia Lambda (2400 cc)
| #57
|
|-
! 1930 IX
| Hector Petit (F) / Robert Lestienne (F) / André Galloisy (F) (3 travellers)
| Licorne 5CV torpedo 2 portes (905 cc)
| #27
| Iași (Jassy) (3518 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | (Commandant) Alex C. Berlesco (or: Berlescu) (RO)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | DeSoto Model K Roadster six (2799 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #86UW 3148 (?)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Iași (Jassy) (3518 km)
| Abel Blin D'Orimont (B)
| Studebaker (5380 cc)
| #25
| Iași (Jassy) (3518 km)
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1931 X
| Large cars: Donald Healey (GB) / Lewis Pearce / Humfrey E. Symons (GB) (3 travellers)
| Invicta S-type 4.5 Litre (4467 cc)
| #128PL 3188
| Stavanger (3638 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Jean-Pierre Wimille (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Lorraine coupe sport B3-6 (3500 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #121
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Stavanger (3638 km)
| Madame Lucy Schell (USA)
| Bugatti T44 Berline Gangloff (2991 cc)
| #1672059 RE4
| Stavanger (3638 km)
|-
| Small cars (<1100cc) Victor E. Leverett (GB)
| Riley Nine Monaco Saloon (1087 cc)
| #4GN7
| Stavanger (3638 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | de Lavalette
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Peugeot
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Madame Jeanne| Rosengart
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1932 XI
| Large cars: Maurice Vasselle (F) / François Duhamel (F)
| Hotchkiss AM 2 (2475 cc)
| #64 9558 RF4
| Umeå (3750 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Donald Healey (GB)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Invicta S-type 4.5 litre low chassis (4467 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #1PL 9662
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Umeå (3750 km)
| Boris Ivanowski (RU)/ Mary Ham
| Ford V8 (3284 cc)
| #62
| Umeå (3750 km)
|-
| Small cars (<1500 cc): G. de Lavelette (F)/Charles de Cortanze (F)
| Peugeot 201C (1085 cc)
| #2123084 RF4
| Umeå (3750 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | André Boillot (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Peugeot 201C (1085 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #2113085 RF4
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Athens (3785 km)
| Victor E. Leverett (GB) / George Dennison (GB)
| Riley Six Alpine Tourer (1486 cc)
| #208VC 9899
| Umeå (3750 km)
|-
! 1933 XII
| Maurice Vasselle (F) / Buzi (F) / Maret (F)
| Hotchkiss AM80 S (3485 cc)
| #18291-RG1
| Tallinn (3780 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Robert Guyot (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Renault Nervasport (4241 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #344259 RC
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Tallinn (3780 km)
| Madame Germaine Rouault (F) / Julio Quinlin (F)
| Salmson S4C (1495 cc)
| #155856 RG
| Tallinn (3780 km)
|-
! 1934 XIII
| Louis Gas (F) / Jean Trévoux (F)
| Hotchkiss AM80 S (3485 cc)
| #49683 RT
| Athens (3786 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Marc Chauvierre-Lanciano (F) (4 travellers)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Chenard-Walcker Aigle V8 (3600 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #175630 R??
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Athens (3786 km)
| Donald Healey (GB) / Lewis Pearce (GB) (3 travellers ?)
| Triumph Gloria "special" (1232 cc)
| #151KV 6905
| Athens (3786 km)
|-
! 1935 XIV
| Charles Lahaye (F) / René Quatresous (F)
| Renault Nervasport CS (4827 cc?)
| #518000 UD 2
| Stavanger (3696 km)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Jack C. Ridley (GB)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Triumph Gloria "special" (1232 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #23KVG 90?
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Umeå (3780 km)
| Madame Lucy O'Reilly Schell (USA) / Laury Schell(USA)
| Delahaye 135 (3557 cc)
| #1361821-RJI
| Stavanger (3696 km)
|-
! 1936 XV
| Petre G. Cristea (RO)/ Ion Zamfirescu (RO)
| Ford Model 48 two-seater convertible "speciale" (3622 cc)
| #161701-B
| Athens
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Lucy O'Reilly Schell (USA)| Laury Schell (USA)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Delahaye 135 Sport (3557 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #41707 RK
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Athens
| Charles Lahaye (F) / [René Quatresous] (F)
| Renault Vivasport (4085 cc)
| #11330 DU 3
| Athens
|-
! 1937 XVI
| René Le Bègue (F) / Julio Quinlin (F)
| Delahaye 135 MS Spéciale (3557 cc)
| #201581 RK 2
| Stavanger
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Philippe de Massa (F) / Norbert-Jean Mahe (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Talbot (3988 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #86
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Stavanger
| M. Jacobs / Tj. de Boer (NL) / Lindner
| Buick (4560 cc)
| #103
| Stavanger
|-
! 1938 XVII
| Gerard Bakker-Schut (NL) / Karel Ton (NL) / Klaas Barendrecht (NL)
| Ford V8 two-door coupe (3622 cc)
| #9GZ 15572
| Athens
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Jean Trévoux (F) / Marcel Lesurque (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Hotchkiss 686 (3485 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #123354 RL 4
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Athens
| Charles Lahaye (F) / René Quatresous (F)
| Renault Primaquatre (2383 cc)
| #938000 DU 3
| Athens
|-
! 1939 XVIII
| Jean Trévoux (F) / Marcel Lesurque (F), ex aequoJean Paul (F) / Marcel Contet (F)
| Hotchkiss 686 GS Riviera cabriolet (3485 cc), ex aequoDelahaye 135 M (3557 cc)
| #7, ex aequo#31
| Athens, ex aequoAthens (3812 km)
| colspan="4" style="background:#f4f4f4" | No second place, joint first place
| Ernest Mutsaerts (NL)/ André Kouwenberg (NL)/ Paul Lamberts Hurrelbrinck (NL)
| Ford V8 (3622 cc)
| #71
| Palermo (4090 km)
|-
! 1940–48
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" |Not held| colspan="4" style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| colspan="4" |
|-
! 1949 XIX
| Jean Trévoux (F) / Marcel Lesurque (F)
| Hotchkiss 686GS sedan (3485 cc)
| #365940 RO 6
| Lisbon
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |Maurice Worms / Edmond Mouche
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Hotchkiss 686 GS sedan (3485 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #38
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Monte Carlo
| František Dobry (CZ) / Zdeněk Treybal (CZ)
| Bristol 400 (1971 cc)
| #68P 28797
| Monte Carlo
|-
! 1950 XX
| Marcel Becquart (F) / Henri Secret (F)
| Hotchkiss 686GS sedan Paris-Nice (1939) (3485 cc)
| #2310 04
| Lisbon
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Maurice Gatsonides (NL) / Klaas Barendregt (NL)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Humber Super Snipe (4086 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #231JHP 329
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Monte Carlo
| Julio Quinlin (F) /Jean Behra (F)
| Simca 8 Coupé (1090 cc)
| #224 821 RU8
| Monte Carlo
|-
! 1951 XXI
| Jean Trévoux (F) / Roger Crovetto (F)
| Delahaye 175 S Motto (4455 cc)
| #2773413 P 75
| Lisbon
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Comte/Conde? de Monte Real (P) / Manuel J. Palma (P)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Ford V8 (3622 cc?)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #332HC-13-03
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Lisbon
| Cecil Vard (IRL)/ Bill A Young / Arthur Jolley (GB NI)
| Jaguar Mark V (3485 cc?)
| #211ZE 7445
| Glasgow
|-
! 1952 XXII
| Sydney Allard (GB) / Guy Warburton (GB)/ Tom Lush (navigator) (GB)
| Allard P1 (3622 cc Ford V8)
| #146MLX 381
| Glasgow
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Stirling Moss (GB)/ Desmond Scannell (GB)/ John Cooper (GB)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Sunbeam-Talbot 90 (2267 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #341LHP 823
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Dr. Marc Angelvin (F) / Nicole Angelvin (F)
| Simca 8 Sport (1221 cc)
| #2935052 AE 13
|
|-
! 1953 XXIII
| Maurice Gatsonides (NL) / Peter Worledge (GB)
| Ford Zephyr (2262 cc)
| #365VHK 194
| Monte Carlo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Ian Appleyard (GB)/ Pat Appleyard (GB)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Jaguar Mark VII (3442 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #228PNW 7
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Roger Marion / Jean Charmasson
| Citroën 15 CV Six (2867 cc)
|
|
|-
! 1954 XXIV
| Louis Chiron (MON) / Ciro Basadonna (I)
| Lancia Aurelia B20 GT (2451 cc)
| #69142843 TO
| Monte Carlo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Pierre David / Paul Barbier (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Peugeot 203 (1290 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #393
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| André Blanchard / Marcel Lecoq (F)
| Panhard Dyna X86 cabriolet (850 cc)
| #394
|
|-
! 1955 XXV
| Per Malling (N) / Gunnar Fadum (N)
| Sunbeam-Talbot 90 Mk III (2267 cc)
| #201A-68909
| Oslo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Georges Gillard / Roger Duget
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Panhard Dyna Z (848 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #275369 BX 63
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Monte Carlo
| Hanns Gerdum (D)/ Joachim Kühling (D)
| Mercedes-Benz 220 (2195 cc)
| #255H94-8070
| Munich
|-
! 1956 XXVI
| Ronnie Adams / Frank Biggar (EI)/ Derek Johnston (GB/Northern Ireland)
| Jaguar Mark VII (3442 cc)
| #164PWK 700
| Glasgow
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Walter Schock (D)/ K Raebe (D)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Mercedes-Benz 220 (2195 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Michel Grosgogeat / Pierre Biagini
| DKW
| #331845 DJ 06
|
|-
! 1957
| colspan="4" | Cancelled (Fuel coupons not issued for rallying)
| colspan="4" style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| colspan="4" |
|-
! 1958 XXVII
| Guy Monraisse (F) / Jacques Feret (F)
| Renault Dauphine Gordini R1091 (845 cc)
| #659641 GN 75
| Lisbon
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Alexandre Gacon (F)/ Leo Borsa (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Alfa Romeo Giulietta (1290 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #709646 AV 69
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Leif Vold-Johansen (N) / Finn Huseby Kopperud (N)
| DKW (896 cc)
| #18A 8052
|
|-
! 1959 XXVIII
| Paul Coltelloni (F)/ Pierre Alexandre (F)/ Claude Desrosiers (F)
| Citroën ID19 (1911 cc)
| #1763427 HP 75
| Paris
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | André Thomas / Jean Delliere
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Simca Aronde (1290 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #21128 DH 26
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Pierre Surles / Jacques Piniers
| Panhard 850 (848 cc)
|
|
|-
! 1960 XXIX
| Walter Schock (D)/ Rolf Moll (D)
| Mercedes-Benz 220SE (2195 cc)
| #128S-JX 190
| Warsaw
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Eugen Böhringer (D)/ Hermann Socher (D)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Mercedes-Benz 220SE (2195 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #121S-JX 74
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Eberhard Mahle (D)/ Roland Ott (D)
| Mercedes-Benz 220SE (2195 cc)
| #135S-JX 71
|
|-
! 1961 XXX
| Maurice Martin (F) / Roger Bateau (F)
| Panhard PL 17 Tigre (848 cc)
| #1749333 KJ 75
|
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Walter Löffler (D)/ Hans-Joachim Walter (D)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Panhard PL 17 Tigre (848 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #878758 TB 75
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Guy Jouanneaux / Alain Coquillet
| Panhard PL 17 Tigre (848 cc)
| #220957 FC 45
|
|-
! 1962 XXXI
| Erik Carlsson (S)/ Gunnar Häggbom (S)
| Saab 96 (841 cc)
| #303P 61444
| Oslo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Eugen Böhringer (D) / Peter Lang (D)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Mercedes-Benz 220SE (2195 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #257S-JX 74
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Paddy Hopkirk (GB NI)/ Jack Scott (GB)
| Sunbeam Rapier (1592 cc)
| #1555192 RW
|
|-
! 1963 XXXII
| Erik Carlsson (S)/ Gunnar Palm (S)
| Saab 96 (841 cc)
| #283P 77558
| Stockholm
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Pauli Toivonen (FIN) / Anssi Järvi (FIN)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Citroën DS19 (1911 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #2337230 NC 75
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Rauno Aaltonen (FIN) / Tony Ambrose (GB)
| Mini Cooper (997 cc)
| #288977 ARX
|
|-
! 1964 XXXIII
| Paddy Hopkirk (GB NI) / Henry Liddon (GB)
| Morris Mini Cooper S (1071 cc)
| #3733 EJB
| Minsk
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Bo Ljungfeldt (S)/ Fergus Sager (S)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Ford Falcon Futura Sprint (4700 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #49ZE-1047
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Erik Carlsson (S) / Gunnar Palm (S)
| Saab 96 Sport (841 cc)
| #131P 44301
|
|-
! 1965 XXXIV
| Timo Mäkinen (FIN) / Paul Easter (GB)
| Mini Cooper S (1071cc)
| #52AJB44B
| Stockholm
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Eugen Böhringer (D) / Rolf Wütherich (D)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Porsche 904 (1966 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #10S-TJ 16
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Pat Moss-Carlsson (GB) / Elisabeth Nyström (S)
| Saab 96 Sport (841 cc)
| #49PA 12570
|
|-
! 1966 XXXV
| Pauli Toivonen (FIN) / Ensio Mikander (FIN)
| Citroën DS21 (2175 cc)
| #1958625 SC 75
| Oslo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | René Trautmann (F)/ Jean-Pierre Hanrioud (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Lancia Flavia coupé (1800 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #66TO 759709
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Ove Andersson (S) / Rolf Dahlgren (S)
| Lancia Flavia coupé (1800 cc)
| #140TO 756708
|
|-
! 1967 XXXVI
| Rauno Aaltonen (FIN) / Henry Liddon (GB)
| Mini Cooper S
| #177LBL 6D
| Monte Carlo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Ove Andersson (S) / John Davenport (GB)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Lancia Fulvia 1200 HF (1200cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Vic Elford (GB) / David Stone (GB)
| Porsche 911S (1991 cc)
|
|
|-
! 1968 XXXVII
| Vic Elford (GB)/ David Stone (GB)
| Porsche 911T (1991 cc)
| #210S-C9165
| Warsaw
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Pauli Toivonen (FIN) / Martti Tiukkanen (FIN)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Porsche 911S (1991 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #1164028 Z-97
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Rauno Aaltonen (FIN) / Henry Liddon (GB)
| Mini Cooper 1275S (1275 cc)
| #18ORX 7F
|
|-
! 1969 XXXVIII
| Björn Waldegård / Lars Helmer (S)
| Porsche 911S (1991 cc)
| #37S-L 2263
| Warsaw
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Gérard Larrousse (F) / Jean-Claude Perramond (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Porsche 911S (1991 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #31S-L 2264
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Jean Vinatier / Jean-François Jacob
| Alpine-Renault A110 1300S (1300cc)
| #267753 GH 76
|
|-
! 1970 XXXIX
| Björn Waldegård (S) / Lars Helmér (S)
| Porsche 911S (2195 cc)
| #6S-T 5704
| Oslo
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Gérard Larrousse (F) / Maurice Gélin (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Porsche 911S (2195 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #2S-T 5705
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Jean-Pierre Nicolas (F) / Claude Roure (F)
| Alpine-Renault A110 1300S (1300 cc)
| #183413 GP 76
|
|-
! 1971 XL
| Ove Andersson (S) / David Stone (GB)
| Alpine-Renault A110 1600S (1585 cc)
| #288380 GU 76
| Marrakech
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Jean-Luc Thérier (F) / Marcel Callewaert (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Alpine-Renault A110 1600S (1600 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | #98385 GU 76
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Marrakech
| Björn Waldegård (S) / Hans Thorszelius (S), ex aequoJean-Claude Andruet (F)/ G. Vial (F)
| Porsche 914/6 (1991 cc), ex aequoAlpine-Renault A110 1600S (1600 cc)
| #7S-Y 7714, ex aequo....
| Warsaw, ex aequo....
|-
! 1972 XLI
| Sandro Munari (I) / Mario Manucci (I)
| Lancia Fulvia 1.6HF (1584 cc)
| #14E 24265 TO
| Almeria
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Gérard Larrousse (F) / Jean-Claude Perramond (F)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" | Porsche 911S (2341 cc)
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| style="background:#f4f4f4" |
| Rauno Aaltonen (FIN) / Jean Todt (F)
| Datsun 240Z (2393 cc)
|
|
|}
1973–1985
1986–1999
2000–2009
2010–2019
2020–
† – Event was shortened after stages were cancelled.
Multiple winners
Year in italic was not WRC event
See alsoMonte Carlo or Bust!Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo''
EWRC.com shows many of the results
Further reading: 1911-1980 Monte Carlo Rally - The Golden Age, by Graham Robson (2007)
Notes
External links
Monte Carlo
Sport in Monte Carlo
Motorsport in Monaco
Sports competitions in Monaco
Winter events in Monaco
Recurring sporting events established in 1911
World Rally Championship rallies
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|
227417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Sullivan | Anne Sullivan | Anne Sullivan Macy (born as Johanna Mansfield Sullivan; April 14, 1866 – October 20, 1936) was an American teacher best known for being the instructor and lifelong companion of Helen Keller.
At the age of five, Sullivan contracted trachoma, an eye disease, which left her partially blind and without reading or writing skills. She received her education as a student of the Perkins School for the Blind; soon after graduation at age 20, she became a teacher to Keller.
Childhood
Sullivan was born on April 14 1866, in Feeding Hills, Agawam, Massachusetts. The name on her certificate of baptism was Johanna Mansfield Sullivan but she was called Anne or Annie from birth. She was the oldest child of Thomas and Alice (Cloesy) Sullivan, who emigrated to the United States from Ireland during the Great Famine.
When she was five years old Sullivan contracted the bacterial eye disease trachoma, which caused many painful infections and over time made her nearly blind. When she was eight her mother died from tuberculosis and her father abandoned the children two years later for fear he could not raise them on his own. She and her younger brother, James (Jimmie), were sent to the run-down and overcrowded almshouse in Tewksbury, Massachusetts, today part of Tewksbury Hospital, and their younger sister, Mary, was left to an aunt. Jimmie had a weak hip condition and then died from tuberculosis four months into their stay. Anne remained at Tewksbury after his death and endured two unsuccessful eye operations.
As a result of reports of cruelty to inmates at Tewksbury, including sexually perverted practices and cannibalism, the Massachusetts Board of State Charities launched an investigation into the institution in 1875. The investigation was led by Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, then chairman of the board, and Samuel Gridley Howe, founder of the Perkins School for the Blind in Boston.
In February 1877 Anne was sent to the Soeurs de la Charité hospital in Lowell, Massachusetts, where she had another unsuccessful operation. While there she helped the nuns in the wards and went on errands in the community until July of that year, when she was sent to the city infirmary, where she had one more unsuccessful operation, and was then transferred back to Tewksbury under duress.
Instead of returning to the facility for predominantly ill and insane patients, she was housed with single mothers and unmarried pregnant women.
During a subsequent inspection of Tewksbury in 1880 by Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, now State Inspector of Charities, Anne beseeched him to allow her to be admitted to the Perkins School for the Blind. Within months her plea was granted.
Education
Anne began her studies at the Perkins School on 7 October 1880. Although her rough manners made her first years at Perkins humiliating for her she managed to connect with a few teachers and made progress with her learning. While there she befriended, and learned the manual alphabet from Laura Bridgman, a graduate of Perkins and the first blind and deaf person to be educated there. Also while there she had a series of eye operations that significantly improved her vision. In June 1886 she graduated at age 20 as the valedictorian of her class. She stated:
Fellow-graduates: Duty bids us go forth into active life. Let us go cheerfully, hopefully, and earnestly, and set ourselves to find our especial part. When we have found it, willingly and faithfully perform it; for every obstacle we overcome, every success we achieve tends to bring man closer to God and make life more as He would have it.
Career
The summer following Sullivan's graduation the director of Perkins, Michael Anagnos, was contacted by Arthur Keller, who was in search of a teacher for his seven-year-old blind and deaf daughter, Helen. Anagnos immediately recommended Sullivan for this position and she began her work on 3 March 1887 at the Kellers' home in Tuscumbia, Alabama. As soon as she arrived she argued with Helen's parents about the Civil War and over the fact that they had owned slaves. However she also quickly connected with Helen. It was the beginning of a 49-year relationship: Sullivan evolved from teacher to governess and finally to companion and friend.
Sullivan's curriculum involved a strict schedule, with constant introduction of new vocabulary; however she quickly changed her teaching method after seeing it did not suit Keller. Instead she began to teach her vocabulary based on her own interests, by spelling each word out into Keller's palm; within six months this method proved to be working, since Keller had learned 575 words, some multiplication tables and the Braille system.
Sullivan strongly encouraged Helen's parents to send her to the Perkins School, where she could have an appropriate education. Once they had agreed Sullivan took Keller to Boston in 1888 and stayed with her there. Sullivan continued to teach her bright protégée, who soon became famous for her remarkable progress. With the help of the school's director, Anagnos, Keller became a public symbol for the school, helping to increase its funding and donations and making it the most famous and sought-after school for the blind in the country. However an accusation of plagiarism against Keller greatly upset Sullivan: she left and never returned but did remain influential to the school. Sullivan also remained a close companion to Keller and continued to assist in her education, which ultimately included a degree from Radcliffe College.
Personal life
On May 3, 1905, Sullivan married Harvard University instructor and literary critic John Albert Macy (1877–1932), who had helped Keller with her publications. When she married, Sullivan was already living with Keller as her personal teacher, so Macy moved into the household of both women. However, within a few years, the marriage began to disintegrate. By 1914, they separated, though he is listed as living as a "lodger" with them in the 1920 U.S. Census. As the years progressed after their separation, Macy appears to have faded from her life, and the two never officially divorced. Macy died in 1932 of a heart attack. Sullivan never remarried.
Awards
In 1932, Keller and Sullivan were each awarded honorary fellowships from the Educational Institute of Scotland. They were also awarded honorary degrees from Temple University. In 1955, Keller was awarded an honorary degree from Harvard University, and in 1956, the director's cottage at the Perkins School was named the Keller-Macy Cottage.
In 2003, Sullivan was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
Death
Sullivan had been seriously visually impaired for almost all of her life, but by 1901, after suffering a stroke at age 35, she was completely blind in both eyes. On October 15, 1936, she had a coronary thrombosis, fell into a coma, and died five days later, on October 20, at the age of 70 in the Forest Hills neighborhood of Queens, New York, with Keller holding her hand. Keller described Sullivan's last month as being very agitated, but during the last week, she was said to return to her normal generous self. Sullivan was cremated and her ashes interred in a memorial at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. She was the first woman to be recognized for her achievements in this way. When Keller died in 1968, she was cremated as well and her ashes were interred alongside those of Sullivan.
Media representation
Sullivan is the main character in The Miracle Worker by William Gibson, originally produced for television in 1957, in which she was portrayed by Teresa Wright. The Miracle Worker then moved to Broadway and later was produced as a 1962 feature film. Both the play and the film featured Anne Bancroft as Sullivan. Patty Duke, who played Keller on Broadway and in the 1962 film, later played Sullivan in a 1979 television remake. Roma Downey portrayed her in the TV movie Monday After the Miracle (1998). Alison Elliott portrayed her in a 2000 television movie. Alison Pill played her on Broadway in the short-lived 2010 revival, with Abigail Breslin as Keller.
References
Tewksbury Almshouse patient records
McGinnity, B. L., J. Seymour-Ford, and K. J. Andries. "Anne Sullivan". Perkins School for the Blind. February 14, 2014. Accessed February 14, 2014. Anne Sullivan.
Nielsen, Kim E. Beyond the Miracle Worker: the Remarkable Life of Anne Sullivan Macy and Her Extraordinary Friendship with Helen Keller. Beacon Press, 2010.
Further reading
External links
Anne Sullivan Macy: Miracle Worker, a multimedia museum from the American Foundation for the Blind
Helen Keller Kids Museum Online
Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan Archive at Perkins School for the Blind
1866 births
1936 deaths
19th-century American educators
20th-century American educators
19th-century American women educators
20th-century American women educators
American people of Irish descent
American governesses
Blind people from the United States
Blind educators
Educators of the blind
Educators from Massachusetts
Language teachers
Helen Keller
Burials at Washington National Cathedral
People from Queens, New York
People from Agawam, Massachusetts
People from Tewksbury, Massachusetts
American women educators
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
Educators from New York City | [
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227422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehalennia | Nehalennia | Nehalennia (spelled variously) is a goddess of unclear origin, perhaps Germanic or Celtic. She is attested on and depicted upon numerous votive altars discovered around what is now the province of Zeeland, the Netherlands, where the Schelde River flowed into the North Sea. Worship of Nehalennia dates back at least to the 2nd century BC, and veneration of the goddess continued to flourish in northern Europe in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.
Name
While the meaning of the name Nehalennia remains disputed, linguists agree that its origin is not Latin. Given the locations where most references and artifacts have been found, her name is likely from either a Germanic or Celtic language. Gutenbrunner (1936) related it to Proto-Germanic *nehwa "close", but could not explain the rest of the name. Gysseling (1960) believed that the name was neither Celtic nor Germanic, rather stemming from the Proto-Indo-European root *neiH- "to lead". He could not trace the rest of the name. De Stempel (2004) links her name with Welsh halein "salt" and heli "sea", proposing a Celtic origin. She deconstructs the name as a combination of Celtic *halen– "sea" and *ne- "on, at". Finally, *-ja is a suffix forming a feminine noun. The meaning would be "she who is at the sea".
Inscriptions
Nehalennia is attested on 28 inscriptions discovered in 1645 in the Dutch town of Domburg on the Zeeland coast, when a storm eroded dunes. The remains of a temple were revealed that was devoted to the previously unattested goddess Nehalennia. Beginning in 1970, numerous altars, remains of female sculptures and related artifacts were found near in the town of Colijnsplaat, including roof tiles and remains of the temple devoted to Nehalennia that was in a former town, now lost. Two other temple remains have been found in the Cologne-Deutz area of what is now Cologne, Germany.
Dutch archeologist J.E. Bogaers and Belgian linguist Maurits Gysseling, in their joint publication Over de naam van de godin Nehalennia ("On the name of the goddess Nehalennia"), listed several different forms of the name that appear in inscriptions. While Nehalennia is by far the most common spelling, Nehalenia and Nehalaennia both appear a few times. Gysseling characterizes these two forms as Latinisations of the more archaic Nehalennia. Several sporadic spellings, which are attested once each, were considered by Bogaers as non-standard or rejected as misread, due to the poor state of some of the inscriptions. Gysseling holds that some spellings are a transliteration, an attempt to approximate the pronunciation of her name in Latin script, suggesting that the "h" may have been pronounced as some German ch sound. One of the numerous altars dredged up from the Oosterschelde near Colijnsplaat in 1970 features the spelling Nechalenia. It appears that spellings with 𐌝 are intentional and not due to damaged artifacts.
The Domburg inscriptions to Nehalennia inspired Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn to produce a hasty etymology linking the name Nehalennia to an ancient Scythian. With the linguistic tools then available, Van Boxhorn attempted to bridge the already-known connections between European languages and modern Persian.
Depictions
Nehalennia is almost always depicted with marine symbols and a large, benign-looking dog at her feet. She must have been a Celtic or Germanic deity, who was attributed power over trading, shipping, and possible horticulture and fertility. In sculptures and reliefs, she is depicted as a young woman, generally seated. Typically she wears a short cloak over her shoulders and chest. This garment is unique to her and therefore might have belonged to the costumes usual at that period in this region. Often she is accompanied by a dog; she has as attributes a basket of apples or bread loaves and ship parts.
Hilda Ellis Davidson describes the votive objects:
Nehalennia, a Germanic goddess worshipped at the point where travellers crossed the North Sea from the Netherlands, is shown on many carved stones holding loaves and apples like a Mother Goddess, sometimes with a prow of a ship beside her, but also frequently with an attendant dog which sits looking up at her (Plate 5). This dog is on thirteen of the twenty-one altars recorded by Ada Hondius-Crone (1955:103), who describes it as a kind of greyhound.
Davidson further links the motif of the ship associated with Nehalennia with the Germanic Vanir pair of Freyr and Freyja, as well as the Germanic goddess Nerthus. She notes that Nehalennia features some of the same attributes as the Matres.
The loaves that Nehalennia is depicted with on her altars have been identified as duivekater, "oblong sacrificial loaves in the shape of a shin bone". Davidson says that loaves of this type may take the place of an animal sacrifice or animal victim, such as the boar-shaped loaf baked at Yule in Sweden. In Värmland, Sweden, "within living memory," there was a custom of grain from the last sheaf of the harvest customarily being used to bake a loaf in the shape of a little girl; this is subsequently shared by the whole household. Davidson provides further examples of elaborate harvest loaves in the shape of sheaves, and displayed in churches for the fertility of fields in Anglo-Saxon England, with parallels in Scandinavia and Ireland.
In 2005, a replica of the temple was built in Colijnsplaat. The design of temple and its sculpture is based on the finds from the nearby area, as well as archaeological study of the type of sanctuaries in the Roman provinces of Gaul and Germania. For the reconstruction, authentic materials and techniques were used as much as possible.
Temples
Religious practices surrounding Nehalennia were at their peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, at which time there were at least two or three temples located in the area of what is now Zeeland. At the time, this region on the sea coast was an important link for the trade between the Rhine area and Britain. It is known that the Morini, who lived on the North Sea coast, worshipped Nehalennia. Visitors came to worship from as far away as Besançon, France and Trier, Germany. Nehalennia had two sanctuaries or shrines, embellished with numerous altars: one at Domburg on the island of Walcheren, and another at Colijnsplaat on the shore of the Oosterschelde.
In August 2005, a replica of the Nehalennia temple near the lost town of Ganuenta was opened in Colijnsplaat.
In popular culture
Dutch band Twigs & Twine call upon Nehalennia in one of the songs on their 2019 album Long Story Short.
Dutch band Heidevolk wrote a song about Nehalennia that is included on their album Uit oude grond.
In the Japanese manga Sailor Moon and its anime adaptation, Queen Nehelenia is the Queen of the Dead Moon and an embodiment of Chaos.
See also
Asteroid 2462, or 6578 P-L, an asteroid named after the goddess.
Germanic paganism
Iðunn, North Germanic goddess associated with apples
Matres
Mythology of the Low Countries
Zeeland
Notes
References
Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1990). Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. Penguin Books. .
Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1998). Roles of the Northern Goddess. Routledge.
Green, Miranda (1992). Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art. Routledge.
Green, Miranda (1998). Animals in Celtic Life and Myth. Routledge.
Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer.
Van der Velde, Koert (August 13, 2005). "Zeeuwse godin weer thuis", Trouw (Dutch newspaper).
Further reading
Raepsaet-Charlier, Marie-Thérèse. "Nouveaux cultores de Nehalennia. In: L'antiquité classique'', Tome 72, 2003. pp. 291-302. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/antiq.2003.2529]; www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_2003_num_72_1_2529
External links
Official site of the Nehalennia temple replica
Celtic goddesses
Germanic goddesses
Fertility goddesses
Sea and river goddesses
Prehistoric Netherlands
History of religion in the Netherlands
History of Zeeland | [
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|
227423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkins%20School%20for%20the%20Blind | Perkins School for the Blind | Perkins School for the Blind, in Watertown, Massachusetts, was founded in 1829 and is the oldest school for the blind in the United States. It has also been known as the Perkins Institution for the Blind.
Perkins manufactures its own Perkins Brailler, which is used to print embossed, tactile books for the blind; and the Perkins SMART Brailler, a braille teaching tool, at the Perkins Solutions division housed within the Watertown campus's former Howe Press.
History
Founded in 1829, Perkins was the first school for the blind established in the United States. The school was originally named the New England Asylum for the Blind and was incorporated on March 2, 1829. The name was eventually changed to Perkins School For the Blind. John Dix Fisher first considered the idea of a school for blind children based upon his visits to Paris at the National Institute for the Blind and was inspired to create such a school in Boston, but it was founded by Samuel Gridley Howe, who had also studied education for the blind in Europe.
The school is named in honor of Thomas Handasyd Perkins, one of the organization's incorporators. He was a Boston shipping merchant who began losing his sight about the time the school was established. In 1833, the school outgrew its first location, the Pleasant Street house of the father of founder Howe. That year Perkins donated his Pearl Street mansion as the school's second home. In 1839, Perkins sold the mansion and donated the proceeds.
This gift allowed the purchase of a more spacious building in South Boston. In 1885, were purchased in the Hyde Square section of Jamaica Plain, a residential district of Boston, to build a kindergarten. This property was home to both Laura Bridgman and Helen Keller. The school moved to its present campus, in Watertown, Massachusetts, in the autumn of 1912.
Charles Dickens visited Perkins in 1842 during a lecture tour of America and was amazed at the work Howe was doing with Laura Bridgman, a deaf-blind girl who had come to the school in 1837 from New Hampshire. He wrote about his visit in his book, American Notes.
In 1887, Perkins director Michael Anagnos sent graduate Anne Sullivan to teach Helen Keller at her family's home in Alabama. After working with her pupil at the Keller home, Sullivan returned to Perkins with Keller in 1888, and resided there intermittently until 1893.
In 1931, Perkins created the Perkins Braille and Talking Book Library (BTBL).
In 1951, David Abraham successfully manufactured the first Perkins Brailler. By 1977, about 100,000 Perkins Braillers had been produced and distributed worldwide.
Perkins today
In the 21st century, Perkins has expanded its mission online to include resources for families with blind and visually impaired children, and teachers of the visually impaired (TVIs). Perkins has also worked with local partners in Asian countries to host an online community for educators, caregivers and families.
In 2011, Perkins completed construction of the Grousbeck Center for Students and Technology on its 38-acre campus in Watertown. This facility houses accessible technology for people who are blind or visually impaired.
The most recent project in Watertown for visually impaired persons is the "Braille Trail", which was completed in July 2016. It is part of the Watertown Riverfront Park.
Perkins International
Perkins partners with local groups in 67 countries: schools, universities, NGOs, nonprofits, government agencies, and parent networks—to educate and empower people who are blind, deaf/blind or visually impaired, and who may have additional disabilities. The organization disseminates resources, such as Perkins Braillers, funding, and expertise on the ground in these countries. One such example of this work in the African countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya is Perkins' role in the Kilimanjaro Blind Trust, Inc. (KBT).
Special educators from other countries are also invited to the Watertown campus every year, for an intensive study of blindness and multiple-disability education. They can take back current information to their respective regions.
Perkins Solutions
Perkins Solutions concentrates on a broad array of assistive technology and accessibility assessment, training, and consulting. The range of Perkins Braillers ships to 175 countries and includes the Classic Brailler, the Next Generation Brailler and the Smart Brailler launched in 2012 with text-to-speech output, visual display, and applications for teaching braille. This subsidiary of Perkins also partners with associations for the blind and partially sighted, education ministers and resellers around the globe in an effort to provide accessible equipment—including Perkins Braillers, brailler repair and assistive technology—to all who need it.
#BlindNewWorld
On May 5, 2016, Perkins launched BlindNewWorld, a social change campaign aimed at helping the sighted population to be more inclusive of people who are blind and to make the world more accessible to them.
National Deaf-Blind Equipment Distribution Program
On June 8, 2012, in conjunction with the Helen Keller National Center (HKNC) and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), Perkins School for the Blind was selected to conduct nationwide outreach for the National Deaf-Blind Equipment Distribution Program (NDBEDP).
Mandated by the 21st Century Communications and Video Accessibility Act (CVAA) and established by the FCC, the NDBEDP will aid individuals with combined vision and hearing loss connect with family, friends and their community by distributing accessible communications technology. Perkins' and partners' outreach campaign to educate people on this program is called iCanConnect. It aims to inform the nearly one million people in the United States with some sort of combined hearing and vision loss on the types of equipment—e.g. screen-enlargement software, video phones and electronic refreshable braille displays—available to them free of charge.
Affiliations
Perkins Braille and Talking Book Library works in conjunction with the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS) at its Watertown chapter.
Perkins has collaborated with the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired on a Web resource called PathsToLiteracy.org, an online hub for information related to literacy for students who are blind or visually impaired, including those with additional disabilities or deafblindness.
Perkins has collaborated with Amy Bower, a blind oceanographer and senior scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, to show students what it's like to be a blind scientist.
The international nonprofit has also worked with the American Foundation for the Blind to ensure that Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) be taught in mainstream schools.
Perkins is a member of the Council of Schools for the Blind.
Notable alumni
Joseph B. Smith, musician and the first blind graduate of Harvard.
Robert Smithdas, the first deafblind person to earn a masters degree.
Anne Sullivan, teacher of Helen Keller.
References
Further reading
- Submitted to the U.S. Department of Education, posted on Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)
French, Kimberly. Perkins School for the Blind: The Campus History Series. Perkins School for the Blind, 2004.
The Education of Laura Bridgman: First Deaf and Blind Person to Learn Language
The Imprisoned Guest: Samuel Howe and Laura Bridgman, The Original Deaf-Blind Girl
Mirror, Mirror on the Wall. The Diary of Bess Brennan
External links
BlindNewWorld
The Manliest Man
Perkins Archives
Educational institutions established in 1829
Schools for the blind in the United States
Buildings and structures in Watertown, Massachusetts
Schools in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
1829 establishments in Massachusetts
19th century in Boston
Blind academics | [
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|
227430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frey%20%28disambiguation%29 | Frey (disambiguation) | Frei, Frey, Fray, Frej, Freij, Freyr or Freÿr may refer to:
People
Frey (given name)
Frey (surname)
Fray (surname)
Frei family, a Chilean family formed by the descendants of Swiss Eduardo Frei Schlinz and Chilean Victoria Montalva Martínez
Issawi Frej (born 1963), Israeli Arab politician
Viva Frei (born 1979), Canadian YouTuber
Saber Ben Frej (born 1979), Tunisian footballer
Frej Larsson (born 1983), Swedish musician and rapper
Frej Liewendahl (1902-1966), Finnish track and field athlete
Frej Lindqvist (born 1937), Swedish actor
Frej Ossiannilsson (1905–1995), Swedish entomologist
Places
Belgium
Castle of Freÿr, a castle in Belgium
Brazil
Frei Gaspar, a municipality in the state of Minas Gerais in the Southeast Region
Frei Inocêncio, another municipality in the state of Minas Gerais
Frei Lagonegro, another municipality in the state of Minas Gerais
Frei Martinho, a municipality in the state of Paraíba in the Northeast Region
Frei Miguelinho, a municipality in the state of Pernambuco in the Northeast Region
Frei Rogério, a municipality in the state of Santa Catarina, in the South Region
Germany
Frei-Laubersheim, a municipality in the district of Bad Kreuznach in Rhineland-Palatinate, in western Germany
Norway
Frei, a former municipality in Møre og Romsdal county
Frei (island), an island in Kristiansund Municipality, Møre og Romsdal county
Frei, or Nedre Frei, a village in Kristiansund Municipality, Møre og Romsdal county
Frei Church, a church in Kristiansund Municipality, Møre og Romsdal county
United States
Frey, Michigan
Other uses
Frey (chocolate), a Swiss manufacturer of chocolate since 1887
Frei zu leben, a German entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1990
FreiTek, Inc., a fictional company in Star Wars.
Frey's procedure, a treatment for chronic pancreatitis
Frei test, a test developed in 1925 by Wilhelm Siegmund Frei, a German dermatologist, to identify lymphogranuloma inguinale
Frey's syndrome, a food-related condition
Freyr, a fertility god in Norse mythology
Freyr (Stargate), a fictional character in Stargate SG-1, based on this god
Frey (Marvel Comics), a comic book character based on this god
Frej (icebreaker), a 1974 ship named after Freyr
Frei (album), the fifth studio album by German recording artist LaFee
IK Frej, a Swedish sports club located in Täby kyrkby
See also
Oulad Frej, a small town and rural commune in El Jadida Province of the Casablanca-Settat region of Morocco
Fray (disambiguation)
Freya (disambiguation)
Fry (disambiguation)
Frye | [
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|
227432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Columbus | USS Columbus | Four ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Columbus, the first two after the explorer Christopher Columbus, and the other two after Columbus, Ohio, the capital of the state.
, a 24-gun armed ship purchased for the Continental Navy in 1775, and active until she was captured and burned in 1778
, a 74-gun ship of the line commissioned in 1819, and in periodic service until 1861 when she was sunk to prevent capture
, a heavy cruiser commissioned at the very end of World War II, converted to a guided missile cruiser CG-12 in 1959, and decommissioned in 1975
, a attack submarine commissioned in 1993 and in active service
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|
227434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima | Tanegashima | is one of the Ōsumi Islands belonging to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, 444.99 km2 in area, is the second largest of the Ōsumi Islands, and has a population of 33,000 people. Access to the island is by ferry, or by air to New Tanegashima Airport. Administratively, the island is divided into the city, Nishinoomote, and the two towns, Nakatane and Minamitane. The towns belong to Kumage District.
Geography
Tanegashima is the easternmost and the second largest (after Yakushima) of the Ōsumi Islands. It is located approximately south of the southern tip of Ōsumi Peninsula in southern Kyushu, or south of Kagoshima. The Vincennes Strait (Yakushima Kaikyō) separates it from Yakushima.
The island is of volcanic origin; however, unlike neighboring Yakushima, it presents a flat appearance, with its highest elevation at only above sea level. The island has a length of and a width ranging from to .
The climate is subtropical. The island, along with neighbouring Yakushima, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because they support populations of Japanese wood pigeons, Ryukyu green pigeons and Ryukyu robins.
History
Tanegashima has a long history of Kofun. Other burials on Tanegashima, namely the Yokomine and Hirota sites, attest to a uniquely well-developed Yayoi period culture at the end of the 4th century AD. The artifacts include magatama, an engraved pendant, and emblems with apparent writing.
During the Nara period, the embryo state of Japan began to make contact with Tanegashima. According to the Nihonshoki, the imperial court hosted a banquet for the islanders of Tanegashima in 677. In 679, the court sent a mission to the island who returned in 681. Other missions to the island mentioned in the book were in 683 and 695. According to the Shoku Nihongi, people from Tane, Yaku, Amami and Dokan (possibly Tokunoshima) came to the imperial court to pay tribute in 699. These activities resulted in the establishment of Tane Province on the island in 702. Tane Province lasted until 824 and was merged into Ōsumi Province.
Sometime around 1140, the whole island of Tanegashima became part of the Shimazu Estate, the largest medieval shōen of Japan. In the early Kamakura period, the positions of the land steward of the Shimazu Estate and the military governor of Ōsumi Province were given to the Shimazu clan. However, the clan lost these positions to the Hōjō clan, the de facto ruler of the shogunate. The Hōjō clan sent the Higo clan as deputy governors. A branch line of the Higo clan made itself autonomous on Tanegashima after the Hōjō clan was annihilated and began to claim the clan name of Tanegashima.
The Tanegashima clan ruled the island until the Meiji restoration. The Tanegashima clan enjoyed a high degree of autonomy until Shimazu unified southern Kyūshū in the late 16th century, and after that, served as a top-ranking retainer to the Satsuma domain. Following the Meiji restoration, the island has been administered as part of Kagoshima Prefecture.
Introduction of firearms into Japan
Tanegashima is traditionally known as the site of the introduction of European firearms to Japan in 1543. Until modern times, firearms were colloquially known in Japan as "Tanegashima", due to the belief that they were introduced by the Portuguese on board the first Portuguese ship.
In his memoirs published in 1614, Portuguese adventurer turned author, Fernão Mendes Pinto placed himself in the first landing party, although this claim has since been roundly discredited and in fact contradicts his claims to have been in Burma at the time. The two Portuguese traders, António Mota and Francisco Zeimoto, should actually be credited as the first Europeans to introduce firearms. However, Mendes Pinto does appear to have visited Tanegashima soon thereafter. The Europeans had arrived to trade, not only guns, but also soap, tobacco and other goods unknown in medieval Japan, for Japanese goods.
During the Muromachi period, Tanegashima functioned as a relay station for one of the main routes of Chinese trade that connected Sakai to Ningbo. The Tanegashima clan cooperated with the Hosokawa clan, one of two powers who controlled Chinese trade. The clan also maintained a firm connection with the Honnō-ji Temple of Kyoto. These account for the rapid spread of firearms from Tanegashima to central Japan.
Knife industry
Edge tools (particularly knives and scissors) made in Tanegashima are famous traditional handicrafts in Japan. Craftsmen in Tanegashima have kept alive traditional techniques for forging and sharpening iron tools. Tanegashima is also famous as the center of iron sand production. The technique has been around since about 1185 when the Taira clan were exiled here from Kyoto by Minamoto no Yoritomo, taking with them craftsmen and chefs from Kyoto. The people of the island speak with a Kyoto accent even now, rather than a Kyūshū or Kagoshima accent, despite its proximity to Kyūshū. These craftsmen were the original users of the distinct techniques used for forging and sharpening. The technique is unique in the world, and produces such tools as "Tanegashima Hōchō" (Tanegashima knives), used by chefs, and "Tane-basami" (Tanegashima scissors), preferred by many for the art of Bonsai. Nevertheless the local population has fallen from over fifty thousand in 1970 to just twenty-eight thousand today, in spite of tourism and space industries, putting traditional crafts at risk.
Tanegashima Space Center
The Tanegashima Space Center is Japan's largest space development center. It is run by JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and is located at the southeastern end of Tanegashima. It was established in 1969 when the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) was formed. Activities include assembly, testing, launching and tracking satellites, as well as rocket engine firing tests. Activity includes orbital launches of the H-IIA rockets from the Yoshinobu Launch Complex.
The Space Science and Technology Museum is near the TSC. It offers an intricate view of rocket history and technology in Japan. Though most of the displays are in Japanese, there are English tour pamphlets available.
Climate
Tanegashima has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Precipitation is high throughout the year, but is highest in the months of May, June and September.
Sporting events
The Tanegashima "Rocket Marathon" takes place in March each year.
Notable people
Miyu Uehara – gravure idol and TV personality
Kōbō Kenichi – sumo wrestler
Wakashimazu Mutsuo – sumo wrestler
References
Sources
Lidon, Olof. Tanegashima: The Arrival of Europe in Japan, NIAS Press (2002)
External links
Ōsumi Islands
Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture
Important Bird Areas of the Nansei Islands | [
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|
227435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass%20warbler | Grass warbler | The grass warblers are small passerine birds belonging to the genus Locustella. Formerly placed in the paraphyletic "Old World warbler" assemblage, they are now considered the northernmost representatives of a largely Gondwanan family, the Locustellidae.
These are rather drab brownish "warblers" usually associated with fairly open grassland, shrubs or marshes. Some are streaked, others plain, all are difficult to view. They are insectivorous.
The most characteristic feature of this group is that the song of several species is a mechanical insect-like reeling which gives rise to the group's scientific name.
Species breeding in temperate regions are strongly migratory.
Taxonomy
The genus Locustella was introduced by the German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1829 with the common grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia) as the type species. The genus name Locustella is from Latin and is a diminutive of locusta, "grasshopper". Like the English name, this refers to the insect-like song of some species.
There are 23 species placed in the genus:
Lanceolated warbler, Locustella lanceolata
Brown bush warbler, Locustella luteoventris
Long-billed bush warbler, Locustella major
Common grasshopper warbler, Locustella naevia
Chinese bush warbler, Locustella tacsanowskia
Bamboo warbler, Locustella alfredi
River warbler Locustella fluviatilis
Savi's warbler, Locustella luscinioides
Friendly bush warbler, Locustella accentor
Sulawesi bush warbler, Locustella castanea
Seram bush warbler, Locustella musculus
Buru bush warbler, Locustella disturbans
Long-tailed bush warbler, Locustella caudata
Baikal bush warbler, Locustella davidi
Spotted bush warbler, Locustella thoracica
West Himalayan bush warbler, Locustella kashmirensis
Taiwan bush warbler, Locustella alishanensis
Russet bush warbler, Locustella mandelli
Dalat bush warbler, Locustella idonea
Benguet bush warbler, Locustella seebohmi
Javan bush warbler, Locustella montis
Sichuan bush warbler, Locustella chengi
Taliabu bush warbler, Locustella portenta
This genus formerly included additional species. A molecular phylogenetic study of the grassbird family Locustellidae published in 2018 found that the genus Locustella consisted of two distinct clades. The genus was split and six species were moved to the newly erected genus Helopsaltes.
A fossil acrocoracoid from the Late Miocene (about 11 mya) of Rudabánya (NE Hungary) is quite similar to this bone in the present genus. Given its rather early age (most Passerida genera are not known until the Pliocene), it is not too certain that it is correctly placed here, but it is highly likely to belong to the Locustellidae, or the Sylvioidea at the least. As the grasshopper warblers are the only known locustellid warblers from Europe, it is still fairly likely that the bone piece belongs to a basal Locustella.
References
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|
227442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Columbus%20%281774%29 | USS Columbus (1774) | The first USS Columbus was a ship in the Continental Navy. Built as a merchant ship at Philadelphia in 1774 as Sally, she was purchased from Willing, Morris & Co., for the Continental Navy in November 1775, Captain Abraham Whipple was given command.
Between 17 February and 8 April 1776, in company with the other ships of Commodore Esek Hopkins' squadron, Columbus took part in the expedition to New Providence, Bahamas, where the first Navy-Marine amphibious operation seized essential military supplies. On the return passage, the squadron captured the British schooner, Hawk, on 4 April, and brig Bolton on the 5th. On 6 April the squadron engaged . After three hours the action was broken off and Glasgow escaped, leaving her tender to be captured. Later in 1776 Columbus cruised off the New England coast taking five prizes.
Chased ashore on Point Judith, Rhode Island, 27 March 1778 by a British squadron, Columbus was stripped of her sails, most of her rigging, and other usable material by her crew before being abandoned. She was burned by the enemy.
Sources
Ships of the Continental Navy
Ships built in Philadelphia
Maritime incidents in 1778 | [
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|
227443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsushima | Tsushima | Tsushima may refer to:
Places
Tsushima Island, part of Nagasaki Prefecture
Tsushima, Nagasaki, a city in Nagasaki Prefecture (coterminous with Tsushima Island)
Tsushima Province, a historical province, coterminous with modern Tsushima Subprefecture
Tsushima Subprefecture, an administrative subdivision of Nagasaki prefecture (coterminous with Tsushima Island)
Tsushima Fuchū Domain, a feudal domain of the early modern period, largely if not entirely contiguous with the Province
Tsushima Basin, also known as Ulleung Basin, located at the juncture of the Sea of Japan and the Korea Strait
Tsushima Strait, the eastern channel of the Korea Strait
Tsushima, Aichi, a city in Aichi Prefecture
Tsushima, Ehime, a town dissolved in August 2005, formerly located in Ehime Prefecture
Tsushima Shrine, Aichi Prefecture
Tsushima Shrine, located in the city of Mitoyo, Kagawa Prefecture and only accessible one day a year in early August
Events
Battle of Tsushima (1905), also known as the "Sea of Japan Naval Battle", the last sea battle of the Russo-Japanese War
Tsushima Incident (1861), involving Russia, Japan, and Britain
Ships
Tsushima Maru, a civilian ship sunk by American naval forces during World War II
Japanese cruiser Tsushima
Japanese escort ship Tsushima
People
, Japanese bobsledder
Keiko Tsushima (1926–2012), Japanese actress
Leo Tsushima, fictional character in the Tsuyokiss video game and anime
Mitsutoshi Tsushima (born 1974), Japanese football player
Ryuta Tsushima or Iwakiyama Ryūta (born 1976), Japanese sumo wrestler
Shuji Tsushima or Osamu Dazai (1909–1948), Japanese author
Yoshiko Tsushima, fictional character from the media-mix project Love Live! Sunshine!!
Yūko Tsushima or Tsushima Satoko (born 1947), Japanese fiction writer, essayist and critic
Yūji Tsushima (born 1930), Japanese politician
Other uses
Ghost of Tsushima, a video game released in 2020 for the PlayStation 4
Tsushima brown frog, a species of frog endemic to Japan
Tsushima cat, a wild cat
Tsushima Current, a branch of the Kuroshio Current into the Sea of Japan
Tsushima dialect, a Japanese dialect spoken on Tsushima Island of Nagasaki Prefecture
Tsushima salamander, a species of salamander endemic to Japan
Tsushima Shinto, a sect of Shintoism
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|
227444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ing | Ing | Ing, ING or ing may refer to:
Art and media
...ing, a 2003 Korean film
i.n.g, a Taiwanese girl group
The Ing, a race of dark creatures in the 2004 video game Metroid Prime 2: Echoes
"Ing", the first song on The Roches' 1992 album A Dove
In old Germanic history
Ing, theonym of Germanic god Yngvi
Ingwaz rune, also known as Ing in Old English, a runic symbol possibly referring to Yngvi
Go game
Ing Cup, an international Go tournament sponsored by the Ing Foundation (founded by Ing Chang-ki)
Ing Prize, an incentive for research in computer Go
Ing rules, a ruleset of Go
People
Ing (surname), a medieval English surname, of Norse-Viking origins
Ing Chang-ki (1914–1997), Taiwanese industrialist, philanthropist and founder of the Ing Foundation
Ing Yoe Tan (born 1948), Dutch lawmaker of Chinese descent, member of the Senate for the Labour Party (PvdA) since 1998
Other uses
Ing., abbreviation for the Engineer's degree awarded in many countries by technical universities or polytechnics
ING, Inactive National Guard of the U.S. Army
Index Nominum Genericorum, an index of all published generic names of plants covered by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
ING Group, a Dutch financial institution with operations worldwide
Ing River, a tributary of the Mekong
ING Unsung Heroes, a grant program for Kindergarten through 12th grade educators in the United States
Instituut voor Nederlandse Geschiedenis, Institute of Dutch History
Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes, in La Palma, Canary Islands
See also
-ing, an English suffix
Ings (disambiguation) | [
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|
227446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yngvi | Yngvi | Old Norse Yngvi , Old High German Ingwin and Old English Ingƿine are names that relate to a theonym which appears to have been the older name for the god Freyr. Proto-Germanic *Ingwaz was the legendary ancestor of the Ingaevones, or more accurately Ingvaeones, and is also the reconstructed name of the Elder Futhark rune ᛜ and Anglo-Saxon rune ᛝ, representing ŋ.
A torc, the so-called "Ring of Pietroassa", part of a late third to fourth century Gothic hoard discovered in Romania, is inscribed in much-damaged runes, one reading of which is gutanī [i(ng)]wi[n] hailag "to Ingwi[n] of the Goths holy".
Etymology
Old Norse Yngvi as well as Old High German Inguin and Old English Ingƿine are all derived from the Proto-Germanic *Ingwaz. Sound changes in late-Proto-Germanic transformed *Ingwaz into *Ingwi(z) in the nominative case and *Ingwin in the accusative case. His epithet *Fraujaz appears in Old Norse compounds Ingvifreyr and Ingunarfreyr. In Beowulf we see Hrothgar called (OE) fréa inguina, which means 'Lord of the Inguins', i.e. lord of the Ingvaeones, the 'friends of Ing'. This strongly indicates that the two deities, Ing and Freyr are indeed the same. The Ingvaeones, who occupied a territory roughly equivalent to modern Denmark, Frisia and the Low Countries at the turn of the millennium, were mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural Histories as one of "five Germanic tribes". Tacitus asserts their descent from the three sons of Mannus or *Mannaz cognate with Manus in Hinduism , the 'first man', of whom *Ingwaz may have been one. Other names that retain the theonym are Inguiomerus or Ingemar and Yngling, the name of an old Scandinavian dynasty.
The Ingwaz rune
The rune (with variants and ) together with Peorð and Eihwaz is among the problematic cases of runes of uncertain derivation unattested in early inscriptions. The rune first appears independently on the futhark row of the Kylver Stone, and is altogether unattested as an independent rune outside of such rows. There are a number of attestations of the bind rune or (the "lantern rune", similar in shape to the Anglo-Saxon gēr rune ), but its identification is disputed in most cases, since the same sign may also be a cipher rune of wynn or thurisaz. The earliest case of such an bindrune of reasonably certain reading is the inscription (perhaps referring to the "Mærings" or Ostrogoths) on the silver buckle of Szabadbattyán, dated to the first half 5th century and conserved at the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest.
The Old English rune poem contains these obscure lines:
" Ing was first amidst the East Danes
so seen, until he went eastward
over the sea. His wagon ran after.
Thus the Heardings named that hero."
Norse mythology
In Norse mythology, Yngvi, alternatively spelled Yngve, was the progenitor of the Yngling lineage, a legendary dynasty of Swedish kings, from whom also the earliest historical Norwegian kings claimed to be descended. Yngvi is a name of the god Freyr, perhaps Freyr's true name, as freyr means 'lord' and has probably evolved from a common invocation of the god.
In the Íslendingabók (written in the early twelfth century by the Icelandic priest Ari Þorgilsson) Yngvi Tyrkja konungr 'Yngvi king of Turkey' appears as the father of Njörðr who in turn is the father of Yngvi-Freyr, ancestor of the Ynglings. According to the Skjöldunga saga (a lost epic from 1180 to 1200, saved only partially in other sagas and later translation) Odin came from Asia and conquered Northern Europe. He gave Sweden to his son Yngvi and Denmark to his son Skjöldr. Since then the kings of Sweden were called Ynglings and those of Denmark Skjöldungs.
In the Gesta Danorum (late twelfth century, by Saxo Grammaticus) and in the Ynglinga saga (ca. 1225, by Snorri Sturluson), Freyr is euhemerized as a king of Sweden. In the Ynglinga saga, Yngvi-Freyr reigned in succession to his father Njörðr who had – in this variant – succeeded Odin. In the Historia Norwegiæ (written around 1211), in contrast, Ingui is the first king of Sweden, and the father of a certain Neorth, in his turn the father of Froyr: "Rex itaque Ingui, quem primum Swethiæ monarchiam rexisse plurimi astruunt, genuit Neorth, qui vero genuit Froy; hos ambos tota illorum posteritas per longa sæcula ut deos venerati sunt. Froyr vero genuit Fiolni, qui in dolio medonis dimersus est […]"
In the introduction to his Edda (originally composed around 1220) Snorri Sturluson claimed again that Odin reigned in Sweden and relates: "Odin had with him one of his sons called Yngvi, who was king in Sweden after him; and those houses come from him that are named Ynglings." Snorri here does not identify Yngvi and Freyr, although Freyr occasionally appears elsewhere as a son of Odin instead of a son of Njörðr.
In the Skáldskaparmál section of his Prose Edda Snorri brings in the ancient king Halfdan the Old who is the father of nine sons whose names are all words meaning "king" or "lord" in Old Norse, as well as of nine other sons who are the forefathers of various royal lineages, including "Yngvi, from whom the Ynglings are descended". But rather oddly Snorri immediately follows this with information on what should be four other personages who were not sons of Halfdan but who also fathered dynasties, and names the first of these again as "Yngvi, from whom the Ynglings are descended". In the related account in the Ættartolur "Genealogies" attached to Hversu Noregr byggðist, the name Skelfir appears instead of Yngvi in the list of Halfdan's sons.
The Ynglinga Saga section of Snorri's Heimskringla (around 1230) introduces a second Yngvi, son of Alrekr, who is a descendant of Yngvi-Freyr and who shared the Swedish kingship with his brother Álf (see Yngvi and Alf).
Given names and family names
The element Ing(o)- was widely used in Germanic names from an early period; it is not clear whether it originally referred to the Ingaevones, or to the god Yngwi directly. Inguiomer (Inguiomarus) was a relative of the Cheruscian Arminius in the first century. Ingundis was a wife of the Frankish king Chlothar I, whose son Charibert I married an Ingoberga (all in the sixth century). Other combinations such as masculine Inguin, Ingulf, Ingobald, feminine Inghildis, Ingedrudis, Ingoflidis, as well as the short forms Ingo (masculine) and Inga (feminine) are recorded in the early medieval period (seventh to ninth centuries). In Scandinavia and Germany, and areas where these groups settled, names beginning with Ing survived into modern usage, e.g.Ingmar, Ingvar, Ingvild, Ingeborg, Ingrid, Ingegerd and the family name Ingalls.
See also
Manus in Vedic history
Ingunar-Freyr
Yngve (a given name)
References
Freyr
Mythological kings of Sweden
Runes
History of Uppsala
Legendary progenitors
Sons of Odin
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|
227449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold%20Zweig | Arnold Zweig | Arnold Zweig (10 November 1887 – 26 November 1968) was a German writer, pacifist and socialist.
He is best known for his six-part cycle on World War I.
Life and work
Zweig was born in Glogau, Prussian Silesia (now Głogów, Poland), the son of a Jewish saddler. (He is not related to Stefan Zweig.) After attending a gymnasium in Kattowitz (Katowice), he made extensive studies in history, philosophy and literature at several universities – Breslau (Wrocław), Munich, Berlin, Göttingen, Rostock and Tübingen. He was especially influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy. His first literary works, Novellen um Claudia (1913) and Ritualmord in Ungarn, gained him wider recognition.
Zweig volunteered for the German army in World War I and saw action as a private in France, Hungary and Serbia. He was stationed in the Western Front at the time when Judenzählung (the Jewish census) was administered in the German army. Shaken by the experience, he wrote in his letter dated February 15, 1917, to Martin Buber: "The Judenzählung was a reflection of unheard sadness for Germany's sin and our agony. ... If there was no antisemitism in the army, the unbearable call to duty would be almost easy." He began to revise his views on the war and to came to view the war as one that pitted Jews against Jews. Later he described his experiences in the short story Judenzählung vor Verdun. The war changed Zweig from a Prussian patriot to an eager pacifist.
By the end of the war he was assigned to the Press department of the German Army Headquarters in Kaunas and there he was first introduced to the East European Jewish organizations.
In a quite literal effort to put a face to the hated 'Ostjude' (Eastern European Jew), due to their Orthodox, economically depressed, "unenlightened", "un-German" ways, Zweig published with the artist Hermann Struck Das ostjüdische Antlitz (The Face of East European Jewry) in 1920. This was a blatant effort to at least gain sympathy among German-speaking Jews for the plight of their eastern European brethren. With the help of many simple sketches of faces, Zweig supplied interpretations and meaning behind them.
After World War I he was an active socialistic Zionist in Germany. After Hitler's attempted coup in 1923 Zweig went to Berlin and worked as an editor of a newspaper, the Jüdische Rundschau.
In the 1920s, Zweig became attracted to the psychoanalytical theories of Sigmund Freud and underwent Freudian therapy himself. In March 1927 Zweig wrote to Freud asking permission to dedicate his new book to Freud. In the letter Zweig told Freud: "I personally owe to your psychological therapy the restoration of my whole personality, the discovery that I was suffering from a neurosis and finally the curing of this neurosis by your method of treatment."
Freud returned this ardent letter with a warm letter of his own, and the Freud-Zweig correspondence continued for a dozen years – momentous years in Germany's history. This correspondence is extensive and interesting enough to have been published in book form.
In 1927 Zweig published the anti-war novel The Case of Sergeant Grischa, which made him an international literary figure. The theme of his sequence of World War I fiction is that Germany was perverted by brutal men who shifted the purpose of the war from defense to conquest. Major contestants in this struggle are characters in his books. Some, like Kaiser Wilhelm II, Field Marshal von Hindenburg, and commander on the Eastern Front during the last two years of the war Prince Leopold of Bavaria, are named. Others are masked, but would have been easily identified by many readers at the time: for example, General Ludendorff is "Schieffenzahn", the politician Matthias Erzberger is "Deputy Hemmerle", General Max Hoffmann is "Clauss", and Field Marshal von Eichorn is "von Lychow".
From 1929 he was a contributing journalist of socialist newspaper Die Weltbühne (World Stage). That year, Zweig would attend one of Hitler's speeches. He told his wife that the man was a Charlie Chaplin without the talent. Zweig would later witness the burning of his books by the National Socialists. He remarked that the crowd "would have stared as happily into the flames if live humans were burning." He decided to leave Germany that night.
Exile in Palestine
When the National Socialist German Workers Party took power in Germany in 1933, Zweig was one of many Jews who immediately went into voluntary exile. Zweig went first to Czechoslovakia, then Switzerland and France. After spending some time with Thomas Mann, Lion Feuchtwanger, Anna Seghers and Bertolt Brecht in France, he set out for Mandatory Palestine, then under British rule.
In Haifa, Palestine, he published a German-language newspaper, the Orient. In Palestine, Zweig became close to a group of German-speaking immigrants who felt distant from Zionism and viewed themselves as refugees or exiles from Europe, where they planned to return. This group included Max Brod, Else Lasker-Schüler and Wolfgang Hildesheimer. During his years in Palestine, Zweig became disillusioned with Zionism and turned to socialism.
In Haifa, Zweig underwent psychoanalysis with Ilya Schalit. His novels De Vriendt Goes Home and A Costly Dream are partly set in Mandatory Palestine and describe, among other things, the encounter between Zionism, socialism and psychoanalysis. In De Vriendt Goes Home, a young Zionist, recently immigrated to Palestine from Eastern Europe, kills the Dutch Jew De Vriendt who, on the basis of a more orthodox religious sentiment, was seeking an understanding with the local Arab population. During his stay in Palestine, Zweig may have been the main link between Freud and the local psychoanalytic community.
His 1947 book The Axe of Wandsbek concerned the Altona Bloody Sunday (Altonaer Blutsonntag) riot, an SA march on 17 July 1932 that turned violent and led to 18 people being shot dead, with four Communists including Bruno Tesch subsequently being beheaded for their alleged involvement.
East Germany
In 1948, after a formal invitation from the East German authorities, Zweig decided to return to the Soviet occupation zone in Germany (which became East Germany in 1949). In East Germany he was in many ways involved in the communist system. He was a member of parliament, delegate to the World Peace Council Congresses and the cultural advisory board of the communist party. He was President of the DDR Academy of Arts, Berlin from 1950 to 1953.
He was rewarded with many prizes and medals by the regime. The USSR awarded him the Lenin Peace Prize (1958) for his anti-war novels. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature seven times.
After 1962, due to poor health, Zweig virtually withdrew from the political and artistic fields. Arnold Zweig died in East Berlin on 26 November 1968, aged 81.
Bibliography
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, republished in revised form as .
Ritualmord in Ungarn (Ritual Murder in Hungary), 1914
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Playthings of Time
Der große Krieg der weißen Männer [The Great War of the White Men] - a cycle in six parts
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Film adaptations
The Case of Sergeant Grischa (1930), US film directed by Herbert Brenon. This film is presumed lost, as no negative or print material is known to have survived.
The Axe of Wandsbek (1951), directed by Falk Harnack, produced in East Germany
Der Streit um den Sergeanten Grischa (1968), directed by Helmut Schiemann as a TV film in two parts for the East German broadcaster Deutscher Fernsehfunk
(1970), East German film directed by Egon Günther
Erziehung vor Verdun (1973), East German film directed by Egon Günther
(1982), a West German TV film docudrama directed by Heinrich Breloer and
See also
Exilliteratur
References
Further reading
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Cohen, Robert, "Arnold Zweig's War Novellas of 1914 and their Versions: Literature, Modernity, and the Demands of the Day." War, Violence and the Modern Condition. Bernd Hüppauf (ed.). De Gruyter, 1997. 277–289.
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1887 births
1968 deaths
People from Głogów
People from the Province of Silesia
Cultural Association of the GDR members
Members of the Provisional Volkskammer
Members of the 1st Volkskammer
Members of the 2nd Volkskammer
Members of the 3rd Volkskammer
Members of the 4th Volkskammer
East German writers
20th-century German novelists
German male novelists
German newspaper editors
German anti-war activists
Jewish novelists
German Zionists
Jewish socialists
Jewish writers
German Jewish military personnel of World War I
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Exilliteratur writers
Recipients of the National Prize of East Germany
Kleist Prize winners
Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit (honor clasp)
Lenin Peace Prize recipients | [
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227452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakushima | Yakushima | is one of the Ōsumi Islands in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, in area, has a population of 13,178. Access to the island is by hydrofoil ferry (7 or 8 times a day from Kagoshima, depending on the season), slow car ferry (once or twice a day from Kagoshima), or by air to Yakushima Airport (3 to 5 times daily from Kagoshima, once daily from Fukuoka and once daily from Osaka).
Administratively, the whole island is the town of Yakushima. The town also serves neighbouring Kuchinoerabujima. The majority of the island is within the borders of the Kirishima-Yaku National Park.
Yakushima's electricity is more than 50% hydroelectric, and surplus power has been used to produce hydrogen gas in an experiment by Kagoshima University. The island has been a test site for Honda's hydrogen fuel cell vehicle research. (There are no hydrogen cars stationed on the island but electric cars are run by the municipality.)
World Heritage designation
In 1980 an area of was designated a UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Reserve. In 1993, of wetland at Nagata-hama was designated a Ramsar Site. It is the largest nesting ground for the endangered loggerhead sea turtle in the North Pacific. Yakushima's unique remnant of warm/temperate ancient forest has been a natural World Heritage Site since 1993. In the Wilderness core area () of the World Heritage Site, no record of past tree cutting can be traced.
The island is visited by 300,000 tourists every year.
Geography
Yakushima is located approximately south of the southern tip of Ōsumi Peninsula in southern Kyushu, or south of Kagoshima. The Vincennes Strait (Yakushima Kaikyō) separates it from the nearby island of Tanegashima, which is home to the Japanese Space Centre. Periodic rocket launches from Tanegashima can clearly be seen from Yakushima.
The bedrock of the island is granite, and as such it hosts no active volcanoes. It has an area of approximately . The island is roughly circular in shape, with a circumference of and a diameter of . The highest elevations on the island are , with a height of , and , with a height of above sea level; however, Yakushima has another 30 peaks of over in height. There are numerous hot springs on the island.
History
Yakushima has been settled since at least the Jōmon period. It was first mentioned in written documents of the Chinese Sui Dynasty of the 6th century, and in the Japanese Shoku Nihongi in an entry dated 702 CE. It formed part of ancient Tane Province. It was often mentioned in the diaries of travelers between Tang Dynasty China and Nara period Japan.
During the Edo period, Yakushima was ruled by the Shimazu clan of the Satsuma Domain and was considered part of Ōsumi Province. Following the Meiji restoration, the island has been administered as part of Kagoshima Prefecture.
In 2017, Yakushima was struck by Typhoon Noru causing one death.
Demographics and economics
The population of Yakushima reached a peak in 1960 with 24,010 inhabitants. It thereafter declined until about 1995, but has subsequently stabilized at just over 13,000 inhabitants.
Traditionally, the economic mainstays of the population were forestry and the export of wood products (principally cedar roof shingles), and commercial fishing. Cultivation of oranges and tea, the distilling of shōchū, and tourism are now the main sources of income.
Flora and fauna
Yakushima contains one of the largest tracts of existing Nansei Islands subtropical evergreen forests, an endangered habitat ecoregion. The only large animals indigenous to the island are red-bottomed macaques (Yakushima macaque) and a variety of sika deer (yakushika). The Japanese raccoon dog is also a common animal, but is not native to the island. Japanese weasels (Mustela itatsi) may also be seen from time to time. The island is a spawning ground for migratory loggerhead turtles, and dolphins are to be found offshore. The coastal areas have coral reefs in places, although to a much lesser extent than are found farther south in the islands of Okinawa. The island, along with neighbouring Tanegashima, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because they support populations of Japanese wood pigeons, Ryukyu green pigeons and Ryukyu robins.
Yakushima is famous for its lush vegetation. Most of the island has at one time or another been logged (dating back at least to the early Edo period), but has been extensively replanted and reseeded since logging ended in the late 1960s, at which time a conservation regime was established. In addition to this secondary forest, there are some remaining areas of primary forest, composed mainly of a variety of Cryptomeria japonica, or Japanese cedar, known as , the best known single example of which is named the , as its age is estimated to date to at least the Jōmon period of Japanese history, 2300 years ago. In addition, the island lists over 50 varieties of endemic flower, notably rhododendrons, and hundreds of rare endemic Bryophyta, as well as a number of endemic trees.
Climate
Yakushima has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Precipitation is extremely heavy, with at least in each month and as much as in June alone. Yakushima is Japan's wettest place, and annual precipitation in Yakushima is one of the world's highest at . It is said by the locals to rain "35 days a month". There are drier periods in autumn and winter, while the heaviest downpours occur in spring and summer, often accompanied by landslides. It is the southernmost place in Japan where there is snow in the mountains, often for months, while the ocean temperature is never below
Pollution
According to a disputed theory, airborne pollutants from the People's Republic of China may have affected Yakushima white pine in the forest on the island.
The scientific results have been published: "Environmental factors influencing the load of long-range transported air pollutants on Pinus amamiana in Yakushima Island, Japan" IN: January 2009 Ecological Research 25(1):233-243.
Transportation
Airport
Yakushima Airport is the main airport that serves the island.
Ferries
Tanegayaku High Speed Ship Jetfoil "Toppy" "Rocket"
Kagoshima Port, Minato Pier, Kagoshima City- Ibusuki Port ( Ibusuki City ) in Tanegashima, Nishinoomote Port ( Nishinoomote City ), Yakushima, Miyanoura Port or Anbo Port.
Other
Orita Kisen “Ferry Yakushima 2”
Kagoshima Minato-ku Minami Pier-Yakushima / Miyanoura Port
Kagoshima Merchant Ship & Shinyashiki Shoji Ferry "Haibisukasu" [40]
Taniyama Port 2 Ward (Kagoshima City)-Tanegashima Nishinoomote Port (Nishinoomote City)-Yakushima Miyanoura Port
Forward (Taniyamako onset) after arriving in Nishinoomote Port at night Todokohaku, the next morning to go to Miyanoura Port [41] .
Yakushima Town "Ferry Taiyo"
Kuchinoerabujima -Yakushima / Miyanoura Port-Tanegashima / Shimama Port ( Minamitanemachi )
Buses
The number of bus services is relatively high in Tanegashima and Yakushima. They operate from morning till evening. However, there are very few buses on each route.
Cars
There are several rental car companies. The northwestern road called the Western Forest Road is a narrow road which is difficult for cars to pass each other. The road is closed due to steep curves and steep slopes. The gas prices on the island is several tens of yen higher than the Japanese mainland.
Railway
The last operating narrow gauge (762mm gauge) timber railway in Japan is on the island but it is freight only. Several other lines did operate but are now closed. The track is used by some hikers as a path but this can be dangerous as the line is very much still in operation.
Onsen
There are several onsen (hot springs) on Yakushima.
Onoma Onsen
Yakushima Onsen
Hirauchi underwater hot spring
Yudomari Onsen
Oura hot spring - originally a hot spring, but it's now a communal bath with boiling spring water
Yodogawa Onsen
Yunoko no Yu
Jomon no Yado Manten - outpatient Bathing
In popular culture
The forests of Yakushima inspired the forest setting in Hayao Miyazaki's film Princess Mononoke.
Yakushima is the inspiration behind the forest of Dremuchij in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.
Fictional characters Jun and Jin Kazama of Tekken lived on Yakushima.
Eiji Miyake, the protagonist of David Mitchell's novel number9dream, is from Yakushima. Parts of the novel take place in the narrator's childhood on the island.
The island also featured prominently in the 1996 film Rebirth of Mothra. In the movie The Young Mothra swims to the island to transform into the new and more powerful Mothra taking its life essence and new powers from the eternal forest.
Characters in Persona 3 take a week's vacation on Yakushima.
The first two episodes of the 2005 TV show, Kamen Rider Hibiki, take place primarily on Yakushima.
See also
Ernest Henry Wilson - Wilson stump
List of Special Places of Scenic Beauty, Special Historic Sites and Special Natural Monuments
List of World Heritage Sites in Japan
List of national parks of Japan
Ramsar sites in Japan
References
Witham, Clive. Yakushima: A Yakumonkey Guide. Siesta Press. (2009)
External links
UNESCO World Heritage Site Entry
Notes
Ōsumi Islands
Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture
Biosphere reserves of Japan
Cultural Landscapes of Japan
Ramsar sites in Japan
Tourist attractions in Kagoshima Prefecture
World Heritage Sites in Japan
Important Bird Areas of the Nansei Islands | [
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|
227455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Columbus%20%281819%29 | USS Columbus (1819) | USS Columbus was a 90-gun ship of the line in the United States Navy. She was launched on 1 March 1819 by Washington Navy Yard and commissioned on 7 September 1819, Master Commandant J. H. Elton in command.
History
Clearing Norfolk, Virginia on 28 April 1820, Columbus served as flagship for Commodore William Bainbridge in the Mediterranean until returning to Boston on 23 July 1821. Serving as a receiving ship after 1833, she remained at Boston in ordinary until sailing to the Mediterranean on 29 August 1842, as flagship for Commodore Charles W. Morgan. On 24 February 1843, she sailed from Genoa, Italy, and reached Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 29 July to become flagship of the Brazil Squadron, Commodore Daniel Turner. She returned to New York City on 27 May 1844 for repairs.
After embarking Commodore James Biddle, Commander, East India Squadron, she sailed on 4 June 1845 for Canton, China, where on 31 December Commodore Biddle exchanged ratified copies of the first American commercial treaty with China. Columbus remained there until April 1846, when she sailed for Japan to attempt opening that country to American commerce. She raised Uraga Channel on 19 July in company with , but achieved no success. Recalled at the outbreak of the Mexican–American War Columbus reached Valparaíso, Chile, in December and arrived off Monterey, California, 2 March 1847. Too large to be useful in the California operations, the ship sailed from San Francisco on 25 July for Norfolk, arriving on 3 March 1848.
In 1845 the writer, Charles Nordhoff joined the ship as a boy (aged 15), and served for 3 years. He would write later of his adventure in his book. Man-of-War Life: a Boy's Experience in the U. S. Navy, largely autobiographical (Cincinnati, 1855).
At Norfolk Navy Yard, Columbus lay in ordinary until 20 April 1861, when she was sunk by withdrawing Union forces to prevent her falling into Confederate hands.
References
Howard Chapelle, The History of the American Sailing Navy: the Ships and their Development (New York: Norton, 1949), pp. 309–310
Ships of the line of the United States Navy
Ships of the Union Navy
Ships built in the District of Columbia
Mexican–American War ships of the United States
1819 ships
Scuttled vessels
Shipwrecks of the American Civil War
Shipwrecks of the Virginia coast
Victorian-era ships of the line
Maritime incidents in April 1861 | [
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227456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Hot%20Rod%20Association | National Hot Rod Association | The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) is a drag racing governing body, which sets rules in drag racing and hosts events all over the United States and Canada. With over 40,000 drivers in its rosters, the NHRA claims to be the largest motorsports sanctioning body in the world.
The association was founded by Wally Parks in 1951 in California to provide a governing body to organize and promote the sport of drag racing. NHRA's first Nationals was held in 1955, in Great Bend, Kansas. The NHRA Camping World Drag Racing Series, the national event series which comprises 24 races each year, is the premier series in drag racing that brings together the best drag racers from across North America and the world. The NHRA U.S. Nationals are now held at Lucas Oil Raceway in Brownsburg, Indiana and are officially called the U.S. Nationals. Winners of national events are awarded a trophy statue in honor of founder Wally Parks. The trophy is commonly referred to by its nickname, “Wally”.
History
Wally Parks, editor of Hot Rod magazine and a dry lakes racer himself, began the National Hot Rod Association to promote "safety, sportsmanship, and fellowship" among hot rodders. The association gained about 25,000 members in its first year; within six years, it had more than 57,000 members.
Hot Rod Magazine and NHRA worked together to convince the general public and especially the police that there was a difference between hot-rodders and reckless street racers, sometimes known as "shot rodders". They encouraged the involvement of adults, such as auto shop teachers and garage owners. The NHRA's efforts to defend the image of the hot-rodder included a series of short films such as The Cool Hot Rod (1953) in which a delinquent teen learns that "a reckless kid in an old junker is not a hot-rodder at all. He's a square."
NHRA initiated the 1954 "Drag Safari", a nationwide tour to encourage organized drag racing with an emphasis on safety. Sponsored by Mobil Oil, the Safari crew would meet with law enforcement and local city officials at each stop to explain their program, involve local car clubs, set up sites, and run drag races. Drag Safari would lead to the 1955 US Nationals for drag racing.
Series
NHRA Championship Drag Racing Series
The NHRA Camping World Drag Racing Series is the top division of the NHRA. It consists of four professional classes:
Top Fuel Dragster
Funny Car
Pro Stock
Pro Stock Motorcycle
Champions
List of NHRA champions
NHRA Sportsman Drag Racing Series
There are more than a dozen Sportsman Classes. The classes contested at NHRA Divisional races include Snowmobile, Motorcycle Classes, Super Street, Super Gas, Stock Eliminator, Super Stock, Competition Eliminator, Super Comp, Top Sportsman, Top Dragster, Top Alcohol Funny Car, and Top Alcohol Dragster. All classes except Snowmobile and some Sportsman motorcycle classes are regularly contested at NHRA national events.
NHRA promotes mainly the Professional classes at national events; however, the majority of its participants are Sportsman Racers. Sportsman-class racers must be dues-paying members of NHRA before they are allowed to enter and participate in any NHRA event.
Included in these sportsman events are the Lucas Oil Drag Racing Series, the Summit Racing Equipment Racing Series and the NHRA Jr. Drag Racing League.
The NHRA Sportsman Drag Racing Series originally consisted of seven divisions: Northeast, Southeast, North Central, South Central, West Central, Northwest, and Pacific. Starting in 2012, the Top Alcohol Dragster and Top Alcohol Funny Car classes competed in four regions: East, North Central, Central and West.
Champions
Sportsman racers with multiple championships
Sportsman racers who have won multiple world championships, with the date of their most recent championship.
Top Alcohol Dragster (TAD)
5: Rick Santos (2001), Bill Reichert (2010)
4: Blaine Johnson (1993), Joey Severance (2018)
3: Bill Walsh (1986)
2: Jim Whiteley (2013)
Alcohol Funny Car (AFC)
16: Frank Manzo (2013)
4: Pat Austin (1991)
2: Randy Anderson (1994), Bob Newberry (2005), Jonnie Lindberg (2016), Sean Bellemeur (2019)
Competition Eliminator (CE)
3: Bill Maropulos (1987), David Rampy (2017)
2: Coleman Roddy (1984), Andy Manna, Jr (1999), Dean Carter (2004), Bruno Massel (2012)
Super Stock (SS)
5: Peter Biondo (2014)
4: Jimmy DeFrank (2012)
3: Greg Stanfield (1994), Justin Lamb (2018)
2: Keith Lynch (1983), Jim Boburka (1989), Jeff Taylor (1991), Dan Fletcher (2001)
Stock
4: Kevin Helms (2015)
2: Jim Hughes (1989), Al Corda (1997), Lee Zane (2008), Edmond Richardson (2009), Brad Burton (2012)
National Records
NOTE: Top Fuel and Funny Car records are measured in the 1,000 foot (304.8 meter) increment
Venues
NHRA has over 100 member tracks across the United States. It currently leases Auto Club Raceway at Pomona and owns Atlanta Dragway, Gainesville Raceway and Lucas Oil Raceway. It previously owned National Trail Raceway.
Safety
The NHRA mandates numerous safety devices and procedures in all competition events.
A five-point safety harness is required for all vehicles. It holds the driver securely in the seat and is equipped with a quick-release latch which can be released in less than a second should the driver need to leave the car due to fire or explosions.
Fire suits are required for all drivers in the alcohol and nitromethane fuel classes and the faster gasoline classes. These suits are full body coveralls and made with seven layers of Nomex fabric, which makes them resistant to fire. The required suit includes Nomex gloves, foot socks, and head sock.
Another NASCAR transplant, which was brought into use after the death of Fireball Roberts, was the fuel cell. This bladder is placed into the fuel tanks of non-nitromethane-fueled vehicles to prevent fuel leaks and explosions.
Third is the use of the HANS device. This device limits the movement of the head and neck in the event of an impact.
Fourth is the titanium shield that must be placed behind the head of all Dragsters and Funny Cars down to the Alcohol ranks. This is to prevent any debris from entering the cockpit and becoming a missile hazard to the driver after the death of Top Fuel racer Darrell Russell.
Fifth is the on-board fire extinguishing system that is required. These systems are directed onto the engine itself and are activated instantly when the engine catches fire, reducing the chance for the car to completely catch fire and endanger the driver. The driver also has a manual activation control available. This has been in place on all cars since 1983, when an engine explosion and fire came very close to killing then-Funny Car driver Mike Dunn. All enclosed body cars must have a five-inch circular opening that will accept the nozzle of a fire extinguisher triggered by safety personnel. All vehicles must have a clearly marked fuel pump cut-off switch on a rear panel, accessible to safety crews.
Sixth is the roof escape hatch that is in place on all Funny Cars since the founding of the division in the early 1970s. This device allows Funny Car drivers a safe means of exit during an engine fire rather than falling out of the car between the frame and fiberglass body, and possibly running the risk of being run over by the rear tires.
Seventh are the long bars at the rear end of all cars, also known as "wheelie bars". These long struts prevent the car from flipping over during the launch phase.
To prevent debris, oil, fuel, or coolant from falling on the racing surface, "diapers" under the engine (with a supporting platform) are used to retain liquids and broken parts in the event of a catastrophic engine failure. "Oil-downs" result in substantial fines and the loss of previously earned Championship points (for annual awards). Many cars using the centrifugally-activated "slipper" clutch are now using a retention tube to collect the substantial amount of clutch dust that is produced during each race. The aforementioned recent practices, along with the longstanding requirement for a Kevlar-style retainer blanket over the supercharger, considerably reduce the potential for injury and fire, in addition to assuring a cleaner and safer racing surface, resulting in a dramatic reduction in race delays for track clean-up.
The rear tires of the car, which are called slicks due to the fact that there is no tread on them, are specified with safety considerations in mind. These tires are made from a much harder compound than in previous years so that the tire is resistant to disintegration. This also came about after the death of Russell. The tires are not allowed to be inflated under for any race at any time.
All cars capable of attaining 150 miles per hour require braking parachutes. A safety requirement on all Drag cars running 9.99 and quicker in the 1/4 mile is the fireproof engine blanket that surrounds the engine block and contains debris in case of an engine explosion. NHRA rules call for a monetary, points, and time penalty if the car leaks oil during the run. During qualifying, the offending team loses its elapsed time and speed from the run; during a race, the penalty is loss of lane choice unless both teams in the ensuing race committed the violation.
In the wake of Eric Medlen's 2007 death, the roll bars in a Funny Car underwent modifications to further improve safety. They are padded with thick insulation and coated with several layers of Nomex to prevent the padding from catching fire during an engine explosion.
Another facility safety feature is the large sand pit at the end of the track past an area of the track known as the "shutdown area", also known as a "sand trap". This sand pit has been placed to slow or stop a car. In the wake of Scott Kalitta's death at Englishtown, NJ in 2008, the sand traps have been made longer and deeper, going from three feet deep to six feet deep and from long to long. Anchors for any arresting netting must be buried underground with no obstructing posts.
Some of the newest safety features deal with the tracks themselves. In the wake of Kalitta's death, there are now heavily padded retaining walls at the end of the sand traps. These walls are able to withstand the impact of a vehicle traveling at well over the usual speed of any division within the NHRA's professional categories. These retaining walls take the place of the old rubber polymer safety nets that were once held up with concrete posts.
Another safety modification was a direct result of Kalitta's death. The NHRA began installing a sensor that constantly checks the car's engine, and should the car backfire at any time during the race, or if the burst panel is blown out by an engine explosion, the fuel pump shuts off and the parachutes are deployed automatically. Although several drivers in the Top Fuel and Funny Car divisions have stated their dislike for the new sensor, they do admit that it should cut down on any fatal crashes similar to Kalitta's. This device was developed by Force, Kenny Bernstein, and Tony Schumacher, along with NHRA racing development, and NHRA track safety. It was implemented at the start of the 2009 season. The sensor is used only in the Funny Car and Top Fuel divisions. Pro Stock doesn't use nitromethane or superchargers in their engines and this presents a much-reduced risk of the massive explosions that can be seen in the nitromethane-fueled cars—and often at their peak speeds.
Prior to the late 1980s, fans could station themselves up to the guardrails so they could be closer to the action. However, in the wake of several rather dramatic accidents on track, where spectators have been injured or killed, fans are no longer allowed within of the guardrail.
One of the newest safety requirements came after a near-fatal crash at Texas Motorplex in Ennis, Texas, when John Force's car experienced a severe case of tire shake which, coupled with the release of his parachutes, ripped his car cleanly in two directly behind the engine. This frame failure exposed him to severe injury with no body or frame in front of his feet, as the severely damaged vehicle ground to a halt. The rules now prevent the use of hardened chrome moly tubing in the framework construction of any Top Fuel or Funny Car.
The track length for nitromethane-powered vehicles (funny cars and fuel dragsters) has been reduced to 1,000 feet (305 meters), to reduce the likelihood and severity of blower and engine explosions and fires at or above 200 miles per hour. All other classes continue to race a full 1320-foot quarter mile (402 meters) which has been the original distance established by the NHRA in the 1950s.
The 2010 season brought a new safety device to Top Fuel classes. Should the driver be rendered unable to perform the normal shutdown sequence at the conclusion of a run, a pair of redundant transmitters, placed and past the finish line, will signal an on-board receiver to automatically shut off ignition power and fuel to the engine and deploy the parachutes. The transmitters are designed and placed so as to avoid inadvertent triggering of the automated shutoffs. These transmitters and the receivers that are placed on all cars were designed by NHRA's Track Safety Committee and constructed by Electrimotion, and are a direct result of Kalitta's death.
Safety Safari
Within the safety requirements, there is also a full crew of safety personnel, called the Safety Safari, whose job is to attend to any fires, clean up the track of debris after an accident on the track, and attend to the drivers prior to the arrival of any medical personnel. The Safety Safari has been in place since the late 1960s, after a rash of on-track accidents caused several promising drivers to retire early. Since that time the chance of fatal injuries has been decreased but not eliminated. There is also a full staff of EMTs on hand at any event on the schedule at any given time. These EMTs are usually from the city or county the track is located in, and are compensated by the NHRA for their time and efforts. Aeromedical services are also on hand at the track for airlifting severely injured persons to local hospitals or trauma centers if necessary.
The original "Drag Safari" began their tour across America in 1954. Included were four original members: Bud Coons, Bud Evans, Eric Rickman and Chic Cannon.
Fatalities
Although there are several safety procedures in place to prevent fatal accidents, no amount of safety can completely prevent fatalities on the track. These are notable incidents that took place at NHRA national events or in pre or post race testing after national events.
See also
International Hot Rod Association
National Electric Drag Racing Association
United States Hot Rod Association
Santa Ana Drags
Pro Street
References
External links
Official NHRA Drag Racing Podcasts
Drag Race Central The Latest NHRA News and Analysis
Official No Prep Racing website
Sports organizations established in 1951
1951 establishments in California
Auto racing organizations
501(c)(6) nonprofit organizations | [
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227457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Armouries | Royal Armouries | The Royal Armouries is the United Kingdom's national collection of arms and armour. Originally an important part of England's military organization, it became the United Kingdom's oldest museum, originally housed in the Tower of London from the 15th century, and one of the oldest museums in the world. It is also one of the oldest and largest collections of arms and armour in the world, comprising the UK's National Collection of Arms and Armour, National Artillery Collection, and National Firearms Collection. Its historic base is in the Tower of London, but today the collection is split across three sites: the Tower, the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, and Fort Nelson near Portsmouth
From 2004 to 2015, a limited selection of items was also on display in Louisville, Kentucky, in the United States, in cooperation with the Frazier History Museum.
History
The Royal Armouries is one of the ancient institutions of the Tower of London and was originally engaged in the manufacture of armour for the Kings of England and their armies. The Office of the Armoury grew out of the department known as the King's Privy Wardrobe at the Tower of London in the mid-15th century. Overseen from 1423 by the Master of the King's Armour, and based in the White Tower, the Office was responsible for manufacturing armour and edged weapons for the monarch and his armies; it functioned alongside the Office of Ordnance, which had responsibility for firearms.
The Armoury oversaw storehouses and workshops at Woolwich and Portsmouth, and at various royal palaces (most notably the Greenwich Armoury, which specialized in richly decorated ceremonial armour). In 1545, it is recorded that a visiting foreign dignitary paid to view the Armoury collection at the Tower of London. By the time of Charles II, there was a permanent public display there; the "Spanish Armoury" which included instruments of torture and the "Line of Kings"—a row of wooden effigies representing the kings of England. This makes it the first museum in Britain.
The influence of the Armoury began to wane as traditional weapons gave way increasingly to firearms in the field of war. In the 1620s, swords, lances and items of armour were still used in battle, but for the most part were being issued by the Office of Ordnance (which was becoming a sizeable department of State) rather than by the Armoury. The latter, however, remained staffed and operational until 1671, when it was finally absorbed by the Ordnance Board; the board continued to maintain, and indeed expanded, the Armoury as a museum.
The Tower was engaged in the development, manufacture and storage of a wide variety of weaponry until the Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855. Thereafter the historic armoury collection remained. Only a small part of this could be displayed, however, and in 1995, much of the artillery collection was moved to Fort Nelson in Hampshire and the following year a new Royal Armouries Museum was opened in Leeds. The remaining part of the collection relates directly to the Tower.
The National Heritage Act 1983 established the Armouries as a non-departmental public body, now sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.
Master of the Armouries
The head of the Royal Armouries is known as the Master of the Armouries. This was an ancient office that was revived in 1935 when the Royal Armouries became a national museum. The current Director General and Master of the Armouries is Edward Impey.
Master of the Armoury
The Master of the Armoury was responsible for maintaining a store of armour and weapons for use in the event of war and had an office in the Tower of London. The first use of the title was in 1462.
1462–1485 ??
Sir Richard Guildford (1485–1506) (also Master of the Ordnance)
Sir Edward Guildford (1506–1533)
Sir John Dudley (1533–1544)
Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche (1544–1553)
Sir Richard Southwell (1554–1559) (also Master of the Ordnance)
Sir George Howard (1560–1580)
Sir Henry Lee (1580–1611)
Sir Thomas Monson, 1st Baronet (1611–1616)
William Legge (1636–1646)
Robert Spaven (1647–?1648)
Anthony Nicholl (1648–?1658)
William Legge (restored to office 1660–1670)
Office abolished in 1671
Master of the Armouries
Charles John Ffoulkes (1935–1938)
Sir James Mann (1938–1962)
Arthur Richard Dufty (1963–1976)
Alexander Vesey Bethune (Nick) Norman (1977–1988)
Guy Wilson, 1988–2002
Paul Evans, July 2003 – September 2008
Lieutenant-General Jonathon Riley, September 2009 – November 2012
Dr Edward Impey, October 2013 – present
Publications
The Royal Armouries formerly published the Royal Armouries Yearbook. In 2004, that was superseded by Arms & Armour, a twice-yearly peer-reviewed scholarly journal.
References
External links
Armories (military)
Charities based in England
Collections of museums in the United Kingdom
Exempt charities
Army museums in London
Museums in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Museums sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport
Non-departmental public bodies of the United Kingdom government
Tower of London
Armour collections | [
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|
227458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.%20L.%20Doctorow | E. L. Doctorow | Edgar Lawrence Doctorow (January 6, 1931 – July 21, 2015) was an American novelist, editor, and professor, best known for his works of historical fiction.
He wrote twelve novels, three volumes of short fiction and a stage drama. They included the award-winning novels Ragtime (1975), Billy Bathgate (1989), and The March (2005). These, like many of his other works, placed fictional characters in recognizable historical contexts, with known historical figures, and often used different narrative styles. His stories were recognized for their originality and versatility, and Doctorow was praised for his audacity and imagination.
A number of Doctorow's novels and short stories were also adapted for the screen, including Welcome to Hard Times (1967) starring Henry Fonda, Daniel (1983) starring Timothy Hutton, Billy Bathgate (1991) starring Dustin Hoffman, and Wakefield (2016) starring Bryan Cranston. His most notable adaptations were for the film Ragtime (1981) and the Broadway musical of the same name (1998), which won four Tony Awards.
Doctorow was the recipient of numerous writing awards, including the National Book Critics Circle Award for Ragtime, National Book Critics Circle Award for Billy Bathgate, National Book Critics Circle Award for The March, and the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal for Fiction. Former President Barack Obama called him "one of America's greatest novelists".
Early life
Doctorow was born January 6, 1931, in the Bronx, the son of Rose (Levine) and David Richard Doctorow, second-generation Americans of Russian Jewish extraction who named him after Edgar Allan Poe. His father ran a small music shop. He attended city public grade schools and the Bronx High School of Science where, surrounded by mathematically gifted children, he fled to the office of the school literary magazine, Dynamo, which published his first literary effort. He then enrolled in a journalism class to increase his opportunities to write.
Doctorow attended Kenyon College in Ohio, where he studied with John Crowe Ransom, acted in college theater productions and majored in philosophy. While at Kenyon College, Doctorow joined the Middle Kenyon Association, and befriended Richard H. Collin. After graduating with honors in 1952, he completed a year of graduate work in English drama at Columbia University before being drafted into the United States Army. In 1954 and 1955, he served as a corporal in the signal corps in West Germany.
Back in New York after military service, Doctorow worked as a reader for a motion picture company; reading so many Westerns inspired his first novel, Welcome to Hard Times. Begun as a parody of western fiction, it evolved into a reclamation of the genre. It was published to positive reviews in 1960, with Wirt Williams of The New York Times describing it as "taut and dramatic, exciting and successfully symbolic."
When asked how he decided to become a writer, he said, "I was a child who read everything I could get my hands on. Eventually, I asked of a story not only what was to happen next, but how is this done? How am I made to live from words on a page? And so I became a writer."
Career
To support his family, Doctorow spent nine years as a book editor, first at New American Library working with Ian Fleming and Ayn Rand among others; and from 1964, as editor-in-chief at Dial Press, publishing work by James Baldwin, Norman Mailer, Ernest J. Gaines, and William Kennedy, among others.
In 1969, Doctorow left publishing to pursue a writing career. He accepted a position as Visiting Writer at the University of California, Irvine, where he completed The Book of Daniel (1971), a freely fictionalized consideration of the trial and execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for giving nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was widely acclaimed, called a "masterpiece" by The Guardian, and said by The New York Times to launch the author into "the first rank of American writers" according to Christopher Lehmann-Haupt.
Doctorow's next book, written in his home in New Rochelle, New York, was Ragtime (1975), later named one of the 100 best novels of the 20th century by the Modern Library editorial board. His subsequent work includes the award-winning novels World's Fair (1985), Billy Bathgate (1989), and The March (2005), as well as several volumes of essays and short fiction.
Novelist Jay Parini is impressed by Doctorow's skill at writing fictionalized history in a unique style, "a kind of detached but arresting presentation of history that mingled real characters with fictional ones in ways that became his signature manner". In Ragtime, for example, he arranges the story to include Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung sharing a ride at Coney Island, or a setting with Henry Ford and J. P. Morgan.
Despite the immense research Doctorow needed to create stories based on real events and real characters, reviewer John Brooks notes that they were nevertheless "alive enough never to smell the research in old newspaper files that they must have required". Doctorow demonstrated in most of his novels "that the past is very much alive, but that it's not easily accessed," writes Parini. "We tell and retell stories, and these stories illuminate our daily lives. He showed us again and again that our past is our present, and that those not willing to grapple with 'what happened' will be condemned to repeat its worst errors."
Personal life and death
In 1954, Doctorow married fellow Columbia University student Helen Esther Setzer while serving in the U.S. Army in West Germany. The couple had three children.
Doctorow also taught at Sarah Lawrence College, the Yale School of Drama, the University of Utah, the University of California, Irvine, and Princeton University. He was the Loretta and Lewis Glucksman Professor of English and American Letters at New York University. In 2001, he donated his papers to the Fales Library of New York University. In the opinion of the library's director, Marvin Taylor, Doctorow was "one of the most important American novelists of the 20th century".
Doctorow died of lung cancer on July 21, 2015, aged 84, in Manhattan. He is interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx.
Awards and honors
1975: National Book Critics Circle Award for Ragtime
1986: National Book Award for World's Fair
1988: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
1989: Edith Wharton Citation of Merit for Fiction
1989 MacDowell Colony Fellowship
1990: National Book Critics Circle Award for Billy Bathgate
1990: PEN/Faulkner Award for Billy Bathgate
1990: William Dean Howells Medal for Billy Bathgate
1998: National Humanities Medal from the National Endowment for the Humanities
1998: Peggy V. Helmerich Distinguished Author Award from the Tulsa Library Trust
1999 awarded the F. Scott Fitzgerald Award for Achievement in American Literature award, which is given annually to recognize outstanding achievement in American literature. As part of the F. Scott Fitzgerald Literary Festival, the day-long festival takes place in Rockville, Maryland, the city where Fitzgerald, his wife, and his daughter are buried.
2002: First recipient of the Kenyon Review Award for Literary Achievement
2005: National Book Critics Circle Award for The March
2006: PEN/Faulkner Award for The March
2007: Membership to the American Philosophical Society
2008: St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates
2012: Inducted into the New York State Writers Hall of Fame
2012: PEN/Saul Bellow Award for Achievement in American Fiction
2013: Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters from the National Book Foundation
2013: American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal for Fiction
2014: Library of Congress Prize for American Fiction
Works
Novels
1960: Welcome to Hard Times – adapted as the 1967 film Welcome to Hard Times
1966: Big As Life
1971: The Book of Daniel – historical fiction about Julius and Ethel Rosenberg – adapted as the 1983 film Daniel
1975: Ragtime – adapted as the 1981 film Ragtime and the 1998 Broadway musical Ragtime
1980: Loon Lake
1985: World's Fair
1989: Billy Bathgate – adapted as the 1991 film Billy Bathgate
1994: The Waterworks
2000: City of God
2005: The March
2009: Homer & Langley
2014: Andrew's Brain
Short story collections
1984: Lives of the Poets: Six Stories and a Novella
2004: Sweet Land Stories – The New York Times Notable Book
2011: All the Time in the World: New And Selected Stories
2015 "Cuentos Completos" (Complete Short Stories) Malpaso Editorial-Only in Spanish. Preface by Eduardo Lago.
Plays
1978: Drinks Before Dinner
Other
1982: American Anthem (photographic essay)
1993: Jack London, Hemingway and the Constitution (essay collection, published in the UK as Poets and Presidents)
2003: Reporting the Universe, Harvard University Press
2004: How Then Can He Mourn?, essay criticizing George W. Bush for his pre-emptive war on Iraq.
2006: Creationists (essay collection)
2008: "Wakefield" (short story), The New Yorker, January 14, 2008
2012: "Unexceptionalism: A Primer" (op-ed), The New York Times, April 28, 2012
References
Further reading
External links
Book reviews
KCRW Bookworm Interviews, audio, with Michael Silverblatt:Oct 1994, Jul 1997, May 2000, Jul 2004, Aug 2009
1931 births
2015 deaths
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American writers of Russian descent
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Columbia University alumni
Deaths from lung cancer
Jewish American novelists
Kenyon College alumni
MacDowell Colony fellows
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
National Book Award winners
National Humanities Medal recipients
PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction winners
Writers from New Rochelle, New York
Sarah Lawrence College faculty
The Bronx High School of Science alumni
United States Army non-commissioned officers
Writers from the Bronx
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
21st-century American Jews | [
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|
227459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Mintzberg | Henry Mintzberg | Henry Mintzberg (born September 2, 1939) is a Canadian academic and author on business and management. He is currently the Cleghorn Professor of Management Studies at the Desautels Faculty of Management of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he has been teaching since 1968.
Early life
Mintzberg was born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada; the son of the Jewish parents: Myer (a manufacturer) and Irene (Wexler) Mintzberg. He completed his undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering at the Faculty of Engineering of McGill University. He completed his Master's degree in Management and PhD from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1965 and 1968 respectively.
Career
In 1997, Professor Mintzberg was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 1998 he was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec.
He is now a member of the Strategic Management Society.
In 2004, he published a book entitled Managers Not MBAs which outlines what he believes to be wrong with management education today. Mintzberg claims that prestigious graduate management schools like Harvard Business School and the Wharton Business School at the University of Pennsylvania are obsessed with numbers and that their overzealous attempts to make management a science are damaging the discipline of management. Mintzberg advocates more emphasis on post graduate programs that educate practicing managers (rather than students with little real world experience) by relying upon action learning and insights from their own problems and experiences.
Mintzberg has twice won the McKinsey Award for publishing the best article in the Harvard Business Review (despite his critical stance about the strategy consulting business). He is also credited with co-creating the organigraph, which is taught in business schools.
From 1991 to 1999, he was a visiting professor at INSEAD.
Mintzberg writes on the topics of management and business strategy, with more than 150 articles and fifteen books to his name. His seminal book, The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, criticizes some of the practices of strategic planning today.
Mintzberg runs two programs at the Desautels Faculty of Management which have been designed to teach his alternative approach to management and strategic planning: the International Masters in Practicing Management (IMPM) in association with the McGill Executive Institute and the International Masters for Health Leadership (IMHL). With Phil LeNir, he owns Coaching Ourselves International, a private company using his alternative approach for management development directly in the workplace.
Contribution to organization theory
The organizational configurations framework of Mintzberg is a model that describes six valid organizational configurations (originally only five; the sixth one was added later):
Simple structure, characteristic of entrepreneurial organization
Machine bureaucracy
Professional bureaucracy
Diversified form
Adhocracy, or innovative organization
Regarding the coordination between different tasks, Mintzberg defines the following mechanisms:
Mutual adjustment, which achieves coordination by the simple process of informal communication (as between two operating employees)
Direct supervision is achieved by having one person issue orders or instructions to several others whose work interrelates (as when a boss tells others what is to be done, one step at a time)
Standardization of work processes, which achieves coordination by specifying the work processes of people carrying out interrelated tasks (those standards usually being developed in the technostructure to be carried out in the operating core, as in the case of the work instructions that come out of time-and-motion studies)
Standardization of outputs, which achieves coordination by specifying the results of different work (again usually developed in the technostructure, as in a financial plan that specifies subunit performance targets or specifications that outline the dimensions of a product to be produced)
Standardization of skills (as well as knowledge), in which different work is coordinated by virtue of the related training the workers have received (as in medical specialists—say a surgeon and an anesthetist in an operating room—responding almost automatically to each other's standardized procedures)
Standardization of norms, in which it is the norms infusing the work that are controlled, usually for the entire organization, so that everyone functions according to the same set of beliefs (as in a religious order)
According to the organizational configurations model of Mintzberg, each organization can consist of a maximum of six basic parts:
Strategic apex (top management)
Middle line (middle management)
Operating core (operations, operational processes)
Technostructure (analysts that design systems, processes, etc.)
Support staff (support outside of operating workflow)
Ideology (halo of beliefs and traditions; norms, values, culture)
Contribution to business strategy theory
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Mintzberg's research findings and writing on business strategy, is that they have often emphasized the importance of emergent strategy, which arises informally at any level in an organisation, as an alternative or a complement to deliberate strategy, which is determined consciously either by top management or with the acquiescence of top management. He has been strongly critical of the stream of strategy literature which focuses predominantly on deliberate strategy.
Bibliography
The Nature of Managerial Work (1973), Harper & Row.
The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research (1979), Prentice-Hall.
Power in and Around Organizations (1983), Prentice-Hall; .
Structure in Fives: Designing Effective (1983), Prentice-Hall; .
Mintzberg on Management: Inside Our Strange World of Organizations (1989), Simon and Schuster; .
Why I Hate Flying: Tales for the Tormented Traveler (2001), Texere;.
Strategy Safari: A Guided Tour Through The Wilds of Strategic Management (with Bruce Ahlstrand; Joseph Lampel, 2005), Simon and Schuster; .
Tracking Strategies: Toward a General Theory (2007), OUP Oxford; .
Managing (2009), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; .
Simply Managing: What Managers Do — and Can Do Better (2013), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; .
Management? It's Not What You Think! (2013), Pearson UK; .
Strategy Bites Back (2013), Pearson UK; .
Rebalancing Society: Radical Renewal Beyond Left, Right, and Center (2014), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; .
Managing the Myths of Health Care: Bridging the Separations between Care, Cure, Control, and Community (2017), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; .
Bedtime Stories for Managers: Farewell to Lofty Leadership. . . Welcome Engaging Management (2019), Berrett-Koehler Publishers; .
Notes
External links
audio of 2015 CBC interview (with Michael Enright) regarding Mintzberg's 2014 book Rebalancing Society
1939 births
Living people
Canadian business theorists
Jewish Canadian writers
McGill University Faculty of Engineering alumni
MIT Sloan School of Management alumni
McGill University faculty
INSEAD faculty
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Officers of the National Order of Quebec
Officers of the Order of Canada
Writers from Montreal
Anglophone Quebec people
National University of San Marcos faculty | [
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|
227463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Muhlenberg | Peter Muhlenberg | John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg (October 1, 1746October 1, 1807) was an American clergyman, Continental Army soldier during the American Revolutionary War, and political figure in the newly independent United States. A Lutheran minister, he served in the United States House of Representatives and United States Senate from Pennsylvania.
Early life and education
Muhlenberg was born October 1, 1746 in Trappe in the Province of Pennsylvania to Anna Maria Weiser, the daughter of Pennsylvania Dutch pioneer and diplomat Conrad Weiser, and Henry Muhlenberg a German Lutheran pastor. He was sent, together with his brothers, Frederick Augustus and Gotthilf Henry Ernst in 1763 to Halle. They were educated in Latin at the Francke Foundations. He left school in 1767 to start as a sales assistant in Lübeck, but returned that same year to Pennsylvania.
Career
He served briefly in the British 60th Regiment of Foot, and also served briefly in the German dragoons, earning the nickname "Teufel Piet" (Devil Pete) before returning to Philadelphia in 1767, where he was given a classical education from the Academy of Philadelphia (the modern University of Pennsylvania). He was ordained in 1768 and headed a Lutheran congregation in Bedminster, New Jersey, before moving to Woodstock, Virginia.
Muhlenberg visited England in 1772 and was ordained into the priesthood of the Anglican Church, although he served a Lutheran congregation. Since the Anglican Church was the state church of Virginia, he was required to be ordained in an Anglican church in order to serve a congregation in Virginia. Besides his new congregation, he led the Committee of Safety and Correspondence for Dunmore County, Virginia. He was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1774, and was a delegate to the First Virginia Convention.
Military career
Toward the end of 1775, Muhlenberg was authorized to raise and command as its colonel the 8th Virginia Regiment of the Continental Army. After George Washington personally asked him to accept this task, he agreed. However, his brother Fredrick Augustus Muhlenberg, who was also a minister, did not approve of him going into the army until the British burned down his own church in front of him. Then he joined the military himself.
According to a biography written by his great-nephew in the mid-19th century,
on January 21, 1776 in the Lutheran church in Woodstock, Virginia, Reverend Muhlenberg took his sermon text from the third chapter Ecclesiastes, which starts with "To every thing there is a season..."; after reading the eighth verse, "a time of war, and a time of peace," he declared, "And this is the time of war," removing his clerical robe to reveal his Colonel's uniform. Outside the church door the drums began to roll as men turned to kiss their wives and then walked down the aisle to enlist, and within half an hour, 162 men were enrolled. The next day he led out 300 men from the county to form the nucleus of the 8th Virginia Regiment. Though it is accepted that Muhlenberg helped form and lead the 8th, historians doubt the account of the sermon, as there are no reports prior to Muhlenberg's great-nephew's biography.
Muhlenberg's unit was first posted to the South, to defend the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. In early 1777, the Eighth Regiment was sent north to join Washington's main army. Muhlenberg was made a brigadier general of the Virginia Line and commanded that Brigade in Nathanael Greene's division at Valley Forge. Muhlenberg saw service in the Battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. After Monmouth, most of the Virginia Line was sent to the far south, while General Muhlenberg was assigned to head up the defense of Virginia using mainly militia units.
At the Battle of Yorktown, he commanded the first brigade in Lafayette's Light Division. His brigade was part of the Corps of Light Infantry, consisting of the light infantry companies of the line regiments of Massachusetts (ten companies), Connecticut (five companies), New Hampshire (five companies), and Rhode Island and New Jersey (one each). They held the right flank and manned the two trenches built to move American cannons closer to Cornwallis' defenses. The battalion commanded by American Lt. Colonel Alexander Hamilton and French Lieutenant Colonel Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat led the night bayonet attack that stormed Redoubt No. 10 on October 14, 1781.
At the end of the war (1783), he was brevetted to major general and settled in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania.
Muhlenberg was also an original member of the Pennsylvania Society of the Cincinnati.
Political career
After the war, Muhlenberg was elected to the Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1784. He was elected Vice-President of the Council, a position comparable to that of Lieutenant Governor, on October 31, 1787. His term as Vice-President ended on a mysterious note. On October 14, 1788 the minutes of the Executive Council report that Muhlenberg had left Philadelphia without tendering his resignation—why his resignation was needed or expected is not noted—so a messenger was sent after him. That night, after the messenger returned with the resignation, the Council met at President Benjamin Franklin's home to choose Muhlenberg's successor, electing David Redick to the position.
Muhlenberg was elected to the 1st Congress (1789–1791) as one of the at-large representatives from Pennsylvania. His brother Frederick was the Speaker of the House for that same Congress. He was the first founder of the Democratic-Republican Societies in 1793. Muhlenberg served in Congress as a Republican during the 3rd Congress 1793–1795 and 5th Congress 1799–1801 for the 1st district. Muhlenberg was elected by the legislature to the U.S. Senate on a second ballot in February 1801 over George Logan, but resigned on June 30 of that same year.
President Thomas Jefferson appointed him the supervisor of revenue for Pennsylvania in 1801 and customs collector for Philadelphia in 1802. He served in the latter post until his death.
On August 3, 1805, Muhlenberg wrote a letter to the residents of the primarily-German Northampton and Berks counties in a successful attempt to tilt those counties toward incumbent Governor Thomas McKean, who, in the midst of a badly fractured state Republican Party, was running with Federalist support, in his bid for reelection. Muhlenberg noted that although McKean's opponent, Simon Snyder, was of German descent, his election would elevate the Republican Party's radical Democratic faction to power and, with calls for a Constitutional Convention to elevate the power of the state legislature over the governor and especially the judiciary, result in anarchy. McKean's margin of victory, 6,772-3,216, over Snyder in Northampton and Berks secured his narrow, 43,644-38,483, statewide margin of victory over Snyder.
Personal life
On November 6, 1770, he married Anna Barbara "Hannah" Meyer, the daughter of a successful potter. Together they had six children, including:
Francis Swaine Muhlenberg (1795–1831), a U.S. Representative from Ohio who married Mary Barr Denny (1806–1893) in 1831, shortly before his death in December 1831. After his death, Francis' widow married Richard Hubbell Hopkins.
On his 61st birthday, Muhlenberg died in Gray's Ferry, Pennsylvania on October 1, 1807 and is buried at the Augustus Lutheran Church in Trappe, Pennsylvania.
Legacy
Muhlenberg is the namesake of Muhlenberg County, Kentucky.
A memorial to Peter Muhlenberg is located in Washington, DC on Connecticut Avenue (see image).
Another memorial to him stands behind the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
Two statues of Peter Muhlenberg are located in front of the Shenandoah County Courthouse in Woodstock, Virginia, and the town's Emmanuel Lutheran congregation preserves communion vessels, a baptismal font and altar cloth that he used.
Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pennsylvania displays a statue of John P. G. Muhlenberg in front of the Haas College Center, 2400 Chew Street.
References
Further reading
Cecere, Michael. "The Fighting Parson's Farewell Sermon." Journal of the American Revolution, April 15, 2020.
Hocker, Edward W. The Fighting Parson of the American Revolution: A Biography of General Peter Muhlenberg, Lutheran Clergyman, Military Chieftain, and Political Leader (1936).
Muhlenberg, Henry Augustus. The Life of Major-General Peter Muhlenberg: Of the Revolutionary Army (1849). online
Rightmyer, Thomas Nelson. "The Holy Orders of Peter Muhlenberg." Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church 30.3 (1961): 183-197. online
External links
His Congressional Biography
National Statuary Hall Collection Biography
Biography and statue at the University of Pennsylvania
History Detectives: Muhlenberg Robe PDF
The 8th Virginia Regiment (history site)
https://www.societyofthecincinnati.org
https://www.americanrevolutioninstitute.org/
1746 births
1807 deaths
People from Trappe, Pennsylvania
American Lutherans
Pennsylvania Democratic-Republicans
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
United States senators from Pennsylvania
Muhlenberg family
Burials in Pennsylvania
Clergy in the American Revolution
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Virginia
Democratic-Republican Party United States senators
People of colonial Pennsylvania
People of Pennsylvania in the American Revolution
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives | [
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227478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination | Germination | Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, ferns, bacteria, and the growth of the pollen tube from the pollen grain of a seed plant.
Seed plants
Germination is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling. It is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Some plants produce varying numbers of seeds that lack embryos; these are empty seeds which never germinate. Dormant seeds are viable seeds that do not germinate because they require specific internal or environmental stimuli to resume growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryo resumes growth, developing into a seedling.
Disturbance of soil can result in vigorous plant growth by exposing seeds already in the soil to changes in environmental factors where germination may have previously been inhibited by depth of the seeds or soil that was too compact. This is often observed at gravesites after a burial.
Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right temperature, water, oxygen or air and sometimes light or darkness. Various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the individual seed variety and is closely linked to the ecological conditions of a plant's natural habitat. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation; most often these responses are types of seed dormancy.
Water is required for germination. Mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them. The uptake of water by seeds is called imbibition, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a food reserve with the seed, such as starch, proteins, or oils. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo. When the seed imbibes water, hydrolytic enzymes are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful chemicals. After the seedling emerges from the seed coat and starts growing roots and leaves, the seedling's food reserves are typically exhausted; at this point photosynthesis provides the energy needed for continued growth and the seedling now requires a continuous supply of water, nutrients, and light.
Oxygen is required by the germinating seed for metabolism. Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, the main source of the seedling's energy until it grows leaves. Oxygen is an atmospheric gas that is found in soil pore spaces; if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged, the seed can be oxygen starved. Some seeds have impermeable seed coats that prevent oxygen from entering the seed, causing a type of physical dormancy which is broken when the seed coat is worn away enough to allow gas exchange and water uptake from the environment.
Temperature affects cellular metabolic and growth rates. Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a temperature range within which they will germinate, and they will not do so above or below this range. Many seeds germinate at temperatures slightly above 60-75 F (16-24 C) [room-temperature in centrally heated houses], while others germinate just above freezing and others germinate only in response to alternations in temperature between warm and cool. Some seeds germinate when the soil is cool 28-40 F (-2 - 4 C), and some when the soil is warm 76-90 F (24-32 C). Some seeds require exposure to cold temperatures (vernalization) to break dormancy. Some seeds in a dormant state will not germinate even if conditions are favorable. Seeds that are dependent on temperature to end dormancy have a type of physiological dormancy. For example, seeds requiring the cold of winter are inhibited from germinating until they take in water in the fall and experience cooler temperatures. Cold stratification is a process that induces the dormancy breaking prior to light emission that promotes germination . Four degrees Celsius is cool enough to end dormancy for most cool dormant seeds, but some groups, especially within the family Ranunculaceae and others, need conditions cooler than -5 C. Some seeds will only germinate after hot temperatures during a forest fire which cracks their seed coats; this is a type of physical dormancy.
Most common annual vegetables have optimal germination temperatures between 75-90 F (24-32 C), though many species (e.g. radishes or spinach) can germinate at significantly lower temperatures, as low as 40 F (4 C), thus allowing them to be grown from seeds in cooler climates. Suboptimal temperatures lead to lower success rates and longer germination periods.
Light or darkness can be an environmental trigger for germination and is a type of physiological dormancy. Most seeds are not affected by light or darkness, but many seeds, including species found in forest settings, will not germinate until an opening in the canopy allows sufficient light for the growth of the seedling.
Scarification mimics natural processes that weaken the seed coat before germination. In nature, some seeds require particular conditions to germinate, such as the heat of a fire (e.g., many Australian native plants), or soaking in a body of water for a long period of time. Others need to be passed through an animal's digestive tract to weaken the seed coat enough to allow the seedling to emerge.
Dormancy
Some live seeds are dormant and need more time, and/or need to be subjected to specific environmental conditions before they will germinate. Seed dormancy can originate in different parts of the seed, for example, within the embryo; in other cases the seed coat is involved. Dormancy breaking often involves changes in membranes, initiated by dormancy-breaking signals. This generally occurs only within hydrated seeds. Factors affecting seed dormancy include the presence of certain plant hormones, notably abscisic acid, which inhibits germination, and gibberellin, which ends seed dormancy. In brewing, barley seeds are treated with gibberellin to ensure uniform seed germination for the production of barley malt.
Seedling establishment
In some definitions, the appearance of the radicle marks the end of germination and the beginning of "establishment", a period that utilizes the food reserves stored in the seed. Germination and establishment as an independent organism are critical phases in the life of a plant when they are the most vulnerable to injury, disease, and water stress. The germination index can be used as an indicator of phytotoxicity in soils. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of the establishment can be so high that many species have adapted to produce large numbers of seeds.
Germination rate and germination capacity
In agriculture and gardening, the germination rate describes how many seeds of a particular plant species, variety or seedlot are likely to germinate over a given period. It is a measure of germination time course and is usually expressed as a percentage, e.g., an 85% germination rate indicates that about 85 out of 100 seeds will probably germinate under proper conditions over the germination period given. Seed germination rate is determined by the seed genetic composition, morphological features and environmental factors. The germination rate is useful for calculating the number of seeds needed for a given area or desired number of plants. For seed physiologists and seed scientists "germination rate" is the reciprocal of time taken for the process of germination to complete starting from time of sowing. On the other hand, the number of seed able to complete germination in a population (i.e. seed lot) is referred to as germination capacity.
Repair of DNA damage
Seed quality deteriorates with age, and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage. During germination, repair processes are activated to deal with accumulated DNA damage. In particular, single- and double-strand breaks in DNA can be repaired. The DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM has a major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed.
Dicot germination
The part of the plant that first emerges from the seed is the embryonic root, termed the radicle or primary root. It allows the seedling to become anchored in the ground and start absorbing water. After the root absorbs water, an embryonic shoot emerges from the seed. This shoot comprises three main parts: the cotyledons (seed leaves), the section of shoot below the cotyledons (hypocotyl), and the section of shoot above the cotyledons (epicotyl). The way the shoot emerges differs among plant groups.
Epigeal
Epigeal germination (or epigeous germination) is a botanical term indicating that the germination takes place above the ground. In epigeal germination, the hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than pushing the cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. Beans, tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way.
Hypogeal
Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas, gram and mango, for example, germinate this way.
Monocot germination
In monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge.
Precocious germination
When a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i.e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination.
Pollen germination
Another germination event during the life cycle of gymnosperms and flowering plants is the germination of a pollen grain after pollination. Like seeds, pollen grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. They consist of a protective coat containing several cells (up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2–3 in flowering plants). One of these cells is a tube cell. Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a receptive flower (or a female cone in gymnosperms), it takes up water and germinates. Pollen germination is facilitated by hydration on the stigma, as well as by the structure and physiology of the stigma and style. Pollen can also be induced to germinate in vitro (in a petri dish or test tube).
During germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube. In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male microgametophyte of these plants.
Self-incompatibility
Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there is a high risk of self-pollination and thus inbreeding. Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination and growth of the pollen tube involve molecular signaling between stigma and pollen. In self-incompatibility in plants, the stigma of certain plants can molecularly recognize pollen from the same plant and prevent it from germinating.
Spore germination
Germination can also refer to the emergence of cells from resting spores and the growth of sporeling hyphae or thalli from spores in fungi, algae and some plants.
Conidia are asexual reproductive (reproduction without the fusing of gametes) spores of fungi which germinate under specific conditions. A variety of cells can be formed from the germinating conidia. The most common are germ tubes which grow and develop into hyphae. The initial formation and subsequent elongation of the germ tube in the fugus Aspergillus niger has been captured in 3D using holotomography microscopy. Another type of cell is a conidial anastomosis tube (CAT); these differ from germ tubes in that they are thinner, shorter, lack branches, exhibit determinate growth and home toward each other. Each cell is of a tubular shape, but the conidial anastomosis tube forms a bridge that allows fusion between conidia.
Resting spores
In resting spores, germination involves cracking the thick cell wall of the dormant spore. For example, in zygomycetes the thick-walled zygosporangium cracks open and the zygospore inside gives rise to the emerging sporangiophore. In slime molds, germination refers to the emergence of amoeboid cells from the hardened spore. After cracking the spore coat, further development involves cell division, but not necessarily the development of a multicellular organism (for example in the free-living amoebas of slime molds).
Ferns and mosses
In plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and a few others, spores germinate into independent gametophytes. In the bryophytes (e.g., mosses and liverworts), spores germinate into protonemata, similar to fungal hyphae, from which the gametophyte grows. In ferns, the gametophytes are small, heart-shaped prothalli that can often be found underneath a spore-shedding adult plant.
Bacteria
Bacterial spores can be exospores or endospores which are dormant structures produced by a number of different bacteria. They have no or very low metabolic activity and are formed in response to adverse environmental conditions. They allow survival and are not a form of reproduction. Under suitable conditions the spore germinates to produce a vital bacterium. Endospores are formed inside the mother cell, and, exospores are formed at the end of the mother cell as a bud.
Light-stimulated germination
As mentioned earlier, light can be an environmental factor that stimulates the germination process. The seed needs to be able to determine when is the perfect time to germinate and they do that by sensing environmental cues. Once germination starts, the stored nutrients that have accumulated during maturation start to be digested which then supports cell expansion and overall growth. Within light-stimulated germination, Phytochrome B (PHYB) is the photoreceptor that is responsible for the beginning stages of germination. When red light is present, PHYB is converted to its active form and moves from the cytoplasm to the nucleus where it upregulates the degradation of PIF1. PIF1, phytochrome-interaction-factor-1, negatively regulates germination by increasing the expression of proteins that repress the synthesis of gibberellin (GA), a major hormone in the germination process. Another factor that promotes germination is HFR1 which accumulates in light in some way and forms inactive heterodimers with PIF1.
Although the exact mechanism is not known, nitric oxide (NO) plays a role in this pathway as well. NO is thought to repress PIF1 gene expression and stabilizes HFR1 in some way to support the start of germination. Bethke et all (2006) exposed dormant Arabidopsis seeds to NO gas and within the next 4 days, 90% of the seeds broke dormancy and germinated. The authors also looked at how NO and GA effects the vacuolation process of aleurone cells that allow the movement of nutrients to be digested. A NO mutant resulted in inhibition of vacuolation but when GA was later added the process was active again leading to the belief that NO is prior to GA in the pathway. NO may also lead to the decrease in sensitivity of Abscisic acid (ABA), a plant hormone largely responsible for seed dormancy. The balance between GA and ABA is important. When ABA levels are higher than GA then that leads to dormant seeds and when GA levels are higher, seeds germinate. The switch between seed dormancy and germination needs to occur at a time when the seed has the best chances of surviving and an important cue that begins the process of seed germination and overall plant growth is light.
See also
Lily seed germination types
Oldest viable seed
Pot farm
Pyrophyte, for germination after fire
Seed tray
Seedling
Sprouting
Urban horticulture
Vivipary, when seeds or embryos begin to develop inside or before they detach from the parent
References
Further reading
External links
Sowing Seeds, a survey of seed sowing techniques
Germination time-lapse, ≈1 minute HD video of mung bean seeds germinating over 10 days, on YouTube
Seeds
Plant physiology
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|
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