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227840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kde%20domov%20m%C5%AFj | Kde domov můj | "Kde domov můj" (; English: "Where My Home Is") is the national anthem of the Czech Republic, written by the composer František Škroup and the playwright Josef Kajetán Tyl.
History
The piece was written as a part of the incidental music to the comedy Fidlovačka aneb Žádný hněv a žádná rvačka (Fidlovačka, or No Anger and No Brawl). It was first performed by Karel Strakatý at the Estates Theatre in Prague on 21 December 1834. The original song consists of two verses (see below). Although J. K. Tyl is said to have considered leaving the song out of the play, not convinced of its quality, it soon became very popular among Czechs and was accepted as an informal anthem of a nation seeking to revive its identity within the Habsburg Monarchy.
Soon after Czechoslovakia was formed in 1918, the first verse of the song became the Czech part of the national anthem, followed by the first verse of the Slovak song "Nad Tatrou sa blýska". The songs reflected the two nations' concerns in the 19th century when they were confronted with the already fervent national-ethnic activism of the Germans and the Hungarians, their fellow ethnic groups in the Habsburg Monarchy. Because of the linguistic and ethnic diversity of the First Republic, official translations were made into Hungarian and German as well.
With the split of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czechoslovak anthem was divided as well. While Slovakia extended its anthem by adding a second verse, the Czech Republic's national anthem was adopted unextended, in its single-verse version.
In 1882, Antonín Dvořák used Kde domov můj in his incidental music to the František Ferdinand Šamberk play Josef Kajetán Tyl, Op. 62, B. 125. The overture is often played separately as a concert work entitled Domov můj (My Home).
Lyrics
Original lyrics (from Fidlovačka, 1834)
National anthem of Czechoslovakia 1918–1992
The first stanza, along with that of the Slovak song Nad Tatrou sa blýska which is nowadays the national anthem of Slovakia, became from 1918 to 1992 the national anthem of Czechoslovakia.
Current lyrics (adapted version)
(Lyrics according to Appendix 6 of Czech Act No. 3/1993 Coll., as adapted by Act No. 154/1998 Coll.)
Notes
References
External links
Czech Republic: Kde domov můj? – Audio of the national anthem of the Czech Republic, with information and lyrics
State Symbols – Ministry of Foreign Affairs – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has a page about state symbols that includes a copy of the music of the anthem.
New (2008) official recordings – female solo, male solo, choir, and orchestral versions.
European anthems
National symbols of the Czech Republic
Czech songs
Czech anthems
1834 songs
National anthems
National anthem compositions in E major | [
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227856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotator%20cuff | Rotator cuff | In anatomy, the rotator cuff is a group of muscles and their tendons that act to stabilize the shoulder and allow for its extensive range of motion. Of the seven scapulohumeral muscles, four make up the rotator cuff. The four muscles are the supraspinatus muscle, the infraspinatus muscle, teres minor muscle, and the subscapularis muscle.
Structure
Muscles composing rotator cuff
The supraspinatus muscle spreads out in a horizontal band to insert on the superior facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus. The greater tubercle projects as the most lateral structure of the humeral head. Medial to this, in turn, is the lesser tubercle of the humeral head. The subscapularis muscle origin is divided from the remainder of the rotator cuff origins as it is deep to the scapula.
The four tendons of these muscles converge to form the rotator cuff tendon. These tendinous insertions along with the articular capsule, the coracohumeral ligament, and the glenohumeral ligament complex, blend into a confluent sheet before insertion into the humeral tuberosities (i.e. greater and lesser tubercle). The infraspinatus and teres minor fuse near their musculotendinous junctions, while the supraspinatus and subscapularis tendons join as a sheath that surrounds the biceps tendon at the entrance of the bicipital groove. The supraspinatus is most commonly involved in a rotator cuff tear.
Function
The rotator cuff muscles are important in shoulder movements and in maintaining glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) stability. These muscles arise from the scapula and connect to the head of the humerus, forming a cuff at the shoulder joint. They hold the head of the humerus in the small and shallow glenoid fossa of the scapula. The glenohumeral joint has been analogously described as a golf ball (head of the humerus) sitting on a golf tee (glenoid fossa).
During abduction of the arm, moving it outward and away from the trunk (torso), the rotator cuff compresses the glenohumeral joint, an action known as concavity compression, in order to allow the large deltoid muscle to further elevate the arm. In other words, without the rotator cuff, the humeral head would ride up partially out of the glenoid fossa, lessening the efficiency of the deltoid muscle. The anterior and posterior directions of the glenoid fossa are more susceptible to shear force perturbations as the glenoid fossa is not as deep relative to the superior and inferior directions. The rotator cuff's contributions to concavity compression and stability vary according to their stiffness and the direction of the force they apply upon the joint.
In addition to stabilizing the glenohumeral joint and controlling humeral head translation, the rotator cuff muscles also perform multiple functions, including abduction, internal rotation, and external rotation of the shoulder. The infraspinatus and subscapularis have significant roles in scapular plane shoulder abduction (scaption), generating forces that are two to three times greater than the force produced by the supraspinatus muscle. However, the supraspinatus is more effective for general shoulder abduction because of its moment arm. The anterior portion of the supraspinatus tendon is submitted to a significantly greater load and stress, and performs its main functional role.
Clinical significance
Tear
The tendons at the ends of the rotator cuff muscles can become torn, leading to pain and restricted movement of the arm. A torn rotator cuff can occur following trauma to the shoulder or it can occur through the "wear and tear" on tendons, most commonly the supraspinatus tendon found under the acromion.
Rotator cuff injuries are commonly associated with motions that require repeated overhead motions or forceful pulling motions. Such injuries are frequently sustained by athletes whose actions include making repetitive throws, athletes such as baseball pitchers, softball pitchers, American football players (especially quarterbacks), firefighters, cheerleaders, weightlifters (especially powerlifters due to extreme weights used in the bench press), rugby players, volleyball players (due to their swinging motions), water polo players, rodeo team ropers, shot put throwers, swimmers, boxers, kayakers, western martial artists, fast bowlers in cricket, tennis players (due to their service motion) and tenpin bowlers due to the repetitive swinging motion of the arm with the weight of a bowling ball. This type of injury also commonly affects orchestra conductors, choral conductors, and drummers (due, again, to swinging motions).
As progression increases after 4–6 weeks, active exercises are now implemented into the rehabilitation process. Active exercises allow an increase in strength and further range of motion by permitting the movement of the shoulder joint without the support of a physical therapist. Active exercises include the Pendulum exercise, which is used to strengthen the Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, and Subscapularis. External rotation of the shoulder with the arm at a 90-degree angle is an additional exercise done to increase control and range of motion of the Infraspinatus and Teres minor muscles. Various active exercises are done for an additional 3–6 weeks as progress is based on an individual case-by-case basis. At 8–12 weeks, strength training intensity will increase as free-weights and resistance bands will be implemented within the exercise prescription.
Impingement
The accuracy of the physical examination is low. The Hawkins-Kennedy test has a sensitivity of approximately 80% to 90% for detecting impingement. The infraspinatus and supraspinatus tests have a specificity of 80% to 90%.
A common cause of shoulder pain in rotator cuff impingement syndrome is tendinosis, which is an age-related and most often self-limiting condition.
Studies show that there is moderate evidence that hypothermia (cold therapy) and exercise therapy used together are more effective than simply waiting for surgery and they suggest the best outcome for non-surgical treatment of subacromial impingement syndrome. The group of patients who participated in the exercise group were found to use significantly lower amounts of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) and analgesics than the control group with no intervention.
Inflammation and fibrosis
The rotator interval is a triangular space in the shoulder that is functionally reinforced externally by the coracohumeral ligament and internally by the superior glenohumeral ligament, and traversed by the intra-articular biceps tendon. On imaging, it is defined by the coracoid process at its base, the supraspinatus tendon superiorly and the subscapularis tendon inferiorly. Changes of adhesive capsulitis can be seen at this interval as edema and fibrosis. Pathology at the interval is also associated with glenohumeral and biceps instability. Adhesive capsulitis or "frozen shoulder" is often secondary to rotator cuff injury due to post-surgical immobilization. Available treatment options include intra-articular corticosteroid injections to relieve pain in the short-term and electrotherapy, mobilizations, and home exercise programs for long-term pain relief.
Pain management
Treatment for a rotator cuff tear can include rest, ice, physical therapy, and/or surgery. A review of manual therapy and exercise treatments found inconclusive evidence as to whether these treatments were any better than placebo, however "High quality evidence from one trial suggested that manual therapy and exercise improved function only slightly more than placebo at 22 weeks, was little or no different to placebo in terms of other patient-important outcomes (e.g. overall pain), and was associated with relatively more frequent but mild adverse events."
The rotator cuff includes muscles such as the supraspinatus muscle, the infraspinatus muscle, the teres minor muscle and the subscapularis muscle. The upper arm consists of the deltoids, biceps, as well as the triceps. Steps must be taken and precautions need to be made in order for the rotator cuffs to heal properly following surgery while still maintaining function to prevent any deteriorating effects on the muscles. In the immediate postoperative period (within one week following surgery), pain can be treated with a standard ice wrap. There are also commercial devices available which not only cool the shoulder but also exert pressure on the shoulder ("compressive cryotherapy"). However, one study has shown no significant difference in postoperative pain when comparing these devices to a standard ice wrap.
Continuous passive motion
Physiotherapy can help manage the pain, but utilizing a program that involves continuous passive motion will reduce the pain even further. Assisted passive motion at a low intensity allows the tissues to be stretched slightly without damaging them Continuous passive motion improves the shoulder range and enables the subject to expand their range of motion without experiencing additional pain. Easing into the motions will allow the person to continue working those muscles to keep them from undergoing atrophy, while also still maintaining that minimum level of function where daily function is allowed. Doing these exercises will also prevent tears in the muscles that will impair daily function further. Since injuries of the rotator cuff often tend to inhibit motion without first experience discomfort and pain, other methods can be done to help accommodate that.
Manual therapy
A systematic review and Meta-analysis study shows manual therapy may help to reduce pain for patient with Rotator cuff tendiopathy, based on low- to moderate-quality evidence. However, there is not strong evidence for improving function also.
Surgery
Surgical approaches include acromioplasty (a part of the bone is removed to decrease pressure placed on the rotator cuff tendons), removal of a bursa that is inflamed or swollen, and subacromial decompression (the removal of tissue or bone that is damaged in order to allow more space for the tendons).
Surgery may be recommended for patients with an acute, traumatic rotator cuff tear resulting in substantial weakness. Surgery can be performed open or arthroscopically, although the arthroscopic approach has become much more popular. If a surgical option is selected, the rehabilitation of the rotator cuff is necessary in order to regain maximum strength and range of motion within the shoulder joint. Physical therapy progresses through four stages, increasing movement throughout each phase. The tempo and intensity of the stages are solely reliant on the extent of the injury and the patient's activity necessities. The first stage requires immobilization of the shoulder joint. The shoulder that is injured is placed in a sling and shoulder flexion or abduction of the arm is avoided for 4 to 6 weeks after surgery (Brewster, 1993). Avoiding movement of the shoulder joint allows the torn tendon to fully heal. Once the tendon is entirely recovered, passive exercises can be implemented. Passive exercises of the shoulder are movements in which a physical therapist maintains the arm in a particular position, manipulating the rotator cuff without any effort by the patient. These exercises are used to increase stability, strength and range of motion of the Subscapularis, Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, and Teres minor muscles within the rotator cuff. Passive exercises include internal and external rotation of the shoulder joint, as well as flexion and extension of the shoulder.
A 2019 Cochrane Systematic Review found with a high degree of certainty that subacromial decompression surgery does not improve pain, function, or quality of life compared with a placebo surgery.
Orthotherapy exercises
Patients that suffer from pain in the rotator cuff may consider utilizing orthotherapy into their daily lives. Orthotherapy is an exercise program that aims to restore the motion and strength of the shoulder muscles. Patients can go through the three phases of orthotherapy to help manage pain and also recover their full range of motion in the rotator cuff. The first phase involves gentle stretches and passive all around movements, and people are advised not to go above 70 degrees of elevation to prevent any kind of further pain. The second phase of this regimen requires patients to implement exercises to strengthen the muscles that are surrounding the rotator cuff muscles, combined with the passive exercises done in the first phase to keep on stretching the tissues without overexerting them. Exercises include pushups and shoulder shrugs, and after a couple of weeks of this, daily activities are gradually added to the patient's routine. This program does not require any sort of medication or surgery and can serve as a good alternative.
The rotator cuff and the upper muscles are responsible for many daily tasks that people do in their lives. A proper recovery needs to be maintained and achieved to prevent limiting movement, and can be done through simple movements.
Additional images
See also
Frozen shoulder
References
Shoulder
Upper limb anatomy
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227857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1529%20in%20literature | 1529 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1529.
Events
Paracelsus starts to write Paragranum.
New books
Henry Cornelius Agrippa –
Simon Fish – A Supplicacyon for the Beggers
Hans Luft – A Proper Dialogue Between A Gentleman and a Husbandman
Martin Luther
Luther's Small Catechism ()
On War Against the Turk ()
Philipp Melanchthon – Commentary on the Colossians (with foreword by Martin Luther)
Thomas More – A Supplication of Souls
John Rastell – The Pastyme of People, the Chronydes of dyvers Realmys and most specially of the Realme of England
Births
February 23 – Onofrio Panvinio, Italian historian and antiquary (died 1568)
June 7 – Étienne Pasquier, French poet and author (died 1615)
December 11 – Fulvio Orsini, Italian humanist historian (died 1600)
Unknown date – George Puttenham, English writer and critic (died 1590)
Deaths
February 2 – Baldassare Castiglione, Italian poet and author (born 1478)
June 21 – John Skelton, English poet (born c. 1460)
Unknown dates
Richard Pynson, French-born English printer (born 1448)
Paulus Aemilius Veronensis, Italian historian (born c. 1455)
References
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1528%20in%20literature | 1528 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1528.
Events
October 2 – William Tyndale's The Obedience of a Christian Man (The Obedience of a Christen man, and how Christen rulers ought to govern) is printed in Antwerp for clandestine distribution in England.
New books
Baltissare Castiglione – The Book of the Courtier (Il Cortegiano)
Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples – Ancien Testament (translation of the Old Testament into French)
Francisco Delicado – Portrait of Lozana: The Lusty Andalusian Woman (Retrato de la Loçana andaluza)
Desiderius Erasmus – Ciceronianus
Jean Fernel – Cosmotheoria
Martin Luther – Confession Concerning Christ's Supper (Vom Abendmahl Christi, Bekenntnis)
William Tyndale – The Obedience of a Christian Man
New drama
Ludovico Ariosto
La Lena
Il Negromante (approximate date of first performance)
New poetry
Anna Bijns – Refrains
Births
November 2 – Petrus Lotichius Secundus, born Peter Lotz, German scholar and Latin poet (died 1560)
unknown dates
Rémy Belleau, French poet (died 1577)
Birbal, born Maheshdas Bhat, Indian poet, wit and Grand Vizier of the Mughal court (died 1586)
Jean-Jacques Boissard, French antiquary and Latin poet (died 1602)
Henri Estienne, French printer and classical scholar (died 1598)
António Ferreira, Portuguese poet (died 1569)
Atagi Fuyuyasu (安宅 冬康), Japanese samurai and poet (died 1564)
Phùng Khắc Khoan, Vietnamese military strategist, politician, diplomat and poet (died 1613)
Thomas Whythorne, English composer and autobiographer (died 1595)
Deaths
March 10 – Balthasar Hubmaier, German Anabaptist theologian (born c.1480)
November 17 – Jakob Wimpfeling, humanist and theologian (born 1450)
unknown dates
Al-Birjandi, Persian scientist
Richard Hyrde, English scholar and translator
Erhard Ratdolt, German printer (born 1442)
probable – Giorgio Anselmo, Italian physician and Latin poet (born c.1458)
References
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227859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1527%20in%20literature | 1527 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1527.
Events
June 23 – Paracelsus burns books of Avicenna.
New books
Prose
Hector Boece – Historia Scotorum
Philippe de Commines – Mémoires (Part 2: Books 7–8)
Hans Sachs and Andreas Osiander – Eyn wunderliche Weyssagung von dem Babsttumb, wie es ihm biz an das endt der welt gehen sol ("A wonderful prophecy of the papacy about how things will go for it up until the end of the world")
Poetry
Pietro Aretino – Sonetti Lussuriosi ("Sonnets of lust" or "Aretino's Postures", to accompany an edition of Raimondi's erotic engravings, I Modi)
Births
July 13 – John Dee, English mathematician, astrologer and antiquary (died 1608 or 1609)
Unknown dates
Luis de León, Spanish mystic and lyric poet (died 1591)
Łukasz Górnicki, Polish humanist and poet (died 1603)
Iacob Heraclid, Maltese-born humanist and military theorist (died 1563)
Deaths
c. May 6? – Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi, Italian calligrapher and type designer (born 1475)
June 21 – Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian philosopher, writer, poet, musician and politician (born 1469)
June 25 – Šiško Menčetić, Croatian poet and Ragusan nobleman (born 1457)
October 27 – Johann Froben, printer and publisher in Switzerland (b. c.1460)
Unknown dates
Andrea Fulvio, Italian Renaissance humanist, poet and antiquarian (born 1470)
Unknown year (or 1528) – Richard Methley, English Dominican writer and translator (born c. 1451)
1527
1527 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1526%20in%20literature | 1526 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1526.
Events
Spring – The first complete printed translation of the New Testament into English, by William Tyndale, arrives in England from Germany, printing having been completed in Worms by Peter Schöffer the younger, with other copies being printed in Amsterdam.
c.September – Following the Battle of Mohács, the Bibliotheca Corviniana in Ofen is destroyed by troops of the Ottoman Empire.
September 6 – The first complete Dutch-language translation of the Bible is printed by Jacob van Liesvelt in Antwerp.
October – Cuthbert Tunstall, Bishop of London, attempts to collect all copies of Tyndale's New Testament in his diocese and burn them.
unknown dates
The New Testament is translated into Swedish, as the first such official translation, made by Olaus Petri under royal patronage.
An edition of the Bible, Biblia Sacra, is printed by Yolande Bonhomme in Paris, the first to be printed by a woman.
New books
Prose
A Hundred Merry Tales (A C. Mary Talys, printed by John Rastell and perhaps compiled by John Heywood)
Martin Luther – The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ – Against the Fanatics (Sakrament des Leibes and Blutes Christi wider die Schwarmgeister)
William Tyndale – New Testament Bible translation, part of the Tyndale Bible
Drama
Niccolò Machiavelli – The Mandrake (La Mandragola, first performance)
Poetry
Teofilo Folengo (as "Limerno Pitocco da Mantova") – Orlandino
Jacopo Sannazaro
De Partu Virginis
Piscatoria
Shin Maha Rahtathara – Kogan Pyo
Births
March 11 – Heinrich Rantzau, German humanist, astrologer and bibliophile (died 1598)
unknown dates
Bâkî (باقى), born Mahmud Abdülbâkî (محمود عبد الباقى), Ottoman Turkish poet (died 1600)
Tani Soyo (谷宗養), Japanese renga poet (died 1563)
Deaths
unknown date – Jean Marot, French poet (born c. 1450)
References
1526
1526 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1525%20in%20literature | 1525 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1525.
Events
July – Michelangelo is in the process of working on the Laurentian Library in Florence.
September – William Tyndale's New Testament translation into English is made, but printing in Cologne is interrupted by anti-Lutheran forces. (Copies reach England in 1526.)
unknown dates
Il Petrarco, Allesandro Vellutello's edition of Petrarch first appears. It will be reprinted 29 times in this century.
The anonymous early 14th-century poem King Alexander is first printed.
New books
Prose
Pietro Bembo – Prose nelle quali si ragiona della volgar lingua (Prose della volgar lingua)
Albrecht Dürer – Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt (literally, "Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler"; also known as The Four Books on Measurement or The Painter's Manual)
Francesco Giorgi – De harmonia mundi totius
Martin Luther – On the Bondage of the Will (De Servo Arbitrio)
Paracelsus – De septem puncti idolotriae christianae (On the Seven Points of Christian Idolatry)
Antonio Pigafetta – Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (Report on the First Voyage Around the World; partial publication in Paris)
The Twelve Articles: The Just and Fundamental Articles of All the Peasantry and Tenants of Spiritual and Temporal Powers by Whom They Think Themselves Oppressed
Drama
Niklaus Manuel Deutsch I – Der Ablasskrämer
Niccolò Machiavelli – Clizia
Poetry
Births
March 25 – Richard Edwardes, English choral singer, poet and playwright (died 1566)
Pir Roshan (بايزيد انصاري), Pashtun warrior poet (died 1582/5)
Jan van Casembroot, Flemish noble and poet (died 1568)
probable – Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof, German Landsknecht, baroque poet and translator (died c.1602)
Deaths
May 27 – Thomas Müntzer, German Protestant theologian, radical economist and poet (born c.1489) (executed)
approximate year – Jean Lemaire de Belges, Walloon poet and historian resident in France (born c.1473)
References
1525
1525 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1524%20in%20literature | 1524 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1524.
Events
probable – Eyn Gespräch von dem gemaynen Schwabacher Kasten ("als durch Brüder Hainrich, Knecht Ruprecht, Kemerin, Spüler, und irem Maister, des Handtwercks der Wüllen Tuchmacher") is published in Nuremberg, Germany, the first publication in the "Schwabacher" blackletter typeface.
New books
Petrus Apianus – Cosmographicus liber (Landshut)
Philippe de Commines – Mémoires (Part 1: Books 1–6; first publication; Paris)
Desiderius Erasmus – De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio ("The Freedom of the Will"; Antwerp, September)
Martin Luther and Paul Speratus – Etlich Cristlich Lider: Lobgesang un Psalm ("Achtliederbuch"), the first Lutheran hymnal (Wittenberg)
Martin Luther and others – Eyn Enchiridion oder Handbüchlein (the "Erfurt Enchiridion"), two editions of a hymnal printed respectively by Johannes Loersfeld and Matthes Maler (Erfurt), including Luther's hymn "Christ lag in Todes Banden"
Jacques Merlin – Quatuor concilium generalium Paris: Jean Cornilleau für Galliot du Pré
Adam Ries – Coß
Johann Walter – Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn ("A sacred little hymnal") (Wittenberg), including Luther's chorale "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ"
New poetry
Robert Copland – Epilogue to the Syege of Rodes (London)
New drama
Ludovico Ariosto – I suppositi (1509, first publication, in prose)
Niklaus Manuel Deutsch I – Vom Papst und seiner Priesterschaft
Niccolò Machiavelli – The Mandrake (La Mandragola, first published)
Births
May 28 – Selim II, Ottoman Turkish sultan and poet (died 1574)
September 11 – Pierre de Ronsard, French poet (died 1585)
Unknown date – Thomas Tusser, English agriculturalist, poet and chorister (died 1580)
Approximate year of birth
Luís de Camões, Portuguese national poet (died 1580)
Louise Labé, French poet (died 1566)
Girolamo Parabosco, Italian poet and musician (died 1577)
Deaths
January 5 – Marko Marulić of Split, Croatian Christian humanist and poet (born 1450)
January 7 (or 1523) – Tang Yin (唐寅, also Tang Bohu, 唐伯), Chinese scholar, poet and calligrapher (born 1470)
October 20 – Thomas Linacre, English humanist scholar, grammarian and physician (born 1470)
unknown date – Giovanni Aurelio Augurello, Italian humanist scholar and alchemist writing Latin poetry (born 1456)
References
1524
1524 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1523%20in%20literature | 1523 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1523.
Events
June 9 – Simon de Colines, a Paris printer, is fined for printing Commentarii initiatorr in quatuor Evangelia, a Biblical commentary by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, without approval from the Paris Faculty of Theology.
New books
Pietro Aron – Thoscanello de la musica
Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples – Nouveau Testament, translation of the New Testament into French
Anthony Fitzherbert
Diversité de courtz et leur jurisdictions
The Boke of Husbandrie
The Boke of Surveyinge and Improvements
Martin Luther
, translation of the Pentateuch into German
The Adoration of the Sacrament (Vom Anbeten des Sakraments des heiligen leichnams Christi)
Maximilianus Transylvanus – De Moluccis Insulis, the first published account of the Magellan–Elcano circumnavigation
New poetry
Alexander Barclay – The Mirror of Good Manners, translating Dominic Mancini's De quatuor virtutibus (approximate date)
Hans Sachs – Die Wittenbergische Nachtigall (The Wittenberg Nightingale)
John Skelton – The Garland of Laurel
New drama
Farsa de Inês Pereira (The Farce of Inez Pereira)
Births
February 13 – Valentin Naboth, German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer (died 1593)
February 20 – Jan Blahoslav, Czech Christian humanist writer (died 1571)
March 16 – Antoine Rodolphe Chevallier, French Protestant Hebraist, tutor of Queen Elizabeth I of England (died 1572)
March 21 – Kaspar Eberhard, German theologian (died 1575)
unknown date – Girolamo Maggi, Italian polymath (died 1572)
Deaths
August 29 – Ulrich von Hutten, German scholar, poet and reformer (born 1488)
October – William Cornysh, dramatist, poet, actor and composer (born 1465)
unknown date – Stephen Hawes, English poet (born c. 1474)
References
1523
1523 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1522%20in%20literature | 1522 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1522.
Events
September 21 – Luther Bible: Martin Luther's translation of the Bible's New Testament into Early New High German from Greek, Das newe Testament Deutzsch, is published in Germany, selling thousands in the first few weeks.
Luo Guanzhong's 14th-century compilation Romance of the Three Kingdoms is first printed, as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi.
New books
Prose
Desiderius Erasmus – Novum Testamentum (Greek Textus Receptus of the New Testament, third edition)
Martin Luther – Against Henry, King of the English (Contra Henricum Regem Anglie)
Adam Ries –
Drama
Niklaus Manuel Deutsch I – Vom Papst und Christi Gegensatz
The World and the Child (Mundus et Infans, published)
Poetry
Thomas Murner – Von dem grossen Lutherischen Narren ("Of the Great Lutheran Fool")
Births
February – Jean de Nostredame, Provençal historian (died c.1576)
June 1 – Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert, Dutch classical scholar (died 1590)
unknown dates
Joachim du Bellay, French poet (died 1560)
Siôn Tudur, Welsh poet (died 1602)
Deaths
January 25 – Raffaello Maffei, Italian humanist historian and theologian (born 1451)
February 25 – William Lilye, English classical scholar (born c. 1468)
June 30 – Johann Reuchlin, German humanist scholar and poet (born 1455)
September – Gavin Douglas, Scottish poet and bishop (born c. 1474)
References
1522
1522 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1521%20in%20literature | 1521 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1521.
Events
January 3 – Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther, by the papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
January 14 – Martin Luther writes to Johann von Staupitz, saying that he has burned the papal bull.
February 9 – Íñigo López de Mendoza y Zúñiga arrives in Rome to campaign against Erasmus; later in the year he publishes an account of his journey from Spain.
June (probably 29 or 30) – Neacșu's letter, the oldest surviving dateable document written primarily in the Romanian language (in the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet), is approximately dated to this month.
August 13 – Marko Marulić's poem Judita (Judith, written 1501), a landmark in Croatian literature, is printed in Venice by Guglielmo da Fontaneto.
unknown date – John Siberch is active in Cambridge, the city's earliest known printer.
New books
Prose
Codex Ňuu Tnoo - Ndisi Nuu
Jacopo Berengario da Carpi – Commentaria cum amplissimus additionibus super anatomiam Mundini (published in Bologna), containing the first printed anatomical illustrations taken from nature
Goražde Psalter
Henry VIII of England – Defence of the Seven Sacraments (Assertio Septem Sacramentorum)
Niccolò Machiavelli – The Art of War (Dell'arte della guerra)
Piri Reis – Kitab-ı Bahriye
Poetry
Alexander Barclay – The Boke of Codrus and Mynalcas, the author's "Fourth Eclog"
Henry Bradshaw – The Life of St. Werburgh
Andrew Chertsey, The Passyon of Oure Lorde, translated from French with additional verses inserted and introductory poem by Robert Copland (published in London by Wynkyn de Worde)
Christmas Carols, including "A caroll of huntynge" and "A carol bringyng in the bores heed"
Robert Copland – Introductory verse to The Myrrour & the Chyrche (published in London by Wynkyn de Worde)
Approximate year
(A Book of a Ghostly Father, published in London by Wynkyn de Worde)
John Skelton, "The Tunnyng of Elynour Rummyng"
Births
May 8 – Peter Canisius, German theologian (died 1597)
unknown dates
Sir Thomas Chaloner the elder, English statesman and poet (died 1565)
Xu Wei (徐渭), Chinese painter, poet and dramatist (died 1593)
probable
Anne Askew, English poet and Protestant martyr (burned at the stake 1546)
Jorge de Montemor, Portuguese novelist and poet writing in Spanish (died 1561)
Pontus de Tyard, French poet and priest, a member of La Pléiade (died 1605)
Deaths
May 10 – Sebastian Brant, German satirical poet and humanist (born c. 1457)
unknown date– Jean Bourdichon, French illuminator of manuscripts (born 1457/9)
References
1521
1521 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1520%20in%20literature | 1520 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1520.
Events
unknown dates
Scholars at Complutense University, Alcalá de Henares, under the direction of Diego Lopez de Zúñiga, complete the Complutensian Polyglot Bible.
Ulrich von Hutten's satirical poem Aufwecker der teutschen Nation (Awakener of the German Nation) is published – his earliest work in German.
New books
Prose
Hochstratus Ovans
Martin Luther
To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation)
On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae praeludium)
On the Freedom of a Christian
Niccolò Machiavelli – Discourse on Reforming the Government of Florence (Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze)
Shin Maha Thilawuntha – Yazawin Kyaw (Burmese), supplement
Ruyijun zhuan (claimed completion date)
Drama
John Heywood – Johan Johan The Husband
Approximate year – Niccolò Machiavelli: Andria
Poetry
Robert Copland – (published in London by Wynkyn de Worde)
Terence (translated) – Terens in Englysh (published in Paris)
Approximate year
John Lydgate – Testament
Alexander the Great
The Squire of Low Degree (written c. 1500; published in London by Wynkyn de Worde)
Births
March 3 – Matthias Flacius, German Lutheran theologian (died 1575)
unknown date
François Baudouin, French humanist historian (died 1573)
Natalis Comes, Italian mythologist, poet and historian (died 1582)
Denis Lambin, French classicist (died 1572)
probable
Hernando de Acuña, Spanish poet (died 1580)
Giovanni Bona de Boliris, Italian humanist, poet and writer, writing in Latin and Italian (died 1572)
Thomas Churchyard, English author and poet (died 1604)
Pernette Du Guillet, French poet (died 1545)
Jorge de Montemor, Portuguese novelist and poet, writing in Spanish (died 1561)
Christophe Plantin, French-born Dutch humanist and printer (died 1589)
Madeleine Des Roches (Madeleine Neveu), French author, poet and salonnière (died 1587)
Alexander Scott, Scottish poet (died 1582/83)
Georg Thym, German teacher, poet and writer (died 1560)
Deaths
March 16 – Martin Waldseemüller, German humanist and cartographer (born c.1470)
May 31 – Johannes Aesticampianus, German humanist theologian (born 1457)
unknown date – William Dunbar, Scottish poet (born 1459/60)
References
1520
1520 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode%20locking | Mode locking | Mode locking is a technique in optics by which a laser can be made to produce pulses of light of extremely short duration, on the order of picoseconds (10−12 s) or femtoseconds (10−15 s). A laser operated in this way is sometimes referred to as a femtosecond laser, for example, in modern refractive surgery. The basis of the technique is to induce a fixed phase relationship between the longitudinal modes of the laser's resonant cavity. Constructive interference between these modes can cause the laser light to be produced as a train of pulses. The laser is then said to be "phase-locked" or "mode-locked".
Laser cavity modes
Although laser light is perhaps the purest form of light, it is not of a single, pure frequency or wavelength. All lasers produce light over some natural bandwidth or range of frequencies. A laser's bandwidth of operation is determined primarily by the gain medium from which the laser is constructed, and the range of frequencies over which a laser may operate is known as the gain bandwidth. For example, a typical helium–neon laser has a gain bandwidth of about 1.5 GHz (a wavelength range of about 0.002 nm at a central wavelength of 633 nm), whereas a titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) solid-state laser has a bandwidth of about 128 THz (a 300 nm wavelength range centered at 800 nm).
The second factor to determine a laser's emission frequencies is the optical cavity (or resonant cavity) of the laser. In the simplest case, this consists of two plane (flat) mirrors facing each other, surrounding the gain medium of the laser (this arrangement is known as a Fabry–Pérot cavity). Since light is a wave, when bouncing between the mirrors of the cavity, the light constructively and destructively interferes with itself, leading to the formation of standing waves, or modes, between the mirrors. These standing waves form a discrete set of frequencies, known as the longitudinal modes of the cavity. These modes are the only frequencies of light that are self-regenerating and allowed to oscillate by the resonant cavity; all other frequencies of light are suppressed by destructive interference. For a simple plane-mirror cavity, the allowed modes are those for which the separation distance of the mirrors L is an exact multiple of half the wavelength of the light λ, such that , where q is an integer known as the mode order.
In practice, L is usually much greater than λ, so the relevant values of q are large (around 105 to 106). Of more interest is the frequency separation between any two adjacent modes q and q + 1; this is given (for an empty linear resonator of length L) by Δν:
where c is the speed of light (≈3×108 m/s).
Using the above equation, a small laser with a mirror separation of 30 cm has a frequency separation between longitudinal modes of 0.5 GHz. Thus for the two lasers referenced above, with a 30 cm cavity, the 1.5 GHz bandwidth of the HeNe laser would support up to 3 longitudinal modes, whereas the 128 THz bandwidth of the Ti:sapphire laser could support approximately 250,000 modes. When more than one longitudinal mode is excited, the laser is said to be in "multi-mode" operation. When only one longitudinal mode is excited, the laser is said to be in "single-mode" operation.
Each individual longitudinal mode has some bandwidth or narrow range of frequencies over which it operates, but typically this bandwidth, determined by the Q factor of the cavity (see Fabry–Pérot interferometer), is much smaller than the intermode frequency separation.
Mode-locking theory
In a simple laser, each of these modes oscillates independently, with no fixed relationship between each other, in essence like a set of independent lasers, all emitting light at slightly different frequencies. The individual phase of the light waves in each mode is not fixed and may vary randomly due to such things as thermal changes in materials of the laser. In lasers with only a few oscillating modes, interference between the modes can cause beating effects in the laser output, leading to fluctuations in intensity; in lasers with many thousands of modes, these interference effects tend to average to a near-constant output intensity.
If instead of oscillating independently, each mode operates with a fixed phase between it and the other modes, the laser output behaves quite differently. Instead of a random or constant output intensity, the modes of the laser will periodically all constructively interfere with one another, producing an intense burst or pulse of light. Such a laser is said to be "mode-locked" or "phase-locked". These pulses occur separated in time by , where τ is the time taken for the light to make exactly one round trip of the laser cavity. This time corresponds to a frequency exactly equal to the mode spacing of the laser, .
The duration of each pulse of light is determined by the number of modes oscillating in phase (in a real laser, it is not necessarily true that all of the laser's modes are phase-locked). If there are N modes locked with a frequency separation Δν, the overall mode-locked bandwidth is NΔν, and the wider this bandwidth, the shorter the pulse duration from the laser. In practice, the actual pulse duration is determined by the shape of each pulse, which is in turn determined by the exact amplitude and phase relationship of each longitudinal mode. For example, for a laser producing pulses with a Gaussian temporal shape, the minimum possible pulse duration Δt is given by
The value 0.441 is known as the "time–bandwidth product" of the pulse and varies depending on the pulse shape. For ultrashort pulse lasers, a hyperbolic-secant-squared (sech2) pulse shape is often assumed, giving a time–bandwidth product of 0.315.
Using this equation, the minimum pulse duration can be calculated consistent with the measured laser spectral width. For the HeNe laser with a 1.5 GHz spectral width, the shortest Gaussian pulse consistent with this spectral width would be around 300 picoseconds; for the 128 THz bandwidth Ti:sapphire laser, this spectral width would be only 3.4 femtoseconds. These values represent the shortest possible Gaussian pulses consistent with the laser's linewidth; in a real mode-locked laser, the actual pulse duration depends on many other factors, such as the actual pulse shape and the overall dispersion of the cavity.
Subsequent modulation could, in principle, shorten the pulse width of such a laser further; however, the measured spectral width would then be correspondingly increased.
Mode-locking methods
Methods for producing mode locking in a laser may be classified as either "active" or "passive". Active methods typically involve using an external signal to induce a modulation of the intracavity light. Passive methods do not use an external signal, but rely on placing some element into the laser cavity which causes self-modulation of the light.
Active mode locking
The most common active mode-locking technique places a standing wave electro-optic modulator into the laser cavity. When driven with an electrical signal, this produces a sinusoidal amplitude modulation of the light in the cavity. Considering this in the frequency domain, if a mode has optical frequency ν and is amplitude-modulated at a frequency f, the resulting signal has sidebands at optical frequencies and . If the modulator is driven at the same frequency as the cavity mode spacing Δν, then these sidebands correspond to the two cavity modes adjacent to the original mode. Since the sidebands are driven in-phase, the central mode and the adjacent modes will be phase-locked together. Further operation of the modulator on the sidebands produces phase locking of the and modes, and so on until all modes in the gain bandwidth are locked. As said above, typical lasers are multi-mode and not seeded by a root mode. So multiple modes need to work out which phase to use. In a passive cavity with this locking applied, there is no way to dump the entropy given by the original independent phases. This locking is better described as a coupling, leading to a complicated behavior and not clean pulses. The coupling is only dissipative because of the dissipative nature of the amplitude modulation. Otherwise, the phase modulation would not work.
This process can also be considered in the time domain. The amplitude modulator acts as a weak "shutter" to the light bouncing between the mirrors of the cavity, attenuating the light when it is "closed" and letting it through when it is "open". If the modulation rate f is synchronised to the cavity round-trip time τ, then a single pulse of light will bounce back and forth in the cavity. The actual strength of the modulation does not have to be large; a modulator that attenuates 1% of the light when "closed" will mode-lock a laser, since the same part of the light is repeatedly attenuated as it traverses the cavity.
Related to this amplitude modulation (AM), active mode locking is frequency-modulation (FM) mode locking, which uses a modulator device based on the acousto-optic effect. This device, when placed in a laser cavity and driven with an electrical signal, induces a small, sinusoidally varying frequency shift in the light passing through it. If the frequency of modulation is matched to the round-trip time of the cavity, then some light in the cavity sees repeated upshifts in frequency, and some repeated downshifts. After many repetitions, the upshifted and downshifted light is swept out of the gain bandwidth of the laser. The only light unaffected is that which passes through the modulator when the induced frequency shift is zero, which forms a narrow pulse of light.
The third method of active mode locking is synchronous mode locking, or synchronous pumping. In this, the pump source (energy source) for the laser is itself modulated, effectively turning the laser on and off to produce pulses. Typically, the pump source is itself another mode-locked laser. This technique requires accurately matching the cavity lengths of the pump laser and the driven laser.
Passive mode locking
Passive mode-locking techniques are those that do not require a signal external to the laser (such as the driving signal of a modulator) to produce pulses. Rather, they use the light in the cavity to cause a change in some intracavity element, which will then itself produce a change in the intracavity light. A commonly used device to achieve this is a saturable absorber.
A saturable absorber is an optical device that exhibits an intensity-dependent transmission, meaning that the device behaves differently depending on the intensity of the light passing through it. For passive mode locking, ideally a saturable absorber selectively absorbs low-intensity light, but transmits light of sufficiently high intensity. When placed in a laser cavity, a saturable absorber attenuates low-intensity constant-wave light (pulse wings). However, because of the somewhat random intensity fluctuations experienced by an un-mode-locked laser, any random, intense spike is transmitted preferentially by the saturable absorber. As the light in the cavity oscillates, this process repeats, leading to the selective amplification of the high-intensity spikes and the absorption of the low-intensity light. After many round trips, this leads to a train of pulses and mode locking of the laser.
Considering this in the frequency domain, if a mode has optical frequency ν and is amplitude-modulated at a frequency nf, the resulting signal has sidebands at optical frequencies and and enables much stronger mode locking for shorter pulses and more stability than active mode locking, but has startup problems.
Saturable absorbers are commonly liquid organic dyes, but they can also be made from doped crystals and semiconductors. Semiconductor absorbers tend to exhibit very fast response times (~100 fs), which is one of the factors that determines the final duration of the pulses in a passively mode-locked laser. In a colliding-pulse mode-locked laser the absorber steepens the leading edge, while the lasing medium steepens the trailing edge of the pulse.
There are also passive mode-locking schemes that do not rely on materials that directly display an intensity-dependent absorption. In these methods, nonlinear optical effects in intracavity components are used to provide a method of selectively amplifying high-intensity light in the cavity and attenuation of low-intensity light. One of the most successful schemes is called Kerr-lens mode locking (KLM), also sometimes called "self-mode-locking". This uses a nonlinear optical process, the optical Kerr effect, which results in high-intensity light being focussed differently from low-intensity light. By careful arrangement of an aperture in the laser cavity, this effect can be exploited to produce the equivalent of an ultra-fast response-time saturable absorber.
Hybrid modelocking
In some semiconductor lasers a combination of the two above techniques can be used. Using a laser with a saturable absorber and modulating the electrical injection at the same frequency the laser is locked at, the laser can be stabilized by the electrical injection. This has the advantage of stabilizing the phase noise of the laser and can reduce the timing jitter of the pulses from the laser.
Mode locking by residual cavity fields
Coherent phase-information transfer between subsequent laser pulses has also been observed from nanowire lasers. Here, the phase information has been stored in the residual photon field of coherent Rabi oscillations in the cavity. Such findings open the way to phase locking of light sources integrated onto chip-scale photonic circuits and applications, such as on-chip Ramsey comb spectroscopy.
Fourier-domain mode locking
Fourier-domain mode locking (FDML) is a laser mode-locking technique that creates a continuous-wave, wavelength-swept light output. A main application for FDML lasers is optical coherence tomography.
Practical mode-locked lasers
In practice, a number of design considerations affect the performance of a mode-locked laser. The most important are the overall dispersion of the laser's optical resonator, which can be controlled with a prism compressor or some dispersive mirrors placed in the cavity, and optical nonlinearities. For excessive net group delay dispersion (GDD) of the laser cavity, the phase of the cavity modes can not be locked over a large bandwidth, and it will be difficult to obtain very short pulses. For a suitable combination of negative (anomalous) net GDD with the Kerr nonlinearity, soliton-like interactions may stabilize the mode locking and help to generate shorter pulses. The shortest possible pulse duration is usually accomplished either for zero dispersion (without nonlinearities) or for some slightly negative (anomalous) dispersion (exploiting the soliton mechanism).
The shortest directly produced optical pulses are generally produced by Kerr-lens mode-locked Ti-sapphire lasers and are around 5 femtoseconds long. Alternatively, amplified pulses of a similar duration are created through the compression of longer (e.g. 30 fs) pulses by self-phase modulation in a hollow-core fibre or during filamentation. However, the minimum pulse duration is limited by the period of the carrier frequency (which is about 2.7 fs for Ti:sapphire systems), therefore shorter pulses require moving to shorter wavelengths. Some advanced techniques (involving high-harmonic generation with amplified femtosecond laser pulses) can be used to produce optical features with durations as short as 100 attoseconds in the extreme ultraviolet spectral region (i.e. <30 nm). Other achievements, important particularly for laser applications, concern the development of mode-locked lasers that can be pumped with laser diodes, can generate very high average output powers (tens of watts) in sub-picosecond pulses, or generate pulse trains with extremely high repetition rates of many GHz.
Pulse durations less than approximately 100 fs are too short to be directly measured using optoelectronic techniques (i.e. photodiodes), and so indirect methods, such as autocorrelation, frequency-resolved optical gating, spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction or multiphoton intrapulse interference phase scan are used.
Applications
Nuclear fusion (inertial confinement fusion).
Nonlinear optics, such as second-harmonic generation, parametric down-conversion, optical parametric oscillators, and generation of terahertz radiation.
Optical data storage uses lasers, and the emerging technology of 3D optical data storage generally relies on nonlinear photochemistry. For this reason, many examples use mode-locked lasers, since they can offer a very high repetition rate of ultrashort pulses.
Femtosecond laser nanomachining – the short pulses can be used to nanomachine in many types of materials.
An example of pico- and femtosecond micromachining is drilling the silicon jet surface of inkjet printers.
Two-photon microscopy.
Corneal surgery (see refractive surgery). Femtosecond lasers can be used to create bubbles in the cornea. A line of bubbles can be used to create a cut in the cornea, replacing the microkeratome, e.g. for the creation of a flap in LASIK surgery (this is sometimes referred to as Intralasik or all-laser surgery). Bubbles can also be created in multiple layers so that a piece of corneal tissue between these layers can be removed (a procedure known as small incision lenticule extraction).
A laser technique has been developed that renders the surface of metals deep black. A femtosecond laser pulse deforms the surface of the metal, forming nanostructures. The immensely increased surface area can absorb virtually all the light that falls on it, thus rendering it deep black. This is one type of black gold
Photonic sampling, using the high accuracy of lasers over electronic clocks to decrease the sampling error in electronic ADCs.
See also
Fiber laser
Disk laser
Laser construction
Soliton
Vector soliton
Dissipative soliton
Saturable absorption
Solid state laser
Femtotechnology
Frequency comb
Ultrafast optics
Q-switching
References
Further reading
H. Zhang et al, “Induced solitons formed by cross polarization coupling in a birefringent cavity fiber laser”, Opt. Lett., 33, 2317–2319.(2008).
D.Y. Tang et al, “Observation of high-order polarization-locked vector solitons in a fiber laser”, Physical Review Letters, 101, 153904 (2008).
H. Zhang et al., "Coherent energy exchange between components of a vector soliton in fiber lasers", Optics Express, 16,12618–12623 (2008).
H. Zhang et al, “Multi-wavelength dissipative soliton operation of an erbium-doped fiber laser”, Optics Express, Vol. 17, Issue 2, pp. 12692–12697
L.M. Zhao et al, “Polarization rotation locking of vector solitons in a fiber ring laser”, Optics Express, 16,10053–10058 (2008).
Qiaoliang Bao, Han Zhang, Yu Wang, Zhenhua Ni, Yongli Yan, Ze Xiang Shen, Kian Ping Loh, and Ding Yuan Tang, Advanced Functional Materials,"Atomic layer graphene as saturable absorber for ultrafast pulsed lasers "
External links
Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology on mode locking and mode-locked lasers
Laser science
Laser medicine | [
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227880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passau | Passau | Passau (; ) is a city in Lower Bavaria, Germany, also known as the Dreiflüssestadt ("City of Three Rivers") as the river Danube is joined by the Inn from the south and the Ilz from the north.
Passau's population is approx. 50,000, of whom about 12,000 are students at the University of Passau, renowned in Germany for its institutes of economics, law, theology, computer science and cultural studies.
History
In the 2nd century BC, many of the Boii tribe were pushed north across the Alps out of northern Italy by the Romans. They established a new capital called Boiodurum by the Romans (from Gaulish Boioduron), now within the Innstadt district of Passau.
Passau was an ancient Roman colony called Batavis, Latin for "for the Batavi." The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe often mentioned by classical authors, and they were regularly associated with the Suebian marauders, the Heruli. Batavis (Passau-Altstadt) was a Roman castrum in the province of Raetia, while another late Roman castrum, Boiotro (Passau-Innstadt), was in the province of Noricum.
During the second half of the 5th century, St. Severinus established a monastery here. The site was subject to repeated raids by the Alemanni. In 739, the recently consecrated English archbishop Boniface founded the diocese of Passau, which for many years was the largest diocese of the German Kingdom/Holy Roman Empire, covering territory in southern Bavaria and most of what is now Upper and Lower Austria. From the 10th century the bishops of Passau also exercised secular authority as Prince-Bishops in the immediate area around Passau (see ).
In the Treaty of Passau (1552), Archduke Ferdinand I, representing Emperor Charles V, secured the agreement of the Protestant princes to submit the religious question to a diet. This led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.
During the Renaissance and early modern period, Passau was one of the most prolific centres of sword and bladed weapon manufacture in Germany (after Solingen). Passau smiths stamped their blades with the Passau wolf, usually a rather simplified rendering of the wolf on the city's coat-of-arms. Superstitious warriors believed that the Passau wolf conferred invulnerability on the blade's bearer, and thus Passau swords acquired a great premium. According to the , aside from the wolf, some cabalistic signs and inscriptions were added. As a result, the whole practice of placing magical charms on swords to protect the wearers came to be known for a time as "Passau art". (See Eduard Wagner, Cut and Thrust Weapons, 1969.) Other cities' smiths, including those of Solingen, recognized the marketing value of the Passau wolf and adopted it for themselves. By the 17th century, Solingen was producing more wolf-stamped blades than Passau was.
In 1662, a devastating fire consumed most of the city. Passau was subsequently rebuilt in the Baroque style.
Passau was secularised and divided between the Electorate of Bavaria and the Electorate of Salzburg in 1803. The portion belonging to Salzburg became part of Bavaria in 1805.
From 1892 until 1894, Adolf Hitler and his family lived in Passau. The city archives mention Hitler being in Passau on four occasions in the 1920s for speeches. In addition, Heinrich Himmler spent some time there.
In November 1933, the building of (Hall of the Nibelungs) was announced. Intended to hold 8,000 to 10,000 guests, and another 30,000 in front of it, in 1935 the hall also became quarters for a unit of the Austrian Legion. Beginning in 1934, these troops had occupied a building that belonged to Sigmund Mandl, a Jewish merchant. That building, in turn, was referred to as SA barracks.
Beginning in 1940, Passau offered the building at Bräugasse 13 to Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle.
During World War II, the city also housed three sub-camps of the infamous Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp: Passau I (Oberilzmühle), Passau II (Waldwerke Passau-Ilzstadt) and Passau III (Jandelsbrunn). From January to May 1945, refugees from East Prussia and Silesia passed the city, after May, as the result of ethnic cleansing of neighboring Bohemia and Moravia of their German populace, further waves of refugees arrived in the city.
On May 3, 1945, a message from Major General Stanley Eric Reinhart’s 261st Infantry Regiment stated at 3:15 am: "AMG Officer has unconditional surrender of PASSAU signed by Burgermeister, Chief of Police and Lt. Col of Med Corps there. All troops are to turn themselves in this morning."
It was the site of a post World War II American sector displaced persons camp.
On 2 June 2013, the old town suffered from severe flooding as a result of several days of rain and its location at the confluence of three rivers Peak elevations of floods as early as 1501 are displayed on a wall at the Old City Hall. Flood water reaches the base of that wall on average once every 5 years.
Subdivisions
Until 2013, the City of Passau was subdivided into eight statistical districts, which in general coincide with formerly separate municipalities. Since 2013, the city is divided in 16 so-called areas of open council ("Bürgerversammlungsgebiete").
Main sights
Many river cruises down the Danube start at Passau and there is a cycling path all the way down to Vienna. It is on the designated heritage route, the Route of Emperors and Kings.
Passau is notable for its gothic and baroque architecture. The city is dominated by the Veste Oberhaus and the Veste Niederhaus, both parts of the former fortress of the Bishop, on the mountain crest between the Danube and the Ilz.
Tourism in Passau focuses mainly on the three rivers, the St. Stephen's Cathedral (Der Passauer Stephansdom) and the "Old City" (Die Altstadt).
With 17,774 pipes and 233 registers, the organ at St. Stephen's was long held to be the largest church pipe organ in the world and is today second in size only to the organ at First Congregational Church of Los Angeles, which was expanded in 1994. Organ concerts are held daily between May and September. St.Stephen's is a true masterpiece of Italian Baroque, built by Italian architect Carlo Lurago and decorated in part by Carpoforo Tencalla.
Among many other churches are the Jesuits church of St. Michael, the oldest parish church of St. Paul and the pilgrim church Mariahilf on the hill south of the rivers Inn and Danube.
Before the cathedral is a large square (Domplatz) with the Lamberg-Palais, where the
Peace of Passau was concluded.
The medieval Old Residence south of the cathedral and the baroque New Residence further west at Residenzplatz were the palaces of the Prince-Bishops within the city. Right beside the 14th century Gothic city hall with its neo Gothic tower and the big 19th century former Hauptzollamtsgebäude (Main Customs Office) at the Danube is the Scharfrichterhaus, an important jazz and cabaret stage on which political cabaret is performed.
Image gallery
Migrant entry point
Due to its location on the German-Austrian border, and in the south-east of the country, Passau has become a major migrant entry point into Germany. Refugees and economic migrants from the Middle East, Asia and Africa who have reached Europe, often entering either overland via Greece or across the sea via the Mediterranean (see Operation Triton), then head north and sometimes enter Germany. In 2015 the BBC reported that traffickers drive migrants and refugees through Austria and leave them on the side of the autobahn. The migrants and refugees then often walk unaccompanied into Passau, the first German town northwards. This situation has caused the government of Passau to divert funds from flood prevention to housing and feeding the refugees and migrants, around 10% of whom are unaccompanied children.
Abortion controversy
A traditionally very Catholic region, Passau and Lower Bavaria have made national news for a lack of access to safe abortion. Due to a political decision in the city council, staff at the Municipal Clinic are prevented from performing abortions in accordance with §218a (1) of the German Penal Code, which permits abortions up to 12 weeks of pregnancy after mandatory counselling. After the last gynaecologist performing abortions retired in early 2020, women had to travel more than 100km to get an abortion. This development fits into a wider pattern of declining numbers of gynaecologists performing abortions, often due to the harassment of pro-life activists protesting in front of doctor's offices and reporting doctors who perform abortions to the police.
In order to improve access to abortions in Passau and fight for a complete legalisation and destigmatisation of abortions, in 2019 several political and civic groups founded the Coalition For Bodily Autonomy. Since the 1990s, there have been protests in favour of the right to abortion. In recent years, the "Coalition For Bodily Autonomy" staged counter-protests against an anti-abortion campaigner who regularly takes part in the international campaign 40 Days for Life protesting in front of the pro familia counselling centre that women seeking an abortion are mandated to visit in order to have an abortion.
Twin towns - sister cities
Passau is twinned with:
Hackensack, United States (1952)
Cagnes-sur-Mer, France (1973)
Krems an der Donau, Austria (1974)
Akita, Japan (1984)
Málaga, Spain (1987)
České Budějovice, Czech Republic (1993)
Liuzhou, China (1999)
Veszprém, Hungary (1999)
Montecchio Maggiore, Italy (2003)
Notable people
Otto of Passau (died after 1383/86), clerical author
Gottlieb Muffat (1690–1770), organist and composer
Joseph Ferdinand Damberger (1795–1859), historian
Joseph Maximilian von Maillinger (1820–1901), general and war minister
Hans Fruhstorfer (1866–1922), explorer and entomologist
Georg Philipp Wörlen (1886–1954), painter
Christian Rub (1886–1956), actor
Adolf Hitler (1889−1945), lived here in 1892–1894 with his family
Henry Gerber (1892−1972), early U.S. gay rights activist
Ludwig Schmidseder (1904–1971), composer and pianist
Albert Ganzenmüller (1905–1996), Nazi politician
Alfred Dick (1927–2005), politician
Nicolaus A. Huber (born 1939), composer
Heidi Schüller (born 1950), athlete
Bruno Jonas (born 1952), cabaret artist and actor
Anna Rosmus (born 1960), author, Third Reich historian
Andreas Scheuer (born 1974), politician (CSU)
Florian Silbereisen (born 1981), singer and television presenter
Gisela Mashayekhi-Beer (born before 1983), Austrian flautist
Michael Ammermüller (born 1986), race car driver
See also
University of Passau
Athanor Academy of Performing Arts Passau
References
Further reading
Passau, Universität, Dissertation, 2005
External links
Passau Wiki
Passau at Flickr
Passau Cathedral, which is famous for its organ with 17,774 pipes and 233 registers - the biggest church organ on Earth - Zoomable map and satellite overview (Google Maps).
First stop for new arrivals in Germany: bureaucracy (My Way news, September 16th, 2015)
Passau (district)
Populated places on the Danube
Populated places on the Inn (river)
Roman fortifications in Raetia | [
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227883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velen | Velen | Velen is a town in the district Borken, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany with about 12,000 citizens. It consists of the two settlements of Velen and Ramsdorf and the four rural regions Ostendorf-Krueckling, Bleking-Holthausen, Nordvelen and Waldvelen. In 2003 the town received the title "staatlich anerkannter Erholungsort" (recreation village approved by the state) from the regional president. Since August 2012 it is a town.
Personalities
Hendrickje Stoffels (1626-1663), partner of the Dutch Baroque painter Rembrandt
Ludwig Averkamp (1927-2013), Archbishop of Hamburg
Klaus Balkenhol (born 1939), German dressage rider
Georg Veit (born 1956), writer
Marv Terhoch, son of Velen-born Kurt Terhoch, refugee to Canada in 1939
References
Borken (district)
Province of Westphalia | [
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227884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%20Minutes%20Older | Ten Minutes Older | Ten Minutes Older is a 2002 film project consisting of two compilation feature films titled The Trumpet and The Cello. The project was conceived by the producer Nicolas McClintock as a reflection on the theme of time at the turn of the Millennium. Fifteen celebrated filmmakers were invited to create their own vision of what time means in ten minutes of film. The music for the compilations was composed by Paul Englishby, and performed by Hugh Masekela (trumpet) and Claudio Bohorques (cello).
The Trumpet was first screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival. The Cello was premiered in the official Venice Film Festival 2002. Both films released internationally
The two films are dedicated to Herz Frank and Juris Podnieks (Camera) who made the 1978 short film, Ten Minutes Older. The original film and the feature film have been shown together on numerous occasions, including the Yamagata Film Festival in 2004, and the Spanish documentary film festival Punto de Vista in 2006.
Ten Minutes Older: The Trumpet
Directed by:
Aki Kaurismäki (segment "Dogs Have No Hell")
Víctor Erice (segment "Lifeline")
Werner Herzog (segment "Ten Thousand Years Older")
Jim Jarmusch (segment "Int. Trailer. Night.")
Wim Wenders (segment "Twelve Miles to Trona")
Spike Lee (segment "We Wuz Robbed")
Chen Kaige (segment "100 Flowers Hidden Deep")
Ten Minutes Older: The Cello
Directed by:
Bernardo Bertolucci (segment "Histoire d'eaux")
Mike Figgis (segment "About Time 2")
Jirí Menzel (segment "One Moment")
István Szabó (segment "Ten Minutes After")
Claire Denis (segment "Vers Nancy")
Volker Schlöndorff (segment "The Enlightenment")
Michael Radford (segment "Addicted to the Stars", made by Daniel Craig)
Jean-Luc Godard (segment "Dans le noir du temps")
References
External links
Analysis of Jim Jarmusch's Int. Trailer. Night at http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8443890
2002 films
Films directed by Spike Lee
Films directed by Jim Jarmusch
Films directed by Werner Herzog
Films directed by Jean-Luc Godard
Films directed by Bernardo Bertolucci
Films directed by Volker Schlöndorff
Films directed by Wim Wenders
Films directed by Mike Figgis
Films directed by Víctor Erice
Films directed by Claire Denis
British independent films
British films
Anthology films
Films directed by István Szabó
Films scored by Jocelyn Pook | [
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227886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1519%20in%20literature | 1519 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1519.
Events
The chivalric romance Libro del muy esforzado e invencible caballero Don Claribalte (Book of the most vigorous and invincible knight Don Claribalte), the first literary work by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, is published in Valencia (Spain) by Juan Viñao. In the foreword (dedicated to Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria), Oviedo relates that the work has been conceived and written in the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo (the Caribbean island of Hispaniola), where he has been working since 1514, allowing it to claim to be the first literary work created in the New World.
New books
Prose
Lopo Homem, Pedro Reinel and Jorge Reinel (illustrated by António de Holanda) – "Miller Atlas"
William Horman – Vulgaria
John Rastell – The Abbreviacion of Statutis
Drama
John Rastell – The Four Elements (A new Interlude and a Mery of the Elements, approximate date)
Poetry
Bergadis – Apokopos (first book in Modern Greek)
Thomas Murner – Geuchmat ("Meadow of Fools")
Santikirti – Santinatha Purana
Timanna – Parijatapahanannamu
Births
February 19 – Froben Christoph of Zimmern, Swabian noble and chronicler (died 1566)
March 17 – Thoinot Arbeau, born Jehan Tabourot, French priest and writer (died 1596)
May 27 – Girolamo Mei, Italian humanist historian (died 1594)
Unknown date – Gutierre de Cetina, Spanish poet and soldier (died 1554)
1519 or 1520 – Nicholas Grimald, English poet and translator (died 1562)
Deaths
May 9 – Jodocus Trutfetter, German philosopher and theologian (born 1460)
June 30 – Wigand Wirt, German theologian (born 1460)
September 10 – John Colet, English churchman and Biblical scholar, best known for his sermons (born 1467)
December 25 – Rudolph von Langen, German Catholic humanist and poet (born c.1438)
Unknown dates
Anna Bülow, Swedish abbess, writer and translator
William Grocyn, English scholar, friend and executor of Erasmus
Ferceirtne Ó Curnín, Irish poet
Domhnall Glas Ó Curnín, Irish poet
References
1519
1519 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1518%20in%20literature | 1518 in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1518.
Events
unknown dates
Baptista Mantuanus' Eclogues are prescribed for use in St Paul's School, London.
Niccolò Machiavelli probably writes his satirical comedy The Mandrake (La Mandragola).
New books
Prose
Henry Cornelius Agrippa – De originali peccato
Erasmus – Colloquies
Frederyke of Jennen
Tantrakhyan (Nepal Bhasa literature)
Poetry
Thomas More – Epigrammata
probable
Alexander Barclay – The fyfte Eglog
Cock Laurel's Boat
Births
February 7 – Johann Funck, German theologian (died 1566)
August – Conrad Lycosthenes, né Wolffhart, Alsatian humanist and encyclopedist (died 1561)
unknown date – Edmund Plowden, English legal writer (died 1585)
Deaths
February 25 – Publio Fausto Andrelini, Italian humanist poet (born c.1462)
unknown date – Kabir, Indian mystic poet and saint (born 1398 or 1440 at the latest)
References
1518
1518 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1517%20in%20literature | 1517 in literature | Events from the year 1517 in literature.
Events
August 6 – Belarusian printer Francysk Skaryna in Prague begins publishing The Psalter, a Bible translation into the Ruthenian language.
unknown dates
John of Hauville's Architrenius (c. 1184), a widely read Latin poem in 4,361 hexameters in nine books, is first printed by Jodocus Badius in Paris.
Niccolò Machiavelli writes L'asino (The [Golden] Ass) and (at about this date) the comedy Andria, adapted from Terence.
New books
Prose
Martin Luther – Ninety-five Theses (in Latin: Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum)
Drama
Gil Vicente – A Trilogia das Barcas; part 1, Auto da Barca do Inferno
Poetry
Teofilo Folengo (as "Merlin Cocaio") – Opus Maccaronicum, including "Baldo" (satiric verses blending Latin and Italian dialects in hexameters)
John Skelton – The Tunnynge of Elynour Rummyng
Births
June 29 – Rembert Dodoens, Flemish botanist (died 1585)
July 25 – Jacques Pelletier du Mans, French humanist poet and mathematician (died 1582)
unknown date – Robert Crowley, English printer, poet, polemicist and Protestant clergyman (died 1588)
probable – Henry Howard, English nobleman and poet (died 1547)
Deaths
June 19 – Luca Pacioli, Italian mathematician, second person to publish a work on the double-entry system of book-keeping (born c.1447)
August – Andrea Ammonio, Italian, Latin-language poet (sweating sickness; born 1478)
References
1517
1517 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1516%20in%20literature | 1516 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1516.
Events
March 1 – Desiderius Erasmus publishes a new Greek translation of the New Testament, Novum Instrumentum omne, in Basel. This year Erasmus also writes The Education of a Christian Prince although it is not published until 1532.
c. December – Thomas More's Utopia, combining fiction and political philosophy and completed this year, is published in Leuven in Latin.
unknown dates
Samuel Nedivot's the 14th century Hebrew Sefer Abudirham in Fez is the first book printed in Africa.
Paolo Ricci translates the 13th century Kabbalistic work Sha'are Orah by Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla into Latin, as Portae Lucis.
New books
Prose
Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa
(published in Casale)
Bartolomé de las Casas – Memorial de Remedios para las Indias
Erasmus – Novum Instrumentum omne
Robert Fabyan (anonymous; died c. 1512) – The New Chronicles of England and France (published by Richard Pynson in London)
Marsilio Ficino –
Thomas More – Utopia
Andre Pauernfeindt – (Foundation of the knightly art of combat by the fencing guild of Vienna)
Poetry
Ludovico Ariosto – Orlando Furioso (first version, April)
Baptista Mantuanus (published in France)AgellariaDe sacris diebus'' (published in Lyon)
Births
March 26 – Conrad Ges(s)ner, Swiss naturalist, bibliographer and poet (died 1565)
April 23 – Georg Fabricius, Saxon historian, classical archaeologist and epigrapher and poet (died 1571)
December 21 – Giuseppe Leggiadri Gallani, Parmese-born poet and dramatist (died c. 1590)
Deaths
March 22 – Baptista Mantuanus, Mantuan Carmelite reformer, humanist and Latin poet (born 1447)
December 13 – Johannes Trithemius, German lexicographer and chronicler (born 1462)
References
1516
1516 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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] |
227890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1515%20in%20literature | 1515 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1515.
Events
Christoph Froschauer becomes the first printer in Zürich.
New books
Prose
Martin of Arles –
Drama
c. 1514–15 – Gian Giorgio Trissino – Sophonisba
Poetry
Alexander Barclay (translated from Baptista Mantuanus) – Saint George
John of Capistrano – Capystranus (published in London)
Approximate year – Stephen Hawes –
Births
March 28 – Teresa of Ávila, Spanish Carmelite mystic, saint and poet (died 1582)
Unknown dates
Nicolas Denisot, French poet and painter (died 1559)
Brne Karnarutić, Croatian poet and writer (died 1573)
Ambrosius Lobwasser, Saxon humanist, translator and psalmist (died 1585)
Johann Weyer, Dutch occultist (died 1588)
probable
Roger Ascham, English scholar (died 1568)
William Baldwin, English writer, editor and theatrical director (died c. 1563)
Deaths
February 16 – Aldus Manutius, Italian printer-publisher and poet (born 1449)
unknown date Jacques Almain, French theologian (year of birth unknown)
References
1515
1515 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1514%20in%20literature | 1514 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1514.
Events
May 15 – The earliest printed edition of Saxo Grammaticus' 12th-century Scandinavian history Gesta Danorum, edited by Christiern Pedersen from an original found near Lund, is published as Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae by Jodocus Badius in Paris.
unknown dates
Gregorio de Gregorii begins printing Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i (a Christian book of hours), the first known book printed in the Arabic alphabet using movable type, in Venice, falsely assigned to Fano.
Clément Marot presents his poem Judgment of Minos to Francis I of France and begins styling himself facteur de la reine ("queen's poet") to Queen Claude.
New books
Prose
Desiderius Erasmus (attributed) – Julius Excluded from Heaven (Julius exclusus de caelis)
Poetry
Births
February 8 – Daniele Barbaro, Italian humanist polymath, writer and translator (died 1570)
November 29 – Andreas Musculus, German theologian (died 1581)
unknown date – Al-Akhdari, Arabic poet (died 1546)
Deaths
October 7 – Bernardo Rucellai, Florentine historian (born 1448)
November 28 - Hartmann Schedel, German humanist historian and cartographer (born 1440)
unknown dates
Peter Crockaert, Flemish philosopher
Nicolaus Ragvaldi, Swedish monk and translator
References
1514
1514 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1513%20in%20literature | 1513 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1513.
Events
unknown dates
The Aldine Press editiones principes of Lycophron, Lysias, Pindar and Plato is published by Aldus Manutius in Venice. Aldus this year also publishes Strozii poëtae pater et filius, the collected poems of Tito Vespasiano Strozzi (died c. 1505) and his son Ercole Strozzi (murdered 1508).
Niccolò Machiavelli is banished from Florence by the House of Medici and writes The Prince as De Principatibus (On Principalities) in Tuscany this summer.
Johannes Potken publishes the first Ge'ez (liturgical Ethiopian) text, Psalterium David et Cantica aliqua, at Rome.
Gavin Douglas completes the Eneados, the first translation of Virgil's Aeneid (or any major poem of classical antiquity) into any of the Germanic languages – in this case, the Scots dialect of English. A Latin/English parallel text version of Ovid's Ars Amatoria made by "Walter" is also published this year by Wynkyn de Worde in London as The flores of Ouide de arte amandi with theyr englysshe afore them.
Approximate year – John Skelton is appointed poet laureate by Henry VIII of England.
New books
Prose
Hakob Meghapart – Parzatumar ()
Drama
Juan del Encina – Plácida y Victoriano
Poetry
John Lydgate (anonymously) – Troy Book (verse paraphrase written 1412–20)
Mallanarya of Gubbi – Bhava Chintaratna
John Skelton (anonymously) –
Births
February 8 – Daniele Barbaro, Venetian writer, translator and cardinal (died 1570)
October 30 – Jacques Amyot, French writer and translator (died 1593)
December 23 – Thomas Smith, English scholar, diplomat and poet (died 1577)
Deaths
January – Hans Folz, German Meistersinger (born c. 1437)
unknown dates
Henry Bradshaw, English monk and poet (born c. 1450)
Robert Fabyan, English chronicler and sheriff
Hua Sui, Chinese pioneer of metal movable type printing (born 1439)
References
1513
1513 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1512%20in%20literature | 1512 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1512.
Events
unknown dates
Urbatagirk (, "The Book of Friday"), the first printed book in the Armenian language, is printed in Venice by Hakob Meghapart.
The concept of the masque is brought to Britain by King Henry VIII of England.
New books
Prose
Desiderius Erasmus – Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style (De Utraque Verborum ac Rerum Copia)
Henry Medwall – Fulgens and Lucrece
Huldrych Zwingli – De Gestis inter Gallos et Helvetios relatio
Il-yeon – The Samguk Yusa (Korean)
Poetry
Hieronymus Angerianus – Erotopaegnion
Stephen Hawes – The Comfort of Lovers
Thomas Murner
Schelmenzunft (Guild of Rogues)
Narrenbeschwörung (Muster of Fools)
Uncertain date
Syr Degore (written pre-1325)
Births
Thomas Sébillet, French writer on poetry (died 1589)
Unknown dates
Thomas Beccon, English Protestant reformer and writer (died 1567)
Cristóvão Falcão, Portuguese poet (died c. 1557)
Deaths
October 14 – Dietrich Gresemund, German humanist writer (born 1477)
Unknown date – Enveri, Ottoman Turkish historian and poet
References
1512
1512 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1511%20in%20literature | 1511 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1511.
Events
probable – Ein kurtzweilig Lesen von Dyl Ulenspiegel, geboren uß dem Land zu Brunßwick, wie er sein Leben volbracht hat... is published by the printer Hans Grüninger in Strasbourg in Early New High German, either this year or in 1510. This is the first appearance of the trickster Till Eulenspiegel in print.
New books
Prose
The Demaũdes Joyous (joke book published by Wynkyn de Worde in English)
Desiderius Erasmus – The Praise of Folly (Stultitiae Laus), written 1509
Poetry
Jean Lemaire de Belges – La Concorde des deux langages
John Lydgate (died c. 1451) – The Governance of Kings ("Secrets of the Old Philisoffres", translated from Aristotle's Secreta secretorum)
Cancionero general (anthology of Spanish poetry published by Hernando del Castillo)
Births
November 15 – Johannes Secundus, Dutch poet writing in Latin (died 1536)
Deaths
unknown dates
Matthias Ringmann, German cartographer and humanist poet (born 1482)
Johannes Tinctoris (Jean de Vaerwere), Low Countries' composer, poet and writer on music, author of Diffinitorium musices, the first dictionary of musical terms (born c. 1435)
References
1511
1511 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1510%20in%20literature | 1510 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1510.
Events
c. January – Desiderius Erasmus begins his period of residence in Cambridge (England).
April 10 – Henry Cornelius Agrippa addresses the dedication of De occulta philosophia libri tres to Johannes Trithemius.
New books
Prose
Paolo Cortese – De Cardinalatu
Dinim de shehitah i bedikah (The Rules of Ritual Slaughter and Inspection of Animals) in Constantinople, the earliest known Judaeo-Spanish text, published in Constantinople.
Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo (died c. 1505) – Las sergas de Esplandián (The Adventures of Esplandián)
Ruiz Paez de Ribera – Florisando
probable – Thomas More: The Life of Johan Picus Erle of Myrandula
Poetry
Jean Marot – Voyage de Gênes
Approximate year – Stephen Hawes: , published by Wynkyn de Worde
Between 1510 and 1513 – The Friar and the Boy (fabliau published in English)
Births
unknown dates
Satomura Shōkyū (里村昌休), Japanese master of the linked verse renga (died 1552)
Luigi Tansillo, Italian Marinist Petrarchan poet (died 1568)
probable
Arnoldus Arlenius, Dutch humanist philosopher and poet (died 1582)
Hélisenne de Crenne (probably Marguerite Briet), French novelist and translator (died after 1552)
Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos, Hungarian lyricist, epic poet, political historian and minstrel (died 1556)
Martynas Mažvydas, Lithuanian religious writer (died 1563)
Thomas Phaer, Welsh lawyer, paediatrician and translator (died 1560)
Lope de Rueda, Spanish playwright and author (died 1565)
Robert Wedderburn, Scottish poet (died 1555/60)
Deaths
May 1 – Johannes Nauclerus, Swabian historian (born c. 1425)
August 23 – Ulrich Gering, printer
September (14, 15 or 16) – Saint Catherine of Genoa, mystic (born 1447)
November 11 – Bohuslav Hasištejnský z Lobkovic, Bohemian humanist writer and noble (born 1461)
unknown date – Pothana, Telugu poet (born 1450)
References
1510
1510 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1509%20in%20literature | 1509 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1509.
Events
unknown dates
Alexander Barclay's The Shyp of Folys of the Worlde and Henry Watson's The Shyppe of Fooles appear. Both are English verse translations ultimately deriving from Sebastian Brant's satire Das Narrenschiff (1494).
Desiderius Erasmus writes The Praise of Folly while staying with Thomas More in England.
The early 14th-century verse romance Richard Coer de Lyon is first published, by Wynkyn de Worde in England.
New books
Prose
Desiderius Erasmus – Stultitiae Laus (The Praise of Folly)
Fortunatus (published in Augsburg)
Francesco Guicciardini – Storie fiorentine (History of Florence)
Manjarasa – Samyukta Koumudi
Luca Pacioli – De divina proportione (illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci)
John Stanbridge – Vulgaria
Drama
Ludovico Ariosto – I suppositi
Poetry
Stephen Hawes
Births
April 25 – Thomas Vaux, English court poet (died 1556)
July 10 – John Calvin, French Protestant religious leader and writer (died 1564)
August 3 – Étienne Dolet, French humanist writer and printer (executed 1546)
unknown dates
Kanaka Dasa, Indian Kannada poet, philosopher, musician and composer from Karnataka (died 1609)
William Turner, English ornithologist and cleric (died 1568)
Deaths
June 28 – John Filipec, Bohemian royal advisor and later monk, proprietor of a printing press (born 1431)
unknown date
Aliénor de Poitiers, Burgundian courtier and writer (born c.1444)
Juraj Šižgorić, Croatian poet writing in Latin (born c. 1440/1445)
References
1509
1509 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1508%20in%20literature | 1508 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1508.
Events
April 4 – John Lydgate's poem The Complaint of the Black Knight becomes the first book printed in Scotland.
unknown date
The earliest known printed edition of the chivalric romance Amadis de Gaula, as edited and expanded by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo (died c. 1505), is published in Castilian at Zaragoza.
Elia Levita completes writing the Bovo-Bukh in Yiddish.
Estimated date of Manuscript D of Leonardo da Vinci's treatise on painting.
New books
Prose
Desiderius Erasmus – Adagiorum chiliades (2nd ed., Venice)
Johannes Trithemius – De septem secundeis
Drama
Ludovico Ariosto – La Cassaria
The World and the Child (possible date)
Poetry
William Dunbar
The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy, and Other Poems
The Goldyn Targe
Births
April 3 – Jean Daurat (or Dorat), French poet and scholar, member of La Pléiade (died 1588)
April 23 – Georg Sabinus, German poet, diplomat and academic (died 1560)
June 13 – Alessandro Piccolomini, Italian humanist philosopher, translator and playwright (died 1579)
December 21 – Thomas Naogeorgus, German Protestant reformer and Latin-language playwright (died 1563)
Unknown dates
Marin Držić, Croatian dramatist, author and poet (died 1567)
Isabel de Josa, Catalan writer (died 1575)
Primož Trubar, Slovene Protestant reformer, pioneer of Slovenian written language (died 1586)
Deaths
February 4 – Conrad Celtes, German and Latin-language poet (born 1459)
May 13 – Martial d'Auvergne, French poet (born 1420)
June 6 – Ercole Strozzi, Italian poet, murdered (born 1471)
August 27 – Hieronymus Münzer, co-author of the Nuremberg Chronicle (born 1437/47)
References
1508
1508 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1507%20in%20literature | 1507 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1507.
Events
August 26 – Following the death of Jean Molinet (see Deaths section), Jean Lemaire de Belges is appointed historiographer to the court of Charles, Duke of Burgundy.
September 15 – King James IV grants Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar a patent to found the first printing press in Scotland.
New books
Prose
Matthias Ringmann (probably) – Cosmographiae Introductio (to accompany Martin Waldseemüller's globe and map)
Francesco Spinacino – (earliest known published scores for lute)
Poetry
Jean Lemaire de Belges – Les Chansons de Namur
Baptista Mantuanus
Mantuan Georgius
(Charge and exhortation over the arms of infidels against Christian potentates)
Parthenese
Jean Marot – Le Voyage de Gênes
Births
January 25 – Johannes Oporinus, Swiss printer (died 1568)
April 13 – Konrad Hubert, German religious reformer and hymn writer (died 1577)
June 6 – Annibale Caro, Italian poet and translator (died 1566)
Deaths
July 5 – (Petrus) Crinitus (Pietro Crinito), Florentine Italian humanist scholar and Latin-language poet (born 1474)
August 23 – Jean Molinet, French Burgundian poet, chronicler and composer (born 1435)
November 6 – Pietro Casola, travel writer (born 1427)
References
1507
1507 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1506%20in%20literature | 1506 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1506.
Events
unknown date – Italian poet Ludovico Ariosto begins writing Orlando Furioso (earliest version published in 1516; first complete version published 1532).
New books
Poetry
Publio Fausto Andrelini – Eclogues
William Dunbar –
Stephen Hawes – The Passtyme of Pleasure
Niccolò Machiavelli – The First Decade (Decennale primo)
Births
February 1 (approximate – George Buchanan, Scottish humanist historian, scholar and poet (died 1582)
August 12 – Franciscus Sonnius, Dutch counter-Reformation theologian (died 1576)
October – Louis de Blois, Flemish mystical writer (died 1566)
December 8 – Veit Dietrich, German theologian, writer and reformer (died 1549)
Unknown dates
Abderrahman El Majdoub, North African poet, Sufi and mystic
Michael Helding (Sidonius), Roman Catholic bishop, scholar, writer and humanist (died 1561)
probable
Richard Grafton, English chronicler and King's Printer (died 1573)
Hwang Jini, Korean woman kisaeng and poet (died c. 1560)
Deaths
February 16 – Jakub of Gostynin, Polish philosopher (born c.1454)
May 2 – Johannes von Soest, German composer, theorist and poet (born 1448)
unknown date – Mihri Hatun, Ottoman Anatolian female poet
References
1506
1506 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camping%20%28video%20games%29 | Camping (video games) | In video gaming, camping is a tactic where a player obtains an advantageous static position, which may be a discreet place which is unlikely to be searched. The tactic is employed both in single-player games and online multiplayer games, but is usually more effective in an online multiplayer game, as AI opponents in single-player games may be aware of the player's position, even if they are visually hidden. The tactic varies depending on the type of game (online text adventure, graphical MMO, first-person shooter, etc.). In first-person shooters, it generally involves a player waiting in one location for other players to approach, then killing them (or performing some other action which is detrimental to the other players, depending on the game in question) before being noticed, or before the other players can react to their presence. By camping, a player is able to learn and adapt to the limited environment they are playing in, noting specific points to check repetitively. By following this method with little fault, a lower number of deaths can be achieved. In other cases, players may wait in an area to gain access to items or perform actions before other players who are not camping have the chance to do so.
Since camping is often seen as a method for circumventing much of the effort usually required to acquire a desired reward, the activity is contentious. Among many players, camping is considered very similar to cheating, especially in deathmatch-type first-person shooter games. The most common reason for this is that if every player camps, there may be no opportunities for players to come into conflict, and thus there will be no game at all.
Multiple players camping in mutually supportive positions is referred to in some types of games as turtling.
Camping in first-person shooters
Camping often provides a clear field of view over a choke point or position of tactical interest whilst retaining cover for the camper. This tactic allows one player to easily pick off any opponent that comes into sight before the opponent is aware of their presence in the area. It differs from holding a strategic position by its requisite static nature and intensive cover. More experienced players are sometimes "semi-mobile campers/snipers" that leave boobytraps and relocate after gaining a few kills to prevent retaliation.
It often proves frustrating, particularly to newer players, as it rewards those who invest a considerable amount of time in the game (which allows them to know the layout of the maps and the best defensive positions), as well as those with accurate aim, whilst surprising the victim player and potentially killing them without having a potential chance to react to such attacks.
In most deathmatch-type games that have both a time limit and a kill limit, camping can be used to take advantage of the time limit rather than the kill limit. Capture the Flag and its variants provide an incentive to invade enemy territory, regardless of the risk, since scoring flags is more important than scoring by killing the opposing team's players; conversely, this mode also encourages players to camp their own vulnerable flag to defend against the anticipated stream of attackers. However, even in such games, some players may choose to camp to give covering fire for other team members attempting to grab the flag and run back with it.
It is most common in first-person shooters when a player hides in a single location which serves as a tactical advantage over the opposing player(s) for long periods of time. The position chosen is normally secluded from casual view and may be partially secured at least on one side by any object. The location is then used to create an ambush. The period of time a camping player spends in the specific location may vary as the player reacts to game conditions. Some games will discourage camping by nagging players who remain stationary for a time to move on, or applying harsher penalties to alleged campers such as small amounts of periodic damage (which, if ignored, will eventually kill the player and force them to respawn elsewhere).
In some games such as Blacklight: Retribution, players are given a way to combat camping. All players in Blacklight: Retribution have what is known as a 'Hyper-Reality Visor' (HRV) which enables them to see, among other things, players through walls. Usage of the HRV is limited and players cannot use their weapons when it is engaged. This feature allows players to know where possible campers are and allows for faster gameplay. The HRV can be combated by certain equippable items however, such as a mine that disables the highlighting in the HRV.
Spawn camping
Spawn camping involves camping or guarding the position of the enemy team's own spawn on the map. Although usually not expressly against the rules, spawn camping is frequently considered contrary to good sportsmanship and some servers will unofficially enforce a "no-spawn-camping" rule. Exceptions may include pursuing a player who is carrying a critical objective into their own spawn for support, as may occur during Capture the Flag games. In some cases, however, being spawn camped is avoidable, and players simply have to adapt their strategy to defeat the spawn campers or prevent such a situation from occurring in the first place, for instance by guarding their spawn area or room more carefully against opponents.
Some games have spawn protection systems, giving newly spawned players invulnerability, or respawning them in a "safe area" close to the spawn. Another mechanism employed in games is 'point spawning', in which a player is spawned near a teammate and not at a specific fixed location.
Some objective-based games use fixed spawns defended by, for example, automated turrets or "god-mode NPCs" to help counter spawn camping. Sometimes players camp at spawn points just to kill the players who run by there, which is termed 'spawnkilling' and is particularly performed against new and inexperienced players. Players who do this are likely to be targeted by the players they killed.
Spawn trapping
Spawn trapping is the act of camping in an advantageous position in the vicinity of an enemy's spawn and killing them as soon as they leave the spawn, or their spawn protection runs out. Base trapping can also be used to describe this act.
Base camping
The term base camping refers to camping at the spawning area or starting area of one's own team in Capture the Flag, Team Deathmatch and other types of games: a form of defensive "turtling". This type of camping involves the player (or players) waiting outside their own team's base for members of the opposing team to come to them, rather than actively searching for enemies. Though hiding in or defending key areas of the map, especially if done by a large group, makes it easier to survive enemy attacks, it is sometimes criticized. The general acceptance of base camping mainly depends on the map, the kind of game played and the rules set by server owners. Games in which one team is to defend its base naturally encourages spawn camping. In situations where the primary objectives of both teams is to kill enemy players, base camping is less well accepted. Sometimes, base camping is also referred to as spawn camping, but the latter term usually implies camping at the opponent's spawn points.
One situation in last man standing types of games where camping is often used is when one team has a single player remaining while the other team has two or more players still alive. The single player will often camp for periods of play in a location that is easy to defend or has only one entryway, because this improves their survivability when faced with superior opposition numbers. The other team will usually go into active hunting mode, expecting the single player to be hiding somewhere on the map. This type of camping is more accepted by gamers, because there is a valid reason for the outnumbered player to camp. By convention, when both teams are down to single players only, continued camping is frowned upon and both players are expected to come out and confront each other. To encourage this, some games, such as Battlefield, allow dead players to see the positions of remaining players on the map as well as allow dead players to speak. Thus when a team is down to a single player and the single player camps, team members may announce their location to the opposing team.
Battle royale games discourage camping, at least in the sense that players typically cannot stay in one area for the entirety of a session. Such games utilize a dangerous, doughnut-shaped, area-wide shadow that covers the map, with a shrinking hole that defines the safe play area to force players to move and engage other opponents. Players who do not move to a safer area when the safe zone shrinks will be exposed to the hazard and suffer. A player may choose to camp multiple times (which is encouraged), changing locations every time the safe zone shrinks, to try and outlast the other players as they eliminate each other, but ultimately have to engage in combat with the final, remaining opponents to emerge victorious in the endgame.
Miscellaneous
First-person shooters may experience other forms of camping, such as 'vehicle camping', 'armor camping', or 'weapon camping'. In many such games, the rarity of particularly valuable equipment (such as tanks, aircraft, or especially powerful guns) is enforced by the game engine imposing a time delay between the time which such an item is taken or used, and the time at which it reappears (or 'respawns') for other players to use. If a player wishes to acquire the vehicle or item in question, they may wait in areas where such an item is due to spawn in order to guarantee that they, rather than some other players, are the ones who get to make use of it. This causes a problem because, while they are waiting, they are not participating in the rest of the game, thus making it harder for other players to find conflicts, or in team-based gamessuch as Battlefielddisadvantaging their team. It can also cause conflicts between players on the same team. For example, if two players are waiting for a vehicle to spawn, one will miss out on at least the main driving seat, and may decide to team-kill the player who took it, or destroy the vehicle to prevent the other player from using it. This is considered to be a form of griefing.
On the other hand, a player may simply choose to camp in a vehicle, taking advantage of the vehicle's armor or its weapons, which are generally better than the player's. In many cases the vehicle has a large amount ofor even infinite ammunition, allowing the camper to avoid expending their own ammunition when engaging the enemy team.
Countermeasures
Camping can give players a tactical advantage against other players who have not yet encountered them, but by consistently remaining in one area, other players they have killed previously may return after respawning with the knowledge of where the camping player is, or inform their teammates via text or voice communication. Opponents may attempt to counter the camping player's strategy by either approaching from a different angle which no longer gives the camper a tactical advantage, or through the use of more indirect weaponry such as grenades which can be used without being directly in view of the camping player.
This type of gameplay is sometimes seen as one of the core components of Attack/Defend matches as both teams seek to set up or destroy prepared defensive positions. However, these maps are usually under a time or "casualty" limit to passively encourage or discourage camping behaviors; designers must take great care in designing maps to prevent the creation of essentially unassailable camping spots.
Online role-playing games
In massively multiplayer online role-playing games and MUDs, camping is commonly the practice where the camper stays in a location near where non-player characters, monsters or desirable items spawn. In some games, these positions are easy to spot and once a player or group of players is capable of establishing their camp, they can gain more rewards with less risk to their player characters. This variant of camping poses no risk to other players, unlike in first-person shooters. There is no official rule granting players exclusive rights to a camp.
The MMORPG EverQuest, when first released, required significant time investment to advance in level for most players, requiring many hours of killing NPCs. Players soon realized that camping in one spot and having a single player (referred to as a "puller") leave the group to "pull" a mob back to the groupwhich would then be attacked by the rest of the groupwas the most efficient way to gain experience. The prevalence of camping in EverQuest became significant enough for some of the game's playerbase and critics to jokingly refer to the game as "EverCamp".
See also
Gaming etiquette
Glossary of video game terms
Diary of a Camper
References
Competitive video game techniques
MUD terminology
Video game culture
Competitive video game terminology | [
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227901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1505%20in%20literature | 1505 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1505.
Events
Unknown date
Thomas Murner is "crowned" Poet Laureate to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.
Giovanni Battista Ramusio becomes secretary to Alvise (or Aloisio) Mocenigo, member of the patrician Mocenigo family.
New books
Prose
Georges Chastellain (died 1475) –
Stephen Hawes – The Temple of Glass
Lodovico Lazzarelli (died 1500) – Crater Hermetis
Pierre Le Baud (died September 29) – Cronique des roys et princes de Bretaigne armoricane (completed)
Primer of Claude of France
Poetry
Pietro Bembo – Gli Asolani
Jean Lemaire de Belges – Epîtres de l'amant vert
Births
February 4 – Mikołaj Rej, Polish poet, politician and musician (died 1569)
Unknown date – Margaret Roper, English writer and translator, daughter of Thomas More (died 1544)
Approximate year
Nicholas Bourbon, French court preceptor and poet (died 1550)
Lodovico Castelvetro, Italian literary critic (died 1571)
John Wedderburn, Scottish religious reformer and poet (died 1556)
Hugh Weston, English churchman and academic (died 1556)
Georg Wickram, German poet and novelist (died before 1562)
Wu Cheng'en, Chinese novelist and poet (died c. 1580)
Deaths
August 30 – Tito Vespasiano Strozzi, Italian Latin-language poet (born c. 1424)
September 29 – Pierre Le Baud, French historian (born c.1450)
October 4 (buried) – Robert Wydow, English poet, church musician and cleric (born 1446)
Unknown date
Adam of Fulda, German musical writer (born c. 1445)
Al-Suyuti, Egyptian religious scholar, juristic expert, teacher and Islamic theologian (born c. 1445)
Veit Arnpeck, Bavarian historian (born 1440)
References
1505
1505 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1504%20in%20literature | 1504 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1504.
Events
Unknown dates
Walloon poet Jean Lemaire de Belges joins the court of Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy.
Aldus Manutius publishes his edition of Demosthenes in Venice.
New books
Prose
Pomponius Gauricus – De sculptura et pictura antiquorum
Jacopo Sannazaro – Arcadia (romance)
Drama
Beunans Meriasek (in Cornish)
Poetry
Pierre Gringore – Les Abus du monde
Thomas More – Fortune Verses (c. 1504)
Births
October 29 – Shin Saimdang, Korean calligrapher and poet (died 1551)
November – Giovanni Battista Giraldi ("Cinthio"), Italian novelist and poet (died 1573)
c. December – Nicholas Udall, English schoolmaster playwright (died 1556)
unknown date – Ranabai, Hindu mystical poet (died 1570)
Deaths
August 28 – John Paston, English gentleman, author and recipient of some of the Paston Letters (born 1444)
September 24 – Bartolomeo della Rocca ("Cocles"), Italian astrologer (born 1467)
unknown dates
Petrus Haedus (Pietro Cavretto), Italian priest and writer (born 1427)
Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, Castilian author (born c. 1450)
References
1504
1504 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1503%20in%20literature | 1503 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1503.
Events
August 8 – King James IV of Scotland marries Margaret Tudor in Edinburgh. This is thought to be the occasion for which the Hours of James IV of Scotland was produced, probably in Ghent.
unknown dates
The first English translation of Thomas à Kempis' The Imitation of Christ is published .
An edition of Euripides' Tragoediae is published.
New books
Niccolò Machiavelli
A Description of the Manner in which Duke Valentino put Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, Lord Pagola and the Duke of Gravina to Death (Descrizione del modo tenuto dal Duca Valentino nello ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, il Signor Pagolo e il duca di Gravina Orsini)
On the method of dealing with the Rebellious Peoples of Valdichiana (Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati)
New poetry
William Dunbar – The Thrissil and the Rois
Jean Lemaire de Belges – La Plainte du Désiré
"Robin Hood and the Potter" (ballad)
Births
March 22 – Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Florentine author (died 1584)
June 28 – Giovanni della Casa, Florentine Latin-language writer on etiquette and poet (died 1556)
November 17 – Bronzino, born Agnolo di Cosimo, Florentine Mannerist painter and poet (died 1572)
December 14 (or 21) – Nostradamus, French apothecary and astrologer (died 1566)
December 20 – Cosimo Bartoli, Italian diplomat, mathematician, philologist, humanist and translator (died 1572)
unknown dates
Robert Estienne, French printer (died 1559)
Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, Spanish poet, novelist, historian and diplomat, governor of Granada (died 1575).
Thomas Wyatt, English lyrical poet and diplomat (died 1542)
probable – Nicholas Bourbon, French court preceptor and poet (died 1550)
Deaths
February 14 – Annamacharya, Indian Hindu saint and Telugu poet (born 1408)
April 26 – Johannes Tolhopff, German astrologist (born c.1450)
September 17 – Iovianus Pontanus, Italian Latin-language humanist and poet (born 1426)
unknown dates
Johann Bämler, German printer, illuminator and bookseller (born 1430)
probable – Antonio Bonfini, Italian-born humanist historian and poet (born 1434)
References
1503
1503 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1502%20in%20literature | 1502 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1502.
Events
June – England's Poet Laureate John Skelton is believed to have been tried, in a case brought by the London Prior of St Bartholomew's, and subsequently imprisoned, possibly at the instigation of Cardinal Wolsey.
unknown dates
Aldine Press editions of Dante's Divine Comedy, Herodotus' Histories (in Greek and Italian parallel text) and Sophocles are published in Venice.
The English poet Stephen Hawes is appointed Groom of the Chamber to King Henry VII of England.
New books
Prose
Niccolò Machiavelli – Discourse about the Provision of Money (Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro)
Shin Maha Thilawuntha – Yazawin Kyaw
Drama
Gil Vicente – Monólogo do Vaqueiro ("Monologue of the Cowboy")
Poetry
Pietro Bembo – Terzerime (published by Aldus Manutius)
Conradus Celtis – Amores
Baptista Mantuanus – Sylvae
Jacopo Sannazaro – Arcadia (pirated edition)
Births
Guillaume Bigot, French writer, doctor, humanist and poet in French and Latin (died 1550)
probable – Benedetto Varchi, Florentine humanist, historian and poet in Latin (died 1565)
Deaths
February – Olivier de la Marche, French poet and chronicler (born 1426)
March 14 – Felix Fabri (Felix Faber), Swiss Dominican theologian and travel writer (born c. 1441)
unknown dates
Jalaladdin Davani, Iranian philosopher, theologian, jurist and poet (born 1426)
Henry Medwall, English dramatist (born c. 1462)
Octavien de Saint-Gelais, French churchman, poet and translator (born 1468)
Sōgi (宗祇), Japanese Zen monk and renga poet (born 1421)
probable
Gwerful Mechain, Welsh erotic poet (born c. 1460)
Bonino Mombrizio, Milanese lawyer, bureaucrat, philologist, humanist, editor of ancient writings and poet in Latin (born 1424)
References
1502
1502 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1501%20in%20literature | 1501 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1501.
Events
Italic type (cut by Francesco Griffo) is first used by Aldus Manutius at the Aldine Press in Venice, in an octavo edition of Virgil's Aeneid. Manutius also publishes an edition of Petrarch's Le cose volgari and first adopts his dolphin and anchor device.
The first volume of Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, the first collection of polyphonic music printed from movable type, is published by Ottaviano Petrucci in Venice.
New books
Prose
Desiderius Erasmus – Handbook of a Christian Knight (Enchiridion militis Christiani)
Margery Kempe – The Book of Margery Kempe (posthumous)
Nilakantha Somayaji – Tantrasamgraha
Drama
Conradus Celtis – Ludus Diannae
Poetry
Gavin Douglas – The Palice of Honour (approximate date of composition)
Marko Marulić – Judita (in Croatian)
Births
February 24 – Sixt Birck, German humanist dramatist and scholar (died 1554)
unknown dates
Bonaventure des Périers, French author and poet (suicide 1544)
Maurice Scève, French poet (died c. 1564)<ref"></ref>
Basilio Zanchi, Italian humanist Latin-language poet, scholar and librarian (died 1588) (born c. 1435)
probable – Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish soldier and poet (died 1536)
Deaths
January 3 – Ali-Shir Nava'i, Timurid dynasty philosopher and Chagatai language poet (born 1441)
August (probable) – Constantine Lascaris, Greek scholar and grammarian (born 1434)
September 26 – Džore Držić, Croatian poet and playwright (born 1461)
References
1501
1501 books
Years of the 16th century in literature | [
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227907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet | Cabinet | Cabinet or The Cabinet may refer to:
Furniture
Cabinetry, a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors and/or drawers
Display cabinet, a piece of furniture with one or more transparent glass sheets or transparent polycarbonate sheets
Filing cabinet, a piece of office furniture used to file folders
Arcade cabinet, a type of furniture which houses arcade games
Government
Cabinet (government), a council of high-ranking members of government
Cabinet, term used for government entities that report directly to the governor's office in the state of Kentucky, US
England local government executive arrangements: "leader and cabinet" and "mayor and cabinet" models
National Cabinet (Australia), special intergovernmental body for 2020 COVID-19 pandemic
War cabinet, typically set up in wartime
Equipment
Loudspeaker enclosure
Computer case
A slotted screwdriver blade type
Serving area interface or telecoms cabinet
Media
The Cabinet (TV series), an Australian political program
Cabinet (file format), a computer compressed file extension
Cabinet (magazine), on art and culture
Cabinet (album), by Spawn of Possession
Milford Cabinet, a New Hampshire newspaper
"Cabinet", a song by Spratleys Japs from Pony
Other
Cabinet (cigarette), a German brand of cigarettes
Cabinet (room), an early private room
Cabinet Room (White House)
The Cabinet (professional wrestling) faction
See also
Cabinet card
Cabinet Inlet
Cabinet of curiosities
Cabinet painting
Cabinet projection
Cabinet selection
Coffee cabinet
List of national governments | [
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227908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1500%20in%20literature | 1500 in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1500.
Events
December 31 – Figurae bibliae by Antonius Rampegollis is printed in Venice by Georgius Arrivabenus. This is generally accepted as the last of the end of incunables.
unknown date – John Skelton, tutor to Prince Henry (second son of King Henry VII of England, is referred to as "unum Britannicarum literarum lumen ac decus" in De Laudibus Britanniae, a Latin ode by Desiderius Erasmus, .
New books
Prose
This is the Boke of Cokery (first known printed cookbook in English)
Hieronymus Brunschwygk – Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus (Simple book on the art of distillation)
Desiderius Erasmus – Adagia (Paris)
Johannes Trithemius – Steganographia (approximate year)<ref=></ref>
Drama
The Wakefield Master – Second Shepherds' Play (approximate year)
Poetry
Beves of Hamtoun (approximate publication date, written c. 1300)
Geoffrey Chaucer (anonymously) – Mars and Venus (approximate date of publication)
Singiraja – Maha Basavaraja Charitra
Births
April 12 – Joachim Camerarius (the Elder), German classical scholar (died 1574)
April 23
Alexander Ales, Scottish-born religious controversialist (died 1565)
Johann Stumpf, Swiss historical and topographical writer (died 1576)
December 6 – Nicolaus Mameranus, Luxembourg soldier and Latin-language historian and poet (died c. 1567)
unknown dates
Jeanne de la Font, French poet and culture patron (died 1553)
Charles Dumoulin, French jurist (died 1566)
probable
Johannes Aal, Swiss theologian and composer (died 1553)
Erasmus Alberus, German humanist, reformer and poet (died 1553)
Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz, Greek kabbalist and poet (died 1580)
Francisco de Moraes, Portuguese writer (died 1572)
Hayâlî, Ottoman Turkish poet (died 1557)
Nikolaus Herman, German hymnist (died 1561)
Pier Angelo Manzolli (Marcello Palingenio Stellato), Neapolitan Christian humanist poet (died before 1551)
Ludovico Pasquali, Dalmatian Italian poet (died 1551)
Wu Cheng'en, Chinese novelist (died 1582)
Deaths
April 10 – Michael Tarchaniota Marullus, Greek scholar, poet and soldier (born c. 1453; drowned)
June 23 – Lodovico Lazzarelli, Italian poet, philosopher, courtier and magician (born 1447)
August 9 – Janus Plousiadenos, Greek Renaissance scholar and hymn-writer (born c. 1429)
August 10 – Serafino dell'Aquila, Petrarchan poet (born 1466)
October 1 – John Alcock, bishop, politician and writer (born c.1430)
probable – Stefano Infessura, Italian humanist writer (born c. 1435)
References
1500
1500 books
Years of the 15th century in literature | [
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227910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Yalu%20River | Battle of the Yalu River | Battle of the Yalu River(Amnok River) may refer to:
Battle of the Yalu River (1894), during the First Sino-Japanese War
Battle of the Yalu River (1904), during the Russo-Japanese War | [
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227912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20hip | Rose hip | The rose hip or rosehip, also called rose haw and rose hep, is the accessory fruit of the various species of rose plant. It is typically red to orange, but ranges from dark purple to black in some species. Rose hips begin to form after pollination of flowers in spring or early summer, and ripen in late summer through autumn.
Propagation
Roses are propagated from hips by removing the achenes that contain the seeds from the hypanthium (the outer coating) and sowing just beneath the surface of the soil. The seeds can take many months to germinate. Most species require chilling (stratification), with some such as Rosa canina only germinating after two winter chill periods.
Use
Rose hips are used in bread and pies, jam,
jelly,
marmalade,
syrup, soup, tea, wine, and other beverages.
Rose hips can be eaten raw, like berries, if care is taken to avoid the hairs inside the fruit. The hairs are used as itching powder.
A few rose species are sometimes grown for the ornamental value of their hips, such as Rosa moyesii, which has prominent, large, red bottle-shaped fruits.
Rose hips are commonly used in herbal tea, often blended with hibiscus. An oil is also extracted from the seeds. Rose hip soup, known as in Swedish, is especially popular in Sweden. Rhodomel, a type of mead, is made with rose hips.
Rose hips can be used to make , the traditional Hungarian fruit brandy popular in Hungary, Romania, and other countries sharing Austro-Hungarian history. Rose hips are also the central ingredient of cockta, the fruity-tasting national soft drink of Slovenia.
Dried rose hips are also sold for crafts and home fragrance purposes. The Inupiat mix rose hips with wild redcurrant and highbush cranberries and boil them into a syrup.
Nutrients and phytochemicals
Wild rose hip fruits are particularly rich in vitamin C, containing 426 mg per 100 g or 0.4% by weight (w/w). However, RP-HPLC assays of fresh rose hips and several commercially available products revealed a wide range of L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content, ranging from 0.03 to 1.3%.
Rose hips contain the carotenoids beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene, which are under basic research for a variety of potential biological roles. A meta-analysis of human studies examining the potential for rose hip extracts to reduce arthritis pain concluded there was a small effect requiring further analysis of safety and efficacy in clinical trials. Use of rose hips is not considered an effective treatment for knee osteoarthritis.
See also
Rose hip seed oil
Rose hip soup
Rose hip wine
Rosa moschata
Rosa rubiginosa
Rosa gymnocarpa, the bald-hip rose
References
External links
Fruit morphology
Herbal tea
Roses | [
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227914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleum | Oleum | Oleum (Latin oleum, meaning oil), or fuming sulfuric acid, is a term referring to solutions of various compositions of sulfur trioxide in sulfuric acid, or sometimes more specifically to disulfuric acid (also known as pyrosulfuric acid). Oleum is identified by the CAS number 8014-95-7 (EC/List number: 616-954-1 ; ECHA InfoCard: 100.116.872).
Oleums can be described by the formula ySO3·H2O where y is the total molar mass of sulfur trioxide content. The value of y can be varied, to include different oleums. They can also be described by the formula H2SO4·xSO3 where x is now defined as the molar free sulfur trioxide content. Oleum is generally assessed according to the free SO3 content by mass. It can also be expressed as a percentage of sulfuric acid strength; for oleum concentrations, that would be over 100%. For example, 10% oleum can also be expressed as H2SO4·0.13611SO3, 1.13611SO3·H2O or 102.25% sulfuric acid. The conversion between % acid and % oleum is: % acid = 100 + 18/80 × % oleum
For x = 1 and y = 2 the empirical formula H2S2O7 for disulfuric (pyrosulfuric) acid is obtained. Pure disulfuric acid is a solid at room temperature, melting at 36 °C and rarely used either in the laboratory or industrial processes.
Production
Oleum is produced in the contact process, where sulfur is oxidized to sulfur trioxide which is subsequently dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid itself is regenerated by dilution of part of the oleum.
The lead chamber process for sulfuric acid production was abandoned, partly because it could not produce sulfur trioxide or concentrated sulfuric acid directly due to corrosion of the lead, and absorption of NO2 gas. Until this process was made obsolete by the contact process, oleum had to be obtained through indirect methods. Historically, the biggest production of oleum came from the distillation of iron sulfates at Nordhausen, from which the historical name Nordhausen sulfuric acid is derived.
Applications
Sulfuric acid production
Oleum is an important intermediate in the manufacture of sulfuric acid due to its high enthalpy of hydration. When SO3 is added to water, rather than dissolving, it tends to form a fine mist of sulfuric acid, which is difficult to manage. However, SO3 added to concentrated sulfuric acid readily dissolves, forming oleum which can then be diluted with water to produce additional concentrated sulfuric acid.
As an intermediate for transportation
Oleum is a useful form for transporting sulfuric acid compounds, typically in rail tank cars, between oil refineries (which produce various sulfur compounds as a byproduct of refining) and industrial consumers.
Certain compositions of oleum are solid at room temperature, and thus are safer to ship than as a liquid. Solid oleum can be converted into liquid at the destination by steam heating or dilution or concentration. This requires care to prevent overheating and evaporation of sulfur trioxide. To extract it from a tank car requires careful heating using steam conduits inside the tank car. Great care must be taken to avoid overheating, as this can increase the pressure in the tank car beyond the tank's safety valve limit.
In addition, oleum is less corrosive to metals than sulfuric acid, because there is no free water to attack surfaces. Because of that, sulfuric acid is sometimes concentrated to oleum for in-plant pipelines and then diluted back to acid for use in industrial reactions.
In Richmond, California in 1993 a significant release occurred due to overheating, causing a release of sulfur trioxide that absorbed moisture from the atmosphere, creating a mist of micrometre-sized sulfuric acid particles that formed an inhalation health hazard. This mist spread over a wide area.
Organic chemistry research
Oleum is a harsh reagent, and is highly corrosive. One important use of oleum as a reagent is the secondary nitration of nitrobenzene. The first nitration can occur with nitric acid in sulfuric acid, but this deactivates the ring towards further electrophilic substitution. A stronger reagent, oleum, is needed to introduce the second nitro group onto the aromatic ring.
Explosives manufacture
Oleum is used in the manufacture of many explosives with the notable exception of nitrocellulose. (In modern manufacturing of nitrocellulose, the H2SO4 concentration is often adjusted using oleum.) The chemical requirements for explosives manufacture often require anhydrous mixtures containing nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Ordinary commercial grade nitric acid consists of the constant boiling azeotrope of nitric acid and water, and contains 68% nitric acid. Mixtures of ordinary nitric acid in sulfuric acid therefore contain substantial amounts of water and are unsuitable for processes such as those that occur in the manufacture of trinitrotoluene.
The synthesis of RDX and certain other explosives does not require oleum.
Anhydrous nitric acid, referred to as white fuming nitric acid, can be used to prepare water-free nitration mixtures, and this method is used in laboratory scale operations where the cost of material is not of primary importance. Fuming nitric acid is hazardous to handle and transport, because it is extremely corrosive and volatile. For industrial use, such strong nitration mixtures are prepared by mixing oleum with ordinary commercial nitric acid so that the free sulfur trioxide in the oleum consumes the water in the nitric acid.
Reactions
Like concentrated sulfuric acid, oleum is such a strong dehydrating agent that if poured onto powdered glucose, or virtually any other sugar, it will draw the elements of water out of the sugar in an exothermic reaction, leaving nearly pure carbon as a solid. This carbon expands outward, hardening as a solid black substance with gas bubbles in it.
References
Sulfates
Sulfur oxoacids
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227915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tude | Étude | An étude (; ) or study is an instrumental musical composition, usually short, designed to provide practice material for perfecting a particular musical skill. The tradition of writing études emerged in the early 19th century with the rapidly growing popularity of the piano. Of the vast number of études from that era some are still used as teaching material (particularly pieces by Carl Czerny and Muzio Clementi), and a few, by major composers such as Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt and Claude Debussy, achieved a place in today's concert repertory. Études written in the 20th century include those related to traditional ones (György Ligeti) and those that require wholly unorthodox technique (John Cage).
19th century
Studies, lessons, and other didactic instrumental pieces composed before the 19th century are extremely varied, without any established genres. Domenico Scarlatti's 30 Essercizi per gravicembalo ("30 Exercises for harpsichord", 1738) do not differ in scope from his other keyboard works, and J.S. Bach's four volumes of Clavier-Übung ("keyboard practice") contain everything from simple organ duets to the extensive and difficult Goldberg Variations.
The situation changed in the early 19th century. Instruction books with exercises became very common. Of particular importance were collections of "studies" by Johann Baptist Cramer (published between 1804 and 1810), early parts of Muzio Clementi's Gradus ad Parnassum (1817–26), numerous works by Carl Czerny, Maria Szymanowska's Vingt exercises et préludes (c. 1820), and Ignaz Moscheles' Studien Op. 70 (1825–26). However, with the late parts of Clementi's collection and Moscheles' Charakteristische Studien Op. 95 (1836–37) the situation began to change, with both composers striving to create music that would both please the audiences in concert and serve as a good teaching tool. Such a combination of didactic and musical value in a study is sometimes referred to as a concert study.
The technique required to play Chopin's Études, Op. 10 (1833) and Op. 25 (1837) was extremely novel at the time of their publication; the first performer who succeeded at mastering the pieces was the renowned virtuoso composer Franz Liszt (to whom Chopin dedicated the Op. 10). Liszt himself composed a number of études that were more extensive and even more complex than Chopin's. Among these, the most well-known is the collection Études d'Execution Transcendante (final version published in 1852). These did not retain the didactic aspect of Chopin's work, however, since the difficulty and the technique used varies within a given piece. Each of the études has a different character, designated by its name: Preludio; Molto Vivace; Paysage [Landscape]; Mazeppa; Feux Follets [Irrlichter/ Will-o'-the-wisp]; Vision; Eroica; Wilde Jagd [Wild Hunt]; Ricordanza; Allegro Molto Agitato; Harmonies du Soir [Evening Harmonies]; and Chasse-neige [Snow-whirls].
The 19th century also saw a number of étude and study collections for instruments other than the piano. Guitarist composer Fernando Sor published his 12 Studies, op. 6 for guitar in London as early as 1815. These works all conform to the standard definition of 19th-century étude in that they are short compositions, each exploiting a single facet of technique. Collections of studies for flute were published during the second half of the 19th century by Ernesto Köhler, Wilhelm Popp and Adolf Terschak.
20th century
The early 20th century saw the publication of a number of important collections of études. Claude Debussy's Études for piano (1915) conform to the "one facet of technique per piece" rule, but exhibit unorthodox structures with many sharp contrasts, and many concentrate on sonorities and timbres peculiar to the piano, rather than technical points. Leopold Godowsky's 53 Studies on the Chopin Études (1894–1914) are built on Chopin's études: Godowsky's additions and changes elevated Chopin's music to new, hitherto unknown levels of difficulty. Other important études of this period include Heitor Villa-Lobos' virtuoso 12 Études for guitar (1929) and pieces by Russian composers: Sergei Rachmaninoff's Études-Tableaux (1911, 1917) and several collections by Alexander Scriabin (all for piano).
By mid-century the old étude tradition was largely abandoned. Olivier Messiaen's Quatre études de rythme ("Four studies in rhythm", 1949–50) were not didactic compositions, but experiments with scales of durations, as well as with dynamics, figurations, coloration, and pitches. John Cage's études—Études Australes (1974–75) for piano, Études Boreales (1978) for cello and/or piano and Freeman Études (1977–80, 1989–90) for violin—are indeterminate pieces based on star charts, and some of the most difficult works in the repertory. The three books of Études by György Ligeti (1985, 1988–94, 1995) are perhaps closest to the old tradition in that they too concentrate each on a particular technique. Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji's 100 Transcendental Studies (1940–44), which take Godowsky and Liszt as their starting point, frequently focus on particular technical elements, as well as various rhythmical difficulties. William Bolcom was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his Twelve New Etudes for Piano in 1988.
See also
List of étude composers
Music written in all 24 major and minor keys
Invention (musical composition)
References
Further reading
Music education
Classical music styles
Études | [
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227918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta%20Empire | Gupta Empire | The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by historians. The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king Sri Gupta; the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya. The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.
The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Many Hindu epics and literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during this period. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. The period gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders". Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia. The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period. Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas tolerated people of other faiths as well.
The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.
Origin
The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain. According to one theory, they originated in the present-day lower-Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta kings have been discovered. This theory is also supported by the Purana, as argued by the proponents, that mention the territory of the early Gupta kings as Prayaga, Saketa, and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin.
Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-day Bengal region in Ganges basin, based on the account of the 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing. According to Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with the dynasty's founder Shri Gupta) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (apparently a transcription of Mriga-shikha-vana). Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40 yojanas east of Nalanda, which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region. Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east.
The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty's varna (social class). Some historians, such as A.S. Altekar, have theorised that they were of Vaishya origin, as certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name "Gupta" for the members of the Vaishya varna. According to historian R. S. Sharma, the Vaishyas – who were traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers. Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period, and the dynastic name "Gupta" may have simply derived from the name of the family's first king Gupta. Some scholars, such as S.R. Goyal, theorise that the Guptas were Brahmanas, because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmans, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive. Based on the Pune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princess Prabhavati-gupta, some scholars believe that the name of her paternal gotra (clan) was "Dharana", but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the gotra of her mother Kuberanaga.
History
Early rulers
Gupta (Gupta script: gu-pta, fl. late 3rd century CE) is the earliest known king of the dynasty: different historians variously date the beginning of his reign from mid-to-late 3rd century CE. Sri Gupta founded the Gupta Empire c. 240-280 CE, and was succeeded by his son, Ghatotkacha, c. 280-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha’s son, Chandragupta, c. 319-335 CE."Che-li-ki-to", the name of a king mentioned by the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, is believed to be a transcription of "Shri-Gupta" (IAST: Śrigupta), "Shri" being an honorific prefix. According to Yijing, this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near "Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no" (believed to be a transcription of Mṛgaśikhāvana).
In the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described as Maharaja ("great king"), while the next king Chandragupta I is called a Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings"). In the later period, the title Maharaja was used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of Kushan Empire). However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja, in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.
Chandragupta I married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the imperial title Maharajadhiraja. According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded by his son Samudragupta. However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named Kacha have led to some debate on this topic: according to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne.
Samudragupta
Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled until c. 375 CE. The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests. The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings of Aryavarta, the northern region, including the Nagas. It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India. It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha, the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars, but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India. The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as the Pallava kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent of Kanchi. During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of Bay of Bengal.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him. The frontier kingdoms included Samatata, Davaka, Kamarupa, Nepala, and Karttripura. The tribal oligarchies included Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, and Abhiras, among others.
Finally, the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance; offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens); and sought the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories. This is an exaggeration: for example, the inscription lists the king of Simhala among these kings. It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king Meghavarna sent rich presents to the Gupta king requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya: Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.
Samudragupta appears to have been Vaishnavite, as attested by his Eran inscription, and performed several Brahmanical ceremonies. The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold. He performed the Ashvamedha ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see Coinage below) to mark this performance.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless. It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets". Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing a veena.
Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India. Besides, his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.
Ramagupta
Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the Devichandragupta, in which he surrenders his wife to the enemy Sakas and his brother Chandragupta has to sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king. The historicity of these events is unclear, but Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by three Jain statues found at Durjanpur, with inscriptions referring to him as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include the Garuda, Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.
Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"
According to the Gupta records, amongst his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba princess of Kuntala and of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan. His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponent Rudrasimha III was defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire. Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta in Kuntala region of Indian state of Karnataka. Hunza inscription also indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquer Balkh, although some scholars have also disputed the identity of gupta king. Chalukyan ruler Vikramditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with his title and states 'why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer ? he with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting ”
Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandragupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all, it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason, there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian in his diary and published afterwards.
The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was Kālidāsa, whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.
Chandragupta II's campaigns against foreign tribes
The 4th century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas, then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into the Himalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the Kinnaras, Kiratas, as well as India proper. In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of the Sakas from the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city of Ujjain?'.
The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshemendra states, King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, and others, by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely".
Faxian
Faxian (or Fa Hsien etc.), a Chinese Buddhist, was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 and reached India in 405. During his stay in India up to 411, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kannauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajagriha, and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.
Faxian on reaching Mathura comments––"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."
Kumaragupta I
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya. He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire. The Kidarites as well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I, as his son Skandagupta mentions in the Bhitari pillar inscription his efforts at reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganisation and military victories over the Pushyamitras and the Hunas.
He was the founder of Nalanda University which on 15 July 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site. Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper of Kartikeya
Skandagupta
Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya. He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Kidarites (sometimes described as the Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Sweta Huna), from the northwest.
He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near-annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites. The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.
Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.
Decline of the empire
Following Skandagupta's death, the empire was clearly in decline, and the later Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467–469. Skandagupta was followed by Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–495), Narasimhagupta (495—530), Kumaragupta III (530—540), Vishnugupta (540—550), two lesser known kings namely, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.
In the 480's the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula broke through the Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510. The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by King Yashodharman from Malwa, and possibly Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta.
These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to Classical Indian civilisation. Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such as Yashodharman, ended as well. Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas. The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with Europe and Central Asia. In particular, Indo-Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl, and pepper from centres such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, and Benares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.
Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, and Buddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of the vehemently anti-Buddhist Shaivist Mihirakula, started to collapse. Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the city of Taxila, bringing cultural regression. During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian caste system. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs.
The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.
The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur copper-plate inscription), in which he makes a land grant in the area of Kotivarsha (Bangarh in West Bengal) in 542/543 CE. This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by the Aulikara ruler Yashodharman circa 532 CE.
A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the Gupta empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Post-Gupta successor dynasties
In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by the Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty. The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism) and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.
In the western regions, they were succeeded by the Gurjaras, the Pratiharas, and later the Chaulukya-Paramara dynasties, who issued so-called Indo-Sasanian coinage, on the model of the coinage of the Sasanian Empire, which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.
Military organisation
In contrast to the Mauryan Empire, the Guptas introduced several military innovations to Indian warfare. Chief amongst these was the use of Siege engines, heavy cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry. The heavy cavalry formed the core of the Gupta army and were supported by the traditional Indian army elements of elephants and light infantry.
The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya (postulated to be Purugupta) that depicts the emperors as horse-archers.
Unfortunately there is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem) Raghuvaṃśa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatist Kalidasa. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of Skandagupta and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II. In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the kings army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles. The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry, chariot, elephants and ships. Gunaighar copper plate inscription of Vainya Gupta mentions ships but not chariots. Ships had become integral part of Indian military in the 6th century AD.
Religion
The Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty. They were orthodox Hindus, and allowed followers of Buddhism and Jainism to practice their religions. Sanchi remained an important centre of Buddhism. Kumaragupta I (455 CE) is said to have founded Nalanda. Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry.
Some later rulers however seem to have especially promoted Buddhism. Narasimhagupta Baladitya (c. 495–?), according to contemporary writer Paramartha, was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher, Vasubandhu. He built a sangharama at Nalanda and also a high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to the Manjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana). The Chinese monk Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith".
Gupta administration
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi. The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empire.. The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical profession as well. Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.
Legacy
Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to consider zero as a separate number, postulated the theory that the Earth rotates about its own axis, and studied solar and lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period. The Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.
Chess is said to have developed in this period, where its early form in the 6th century was known as , which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry – represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The names of the seven days in a week appeared at the start of the Gupta period based on Hindu deities and planets corresponding to the Roman names. The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature.
Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.
Art and architecture
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.
List of rulers
See also
Gupta era
Uchchhakalpa dynasty
References
Bibliography
Notes
External links
Coins of Gupta Empire
Historical Hindu empires
Empires and kingdoms of India
Medieval India
History of Bengal
History of West Bengal
History of Bangladesh
History of Kolkata
History of Pakistan
Dynasties of India
Kingdoms of Bihar
Former empires
States and territories established in the 320s
States and territories disestablished in the 550s
4th-century establishments in India
550s disestablishments
6th-century disestablishments in India
3rd-century establishments in Nepal | [
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227921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%20Pourbus%20the%20Younger | Frans Pourbus the Younger | Frans Pourbus the Younger (1569–1622) was a Flemish painter, son of Frans Pourbus the Elder and grandson of Pieter Pourbus. He was born in Antwerp and died in Paris. He is also referred to as "Frans II".
Pourbus worked for many of the highly influential people of his day, including the Brussels-based Spanish Regents of the Netherlands, the Duke of Mantua and Marie de' Medici, Queen of France. Works of his can be found in the Royal Collection, the National Museum in Warsaw, the Louvre, the Prado, the Rijksmuseum, the Royal College of Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and many other museums.
Style
Pourbus was best known for portraits, but created some history paintings. He produced portraits that were pleasing to his patrons, but rarely providing his works with dramatic situations, or even landscape backgrounds. He is noted for his depiction of costume, jewellery and draperies, as in his portrait of Henry IV of France (below).
Patronage
Pourbus completed his apprenticeship in Antwerp in 1591. At the end of the 16th century, he worked for Archduke Albert and the Infanta Isabella in Brussels. On 27 June 1600, he was paid for a portrait of the Infanta (see below). This was subsequently presented to Anne of Denmark (wife of James VI and I) by the Ambassador of the Spanish Netherlands and this work remains in the Royal Collection.
In 1600, he was recruited as court painter in Mantua by Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua who met him when Gonzaga was on a visit to the Netherlands buying works of art. Within months of his appointment, Peter Paul Rubens arrived at the Mantuan court, but there is no evidence of hostility between the two. In 1609, Pourbus moved to Paris at the instigation of Marie de Médici (see her portrait below). It was here that he perfected his style. He worked as Marie de Médici's court painter until his death.
Death
He died in Paris and was buried on 19 February 1621/2. The exact date of his death is unknown.
The "Anne Boleyn" portrait
Among his works is a portrait of an Italian lady in the Pinacoteca Malaspina, Pavia that has been incorrectly identified as Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII of England (see below). This identification is a result of a later inscription. The portrait was in any case painted some years after Anne Boleyn's death in 1536.
Other examples of his work
References
External links
1569 births
1622 deaths
16th-century Flemish painters
17th-century Flemish painters
Artists from Antwerp | [
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227922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibiscus | Hibiscus | Hibiscus is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising several hundred species that are native to warm temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species are renowned for their large, showy flowers and those species are commonly known simply as "hibiscus", or less widely known as rose mallow. Other names include hardy hibiscus, rose of sharon, and tropical hibiscus.
The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants, as well as woody shrubs and small trees. The generic name is derived from the Greek name ἰβίσκος (ibískos) which Pedanius Dioscorides gave to Althaea officinalis ( 40–90 AD).
Several species are widely cultivated as ornamental plants, notably Hibiscus syriacus and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.
A tea made from hibiscus flowers is known by many names around the world and is served both hot and cold. The beverage is known for its red colour, tart flavour, and vitamin C content.
Description
The leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin (dentate). The flowers are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five or more petals, colour from white to pink, red, blue, orange, peach, yellow or purple, and from 4–18 cm broad.
Flower colour in certain species, such as H. mutabilis and H. tiliaceus, changes with age. The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule dehisces (splits open) at maturity. It is of red and white colours. It is an example of complete flowers.
Nyctinasty in Hibiscus
Nyctinasty is the circadian rhythmic nastic movement of plants in response to the onset of darkness, or a plant "sleeping". Hibiscus, a nyctinastic plant, has a circadian cycle in which they open their leaflets during the day, and close them at night. The movement of the hibiscus flower is accomplished through changes in electrolyte concentrations that cause water movement and changes in turgor pressure throughout the plant.
An initial stimulus such as lack of light on photoreceptors triggers an electrical signal to be propagated along neighboring cells in the plant. This causes a change in turgor pressure of specific cells at the pulvinus to allow for bending of the petals upward. Upon the stimulus calcium-permeable anion channels open to allow a flux of calcium ions into the cytoplasm of the cell causing it to depolarize. This electrical signal is propagated down the phloem to neighboring cells as sequential voltage calcium channels open. In response to the change in membrane potential voltage, gated potassium and chlorine channels open causing an efflux of ions. The increased concentration of ions outside of the cell creates an electrochemical gradient that pulls water out of the cell through osmosis. Aquaporins and hydrogen ion ATPase also help with the movement of water molecules. This causes a change in turgor pressure as water flows out of the flexor cells on the pulvinus and into the extensor cells to allow for bending of petals up to close the flower. The mechanism for hibiscus nyctinasty is an example of plant movement to improve fitness.
Not all plant species exhibit nyctinasty, some only observed in leaf movement while others in flowers. Nyctinasty in flowers alone can be split into a few subcategories: day blooming vs. night blooming, singular vs. repeated blooming cycle, or different combinations in between. In Genus Hibiscus we mostly observe singular day blooming flowers with some hybrids that can achieve repeating cycles. It is believed that the specific blooming cycle of flowers is a self-protective and reproductive mechanism, many species in the colder region close their flowers at night to prevent frosting while some desert species have night blooming flowers to prevent extensive water loss. Predators and Pollinators are also major factors contributing to blooming cycles; some flowers will close at night to prevent nocturnal predators in contrast with night blooming flowers that rely on nocturnal pollinators.
An experiment conducted by Darwin explored foliar nyctinasty to show it is an evolutionary mechanism to improve fitness. His experiments suggest FN can affect leaves' ability to balance their radiative heat by reducing exposure of the leaf to the cold night sky and increasing the exposure to other lateral plants that radiate more heat in order to avoid frost damage and stay warm. He performed experiments where he pinned the leaves of Oxalis and Trifolium down horizontally versus pinning the leaves down vertically to show that the horizontal, more exposed leaves displayed greater frost damage than the warmer, vertical counterparts.
Nyctinasty in hibiscus plants is a mechanism to protect against adverse conditions such as cool temperatures that can be damaging. Through a lack of light stimulus and circadian rhythms the plant is able to trigger the molecular movement of ions to allow for the closing of the flower.
Species
In temperate zones, probably the most commonly grown ornamental species is Hibiscus syriacus, the common garden hibiscus, also known in some areas as the "rose of Althea" or "rose of Sharon" (but not to be confused with the unrelated Hypericum calycinum, also called "rose of Sharon"). In tropical and subtropical areas, the Chinese hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis), with its many showy hybrids, is the most popular hibiscus.
Several hundred species are known, including:
Hibiscus abelmoschus L. synonym of Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.
Hibiscus abelmoschus var. betulifolius Mast. synonym of Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.
Hibiscus abelmoschus var. genuinus Hochr. synonym of Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.
Hibiscus laevis abutiloides Willd. synonym of Talipariti tiliaceum var. pernambucense (Arruda) Fryxell
Hibiscus abyssinicus Steud. (unresolved)
Hibiscus acapulcensis Fryxell
Hibiscus acerifolius Salisb. (unresolved)
Hibiscus acerifolius DC. (unresolved)
Hibiscus acetosaefolius DC. (unresolved)
Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Hiern. false roselle
Hibiscus acicularis
Hibiscus aculeatus—comfortroot
Hibiscus aethiopicus L.
Hibiscus altissimus
Hibiscus andongensis
Hibiscus angolensis
Hibiscus aponeurus
Hibiscus archeri—Archer's hibiscus
Hibiscus aridicola
Hibiscus arnottianus A.Gray—kokiʻo ʻula (Hawaii)
Hibiscus asper—bush roselle
Hibiscus austroyunnanensis
Hibiscus barbosae
Hibiscus benguellensis
Hibiscus berberidifolius
Hibiscus bernieri
Hibiscus bifurcatus—fork-bracted rosemallow
Hibiscus biseptus—Arizona rosemallow
Hibiscus bojerianus
Hibiscus boryanus—foulsapate marron
Hibiscus brackenridgei A.Gray—Hawaiian hibiscus maʻo hau hele
Hibiscus burtt-davyi
Hibiscus caerulescens
Hibiscus caesius—dark-eyed hibiscus (South Africa)
Hibiscus calyphyllus—lemonyellow rosemallow (tropical Africa)
Hibiscus cameronii—Cameron's hibiscus, pink hibiscus
Hibiscus cannabinus L.—Kenaf
Hibiscus castroi
Hibiscus cisplatinus—rosa del rio
Hibiscus citrinus
Hibiscus clayi O.Deg. & I.Deg.— Hawaiian red hibiscus (Hawaii)
Hibiscus clypeatus—Congo mahoe
Hibiscus coccineus (Medik.) Walter—scarlet rosemallow
Hibiscus colimensis
Hibiscus columnaris—mahot rempart
Hibiscus comoensis
Hibiscus congestiflorus
Hibiscus costatus
Hibiscus coulteri—desert rosemallow
Hibiscus cuanzensis
Hibiscus dasycalyx—Neches River rosemallow
Hibiscus denudatus Benth.—pale face (Southwestern United States, Northwestern Mexico)
Hibiscus dimidiatus
Hibiscus dioscorides (Yemen)
Hibiscus diplocrater
Hibiscus diriffan A.G.Mill. (Yemen)
Hibiscus diversifolius—swamp hibiscus
Hibiscus dongolensis
Hibiscus donianus
Hibiscus elatus—mahoe
Hibiscus elegans
Hibiscus engleri—wild hibiscus
Hibiscus escobariae
Hibiscus excellii
Hibiscus ferrugineus
Hibiscus ficalhoanus
Hibiscus flavoroseus
Hibiscus fragilis DC.—mandrinette (Mascarene Islands)
Hibiscus fragrans
Hibiscus fritzscheae
Hibiscus fugosioides
Hibiscus furcellatus Desr.—lindenleaf rosemallow (Caribbean, Florida, Central America, South America, Hawaii)
Hibiscus fuscus
Hibiscus genevii Bojer (Mauritius)
Hibiscus gilletii
Hibiscus gossweileri
Hibiscus grandidieri
Hibiscus grandiflorus Michx.—swamp rosemallow (Southeastern United States)
Hibiscus grandistipulatus
Hibiscus grewiifolius
Hibiscus hamabo
Hibiscus hastatus
Hibiscus heterophyllus—native rosella
Hibiscus hirtus—lesser mallow
Hibiscus hispidissimus
Hibiscus huellensis
Hibiscus hybridus
Hibiscus indicus
Hibiscus insularis Endl.—Phillip Island hibiscus (Phillip Island)
Hibiscus integrifolius
Hibiscus jaliscensis
Hibiscus kochii
Hibiscus kokio—red rosemallow
Hibiscus labordei
Hibiscus laevis All. (=H. militaris)—halberd-leaved rosemallow (central and eastern North America)
Hibiscus lasiocarpos—woolly rosemallow
Hibiscus lasiococcus
Hibiscus lavaterioides
Hibiscus laxiflorus
Hibiscus leptocladus ([Northwest Australia])
Hibiscus leviseminus
Hibiscus lilacinus—lilac hibiscus
Hibiscus liliiflorus—Rodrigues tree hibiscus
Hibiscus longifolius
Hibiscus longisepalus
Hibiscus ludwigii
Hibiscus lunariifolius
Hibiscus macilwraithensis - Australia
Hibiscus macrogonus
Hibiscus macrophyllus—largeleaf rosemallow
Hibiscus macropodus
Hibiscus makinoi—Okinawan hibiscus
Hibiscus malacophyllus Balf.f. (Yemen)
Hibiscus malacospermus
Hibiscus martianus— heartleaf rosemallow
Hibiscus mesnyi Pierre ex Laness. (Vietnam endemic)
Hibiscus moscheutos L.—crimsoneyed rosemallow (Central and Eastern North America)
Hibiscus mutabilis L.—cotton rosemallow, Confederate rose (East Asia)
Hibiscus paramutabilis
Hibiscus pedunculatus
Hibiscus pernambucensis—seaside mahoe
Hibiscus phoeniceus—Brazilian rosemallow
Hibiscus platanifolius
Hibiscus pusillus Thunb. -bladderweed
Hibiscus quattenensis
Hibiscus poeppigii—Poeppig's rosemallow
Hibiscus radiatus—monarch rosemallow
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.—Chinese hibiscus (East Asia)
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.—roselle, omutete, or sorrel
Hibiscus schizopetalus—fringed rosemallow
Hibiscus scottii
Hibiscus socotranus
Hibiscus sinosyriacus
Hibiscus splendens
Hibiscus stenanthus Balf.f. (Yemen)
Hibiscus striatus—striped rosemallow
Hibiscus sturtii Australia
Hibiscus syriacus L. (type species)—rose of Sharon (Asia)
Hibiscus taiwanensis S.Y. Hu Hibiscus tiliaceus L.—sea hibiscus (Australia, Southeast Asia, Oceania)
Hibiscus tozerensis - Australia
Hibiscus trilobus—threelobe rosemallow
Hibiscus trionum L.—flower-of-an-hour
Hibiscus vitifolius—tropical rose mallow
Hibiscus waimeae A.Heller—kokiʻo keʻokeʻo (Hawaii)
Formerly placed in the genus
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench (as H. esculentus L.)
Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn. (as H. ficulneus L.)
Abelmoschus manihot subsp. manihot (as H. manihot L.)
Abelmoschus manihot var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr. (as H. pungens Roxb.)
Abelmoschus manihot var. tetraphyllus (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Borss. Waalk. (as H. tetraphyllus Roxb. ex Hornem.)
Abelmoschus moschatus subsp. moschatus (as H. abelmoschus L.)
Abelmoschus moschatus subsp. tuberosus (Span.) Borss. Waalk. (as H. sagittifolius Kurz)
Alyogyne cuneiformis (DC.) Lewton (as H. cuneiformis DC.)
Alyogyne hakeifolia (Giord.) Alef. (as H. hakeifolius Giord.)
Alyogyne huegelii (Endl.) Fryxell (as H. wrayae Lindl.)
Alyogyne pinoniana (Gaudich.) Fryxell (as H. pinonianus Gaudich.)
Firmiana simplex (L.) W.Wight (as H. simplex L.)
Lagunaria patersonia subsp. patersonia (as H. patersonius Andrews)
Kosteletzkya adoensis (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Mast. (as H. adoensis Hochst. ex A.Rich.)
Kosteletzkya pentacarpos (L.) Ledeb. (as H. pentacarpos L.)
Kosteletzkya tubiflora (DC.) Blanch. & McVaugh (as H. tubiflorus DC.)
Kosteletzkya virginica (L.) C.Presl ex A.Gray (as H. virginicus L.)
Pavonia arabica Hochst. & Steud. ex Boiss. (as H. flavus Forssk.)
Pavonia spinifex (L.) Cav. (as H. spinifex L.)
Radyera farragei (F.Muell.) Fryxell & S.H.Hashmi (as H. farragei F.Muell.)
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell (as H. lampas Cav.)
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa (as H. populneoides Roxb. or H. populneus L.)
Uses
Landscaping
Many species are grown for their showy flowers or used as landscape shrubs, and are used to attract butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds.
Hibiscus is a very hardy, versatile plant and in tropical conditions it can enhance the beauty of any garden. Being versatile it adapts itself easily to balcony gardens in crammed urban spaces and can be easily grown in pots as a creeper or even in hanging pots. It is a perennial and flowers through the year. As it comes in a variety of colors, it's a plant which can add vibrancy to any garden.
The only infestation that gardeners need to be vigilant about is mealybugs. Mealybug infestations are easy to spot as they are clearly visible as a distinct white cottony infestation on buds, leaves or even stems. To protect the plant you need to trim away the infected part, spray with water, and apply an appropriate pesticide.
Paper
One species of Hibiscus, known as kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), is extensively used in paper-making.
Rope and construction
The inner bark of the sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), also called 'hau', is used in Polynesia for making rope, and the wood for making canoe floats. The ropes on the missionary ship Messenger of Peace were made of fibres from hibiscus trees.
Beverage
The tea made of the calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa is known by many names in many countries around the world and is served both hot and cold. The beverage is well known for its red colour, tartness and unique flavour. Additionally, it is highly nutritious because of its vitamin C content.
It is known as bissap in West Africa, "Gul e Khatmi" in Urdu & Persian, agua de jamaica in Mexico and Central America (the flower being flor de jamaica) and Orhul in India. Some refer to it as roselle, a common name for the hibiscus flower. In Jamaica, Trinidad and many other islands in the Caribbean, the drink is known as sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa; not to be confused with Rumex acetosa, a species sharing the common name sorrel). In Ghana, the drink is known as soobolo in one of the local languages.
In Cambodia, a cold beverage can be prepared by first steeping the petals in hot water until the colors are leached from the petals, then adding lime juice (which turns the beverage from dark brown/red to a bright red), sweeteners (sugar/honey) and finally cold water/ice cubes.
In Egypt and Sudan, hibiscus tea is known as karkadé (كركديه), and is served as both a hot and a cold drink.
Hibiscus (also known in Sri Lanka as shoe flower, සපත්තු මල, වද මල in Sinhalese) is an ingredient with a rich heritage of refreshing Lankans. Fresh juices, ice teas and syrups made of the Hibiscus flower are famous refreshments among Sri Lankans.
Food
Dried hibiscus is edible, and it is often a delicacy in Mexico. It can also be candied and used as a garnish, usually for desserts.
The roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is used as a vegetable.
The species Hibiscus suratensis Linn synonymous with Hibiscus aculeatus G. Don is noted in Visayas in the Philippines as being a souring ingredient for almost all local vegetables and menus. Known as labog in the Visayan area, (or labuag/sapinit in Tagalog), the species is an ingredient in cooking native chicken soup.Hibiscus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidopteran species, including Chionodes hibiscella, Hypercompe hambletoni, the nutmeg moth, and the turnip moth.
Folk medicine Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is described as having a number of medical uses in Indian Ayurveda.
Claimed effects on blood pressure
It has been claimed that sour teas derived from Hibiscus sabdariffa may lower blood pressure.
Precautions and contraindications
Pregnancy and lactation
While the mechanism is not well understood, previous animal studies have demonstrated both an inhibitory effect of H. sabdariffa on muscle tone and the anti-fertility effects of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, respectively. The extract of H. sabdariffa has been shown to stimulate contraction of the rat bladder and uterus; the H. rosa-sinensis extract has exhibited contraceptive effects in the form of estrogen activity in rats. These findings have not been observed in humans. The Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is also thought to have emmenagogue effects which can stimulate menstruation and, in some women, cause an abortion. Due to the documented adverse effects in animal studies and the reported pharmacological properties, the H. sabdariffa and H. rosa-sinensis are not recommended for use during pregnancy.
Drug interactions
It is postulated that H. sabdariffa interacts with diclofenac, chloroquine and acetaminophen by altering the pharmacokinetics. In healthy human volunteers, the H. sabdariffa extract was found to reduce the excretion of diclofenac upon co-administration. Additionally, co-administration of Karkade (H. sabdariffa), a common Sudanese beverage, was found to reduce chloroquine bioavailability. However, no statistically significant changes were observed in the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen when administered with the Zobo (H. sabdariffa) drink. Further studies are needed to demonstrate clinical significance.
Symbolism and culture
The red hibiscus is the flower of the Hindu goddess Kali, and appears frequently in depictions of her in the art of Bengal, India, often with the goddess and the flower merging in form. The hibiscus is used as an offering to the goddess Kali and the god Ganesha in Hindu worship.
In the Philippines, the gumamela (the local name for hibiscus) is used by children as part of a bubble-making pastime. The flowers and leaves are crushed until the sticky juices come out. Hollow papaya stalks are then dipped into this and used as straws for blowing bubbles. Together with soap, hibiscus juices produce more bubbles. Also called "Tarukanga" in Waray particularly in Eastern Samar province.
The hibiscus flower is traditionally worn by Tahitian and Hawaiian girls. If the flower is worn behind the left ear, the woman is married or has a boyfriend. If the flower is worn on the right, she is single or openly available for a relationship. The yellow hibiscus is Hawaii's state flower.
Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie named her first novel Purple Hibiscus after the delicate flower.
The bark of the hibiscus contains strong bast fibres that can be obtained by letting the stripped bark set in the sea to let the organic material rot away.
As a national and state symbol
The hibiscus is a national symbol of Haiti, and the national flower of nations including the Solomon Islands and Niue. Hibiscus syriacus is the national flower of South Korea, and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is the national flower of Malaysia. Hibiscus brackenridgei'' is the state flower of Hawaii.
References
External links
American Hibiscus Society (AHS)
Australian Hibiscus Society
International Hibiscus Society
Vicki J. Coldwell Plant and care Hibiscus
Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions
Medicinal plants
Malvaceae genera
National symbols of Haiti | [
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227931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamarind | Tamarind | Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa. The genus Tamarindus is monotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the family Fabaceae.
The tamarind tree produces brown, pod-like fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world. The pulp is also used in traditional medicine and as a metal polish. The tree's wood can be used for woodworking and tamarind seed oil can be extracted from the seeds. Tamarind's tender young leaves are used in Indian and Filipino cuisine. Because tamarind has multiple uses, it is cultivated around the world in tropical and subtropical zones.
Etymology
The name derives from , romanized tamar hindi, "Indian date". Several early medieval herbalists and physicians wrote tamar indi, medieval Latin use was tamarindus, and Marco Polo wrote of tamarandi.
In Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called tamarindo. In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or agua de tamarindo). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called tamón. Countries in the Malay world like Indonesia call it asam jawa (Javanese sour fruit) or simply asam, and sukaer in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called sampalok or sampaloc in Filipino, and sambag in Cebuano. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is sometimes confused with "Manila tamarind" (Pithecellobium dulce). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as guamúchili.
Origin
Tamarindus indica is probably indigenous to tropical Africa, but has been cultivated for so long on the Indian subcontinent that it is sometimes reported to be indigenous there. It grows wild in Africa in locales as diverse as Sudan, It is widely distributed throughout the tropics, from Africa to South Asia
In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine.
Today, India is the largest producer of tamarind. The consumption of tamarind is widespread due to its central role in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and the Americas, especially Mexico.
Description
The tamarind is a long-lived, medium-growth tree, which attains a maximum crown height of . The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of dense foliage. The tree grows well in full sun. It prefers clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with a high resistance to drought and aerosol salt (wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas).
The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and pinnately lobed. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular, pinnately veined, and less than in length. The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures, and are often pruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest. At night, the leaflets close up.
As a tropical species, it is frost-sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood.
The tamarind flowers (although inconspicuously), with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm wide (one inch), five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks. Buds are pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms.
Fruit
The fruit is an indehiscent legume, sometimes called a pod, in length, with a hard, brown shell.
The fruit has a fleshy, juicy, acidic pulp. It is mature when the flesh is coloured brown or reddish brown. The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is best described as sweet and sour in taste, and is high in tartaric acid, sugar, B vitamins, and, unusually for a fruit, calcium.
The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk. A mature tree may be capable of producing up to of fruit per year. Veneer grafting, shield (T or inverted T) budding, and air layering may be used to propagate desirable cultivars. Such trees will usually fruit within three to four years if provided optimum growing conditions.
Culinary use
The fruit pulp is edible. The hard green pulp of a young fruit is considered by many to be too sour, but is often used as a component of savory dishes, as a pickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonous yams in Ghana safe for human consumption. As the fruit matures it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic) and the ripened fruit is considered more palatable. The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet tamarind ones have almost no acidity when ripe. In Western cuisine, tamarind pulp is found in Worcestershire Sauce and HP Sauce.
Tamarind paste has many culinary uses including a flavoring for chutneys, curries, and the traditional sharbat syrup drink. Tamarind sweet chutney is popular in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks and often served with samosa. Tamarind pulp is a key ingredient in flavoring curries and rice in south Indian cuisine, in the Chigali lollipop, in rasam, and in certain varieties of masala chai tea. Across the Middle East, from the Levant to Iran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang. In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as an ingredient in the traditional dish called sinigang to add a unique sour taste, unlike that of dishes that use vinegar instead. Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind-based soup dish called sayur asem.
In Mexico and the Caribbean, the pulp is diluted with water and sugared to make an agua fresca drink.
Tamarind seed oil and kernel powder
Tamarind seed oil is the oil made from the kernel of tamarind seeds. Isolation of the kernel without the thin but tough shell (or testa) is difficult.
Tamarind kernel powder is used as sizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives. It is de-oiled to stabilize its colour and odor on storage.
Cultivation
Seeds can be scarified or briefly boiled to enhance germination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry.
The tamarind has long been naturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and Pacific Islands. Thailand has the largest plantations of the ASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is called asam. It is cultivated all over India, especially in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Extensive tamarind orchards in India produce annually.
In the United States, it is a large-scale crop introduced for commercial use (second in net production quantity only to India), mainly in southern states, notably south Florida, and as a shade tree, along roadsides, in dooryards and in parks.
A traditional food plant in Africa, tamarind has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare. In Madagascar, its fruit and leaves are a well-known favorite of the ring-tailed lemur, providing as much as 50 percent of their food resources during the year if available.
Folk medicine
Throughout Southeast Asia, the fruit of the tamarind is used as a poultice applied to foreheads of fever sufferers. The fruit exhibits laxative effects due to its high quantities of malic acid, tartaric acid, and potassium bitartrate. Its use for the relief of constipation has been documented throughout the world.
Woodworking
Tamarind lumber is used to make furniture, carvings, turned objects such as mortars and pestles, chopping blocks, and other small specialty wood items. Tamarind heartwood is reddish brown, sometimes with a purplish hue. The heartwood in tamarind tends to be narrow and is usually only present in older and larger trees. The pale yellow sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Heartwood is said to be durable to very durable in decay resistance, and is also resistant to insects. Its sapwood is not durable and is prone to attack by insects and fungi as well as spalting. Due to its density and interlocked grain, tamarind is considered difficult to work. Heartwood has a pronounced blunting effect on cutting edges. Tamarind turns, glues, and finishes well. The heartwood is able to take a high natural polish.
Metal polish
In homes and temples, especially in Buddhist Asian countries, the fruit pulp is used to polish brass shrine statues and lamps, and copper, brass, and bronze utensils. The copper alone or in brass reacts with moist carbon dioxide to gain a green coat of copper carbonate. Tamarind contains tartaric acid, a weak acid that can remove the coat of copper carbonate. Hence, tarnished copper utensils are cleaned with tamarind or lime, another acidic fruit.
Horticulture
Throughout South Asia and the tropical world, tamarind trees are used as ornamental, garden, and cash crop plantings. Commonly used as a bonsai species in many Asian countries, it is also grown as an indoor bonsai in temperate parts of the world.
Research
In hens, tamarind has been found to lower cholesterol in their serum, and in the yolks of the eggs they laid. Due to a lack of available human clinical trials, there is insufficient evidence to recommend tamarind for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia or diabetes. Different parts of tamarind (T. indica) are recognized for their various medicinal properties. A previous study reported that the seed, leaf, leaf veins, fruit pulp and skin extracts of tamarind possessed high phenolic content and antioxidant activities. The presence of lupanone and lupeol, catechin, epicatechin, quercetin and isorhamnetin in the leaf extract could have contributed towards the diverse range of the medicinal activities. On the other hand, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) analyses revealed that tamarind seeds contained catechin, procyanidin B2, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, chloramphenicol, myricetin, morin, quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol. The treatment of tamarind leaves on liver HepG2 cells significantly regulated the expression of genes and proteins involved with consequential impact on the coagulation system, cholesterol biosynthesis, xenobiotic metabolism signaling and antimicrobial response.
References
External links
SEA Hand Book-2009: Published by The Solvent Extractors' Association of India
Tamarindus indica in Brunken, U., Schmidt, M., Dressler, S., Janssen, T., Thiombiano, A. & Zizka, G. 2008. West African plants – A Photo Guide.
Detarioideae
Fruits originating in Africa
Edible legumes
Medicinal plants
Sour fruits
Tropical fruit
Spices
Indian spices
Trees of Africa
Non-timber forest products
Plants described in 1753 | [
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227934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om%20%28disambiguation%29 | Om (disambiguation) | Om is a sacred syllable in Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism.
OM, om, and variations, may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Fiction
Om (1995 film), an Indian Kannada film
Om (2003 film), a Bollywood film
Om (2018 film), a Kollywood film
Omkara (2004 film), a 2004 Indian Kannada film
Omkara (2006 film), a 2006 Indian Bollywood film
Om, the lead character in the 2007 Bollywood film Om Shanti Om
Music
Om (band), a doom metal band
Om (Ibarra album), a 1996 album
Om (John Coltrane album), a 1965 album
OM (Negură Bunget album), a 2006 album
Om (Soulfly album), a 2002 album also known as 3
"Om" (The Moody Blues song), a 1968 song
OM Festival, a Canadian electronic music festival
Om Records, a San Francisco-based dance music record label, home to artist like J Boogie, Kaskade, and King Kooba
Of Machines, a post-hardcore band
Orchestra Model, an acoustic guitar by Martin Guitars
People
Om Bhatia, Indo-Canadian actor better known as Akshay Kumar
Om Puri, Indian actor
Om family, eastern Bengali family
Businesses and organizations
MIAT-Mongolian Airlines (IATA code OM)
Odyssey of the Mind, an international problem-solving competition for students
Officine Meccaniche, a former Italian motor vehicle manufacturer
Olympique de Marseille, a French football club
Operation Mobilisation, a Christian non-profit missions organization
Orlando Magic, a basketball team in the NBA
OM AB, a Swedish exchange which merged with Finnish HEX plc to become OMX
Honors and orders
Order of Manitoba, the post-nominal letters indicating membership in an honour of the Crown in Right of Manitoba
Order of Merit, post-nominal letters indicating membership in a high honour from the monarch of the Commonwealth realms
Order of Merit (Jamaica), post-nominal letters indicating membership of the Order of Merit in the Jamaican honours system
Order of the Minims, the post-nominal letters indicating membership in a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Francis of Paola in the fifteenth century in Italy
Language
Oromo language (ISO 639-1: "om")
Oto-Manguean languages (abbreviated as "OM")
Places
Øm Abbey, a Cistercian abbey which was in Søhøjlandet, in Denmark
Om (river), a tributary of the Irtysh in Siberia, Russia
Oman (ISO 3166 country code OM)
.om, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Oman
Omu Peak, in the Bucegi Mountains of Romania
Science and technology
Biology and medicine
Occupational medicine, a medical specialty
Osteomyelitis, a bone marrow infection
Otitis media, an infection of the middle ear
Bacterial outer membrane, a layer found in gram-negative bacteria
Computing and telecommunications
.om, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Oman
Openmoko Linux, a mobile operating system developed by the Openmoko project
Other uses in science and technology
Olympus OM system, a family of Olympus SLR cameras made between 1972 and 2002
Organic matter
Osipkov–Merritt models, mathematical representations of spherical stellar systems
Other uses
Minim (religious order) (O.M.), is a member of the Roman Catholic religious order of friars
Offering memorandum, in finance, "the OM", prospectus for a bond offering
Old Man, meaning a male amateur radio operator
List of Old Marlburians, alumni of Marlborough College
Old Millfieldians, alumni of Millfield School
Olympique de Marseille, a French football club in Marseille
Om (actor), Bengali actor
Operating margin, in business
Operation Mindfuck, a practice within Discordianism
Orgasmic Meditation, a meditational practice in which the object of meditation is finger to genital (usually clitoris) contact
See also
Aum (disambiguation)
O&M (disambiguation)
OAM (disambiguation)
Ohm (disambiguation)
OMS (disambiguation)
Omu (disambiguation)
Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese new religious movement, known for carrying out the Sarin gas attacks in the Tokyo subways | [
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227937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Film%20Laboratories%20v%20Commissioner%20of%20Tax | Pacific Film Laboratories v Commissioner of Tax | In Pacific Film Laboratories v Commissioner of Tax, (Australia) Windeyer J defined copyright: "It is not a right in an existing thing. It is a negative right, as it has been called, a power to prevent the making of a physical thing by copying."
Case Details
The Pacific Film Laboratories v. Commissioner of Tax was regarding whether the reproduction of prints owned by a third party, for that third party was an act of sale which could incur sales tax. Pacific Film argued that as it had no property right in the prints, it was not selling anything to the customer which might be taxed. The High Court rejected this argument saying that when Pacific Film reproduced the customer's negatives, under authorisation from the customer, the copyright was owned by the customer but the chattel produced in the process of reproduction was owned by Pacific Film. The sale of this
chattel to the customer incurred the sales tax.
References
High Court of Australia cases
1970 in Australian law
1970 in case law
Australian copyright case law | [
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227941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Bosch | Robert Bosch | Robert Bosch (23 September 1861 – 12 March 1942) was a German industrialist, engineer and inventor, founder of Robert Bosch GmbH.
Biography
Bosch was born in Albeck, a village to the northeast of Ulm in southern Germany as the eleventh of twelve children. His parents came from a class of well-situated farmers from the region. His father, a freemason, was unusually highly educated for someone of his class, and placed special importance on a good education for his children. One of his brothers was Carl Friedrich Alexander Bosch (1843–1904), the father of Carl Bosch.
From 1869 to 1876, Bosch attended the Realschule (secondary-technical school) in Ulm, and then took an apprenticeship as a precision mechanic.
After his school and practical education, Bosch spent a further seven years working at diverse companies in Germany, the United States (for Thomas Edison in New York), and the UK (for the German firm Siemens). On 15 November 1886, he opened his own "Workshop for Precision Mechanics and Electrical Engineering" in Stuttgart. A year later, he made a decisive improvement to an unpatented magneto ignition device made by the engine manufacturer Deutz, providing his first business success. The purpose of the device was to generate an electric spark to ignite the air–fuel mixture in a stationary engine. In 1897, Bosch was the first to adapt a magneto to a vehicle engine. In doing so, he solved one of the greatest technical problems faced by the nascent automotive industry. The invention of the first commercially viable high-voltage spark plug as part of a magneto-based ignition system by Robert Bosch's engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902 was a key stage in the development of the internal combustion engine.
Before the 19th century ended, Bosch expanded his operations beyond Germany. The company established a sales office in the UK in 1898, and other European countries soon after. The first sales office and the first factory in the U.S. were opened in 1906 and 1910 respectively. By 1913, the company had branch operations in America, Asia, Africa, and Australia, and was generating 88% of its sales outside Germany. In rapid succession in the years following the First World War, Bosch launched innovations for the motor vehicle, including diesel fuel injection in 1927. In the 1920s the global economic crisis caused Bosch to begin a rigorous program of modernization and diversification in his company. In only a few years' time, he succeeded in turning his company from a small automotive supplier into a multinational electronics group.
From the beginning, Bosch was greatly concerned about promoting occupational training. Prompted by his awareness of social responsibility, he was one of the first industrialists in Germany to introduce the eight-hour work day, followed by other social benefits for his associates. Robert Bosch did not wish to profit from the armaments contracts awarded to his company during WWI. Instead, he donated several million German marks to charitable causes. A hospital that he gave to the city of Stuttgart opened in 1940.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Robert Bosch was politically active. As a liberal businessman, he sat on a number of economic committees. He devoted a great deal of energy and money to the cause of bringing about reconciliation between Germany and France. He hoped this reconciliation would bring about lasting peace in Europe and lead to the creation of a European economic area.
Third Reich
The Nazi regime in Germany brought Bosch's peacemaking efforts to an abrupt end. The Bosch company accepted armaments contracts and employed an estimated 20,000 forced labourers (including some 1200 concentration camp inmates who were "brutally abused at the Langenbielau plant") during the war. Meanwhile, Bosch supported the resistance against Adolf Hitler and together with his closest associates saved victims of Nazi persecution from deportation.
On his eightieth birthday, Bosch was awarded the title "Pionier der Arbeit" (Pioneer of Labor) by Hitler and when he died a year later, he was afforded a state funeral by the Third Reich.
Bosch was keenly interested in agricultural issues and owned a farm south of Munich. He was also a passionate hunter. When he died, he was survived by four children from two marriages. A son from his first marriage died in 1921 following a protracted illness.
In 1937, Bosch had restructured his company as a private limited company (close corporation). He had established his last will and testament in which he stipulated that the earnings of the company should be allocated to charitable causes. Also, his will sketched the outlines of the corporate constitution, which was formulated by his successors in 1964 and is still valid today.
He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1984.
See also
Robert Bosch GmbH
Robert Bosch Stiftung
Robert-Bosch-Hospital
German inventors and discoverers
Bosch Fernseh
References
Bibliography
Robert Bosch: The prevention of future crises in the world economic system. London, Constable, 1937 (German edition 1932)
Theodor Heuss: Robert Bosch – his life and achievements. Transl. by Susan Gillespie. New York, Holt, 1994.
Hans-Erhard Lessing: Robert Bosch. Reinbek 2007 (in German).
External links
Robert Bosch at the Automotive Hall of Fame
1861 births
1942 deaths
People from Langenau
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
German automotive pioneers
German company founders
19th-century German businesspeople
20th-century German businesspeople
19th-century German inventors
German industrialists
Robert Bosch GmbH | [
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227943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20and%20Third%20Trinity%20Boat%20Club | First and Third Trinity Boat Club | The First and Third Trinity Boat Club is the rowing club of Trinity College in Cambridge, England. The club formally came into existence in 1946 when the First Trinity Boat Club and the Third Trinity Boat Club merged, although the two clubs had been rowing together for several years before that date. The first boat club associated with Trinity was formed in 1825 and came to be known as First Trinity in 1833 when the Third Trinity Boat Club was formed (a Second Trinity Boat Club was formed in 1831 but did not have a continuous existence until 1840). Membership of Third Trinity was originally confined to Old Etonians and Old Westminsters. Members of Third Trinity were allowed also to be members of First or Second Trinity and often were.
The boat club also gives its name to Trinity College's May Ball, which is the oldest such event in Cambridge and originates from the club's celebrations after the victories in the May Bumps.
History and legend
In the nineteenth century the various Trinity boat clubs were very strong and regularly won events in Cambridge and at various regattas around the country, notably the Henley Royal Regatta, and regularly contributed rowers to the Cambridge boat for the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. Indeed, in the 1849 Boat Race, all members of the crew were from Trinity, seven from Third Trinity and two, the cox included, from First Trinity. Boats from the three clubs could often be found at, or near, the top of the Bumps and they sometimes combined their resources in races against the rest of the University.
In 1876 Second Trinity was disbanded due to insufficient members. However, a legend claims that during the Bumps in that year, the rowers of Trinity's arch-rivals, St John's College, attached a sword to the bow of one of their boats, so that if they successfully bumped the boat in front (which turned out to be one of Second Trinity's), it would be holed and sink. The plan supposedly worked in that the Trinity boat did sink, but in the process the sword also hit and killed Second Trinity's cox, which of course was not intended. The legend claims that this is the reason why Second Trinity Boat Club was dissolved, and why St John's College is no longer allowed a boat club under its own name. However, there is no traceable record of a crew from St John's attaching a sword to their bow, and while a St John's College Boat Club was disbanded in 1876, the original boat club at St John's was Lady Margaret Boat Club. A somewhat similar incident occurred in the 1888 Lent Bumps, twelve years after the dissolution of Second Trinity, after which bow balls became mandatory. In his History of the First Trinity Boat Club, Walter Rouse Ball notes: "The third day was the occasion of a sad tragedy. Clare bumped Queens', and drew into the bank by Grassy. Behind these boats was the Trinity Hall third boat. This, instead of rounding First Post Corner, ran, by some mishap, across the river, and the nose of the boat struck number 4 in the Clare boat just over his heart, killing him on the spot. The further races were at once stopped. Since this dreadful incident small india-rubber knobs have been fixed on the bows of all the racing boats". The more prosaic explanation for 2nd Trinity's demise is that membership was restricted to Theology scholars, who over time proved to be an unreliable source of oarsmen.
In the twentieth century the clubs remained competitive and continued to achieve success in various events. The Second World War forced the two clubs to combine resources, and after the war they formally merged in order to remain competitive with the now larger boat clubs of other colleges. In the same year First and Third won the Visitors' Challenge Cup at the Henley Royal Regatta, and the following year they won the Ladies' Challenge Plate. They won the Ladies Plate again in 1954 and in 1967, which was the last year that a college crew from either Cambridge or Oxford has won the event. The difference in the standard of rowing between Oxbridge colleges and non-University clubs changed greatly over the twentieth century, possibly due to standards at college clubs falling or to the quality of rowing in other clubs improving, but probably a combination of the two. For example, First and Third, like all other Oxbridge college crews, now have difficulty achieving a standard of rowing to even qualify for events at the Henley Royal Regatta, let alone to win these events. In spite of this, rowing within Cambridge remains popular and the Bumps, the main inter-college event, see well over a thousand students competing, typically around a hundred from Trinity.
First Trinity Boat Club
The Trinity Boat Club, the original rowing club of Trinity College, Cambridge, dates from 1825 and was usually called First Trinity Boat Club after 1833. It was open to all members of the College.
In 1946, the club amalgamated with the other remaining boat club of the College, Third Trinity Boat Club, to form First and Third Trinity Boat Club, and in this form continues to compete today.
The Club was very successful throughout its history, but especially in the 19th century. Its early history is well covered by Walter Rouse Ball's 1908 book, A History of The First Trinity Boat Club, which is available online in its entirety.
Of particular note is that in 1839 First Trinity won the Grand Challenge Cup in the first Henley Regatta (not made "Royal" till 1851). The crew rowed in a boat named the Black Prince, the bow section of which is still owned by the First and Third Trinity Boat Club but which is on loan to the River and Rowing Museum in Henley. They defeated the other three entries, who were Wadham College, Oxford, Brasenose College, Oxford and the Oxford Etonian Club. First and Third Trinity Boat Club still names its higher quality men's eight-oared boats 'Black Prince'. As new boats are purchased, older boats are demoted to lower boat use and are referred to as 'Black Prince II', 'Black Prince III' and so on.
1st Trinity has won Olympic gold on two occasions. The coxless four of Charles Eley, James MacNabb, Robert Morrison and Terence Sanders won gold for Great Britain at the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, with Canada gaining silver, and Switzerland the bronze. In the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, 1st Trinity successfully defended the coxless fours title (Richard Beesly, Edward Bevan, John Lander, Michael Warriner), with the United States getting silver and Italy receiving bronze.
First Trinity was also very successful on its home water, the River Cam. Between 1827 and 1908 First Trinity was "Head" crew in the University of Cambridge's Bumps races thirty-eight times, more than any other Club.
Second Trinity Boat Club
The Second Trinity Boat Club was a short-lived rowing club at Trinity College. Little is known about the club, as very few records survive from 2nd Trinity. The club was reserved for members of the clergy and theology students who were studying at Trinity, and, by 1876 the club folded due to a lack of members.
2nd Trinity competed in the early bumps races in Cambridge from 1829 until its demise in 1876, going Head of the River in 1835 and 1849.
The club was originally known as the Nautilus Club, changing its name to Second Trinity, Queen Bess to reflect the name of its boat, a common practice at the time. The name of the club continued as Queen Bess until 1838, when it ceased competing. The club reformed in 1840 as the 2nd Trinity Boat Club, but was often described as Reading Trinity and nicknamed the Hallelujahs, in reflection of its membership. By the mid-1860s, the club was in decline, and despite efforts by the First Trinity Boat Club in 1866 to limit their membership in order to boost that of 2nd Trinity, this failed to help, and the decline continued. 1st Trinity voted to remove their membership limit once again. By 1870, the club had abandoned its original entry requirements, and allowed new students who did not have a connection to theology courses, and this allowed the club to continue for a few years, even rising back up to 7th in the bumps races in 1873. Thereafter, numbers dwindled once again, and by the Easter term 1876, the club had dropped to last but one in the first division. At a meeting of all three Trinity clubs, the 2nd Trinity Boat Club was formally dissolved, with its members given an invitation to join First Trinity.
In 1894, a group of students had claimed to have re-founded 2nd Trinity, and raced in the bumps, but the new 2nd Trinity was not recognised by the Cambridge University Boat Club and did not race again.
One of 2nd Trinity's trophies, the Baines Cup, is used today as the main prize of the Second Trinity Challenge Sculls, a sculling race run by the current 1st and 3rd Trinity members.
An account of its history can be found at First and Third Trinity Boat Club.
Third Trinity Boat Club
The Third Trinity Boat Club was a rowing club which was only open to certain members of Trinity College, Cambridge. Members of Third Trinity had to have been to school at either Eton College or Westminster School. Due to a lack of members around the time of World War II, Third Trinity combined with the First Trinity Boat Club, to make up the current First and Third Trinity Boat Club which survives to this day.
Third Trinity rowed with black blades.
Results
Third Trinity competed in the early bumps races at Cambridge University and also in the Lent and May Bumps when they became separate events in 1887.
Third Trinity nearly always did better in the May Bumps than the Lent Bumps, achieving the headship of the May Bumps on nine occasions including holding it for six consecutive years between 1901 and 1906. When the club began rowing with First Trinity, the 1st VIII were in 9th position.
Third Trinity never went head of the Lent Bumps, but managed second place in 1902 and 1922 before plummeting into the mid 2nd division just before the merger.
Third Trinity still hold the record for the most wins in the Visitors' Challenge Cup at the Henley Royal Regatta, standing at 14, even though they have not entered since the merger over 70 years ago.
Merger with First Trinity
Third Trinity merged with First Trinity officially in 1946, but the two clubs had been rowing together in the bumps throughout the war period.
In 1946, the newly formed First and Third Trinity Boat Club entered the Henley Royal Regatta and won the Visitors' Challenge Cup with ease; they won the Ladies' Challenge Plate the following year.
Following the merger, the new club took the bumps positions of First Trinity's crews, since they were placed higher than those of Third Trinity, but the new club used Third Trinity's black blades for a number of years, before switching to the current blade colours of blue and gold.
Cultural references
The First Trinity Boat Club and Third Trinity Boat Club are mentioned in The Fall of Prince Florestan of Monaco by Himself, a fictitious work by Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke.
Honours
Henley Royal Regatta
See also
University rowing (UK)
Trinity College, Cambridge
References
CUCBC (various years) - Lent and May Bumps programmes.
First and Third Trinity Boat Club website
A History of the First Trinity Boat Club
Trinity College
Trinity College, Cambridge
Sports clubs established in 1946
Sports organizations established in 1825
Sports clubs established in the 1820s
Rowing clubs in Cambridgeshire
Rowing clubs in England
Rowing clubs of the River Cam | [
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227945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorized%20infantry | Motorized infantry | Motorized infantry is infantry that is transported by trucks or other motor vehicles. It is distinguished from mechanized infantry, which is carried in armoured personnel carriers or infantry fighting vehicles, and from light infantry, which can typically operate autonomously from supporting elements and vehicles for relatively long periods and may be airborne.
Operations
As defined by the United States Army, motorization is "the use of unarmored wheeled vehicles for the transportation of combat units." Motorizing infantry is the first stage towards the mechanization of an army. Civilian trucks are often readily adaptable to military uses of transporting soldiers, towing guns, and carrying equipment and supplies. Motorization greatly increases the strategic mobility of infantry units, which would otherwise rely on marches or railroads. In practice, armies have found it advantageous to develop trucks to military specifications, such as all-wheel drive, to have vehicles that function reliably in extremes of weather and terrain.
Motorization provides no direct tactical advantage in small-unit combat, as trucks and jeeps are vulnerable to artillery and small arms fire. However, in larger battles, motorized infantry has an advantage in mobility allowing them to move to critical sectors of the battlefield faster, allowing better response to enemy movements, and the ability to outmaneuver the enemy.
The disadvantage of motorization is that fuel is critical; if motorized divisions run out of fuel, they may be required to abandon their vehicles.
History
World War One was the first major war to see use of petroleum-powered vehicles used to transport supplies and personnel, and to fight the enemy. Unarmored and armored cars were dispatched to attack enemy positions and trains, and were used to patrol the front. However, this was on a small scale and a majority of movement was on foot and logistics with trains and horse-drawn logistics.
The Pancho Villa Expedition was a notable use of the armored car by the United States Cavalry under the command of General Pershing. There a Lieutenant George S. Patton was introduced to mechanized warfare when he led a small group of men against Villa's forces at San Miguelito Ranch.
After the war, the major militaries of the world saw the great benefit that motorized vehicles could have on the logistics and combat effectiveness of their infantry units.
In the 1920s, the British created the Experimental Mechanized Force between the wars to test the capabilities of all-arms formations of mechanized units, this included motorized infantry ("Motor Battalions").
The speed advantages of motorized infantry first became important in World War II in the German Blitzkrieg. While it was no more robust than the regular infantry that moved on foot, its increased speed became decisive in the Blitzkrieg strategy, as it could follow the panzer forces and defend its flanks.
Notwithstanding the obvious advantages of motorization, most countries opted for only partial motorization of their infantry because of the cost and logistical implications caused by the deployment of so many vehicles. Even large armies were affected by such factors. The motorization of Armies required massive industrialization of the economies in order to meet the heavy cost for vehicle production, replacement parts, and fueling.
The bulk of German and Soviet infantry remained on foot. While some units of the Wehrmacht, e.g. armored divisions, were highly mechanized, most of the army was still using horses due to their inconsistent oil supply.
US infantry divisions were able to motorize a major portion of their infantry due to their industrial base. Likewise, infantry divisions of the British Empire could motorize chosen subordinate units, but infantry usually advanced on foot.
Finally, after WW2, most armies completely motorized and partially mechanized their infantry. The engineering improvements throughout the 20th century allowed for increasingly bigger vehicles to be deployed.
In Russia and the former Soviet Union, the term motostrelki (мотострелки in Cyrillic) is used to indicate mechanized infantry; that usage, during the Korean War, prevailed in all Warsaw Pact countries. This "motor rifle" divisions were mostly mechanized but had a core of motorized infantry with them. In practice, this meant that the infantry of the Soviet and Russian "Tank" divisions rode in fully tracked BMP vehicles, while those in "Motor Rifle" divisions were equipped with wheeled BTR vehicles.
Present day
After the Vietnam War, the US military saw the need for light squad based transportation. This project became the Humvee which was used extensively by the Army and Marine Corps in the Gulf War, Early War in Afghanistan, and Early Iraq War. The latter two conflicts resulted in a large scale insurgency and saw the increase in use of IEDs. This soon became the largest source of casualties to NATO forces. The result was a shift away from lightly armored vehicles to more mechanized vehicles or more heavily armored MRAPs. During the duration of the Humvee's use in Iraq and Afghanistan and before the roll-out of MRAPs, it slowly became more heavily armored with larger turret shields, bulletproof glass and extra plating on its doors and components. Less armored but faster and lighter MRAPs were developed under the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle program, which is now phase in the Oshkosh L-ATV and M-ATV. It has been described as "The first vehicle purpose-built for modern battlefield-networks." These vehicles have seen deployments in Rojava, Syria in Operation Inherent Resolve.
For transportation outside of combat, the US military fields a variety of trucks including the Medium Tactical Vehicles replacement for the Marine Corps and the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles for the Army. The National Guard and other reserve units also field older models such as the M939 5-ton 6x6.
See also
Infantry mobility vehicle
Dragoon
Mounted infantry
Tank desant
References
Citations
External links
https://www.7af.pacaf.af.mil/News/Video/videoid/548038/dvpTag/Sustainers/
Infantry | [
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227947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itar-Tass%20Russian%20News%20Agency%20v.%20Russian%20Kurier%2C%20Inc. | Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc. | Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc., 153 F.3d 82 (2d Cir. 1998), was a copyright case about the Russian language weekly Russian Kurier in New York City that had copied and published various materials from Russian newspapers and news agency reports of Itar-TASS. The case was ultimately decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. The decision was widely commented upon and the case is considered a landmark case because the court defined rules applicable in the U.S. on the extent to which the copyright laws of the country of origin or those of the U.S. apply in international disputes over copyright. The court held that to determine whether a claimant actually held the copyright on a work, the laws of the country of origin usually applied (more precisely: "copyright is a form of property" and under the Second Restatement's approach, the governing law is "determined by the law of the state with 'the most significant relationship' to the property and to the parties"), but that to decide whether a copyright infringement had occurred and for possible remedies, the laws of the country where the infringement was claimed applied (lex loci delicti).
Case history
Itar-TASS, several Russian newspapers, and a Russian association of professional journalists (the Union of Journalists of Russia, in Russian: Союз журналистов России) sued Russian Kurier, its owner, and its printing company for copyright infringement in 1995 in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. The court issued a preliminary injunction against the defendant. This preliminary injunction applied to all copied articles for which the plaintiffs had registered copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office or that were published after March 13, 1995, the date Russia signed the Berne Convention. The U.S. at that time still required explicit copyright registrations for copyrights to be recognized as valid. Of the more than 500 articles Russian Kurier had copied from 1992 to 1995, the court considered 317 copyrighted in the U.S. as "Berne Works" (i.e., works originally published in another member country of the Berne Convention, of which the U.S. had been a member since 1989), and a further 28 first published in Russia before March 13, 1995 were copyrighted in the U.S. because they were indeed registered at the U.S. Copyright Office, accounting for a total of 345 copyright violations.
In its ruling two years later (No. 95 Civ. 2144(JGK) (S.D.N.Y. March 10, 1997); also known as "Itar-TASS II"), the court found Russian Kurier and its owner had willfully committed multiple copyright violations. The court upheld the injunction and fined the defendants US$ 500,000 in favor of the plaintiffs. The printing company was fined US$3,934 as by printing the newspaper, the court considered it had contributed to the commitment of these copyright violations, although without intent. The court defined that the plaintiffs' rights were to be determined by Russian law, but the infringement had to be judged by U.S. law; and came to the conclusion that under Russian copyright law, the news agency Itar-TASS and the individual authors of the newspaper articles certainly were copyright holders and thus entitled to sue. However, the district court denied the journalist's association any right to relief as it was unclear exactly which of its members were authors of the copied articles, or whether all such authors were indeed members. There was some dispute over the copyright claims by the newspapers, as the defendants experts argued that these only held a copyright on their publication "as a whole" but not on individual articles, but the district judge agreed with the plaintiffs' expert who interpreted the relevant paragraphs of the Russian law as giving rise to "parallel exclusive rights in both the newspaper publisher and the reporter", similar to co-authorship.
The defendants appealed against that court's ruling. The case came before the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (153 F.3d 82 (2d Cir. 1998)), which partly confirmed and partly reversed the district court's ruling and remanded the case for further proceedings.
The court of appeals affirmed the choice of applicable law made by the lower court. It agreed that Russian law was to be used to determine who was the copyright holder of the work and that U.S. law was to be applied to figure out whether a copyright violation had occurred and to judge it. However, it overturned the decision of the district court regarding the newspapers. The court of appeals, after extensive analysis, found the view of the defendants' experts on the matter "more compelling". It stated that newspapers had no copyright on individual articles in their publications but only a compilation copyright on the publication as a whole. The copyright on the text of the individual articles was found to vest in the individual authors of these articles unless there had been a contractual assignment of copyrights from the reporters to their employers (the newspapers). Since the newspapers did not provide any evidence of such copyright assignments, the appellate court ruled in this case that they did not hold the copyright on the text of the individual copied articles. Finally, the court explicitly decided
that Itar-TASS, as a news agency (not a newspaper), was a copyright holder and was entitled to injunctive relief and damages,
that the Union of Journalists of Russia might be entitled to relief as it was considered acting on behalf of its members, amongst them the individual authors of the copied articles, and
that the newspapers, albeit not entitled to relief due to copying of the article text as they didn't hold the copyright, might still be entitled to relief due to the wholesale cut-and-paste copying done by Russian Kurier, which might have infringed the newspapers' rights arising from the creative efforts in the selection, arrangement, or display of the articles.
Because of the two last points, the case was remanded to the district court. The appellate court "in view of the reckless conduct of the defendants in the flagrant copying that infringed the rights of Itar-Tass, the rights of the authors, and very likely some aspects of the limited protectable rights of the newspapers" left the injunction in force until the district court would, on remand, issue a new ruling.
Consequences
The ruling concerning the choice of law (lex originis for determining copyright ownership and lex loci delicti for the infringement) was contrary to the previous presumption that only the law where the infringement occurred (i.e., lex loci delicti) would apply. It has been discussed controversially in several publications. Since the Berne Convention does not offer any guidance on which law shall be applied to determine copyright ownership, this ruling is still the relevant case law in this question and the principle is applied in the U.S. even in other recent cases. The decision is only effective within the U.S.; other countries may follow other rules, such as using the lex loci delicti exclusively.
The copyright in the U.S. on foreign publications that had failed to comply with the (former) formality requirements of the U.S. was generally restored when the copyright restorations of the Uruguay Round Agreement Act (URAA) became effective in the U.S. on January 1, 1996. The URAA was a result of the TRIPS agreement, part of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations. The URAA automatically restored the copyright on foreign works that were still copyrighted in their country of origin on January 1, 1996, but whose copyright in the U.S. had lapsed through non-compliance with the U.S. formalities, such as non-registration or a lack of international or bilateral copyright treaties between the country of origin of a work and the U.S. Later copyright cases in the U.S. do apply the URAA restorations and thus even may consider unregistered foreign works as copyrighted in the U.S.
Related cases
The lex loci delicti isn't always the US law, even for cases heard in the US. In London Film Productions, Ltd. v. Intercontinental Communications, Inc. (1984) a US corporation was sued by a British company for infringements under the laws of several Latin American countries; the US court determined that it had jurisdiction.
In Bridgeman Art Library, Ltd. v. Corel Corp. (1998) a US court decided that it must apply the stricter US threshold of originality (decided in Feist v. Rural) rather than the lower British standard invoked by the plaintiff.
A more complex case of determining ownership under Russian law in a US court was Films by Jove Inc. v. Berov because it involved two claimants to copyrights under the Russian laws to films by Soyuzmultfilm, themselves involved in litigation in Russia. A US judge basically overruled a decision by the Supreme Court of Arbitration of Russia because, in his view, the Russian court's decision was "strongly influenced, if not coerced, by the efforts of various Russian government officials seeking to promote 'state interests'", thus lacking procedural fairness.
In France, the Court of Cassation decided on 10 April 2013 that in case of conflicting laws, the French law prevails in all matters regarding copyright, including the determination of ownership. This ruling quashed the decision of a lower court, which had decided that in a lawsuit between a reporter-cameraman of a US media company operating in France, the US law applied in determining ownership of the footage.
Footnotes
Or at the date of adherence of the country of origin to an international copyright treaty the U.S. was also party to, if the country of origin was not yet member of any such treaty on January 1, 1996. See 17 USC 104A for the precise details.
References
External links
American Bar Association: Reported United States Decisions Involving Russian Parties in Civil Matters 1994–2004. URL last accessed 2006-08-24.
1998 in United States case law
Russia–United States relations
Russian-language mass media in the United States
United States copyright case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit cases
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227949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trier-Saarburg | Trier-Saarburg | Trier-Saarburg (; ) is a district in the west of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from the north and clockwise) Bitburg-Prüm, Bernkastel-Wittlich, Birkenfeld, Sankt Wendel (Saarland), and Merzig-Wadern (Saarland). To the west it borders Luxembourg. The district-free city Trier is surrounded by the district.
History
The district was created in 1969 by merging the previous districts Trier and Saarburg.
Geography
The main river in the district is the Moselle. The area between its tributaries, the Ruwer and the Saar, is also well known as one of the prime wine regions of Germany.
Museums
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum, Konz
Fell Exhibition Slate Mine
Air museum, Hermeskeil
Railway and steam engine museum, Hermeskeil
Coat of arms
The coat of arms largely resembles the coat of arms of the Saarburg district. The castle in the middle shows the castle of Saarburg, even though now only the ruins of the castle remains. The red cross is the cross of Trier, as a large part of the Saarburg district (as well as of the new Trier-Saarburg district) historically belonged to the state of Trier. The blue bars were added after the merging with the Trier district, and symbolize that part of that district historically belonged to Luxembourg.
Verbandsgemeinden
The district is divided into six Verbandsgemeinden. The list contains the coats of arms, the names, the district areas, exemplarily the population figures from 1950 as well as the current population figures:
Towns and municipalities
Four towns and 100 municipalities make up the district in southwestern Germany. The list contains the coats of arms, the names, the district areas, exemplarily the population figures from 1950 as well as the current population figures:
References
External links
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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227956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus%20%28ISS%20module%29 | Columbus (ISS module) | Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the International Space Station (ISS) and is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA).
Like the Harmony and Tranquility modules, the Columbus laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida in an Airbus Beluga. It was launched aboard on February 7, 2008, on flight STS-122. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.
The European Space Agency has spent €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion) on building Columbus, including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.
History
The structure used for Columbus is based on the MPLM module built for NASA by Thales Alenia Space. In 2000 the pre-integrated module (structure including harness and tubing) was delivered to Bremen in Germany by the Co-prime contractor Alenia. The final integration and system testing was performed by the overall prime contractor EADS Astrium Space Transportation, after that the initial Payload was integrated and the overall complement checked-out.
On May 27, 2006 Columbus was flown from Bremen, Germany to Kennedy Space Center on board an Airbus Beluga.
The final schedule was much longer than originally planned due to development problems (several caused by the complex responsibility splitting between the Co-prime and the Overall prime contractor) and design changes introduced by ESA but being affordable due to the Shuttle problems delaying the Columbus launch for several years. The main design change was the addition of the External Payload Facility (EPF), which was driven by the different European Payload organizations being more interested in outer space than internal experiments. Also the addition of a terminal for direct communications to/from ground, which could have been used also as back-up for the ISS system, was studied but not implemented for cost reasons.
Construction
ESA chose EADS Astrium Space Transportation as prime contractor for Columbus overall design, verification and integration. The Columbus structure, the micro-meteorite protection system, the active and passive thermal control, the environmental control, the harness and all the related ground support equipment were designed and qualified by Alcatel Alenia Space in Turin, Italy as defined by the PICA – Principle (for definition see History below); the related hardware was pre-integrated and sent as PICA in September 2001 to Bremen. The lab was built and qualified on system level at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany, from where it was sent to NASA.
Launch, berthing and outfitting
In November 2007, Columbus was moved out of the KSC Space Station Processing Facility, and installed into the payload bay of the Atlantis orbiter for launch on ISS assembly flight 1E (STS-122).
STS-122 launch delays
During cryo-filling of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen prior to the first launch attempt on December 6, 2007, two of four LH2 ECO sensors failed a test. Mission rules called for at least three of the four sensors to be in working order for a launch attempt to proceed. As a result of the failure, the Launch Director Doug Lyons postponed the launch, initially for 24 hours. This was later revised into a 72-hour delay, resulting in a next launch attempt set for Sunday December 9, 2007. This launch attempt was scrubbed when one of the ECO sensors again failed during fuelling.
The ECO sensors' external connector was changed on the Space Shuttle external tank, causing a two-month delay in the launch. Columbus was finally launched successfully on the third attempt at 2:45pm EST, February 7, 2008.
Berthing
Once at the station, Canadarm2 removed Columbus from the docked shuttle's cargo bay
and attached it to the starboard hatch of Harmony (also known as Node 2),
with the cylinder pointing outwards on February 11, 2008.
Description
The laboratory is a cylindrical module, made from stainless steel, kevlar and hardened aluminum, with two end cones. It is in external diameter and in overall length, excluding the projecting external experiment racks. Its shape is very similar to that of the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs),
since both were designed to fit in the cargo bay of a Space Shuttle orbiter. The starboard end cone contains most of the laboratory's on-board computers. The port end cone contains the Common Berthing Mechanism.
Specifications
Length:
Diameter:
Total mass:
Total payload mass
Total on-orbit mass
Construction details:
Wall thickness 4mm
welded end cones
materials : Stainless steel, kevlar, aluminium
Research activities and payloads
Activities in the lab are controlled on the ground by the Columbus Control Center (at DLR Oberpfaffenhofen in Germany) and by the associated User Support Operations Centres throughout Europe.
The laboratory can accommodate ten active International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs) for science payloads.
Agreements with NASA allocate to ESA 51% usage of the Columbus Laboratory.
ESA is thus allocated five active rack locations, with the other five being allocated to NASA.
Four active rack locations are on the forward side of the deck, four on the aft side, and two are in overhead locations.
Three of the deck racks are filled with life support and cooling systems.
The remaining deck rack and the two remaining overhead racks are storage racks.
In addition, four un-pressurized payload platforms can be attached outside the starboard cone, on the Columbus External Payload Facility (CEPF). Each external payload is mounted on an adaptor able to accommodate small instruments and experiments totalling up to .
The following European ISPRs have been initially installed inside Columbus:
Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL)
European Physiology Modules (EPM)
Biolab
European Drawer Rack (EDR)
European Stowage Rack
The first external payloads were mounted on Columbus by crew members of the mission STS-122 mission. The three payloads mounted are:
European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) platform, which accommodates nine instruments: TRIBOLAB, PLEGPAY, MEDET, EUFIDE, DEBIE-2, FIPEX, EUTEMP, EXPOSE, DOSTEL, and the Earth Viewing Camera.
Solar Monitoring Observatory (SOLAR)
MISSE-6 (NASA payload)
Planned additional external payloads:
Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES)
EXPORT
Atmosphere-Space Interaction Monitor (ASIM)
European Data Relay Satellite (EDRS) Communications Terminal, Ka-band
In 2014 the ISS-RapidScat instrument was installed, which was operated until late 2016. ISS-RapidScat was transported to ISS by the SpaceX CRS-4 spaceflight.
See also
European Transportation Carrier (ISS Facility) (ETC)
Columbus – External Payload Facility (Columbus-EPF)
Bartolomeo facility
References
External links
ESA: Columbus Laboratory
ESA: Technical specifications of the Columbus Laboratory
ESA: Columbus structure completed
Components of the International Space Station
Spacecraft launched in 2008
Laboratories
Spacecraft launched by the Space Shuttle | [
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227960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMM-Newton | XMM-Newton | XMM-Newton, also known as the High Throughput X-ray Spectroscopy Mission and the X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission, is an X-ray space observatory launched by the European Space Agency in December 1999 on an Ariane 5 rocket. It is the second cornerstone mission of ESA's Horizon 2000 programme. Named after physicist and astronomer Sir Isaac Newton, the spacecraft is tasked with investigating interstellar X-ray sources, performing narrow- and broad-range spectroscopy, and performing the first simultaneous imaging of objects in both X-ray and optical (visible and ultraviolet) wavelengths.
Initially funded for two years, with a ten-year design life, the spacecraft remains in good health and has received repeated mission extensions, most recently in October 2020 and is scheduled to operate until the end of 2022. ESA plans to succeed XMM-Newton with the Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics (ATHENA), the second large mission in the Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 plan, to be launched in 2028. XMM-Newton is similar to NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, also launched in 1999.
As of May 2018, close to 5,600 papers have been published about either XMM-Newton or the scientific results it has returned.
Concept and mission history
The observational scope of XMM-Newton includes the detection of X-ray emissions from astronomical objects, detailed studies of star-forming regions, investigation of the formation and evolution of galaxy clusters, the environment of supermassive black holes and mapping of the mysterious dark matter.
In 1982, even before the launch of XMM-Newton predecessor EXOSAT in 1983, a proposal was generated for a "multi-mirror" X-ray telescope mission. The XMM mission was formally proposed to the ESA Science Programme Committee in 1984 and gained approval from the Agency's Council of Ministers in January 1985. That same year, several working groups were established to determine the feasibility of such a mission, and mission objectives were presented at a workshop in Denmark in June 1985. At this workshop, it was proposed that the spacecraft contain 12 low-energy and 7 high-energy X-ray telescopes. The spacecraft's overall configuration was developed by February 1987, and drew heavily from lessons learned during the EXOSAT mission; the Telescope Working Group had reduced the number of X-ray telescopes to seven standardised units. In June 1988 the European Space Agency approved the mission and issued a call for investigation proposals (an "announcement of opportunity"). Improvements in technology further reduced the number of X-ray telescopes needed to just three.
In June 1989, the mission's instruments had been selected and work began on spacecraft hardware. A project team was formed in January 1993 and based at the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) in Noordwijk, Netherlands. Prime contractor Dornier Satellitensysteme (a subsidiary of the former DaimlerChrysler Aerospace) was chosen in October 1994 after the mission was approved into the implementation phase, with development and construction beginning in March 1996 and March 1997, respectively. The XMM Survey Science Centre was established at the University of Leicester in 1995. The three flight mirror modules for the X-ray telescopes were delivered by Italian subcontractor Media Lario in December 1998, and spacecraft integration and testing was completed in September 1999.
XMM left the ESTEC integration facility on 9 September 1999, taken by road to Katwijk then by the barge Emeli to Rotterdam. On 12 September, the spacecraft left Rotterdam for French Guiana aboard Arianespace transport ship MN Toucan. The Toucan docked at the French Guianese town of Kourou on 23 September, and was transported to Guiana Space Centre Ariane 5 Final Assembly Building for final launch preparation.
Launch of XMM took place on 10 December 1999 at 14:32 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre. XMM was lofted into space aboard an Ariane 504 rocket, and placed into a highly elliptical, 40-degree orbit that had a perigee of and an apogee of . Forty minutes after being released from the Ariane upper stage, telemetry confirmed to ground stations that the spacecraft's solar arrays had successfully deployed. Engineers waited an additional 22 hours before commanding the on-board propulsion systems to fire a total of five times, which, between 10 and 16 December, changed the orbit to with a 38.9-degree inclination. This resulted in the spacecraft making one complete revolution of the Earth approximately every 48 hours.
Immediately after launch, XMM began its Launch and Early Orbit phase of operations. On 17 and 18 December 1999, the X-ray modules and Optical Monitor doors were opened, respectively. Instrument activation started on 4 January 2000, and the Instrument Commissioning phase began on 16 January. The Optical Monitor (OM) attained first light on 5 January, the two European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) MOS-CCDs followed on 16 January and the EPIC pn-CCD on 22 January, and the Reflection Grating Spectrometers (RGS) saw first light on 2 February. On 3 March, the Calibration and Performance Validation phase began, and routine science operations began on 1 June.
During a press conference on 9 February 2000, ESA presented the first images taken by XMM and announced that a new name had been chosen for the spacecraft. Whereas the program had formally been known as the High Throughput X-ray Spectroscopy Mission, the new name would reflect the nature of the program and the originator of the field of spectroscopy. Explaining the new name of XMM-Newton, Roger Bonnet, ESA's former Director of Science, said, "We have chosen this name because Sir Isaac Newton was the man who invented spectroscopy and XMM is a spectroscopy mission." He noted that because Newton is synonymous with gravity and one of the goals of the satellite was to locate large numbers of black hole candidates, "there was no better choice than XMM-Newton for the name of this mission."
Including all construction, spacecraft launch, and two years of operation, the project was accomplished within a budget of (1999 conditions).
Operation
The spacecraft has the ability to lower the operating temperature of both the EPIC and RGS cameras, a function that was included to counteract the deleterious effects of ionising radiation on the camera pixels. In general, the instruments are cooled to reduce the amount of dark current within the devices. During the night of 3–4 November 2002, RGS-2 was cooled from its initial temperature of down to , and a few hours later to . After analysing the results, it was determined the optimal temperature for both RGS units would be , and during 13–14 November, both RGS-1 and RGS-2 were set to this level. During 6–7 November, the EPIC MOS-CCD detectors were cooled from their initial operating temperature of to a new setting of . After these adjustments, both the EPIC and RGS cameras showed dramatic improvements in quality.
On 18 October 2008, XMM-Newton suffered an unexpected communications failure, during which time there was no contact with the spacecraft. While some concern was expressed that the vehicle may have suffered a catastrophic event, photographs taken by amateur astronomers at the Starkenburg Observatory in Germany and at other locations worldwide showed that the spacecraft was intact and appeared on course. A weak signal was finally detected using a antenna in New Norcia, Western Australia, and communication with XMM-Newton suggested that the spacecraft's Radio Frequency switch had failed. After troubleshooting a solution, ground controllers used NASA's antenna at the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex to send a command that changed the switch to its last working position. ESA stated in a press release that on 22 October, a ground station at the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) made contact with the satellite, confirming the process had worked and that the satellite was back under control.
Mission extensions
Because of the spacecraft's good health and the significant returns of data, XMM-Newton has received several mission extensions by ESA's Science Programme Committee. The first extension came during November 2003 and extended operations through March 2008. The second extension was approved in December 2005, extending work through March 2010. A third extension was passed in November 2007, which provided for operations through 2012. As part of the approval, it was noted that the satellite had enough on-board consumables (fuel, power and mechanical health) to theoretically continue operations past 2017. The fourth extension in November 2010 approved operations through 2014. A fifth extension was approved in November 2014 and affirmed in November 2016, continuing operations through 2018. A sixth extension was approved in December 2017, continuting operations through the end of 2020. A seventh extension was approved in November 2018, continuing operations through the end of 2022.
Spacecraft
XMM-Newton is a long space telescope, and is wide with solar arrays deployed. At launch it weighed . The spacecraft has three degrees of stabilisation, which allow it to aim at a target with an accuracy of 0.25 to 1 arcseconds. This stabilisation is achieved through the use of the spacecraft's Attitude & Orbit Control Subsystem. These systems also allow the spacecraft to point at different celestial targets, and can turn the craft at a maximum of 90 degrees per hour. The instruments on board XMM-Newton are three European Photon Imaging Cameras (EPIC), two Reflection Grating Spectrometers (RGS), and an Optical Monitor.
The spacecraft is roughly cylindrical in shape, and has four major components. At the fore of the spacecraft is the Mirror Support Platform, which supports the X-ray telescope assemblies and grating systems, the Optical Monitor, and two star trackers. Surrounding this component is the Service Module, which carries various spacecraft support systems: computer and electric busses, consumables (such as fuel and coolant), solar arrays, the Telescope Sun Shield, and two S-band antennas. Behind these units is the Telescope Tube, a long, hollow carbon fibre structure which provides exact spacing between the mirrors and their detection equipment. This section also hosts outgassing equipment on its exterior, which helps remove any contaminants from the interior of the satellite. At the aft end of spacecraft is the Focal Plane Assembly, which supports the Focal Plane Platform (carrying the cameras and spectrometers) and the data-handling, power distribution, and radiator assemblies.
Instruments
European Photon Imaging Cameras
The three European Photon Imaging Cameras (EPIC) are the primary instruments aboard XMM-Newton. The system is composed of two MOS-CCD cameras and a single pn-CCD camera, with a total field of view of 30 arcminutes and an energy sensitivity range between (). Each camera contains a six-position filter wheel, with three types of X-ray-transparent filters, a fully open and a fully closed position; each also contains a radioactive source used for internal calibration. The cameras can be independently operated in a variety of modes, depending on the image sensitivity and speed needed, as well as the intensity of the target.
The two MOS-CCD cameras are used to detect low-energy X-rays. Each camera is composed of seven silicon chips (one in the centre and six circling it), with each chip containing a matrix of 600 × 600 pixels, giving the camera a total resolution of about 2.5 megapixels. As discussed above, each camera has a large adjacent radiator which cools the instrument to an operating temperature of . They were developed and built by the University of Leicester Space Research Centre and EEV Ltd.
The pn-CCD camera is used to detect high-energy X-rays, and is composed of a single silicon chip with twelve individual embedded CCDs. Each CCD is 64 × 189 pixels, for a total capacity of 145,000 pixels. At the time of its construction, the pn-CCD camera on XMM-Newton was the largest such device ever made, with a sensitive area of . A radiator cools the camera to . This system was made by the Astronomisches Institut Tübingen, the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, and PNSensor, all of Germany.
The EPIC system records three types of data about every X-ray that is detected by its CCD cameras. The time that the X-ray arrives allows scientists to develop light curves, which projects the number of X-rays that arrive over time and shows changes in the brightness of the target. Where the X-ray hits the camera allows for a visible image to be developed of the target. The amount of energy carried by the X-ray can also be detected and helps scientists to determine the physical processes occurring at the target, such as its temperature, its chemical make-up, and what the environment is like between the target and the telescope.
Reflection Grating Spectrometers
The Reflection Grating Spectrometers (RGS) are a secondary system on the spacecraft and are composed of two Focal Plane Cameras and their associated Reflection Grating Arrays. This system is used to build X-ray spectral data and can determine the elements present in the target, as well as the temperature, quantity and other characteristics of those elements. The RGS system operates in the () range, which allows detection of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon and iron.
The Focal Plane Cameras each consist of nine MOS-CCD devices mounted in a row and following a curve called a Rowland circle. Each CCD contains 384 × 1024 pixels, for a total resolution of more than 3.5 megapixels. The total width and length of the CCD array was dictated by the size of the RGS spectrum and the wavelength range, respectively. Each CCD array is surrounded by a relatively massive wall, providing heat conduction and radiation shielding. Two-stage radiators cool the cameras to an operating temperature of . The camera systems were a joint effort between SRON, the Paul Scherrer Institute, and MSSL, with EEV Ltd and Contraves Space providing hardware.
The Reflection Grating Arrays are attached to two of the primary telescopes. They allow approximately 50% of the incoming X-rays to pass unperturbed to the EPIC system, while redirecting the other 50% onto the Focal Plane Cameras. Each RGA was designed to contain 182 identical gratings, though a fabrication error left one with only 181. Because the telescope mirrors have already focused the X-rays to converge at the focal point, each grating has the same angle of incidence, and as with the Focal Plane Cameras, each grating array conforms to a Rowland circle. This configuration minimises focal aberrations. Each grating is composed of thick silicon carbide substrate covered with a gold film, and is supported by five beryllium stiffeners. The gratings contain a large number of grooves, which actually perform the X-ray deflection; each grating contains an average of 646 grooves per millimetre. The RGAs were built by Columbia University.
Optical Monitor
The Optical Monitor (OM) is a Ritchey–Chrétien optical/ultraviolet telescope designed to provide simultaneous observations alongside the spacecraft's X-ray instruments. The OM is sensitive between nanometres in a 17 × 17 arcminute square field of view co-aligned with the centre of the X-ray telescope's field of view. It has a focal length of and a focal ratio of ƒ/12.7.
The instrument is composed of the Telescope Module, containing the optics, detectors, processing equipment, and power supply; and the Digital Electronics Module, containing the instrument control unit and data processing units. Incoming light is directed into one of two fully redundant detector systems. The light passes through an 11-position filter wheel (one opaque to block light, six broad band filters, one white light filter, one magnifier, and two grisms), then through an intensifier which amplifies the light by one million times, then onto the CCD sensor. The CCD is 384 × 288 pixels in size, of which 256 × 256 pixels are used for observations; each pixel is further subsampled into 8 × 8 pixels, resulting in a final product that is 2048 × 2048 in size. The Optical Monitor was built by the Mullard Space Science Laboratory with contributions from organisations in the United States and Belgium.
Telescopes
Feeding the EPIC and RGS systems are three telescopes designed specifically to direct X-rays into the spacecraft's primary instruments. The telescope assemblies each have a diameter of , are in length, and have a base weight of . The two telescopes with Reflection Grating Arrays weigh an additional . Components of the telescopes include (from front to rear) the mirror assembly door, entrance and X-ray baffles, mirror module, electron deflector, a Reflection Grating Array in two of the assemblies, and exit baffle.
Each telescope consists of 58 cylindrical, nested Wolter Type-1 mirrors developed by Media Lario of Italy, each long and ranging in diameter from , producing a total collecting area of at 1.5 keV and at 8 keV. The mirrors range from thick for the innermost mirror to thick for the outermost mirror, and the separation between each mirror ranges from from innermost to outermost. Each mirror was built by vapour-depositing a 250 nm layer of gold reflecting surface onto a highly polished aluminium mandrel, followed by electroforming a monolithic nickel support layer onto the gold. The finished mirrors were glued into the grooves of an Inconel spider, which keeps them aligned to within the five-micron tolerance required to achieve adequate X-ray resolution. The mandrels were manufactured by Carl Zeiss AG, and the electroforming and final assembly were performed by Media Lario with contributions from Kayser-Threde.
Subsystems
Attitude & Orbit Control System
Spacecraft three-axis attitude control is handled by the Attitude & Orbit Control System (AOCS), composed of four reaction wheels, four inertial measurement units, two star trackers, three fine Sun sensors, and three Sun acquisition sensors. The AOCS was provided by Matra Marconi Space of the United Kingdom.
Coarse spacecraft orientation and orbit maintenance is provided by two sets of four hydrazine thrusters (primary and backup). The hydrazine thrusters were built by DASA-RI of Germany.
The AOCS was upgraded in 2013 with a software patch ('4WD'), to control attitude using the 3 prime reaction wheels plus the 4th, spare wheel, unused since launch, with the aim of saving propellant to extend the spacecraft lifetime. In 2019 the fuel was predicted to last until 2030.
Power systems
Primary power for XMM-Newton is provided by two fixed solar arrays. The arrays are composed of six panels measuring for a total of and a mass of . At launch, the arrays provided 2,200 W of power, and were expected to provide 1,600 W after ten years of operation. Deployment of each array took four minutes. The arrays were provided by Fokker Space of the Netherlands.
When direct sunlight is unavailable, power is provided by two nickel–cadmium batteries providing 24 A·h and weighing each. The batteries were provided by SAFT of France.
Radiation Monitor System
The cameras are accompanied by the EPIC Radiation Monitor System (ERMS), which measures the radiation environment surrounding the spacecraft; specifically, the ambient proton and electron flux. This provides warning of damaging radiation events to allow for automatic shut-down of the sensitive camera CCDs and associated electronics. The ERMS was built by the Centre d'Etude Spatiale des Rayonnements of France.
Visual Monitoring Cameras
The Visual Monitoring Cameras (VMC) on the spacecraft were added to monitor the deployment of solar arrays and the sun shield, and have additionally provided images of the thrusters firing and outgassing of the Telescope Tube during early operations. Two VMCs were installed on the Focal Plane Assembly looking forward. The first is FUGA-15, a black and white camera with high dynamic range and 290 × 290 pixel resolution. The second is IRIS-1, a colour camera with a variable exposure time and 400 × 310 pixel resolution. Both cameras measure and weight . They use active pixel sensors, a technology that was new at the time of XMM-Newton development. The cameras were developed by and IMEC, both of Belgium.
Ground systems
XMM-Newton mission control is located at the European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt, Germany. Two ground stations, located in Perth and Kourou, are used to maintain continuous contact with the spacecraft through most of its orbit. Back-up ground stations are located in Villafranca del Castillo, Santiago, and Dongara. Because XMM-Newton contains no on-board data storage, science data is transmitted to these ground stations in real time.
Data is then forwarded to the European Space Astronomy Centre Science Operations Centre in Villafranca del Castillo, Spain, where pipeline processing has been performed since March 2012. Data is archived at the ESAC Science Data Centre, and distributed to mirror archives at the Goddard Space Flight Center and the XMM-Newton Survey Science Centre (SSC) at the L'Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie. Prior to June 2013, the SSC was operated by the University of Leicester, but operations were transferred due to a withdrawal of funding by the United Kingdom.
Observations and discoveries
The space observatory was used to discover the galaxy cluster XMMXCS 2215-1738, 10 billion light years away from Earth.
The object SCP 06F6, discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in February 2006, was observed by XMM-Newton in early August 2006 and appeared to show an X-ray glow around it two orders of magnitude more luminous than that of supernovae.
In June 2011, a team from the University of Geneva, Switzerland, reported XMM-Newton seeing a flare that lasted four hours at a peak intensity of 10,000 times the normal rate, from an observation of Supergiant Fast X-ray Transient IGR J18410-0535, where a blue supergiant star shed a plume of matter that was partly ingested by a smaller companion neutron star with accompanying X-ray emissions.
In February 2013 it was announced that XMM-Newton along with NuSTAR have for the first time measured the spin rate of a supermassive black hole, by observing the black hole at the core of galaxy NGC 1365. At the same time, it verified the model that explains the distortion of X-rays emitted from a black hole.
In February 2014, separate analyses extracted from the spectrum of X-ray emissions observed by XMM-Newton a monochromatic signal around 3.5 keV. This signal is coming from different galaxy clusters, and several scenarios of dark matter can justify such a line. For example, a 3.5 keV candidate annihilating into 2 photons, or a 7 keV dark matter particle decaying into photon and neutrino.
In June 2021, one of the largest X-ray surveys using the European Space Agency's XMM-Newton space observatory published initial findings, mapping the growth of 12,000 supermassive black holes at the cores of galaxies and galaxy clusters.
See also
List of X-ray space telescopes
References
External links
XMM-Newton website by ESA
XMM-Newton Operations website by ESA
XMM-Newton Science Operations Centre website by ESA
XMM-Newton Survey Science Centre website by the L'Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie
XMM-Newton Guest Observer Facility website by NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
Spacecraft launched in 1999
Satellites orbiting Earth
European Space Agency satellites
Space telescopes
X-ray telescopes | [
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227961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20Transfer%20Vehicle | Automated Transfer Vehicle | The Automated Transfer Vehicle, originally Ariane Transfer Vehicle or ATV, was an expendable cargo spacecraft developed by the European Space Agency (ESA), used for space cargo transport in 2008–2015. The ATV design was launched to orbit five times, exclusively by the Ariane 5 heavy-lift launch vehicle. It effectively was a larger European counterpart to the Russian Progress cargo spacecraft for carrying upmass to a single destination—the International Space Station (ISS)—but with three times the capacity.
The five ATVs were named after important European figures in science and engineering: Jules Verne, Johannes Kepler, Edoardo Amaldi, Albert Einstein, and Georges Lemaître. Following several delays to the program, the first of these was launched in March 2008. These ATVs performed supply missions to the ISS, transporting various payloads such as propellant, water, air, food, and scientific research equipment; ATVs also reboosted the station into a higher orbit while docked. The ATV was an uncrewed platform that operated with a high level of automation, such as its docking sequence; at no point was it used for transporting passengers.
Further use of the ATV was proposed in 2008. Various further developments, including crewed versions of the ATV as well as opportunities to reuse sections or elements of its technology, were studied by both the ESA and Airbus Defence and Space, the principal manufacturer of the vehicle.
However, on 2 April 2012, the ESA announced that the ATV program would be terminated following the launch of the fifth ATV in 2014.
In 2012, ESA member states decided that the ATV design might be adapted to serve as the service module of the NASA Orion spacecraft.
In January 2013, the ESA and NASA announced that they would proceed with a combined Orion and ATV derived service module, which would serve as a major component for the in-development Orion crewed spacecraft.
Development
Origins
During the 1990s, as the International Space Station program was taking place, it was collectively recognised by the 15 participating nations that, upon completion, the International Space Station (ISS), a crewed space station in Low Earth orbit (LEO), would require regular resupply missions in order to meet the needs of the onboard crew as well as to deliver apparatus to support the various scientific tests that would be performed on board. In October 1995, it was agreed that, amongst the various contributions to the ISS program that Europe would assume responsibility for under the auspices of the European Space Agency (ESA), would be the Automated Transfer Vehicle, or ATV; this logistics-orientated spacecraft would perform the identified resupply missions to ISS.
On 9 December 1998, the ESA awarded a $470 million contract to proceed with development work on the ATV to French aerospace company Aérospatiale. While Aérospatiale served as the principal contractor for the ATV, it was joined by multiple major subcontractors, including Italian manufacturer Alenia Spazio, Franco-British firm Matra Marconi Space and German aerospace company DaimlerChrysler Aerospace (DASA); some components were also provided by Russian firm S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia. Prior to 2000, DASA was to serve as the prime contractor for production, after which the role would be gradually transferred to Aérospatiale. At the point at which the contract had been awarded, it was envisioned that the first flight of the ATV would be conducted during September 2003.
The launch of the first ATV, which had been named Jules Verne, was subject to multiple delays, which were partially generated by problems encountered with the Ariane 5 heavy-lift launch vehicle, as well as a substantial software re-write. By May 2003, it was set to be launched sometime during late 2004. By mid 2004, it had been announced that launch of the first ATV, which was by then undergoing electrical testing following the completion of integration work, had been postponed due to technical issues, and was reportedly scheduled to be launched during late 2005, following the issuing of a renegotiated $1.1 billion contract between the ESA and the prime contractor. In March 2005, another launch delay was declared, due to the need for greater development of the failure-mode software along with launch-window timing changes, which put the planned ATV launch back from late 2005 to an undetermined date during 2006. In October 2005, it was clarified that the new launch date for the first ATV would be during 2007.
In September 2006, it was announced that the final stage of testing on the Ariane 5's customised ATV stage was within its final phase. In December 2006, it was announced that the first ATV had completed its vacuum test, marking the successful completion of the key tests and enabling a final launch date to be set. In April 2007, the ATV was subject to four-month long qualification process in response to operational concerns, including safety queries originating from the U.S., and to examine the vehicle's potential commercialisation.
Production
Following multiple restructuring and ownership changes, the prime contractor for the ATV became Airbus Defence and Space, which led a consortium of many sub-contractors. While development work had been started in Les Mureaux, France, much of the activity relocated to Bremen, Germany, as the project moved from its development to the production stage, in which work on the four initial units started. In order to facilitate the relationship between the contractor and the ESA, an integrated ESA team at the Les Mureaux site was established and maintained for the duration of the development.
Airbus Defence and Space builds the ATVs in its facility in Bremen. In 2004, contracts and accords were signed for four additional ATVs, which were envisioned to be launched at a rate of around one every two years, bringing the total order, including the first, Jules-Verne, to five vehicles. According to the German Aerospace Center (DLR), the development cost of the ATV was approximately €1.35 billion. Reportedly, each ATV spacecraft was costed at roughly US$300 million, which did not include launch costs. In March 2005, RSC Energia signed a €40 million contract with one of the main subcontractors of Airbus Defence and Space, the Italian company Alenia Spazio (now Thales Alenia Space), to supply the Russian Docking System, refuelling system, and Russian Equipment Control System. Within the Airbus Defence and Space led project, Thales Alenia Space is responsible for the pressurized cargo carrier section of the ATV and manufactures these at the firm's facility in Turin, Italy.
On 31 July 2007, the first ATV, Jules Verne, arrived at the ESA spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana, after a nearly two-week journey from Rotterdam harbour. On 9 March 2008, Jules Verne was launched on top of an Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou. On 3 April 2008, Jules Verne succeeded in automatically docking with the ISS, proving the capabilities of the ESA's first fully automated, expendable cargo resupply spacecraft. The arrival of the ATV came at a time at which there were public concerns over the logistical practicality of supplying the ISS.
In addition to its use by ESA and Russia, the ATV was at one point under consideration to perform services for NASA as part of the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program to replace the retiring Space Shuttle in its orbital cargo carrying capacity. Under the proposal, which had been issued by a joint venture between EADS and Boeing, the ATV would be launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, using a Delta IV rocket. One speculated use for NASA's ATV was to achieve the de-orbiting of the ISS once the space station had reached the end of its service life, being the only vehicle capable of doing so at that time after the Shuttle's retirement. Ultimately, the proposal was not awarded with a corresponding contract.
Design
The Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) was a 1990s-design expendable cargo spacecraft. Each vehicle consisted of two distinct sections, the systems bus and the integrated cargo carrier. The system bus contained the ATV's propulsion system, avionics bays, and solar arrays; it was principally used following the vehicle's detachment from the Ariane 5 launcher to automatically traverse the remaining distance and dock with the ISS, the system bus would be inaccessible to the astronauts on board. The integrated cargo carrier consisted of a pressurised module, external bays for fluid and gas cargoes, further avionics and rendezvous sensors, and the docking mechanism. The primary structure of the ATV (of Al-2219) is protected by a meteorite and debris protection system. The first ATV was built in the 2000s and the first one to fly in space was in 2008.
The docking system of the ATV consists of a pair of videometers and a pair of telegoniometers manufactured by Sodern, a subsidiary of Airbus. Data processing for the rendezvous docking maneuver and emergency abort systems were designed and manufactured by CRISA. Additional monitoring data and redundancy was provided by the Kurs automatic docking system, which was also used by Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. Visual imagery is provided by a camera on the Zvezda ISS module.
In terms of its role, the ATV was designed to complement the smaller Russian Progress spacecraft, possessing three times its useful payload capacity. Similar to the Progress, it would carry both bulk liquids and relatively fragile freight, which would be stored within a cargo hold maintained at a pressurized shirt-sleeve environment in order that astronauts would be able to access payloads without the need to put on spacesuits.
The pressurized cargo section of the ATV was based on the Italian-built Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM), which was a Shuttle-carried "space barge/container" that had been previously used for transporting equipment to and from the Station. Unlike the MPLM which had to be berthed to the ISS, the ATV used the same docking mechanism as employed upon the Progress. The ATV, like the Progress, also serves as a container for the station's waste. Each ATV weighs 20.7 tonnes at launch and has a cargo capacity of 8 tonnes:
to of dry cargo (re-supply goods, scientific payload, etc.),
Up to of water,
Up to of gas (nitrogen, oxygen, air), with up to two gases per flight,
Up to of propellant for the re-boost maneuver and refueling the station. The ATV propellant used for re-boost (monomethylhydrazine fuel and N2O4 oxidizer) is of a different type from the payload refueling propellant (UDMH fuel and N2O4 oxidizer).
The system bus section of the ATV had solar panels (3,800 W), 40 Ah of batteries, propellant tanks, four R-4D (490 N) thrusters, and 28 attitude control and braking thrusters (220 N).
Use and operation
ATVs were intended to be routinely launched every 17 months to conduct resupply missions to the International Space Station. The vehicle was launched into an orbital plane compatible with the ISS via the Ariane 5 expendable launch system; shortly after detaching from the launcher, the ATV would deploy its solar panels. Over an average mission time of 100 hours, it would perform phasing manoeuvers from its initial orbital high point under direct control from the ground-based European Space Operations Centre at Darmstadt, Germany using NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System. A second series of manoeuvres would bring the ATV to the precise altitude of the ISS before commencing integrated operations for the final approach with the Space Station, during which mission authority transferred to NASA's Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas.
The ATV would employ a combination of GPS and astronavigation techniques to automatically rendezvous with the Space Station. Telemetry contact was established between the ISS and ATV during its preparations for the final approach. Once at a distance of 249 m, the onboard computers of the ATV employed both videometer and telegoniometer data to perform the final approach and docking manoeuvres; the docking itself to the Zvezda module, was fully automated. In the event of any last-minute technical issues or problems, a pre-programmed sequence of anti-collision manoeuvres, fully independent of the main navigation system, can be activated by the flight engineers aboard the station. Upon contact with the module, the automatic capture sequence would be activated.
Once the ATV had successfully docked, the station crew would be able to enter the vehicle's cargo section and directly access the payload on board. The ATV's liquid tanks would be connected to the station's plumbing by the crew to discharge their contents in a controlled manner, while the station crew would manually release air components directly into the ISS's atmosphere. For up to six months, the ATV, which would remain mainly in dormant mode, could remain attached to the ISS with the hatch remaining open throughout. The crew would then steadily fill the cargo section with the station's waste material for disposal. At intervals of 10 to 45 days, the ATV would be reactivated and its thrusters would typically be used to boost the station's altitude.
Once its mission was accomplished, the ATV, which would often be filled with up to 6.5 tonnes of waste, would separate from the ISS. Its thrusters would deliberately move the spacecraft out of orbit (de-orbit) and place it on a steep flight path to perform a controlled destructive re-entry high above the Pacific Ocean.
Missions
On 2 April 2012, the ESA announced that the ATV program that had paid their share of the ISS running costs until 2017 would end after the fifth ATV had been launched in 2014, at that point they had the required components to assemble the next two but beyond that avionics components utilised in the design were no longer being manufactured. A similar deal to provide their share of the ISS operating costs through hardware contribution to the Orion programme was mooted.
Jules Verne
The first flight of the ATV was delayed on multiple occasions prior to its launch on 9 March 2008. It was named Jules Verne, in memory of the first science fiction writer of modern times. The Jules Verne carried two of the author's original handwritten manuscripts, to be received by the ISS crew as symbolic tokens of the success of the maiden flight.
The craft was launched into a orbit atop an Ariane 5 rocket from the equatorial ELA-3 launch site at the Guiana Space Centre. The ATV separated from the rocket, and following weeks of tests and orbit adjustments, successfully docked in the International Space Station at 14:45 UTC on 3 April 2008.
In the early morning hours of 29 September 2008, the Jules Verne burnt up on entering the atmosphere above an uninhabited section of the Pacific Ocean, southwest of Tahiti.
Johannes Kepler
Launched on 17 February 2011, Johannes Kepler was at the time the heaviest payload ever launched by the European Space Agency and carried 7000 kg of cargo to the ISS. The first launch attempt on 15 February 2011 had been halted during the final countdown at four minutes from lift off due to an erroneous signal from one of the rocket's fuel tanks.
On 29 April 2011, the engines of the ATV were used to rotate the ISS in order for a Russian Progress supply craft to dock with the station.
Due to the delayed launch of STS-134 the mission of Johannes Kepler was extended, and it undocked from the ISS on 20 June 2011. It deorbited a day later on 21 June 2011.
Edoardo Amaldi
The third ATV vehicle arrived in French Guiana in late August 2011 and was launched on 23 March 2012. It docked with the International Space Station at 2231 GMT on 28 March 2012.
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ATV was the heaviest spacecraft launched by Ariane at the time and lifted off at 21:52:11 GMT on 5 June 2013. It docked with the ISS on 15 June 2013 at 14:07 GMT.
Georges Lemaître
Named after the Belgian astronomer Georges Lemaître. The spacecraft launched during the night of 29 July (23:44 GMT, 20:44 local time, 30 July 01:44 CEST), 2014, on a mission to supply the International Space Station (ISS) with propellant, water, air, and dry cargo, and an artwork by artist Katie Paterson. It docked with the ISS on 12 August at 13:30 GMT. Georges Lemaître had a total mass of almost , a mass that exceeded that of all previously launched ATVs. This also made it the heaviest spacecraft ever launched by an Ariane rocket.
ATV Control Centre
ATV missions were monitored and controlled from the ATV Control Centre (ATV-CC), located at the Toulouse Space Centre (CST) in Toulouse, France. The ATV-CC was responsible for the planning and the issuing of commands for the orbital maneuvers and mission tasks of each ATV, from the moment of separation from its launch vehicle, until it burns up in the Earth's atmosphere. The ATV-CC has a direct communication line with the Columbus Control Center (Col-CC) in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany. Col-CC provides ATV-CC with access to both the NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System and the European Artemis communication networks in order to communicate with both the ATV and the ISS. The ATV-CC coordinated its actions with NASA's Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston and the Russian FKA Mission Control Center (TsUP or MCC-M) in Moscow, as well as the ATV launch site at the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana.
Basis for European Service Module
In May 2011 the ESA director general announced a possible collaboration with NASA to work on a successor to the ATV. Later that year, a proposal to utilise an ATV derived service module for NASA's Orion capsule was revealed. This service module would be provided as barter for the ESA's 8% share of the operating expense of the ISS, which had been fulfilled up to 2017 by the five ATVs. Developing a service module for Orion would cover the ESA's share of ISS operation up to 2020.
In June 2012, the ESA awarded two separate studies to Airbus, each worth €6.5 million, to evaluate options for using technology and experience gained from ATV and Columbus related work to cover the ESA's share of ISS operation past 2017. One study looked into developing a service module for Orion, while the other examined development of a multipurpose vehicle that could resupply space stations, remove debris, and service satellites in orbit. The studies were to be completed before the end of 2012.
At the meeting of the ESA Ministerial Council in November 2012, the ESA committed to developing the service module, and in mid-December signed an agreement with NASA to provide an ATV derived Orion service module for the maiden launch of Orion on the Space Launch System. The module is referred as European Service Module (ESM).
The ESA awarded Airbus Defence and Space a €390 million ($488 million) contract in November 2014 to develop and build the ESM.
Evolution proposals
In addition to its principal role as a one-way uncrewed cargo transfer vehicle, from the onset of work on the project, the ESA had viewed the ATV as having the potential for being the starting point for a whole family of automated space vehicles. Amongst the conceived missions for ATV-derived vehicles have been orbital automated construction programmes and independent bases for experiments, as well as a potential upgraded version of the ATV that would survive reentry intact, enabling its use as a two-way cargo transfer vehicle. The potential commercialisation of the ATV was also the subject of a formal study conducted by the ESA, during which the prospects of using the spacecraft as a dedicated tug for satellites, as well as the use of alternative launch systems, were examined.
Following the decision by NASA to retire the Space Shuttle in 2011, the ESA decided to launch a further series of studies to determine the potential for evolutions and adaptations of the ATV. As a result of these studies, the cargo return version (CARV) was identified as a particularly promising candidate for further development. The goal of this variant is to provide ESA with the capability to transport scientific data and cargo from the ISS to Earth. Beyond this, CARV could be enhanced to become a crew vehicle which would be launched by an adapted Ariane 5.
Mini Space Station The MSS concept is an ATV evolution proposal for the construction of multiple ATVs with two docking ports, one at each end. The current version of the ATV is already prepared for a docking port at the back, with the main propulsion system arranged in a cylindrical fashion leaving room for a tunnel through the middle. This concept would allow Soyuz, Progress and other ATVs to dock to the back of the ATV, allowing a steady flow of Russian vehicles using the available docking ports whilst an ATV is docked for an average of around 6 months at a time.
Payload Retrieval System The PARES would have included a small ballistic capsule similar to VBK-Raduga embedded into the ATV docking interface, which would have brought back a few tens of kilograms of payload. PARES could have featured a deployable heat shield system. The European Space Agency was also proposing the system for use with the Progress spacecraft and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV).
Cargo Ascent and Return Vehicle The CARV would deliver a redesigned capsule, capable of bringing back payload from orbit. It could be installed in place of the ATV pressurized cargo hold. In addition, it could be adapted to use a berth rather than a docking port at the US side of the station. Given the larger berthing ports there, it would be possible to transfer complete International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs) from the ATV to the station, which is only possible with the H-II Transfer Vehicle.
Crew Transport VehicleThis is another option under consideration. Similar to the CARV variant, this would replace the current Integrated Cargo Carrier with a pressurized re-entry capsule. A significant difference with the cargo-only variant would be the presence of a Crew Escape System, consisting of a number of booster rockets able to pull the crew capsule away from the launcher (Ariane 5) and/or Service Module in the event of an emergency. The CTV variant of the ATV could be able to seat 4 or 5 crew members.
Possibilities for launching of the ATV on other launchers than the Ariane 5 have also been investigated, in particular in the frame of Commercial Orbital Transportation Services. ESA and its member states will consider approval for further ATV development in the coming years.
Proposed crewed version
Both the ESA and the manufacturing team have considered various programmes under which the ATV, or portions of the technologies composing it, would have been developed into a crewed configuration.
On 14 May 2008, aerospace company EADS Astrium and the German Aerospace Center (DLR), announced that they were actively pursuing a development project with the aim of adapting the ATV into a crew transportation system. In the envisioned configuration, the craft would be able to launch a 3-person crew beyond LEO via use of a modified version of the Ariane 5 rocket and would be more spacious than the Russian Soyuz. A mock-up of the proposed craft was publicly displayed at the 2008 International Aerospace Exhibition in Berlin. If the project were to have been given ESA approval, development would have proceeded in two stages:
The first stage would have involved the development of an Advanced Reentry Vehicle (ARV) capable of transporting up to 1,500 kg of cargo from space to earth safely (see CARV above) by 2015. This capability would be available to ESA even if further development were to be halted. It would prove useful in the ISS program as well as the proposed Mars Sample Return Mission with NASA. ARV development would make use of work done on the Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator, Crew Return Vehicle and related projects. The budget for this stage of the ATV overhaul would reportedly be €300 million.
The second stage would adapt the then existing capsule to be able to transport people safely as well as upgrade the propulsion and other systems in the service module and would last 4 to 5 years at a cost of "a couple of billion [euro]" according to a senior Astrium representative.
In November 2008, ESA ministers budgeted for a feasibility study into developing a re-entry capsule for the ATV, a requirement for developing either a cargo return capacity or a crew version of the ATV. On 7 July 2009, the ESA signed a €21 million study contract with EADS Astrium. The ARV effort was ultimately discontinued after completing the B1 stage due to fiscal constraints resulting from the late-2000s financial crisis.
Exoliner
During the 2010s, Lockheed Martin put together a proposal for Commercial Resupply Services 2 that included a new diameter cargo transport module called Exoliner, which was based on the ATV and was to be jointly developed with Thales Alenia Space.
See also
References
External links
ESA's ATV site
Cargo spacecraft
European Space Agency spacecraft
Supply vehicles for the International Space Station
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227965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianapolis%20Motor%20Speedway | Indianapolis Motor Speedway | The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is an automobile racing circuit located in Speedway, Indiana (an enclave suburb of Indianapolis) in the United States. It is the home of the Indianapolis 500 and the Verizon 200, and formerly the home of the United States Grand Prix. It is the largest sports venue in the world. It is located on the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road, approximately west of Downtown Indianapolis.
Constructed in 1909, it is the second purpose-built, banked oval racing circuit after Brooklands and the first to be called a 'speedway'. It is the third-oldest permanent automobile race track in the world, behind Brooklands and the Milwaukee Mile. With a permanent seating capacity of 257,325, it is the highest-capacity sports venue in the world.
Considered relatively flat by American standards, the track is a rectangular oval with dimensions that have remained essentially unchanged since its construction. It has two straightaways, four geometrically identical turns, connected by two short straightaways, termed "short chutes", between turns 1 and 2, and between turns 3 and 4.
A modern, FIA Grade One infield road course was completed in 2000, incorporating part of the oval, including the main stretch and the southeast turn, measuring . In 2008, and again in 2014, the road course layout was modified to accommodate motorcycle racing, as well as to improve competition. Altogether, the current grounds have expanded from an original on which the speedway was first built to cover an area of over . Placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, it is the only such site to be affiliated with automotive racing history.
In addition to the Indianapolis 500, the speedway also hosts NASCAR's Verizon 200 and Pennzoil 150. From 2000 to 2007, the speedway hosted the Formula One United States Grand Prix, and from 2008 to 2015 the Moto GP.
On the grounds of the speedway is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum, which opened in 1956, and houses the Hall of Fame. The museum moved into its current building located in the infield in 1976. Also on the grounds is the Brickyard Crossing Golf Resort, which originally opened as the Speedway Golf Course in 1929. The golf course has 14 holes outside the track, along the backstretch, and four holes in the infield. The site is among the most visited attractions in Indianapolis, with 1 million guests annually. The speedway has served as the venue for the opening ceremonies for the 1987 Pan American Games. The track is nicknamed "The Brickyard" (see below), and the garage area is known as Gasoline Alley.
On November 4, 2019, Hulman & Company announced the sale of its company, including the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the IndyCar Series and associated enterprises to Penske Corporation, owned by Roger Penske.
History
Early history
Indianapolis businessman Carl G. Fisher first envisioned building the speedway in 1905 after assisting friends racing in France and seeing that Europe held the upper hand in automobile design and craftsmanship. Fisher began thinking of a better means of testing cars before delivering them to consumers. At the time, racing was just getting started on horse tracks and public roads. Fisher noticed how dangerous and ill-suited the makeshift courses were for racing and testing. He also argued that spectators did not get their money's worth, as they were able to get only a brief glimpse of cars speeding down a linear road.
Fisher proposed building a circular track long with smooth surfaces. Such a track would give manufacturers a chance to test cars at sustained speeds and give drivers a chance to learn their limits. Fisher predicted speeds could reach up to on a course. He visited the Brooklands circuit outside London in 1907, and after viewing the banked layout, it solidified his determination to build the speedway. With dozens of car makers and suppliers in Indiana, Fisher proclaimed, "Indianapolis is going to be the world's greatest center of horseless carriage manufacturer, what could be more logical than building the world's greatest racetrack right here?"
Fisher began looking around the Indianapolis area for a site to build his track; he rejected two potential sites before finding level farmland, Pressley Farm, totaling about outside Indianapolis. In December 1908, he convinced James A. Allison, Arthur Newby, and Frank W. Wheeler to join him in purchasing the property for $72,000. The group incorporated the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Company on March 20, 1909, with a capitalization of $250,000, with Fisher and James Allison in for $75,000 apiece and Frank Wheeler and Arthur Newby on board for $50,000 each.
Construction of the track started in March 1909. Fisher had to quickly downsize his planned oval with a road course to a oval to leave room for the grandstands. Reshaping of the land for the speedway took 500 laborers, 300 mules and a fleet of steam-powered machinery. The track surface consisted of graded and packed soil covered by of gravel, of limestone covered with taroid (a solution of tar and oil), of crushed stone chips that were also drenched with taroid, and a final topping of crushed stone. Workers also constructed dozens of buildings, several bridges, grandstands with 12,000 seats, and an perimeter fence. A white-with-green-trim paint scheme was used throughout the property.
The first event ever held at the speedway was a helium gas-filled balloon competition on Saturday, June 5, 1909, more than two months before the oval was completed. The event drew a reported 40,000 people. Nine balloons lifted off "racing" for trophies; a balloon by the name of Universal City won the race, landing away in Alabama after spending more than a day aloft. The first motorsport event at the track consisted of seven motorcycle races, sanctioned by the Federation of American Motorcyclists (FAM), on August 14, 1909. This was originally planned as a two-day, 15-race program, but ended before the first day was completed due to concerns over suitability of the track surface for motorcycle use. These early events were largely planned by one of the top names in early auto racing promotion, Ernest Moross, who earned fame for his bold and sometimes outlandish barnstorming events at fairgrounds tracks with racing star Barney Oldfield.
On August 19, 1909, fifteen carmakers' teams arrived at the track for practice. The track surface again became a concern with drivers being covered in dirt, oil, and tar and with ruts and chuckholes beginning to form in the turns. Speedway workers oiled and rolled the track prior to the gates opening to the public. Fifteen to twenty thousand spectators showed up, paying at the most $1 for a ticket. Halfway through the first event, race leader Louis Chevrolet was temporarily blinded when a stone smashed his goggles. Wilfred Bourque, driving in a Knox, suffered a suspected rear-axle failure resulting in his car flipping end over end on the front stretch before crashing into a fence post. Both he and his mechanic, Harry Halcomb, died at the scene.
The first day of car racing resulted in four finishes and two land speed records, but concerns over safety led AAA officials to consider canceling the remaining events. Fisher promised the track would be repaired by the next day and convinced officials that the show should go on. The second day saw 20,000 spectators, no major incidents, and additional speed records broken.
On the third day of racing, 35,000 spectators showed up to watch the grand finale race. At into the race, the right front tire blew on Charlie Merz's car. His car mowed down five fence posts and toppled dozens of spectators. Two spectators and his mechanic, Claude Kellum, were killed in the crash. Ten laps later, driver Bruce Keen struck a pothole and crashed into a bridge support. The race was then halted and the remaining drivers were given engraved certificates instead of trophies. The race resulted in the AAA boycotting any future events at the speedway until significant improvements were made.
Fisher and his partners began looking into the idea of paving the track with bricks or concrete. Paving in 1909 was still relatively new with only a few miles of public roads paved, leaving little knowledge of what would work best. Traction tests were conducted on bricks, proving they could hold up. Less than a month after the first car races, the repaving project began. Five Indiana manufacturers supplied 3.2 million bricks to the track. Each was hand laid over a cushion of sand, then leveled and the gaps filled with mortar. At the same time, a concrete wall tall was constructed in front of the main grandstand and around all four corners to protect spectators. The final brick added to the track was made of gold and laid in a special ceremony by Governor Thomas R. Marshall. Before the work was completed, locals nicknamed the track The Brickyard. Today, , or one yard, of original bricks remain exposed at the start-finish line.
In December 1909, eleven drivers and a few motorcyclists returned for speed trials. Drivers soon reached speeds of up to on the new surface. Racing returned in 1910, with a total of 66 automobile races held during three holiday weekends (Memorial Day, Independence Day and Labor Day). Each weekend featured two or three races of , with several shorter contests. Each race stood on its own and earned its own trophy. All races were sanctioned by the AAA (as were the Indianapolis 500 races through 1955). 1910 also saw the speedway host the National Aviation Meet, featuring Wilbur and Orville Wright and highlighted by Walter Brookins setting a world record by taking a plane up to .
A change in marketing focus led to only one race per year beginning in 1911. An estimated 80,000 spectators attended the first race on Memorial Day, May 30, 1911. Forty cars competed with Ray Harroun winning at an average speed of . While all the other drivers in the race had a riding mechanic in their car, Harroun decided to save weight and go faster by driving solo. So, to be able to see what was happening behind his No. 32 Marmon "Wasp", he installed a rear-view mirror. It was the first time such a device was used in an automobile.
Golden age (1912–1929)
A classic race followed in 1912, when Ralph DePalma lost a five-lap lead with five laps to go after his car broke down. As DePalma pushed his car around the circuit, Joe Dawson made up the deficit to win. Three of the next four winners were European, with DePalma being the exception as an American national, though originally Italian born. These races gave Indy a worldwide reputation and international drivers began to enter. The 1916 race was shortened to 120 laps, for a number of reasons including a lack of entries from Europe (there were so few entries that the speedway itself entered several cars), a lack of oil, and out of respect for the war in Europe.
On September 9, 1916, the speedway hosted a day of short racing events termed the "Harvest Classic", composed of three races held at 20-, 50-, and 100-mile (32, 80 and 160 km) distances. In the end, Johnny Aitken, in a Peugeot, would win all three events, his final victories at the facility. The Harvest Classic contests were the last races other than the Indianapolis 500 to be held on the grounds for seventy-eight years.
Racing was interrupted in 1917–1918 by World War I when the facility served as a military aviation repair and refueling depot, designated the Speedway Aviation Repair Depot, commanded by Captain Patrick Frissell. When racing resumed, speeds quickly increased.
In 1921, speedway co-founder Wheeler committed suicide.
At the 1925 event, Pete DePaolo became the first to average 100 mph (160 km/h) for the race, with a speed of .
In 1926, Fisher and Allison were offered "a fortune" for the speedway site by a local real estate developer. They refused, selling instead to former racing driver (and World War One fighter ace) Edward V. Rickenbacker in 1927. How much he paid was not revealed. Rickenbacker built a golf course in the infield. The next year, Allison died from pneumonia.
"Junkyard" formula (1930s)
With the Great Depression hitting the nation, the purse dropped from a winners share of $50,000 and a total of $98,250 in 1930 to $18,000 and $54,450, respectively. There is a common misconception the rules were "dumbed down" to what was called the "junkyard formula" to allow more entries during the depression. The rules were indeed changed, but it was due to an effort by the speedway to get more car manufacturers involved in the race by discouraging the entry of specialized racing machines that dominated the 500 during the mid- to late-1920s. The rule changes, in fact, were already being laid out before the market crash.
In 1931, Dave Evans performed a remarkable feat when his Cummins Diesel Special completed the entire 500 miles without a pit stop. It was also the first diesel entrant.
In 1933, a record 42 cars started the 500. For 1934, a maximum fuel consumption limit was imposed, . It became in 1935 and in 1936. When the limits resulted in several top competitors running out of fuel in the closing stages, the limits were abandoned, though the use of pump gasoline was still mandatory.
By the early 1930s, rising race speeds began to make the track increasingly dangerous, and in the period 1931–1935, there were 15 fatalities. This forced another repavement, with tarmac replacing the bricks in parts of the track. In addition, during the 1935–36 seasons the inside wall was removed in the corners, the outside wall was realigned (to change the angle compared to the track, reducing the potential for cars to vault over it), hard crash helmets became mandatory, and the first yellow light system was installed around the track. The continuing track dangers during this period, however, did not stop Louis Meyer or Wilbur Shaw from becoming the first two three-time winners, with Shaw also being the first back-to-back winner in 1939 and 1940.
Start of the Hulman era (1940s)
At the beginning of the 1940s, the track required further improvements. In 1941, about a third of the "Gasoline Alley" garage area burned down before the race. With U.S. involvement in World War II, the 1942 500-mile race was canceled in December 1941. Owner Eddie Rickenbacker said the race would be suspended for the duration of the war. In 1942, AAA Contest Board suspended all auto racing, and the U.S. government moved to ban all auto racing, primarily on account of rationing. The race would not be held for four years (1942–1945). The track was more or less abandoned during the war and fell into a state of disrepair.
Many of the locals conceded that the speedway would be sold after the war and become a housing development. With the end of the war in sight, on November 29, 1944, three-time 500 winner Wilbur Shaw came back to do a tire test approved by the government for Firestone. Shaw was shocked at the dilapidated state of the speedway and contacted owner Eddie Rickenbacker, only to discover that it was for sale. Shaw then sent out letters to the automobile industry to try to find a buyer. All the responses indicated that the speedway would be turned into a private facility for the buyer. Shaw then looked around for someone to buy the speedway, who would reopen the racetrack as a public venue. He found Terre Haute businessman Tony Hulman. Meetings were set up and the speedway was purchased on November 14, 1945. Though not officially acknowledged, the purchase price for the speedway was reported by the Indianapolis Star and News to be $750,000. Major renovations and repairs were made at a quick pace to the frail speedway, in time for the 1946 race. Since the record 42 cars that started the 1933 edition of the 500, the field size has been set at 33 drivers, with only three exceptions to this rule, the first being 1947, when only 30 cars started due to a strike by certain teams affiliated with the ASPAR drivers, owners and sponsors association.
Since then the speedway has continued to grow. Stands have been built and remodeled many times over, suites and museums were added, and many other additions helped bring back Indy's reputation as a great track.
Fabulous roadsters (1950s)
In the 1950s, cars were topping out at , helping to draw more and more fans. The low-slung, sleek cars were known as roadsters, and the Kurtis, Kuzma, and Watson chassis dominated the field. Nearly all were powered by the Offenhauser, or "Offy", engines. The crowd favorite Novi, with its unique sound and look, was the most powerful car of the decade that dominated time trials. However, they would never make the full in first place, often breaking down before the end or having to make too many pit stops because of the massive engine's thirst for fuel and the weight that went with the extra fuel.
The track's reputation improved so much that the 500-mile race became part of the Formula One World Championship for 10 years (1950–1960), even though none of the Indy drivers raced in Formula One and only Ferrari's Alberto Ascari of the F1 drivers at the time raced in the 500 in 1952. Five-time world champion Juan Fangio practiced at the speedway in 1958 but ultimately decided against racing there. The 1950s were also the most dangerous era of American racing. Of the 33 drivers to qualify for the 1953 race, nearly half, 16, were to eventually die in racing accidents.
Rear-engine revolution (1960s–1990s)
In October 1961, the final remaining brick sections of the track were paved over with asphalt, with the exception of a distinct three-foot-wide line of bricks at the start-finish line. The "Brickyard" thus became known for its "Yard of Bricks". After being widely ignored by Formula One drivers when it was an F1 World Championship event, a wave of F1 drivers went to the speedway in the 1960s, and the rear-engine revolution that was started by the Cooper F1 team changed the face of the 500 as well, with and world drivers' champion Jack Brabham of Australia qualifying his Cooper in 13th for the 1961 race. The Cooper used a smaller (2.7-liter) and less powerful Coventry Climax engine compared to the 4.4-liter Offy engines used by the other 32 cars and was slower on the straights, but many took note of the British car's superior handling through the turns. Brabham qualified 17th and after running as high as third, would ultimately finish ninth after completing all 200 laps. Despite this, many doubters claimed the rear-engine cars were for drivers who liked to be pushed around, though as Brabham said "It started the rear-engined revolution at Indy".
A. J. Foyt, who had won his first 500 in 1961, won the 1964 Indianapolis 500, which was the last ever win for a front-engine car, and since Jim Clark's win driving the rear-engine Lotus 38 in 1965, every winner has driven a rear-engine car. Graham Hill won the following year in his first attempt, eventually becoming the only driver to date to achieve auto racing's "Triple Crown of Motorsport" of winning the Monaco Grand Prix, Indianapolis 500, and Le Mans 24 Hours. There were enough Americans to compete with them, with A.J. Foyt, Mario Andretti, and the Unser brothers Bobby and Al leading the charge in the 1960s and 1970s, of whom Foyt and Al Unser would eventually become, respectively, the first two of four drivers, to date, to win four times each, while Bobby Unser won the race three times, with Andretti only ever winning the race once, in 1969. Andretti would go on to race in F1 and win the world championship in with Team Lotus, who had been the first rear-engine winners at Indy, with Clark, in 1965.
From 1970 to 1981, Indianapolis had a twin in the city of Ontario, California, by the name of the Ontario Motor Speedway. This track was known as the "Indianapolis of the West" and the home of the California 500, but was a financial failure due to poor management and not holding enough races on the racetrack.
In the 1977 Indy 500, Janet Guthrie made history when she became the first female driver to qualify for the race. Guthrie started the race from 18th position but retired with timing gear failure after 27 laps. She was eventually classified 29th. 1977 also saw A.J. Foyt make history when he became the first driver to win the race four times.
1979 saw the second exception to the 1934 33-driver field rule. By the late 1970s there arose some resistance from certain car owners and drivers as to the direction being taken by USAC, the auto racing sanctioning body that among other things, governed the Indianapolis 500 event. Some of the dissident teams formed their own racing body, Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART). USAC responded by barring six of the most famous teams in the sport from qualification (including Roger Penske and Dan Gurney), for "undermining the well-being of USAC". The ruling would sideline former Indy winners Bobby Unser, Al Unser Sr., Gordon Johncock, and Johnny Rutherford. After a court injunction in favor of CART, and a controversy where exhaust pipe rules were clarified after qualifications began and certain teams with an altered exhaust pipe were "locked into" the field, USAC held an additional qualification round on the day before the race, announcing that any driver who could post a faster speed than the slowest qualifier (Roger McCluskey) would be allowed to start the race. Bill Vukovich and George Snider were added to the lineup, bringing the field to 35. A crisis was averted for the moment, but USAC's handling of both issues was seen as bungling by some people, and as outright manipulation by others, and that year spelled the beginning of the end for USAC's governance of the Indy Car series.
The 1980s brought a new generation of speedsters, led by four-time race winner Rick Mears who also broke the 220 mph (355 km/h) speed mark in qualifying (1989) and won six pole positions. Other stars of the decade included Danny Sullivan, Bobby Rahal, and F1 veteran Emerson Fittipaldi. The 1989 race came down to a final ten-lap, a thrilling duel between Fittipaldi and Al Unser Jr., culminating in Unser crashing in the third turn of the 199th lap after making contact with Fittpaldi's right front tire.
The early 1990s witnessed Arie Luyendyk winning in what was then the fastest 500 to date, with an average speed of . That record was not eclipsed for almost a quarter of a century until Tony Kanaan won the 2013 race with an average speed of over . Rick Mears became the third four-time winner after a late-race duel with Michael Andretti in 1991, and in 1992, Al Unser Jr. eked out a hard-fought victory by defeating last-place-starting driver Scott Goodyear by 0.043 of a second, a margin that is still the closest finish in race history. The 500 got a new look in 1996 when it became an Indy Racing League event, formed as a rival to CART.
There was another qualifying controversy in 1996 and 1997, arising over the IRL's "25/8 rule" which locked the previous year's top-25 overall points finishers into the Indianapolis race, regardless of their qualifying speed, leaving only eight spots open for entries to qualify on speed alone. The rule effectively locked out the CART series regulars from competing for qualifying spots in the Indy 500. CART responded by holding their own event, the U.S. 500, on the same day as the 1996 Indianapolis 500. While the new qualifying format was not a factor in 1996, it would backfire in 1997 when two drivers who posted qualifying speeds fast enough to make the race were bumped to make room for slower locked-in cars with more 1996-97 championship points. Hemelgarn Racing, who owned the two cars victimized in the scenario, protested to the IRL that the field would not include the 33 fastest cars. After Bump Day was completed, the series elected to add the two bumped cars, driven by Johnny Unser and Lyn St. James, back into the field, bringing the number of starters to 35. This marked the last time the 500's starting field has been larger than 33 drivers.
American open-wheel unification (2000s)
The early 2000s saw drivers from the rival CART series begin to cross over to compete at the Indianapolis 500. In the 2000 Indianapolis 500, multiple CART champion team Chip Ganassi Racing brought their drivers Juan Pablo Montoya and Jimmy Vasser to Indianapolis. Montoya qualified second, led 167 laps, and won the race convincingly, becoming the seventh Indy 500 rookie to win the race. The next year, Team Penske made its return to the Indianapolis 500 after a five-year absence and was joined by Ganassi, Walker Racing and Michael Andretti, driving for Team Kool Green in a separate effort headed by Kim Green, known as "Team Motorola". For the second straight year, an Indy rookie won the race as Hélio Castroneves took the checkered flag. Roger Penske then elected to move his entire operation over to the IRL beginning in 2002, taking Castroneves and teammate Gil de Ferran with him. After fielding one car in 2002, Ganassi Racing followed Penske to the IRL full-time for the 2003 season. Michael Andretti, who had left his long-time ride at Newman-Haas Racing because he wanted to run the Indianapolis 500 again (something they were not willing to do), bought a majority interest in CART's Team Green, which returned to Indianapolis in 2002 with Dario Franchitti, Paul Tracy and Michael Andretti, and moved it to the IRL that same year as Andretti Green Racing, and in 2004 former CART champion Bobby Rahal's operation moved to the IRL as Rahal Letterman Racing. Castroneves repeated his Indianapolis 500 win in 2002 despite controversial circumstances involving a late-race caution and a pass made by Tracy, and his teammate de Ferran won in 2003.
In 2003, the Indy Lights Series, a minor league series to the IndyCar Series, made history with the first May race at the track since 1910, other than the 500. The Freedom 100, first held during the final qualifying weekend, has been moved to "carburetion day" on the Friday before the 500. From 2005 to 2007, the Indy Lights became the first racing series since 1916 to run at the racecourse twice in one year. The first event being the Freedom 100, held on the oval track as part of the Indianapolis 500 weekend, and the second event, the Liberty Challenge, during the United States Grand Prix weekend, competing on the Grand Prix road course.
Buddy Rice became the first American driver since 1998 to win the race in the rain-shortened 2004 Indianapolis 500. At the time, Rice drove for the team co-owned by 1986 Indianapolis 500 winner Bobby Rahal and the Indiana native television talk show host and comedian David Letterman. In 2005, Danica Patrick became the first female driver to lead the race at Indianapolis, after acquiring it for a lap near the 125-mile (200 km) mark while cycling through pit stops. Dan Wheldon would go on to win the 2005 Indianapolis 500.
Sam Hornish Jr. became the first driver to ever overtake for the lead on the race's final lap, ultimately winning the 2006 Indianapolis 500 in the last by a 0.0635-second margin over rookie Marco Andretti. Dario Franchitti became the first native of Scotland since Jim Clark's victory in 1965 to win, in the rain-shortened 2007 Indianapolis 500.
In mid-February 2008, Champ Car filed for bankruptcy. In late February, an agreement was reached for Champ Car to be merged with the IRL, and the first IRL IndyCar Series season since the unification took place in 2008. Scott Dixon, driving for Chip Ganassi Racing, became the first native of New Zealand to win, in the 2008 Indianapolis 500.
In the 100th anniversary year of the construction of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Hélio Castroneves became the sixth three-time winner of the 500 in the 2009 Indianapolis 500. Danica Patrick also had her best finish ever (third place) in the race, also the best finish ever by a woman in the history of the Indianapolis 500.
Foreign domination (2010s)
The 2010, 2011 and 2012 runnings of the race saw three consecutive British victories, namely for previous winners Franchitti (2010 and 2012) and the late Wheldon winning in 2011 just a few months before his fatal crash at Las Vegas. Brazilian Tony Kanaan won the 2013 running, before American Ryan Hunter-Reay ended an eight-year streak of foreign winners in 2014.
Previous winner Montoya had returned to IndyCar competition and secured a 2015 win to make himself a two-time winner with a fifteen-year gap between triumphs. The event saw Canadian James Hinchcliffe survive a life-threatening impact in practice. The 2016 race saw another American race winner when rookie Alexander Rossi stretched his fuel mileage to record an upset win in a race where he had been off the leaders' pace.
The 2017 race saw former Formula One World Champion Fernando Alonso take off from the Monaco Grand Prix to take part in a one-off event, being highly competitive up front before his engine blew. The races' polesitter and 2008 winner Scott Dixon escaped a huge airborne crash largely unhurt. In spite of heavy crashes, the speedway had now gone more than 20 years without a fatality as the SAFER barriers and the enhanced IndyCars absorbed more of the violent impacts. The race was eventually won by Takuma Sato, who became the first Japanese and Asian winner of the event.
In 2018, Australian former series' champions Will Power won the race after a decade of participation as the first Australian to win the 500, whereas his Penske teammate Simon Pagenaud repeated that feat, becoming the first French winner of the race since 1920, in 2019 after a last-lap duel with 2016 winner Rossi.
Start of Penske era (2020s)
In 2020, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, as with IndyCar Series and other related holdings, was sold to Penske Entertainment Corp., a subsidiary of the Penske Corporation, owned by Roger Penske.
In 2020, for the first time Indianapolis 500 was not held on or around Memorial Day in late May and instead was held in August. Japanese 2017 winner's Takuma Sato won the race for the second time after taking lead at lap 186.
In 2021, Brazilian three-time winner Hélio Castroneves won the race after a late-race duel with Álex Palou, he joined A. J. Foyt, Al Unser Sr. and Rick Mears as four-time winners, this race was also the first victory for Meyer Shank Racing.
Other racing events
NASCAR
From 1919 to 1993, the Indianapolis 500 was the only sanctioned race held at the Speedway. When Tony George (Hulman's grandson) inherited the track, he spearheaded an effort to bring more racing events to the track. In August 1994, the Brickyard 400 for the NASCAR Winston Cup Series made its debut, and at the time, featured the largest crowd and largest cash purse in NASCAR history. From 1998 to 2003, an IROC event was held as a support race.
Since 2012, the Cup race has been supported by the Pennzoil 150 of the NASCAR Xfinity Series; in 2020, the race was moved to the infield road course. The Cup race followed suit in 2021 and was renamed the Verizon 200.
Known for a time as Kroger Super Weekend, it also previously hosted the Brickyard Grand Prix for the TUDOR United Sports Car Championship on the infield road course.
Formula One
In 1998, Tony George arranged for Formula One to return to the United States for the first time since 1991. A two-year renovation and construction project added an infield road course and culminated in the first United States Grand Prix at the facility in 2000. With over 200,000 spectators in attendance, it was one of the largest crowds in the history of Formula One and considered a huge success. The race was also pivotal to Michael Schumacher's winning of the 2000 World Championship, as he came out on top while Mika Häkkinen's engine blew, resulting in an eight-point lead of the championship that set Schumacher up for needing only one win in the remaining two races, something he achieved at the next event.
The short history of the event, however, was littered with controversies. The 2002 United States Grand Prix was marred by a bizarre ending, in which Michael Schumacher, having already clinched the championship, seemingly tried to stage a dead heat with teammate Rubens Barrichello. The official timings showed Barrichello ahead by 0.011 seconds at the line, leading fans and media to dub the event a farce. The 2002 race was also the first-ever Formula One race to use SAFER barriers. In 2003 Schumacher once more set himself up for the title with an Indianapolis win in a dramatic wet-dry event. The 2005 race turned out to be one of the most controversial races in motorsport history. Michelin realized their tires were ill-equipped for the banking after two heavy crashes for Toyota both for Ralf Schumacher and stand-in Ricardo Zonta, and at the last second, the Michelin teams pulled into the pits at the end of the formation lap, leaving only the three Bridgestone teams (six cars) to contest the race. Fans and media were highly critical of the poor handling of the situation. Many fans walked out, and costly ticket refunds were issued. The 2005 event was not the first tire issue for Michelin as Ralf Schumacher also had heavily crashed, fracturing his back in the 2004 race, while Fernando Alonso also suffered a tire blowout at the end of the start-finish straight in that same event.
Despite the outrage of the 2005 event, the race returned for two additional years. The race did not enjoy the level of success of its earlier runnings, and attendance and interest fell dramatically. The race was left off the calendar for 2008, and efforts to revive the race for 2009 were not successful. In 2012, the U.S. Grand Prix relocated to the Circuit of the Americas.
MotoGP
From 2008 to 2015, the speedway hosted a round of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. The race marked the first motorcycle racing event at the facility since 1909.
Modifications approved by the FIA and FIM were made to the combined road course, bringing the new layout to a total of 16 turns. The motorcycle course was designed to run counter-clockwise, the same direction as the oval events. The banking of oval turn one was bypassed by a new infield section, dubbed the "Snake Pit Complex". In addition, the double-hairpin after the Hulman Straight was replaced with traditional esses.
On September 12, 2019, the Speedway announced motorcycle racing will return on the FIM-approved circuit with the MotoAmerica Championship of Indianapolis, which will be part of the Motorcycles on Meridian motorcycle festival. The Indianapolis festival will join Sturgis Motorcycle Rally (American Flat Track) and Daytona Beach Bike Week (Daytona 200 American Sportbike Racing Association championship) as hosts of major motorcycle racing events that run with motorcycle festivals. It will mark MotoAmerica's first race at the Speedway since 2015, and the first as a stand-alone race with the five major championships participating.
IndyCar Grand Prix
Beginning in 2014, the IndyCar Series began holding a race on the combined road course in early May, serving as a lead-in to the Indianapolis 500. The infield road course was modified once again, to make the circuit more competitive, better for fans, and more suited for Indy cars.
Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational
The Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational, held in mid-June, is a racing meet for vintage racing, held on the road course. The event is sanctioned by the Sportscar Vintage Racing Association. In addition to multiple classes of racing on the road course, oval track exhibitions featuring historical Indy cars have also been part of the event. The feature event of the weekend is the annual Indy Legends Charity Pro–Am race.
Indy Autonomous Challenge
In October 2021 the IMS was the location for the first race with full autonomous racecars as a successor of the DARPA Grand Challenge. University teams from all over the world competed in developing software for high speed autonomous driving on the IMS oval. All teams were using a Dallara Indy Lights vehicle equipped with sensors (lidar, radar, camera) and computation hardware. The teams development a full autonomous driving software stack that enables perception, planning and control on the racetrack. The competition was won by the team "TUM Autonomous Motorsport" from the Technical University of Munich which was awarded a prize money of $1,000,000 USD.
Brickyard Crossing Golf Course
From 1960 to 1968, the Speedway Golf Course hosted a PGA Tour event, the 500 Festival Open Invitation; its earlier editions were held during the days surrounding the Indy 500 race week. In 1968, it also held an LPGA tournament, the 500 Ladies Classic in mid-June, won by Mickey Wright. A reconstruction project was completed in 1993, converting the 27-hole layout (18 holes outside, nine in the infield) to an 18-hole championship course designed by legendary golf architect Pete Dye. Renamed "Brickyard Crossing," it features 14 holes outside, and four holes in the infield, with an infield lake. At par 72, it measures from the back tees with a course rating of 75.1 and a slope of 149.
A senior tour event, the Brickyard Crossing Championship, was played there from 1994 through 2000, and it has also hosted college tournaments. An LPGA event, Indy Women in Tech Championship, debuted in 2017.
Other events
The OneAmerica 500 Festival Mini-Marathon, a half marathon held annually in May since 1977 (except 2020), includes one lap around the speedway. The event marks the official start to the "Month of May" events preceding the Indianapolis 500.
On August 8, 1987, IMS hosted the opening ceremonies for the 1987 Pan American Games before 80,000 spectators. IMS also hosted the games' speed roller skating competition on August 9, 11–12.
IMS hosted the Centennial Era Balloon Festival presented by AT&T on May 1–3, 2009; May 8, 2010; and May 7, 2011.
On January 31, 2012, the Pagoda at IMS hosted nearly 3,500 guests for the 2012 Indianapolis Super Bowl Host Committee kickoff event leading to Super Bowl XLVI.
Since the mid-2000s, the speedway has occasionally hosted USAC quarter midget races on an infield oval.
IMS hosted rounds of the Red Bull Air Race World Championship in 2016, 2017, and 2018.
Starting in 2016, IMS began hosting a 2-mile drive of Christmas lights in the infield and on the main straightaway of the track.
On April 16, 2020, IMS hosted the funeral service for Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department Officer Breann Leath. The venue was selected due to the ability for attendees to practice social distancing due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
On May 23, 2020, IMS hosted a mobile food drive serving thousands of residents experiencing food insecurity.
On May 30, 2020, nearby Speedway Senior High School held its 2020 graduation ceremony at IMS due to the ability for attendees to practice social distancing due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Headquarters
The opening of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 1909 dates back close to the birth of the sport of American Championship car racing. Since its inception, the Speedway has been metonymous within the sport. Many Indy car teams, suppliers, and constructors have been and are based in the greater Indianapolis area, some within blocks of the track. When USAC was formed in 1956, the sanctioning body's headquarters were constructed nearly across the street. The current sanctioning body, IndyCar, is headquartered in buildings directly across the street.
The track, and occasionally the headquarters, is sometimes referred to as "16th & Georgetown", owing to the track's address at the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road, and particularly the administration building's physical location at the corner of that intersection (which is now a roundabout).
The Speedway and the city of Indianapolis are closely tied to Indy car racing, analogous to the link NASCAR has to the greater Charlotte area. The term "Indy" and its variations synonymous with motorsports ("Indy 500", "Indy car," etc.) derive directly from the shorthand nickname ("Indy") of the city ("Indianapolis") itself.
Records
Indianapolis 500 (IndyCar Series)
Brickyard 400 (NASCAR Cup Series)
United States Grand Prix (Formula One)
Indianapolis Motorcycle Grand Prix (MotoGP)
Source:
Grand Prix of Indianapolis (IndyCar Series)
Lap records
The official race lap records at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway are listed as:
Seats
In 2004, The Indianapolis Star journalist Curt Cavin counted 257,325 seats, a world record. The number of seats was reduced to an estimated 235,000 in 2013.
Race winners
Oval dimensions
In popular culture
The Indianapolis Motor Speedway appeared in the 2013 DreamWorks Animation animated film Turbo.
Weather and climate
Indianapolis Motor Speedway has a transitional climate with influences of both subtropical and continental. The nearest official weather station is at the Indianapolis International Airport, located just a few miles from the speedway.
Due to the cold winters, including snow on the track, Indy 500 testing is often impossible during winter months. During the main event in late May, the local climate is transitioning from spring to summer. May is the rainiest month of the year, which makes rain delays a large risk during various parts of the event. Ambient temperatures on average for the month is in the lower 70s Fahrenheit/lower 20s Celsius, with temperatures in the 80s not being uncommon later in the month when the race takes place.
For the Brickyard 400 in the summer, the track is much more prone to heatwaves, with the wet season carrying on into July as well.
The defunct Formula One and MotoGP roval infield road course events ran in June/September and August respectively. Since oval racing is not conducted in wet conditions, the inaugural Formula One Grand Prix became the track's first race under wet conditions, using the oval's Turn 1 in a reverse direction with rain tires. The IndyCar Grand Prix, which is usually run two weeks before the 500, is the main existing road course event and can be run in wet conditions, as can the NASCAR meeting Shell 150 and Verizon 200.
See also
Donald Davidson – historian of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway
Ron McQueeney – former IMS Director of Photography from 1977 until 2011
List of fatalities at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway
Notes
References
External links
Indianapolis Motor Speedway – Official website
BBC's circuit guide
Indianapolis Motor Speedway Page on NASCAR.com
Indianapolis Motor Speedway from Indianapolis, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Indianapolis Motor Speedway Collection
Historic Purpose Built Grand Prix Circuits on Google Maps
Sports venues completed in 1909
Motorsport venues in Indiana
Motor Speedway
Motor Speedway
National Historic Landmarks in Indianapolis
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Indianapolis 500
NASCAR races at Indianapolis Motor Speedway
Champ Car circuits
Formula One circuits
IndyCar Series tracks
International Race of Champions tracks
NASCAR tracks
Grand Prix motorcycle circuits
United States Grand Prix
Pan American Games opening ceremony stadiums
Penske Corporation
1909 establishments in Indiana
National Register of Historic Places in Indianapolis
Sports venues on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana | [
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227967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard%20Christopher | Gerard Christopher | Gerard Christopher (born May 11, 1959) is an American actor, writer and producer. He was the second actor to play the role of Superboy in the television series of the same name (from 1989 to 1992), replacing John Haymes Newton who played the role in season one (1988–1989). During his tenure on Superboy he would later also be a producer and writer on the series. He has performed in a number of telemovies, and was a guest star on daytime soap operas such as Days of Our Lives and Sunset Beach, and the prime time soap opera Melrose Place. He has also starred in the comedy movie Tomboy (1985).
Christopher auditioned for the part of Superman / Clark Kent in Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman and was chosen by the casting director. However, when the producers learned he had essentially already played the role, he was dismissed in favor of Dean Cain.
His most recent film role (as of 2003) was "Zack" in the movie The First of May (1999). He also appeared as himself on the 2006 television documentary Look, Up in the Sky: The Amazing Story of Superman talking about his time on Superboy.
References
External links
Male actors from New York City
American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male television actors
Living people
1959 births | [
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227969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very%20Large%20Array | Very Large Array | The Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) is a centimeter-wavelength radio astronomy observatory located in central New Mexico on the Plains of San Agustin, between the towns of Magdalena and Datil, ~ west of Socorro. The VLA comprises twenty-eight 25-meter radio telescopes (twenty-seven of which are operational while one is always rotating through maintenance) deployed in a Y-shaped array and all the equipment, instrumentation, and computing power to function as an interferometer. Each of the massive telescopes is mounted on double parallel railroad tracks, so the radius and density of the array can be transformed to adjust the balance between its angular resolution and its surface brightness sensitivity. Astronomers using the VLA have made key observations of black holes and protoplanetary disks around young stars, discovered magnetic filaments and traced complex gas motions at the Milky Way's center, probed the Universe's cosmological parameters, and provided new knowledge about the physical mechanisms that produce radio emission.
The VLA stands at an elevation of above sea level. It is a component of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO). The NRAO is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.
Characteristics
The radio telescope comprises 27 independent antennas in use at a given time plus one spare, each of which has a dish diameter of 25 meters (82 feet) and weighs . The antennas are distributed along the three arms of a track, shaped in a wye (or Y) -configuration, (each of which measures long). Using the rail tracks that follow each of these arms—and that, at one point, intersect with U.S. Route 60 at a level crossing—and a specially designed lifting locomotive ("Hein's Trein"), the antennas can be physically relocated to a number of prepared positions, allowing aperture synthesis interferometry with up to 351 independent baselines: in essence, the array acts as a single antenna with a variable diameter. The angular resolution that can be reached is between 0.2 and 0.04 arcseconds.
There are four commonly used configurations, designated A (the largest) through D (the tightest, when all the dishes are within of the center point). The observatory normally cycles through all the various possible configurations (including several hybrids) every 16 months; the antennas are moved every three to four months. Moves to smaller configurations are done in two stages, first shortening the east and west arms and later shortening the north arm. This allows for a short period of improved imaging of extremely northerly or southerly sources.
The frequency coverage is to (400 cm to 0.7 cm).
The Pete V. Domenici Science Operations Center (DSOC) for the VLA is located on the campus of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, New Mexico. The DSOC also serves as the control center for the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), a VLBI array of ten 25-meter dishes located from Hawaii in the west to the U.S. Virgin Islands in the east that constitutes the world's largest dedicated, full-time astronomical instrument.
Upgrade and renaming
In 2011, a decade-long upgrade project resulted in the VLA expanding its technical capacities by factors of up to 8,000. The 1970s-era electronics were replaced with state-of-the-art equipment. To reflect this increased capacity, VLA officials asked for input from both the scientific community and the public in coming up with a new name for the array, and in January 2012 it was announced that the array would be renamed the "Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array". On March 31, 2012, the VLA was officially renamed in a ceremony inside the Antenna Assembly Building.
Key science
The VLA is a multi-purpose instrument designed to allow investigations of many astronomical objects, including radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, supernova remnants, gamma-ray bursts, radio-emitting stars, the sun and planets, astrophysical masers, black holes, and the hydrogen gas that constitutes a large portion of the Milky Way galaxy as well as external galaxies. In 1989 the VLA was used to receive radio communications from the Voyager 2 spacecraft as it flew by Neptune. A search of the galaxies M31 and M32 was conducted in December 2014 through January 2015 with the intent of quickly searching trillions of systems for extremely powerful signals from advanced civilizations.
It has been used to carry out several large surveys of radio sources, including the NRAO VLA Sky Survey and Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters.
In September 2017 the VLA Sky Survey (VLASS) began. This survey will cover the entire sky visible to the VLA (80% of the Earth's sky) in three full scans. Astronomers expect to find about 10 million new objects with the survey — four times more than what is presently known.
History
The driving force for the development of the VLA was David S. Heeschen. He is noted as having "sustained and guided the development of the best radio astronomy observatory in the world for sixteen years." Congressional approval for the VLA project was given in August 1972, and construction began some six months later. The first antenna was put into place in September 1975 and the complex was formally inaugurated in 1980, after a total investment of . It was the largest configuration of radio telescopes in the world.
With a view to upgrading the venerable 1970s technology with which the VLA was built, the VLA has evolved into the Expanded Very Large Array (EVLA). The upgrade has enhanced the instrument's sensitivity, frequency range, and resolution with the installation of new hardware at the San Agustin site. A second phase of this upgrade may add up to eight additional dishes in other parts of the state of New Mexico, up to away, if funded.
Magdalena Ridge Observatory is a new observatory under construction a few miles south of the VLA. It includes an optical interferometer and is run by VLA collaborator New Mexico Tech.
Tourism
The VLA is located between the towns of Magdalena and Datil, about west of Socorro, New Mexico. U.S. Route 60 passes east–west through the complex.
The VLA site is open to visitors year round during daylight hours, and on every first and third Saturdays of the month, special guided and behind-the-scenes tours are offered. A visitor center houses a small museum, theater, and a gift shop. A self-guided walking tour is available, as the visitor center is not staffed continuously. Visitors unfamiliar with the area are warned that there is little food on site, or in the sparsely populated surroundings; those unfamiliar with the high desert are warned that the weather is quite variable, and can remain cold into April. For those who cannot travel to the site, the NRAO created a virtual tour of the VLA called the VLA Explorer.
In popular culture
The VLA has appeared repeatedly in American popular culture since its construction.
The VLA is present in the 1984 movie 2010: The Year We Make Contact, as the location where Dr. Floyd and Dimitri Moiseyevich discuss the upcoming missions to Jupiter.
The VLA is present in the 1997 movie Contact, as the location where the alien signal is first detected.
British artist Keith Tyson created a 300 piece sculpture called Large Field Array (2006–2007) named after the VLA.
In the 2009 science-fiction film Terminator Salvation, the VLA is the location of a Skynet facility. At the beginning of the film the site is attacked by Resistance forces.
Trivia
An image of the Very Large Array appeared on the cover of Bon Jovi's 2002 studio album, Bounce.
See also
Allen Telescope Array (ATA)
Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA)
Green Bank Telescope (GBT)
Lake San Agustín, which once stood where the VLA is now
List of radio telescopes
Square Kilometre Array (SKA)
Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI)
Very Small Array (VSA)
References
External links
VLA Explorer
The Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array page at NRAO
The Next Generation Very Large Array (ngVLA)
Astronomical observatories in New Mexico
Buildings and structures in Socorro County, New Mexico
Interferometric telescopes
Museums in Socorro County, New Mexico
Radio telescopes
Science museums in New Mexico
1980 establishments in New Mexico | [
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227971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert%20Grant | Cuthbert Grant | Cuthbert James Grant (1793 – July 15, 1854) was a prominent Métis leader of the early 19th century. His father was also called Cuthbert Grant.
Life
Cuthbert James Grant was born in 1793 at Fort Tremblant, a North West Company trading post located near the present-day town of Togo, Saskatchewan, where his father was a manager. His father was Cuthbert Grant Sr., a North West Company partner, and his mother was Métis, Margaret Son-gabo-ki-che-ta Grant, Utinwassis Cree Woman. In 1801, at the age of 8, he was sent to be educated, perhaps to Scotland, though this is uncertain. It is not known exactly when he returned to Western Canada, but in 1812, he entered the service of the North West Company at the age of 19. He then travelled with the spring brigade to the Pays d'en Haut, the "high country" of the northwest.
He was recognized as a leader of the Métis people, and became involved in the bitter struggle between the Nor'westers and the Hudson's Bay Company stemming from the Pemmican Proclamation, which forbade anyone from exporting pemmican from the Red River Colony. The capture and destruction of the North West Company's Fort Gibraltar in 1816, caused further anger at the HBC from the Nor'westers and the local Métis. This led to the bloody encounter known as the Battle of Seven Oaks, where Robert Semple and 21 colonists from the Red River Colony were killed.
Despite this, when the two rival companies merged in 1821 under the name the Hudson's Bay Company, the new governor, Sir George Simpson, requested Grant to head a Métis settlement of some 2,000 people situated some 16 miles west of the Red River Colony on the Assiniboine River. The settlement was to be known as Grantown for many years then was renamed St. François Xavier after the patron saint of the town.
By 1825 wheat was becoming an important food crop and although there were several windmills in operation in the area, Cuthbert Grant was the first to undertake the construction of a watermill. His mill was completed on Sturgeon Creek in 1829. While the exact location is not known, it is probable that it was close to where the Portage Trail crossed the creek; and it is altogether likely that the dam was used as a bridge for crossing the creek during the season of high water. Unfortunately the dam proved unequal to the spring floods and for three successive years it was washed out. Grant finally abandoned the site and moved his machinery to Grantown where he constructed a successful windmill. There is a mill called Grant's Old Mill that is located in Winnipeg.
In 1828, the Hudson's Bay Company placed him in charge of the defence of the Red River Colony. He later became a sheriff and magistrate in the District of Assiniboia.
On July 15, 1854, Cuthbert died from injuries sustained after falling from his horse.
Family and descendants
Cuthbert James Grant was known to have been married three times and to have fathered many children.
His first wife was Elizabeth "Bethsy" McKay, the sister of John Richards McKay and daughter of John McKay and Mary Favell. Grant and Bethsy courted through correspondence; the pair were married on May 22, 1814, at Fort Gibraltar. Their marriage produced one son, James (b. circa 1815). However, while Cuthbert was on trial for his part in Seven Oaks, both Bethsy and their son James disappeared. Their fate is unknown.
In 1820, Cuthbert was involved in a mariage du pays with Marie Desmaris. From this union, a daughter Maria was born (b. July 15, 1820). (Maria would later marry Pascal Breland, a magistrate at St. François Xavier.)
Around 1823, Cuthbert married Marie-Marguerite McGillis, the daughter of Angus McGillis and an aboriginal woman named Marguerite. Cuthbert and Marie-Marguerite were the parents of 11 children: Elise, Charles, Pierre, Elizabeth, Marguerite, Cuthbert Louis Marie, Cuthbert, James, Sophia, Caroline, Jessie, and Julie Rose Marie Grant.
Marie-Marguerite survived her husband's death by 18 months. She was buried on April 30, 1856, in St.-Francois-Xavier.
Lord Strathspey, the head of Clan Grant, officially declared Cuthbert Grant a member of his clan at a ceremony held in Winnipeg in July 2012. This created a new sept of his descendants in Canada.
Legacy
Grant Avenue in Winnipeg and the Cuthbert Grant rose, developed by Agriculture Canada and introduced in 1967, are named in his honour.
During the 1960s, Canadian-born James Bond film producer Harry Saltzman attempted to make a feature film about Grant that would have been shot in Canada. Initially the biographical film was to have starred Sean Connery as Grant.
References
External links
1793 births
1854 deaths
Canadian Métis people
North West Company people
People of North-Western Territory
Métis politicians
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Accidental deaths in Manitoba
Deaths by horse-riding accident in Canada
Pemmican War
Members of the Council of Assiniboia | [
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227973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipso%20jure | Ipso jure | Ipso jure is a Latin phrase, directly translated as "by the law itself". It is used as an adverb.
Usage
The phrase is used to describe legal consequences that occur by the act of the law itself. For example, if property is held in a tenancy by the entirety by a husband and wife, who then get divorced, the property is converted ipso jure (i.e. by the law itself) into another form of tenancy, usually a tenancy in common, at the very instant the marriage is dissolved. Likewise, contracts that establish partnerships sometimes provide that the partnership is ipso jure dissolved if one partner attempts to sell his or her interest in the partnership. In all of these situations, when one legally significant fact occurs, other relationships are automatically changed by the law.
See also
Latae sententiae
Operation of law
List of Latin phrases
References
Latin legal terminology
Latin philosophical phrases
Latin logical phrases
Legal reasoning | [
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] |
227974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape%20Velocity | Escape Velocity | Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object without propulsion needs to have to move away indefinitely from the source of the gravity field.
Escape Velocity may also refer to:
Books
Escape Velocity (Doctor Who), a Doctor Who novel
Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century, a nonfiction book by Mark Dery
Escape Velocity, prequel to the Warlock series by Christopher Stasheff
Video games
Escape Velocity (video game)
Escape Velocity Override, its sequel
Escape Velocity Nova, the most recent title in the Escape Velocity franchise, along with an expandable card-driven board game based on it
Music
"Escape Velocity" (song), a 2010 song by The Chemical Brothers
Escape Velocity, an album by The Phenomenauts
Film and television
"Escape Velocity" (Battlestar Galactica), an episode of the TV show Battlestar Galactica
Escape Velocity (film), a 1998 Canadian thriller film
See also | [
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227976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Seven%20Oaks | Battle of Seven Oaks | The Battle of Seven Oaks was a violent confrontation in the Pemmican War between the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and the North West Company (NWC), rivals in the fur trade, that took place on 19 June 1816, the climax of a long dispute in western Canada. The Métis people fought for the North West Company, and they called it "the Victory of Frog Plain" (la Victoire de la Grenouillère).
Background
Miles MacDonell was the governor of the Red River Colony in 1814, the area around Winnipeg, Manitoba. He issued the Pemmican Proclamation which prohibited export of pemmican from the colony for the next year. It was meant to guarantee adequate supplies for the Hudson's Bay Colony, but the North West Company viewed it as a ploy by the Earl of Selkirk to monopolize the commodity, which was important to the North West Company. The Métis did not acknowledge the authority of the Red River Settlement, and the Pemmican Proclamation was a blow to both the Métis and North West Company. The North West Company accused the HBC of unfairly monopolizing the fur trade.
MacDonnell resigned as governor of the Red River Colony in 1815, after several conflicts and suffering from "severe emotional instability." He was replaced by Robert Semple, an American businessman with no previous experience in the fur trade.
Battle
Cuthbert Grant led a group of North West Company employees in 1816 to seize a supply of pemmican from the Hudson's Bay Company that had been stolen from the Métis.
Grant's group encountered Semple and a group of HBC men and settlers north of Fort Douglas along the Red River at a location known as Seven Oaks, which the Métis called la Grenouillière (Frog Plain). The North West Company sent François-Firmin Boucher to speak to Semple's men. He and Semple argued, and a gunfight ensued when the settlers tried to arrest Boucher and seize his horse. Early reports said that the Métis fired the first shot and began the fray, but Royal Commissioner William Bachelor Coltman determined with "next to certainty" that it was one of Semple's men who fired first. The Métis were skilled sharpshooters and outnumbered Semple's forces by nearly 3 to 1 and they repulsed the attack, killing 21 men, including Governor Semple, while suffering only one fatality.
Aftermath
The settlers were demoralized from the losses, so they gathered their belongings the day after the battle and sailed north, leaving the Métis in command of the settlement. Royal Commissioner W. B. Coltman investigated the incident, and he exonerated the Métis. Lord Selkirk attempted to prosecute several members of the North West Company for murder and kept Boucher in prison for nearly two years without specific charges. All trials ended in acquittals, and the remaining charges were dropped. Members of the North West Company counter-sued Selkirk, whose health and influence subsequently declined. Selkirk died in 1820, and the two companies merged in 1821. The Hudson's Bay Company gave Cuthbert Grant an annual salary in 1828 and the position of "warden of the plains of Red River".
The Manitoba Historical Society erected an obelisk monument in 1891 commemorating the battle at the intersection of Main Street and Rupertsland Boulevard in the Winnipeg district of West Kildonan, the approximate centre of the battle site. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920. Parks Canada installed new interpretive signs as part of their reconciliation with the Métis, and the Seven Oaks Park was re-landscaped. The site was officially reopened on 19 June 2016 to mark the 200th anniversary of the battle.
References
Further reading
Dick, Lyle. "The Seven Oaks Incident and the Construction of a Historical Tradition, 1816 to 1970." Journal of the Canadian Historical Association/Revue de la Société historique du Canada 2.1 (1991): 91-113. online
Conflicts in 1816
Battles involving Canada
Conflicts in Canada
Military history of Manitoba
North West Company
Hudson's Bay Company
Battles involving the Métis
Economic warfare
1816 in Canada
June 1816 events
Pemmican War | [
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227982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20force%20microscopy | Atomic force microscopy | Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very-high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.
Overview
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit. The information is gathered by "feeling" or "touching" the surface with a mechanical probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but accurate and precise movements on (electronic) command enable precise scanning. Despite the name, the Atomic Force Microscope does not use the Nuclear force.
Abilities
The AFM has three major abilities: force measurement, topographic imaging, and manipulation.
In force measurement, AFMs can be used to measure the forces between the probe and the sample as a function of their mutual separation. This can be applied to perform force spectroscopy, to measure the mechanical properties of the sample, such as the sample's Young's modulus, a measure of stiffness.
For imaging, the reaction of the probe to the forces that the sample imposes on it can be used to form an image of the three-dimensional shape (topography) of a sample surface at a high resolution. This is achieved by raster scanning the position of the sample with respect to the tip and recording the height of the probe that corresponds to a constant probe-sample interaction (see section topographic imaging in AFM for more details). The surface topography is commonly displayed as a pseudocolor plot.
Although the initial publication about the atomic force microscopy by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1986 speculated about the possibility of achieving atomic resolution, profound experimental challenges needed to be overcome before atomic resolution of defects and step edges in ambient (liquid) conditions was demonstrated in 1993 by Ohnesorge and Binnig. True atomic resolution of the silicon 7x7 surface - the atomic images of this surface obtained by STM had convinced the scientific community of the spectacular spatial resolution of scanning tunneling microscopy – had to wait a little longer before it was shown by Giessibl.
In manipulation, the forces between tip and sample can also be used to change the properties of the sample in a controlled way. Examples of this include atomic manipulation, scanning probe lithography and local stimulation of cells.
Simultaneous with the acquisition of topographical images, other properties of the sample can be measured locally and displayed as an image, often with similarly high resolution. Examples of such properties are mechanical properties like stiffness or adhesion strength and electrical properties such as conductivity or surface potential. In fact, the majority of SPM techniques are extensions of AFM that use this modality.
Other microscopy technologies
The major difference between atomic force microscopy and competing technologies such as optical microscopy and electron microscopy is that AFM does not use lenses or beam irradiation. Therefore, it does not suffer from a limitation in spatial resolution due to diffraction and aberration, and preparing a space for guiding the beam (by creating a vacuum) and staining the sample are not necessary.
There are several types of scanning microscopy including scanning probe microscopy (which includes AFM, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and near-field scanning optical microscope (SNOM/NSOM), STED microscopy (STED), and scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical AFM, EC-AFM). Although SNOM and STED use visible, infrared or even terahertz light to illuminate the sample, their resolution is not constrained by the diffraction limit.
Configuration
Fig. 3 shows an AFM, which typically consists of the following features. Numbers in parentheses correspond to numbered features in Fig. 3. Coordinate directions are defined by the coordinate system (0).
The small spring-like cantilever (1) is carried by the support (2). Optionally, a piezoelectric element (typically made of a ceramic material) (3) oscillates the cantilever (1). The sharp tip (4) is fixed to the free end of the cantilever (1). The detector (5) records the deflection and motion of the cantilever (1). The sample (6) is mounted on the sample stage (8). An xyz drive (7) permits to displace the sample (6) and the sample stage (8) in x, y, and z directions with respect to the tip apex (4). Although Fig. 3 shows the drive attached to the sample, the drive can also be attached to the tip, or independent drives can be attached to both, since it is the relative displacement of the sample and tip that needs to be controlled. Controllers and plotter are not shown in Fig. 3.
According to the configuration described above, the interaction between tip and sample, which can be an atomic scale phenomenon, is transduced into changes of the motion of cantilever which is a macro scale phenomenon. Several different aspects of the cantilever motion can be used to quantify the interaction between the tip and sample, most commonly the value of the deflection, the amplitude of an imposed oscillation of the cantilever, or the shift in resonance frequency of the cantilever (see section Imaging Modes).
Detector
The detector (5) of AFM measures the deflection (displacement with respect to the equilibrium position) of the cantilever and converts it into an electrical signal. The intensity of this signal will be proportional to the displacement of the cantilever.
Various methods of detection can be used, e.g. interferometry, optical levers, the piezoelectric method, and STM-based detectors (see section "AFM cantilever deflection measurement").
Image formation
Note: The following paragraphs assume that 'contact mode' is used (see section Imaging Modes). For other imaging modes, the process is similar, except that 'deflection' should be replaced by the appropriate feedback variable.
When using the AFM to image a sample, the tip is brought into contact with the sample, and the sample is raster scanned along an x–y grid (fig 4). Most commonly, an electronic feedback loop is employed to keep the probe-sample force constant during scanning. This feedback loop has the cantilever deflection as input, and its output controls the distance along the z axis between the probe support (2 in fig. 3) and the sample support (8 in fig 3). As long as the tip remains in contact with the sample, and the sample is scanned in the x–y plane, height variations in the sample will change the deflection of the cantilever. The feedback then adjusts the height of the probe support so that the deflection is restored to a user-defined value (the setpoint). A properly adjusted feedback loop adjusts the support-sample separation continuously during the scanning motion, such that the deflection remains approximately constant. In this situation, the feedback output equals the sample surface topography to within a small error.
Historically, a different operation method has been used, in which the sample-probe support distance is kept constant and not controlled by a feedback (servo mechanism). In this mode, usually referred to as 'constant height mode', the deflection of the cantilever is recorded as a function of the sample x–y position. As long as the tip is in contact with the sample, the deflection then corresponds to surface topography. The main reason this method is not very popular anymore, is that the forces between tip and sample are not controlled, which can lead to forces high enough to damage the tip or the sample. It is however common practice to record the deflection even when scanning in 'constant force mode', with feedback. This reveals the small tracking error of the feedback, and can sometimes reveal features that the feedback was not able to adjust for.
The AFM signals, such as sample height or cantilever deflection, are recorded on a computer during the x–y scan. They are plotted in a pseudocolor image, in which each pixel represents an x–y position on the sample, and the color represents the recorded signal.
History
The AFM was invented by IBM scientists in 1985. The precursor to the AFM, the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), was developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in the early 1980s at IBM Research - Zurich, a development that earned them the 1986 Nobel Prize for Physics. Binnig invented the atomic force microscope and the first experimental implementation was made by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1986.
The first commercially available atomic force microscope was introduced in 1989. The AFM is one of the foremost tools for imaging, measuring, and manipulating matter at the nanoscale.
Applications
The AFM has been applied to problems in a wide range of disciplines of the natural sciences, including solid-state physics, semiconductor science and technology, molecular engineering, polymer chemistry and physics, surface chemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, and medicine.
Applications in the field of solid state physics include (a) the identification of atoms at a surface, (b) the evaluation of interactions between a specific atom and its neighboring atoms, and (c) the study of changes in physical properties arising from changes in an atomic arrangement through atomic manipulation.
In molecular biology, AFM can be used to study the structure and mechanical properties of protein complexes and assemblies. For example, AFM has been used to image microtubules and measure their stiffness.
In cellular biology, AFM can be used to attempt to distinguish cancer cells and normal cells based on a hardness of cells, and to evaluate interactions between a specific cell and its neighboring cells in a competitive culture system. AFM can also be used to indent cells, to study how they regulate the stiffness or shape of the cell membrane or wall.
In some variations, electric potentials can also be scanned using conducting cantilevers. In more advanced versions, currents can be passed through the tip to probe the electrical conductivity or transport of the underlying surface, but this is a challenging task with few research groups reporting consistent data (as of 2004).
Principles
The AFM consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip (probe) at its end that is used to scan the specimen surface. The cantilever is typically silicon or silicon nitride with a tip radius of curvature on the order of nanometers. When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample surface, forces between the tip and the sample lead to a deflection of the cantilever according to Hooke's law. Depending on the situation, forces that are measured in AFM include mechanical contact force, van der Waals forces, capillary forces, chemical bonding, electrostatic forces, magnetic forces (see magnetic force microscope, MFM), Casimir forces, solvation forces, etc. Along with force, additional quantities may simultaneously be measured through the use of specialized types of probes (see scanning thermal microscopy, scanning joule expansion microscopy, photothermal microspectroscopy, etc.).
The AFM can be operated in a number of modes, depending on the application. In general, possible imaging modes are divided into static (also called contact) modes and a variety of dynamic (non-contact or "tapping") modes where the cantilever is vibrated or oscillated at a given frequency.
Imaging modes
AFM operation is usually described as one of three modes, according to the nature of the tip motion: contact mode, also called static mode (as opposed to the other two modes, which are called dynamic modes); tapping mode, also called intermittent contact, AC mode, or vibrating mode, or, after the detection mechanism, amplitude modulation AFM; non-contact mode, or, again after the detection mechanism, frequency modulation AFM.
Despite the nomenclature, repulsive contact can occur or be avoided both in amplitude modulation AFM and frequency modulation AFM, depending on the settings.
Contact mode
In contact mode, the tip is "dragged" across the surface of the sample and the contours of the surface are measured either using the deflection of the cantilever directly or, more commonly, using the feedback signal required to keep the cantilever at a constant position. Because the measurement of a static signal is prone to noise and drift, low stiffness cantilevers (i.e. cantilevers with a low spring constant, k) are used to achieve a large enough deflection signal while keeping the interaction force low. Close to the surface of the sample, attractive forces can be quite strong, causing the tip to "snap-in" to the surface. Thus, contact mode AFM is almost always done at a depth where the overall force is repulsive, that is, in firm "contact" with the solid surface.
Tapping mode
In ambient conditions, most samples develop a liquid meniscus layer. Because of this, keeping the probe tip close enough to the sample for short-range forces to become detectable while preventing the tip from sticking to the surface presents a major problem for contact mode in ambient conditions. Dynamic contact mode (also called intermittent contact, AC mode or tapping mode) was developed to bypass this problem. Nowadays, tapping mode is the most frequently used AFM mode when operating in ambient conditions or in liquids.
In tapping mode, the cantilever is driven to oscillate up and down at or near its resonance frequency. This oscillation is commonly achieved with a small piezo element in the cantilever holder, but other possibilities include an AC magnetic field (with magnetic cantilevers), piezoelectric cantilevers, or periodic heating with a modulated laser beam. The amplitude of this oscillation usually varies from several nm to 200 nm. In tapping mode, the frequency and amplitude of the driving signal are kept constant, leading to a constant amplitude of the cantilever oscillation as long as there is no drift or interaction with the surface. The interaction of forces acting on the cantilever when the tip comes close to the surface, van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole interactions, electrostatic forces, etc. cause the amplitude of the cantilever's oscillation to change (usually decrease) as the tip gets closer to the sample. This amplitude is used as the parameter that goes into the electronic servo that controls the height of the cantilever above the sample. The servo adjusts the height to maintain a set cantilever oscillation amplitude as the cantilever is scanned over the sample. A tapping AFM image is therefore produced by imaging the force of the intermittent contacts of the tip with the sample surface.
Although the peak forces applied during the contacting part of the oscillation can be much higher than typically used in contact mode, tapping mode generally lessens the damage done to the surface and the tip compared to the amount done in contact mode. This can be explained by the short duration of the applied force, and because the lateral forces between tip and sample are significantly lower in tapping mode over contact mode.
Tapping mode imaging is gentle enough even for the visualization of supported lipid bilayers or adsorbed single polymer molecules (for instance, 0.4 nm thick chains of synthetic polyelectrolytes) under liquid medium. With proper scanning parameters, the conformation of single molecules can remain unchanged for hours, and even single molecular motors can be imaged while moving.
When operating in tapping mode, the phase of the cantilever's oscillation with respect to the driving signal can be recorded as well. This signal channel contains information about the energy dissipated by the cantilever in each oscillation cycle. Samples that contain regions of varying stiffness or with different adhesion properties can give a contrast in this channel that is not visible in the topographic image. Extracting the sample's material properties in a quantitative manner from phase images, however, is often not feasible.
Non-contact mode
In non-contact atomic force microscopy mode, the tip of the cantilever does not contact the sample surface. The cantilever is instead oscillated at either its resonant frequency (frequency modulation) or just above (amplitude modulation) where the amplitude of oscillation is typically a few nanometers (<10 nm) down to a few picometers. The van der Waals forces, which are strongest from 1 nm to 10 nm above the surface, or any other long-range force that extends above the surface acts to decrease the resonance frequency of the cantilever. This decrease in resonant frequency combined with the feedback loop system maintains a constant oscillation amplitude or frequency by adjusting the average tip-to-sample distance. Measuring the tip-to-sample distance at each (x,y) data point allows the scanning software to construct a topographic image of the sample surface.
Non-contact mode AFM does not suffer from tip or sample degradation effects that are sometimes observed after taking numerous scans with contact AFM. This makes non-contact AFM preferable to contact AFM for measuring soft samples, e.g. biological samples and organic thin film. In the case of rigid samples, contact and non-contact images may look the same. However, if a few monolayers of adsorbed fluid are lying on the surface of a rigid sample, the images may look quite different. An AFM operating in contact mode will penetrate the liquid layer to image the underlying surface, whereas in non-contact mode an AFM will oscillate above the adsorbed fluid layer to image both the liquid and surface.
Schemes for dynamic mode operation include frequency modulation where a phase-locked loop is used to track the cantilever's resonance frequency and the more common amplitude modulation with a servo loop in place to keep the cantilever excitation to a defined amplitude. In frequency modulation, changes in the oscillation frequency provide information about tip-sample interactions. Frequency can be measured with very high sensitivity and thus the frequency modulation mode allows for the use of very stiff cantilevers. Stiff cantilevers provide stability very close to the surface and, as a result, this technique was the first AFM technique to provide true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum conditions.
In amplitude modulation, changes in the oscillation amplitude or phase provide the feedback signal for imaging. In amplitude modulation, changes in the phase of oscillation can be used to discriminate between different types of materials on the surface. Amplitude modulation can be operated either in the non-contact or in the intermittent contact regime. In dynamic contact mode, the cantilever is oscillated such that the separation distance between the cantilever tip and the sample surface is modulated.
Amplitude modulation has also been used in the non-contact regime to image with atomic resolution by using very stiff cantilevers and small amplitudes in an ultra-high vacuum environment.
Topographic image
Image formation is a plotting method that produces a color mapping through changing the x–y position of the tip while scanning and recording the measured variable, i.e. the intensity of control signal, to each x–y coordinate. The color mapping shows the measured value corresponding to each coordinate. The image expresses the intensity of a value as a hue. Usually, the correspondence between the intensity of a value and a hue is shown as a color scale in the explanatory notes accompanying the image.
What is the topographic image of atomic force microscope?
Operation mode of image forming of the AFM are generally classified into two groups from the viewpoint whether it uses z-Feedback loop (not shown) to maintain the tip-sample distance to keep signal intensity exported by the detector. The first one (using z-Feedback loop), said to be "constant XX mode" (XX is something which kept by z-Feedback loop).
Topographic image formation mode is based on abovementioned "constant XX mode", z-Feedback loop controls the relative distance between the probe and the sample through outputting control signals to keep constant one of frequency, vibration and phase which typically corresponds to the motion of cantilever (for instance, voltage is applied to the Z-piezoelectric element and it moves the sample up and down towards the Z direction.
Details will be explained in the case that especially "constant df mode"(FM-AFM) among AFM as an instance in next section.
Topographic image of FM-AFM
When the distance between the probe and the sample is brought to the range where atomic force may be detected, while a cantilever is excited in its natural eigen frequency (f0), a phenomenon occurs that the resonance frequency (f) of the cantilever shifts from its original resonance frequency (natural eigen frequency). In other words, in the range where atomic force may be detected, the frequency shift (df=f-f0) will be observed. So, when the distance between the probe and the sample is in the non-contact region, the frequency shift increases in negative direction as the distance between the probe and the sample gets smaller.
When the sample has concavity and convexity, the distance between the tip-apex and the sample varies in accordance with the concavity and convexity accompanied with a scan of the sample along x–y direction (without height regulation in z-direction). As a result, the frequency shift arises. The image in which the values of the frequency obtained by a raster scan along the x–y direction of the sample surface are plotted against the x–y coordination of each measurement point is called a constant-height image.
On the other hand, the df may be kept constant by moving the probe upward and downward (See (3) of FIG.5) in z-direction using a negative feedback (by using z-feedback loop) while the raster scan of the sample surface along the x–y direction. The image in which the amounts of the negative feedback (the moving distance of the probe upward and downward in z-direction) are plotted against the x–y coordination of each measurement point is a topographic image. In other words, the topographic image is a trace of the tip of the probe regulated so that the df is constant and it may also be considered to be a plot of a constant-height surface of the df.
Therefore, the topographic image of the AFM is not the exact surface morphology itself, but actually the image influenced by the bond-order between the probe and the sample, however, the topographic image of the AFM is considered to reflect the geographical shape of the surface more than the topographic image of a scanning tunnel microscope.
Force spectroscopy
Another major application of AFM (besides imaging) is force spectroscopy, the direct measurement of tip-sample interaction forces as a function of the gap between the tip and sample (the result of this measurement is called a force-distance curve). For this method, the AFM tip is extended towards and retracted from the surface as the deflection of the cantilever is monitored as a function of piezoelectric displacement. These measurements have been used to measure nanoscale contacts, atomic bonding, Van der Waals forces, and Casimir forces, dissolution forces in liquids and single molecule stretching and rupture forces. Furthermore, AFM was used to measure, in an aqueous environment, the dispersion force due to polymer adsorbed on the substrate. Forces of the order of a few piconewtons can now be routinely measured with a vertical distance resolution of better than 0.1 nanometers. Force spectroscopy can be performed with either static or dynamic modes. In dynamic modes, information about the cantilever vibration is monitored in addition to the static deflection.
Problems with the technique include no direct measurement of the tip-sample separation and the common need for low-stiffness cantilevers, which tend to 'snap' to the surface. These problems are not insurmountable. An AFM that directly measures the tip-sample separation has been developed. The snap-in can be reduced by measuring in liquids or by using stiffer cantilevers, but in the latter case a more sensitive deflection sensor is needed. By applying a small dither to the tip, the stiffness (force gradient) of the bond can be measured as well.
Biological applications and other
Force spectroscopy is used in biophysics to measure the mechanical properties of living material (such as tissue or cells) or detect structures of different stiffness buried into the bulk of the sample using the stiffness tomography. Another application was to measure the interaction forces between from one hand a material stuck on the tip of the cantilever, and from another hand the surface of particles either free or occupied by the same material. From the adhesion force distribution curve, a mean value of the forces has been derived. It allowed to make a cartography of the surface of the particles, covered or not by the material. AFM has also been used for mechanically unfolding proteins. In such experiments, the analyzes of the mean unfolding forces with the appropriate model leads to the obtainment of the information about the unfolding rate and free energy profile parameters of the protein.
Identification of individual surface atoms
The AFM can be used to image and manipulate atoms and structures on a variety of surfaces. The atom at the apex of the tip "senses" individual atoms on the underlying surface when it forms incipient chemical bonds with each atom. Because these chemical interactions subtly alter the tip's vibration frequency, they can be detected and mapped. This principle was used to distinguish between atoms of silicon, tin and lead on an alloy surface, by comparing these 'atomic fingerprints' to values obtained from large-scale density functional theory (DFT) simulations.
The trick is to first measure these forces precisely for each type of atom expected in the sample, and then to compare with forces given by DFT simulations. The team found that the tip interacted most strongly with silicon atoms, and interacted 24% and 41% less strongly with tin and lead atoms, respectively. Thus, each different type of atom can be identified in the matrix as the tip is moved across the surface.
Probe
An AFM probe has a sharp tip on the free-swinging end of a cantilever that is protruding from a holder. The dimensions of the cantilever are in the scale of micrometers. The radius of the tip is usually on the scale of a few nanometers to a few tens of nanometers. (Specialized probes exist with much larger end radii, for example probes for indentation of soft materials.) The cantilever holder, also called holder chip – often 1.6 mm by 3.4 mm in size – allows the operator to hold the AFM cantilever/probe assembly with tweezers and fit it into the corresponding holder clips on the scanning head of the atomic force microscope.
This device is most commonly called an "AFM probe", but other names include "AFM tip" and "cantilever" (employing the name of a single part as the name of the whole device). An AFM probe is a particular type of SPM (scanning probe microscopy) probe.
AFM probes are manufactured with MEMS technology. Most AFM probes used are made from silicon (Si), but borosilicate glass and silicon nitride are also in use. AFM probes are considered consumables as they are often replaced when the tip apex becomes dull or contaminated or when the cantilever is broken. They can cost from a couple of tens of dollars up to hundreds of dollars per cantilever for the most specialized cantilever/probe combinations.
Just the tip is brought very close to the surface of the object under investigation, the cantilever is deflected by the interaction between the tip and the surface, which is what the AFM is designed to measure. A spatial map of the interaction can be made by measuring the deflection at many points on a 2D surface.
Several types of interaction can be detected. Depending on the interaction under investigation, the surface of the tip of the AFM probe needs to be modified with a coating. Among the coatings used are gold – for covalent bonding of biological molecules and the detection of their interaction with a surface, diamond for increased wear resistance and magnetic coatings for detecting the magnetic properties of the investigated surface. Another solution exists to achieve high resolution magnetic imaging : having the probe equip with a microSQUID. The AFM tips is fabricated using silicon micro machining and the precise positioning of the microSQUID loop is done by electron beam lithography. The additional attachment of a quantum dot to the tip apex of a conductive probe enables surface potential imaging with high lateral resolution, scanning quantum dot microscopy.
The surface of the cantilevers can also be modified. These coatings are mostly applied in order to increase the reflectance of the cantilever and to improve the deflection signal.
Forces vs tip geometry
The forces between the tip and the sample strongly depend on the geometry of the tip. Various studies were exploited in the past years to write the forces as a function of the tip parameters.
Among the different forces between the tip and the sample, the water meniscus forces are highly interesting, both in air and liquid environment. Other forces must be considered, like the Coulomb force, van der Waals forces, double layer interactions, solvation forces, hydration and hydrophobic forces.
Water meniscus
Water meniscus forces are highly interesting for AFM measurements in air. Due to the ambient humidity, a thin layer of water is formed between the tip and the sample during air measurements. The resulting capillary force gives rise to a strong attractive force that pulls the tip onto the surface. In fact, the adhesion force measured between tip and sample in ambient air of finite humidity is usually dominated by capillary forces. As a consequence, it is difficult to pull the tip away from the surface. For soft samples including many polymers and in particular biological materials, the strong adhesive capillary force gives rise to sample degradation and destruction upon imaging in contact mode. Historically, these problems were an important motivation for the development of dynamic imaging in air (e.g. 'tapping mode'). During tapping mode imaging in air, capillary bridges still form. Yet, for suitable imaging conditions, the capillary bridges are formed and broken in every oscillation cycle of the cantilever normal to the surface, as can be inferred from an analysis of cantilever amplitude and phase vs. distance curves. As a consequence, destructive shear forces are largely reduced and soft samples can be investigated.
In order to quantify the equilibrium capillary force, it is necessary to start from the Laplace equation for pressure:
where γL is the surface energy and r0 and r1 are defined in the figure.
The pressure is applied on an area of
where d, θ, and h are defined in the figure.
The force which pulles together the two surfaces is
The same formula could also be calculated as a function of relative humidity.
Gao calculated formulas for different tip geometries. As an example, the force decreases by 20% for a conical tip with respect to a spherical tip.
When these forces are calculated, a difference must be made between the wet on dry situation and the wet on wet situation.
For a spherical tip, the force is:
for dry on wet
for wet on wet
where θ is the contact angle of the dry sphere and φ is the immersed angle, as shown in the figure Also R,h and D are illustrated in the same figure.
For a conical tip, the formula becomes:
for dry on wet
for wet on wet
where δ is the half cone angle and r0 and h are parameters of the meniscus profile.
AFM cantilever-deflection measurement
Beam-deflection measurement
The most common method for cantilever-deflection measurements is the beam-deflection method. In this method, laser light from a solid-state diode is reflected off the back of the cantilever and collected by a position-sensitive detector (PSD) consisting of two closely spaced photodiodes, whose output signal is collected by a differential amplifier.
Angular displacement of the cantilever results in one photodiode collecting more light than the other photodiode, producing an output signal (the difference between the photodiode signals normalized by their sum), which is proportional to the deflection of the cantilever. The sensitivity of the beam-deflection method is very high, a noise floor on the order of 10 fm Hz− can be obtained routinely in a well-designed system. Although this method is sometimes called the 'optical lever' method, the signal is not amplified if the beam path is made longer. A longer beam path increases the motion of the reflected spot on the photodiodes, but also widens the spot by the same amount due to diffraction, so that the same amount of optical power is moved from one photodiode to the other. The 'optical leverage' (output signal of the detector divided by deflection of the cantilever) is inversely proportional to the numerical aperture of the beam focusing optics, as long as the focused laser spot is small enough to fall completely on the cantilever. It is also inversely proportional to the length of the cantilever.
The relative popularity of the beam-deflection method can be explained by its high sensitivity and simple operation, and by the fact that cantilevers do not require electrical contacts or other special treatments, and can therefore be fabricated relatively cheaply with sharp integrated tips.
Other deflection-measurement methods
Many other methods for beam-deflection measurements exist.
Piezoelectric detection – Cantilevers made from quartz (such as the qPlus configuration), or other piezoelectric materials can directly detect deflection as an electrical signal. Cantilever oscillations down to 10pm have been detected with this method.
Laser Doppler vibrometry – A laser Doppler vibrometer can be used to produce very accurate deflection measurements for an oscillating cantilever (thus is only used in non-contact mode). This method is expensive and is only used by relatively few groups.
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) — The first atomic microscope used an STM complete with its own feedback mechanism to measure deflection. This method is very difficult to implement, and is slow to react to deflection changes compared to modern methods.
Optical interferometry – Optical interferometry can be used to measure cantilever deflection. Due to the nanometre scale deflections measured in AFM, the interferometer is running in the sub-fringe regime, thus, any drift in laser power or wavelength has strong effects on the measurement. For these reasons optical interferometer measurements must be done with great care (for example using index matching fluids between optical fibre junctions), with very stable lasers. For these reasons optical interferometry is rarely used.
Capacitive detection – Metal coated cantilevers can form a capacitor with another contact located behind the cantilever. Deflection changes the distance between the contacts and can be measured as a change in capacitance.
Piezoresistive detection – Cantilevers can be fabricated with piezoresistive elements that act as a strain gauge. Using a Wheatstone bridge, strain in the AFM cantilever due to deflection can be measured. This is not commonly used in vacuum applications, as the piezoresistive detection dissipates energy from the system affecting Q of the resonance.
Piezoelectric scanners
AFM scanners are made from piezoelectric material, which expands and contracts proportionally to an applied voltage. Whether they elongate or contract depends upon the polarity of the voltage applied. Traditionally the tip or sample is mounted on a 'tripod' of three piezo crystals, with each responsible for scanning in the x,y and z directions. In 1986, the same year as the AFM was invented, a new piezoelectric scanner, the tube scanner, was developed for use in STM. Later tube scanners were incorporated into AFMs. The tube scanner can move the sample in the x, y, and z directions using a single tube piezo with a single interior contact and four external contacts. An advantage of the tube scanner compared to the original tripod design, is better vibrational isolation, resulting from the higher resonant frequency of the single element construction, in combination with a low resonant frequency isolation stage. A disadvantage is that the x-y motion can cause unwanted z motion resulting in distortion. Another popular design for AFM scanners is the flexure stage, which uses separate piezos for each axis, and couples them through a flexure mechanism.
Scanners are characterized by their sensitivity, which is the ratio of piezo movement to piezo voltage, i.e., by how much the piezo material extends or contracts per applied volt. Because of differences in material or size, the sensitivity varies from scanner to scanner. Sensitivity varies non-linearly with respect to scan size. Piezo scanners exhibit more sensitivity at the end than at the beginning of a scan. This causes the forward and reverse scans to behave differently and display hysteresis between the two scan directions. This can be corrected by applying a non-linear voltage to the piezo electrodes to cause linear scanner movement and calibrating the scanner accordingly. One disadvantage of this approach is that it requires re-calibration because the precise non-linear voltage needed to correct non-linear movement will change as the piezo ages (see below). This problem can be circumvented by adding a linear sensor to the sample stage or piezo stage to detect the true movement of the piezo. Deviations from ideal movement can be detected by the sensor and corrections applied to the piezo drive signal to correct for non-linear piezo movement. This design is known as a 'closed loop' AFM. Non-sensored piezo AFMs are referred to as 'open loop' AFMs.
The sensitivity of piezoelectric materials decreases exponentially with time. This causes most of the change in sensitivity to occur in the initial stages of the scanner's life. Piezoelectric scanners are run for approximately 48 hours before they are shipped from the factory so that they are past the point where they may have large changes in sensitivity. As the scanner ages, the sensitivity will change less with time and the scanner would seldom require recalibration, though various manufacturer manuals recommend monthly to semi-monthly calibration of open loop AFMs.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
AFM has several advantages over the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Unlike the electron microscope, which provides a two-dimensional projection or a two-dimensional image of a sample, the AFM provides a three-dimensional surface profile. In addition, samples viewed by AFM do not require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings) that would irreversibly change or damage the sample, and does not typically suffer from charging artifacts in the final image. While an electron microscope needs an expensive vacuum environment for proper operation, most AFM modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment. This makes it possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms. In principle, AFM can provide higher resolution than SEM. It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and, more recently, in liquid environments. High resolution AFM is comparable in resolution to scanning tunneling microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. AFM can also be combined with a variety of optical microscopy and spectroscopy techniques such as fluorescent microscopy of infrared spectroscopy, giving rise to scanning near-field optical microscopy, nano-FTIR and further expanding its applicability. Combined AFM-optical instruments have been applied primarily in the biological sciences but have recently attracted strong interest in photovoltaics and energy-storage research, polymer sciences, nanotechnology and even medical research.
Disadvantages
A disadvantage of AFM compared with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) is the single scan image size. In one pass, the SEM can image an area on the order of square millimeters with a depth of field on the order of millimeters, whereas the AFM can only image a maximum scanning area of about 150×150 micrometers and a maximum height on the order of 10–20 micrometers. One method of improving the scanned area size for AFM is by using parallel probes in a fashion similar to that of millipede data storage.
The scanning speed of an AFM is also a limitation. Traditionally, an AFM cannot scan images as fast as an SEM, requiring several minutes for a typical scan, while an SEM is capable of scanning at near real-time, although at relatively low quality. The relatively slow rate of scanning during AFM imaging often leads to thermal drift in the image making the AFM less suited for measuring accurate distances between topographical features on the image. However, several fast-acting designs were suggested to increase microscope scanning productivity including what is being termed videoAFM (reasonable quality images are being obtained with videoAFM at video rate: faster than the average SEM). To eliminate image distortions induced by thermal drift, several methods have been introduced.
AFM images can also be affected by nonlinearity, hysteresis, and creep of the piezoelectric material and cross-talk between the x, y, z axes that may require software enhancement and filtering. Such filtering could "flatten" out real topographical features. However, newer AFMs utilize real-time correction software (for example, feature-oriented scanning) or closed-loop scanners, which practically eliminate these problems. Some AFMs also use separated orthogonal scanners (as opposed to a single tube), which also serve to eliminate part of the cross-talk problems.
As with any other imaging technique, there is the possibility of image artifacts, which could be induced by an unsuitable tip, a poor operating environment, or even by the sample itself, as depicted on the right. These image artifacts are unavoidable; however, their occurrence and effect on results can be reduced through various methods.
Artifacts resulting from a too-coarse tip can be caused for example by inappropriate handling or de facto collisions with the sample by either scanning too fast or having an unreasonably rough surface, causing actual wearing of the tip.
Due to the nature of AFM probes, they cannot normally measure steep walls or overhangs. Specially made cantilevers and AFMs can be used to modulate the probe sideways as well as up and down (as with dynamic contact and non-contact modes) to measure sidewalls, at the cost of more expensive cantilevers, lower lateral resolution and additional artifacts.
Other applications in various fields of study
The latest efforts in integrating nanotechnology and biological research have been successful and show much promise for the future, including in fields such as nanobiomechanics. Since nanoparticles are a potential vehicle of drug delivery, the biological responses of cells to these nanoparticles are continuously being explored to optimize their efficacy and how their design could be improved. Pyrgiotakis et al. were able to study the interaction between CeO2 and Fe2O3 engineered nanoparticles and cells by attaching the engineered nanoparticles to the AFM tip. Studies have taken advantage of AFM to obtain further information on the behavior of live cells in biological media. Real-time atomic force spectroscopy (or nanoscopy) and dynamic atomic force spectroscopy have been used to study live cells and membrane proteins and their dynamic behavior at high resolution, on the nanoscale. Imaging and obtaining information on the topography and the properties of the cells has also given insight into chemical processes and mechanisms that occur through cell-cell interaction and interactions with other signaling molecules (ex. ligands). Evans and Calderwood used single cell force microscopy to study cell adhesion forces, bond kinetics/dynamic bond strength and its role in chemical processes such as cell signaling.
Scheuring, Lévy, and Rigaud reviewed studies in which AFM to explore the crystal structure of membrane proteins of photosynthetic bacteria.
Alsteen et al. have used AFM-based nanoscopy to perform a real-time analysis of the interaction between live mycobacteria and antimycobacterial drugs (specifically isoniazid, ethionamide, ethambutol, and streptomycine), which serves as an example of the more in-depth analysis of pathogen-drug interactions that can be done through AFM.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
The Inner Workings of an AFM - An Animated Explanation WeCanFigureThisOut.org
American inventions
Swiss inventions
Scanning probe microscopy
Semiconductor analysis
Intermolecular forces
Scientific techniques | [
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227983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis%20Cup | Davis Cup | The Davis Cup is the premier international team event in men's tennis. It is run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and is contested annually between teams from competing countries in a knock-out format. It is described by the organisers as the "World Cup of Tennis", and the winners are referred to as the World Champion team. The competition began in 1900 as a challenge between Great Britain and the United States. By 2016, 135 nations entered teams into the competition.
The most successful countries over the history of the tournament are the United States (winning 32 titles and finishing as runners-up 29 times) and Australia (winning 28 titles, including four with New Zealand as Australasia, and finishing as runners-up 19 times). The current champions are Russia, who beat Croatia to win their third title in 2021.
The women's equivalent of the Davis Cup is the Billie Jean King Cup, formerly known as the Fed Cup. Australia, Russia, the Czech Republic, and the United States are the only countries to have won both Davis Cup and Fed Cup titles in the same year.
The Davis Cup allowed only amateurs and national registered professional players (from 1968) to compete until 1973, five years after the start of the Open Era.
History
The idea for a tournament pitting the best British and Americans in competition against one another was probably first conceived by James Dwight, the first president of the U.S. National Lawn Tennis Association when it formed in 1881. Desperate to assess the development of American players against the renowned British champions, he worked tirelessly to engage British officials in a properly sanctioned match, but failed to do so. He nevertheless tried to entice top international (particularly British) talent to the U.S. and sanctioned semi-official tours of the top American players to Great Britain. Diplomatic relations between Great Britain and the United States on the tennis front had strengthened such that, by the mid 1890s, reciprocal tours were staged annually between players of the two nations, and an ensuing friendship between American William Larned and Irishman Harold Mahony spurred efforts to formalize an official team competition between the two nations.
International competitions had been staged for some time before the first Davis Cup match in 1900. From 1892, England and Ireland had been competing in an annual national-team-based competition, similar to what would become the standard Davis Cup format, mixing single and doubles matches, and in 1895 England played against France in a national team competition. During Larned's tour of the British Isles in 1896, where he competed in several tournaments including the Wimbledon Championships, he was also a spectator for the annual England vs. Ireland match.
He returned to exclaim that Britain had agreed to send a group of three to the U.S. the following summer, which would represent the first British lawn tennis "team" to compete in the U.S. Coincidentally, some weeks before Larned left for his British tour, the idea for an international competition was discussed also between leading figures in American lawn tennis—one of whom was tennis journalist E.P. Fischer—at a tournament in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario.
Dwight F. Davis was in attendance at this tournament, and was thought to have got wind of the idea as it was discussed in the tournament's popular magazine, and Davis's name was mentioned as someone who might 'do something for the game ... put up some big prize, or cup'. Larned and Fischer met on several occasions that summer and discussed the idea of an international match to be held in Chicago the following summer, pitting six of the best British players against six of the best Americans, in a mixture of singles and doubles matches. This was discussed openly in two articles in the Chicago Tribune, but did not come to fruition.
Nevertheless, the following summer, Great Britain—though not under the official auspices of the Lawn Tennis Association—sent three of its best players to compete in several US tournaments. Their relative poor performances convinced Dwight and other leading officials and figures in American lawn tennis that the time was right for a properly sanctioned international competition. This was to be staged in Newcastle in July 1898, but the event never took place as the Americans could not field a sufficiently strong team. A reciprocal tour to the U.S. in 1899 amounted to just a single British player travelling overseas, as many of the players were involved in overseas armed conflicts.
It was at this juncture, in the summer of 1899, that four members of the Harvard University tennis team—Dwight Davis included—travelled across the States to challenge the best west-coast talent, and upon his return, it apparently occurred to Davis that if teams representing regions could arouse such great feelings, then why wouldn't a tennis event that pitted national teams in competition be just as successful. He approached James Dwight with the idea, which was tentatively agreed, and he ordered an appropriate sterling silver punchbowl trophy from Shreve, Crump & Low, purchasing it from his own funds for about $1,000. They in turn commissioned a classically styled design from William B. Durgin's of Concord, New Hampshire, crafted by the Englishman Rowland Rhodes.
Beyond donating a trophy for the competition, Davis's involvement in the incipient development of the tournament that came to bear his name was negligible, yet a persistent myth has emerged that Davis devised both the idea for an international tennis competition and its format of mixing singles and doubles matches. Research has shown this to be a myth, similar in its exaggeration of a single individual's efforts within a highly complex long-term development to the myths of William Webb Ellis and Abner Doubleday, who have both been wrongly credited with inventing rugby and baseball, respectively. Davis nevertheless went on to become a prominent politician in the United States in the 1920s, serving as US Secretary of War from 1925 to 1929 and as Governor-General of the Philippines from 1929 to 1932.
The first match, between the United States and Britain (competing as the "British Isles"), was held at the Longwood Cricket Club in Boston, Massachusetts in 1900. The American team, of which Dwight Davis was captain, surprised the British by winning the first three matches. The following year the two countries did not compete, but the US won the match in 1902 and Britain won the following four matches. By 1905 the tournament expanded to include Belgium, Austria, France, and Australasia, a combined team from Australia and New Zealand that competed together until 1914.
The tournament was initially titled the International Lawn Tennis Challenge although it soon became known as the Davis Cup, after Dwight Davis' trophy. The Davis Cup competition was initially played as a challenge cup. All teams competed against one another for the right to face the previous year's champion in the final round.
Beginning in 1923, the world's teams were split into two zones: the "America Zone" and the "Europe Zone". The winners of the two zones met in the Inter-Zonal Zone ("INZ") to decide which national team would challenge the defending champion for the cup. In 1955 a third zone, the "Eastern Zone", was added. Because there were three zones, the winner of one of the three zones received a bye in the first round of the INZ challenger rounds. In 1966, the "Europe Zone" was split into two zones, "Europe Zone A" and "Europe Zone B", so the winners of the four zones competed in the INZ challenger rounds.
From 1950 to 1967, Australia dominated the competition, winning the Cup 15 times in 18 years.
Beginning in 1972, the format was changed to a knockout tournament, so that the defending champion was required to compete in all rounds, and the Davis Cup was awarded to the tournament champion.
Up until 1973, the Davis Cup had only ever been won by the United States, Great Britain/British Isles, France and Australia/Australasia. Their domination was eventually broken in 1974 when South Africa and India made the final; however, the final was scratched and South Africa awarded the cup after India refused to travel to South Africa in protest of South Africa's apartheid policies. The following year saw the first actual final between two "outsider" nations, when Sweden beat Czechoslovakia 3–2, and since then, many other countries have gone on to capture the trophy.
All contract professionals were not allowed to play in the Davis Cup until 1973. The tennis stars who turned professional prior to the Open Era (pre-1968) were not allowed to compete in the Davis Cup despite the fact that the Grand Slam tournaments and most tennis tournaments became Open Era events in 1968. From 1968 national registered professionals were allowed to compete under the control of their national tennis associations. In 1973 Australian players like Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall were allowed to play in the Davis Cup for the first time since 1962 (for Laver) and since 1956 (for Rosewall).
In 1981, a tiered system of competition was created, in which the 16 best national teams compete in the World Group and all other national teams compete in one of four groups in one of three regional zones. In 1989, the tiebreak was introduced into Davis Cup competition, and from 2016 it is used in all five sets.
In 2018, the ITF voted to change the format of the competition from 2019 onwards, changing it to an 18-team event to happen at the end of the season, with 71% of ITF member federations voting in favour of the change. The new format, backed by footballer Gerard Piqué and Japanese businessman Hiroshi Mikitani, was likened to a world cup of tennis and was designed to be more attractive to sponsors and broadcasters. Opposing federations included those from Australia, Germany, and Great Britain. Support for the reform was also mixed among current and former players, with some such as Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal being in favour of the new format, but others such as Rod Laver, Lucas Pouille and Roger Federer being opposed.
Davis Cup games have been affected by political protests several times, especially in Sweden:
The match between Sweden and Rhodesia 1968 was supposed to be played in Båstad but was moved to Bandol, France, due to protests against the Rhodesian white minority government of Ian Smith.
The Swedish government tried to stop the match between Chile and Sweden in 1975 in Båstad, due to violations of human rights in Chile. The match was played, even while 7,000 people protested against it outside.
After the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, 6,000 people protested against Israel outside the Malmö city Davis Cup match between Sweden and Israel in March 2009. The Malmö Municipality politicians were concerned about extremists, and decided due to security reasons to only let a small audience in.
Format
Tournament
The 18 best national teams are assigned to the World Group and compete annually for the Davis Cup. Nations which are not in the World Group compete in one of three regional zones (Americas, Asia/Oceania, and Europe/Africa). The competition is spread over four weekends during the year. Each elimination round between competing nations is held in one of the countries, and is played as the best of five matches (4 singles, 1 doubles). The ITF determines the host countries for all possible matchups before each year's tournament.
The World Group is the top group and includes the world's best 18 national teams. Teams in the World Group play a four-round elimination tournament. Teams are seeded based on a ranking system released by the ITF, taking into account previous years' results. The defending champion and runner-up are always the top two seeds in the tournament. The losers of the first-round matches are sent to the World Group playoff round, where they play along with winners from Group I of the regional zones. The playoff round winners play in the World Group for the next year's tournament, while the losers play in Group I of their respective regional zone.
Each of the three regional zones is divided into four groups. Groups I and II play elimination rounds, with the losing teams facing relegation to the next-lower group. The teams in Groups III and those in Group IV play a round-robin tournament with promotion and relegation.
2019 modifications
For the 2019 edition, the format of the cup is changed. The main modification is the World Group taking place at one location and in one week, with eighteen teams divided in six round-robin groups of three teams each, with the winners of the groups and the two best second places advancing to quarterfinals. The series between the teams in this stage will feature two singles matches and one doubles match, instead of the best-of-5 series, with the matches changing from best of 5 sets to best of 3. As the World Group will now take place as one single tournament, this event has been named as the Davis Cup Finals. The lower zone groups I and II will be composed of single ties deciding promotion or relegation.
Structure
Note: The total number of nations in Group One is 24. However, the distribution among the three zones may vary each year, according to the number of nations promoted or relegated between Group One and the World Group. The number of nations in the World Group and Group One together is 22 from Euro/Africa Zone, 9 from Americas Zone and 9 from Asia/Oceania Zone.
Ties and rubbers
As in other cup competitions tie is used in the Davis Cup to mean an elimination round. In the Davis Cup, the word rubber means an individual match.
In the annual World Group competition, 16 nations compete in eight first-round ties; the eight winners compete in four quarterfinal ties; the four winners compete in two semifinal ties; and the two winners compete in the final tie.
Each tie consists of five rubbers, which are played in three days (usually on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday). The winner of the tie is the nation which wins three or more of the five rubbers in the tie. On the first day, the first two rubbers are singles, which are generally played by each nation's two best available singles players. On the second day, the doubles rubber is played. On the third day, the final two rubbers are typically reverse singles, in which the first-day contestants usually play again, but they swap opponents from the first day's singles rubbers. However, in certain circumstances, the team captain may replace one or two of the players who played the singles on Friday by other players who were nominated for the tie. For example, if the tie has already been decided in favour of one of the teams, it is common for younger or lower-ranked team members to play the remaining dead rubbers in order for them to gain Davis Cup experience.
Since 2011, if a nation has a winning 3–1 lead after the first reverse single match and that match has gone to four sets or more, then the remaining reverse single match which is a dead rubber is not played. All five rubbers are played if one nation has a winning 3–0 lead after the doubles match.
Ties are played at a venue chosen by one of the competing countries. The right of choice is given on an alternating basis. Therefore, countries play in the country where the last tie between the teams was not held. In case the two countries have not met since 1970, lots are drawn to determine the host country.
Venues in the World Group must comply with certain minimum standards, including a minimum seating capacity as follows:
World Group play-offs: 4,000
World Group first round: 4,000
World Group quarterfinals: 6,000
World Group semifinals: 8,000
World Group final: 12,000
Captain
Prior to each tie, the captain (non-playing coach appointed by the national association) nominates a squad of four players and decides who will compete in the tie. On the day before play starts, the order of play for the first day is drawn at random. In the past, teams could substitute final day singles players only in case of injury or illness, verified by a doctor, but current rules permit the captain to designate any player to play the last two singles rubbers, provided that no first day matchup is repeated. There is no restriction on which of the playing team members may play the doubles rubber: the two singles players, two other players (usually doubles specialists) or a combination.
Each rubber is normally played as best of five sets. Since 2016, all sets use a tiebreak at 6–6 if necessary (formerly, the fifth set usually had no tiebreaker, so play continued until one side won by two games e.g. 10–8). However, if a team has clinched the tie before all five rubbers have been completed, the remaining rubbers may be shortened to best of three sets, with a tiebreak if necessary to decide all three sets.
In Group III and Group IV competitions, each tie consists only of three rubbers, which include two singles and one doubles rubber, which is played in a single day. The rubbers are in the best of three sets format, with a tie breaker if necessary to decide all three sets.
Records and statistics
Performance by team
Titles by country (since 1972)
Consecutive titles
All-time: 7, United States, 1920–1926
Post-Challenge Round: 2; United States, 1978–79, 1981–82; Sweden, 1984–85, 1997–98; West Germany, 1988–89; Spain, 2008–09; Czech Republic, 2012–13
Consecutive finals appearances
All-time: 23, Australia, 1946–1968
Post-Challenge Round: 7, Sweden, 1983–1989
Most games in a tie
All-time: 327, India 3–2 Australia, 1974 Eastern Zone final
World Group (before tiebreak): 281, Paraguay 3–2 France, 1985 first round
World Group (since tiebreak): 281, Romania 3–2 Ecuador, 2003 World Group play-offs
Years in World Group
USA 37
Czech Republic 36
France 36
Germany 35
Spain 32
Australia 31
Sweden 31
Italy 27
Switzerland 27
Russia 26
Argentina 25
Belgium 20
Netherlands 19
Austria 17
Great Britain 17
Croatia 16
Romania 14
Brazil 13
India 13
Serbia 11
Canada 10
Israel 10
Mexico 10
Chile 9
Denmark 9
Japan 8
New Zealand 8
Kazakhstan 7
Paraguay 7
Slovakia 7
Ecuador 5
Belarus 4
South Africa 4
Hungary 3
Morocco 3
South Korea 3
Zimbabwe 3
Indonesia 2
Cuba 1
Ireland 1
Peru 1
Poland 1
Most wins in World Group
World Group
(1981–2018)
Finals
Individual
Most titles as a player;
Roy Emerson; Australia; 8 titles (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967)
Most titles as captain;
Harry Hopman; Australia; 16 titles (1939, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967)
Youngest player
Marco De Rossi; San Marino; 13 years, 319 days (12 May 2011)
Oldest player
Vittorio Pellandra; San Marino; 66 years, 104 days (11 May 2007)
Most years played
30, Leander Paes, India (1990–2010, 2012–2020)
Most ties played
93, Domenico Vicini, San Marino (1993–2015)
Most rubbers played
164, Nicola Pietrangeli, Italy (1954–1972)
Most rubbers won
Total: 120, Nicola Pietrangeli, Italy
Singles: 78, Nicola Pietrangeli, Italy
Doubles: 45, Leander Paes, India
Current ITF Davis Cup ranking
For more information, see ITF Rankings
†
ATP points distribution (from 2009 to 2015)
Broadcasters
See also
List of Davis Cup champions
Billie Jean King Cup
ATP Cup
Hopman Cup
Davis Cup Tennis, a video game based on the event
History of tennis
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Davis Cup live streaming website
Davis Cup 2019 TV Channels Rights
World cups
Men's tennis tournaments
Recurring sporting events established in 1900
World championships in racquet sports
Annual sporting events
International men's tennis team competitions | [
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227985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems%20thinking | Systems thinking | Systems thinking is a way of making sense of the complexity of the world by looking at it in terms of wholes and relationships rather than by splitting it down into its parts. It has been used as a way of exploring and developing effective action in complex contexts. Systems thinking draws on and contributes to systems theory and the system sciences.
History
Frameworks and methodologies
Frameworks and methodologies for systems thinking include:
Critical systems heuristics
Critical systems thinking
Soft systems methodology
Systemic design
System dynamics
Viable system model
See also
Management cybernetics
Operational research
References
Systems science
Cybernetics
Systems theory | [
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227989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform | Inform | Inform is a programming language and design system for interactive fiction originally created in 1993 by Graham Nelson. Inform can generate programs designed for the Z-code or Glulx virtual machines. Versions 1 through 5 were released between 1993 and 1996. Around 1996, Nelson rewrote Inform from first principles to create version 6 (or Inform 6).
Over the following decade, version 6 became reasonably stable and a popular language for writing interactive fiction. In 2006, Nelson released Inform 7 (briefly known as Natural Inform), a completely new language based on principles of natural language and a new set of tools based around a book-publishing metaphor.
Z-Machine and Glulx
The Inform compilers translate Inform code to story files for Glulx or Z-code, two virtual machines designed specifically for interactive fiction. Glulx, which can support larger games, is the default.
The Z-machine was originally developed by Infocom in 1979 for their interactive fiction titles. Because there is at least one such interpreter for nearly every major and minor platform, this means that the same Z-code file can be run on a multitude of platforms with no alterations. Originally Inform targeted the Z-machine only.
Andrew Plotkin created an unofficial version of Inform 6 that was also capable of generating files for Glulx, a virtual machine he had designed to overcome many of the limitations of the several-decades-old Z-machine. Starting with Inform 6.3, released February 29, 2004, Inform 6 has included official support for both virtual machines, based on Andrew Plotkin's work. Early release of Inform 7 did not support Glulx, but in August 2006 Glulx support was released.
Inform 6
Inform was originally created by Graham Nelson in 1993. In 1996 Nelson rewrote Inform from first principles to create version 6 (or Inform 6). Over the following decade, version 6 became reasonably stable and a popular language for writing interactive fiction.
The Inform 6 system consists of two major components: the Inform compiler, which generates story files from Inform source code, and the Inform library, a suite of software which handles most of the difficult work of parsing the player's text input and keeping track of the world model. The name Inform also refers to the Inform programming language that the compiler understands.
Although Inform 6 and the Z-Machine were originally designed with interactive fiction in mind, many other programs have been developed, including a BASIC interpreter, a LISP tutorial (complete with interpreter), a Tetris game, and a version of the game Snake.
The Inform 6 compiler
The Inform compiler generates files for the Z-machine or Glulx (also called story files) from Inform 6 source code.
The Inform 6 programming language
The Inform programming language is object-oriented and procedural. A key element of the language is objects. Objects are maintained in an object tree which lists the parent–child relationships between objects. Since the parent–child relationship is often used to represent location, an object which is the parent of another object is often said to "hold" it. Objects can be moved throughout the tree. Typically, top level objects represent rooms and other locations within the game, which may hold objects representing the room's contents, be they physical items, non-player characters, the player's character, or background effects. All objects can hold other objects, so a livingroom object might hold an insurancesaleman object which is holding a briefcase object which contains the insurancepaperwork object.
In early versions of Inform, objects were different from the notion of objects from object-oriented programming, in that there was no such thing as a class. Later versions added support for class definitions and allowed objects to be members of classes. Objects and classes can inherit from multiple classes. Interactive fiction games typically contain many unique objects. Because of this, many objects in Inform do not inherit from any class, other than the "metaclass" Object. However, objects very frequently have attributes (boolean properties, such as scenery or edible) that are recognized by the Inform library. In other languages this would normally be implemented via inheritance.
Here is a simple example of Inform 6 source code.
[ Main;
print "Hello, World!^";
];
Inform 6 library
The Inform system also contains the Inform library, which automates nearly all the most difficult work involved in programming interactive fiction; specifically, it includes a text parser that makes sense of the player's input, and a world model that keeps track of such things as objects (and their properties), rooms, doors, the player's inventory, etc.
The Inform compiler does not require the use of the Inform library. There are several replacement libraries available, such as Platypus and InformATE, a library that codes Inform in Spanish.
Example game
Here is an example of Inform 6 source code that makes use of the Inform library. The Inform 6 code sample below is usable in Inform 7, but not without special demarcation indicating that it is embedded legacy code.
Constant Story "Hello Deductible";
Constant Headline "^An Interactive Example^";
Include "Parser";
Include "VerbLib";
[ Initialise;
location = Living_Room;
"Hello World";
];
Object Kitchen "Kitchen";
Object Front_Door "Front Door";
Object Living_Room "Living Room"
with
description "A comfortably furnished living room.",
n_to Kitchen,
s_to Front_Door,
has light;
Object -> Salesman "insurance salesman"
with
name 'insurance' 'salesman' 'man',
description "An insurance salesman in a tacky polyester
suit. He seems eager to speak to you.",
before [;
Listen:
move Insurance_Paperwork to player;
"The salesman bores you with a discussion
of life insurance policies. From his
briefcase he pulls some paperwork which he
hands to you.";
],
has animate;
Object -> -> Briefcase "briefcase"
with
name 'briefcase' 'case',
description "A slightly worn, black briefcase.",
has container;
Object -> -> -> Insurance_Paperwork "insurance paperwork"
with
name 'paperwork' 'papers' 'insurance' 'documents' 'forms',
description "Page after page of small legalese.";
Include "Grammar";
Notable games developed in Inform 6 or earlier versions
Curses, by Graham Nelson (1993), the first game ever written in the Inform programming language. Considered one of the first "modern" games to meet the high standards set by Infocom's best titles.
Zork: The Undiscovered Underground (1997), written by Marc Blank & Michael Berlyn, programmed by Gerry Kevin Wilson. Given away free by Activision to promote the release of Zork: Grand Inquisitor.
Anchorhead, by Michael S. Gentry (1998) is a highly rated horror story inspired by H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos.
Photopia, by Adam Cadre (1998), the first almost entirely puzzle-free game. Won the annual Interactive Fiction Competition in 1998.
Varicella by Adam Cadre (1999). It won four XYZZY Awards in 1999 including the XYZZY Award for Best Game, and had a scholarly essay written about it.
Galatea, by Emily Short (2000). Galatea is focused entirely on interaction with the animated statue of the same name. Galatea has one of the most complex interaction systems for a non-player character in an interactive fiction game. Adam Cadre called Galatea "the best NPC ever".
Slouching Towards Bedlam, by Star C. Foster and Daniel Ravipinto (2003). Set in a steampunk setting, the game integrates meta-game functionality (saving, restoring, restarting) into the game world itself. The game won two XYZZY Awards and received the highest average score of any game in the Interactive Fiction Competition as of 2006.
Inform 7
On April 30, 2006, Graham Nelson announced the beta release of Inform 7 to the rec.arts.int-fiction newsgroup.
Inform 7 consists of three primary parts: The Inform 7 IDE with development tools specialized for testing interactive fiction, the Inform 7 compiler for the new language, and "The Standard Rules" which form the core library for Inform 7. Inform 7 also relies on the Inform library and Inform compiler from Inform 6. The compiler compiles the Inform 7 source code into Inform 6 source code, which is then compiled separately by Inform 6 to generate a Glulx or Z-code story file. Inform 7 also defaults to writing Blorb files, archives which include the Z-code together with optional "cover art" and metadata intended for indexing purposes. The full set of Inform 7 tools are currently available for Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows and Linux. The March 25, 2007 release added command line support for Linux, and new releases now include an IDE using the GNOME desktop environment under the GNOME Inform 7 SourceForge project.
The language and tools remain under development;
the March 25, 2007 release included a number of changes to the language. In 2019, Graham Nelson announced the eventual open sourcing of Inform 7.
Inform 7 was named Natural Inform for a brief period of time, but was later renamed Inform 7. This old name is why the Inform 7 compiler is named "NI."
Inform 7 IDE
Inform 7 comes with an integrated development environment (IDE) for Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows and Linux. The Mac OS X IDE was developed by Andrew Hunter. The Microsoft Windows IDE was developed by David Kinder. The Linux IDE (known as GNOME Inform) was developed by Philip Chimento.
The Inform 7 IDE includes a text editor for editing Inform 7 source code. Like many other programming editors it features syntax highlighting. It marks quoted strings in one color. Headings of organizational sections (Volumes, Books, Chapters, Parts, and Sections) are bolded and made larger. Comments are set in a different color and made slightly smaller.
The IDE includes a built-in Z-code interpreter. The Mac OS X IDE's interpreter is based on the Zoom interpreter by Andrew Hunter, with contributions from Jesse McGrew. The Microsoft Windows IDE's interpreter is based on WinFrotz.
As a developer tests the game in the built-in interpreter, progress is tracked in the "skein" and "transcript" views of the IDE. The skein tracks player commands as a tree of branching possibilities. Any branch of the tree can be quickly re-followed, making it possible to retry different paths in a game under development without replaying the same portions of the game. Paths can also be annotated with notes and marked as solutions, which can be exported as text walkthroughs. The transcript, on the other hand, tracks both player commands and the game's responses. Correct responses from the game can be marked as "blessed." On replaying a transcript or a branch of the skein, variations from the blessed version will be highlighted, which can help the developer find errors.
The IDE also provides various indices into the program under development. The code is shown as a class hierarchy, a traditional IF map, a book-like table of contents, and in other forms. Clicking items in the index jumps to the relevant source code.
The IDE presents two side-by-side panes for working in. Each pane can contain the source code being worked on, the current status of compilation, the skein, the transcript, the indices of the source code, a running version of the game, documentation for Inform 7 or any installed extensions to it, or settings. The concept is to imitate an author's manuscript book by presenting two "facing pages" instead of a multitude of separate windows.
Inform 7 programming language
Notable features include strong bias towards declarative rule-based style of programming and ability to infer types and properties of objects from the way they are used. For example, the statement "John wears a hat." creates a "person" called "John" (since only people are capable of wearing things), creates a "thing" with the "wearable" property (since only objects marked "wearable" are capable of being worn), and sets John as wearing the hat.
Another notable aspect of the language is direct support for relations which track associations between objects. This includes automatically provided relations, like one object containing another or an object being worn, but the developer can add his/her own relations. A developer might add relations indicating love or hatred between beings, or to track which characters in a game have met each other.
Inform 7 is a highly domain-specific programming language, providing the writer/programmer with a much higher level of abstraction than Inform 6, and highly readable resulting source code.
Example game
Statements in Inform 7 take the form of complete sentences. Blank lines and indentation are in some places structurally significant. The basic form of an Inform 7 program is as follows:
"Hello, World!" by "I.F. Author"
The world is a room.
When play begins, say "Hello, World!"
The following is a reimplementation of the above "Hello Deductible" example written in Inform 7. It relies on the library known as "The Standard Rules" which are automatically included in all Inform 7 compilations.
"Hello Deductible" by "I.F. Author"
The story headline is "An Interactive Example".
The Living Room is a room. "A comfortably furnished living room."
The Kitchen is north of the Living Room.
The Front Door is south of the Living Room.
The Front Door is a door. The Front Door is closed and locked.
The insurance salesman is a man in the Living Room. The description is "An insurance salesman in a tacky polyester suit. He seems eager to speak to you." Understand "man" as the insurance salesman.
A briefcase is carried by the insurance salesman. The description is "A slightly worn, black briefcase." Understand "case" as the briefcase.
The insurance paperwork is in the briefcase. The description is "Page after page of small legalese." Understand "papers" or "documents" or "forms" as the paperwork.
Instead of listening to the insurance salesman:
say "The salesman bores you with a discussion of life insurance policies. From his briefcase he pulls some paperwork which he hands to you.";
move the insurance paperwork to the player.
Notable games written in Inform 7
Mystery House Possessed (2005), by Emily Short, was the first Inform 7 game released to be public. It was released as part of the "Mystery House Taken Over" project.
On March 1, 2006, Short announced the release of three further games:
Bronze (an example of a traditional puzzle-intensive game) and Damnatio Memoriae (a follow-up to her award-winning Inform 6 game Savoir-Faire) were joined by Graham Nelson's The Reliques of Tolti-Aph (2006). When the Inform 7 public beta was announced on April 30, 2006, six "worked examples" of medium to large scale works were made available along with their source code, including the three games previously released on March 1.
Emily Short's Floatpoint was the first Inform 7 game to take first place in the Interactive Fiction Competition.
It also won 2006 XYZZY Awards for Best Setting and Best NPCs. Rendition, by nespresso (2007), is a political art experiment in the form of a text adventure game. Its approach to tragedy has been discussed academically by both the Association for Computing Machinery and Cambridge University.
See also
Inform version history
lists software similar to Inform
TADS The Text Adventure Development System (TADS), another leading IF development system
Further reading
Inform 6
The official manual of Inform is Graham Nelson's Inform Designer's Manual: it is a tutorial, a manual, and a technical document rolled into one. It is available online for free at Inform's official website, and two printed editions are available: a softcover () and a hardcover ().
The Inform Beginner's Guide by Roger Firth and Sonja Kesserich () attempts to provide a more gentle introduction to Inform. It is available for free at Inform's official website.
Inform 7
The SPAG Interview - An interview with designers Graham Nelson and Emily Short about the development of Inform 7. This interview was made shortly before its release and published on the same day as the initial release.
"Natural Language, Semantic Analysis and Interactive Fiction" - A paper on the design of Inform 7 by designer Graham Nelson.
References
External links
Cloak of Darkness: Inform presents the same, short game implemented in both Inform 6 and Inform 7, as well as other languages for comparison.
Inform 6 - Official web site
Inform 6 FAQ at Roger Firth's IF Pages provides details on programming in Inform 6.
Inform 7 - Official web site.
The Interactive Fiction Archive provides many Inform tools, examples, and library files.
Playfic is a web-based interface for creating and sharing new games using Inform 7.
Guncho is a multiplayer interactive fiction system based on Inform 7 with a combination of MUD-like and web-based interfaces.
1993 software
Interactive fiction
Freeware
Domain-specific programming languages
History of computing in the United Kingdom
Video game development software
Text adventure game engines
Programming languages created in 1993 | [
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227991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TADS | TADS | Text Adventure Development System (TADS) is a prototype-based domain-specific programming language and set of standard libraries for creating interactive fiction (IF) games.
History
The original TADS 1 was released by High Energy Software as shareware in 1988, and was followed by TADS 2 not long after. From the late 1980s to early 1990s, free development tools such as TADS and Inform enabled amateur communities to create interactive fiction. In the mid-1990s, TADS was a top development tool for interactive fiction. At the time, it was a more improved tool for parsing and world building than existing systems like AGT (Adventure Game Toolkit).
TADS 2 syntax is based on C, with bits of Pascal. TADS 2 has been maintained and updated at regular intervals by its creator, Michael J. Roberts, even after it became freeware in July 1996. Graham Nelson, creator of Inform, describes Inform and TADS as the "only two systems... widely used" in the last half of the 1990s, and TADS has been called "The second most commonly used IF programming language today". Multimedia TADS, introduced in 1998, allows games to display graphics, animation and play sounds, if the platform supports it.
In 2006, TADS received a major overhaul with the release of TADS 3, which is a complete rewrite of the TADS engine, only retaining the platform-dependent code to ease porting. TADS 3 uses a language with a syntax that resembles C++ and Java. It has many new features, such as efficient dynamic objects (with automatic garbage collection), structured exceptions, native UTF-8 strings, and many useful function classes.
The TADS 3 compiler and interpreter have been ported to the DOS, Macintosh and Unix platforms. Several TADS 3 games have been released.
TADS games
Games written in TADS are compiled to a platform-independent format that can be played on any computer for which a suitable virtual machine (VM) exists. Such virtual machines exist for several platforms, and in this respect, TADS closely follows the example of the original Infocom Z-machine, as well as modern languages such as Java and C#.
Whereas the TADS 1 and 2 VMs had to parse the commands entered by the player, before sending the results on to the game, TADS 3 employs a more general-purpose virtual machine, where the command-parsing is done by the game code itself, akin to Inform. The rationale for this is that it is easier to customize the parser.
Notable games developed in TADS 2
Uncle Zebulon's Will, by Magnus Olsson (1995). It won the TADS category at the inaugural 1995 Interactive Fiction Competition and was included on Activision's 1996 commercial release of Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom.
The Frenetic Five vs. Sturm und Drang, the first game in the "Frenetic Five" series by Neil deMause (1997). The game won a XYZZY Award for Best NPCs that year.
Worlds Apart by Suzanne Britton (1999). Winner of XYZZY Award for Best Story and finalist in seven other XYZZY Award categories in 1999, the game features a huge amount of detailed worldbuilding.
Kaged by Ian Finley (2000). Winner of the 2000 annual Interactive Fiction Competition.
1893: A World's Fair Mystery by Peter Nepstad (2002). The game is one of a handful to be released commercially in recent years, garnering attention from the New York Times and the Associated Press. It also won the 2002 XYZZY Award for Best Setting.
Notable games developed in TADS 3
Max Blaster and Doris de Lightning Against the Parrot Creatures of Venus by Dan Shiovitz and Emily Short (2003). Winner of the 2003 Spring Thing; a somewhat unusual example of multiple player characters (or PCs).
The Elysium Enigma by Eric Eve (2006). Eve was awarded XYZZY Award for Best Game, XYZZY Award for Best Individual NPC, and took third place in the 2006 annual Interactive Fiction Competition.
See also
Interactive fiction#Development systems, lists software similar to TADS
Inform The other leading IF development system
Hugo The Hugo development system
References
External links
The TADS page
TADS 2 and TADS 3 games on Baf's Guide
Cloak of Darkness: TADS presents a short game implemented in TADS, as well as other languages for comparison.
The TADS 3 mailing list
Interpreters
TADS 2 interpreters for several platforms
Jetty - Java Applet Interpreter for TADS 2 games
TADS 3 interpreters for DOS, Windows, and source for Unix
HyperTADS, a Mac OS multimedia interpreter for TADS 2 and 3
1988 software
Domain-specific programming languages
Freeware
Interactive fiction
Text adventure game engines
Video game development software | [
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227996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%20Nelson | Graham Nelson | Graham A. Nelson (born 1968) is a British mathematician, poet, and the creator of the Inform design system for creating interactive fiction (IF) games. He has authored several IF games, including Curses (1993) and Jigsaw (1995).
Education
In 1994, Nelson received a Ph.D. in mathematics from the University of Oxford under the supervision of Simon Donaldson.
Writing
Nelson co-edited Oxford Poetry and in 1997 received an Eric Gregory Award from the Society of Authors for his poetry. he was managing editor of Legenda, the imprint of the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA).
Interactive fiction
Nelson is the creator of the Inform design system for creating interactive fiction (IF) games. He has also authored several IF games, including Curses (1993) and Jigsaw (1995), using the experience of writing Curses in particular to expand the range of verbs that Inform is capable of understanding.
Personal life
Nelson is married to IF writer Emily Short.
Games
Written
Curses (1993, Z-code)
Deja Vu (1993, Z-code)
Balances (1994, Z-code)
Jigsaw (1995, Z-code)
The Meteor, the Stone and a Long Glass of Sherbet (as "Angela M. Horns", 1996, Z-code), for IF Comp 1996 (1st place). Was a finalist for Best Individual Puzzle, Best Puzzles, Best Writing, and Best Game at the XYZZY Awards 1996
The Tempest (1997, Z-code), for IF Comp 1997 (25th place). Winner of Best Use of Medium at the XYZZY Awards 1997.
Time and Dwarves (1998, Inform source code). Demo code for Inform programmers.
The Reliques of Tolti-Aph (2006, Z-code)
Ported
Adventure
Adventureland
Crobe
Fyleet
Quest for the Sangraal
Other works
(1995) "The Craft of the Adventure" (2nd ed)
(1997) Singularities, with Polly Clark and Tim Kendall. Oxford: Hubble Press. . Anthology of poetry
(2001) Inform Designers Manual (4th ed), with Gareth Rees. Placet Solutions,
References
External links
Homepage of Graham Nelson
Graham Nelson's entry in Baf's Guide to IF archive
Nelson's Index to Oxford Poetry
IFWiki's page for Graham Nelson
Graham Nelson's talk on Inform Past, Present and Future, June 2018
Graham Nelson's brief autobiography as of 2019, published by computer entertainment historian Jimmy Maher
1968 births
Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge
British video game designers
British video game programmers
English mathematicians
Fellows of St Anne's College, Oxford
Interactive fiction writers
Living people
English male poets | [
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227998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational%20learning | Organizational learning | Organizational learning is the process of creating, retaining, and transferring knowledge within an organization. An organization improves over time as it gains experience. From this experience, it is able to create knowledge. This knowledge is broad, covering any topic that could better an organization. Examples may include ways to increase production efficiency or to develop beneficial investor relations. Knowledge is created at four different units: individual, group, organizational, and inter organizational.
The most common way to measure organizational learning is a learning curve. Learning curves are a relationship showing how as an organization produces more of a product or service, it increases its productivity, efficiency, reliability and/or quality of production with diminishing returns. Learning curves vary due to organizational learning rates. Organizational learning rates are affected by individual proficiency, improvements in an organization's technology, and improvements in the structures, routines and methods of coordination.
Relevance
Organizational learning happens as a function of experience within an organization and allows the organization to stay competitive in an ever-changing environment. Organizational learning is a process improvement that can increase efficiency, accuracy, and profits. A real-world example of organizational learning is how a new pizza store will reduce the cost per pizza as the cumulative production of pizzas increases. As the staff creates more pizza; they begin to make pizzas faster, the staff learns how to work together, and the equipment is placed in the most efficient location leading to cheaper costs of creation. An example of a more formal way to track and support organizational learning is a learning agenda.
Organizational learning is an aspect of organizations and a subfield of organizational studies. As an aspect of an organization, organizational learning is the process of creating, retaining, and transferring knowledge. Knowledge creation, knowledge retention, and knowledge transfer can be seen as adaptive processes that are functions of experience. Experience is the knowledge that contributes to the procedural understanding of a subject through involvement or exposure. Research within organizational learning specifically applies to the attributes and behavior of this knowledge and how it can produce changes in the cognition, routines, and behaviors of an organization and its individuals.
Individuals are predominantly seen as the functional mechanisms for organizational learning by creating knowledge through experience. However, individuals' knowledge only facilitates learning within the organization as a whole if it is transferred. Individuals may withhold their knowledge or exit the organization. Knowledge that is embedded into the organization, in addition to its individuals, can be retained. Organizations can retain knowledge in other ways than just retaining individuals, including using knowledge repositories such as communication tools, processes, learning agendas, routines, networks, and transactive memory systems.
As a subfield, organizational learning is the study of experience, knowledge, and the effects of knowledge within an organizational context. The study of organizational learning directly contributes to the applied science of knowledge management (KM) and the concept of the learning organization. Organizational learning is related to the studies of organizational theory, organizational communication, organizational behavior, organizational psychology, and organizational development. Organizational learning has received contributions from the fields of educational psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, political science, and management science.
Communities of learning
Organizations gain knowledge in one of the four organizational communities of learning: individual, team, organizational, and inter-organizational. Organizational learning "involves the process through which organizational communities (e.g. groups, departments, divisions) change as a result of experience." An example of organizational learning is a hospital surgical team learning to use new technology that will increase efficiency.
Individual learning is the smallest community at which learning can occur. An individual learns new skills or ideas, and their productivity at work may increase as they gain expertise. The individual can decide whether or not to share their knowledge with the rest of the group. If the individual leaves the group and doesn't share their knowledge before leaving, the group loses this knowledge. In their study of software development, Boh, Slaughter and Espinosa (2007) found that individuals were more productive the more specialized experience they had with a certain system.
Group learning is the next largest community There are conflicting definitions of group learning among researchers studying it. One belief is that group learning is a process in which a group takes action, gets feedback, and uses this feedback to modify their future action. Another belief is that group learning happens when a member shares their individual knowledge with other group members. Others have suggested that group learning is primarily a process of error detection and correction or that group learning is primarily about the processes of interpretation and integration. Once this happens, individual learning turns into group learning. Reagans, Argote, and Brooks (2005) studied group learning by examining joint-replacement surgery in teaching hospitals. They concluded that "increased experience working together in a team promoted better coordination and teamwork." Working together in a team also allowed members to share their knowledge with others and learn from other members. To sum up the different definitions cover following aspects: task independence (what one group member does affects and is affected by another group member); social psychological awareness (members perceive themselves as a group and are perceived as a group); and social embeddedness (the group exists in a larger social system).
Organizational learning is the way in which an organization creates and organizes knowledge relating to their functions and culture. Organizational learning happens in all of the organization's activities, and it happens in different speeds. The goal of organizational learning is to successfully adapt to changing environments, to adjust under uncertain conditions, and to increase efficiency. According to Argote (1993), managers in manufacturing plants saw organization learning occur when they found ways to make individual workers more proficient, improve the organization's "technology, tooling, and layout," improve the organization's structure, and determine the organization's strengths.
Interorganizational learning is the way in which different organizations in an alliance collaborate, share knowledge, and learn from one another. An organization is able to improve its "processes and products by integrating new insights and knowledge" from another organization. By learning from another organization, an organization is able to cut time costs, decrease the risks associated with problem solving, and learn faster. Learning from another organization can mean either applying the same ideas used by that organization or modifying these ideas, thereby creating innovation. Inter-organizational learning occurs frequently in fixed business models, such as franchising. The franchisee looking to use the franchisor's brand has to learn how to use the organization's business model before starting a franchise.
History of study
The origin of the focused study of organizational learning can be traced to the late 1970s, when researchers studied it from a psychological viewpoint. Key advances in the field include:
Behavioral psychology and organizational development: In their 1978 work on organizational learning, Chris Argyris and Donald Schön developed the concepts of single-loop and double-loop learning. Single-loop learning is the process in which a mistake is corrected by using a different strategy or method that is expected to yield a different, successful outcome. Take, for example, a person who acts a certain way to accomplish a certain goal. If this person's actions fail in accomplishing the goal, with single-loop learning, this person will reflect on their previous actions and, going forward, they will take a different set of actions to accomplish the same goal. Double-loop learning, on the other hand, is a more complicated process in which a mistake is corrected by rethinking the initial goal. In the previous example, the person would show double-loop learning if they chose to reevaluate their goal and beliefs instead of simply reassessing their failed actions. They will then take a set of actions that are aligned with their reevaluated goals and beliefs. Argyris and Schön explain that both single-loop and double-loop learning processes are present in organizations and are two types of organizational learning. Single-loop learning occurs when an organization detects a mistake, corrects it, and carries on with its present policies and objectives. Double-loop learning occurs when an organization detects a mistake and changes its policies and objectives before it can take corrective actions.
Adaptation and routines: In their book defining the behavioral theory of the firm, Richard Cyert and James G. March described organizational learning as an organization's adaptive behavior over time. This consists of the adaptation of goals, adaptation in attention rules, and adaptation in search rules. Part of organizational learning is setting goals and changing these goals over time. They change along with an organization's members are established as problems arise. When setting goals, an organization should consider three variables: "the organization's past goal, the organization's past performance, and the past performance of other 'comparable' organizations." Adapting an organization's attention rules consists of determining which parts of an organization's environment requires most attention. Cyert and March give the example of the criteria an organization uses to evaluate employees' performances. Over time, organizations learn which criteria to use for their evaluations and how much weight to assign to each criterion. They also use the example of selecting which criteria to use when comparing one's organization with a similar one. An organization's adaptation in search rules refers to its ability to find solutions for its problems. Since a solution depends on the problem, an organization's search rules will change accordingly. Typically, an organization will be more likely to search for a solution a certain way if this search method previously succeeded in finding a solution. An organization's search rules will depend on its previous successes or failures with the alternative search rules.
Learning curves by Dutton & Thomas (1984): John M. Dutton and Annie Thomas organized field studies on various industries to study the rates of learning in organizations. They found that workers' errors and/or costs decrease as they learn from experience. However, since the knowledge that workers' can learn lessens over time, they cannot improve their performance at a constant rate. Instead, the rate by which they improve decreases with more experience. Dutton and Thomas also found that there are four causal categories that affect a firm's progress. Two categories, exogenous and endogenous learning, describe the source of a firm's progress. Exogenous learning occurs when a firm acquires information from external sources that allow it to progress. Examples of external sources include "suppliers, customers, competitors, and government." Endogenous learning occurs when employees learn from within the firm, which is "manifested by technical changes, direct-labor learning, and smoothing production flows." The other two categories, induced and autonomous learning, describe the environments in which progress occurs. Induced learning occurs when a firm makes investments or adds resources to an environment to make it conducive for learning. Autonomous learning occurs when sustained production leads to automatic improvements over long periods of time.
Knowledge
Knowledge is an indicator of organizational learning. Organization learning happens when there is a change in the knowledge of an organization. Researchers measure organizational knowledge in various ways. For example, some researchers assess knowledge as changes in an organization's practices or routines that increase efficiency. Other researchers base it on the number of patents an organization has. Knowledge management is the process of collecting, developing, and spreading knowledge assets to enable organizational learning.
Nature of knowledge
Knowledge is not a homogenous resource. Although it is related to data and information, knowledge is different from these constructs. Data are a set of defined, objective facts concerning events, while information is a value-added form of data that adds meaning through contextualization, categorization, calculation, correction, or condensation. Knowledge is the applied version of information, a combination of information within experience, framing, value, contextualization, and insight. Experience is knowledge that is generated through exposure to and application of knowledge. Knowledge originates within and is applied by units of an organization to evaluate and utilize experience and information effectively. Knowledge can become embedded within repositories, routines, processes, practices, tools, and norms, depending on the relationship between information, experience, and knowledge.
Two distinct forms of knowledge, explicit and tacit, are significant in this respect. Explicit knowledge is codified, systematic, formal, and easy to communicate. Tacit knowledge is personal, context-specific, subjective knowledge.
Explicit knowledge is knowledge that is easy to transfer. Unlike tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge is declarative or factual. It is transferred through written, verbal, or codified media. Examples of this include instructions, definitions, and documents. Among its employees, Toyota spreads explicit knowledge about its assembly line production. Toyota requires each team of workers and each individual worker to document their tasks, providing detailed descriptions on "how each task is to be performed, how long each task should take, the sequence of steps to be followed in performing each task, and the steps to be taken by each worker in checking his or her own work." This uses explicit knowledge since the knowledge is passed along using a code, which is a document of detailed descriptions in Toyota's case.
Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to transfer. As first described by Michael Polanyi, tacit knowledge is the knowledge of procedures. It is a personal type of knowledge that cannot be shared simply through written or verbal communication. It is learned mostly through experience over time. For example, Toyota transfers tacit knowledge whenever it opens a new assembly factory. To train its new employees for a new factory, Toyota sends a group of its new employees to work at one of its established factories, where experienced employees train them. After this long-term training, they are sent back to the new factory to transfer their production knowledge to the rest of the new employees. This is a transfer of tacit knowledge since this knowledge is too complex to be codified and passed along through a document. This knowledge can only be transferred to new employees through practice and experience.
Measuring learning
Organizational learning tracks the changes that occur within an organization as it acquires knowledge and experience. To evaluate organizational learning, the knowledge an organization creates, transfers, and retains must be quantified.
Researchers studying organizational learning have measured the knowledge acquired through various ways since there is no one way of measuring it. Silvia Gherardi measured knowledge as the change in practices within an organization over time, which is essentially learning from experience. In her study, she observed an organization acquire knowledge as its novices working at building sites learned about safety through experience and became practitioners. George Huber measured knowledge as the distribution of information within an organization. In his study, he noted that "organizational components commonly develop 'new' information by piecing together items of information that they obtain from other organizational units." He gives the example of "a shipping department [that] learns that a shortage problem exists by comparing information from the warehouse with information from the sales department."
An increasingly common and versatile measure of organizational learning is an organizational learning curve demonstrating experience curve effects. A learning curve measures the rate of a metric of learning relative to a metric for experience. Linda Argote explains that "large increases in productivity typically occur as organizations gain experience in production." However, Argote also notes that organizations' rates of learning vary. Argote identifies three factors that affect these rates: increased proficiency of individuals, improvements in an organization's technology, and improvements in its structure (such as its routines and methods of coordination). Some organizations show great productivity gains while others show little or no gains, given the same amount of experience.The experience curves plot the decreasing unit cost versus the total cumulative units produced, a common way to measure the effect of experience. The linear-linear input form on the left is transformed into the log-log form on the right to demonstrate that the proficiency increase correlates with experience.
Theoretical models
Attempts to explain variance of rates in organizational learning across different organizations have been explored in theoretical models. Namely the theoretical models conceived by John F. Muth, Bernardo Huberman, and Christina Fang.
The Muth model (1986) was the first to represent the learning curve in a log-linear form and focused on cost effectiveness in organization processes. This model looks at the relationship between unit cost and experience, stating that cost reductions are realized through independent random sampling, or randomized searches, from a space of technological, managerial, or behavioral alternatives. This model did not aim to explore variation across firms, but solely looked at improvements in production with experience within a single firm.
The Huberman model (2001) filled that void and aimed at explaining the variation missing from Muth's model and focuses on finding increasingly shorter and more efficient paths from end to end of an assembly process. This model is visualized best in a connected graph with nodes that represent stages in a process and links that represent the connecting routines. By way of this model, learning can occur through two mechanisms that shorten the route from the initial stage to the final stage. The first is by some shortcut that can be identified by looking at the nodes and mapping and discovering new routines, the ideal goal being able to eliminate certain touch points and find shorter paths from the initial to final node. The second mechanism involves improving the routines: the organization can work to select the most efficacious link between two nodes such that, if an issue ever arises, members of an organization know exactly whom to approach, saving them a considerable amount of time.
The Fang model (2011) shares a major goal with the Huberman model: to gradually decrease the steps towards the final stage. However, this model takes more of a "credit assignment" approach in which credit is assigned to successive states as an organization gains more experience, and then learning occurs by way of credit propagation. This implies that as an organization gains more experience with the task, it is better able to develop increasingly accurate mental models that initially identify the values of states closer to the goal and then those of states farther from the goal. This then leads to a reduced number of steps to reach the organization's final goal and can thus improve overall performance.
Context and learning
An organization's experience affects its learning, so it is important to also study the context of the organizational climate, which affects an organization's experience. This context refers to an organization's characteristics, specifically its "structure, culture, technology, identity, memory, goals, incentives, and strategy." It also includes its environment, which consists of its competitors, clients, and regulators. While this context establishes how knowledge is acquired by the organization, this knowledge modifies context as the organization adapts to it. The leader-initiated cultural context of learning has inspired key research into whether the organization has a learning or performance orientation, an environment of psychological safety, the group's superordinate identity, and group dynamics. Research into these concepts like Edmondson's study (1999) shows that an organization operating under a context promoting curiosity, information sharing, and psychological safety encourages organizational learning. "Group learning dynamics" is the subject of how groups share, generate, evaluate, and combine knowledge as they work together.
Organizational forgetting
Knowledge acquired through learning by doing can depreciate over time. The depreciation rate is affected by the turnover rate of individuals and how knowledge is stored within the organization. Organizations with higher turnover rates will lose more knowledge than others. Organizations with knowledge embedded in technology rather than individuals are more resistant to organizational forgetting. Examples: In the Liberty Shipyard study, in shipyards where relative input was reduced, individual unit cost increased even with increasing cumulative output. In shipyards with no relative input reduction, individual unit cost decreased with increasing cumulative output. In a study of airplane manufacturing at Lockheed, unit costs declined with experience, but this effect weakened over time.
Processes
Three key processes that drive organizational learning are knowledge creation, knowledge retention, and knowledge transfer.
Knowledge creation
Knowledge creation specifically concerns Experience that can be embedded within the organization. Experience is knowledge generated by direct exposure to the subject. This direct exposure is through tasks involving the needs, processes, and environment of the organization. Explicit and tacit knowledge are reinforced and become contextualized when the organization gains knowledge. While experience can produce outputs in data, information, or knowledge, experience in the form of knowledge is useful since this can be transferred, retained, and tacitly or explicitly utilized within organizational processes. Knowledge creation connects to creativity and its relationship to experience. Compared to knowledge transfer and knowledge retention, knowledge creation has not received much research attention.
Dimensions of experience are aspects of experience that impact the form and function of knowledge creation.
The organizational dimension refers to the directness or indirectness of experience acquired in addition to the configurations of individuals, units, and networks.
The spatial dimension refers to the geographic concentration or dispersion of the experience.
The temporal dimension refers to frequency and pace at which the experience is acquired or its temporal relation to a task.
The content dimension refers to the subject task or unit, outcome, novelty, heterogeneity, and ambiguity.
The artificiality dimension refers to the directness of the experience and the degree to which the experience is fabricated, adapted, or transcribed.
Knowledge transfer
Knowledge transfer concerns the mechanisms by which experience spreads and embeds itself within the organization. Knowledge transfer can be evaluated using various metrics, including learning curves that demonstrate process improvements over time by comparing the decrease in labor hours to complete a unit of production with the cumulative units produced over time. Wright's identification of organizational learning curves preceded more complex outcome considerations that now inform measures of knowledge transfer. While knowledge may transfer tacitly and explicitly as direct experience, organizations can introduce processes and knowledge management systems that facilitate this transfer. Researchers investigate the context of various factors and mechanisms affecting knowledge transfer to determine their beneficial and detrimental effects.
Factors of knowledge transfer include the dimensions of the knowledge described in the prior section, as well as the contexts in which it occurs and mechanisms through which it can occur:
Relational context concerns whether knowledge is interconnected.
Cognitive context concerns mental abilities and processes regarding knowledge.
Motivational context of personal preferences and social influences affect direct or indirect knowledge transfer behaviors.
Emotional context impacts mental state and sense of security, which affect knowledge transfer.
Social networks determine the flows through which knowledge can transfer and the node-based conditional limitations on transfer.
Personnel movement between units and organizations impacts available knowledge and geographical, chronological, and social limitations on knowledge transfer.
Routines impact knowledge transfer as they contain embedded knowledge and teach it through experience repeating the routine.
Templates affect knowledge transfer as they affect the framing, priming, volume, and content parameters for formal exchanges of knowledge.
Alliances impact knowledge transfer between formal and informal groups.
Knowledge retention
Knowledge retention concerns the behavior of knowledge that has been embedded within the organization, characterized by the organizational memory. Organizational memory, quantified by measures such as cumulative knowledge and the rate of decay over time, is impacted by experience, processes and knowledge repositories that affect knowledge retention. Knowledge repositories are of key significance as they are intentional remedies to increase retention. Repositories can include the organization's rules and routines, altered by the processes of routine development and routine modification. Transactive memory systems are additional methods by which knowledge holders within the organization can be identified and utilized, subject to their development and performance. Organizations that retain the bulk of their knowledge in individuals are vulnerable to lose that information with high turn over rates. In a study of organizational learning in the automotive and fast food industries, Argote found that high turn over rates lead to lower productivity and decreased organizational memory.
Applications
Applications of organizational learning research and contexts for organizational learning facilitation and practices are numerous. Experience curves can be used to make projections of production costs, compare performance across units, identify the effects of various processes and practices, and make informed financial decisions about how to allocate resources. Utilizing knowledge transfer and retention concepts to recognize, maintain, and reclaim embedded knowledge can help organizations become more efficient with their knowledge. Organizational learning theories and knowledge management practices can be applied to organizational design and leadership decisions.
Knowledge management practices
Various knowledge management concepts and practices are the relevant products of organizational learning research. Work on knowledge transfer applies to knowledge retention and contributes to many of the applications listed below, including the practices of building learning organizations, implementing knowledge management systems, and its context for inter organizational learning and the diffusion of innovations.
Development of learning organizations
Learning organizations are organizations that actively work to optimize learning. Learning organizations use the active process of knowledge management to design organizational processes and systems that concretely facilitate knowledge creation, transfer, and retention. Organizational metacognition is used to refer to the processes by which the organization 'knows what it knows'. The study of organizational learning and other fields of research such as organizational development, System theory, and cognitive science provide the theoretical basis for specifically prescribing these interventions. An example of an organizational process implemented to increase organizational learning is the U.S. Army's use of a formally structured de-brief process called an after-action review (AAR) to analyze what happened, why it happened, and how it could be improved immediately after a mission. Learning laboratories are a type or learning organization dedicate to knowledge creation, collection, and control.
Learning organizations also address organizational climate by creating a supportive learning environment and practicing leadership that reinforces learning. Creating a supportive learning environment and reinforcing learning depends on the leadership of the organization and the culture it promotes. Leaders can create learning opportunities by facilitating environments that include learning activities, establishing a culture of learning via norms, behaviors, and rules, and lead processes of discourse by listening, asking questions, and providing feedback. Leaders must practice the individual learning they advocate for by remaining open to new perspectives, being aware of personal biases, seeking exposure to unfiltered and contradictory sources of information, and developing a sense of humility.
Knowledge management systems
While learning processes depend on the context for optimizing knowledge transfer, the implementation of knowledge management systems incorporates technology into these processes. Knowledge management systems are technologies that serve as a repository, communication, or collaboration tool for transferring and retaining knowledge. Embedding knowledge in technology can prevent organizational forgetting and allow knowledge to transfer across barriers such as distance, organizational unit, and specialization. Knowledge management systems alone are not necessarily successful, but as a communication tool they tangibly reinforce individuals' ability to spread and reinforce their knowledge.
Diffusion of innovation
Organizational learning is important to consider in relation to innovation, entrepreneurship, technological change, and economic growth, specifically within the contexts of knowledge sharing and inter organizational learning. As one of the key dynamics behind the knowledge economy, organizational learning informs our understanding of knowledge transfer between organizations. Heterogeneous experience yields better learning outcomes than homogenous experience, and knowledge diffusion spreads heterogeneous experience across organizations. Diffusion of innovations theory explores how and why people adopt new ideas, practices and products. It may be seen as a subset of the anthropological concept of diffusion and can help to explain how ideas are spread by individuals, social networks, and organizations. Innovation policy, economic development initiatives, educational program endeavors, and entrepreneurial incubation and acceleration could all be informed by organizational learning practices.
Barriers and enablers to organizational learning
Corporate amnesia
In case no systematic approach has been applied when creating organizational memory systems, there is a risk of corporate amnesia. Environment of organizational amnesia leads to avoiding mistakes at all cost. Companies should create an environment where learning from mistakes is allowed in order to avoid them happening again. Corporate amnesia is said to be a double-edged sword – it helps to move on by forgetting the wrongdoing, but at the same time it creates a danger of repeating the same error all over again.
Developing organizational memory
Organizations need to have an organizational memory, a documentation of their milestone events. That documentation needs to be accessible for all involved to have the ability to learn as an organization. Because organizations have a routine of forgetting what they have done in the past and why, organizational memory systems should be created to make the knowledge explicit so that the transparency, coordination and communication in the organizations increase and it becomes possible to learn from past mistakes. OL grows through processes but the essential material is individual's memory, culture and experience. Individual learning is the first level in OL. Transfer process to OL is synthesized by "what people learn (know-what) and how they understand and apply this learning (know-how). While learning is the know-how, memory could be perceived as a storage area. Memory plays an active role in a learning process. In a transfer mechanism, mental models are an excellent way to share knowledge and to make it independent from individuals.
Organizational memory is an agglomerate of individual's memory, composed by data, information and knowledge. For those three levels of learning, five retention facilities are available:
Individuals, with their own memory capacity and experience
Culture, perceived and thought experience transmitted to the members of the organization. Language is a cultural information transmitted repeatedly
Transformation, the logic and repeated continuation of actions transforming an input into an output
Structure, link between an individual and its role in the organization
External archives, information retailed by sources outside the organization about its past.
The big deal of organizational memory is its availability to be used and re-used. It could represent a competitive advantage but its value is often underestimated because of the complexity to calculate it, even though sometimes employee's, customer's, supplier's, capital's and top management's memory values are budgeted.
Organization's memory needs technological solutions on its side. Technology is often associated with information or communication technology (IT) which relates to different software solutions that support the organization's memory and ease the transfer of knowledge
. Technology can be a barrier if it is not accepted or there is not enough understanding of new technologies. Technology can open for example new ways of communicating, but it is different to find a shared acceptance for its utilization.
IT is an enabler for codifying and distributing data and information as well as both tacit and explicit knowledge. A. Abdulaziz Al-Tameem also states that the interaction between humans and IT enhances OL. Different repositories are used within organization to store corporate knowledge as an extension for the memory. Maintaining organizational memory is enabler for efficient and effective processes and routines but most of all for profitable business. Traditionally, IT was regarded solely as a tool to support human learning. In contrast, with the advent of machine learning in organizations, IT based on machine learning algorithms is now viewed as a further type of organizational learner that learns side-by-side along human learners and can offer its own contributions to organizational learning. To this end, today's organizations form complex systems of interrelated human and machine learning that requires coordination and rises a wide range of new managerial issues.
The role of organizational culture
Culture is considered as the holding strength between members of an organization. Culture brings a representation of past learning and an instrument to communicate it through the organization.
Finding shared vision is important to enable the adaptation of new systems and technologies that can be accepted by the organization and its members. Sharing a culture and encouraging knowledge sharing allows more efficient transfer of knowledge in organization between its levels. Sharing information between different cultures can be limited due to varying norms and it can end up in one or both sides hoarding knowledge
Willingness to inquire can also be related to differences between culture groups or culture of multicultural organizations in general. Status, modesty, fear of embarrassment, etc. contribute to the interaction we decide or do not decide to initiate. It has been studied that organizational culture is one of the most important enablers in knowledge sharing. When the information is not shared due to hoarding based on cultural differences it becomes a major barrier in business.
Different influential factors regarding characteristics of an organizational culture (especially in knowledge-centered cultures) affect the processes of knowledge management. these can include:
Social interactions
Openness in communication
Trust
Perception of knowledge
Top management's support and involvement
Freedom vs. control
Compensation system (organizational rewards)
Virtual environments
Organizations are evolving, which is sometimes causing interpretation of experiences more complex. Team members that are geographically apart, may only have an option to learn virtually through electronic devices instead of face-to-face. Communities of practice in virtual environments can create tacit knowledge shared between the different factors such as individual members, rules accepted and technologies used. Technology in this case affects the identity and learning patterns of the community. Building routines in a virtual team and the use of sophisticated technology such as video meetings, creates trust and psychological safety that enables learning.
Barriers in organizational learning from 4I framework
Developed by Crossan, Lane and White (1999) the 4I framework of organizational learning consists of four social processes; intuiting, interpreting, integrating and institutionalizing. It is proposed by Crossan et al. (1999) that organizational learning is a dynamic and iterative process between exploration and exploitation (March 1991) with feed forward flowing from individual level to organizational level and feedback from organizational to individual. A pivotal characteristic of the framework is the relationship and interplay between action and cognition that it assumes and portrays. It is a framework that was developed to specifically address the phenomenon of strategic renewal.
J. Schilling and A. Kluge (2009) have contributed to the M. Crossan, H. Lane and R. White (1999) 4I framework of organizational learning by identifying the barriers to the learning process. There is a wide variety of barriers in every level of each learning process identified as actional-personal, structural-organizational and societal-environmental.
Actional-personal barriers include such as individual attitudes, thinking, and behavior. Structural-organizational barriers are based in organizational technology, strategy, culture and formality of regulations. In addition to the 4I model, environment is also considered as relevant at all individual, group and organization levels and that is why societal-environmental barriers are also considered. Intuition process barriers are related to individual's lack of motivation or such as what is the freedom in the organization to 'think out of the box'. Societal-environmental barriers of intuition process relate e.g. to the unclear success criteria of the branch of the organization or to cultural misunderstandings. Interpretation process barrier can be e.g. lack of status or a conflict in a relationship between innovator and the group. Integration process barriers that take place at the organizational level can be such as the willingness to maintain positive self-image or the fear of punishment. If the idea is against beliefs commonly held in the industry, the whole sector might reject the idea. A major barrier is, if there is no top management's support for the innovative idea. A barrier to institutionalization process is when something previously learned has been forgotten – an innovation or lesson has not been put to practice so that it would become embedded into the structure, procedures and strategy. Some teams or employees may not have enough skills or knowledge to absorb the innovation or there is not enough trust towards the innovation. Management may also have a lack of skills to implement the innovation.
Other challenges
Several challenges may be identified during the organizational learning process. Milway and Saxton (2011) suggest three challenges related to goals, incentives and processes.
Generational issues and employee turnover are also challenges that organizations might have to consider.
See also
References
Further reading
Amidon, Debra M. (1997) Innovation Strategy for the Knowledge Economy. Butterworth-Heinman, Newton, MA. p19
Argote, L. (1999). Organizational learning: Creating, retaining and transferring knowledge. Norwell, MA, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Argyris, C. (1990), Overcoming Organizational Defences: Facilitating Organizational Learning, Allyn & Bacon, Boston.
Bray, D. (2007). "Literature Review - Knowledge Management Research at the Organizational Level", Social Science Research Network.
Easterby-Smith, M. and M. A. Lyles (editors). (2003). The Blackwell Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing.
Garvin, D. A. (2000), Learning in Action: A Guide to Putting the Learning Organization to Work, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
May, Paul (2000) The Business of E-Commerce. Cambridge university press, New York. p7
External links
University of Colorado at Denver organizational learning page with links to articles
Wikibooks on Learning Theories and Organizational Learning
Enhance Learning Experience by Staying Organized
Educational psychology
Organizational studies
Organizational theory
Social information processing
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227999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Appalachian%20Valley | Great Appalachian Valley | The Great Appalachian Valley, also called The Great Valley or Great Valley Region, is one of the major landform features of eastern North America. It is a gigantic trough—a chain of valley lowlands—and the central feature of the Appalachian Mountain system. The trough stretches about from Quebec to Alabama and has been an important north-south route of travel since prehistoric times.
Geography
Broadly defined, the Great Valley marks the eastern edge of the Ridge and Valley physiographic province. There are many regional names of the Great Valley, such as the Shenandoah Valley. From a large perspective the Great Valley can be divided into a northern section and a southern section.
Northern section
In its northern section, the Great Valley includes the Champlain Valley around Lake Champlain and the upper Richelieu River that drains it into the Saint Lawrence; the Hudson River Valley, Newburgh Valley, and Wallkill Valley; and the Kittatinny Valley, upper-Delaware River Valley, Lebanon Valley, and Cumberland Valley.
A series of mountains bounds the northern half of the Great Valley on both sides. To the east or coastward side, these include, from north to south, the Green Mountains of Vermont; the Taconic Mountains of Vermont, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; the Reading Prong (which includes the New York–New Jersey Highlands, known variously as the Hudson Highlands, Schunemunk Mountain, and Ramapo Mountains, among other names and sections); and South Mountain in Pennsylvania beyond Harrisburg. There is a wide gap between the Reading Prong and South Mountain at Harrisburg, through which the Susquehanna River passes, connecting the Great Valley with the Piedmont region of southeast Pennsylvania. Some consider this gap the dividing point between the northern and southern sections of the Great Valley.
To the west or continental side, a series of more impenetrable mountain regions border the northern Great Valley. The northernmost is the Adirondack Mountains, a southerly extension of the Canadian Shield, which reach the valley along the shores of Lake Champlain and Lake George. To their south, beyond the Mohawk Valley and Albany, New York, the Catskill Mountains—which form the northeastern terminus of the Allegheny Plateau—border the valley in form of the dramatic Catskill Escarpment, which overlooks the middle reaches of the Hudson River and Hudson Valley. Just south of the Catskills, the first folds of the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians border the valley, in the form of a continuous ridge known variously (heading southward) as the Shawangunk Ridge in New York, Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey, and Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania. This long ridge is broken by several narrow and dramatic gaps, known as wind and water gaps. These include Culver's Gap in New Jersey; the Delaware Water Gap, where the Delaware River passes into the Great Valley along the border between New Jersey and Pennsylvania; and many gaps in Pennsylvania, including the Pennsylvania Wind Gap; the Lehigh River Gap north of Allentown; the Schuylkill River Gap; the Swatara Gap; and the Susquehanna River Gap, among others.
Southern section
In its southern section, the Great Valley is bounded to the east by the Blue Ridge Mountains, which extend north into Maryland and Pennsylvania as South Mountain. Regional names of the southern Great Valley include Hagerstown Valley in Maryland, Winchester Valley and Shenandoah Valley in Virginia and West Virginia, the upper valley of the James River, Roanoke Valley, and New River Valley in Virginia, the Holston River Valley in Virginia and Tennessee, and the East Tennessee Valley extending from Virginia through Tennessee to Alabama. Some describe the Coosa River Valley as the southernmost part of the Great Valley. These southern portions of the Great Valley are sometimes grouped into two parts, the Valley of Virginia and the Tennessee Valley.
The southern Great Valley is bounded on the east by the Blue Ridge physiographic province, which includes, from north to south, South Mountain in Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Blue Ridge of Virginia, Holston Mountain in Tennessee, and the Unaka Range and the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina. An important gap in these mountains occurs near Roanoke, Virginia. Other gaps of note in the Blue Ridge of Virginia, connecting the Piedmont region with the Great Valley, include Thornton Gap, Swift Run Gap, and Rockfish Gap.
Another series of mountains bounds the southern Great Valley to the west, including North Mountain and Great North Mountain, the Allegheny Front, Powell Mountain, the Cumberland Mountains, Walden Ridge, and the Cumberland Plateau. The Cumberland Gap connects the Great Valley region with Kentucky and Tennessee lands to the west.
Massanutten Mountain lies in the middle of the Valley of Virginia portion of the Great Valley.
The Valley of Virginia is a region of karst, with many sinkholes and caverns.
Climate
The climate of the Great Valley is generally Warm- or Hot-summer Humid continental in the northern third and Humid subtropical from Pennsylvania southward. The first weather box is from the temperate portion and the second subtropical portion of the valley.
History
Routes through the valley were first used by Native Americans. In pre-colonial and early colonial times a major Indian pathway through the Great Valley was known as the Great Indian Warpath, Seneca Trail, and various other names.
For European colonists the Great Valley was a major route for settlement and commerce in the United States along the Great Wagon Road, which began in Philadelphia. In the Shenandoah Valley the road was known as the Valley Pike. The Wilderness Road branched off from the Great Wagon Road at present-day Roanoke, Virginia, crossed the Cumberland Gap and led to Kentucky and Tennessee, especially the fertile Bluegrass region and Nashville Basin. Another branch at Roanoke, called the Carolina Road, led into the Piedmont regions of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The various gaps connecting the Great Valley to lands to the east and west have played important roles in American history. On the east side, the wide gap in southeast Pennsylvania became the main route for colonization of the Great Valley. By the 1730s the Pennsylvanian Great Valley west of South Mountain was open to settlement after treaty cessions and purchases from the Indians. The region drew a steady and growing stream of immigrants and became known as "the best poor man's country". Before long immigrants had thoroughly settled the Great Valley in Pennsylvania and were rapidly migrating and settling southwards into the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. The entire region between southeast Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah Valley soon became famous as a "breadbasket", the most productive mixed farming region in America (Meinig, 1986:134). The road from Philadelphia west to the valley and then south through it became very heavily used and known variously as the Great Wagon Road, the Philadelphia Wagon Road, the Valley Road, etc. The Conestoga wagon was developed around 1725 in the area of the wide opening between Philadelphia and the Great Valley. The Conestoga wagon became the main vehicle for transportation through the Great Valley until the railroad era.
Culver Gap near Culver's Lake in Sussex County, New Jersey, was an important route through the Kittatinny Mountain from about 10,000 years ago to present. The gap is more than below the top of the mountain. Lenape Native Americans used the gap to hunt and trade on both sides of the mountain. Early settlers from Pennsylvania used the water drop from Culvers Lake to Branchville for a wide assortment of mills. Turnpikes followed the route of Lenape trails through the gap.
By the 1750s the Great Valley was well-settled to the southern end of the Shenandoah Valley. Immigrants continued to travel from the Philadelphia area south through the Great Valley beyond Shenandoah, to the vicinity of the modern city of Roanoke, Virginia. There is a wide gap in the Blue Ridge near Roanoke. A branch of the Great Wagon Road began there, crossing through the gap east into the Piedmont region of North Carolina and South Carolina. This road became known as the Carolina Road. During the 1750s the stream of migrants traveling south through the valley and into the Carolina Piedmont grew into a flood. At the time, the Carolina Piedmont region offered some of the best land at the lowest prices. Soon a string of towns appeared, including Salisbury, Salem, and Charlotte in North Carolina. In the decades before the American Revolution the Piedmont "upcountry" of the Carolinas was quickly settled, mostly by recent immigrants who had migrated from the north to the south via the Great Valley. Many of these immigrants were Scots-Irish, Germans from the Rhineland-Palatinate area, and Moravians. This "upcountry" population soon surpassed the older and more established "lowcountry" population near the Atlantic coast, causing serious geopolitical tensions in the Carolinas during the late 18th century (Meinig, 1986: 291–293).
On the west side, the Cumberland Gap became the main route for migration west from the southern Great Valley to Kentucky and Tennessee. In the north, the Mohawk Valley became a major route for westward expansion, especially after the construction of the Erie Canal, which linked New York City to the Great Lakes region via the Hudson River of the Great Valley and the Mohawk Valley gap.
The Great Valley played an important role during the American Civil War, especially the Shenandoah Valley, its Blue Ridge gaps and nearby Piedmont area, and its northward extension to the vicinity of Gettysburg. Civil War-era sites and events in this region include Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; Antietam, Maryland; Chambersburg, Pennsylvania; the Valley Campaign of northern Virginia; the Valley Campaigns of 1864, also in Virginia; the Battles of Chattanooga, Tennessee; and the Gettysburg Campaign leading into Pennsylvania.
Transportation
Interstate highways
Today, the main thoroughfares occupying the southern Great Valley are:
from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania to the road's southern terminus near Dandridge, Tennessee;
from the I-81 interchange to Knoxville; and
from Knoxville to Cleveland, Tennessee.
In the northern valley, the thoroughfares vary. Heading northeast from Harrisburg, I-81 traces the valley to Swatara Gap, then swings north across Blue Mountain and leaves the valley en route to Scranton. I-78 then continues the route through the valley parallel to the southern slopes of Blue Mountain, connecting Harrisburg with Lebanon, Kutztown, and Allentown. At Allentown, I-78 then swings away south into the hills of the Reading Prong en route to New York City. From Allentown into New Jersey and southern New York, the valley is not traced by an interstate highway, though it is traversed at length (and at oblique angles) by both I-80 and I-84, as well as by the Delaware River between Easton, Pennsylvania, and the Delaware Water Gap.
In New Jersey and New York, the valley gradually bends from the northeast to the north, and starting near Newburgh just beyond the Hudson Highlands, I-87 runs much of the valley's length into Canada, passing Poughkeepsie, Albany, and Glens Falls. In an east-west section of the valley, I-90 traverses the Mohawk Valley towards Utica. North of Glens Falls, I-87 runs west of the valley through the Adirondack Mountains, though it descends back into the valley near Plattsburgh. At the Canada–US border, I-87 becomes Autoroute 15 and continues north to Montreal. No interstate highway crosses the rugged section of the valley east of Lake George or passes through the agriculturally rich Champlain Valley running north to Burlington, Vermont.
Heading north from Burlington, however, along the east side of Lake Champlain, I-89 runs through the valley's northernmost stretches to the Canada–US border, where it becomes Quebec Route 133 and Autoroute 35, which trace the route of the Richelieu River in its southern section, where the Great Valley finally dissipates into the plain of the Saint Lawrence River to the east of Montreal. (The Richelieu River continues northward across the plain and empties into the Saint Lawrence to the northeast of Montreal.)
Culture
The Great Valley, especially the southern-middle portion, is within the region known as Appalachia.
See also
Martinsburg Formation
Explanatory notes
Citations
General references
Appalachian Topography – Paleontological Research Institution
Appalachian Mountains – Columbia Gazetteer of North America
USGS – Valley and Ridge Province
Pennsylvania Geology Map
Geological Structure of Pennsylvania
Drake, Richard B. (2001), A History of Appalachia. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky.
Kercheval, Samuel (1850), A History of the Valley of Virginia, Woodstock, Virginia – History (much of it anecdotal) of the colonial Virginia northern frontier
Meinig, D. W. (1986), The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492–1800. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Williams, John Alexander (2002), Appalachia: A History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Appalachian Mountains
East Tennessee
Eastern United States
Geography of Appalachia
History of United States expansionism
Landforms of New Hampshire
Landforms of South Carolina
Regions of Pennsylvania
Regions of the United States
Regions of Virginia
Valleys of Alabama
Valleys of Georgia (U.S. state)
Valleys of New Jersey
Valleys of New York (state)
Valleys of Pennsylvania
Valleys of Tennessee
Valleys of the United States
Valleys of Virginia
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228001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic%20calculus | Stochastic calculus | Stochastic calculus is a branch of mathematics that operates on stochastic processes. It allows a consistent theory of integration to be defined for integrals of stochastic processes with respect to stochastic processes. This field is created and started by the Japanese mathematician Kiyoshi Itô during World War 2.
The best-known stochastic process to which stochastic calculus is applied is the Wiener process (named in honor of Norbert Wiener), which is used for modeling Brownian motion as described by Louis Bachelier in 1900 and by Albert Einstein in 1905 and other physical diffusion processes in space of particles subject to random forces. Since the 1970s, the Wiener process has been widely applied in financial mathematics and economics to model the evolution in time of stock prices and bond interest rates.
The main flavours of stochastic calculus are the Itô calculus and its variational relative the Malliavin calculus. For technical reasons the Itô integral is the most useful for general classes of processes, but the related Stratonovich integral is frequently useful in problem formulation (particularly in engineering disciplines). The Stratonovich integral can readily be expressed in terms of the Itô integral. The main benefit of the Stratonovich integral is that it obeys the usual chain rule and therefore does not require Itô's lemma. This enables problems to be expressed in a coordinate system invariant form, which is invaluable when developing stochastic calculus on manifolds other than Rn.
The dominated convergence theorem does not hold for the Stratonovich integral; consequently it is very difficult to prove results without re-expressing the integrals in Itô form.
Itô integral
The Itô integral is central to the study of stochastic calculus. The integral is defined for a semimartingale X and locally bounded predictable process H.
Stratonovich integral
The Stratonovich integral of a semimartingale against another semimartingale Y can be defined in terms of the Itô integral as
where [X, Y]tc denotes the quadratic covariation of the continuous parts of X
and Y. The alternative notation
is also used to denote the Stratonovich integral.
Applications
An important application of stochastic calculus is in mathematical finance, in which asset prices are often assumed to follow stochastic differential equations. In the Black–Scholes model, prices are assumed to follow geometric Brownian motion.
References
Fima C Klebaner, 2012, Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Application (3rd Edition). World Scientific Publishing,
Preprint
Mathematical finance
Integral calculus | [
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228004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyh%C3%A4j%C3%A4rvi | Pyhäjärvi | Pyhäjärvi (1993–1995 Pyhäsalmi) is a town and municipality in the south of Northern Ostrobothnia region, Finland. Pyhäjärvi also borders the Northern Savonia and Central Finland regions. The town belongs to the subregion of Nivala–Haapajärvi. Its seat is in Pyhäsalmi.
Neighbouring municipalities are Haapajärvi, Kiuruvesi, Kärsämäki, Pielavesi, Pihtipudas and Pyhäntä.
As the highway 4 (E75), the highway 27 and the Ylivieska–Iisalmi railway all run through the town, Pyhäjärvi is well situated in an intersection of communication and transport services. The town has also an airfield.
The town of Pyhäjärvi, was founded in 1866, and it was then named after Lake Pyhäjärvi, a lake of and rich in fish. Pyhäjärvi became officially a town in January 1993. The town has inhabitants (), of whom some 60 percent live in the two population centres Pyhäsalmi and Ruotanen.
Pyhäjärvi contains Europe's deepest base metal mine, the deep Pyhäsalmi Mine from where zinc and copper is mined. Underground mining was due to end in 2019, but has been granted approximately 14 months more of mining activity due to an increase in demand for pyrite from Yara in Siilinjärvi. The on-surface refinery will be operational until 2025. The mine facilities and the associated infrastructure will be used for underground business and research under the Callio Pyhäsalmi project.
References
External links
Town of Pyhäjärvi – Official website
Cities and towns in Finland
Populated places established in 1866
1866 establishments in the Russian Empire | [
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228005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeting | Meeting | A meeting is when two or more people come together to discuss one or more topics, often in a formal or business setting, but meetings also occur in a variety of other environments. Meetings can be used as form of group decision making.
Definition
A meeting is a gathering of two or more people that has been convened for the purpose of achieving a common goal through verbal interaction, such as sharing information or reaching agreement. Meetings may occur face-to-face or virtually, as mediated by communications technology, such as a telephone conference call, a skyped conference call or a videoconference. One Merriam-Webster dictionary defines a meeting as "an act or process of coming together" - for example "as [...] an assembly for a common purpose [...]".
Meeting planners and other meeting professionals may use the term "meeting" to denote an event booked at a hotel, convention center or any other venue dedicated to such gatherings.
Anthropologist Helen B. Schwartzman defines a meeting as "a communicative event involving three or more people who agree to assemble for a purpose ostensibly related to the functioning of an organization or group." For her, meetings are characterized by "multiparty talk that is episodic in nature, and participants either develop or use specific conventions for regulating this talk."
Types of meetings
The term "meeting" may refer to a lecture (one presentation), seminar (typically several presentations, small audience, one day), conference (mid-size, one or more days), congress (large, several days), exhibition or trade show (with manned stands being visited by passers-by), workshop (smaller, with active participants), training course, team-building session and kick-off event.
Common types of meeting include:
Committee meeting, a coming-together of a defined subset of an organization
Investigative meeting, generally when conducting a pre-interview, exit interview or a meeting among the investigator and representative
Kickoff meeting, the first meeting with a project team and the client of the project to discuss the role of each team-member
Town hall meeting, an informal public gathering.
Work meeting, which produces a product or intangible result such as a decision; compare working group.
Board meeting, a meeting of the board of directors of an organization
Management meeting, a meeting among managers
Staff meeting, typically a meeting between a manager and those that report to that manager
Team meeting, in project contexts - a meeting among colleagues working on various aspects of a team project.
Other varieties include breakfast meetings off-site meetings (or Awayday meetings in the UK), and "stand-up meetings" where participants stand up to encourage brevity.
Since a meeting can be held once or often, the meeting organizer has to determine the repetition and frequency of occurrence of the meeting: one-time, recurring meeting, or a series meeting such as a monthly "lunch and learn" event at a company, church, club or organization in which the placeholder is the same, but the agenda and topics to be covered vary. In Russian, a "flying meeting" () is a hastily-called brief meeting.
Conversational analysis
Meetings have been studied using conversation analysis. Meetings are thought of as a distinct speech exchange system with different norms and rules. Participants may move in and out of the conversation exchange system during the meeting. A meeting will often have a chair who has some control over the discussion in the meeting. The chair may have a superior position in a social hierarchy or be appointed as a facilitator.
The beginning of the meeting speech exchange system is often indicated by nonverbal cues, or stating the purpose of the meeting. In formal meetings, the chair has control over turn-taking in a conversation. In informal meetings the participants often decide for themselves who turn taking functions with the chair occasionally intervening. Non-verbal communication with the chair may be used to take a turn.
Often the chair will control the choice of topic of discussion, different chairs will control the conversation in different ways. A pre-closing formulation is an individuals summarization of the groups understanding of a topic. Silence is often used to indicate agreement to this final formalization. Turns within a topic are expected to be related to previous turns of the topic as a whole. In settings turns are long and more loosely related to the previous turns. In these cases, the speaker may introduce the subject matter of the turn and related it to the agenda topic.
See also
References
Further reading
112 pages. | [
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228009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facilitation%20%28business%29 | Facilitation (business) | Facilitation in business, organizational development (OD), and in consensus decision-making refers to the process of designing and running a meeting according to a previously agreed set of requirements.
Facilitation concerns itself with all the tasks needed to reach a productive and impartial meeting outcome that reflects the agreed objectives and deliverables defined upfront by the meeting owner or client.
Areas of application
Facilitation is "used in a wide range of situations and occupations, including workplaces, leisure and health activities, organizational planning and community development". Facilitation serves the needs of any group who are meeting with a common purpose, whether it be making a decision, solving a problem, or simply exchanging ideas and information. It does not lead the group, nor does it try to distract or to entertain. A slightly different interpretation focuses more specifically on a group that is engaged in experiential learning. In particular this is associated with active learning and concepts of tutelary authority. This is covered in-depth in the research work of John Heron at the University of Surrey and the International Centre for Co-operative Inquiry.
Facilitation competencies
The role of the facilitator (see below) The role of a facilitator only emerged as a separate set of skills in the 1980s. It has similarities to the traditional Chair or secretary roles in a meeting but goes beyond them to actively participate and guide the group towards consensus.
The International Association of Facilitators has defined a range of core competencies compiled into a Core Facilitator Competencies framework that includes 6 mains competencies and several sub-competencies that underpin a wide range of facilitation dynamics.
Facilitation dynamics
Setting ground rules Often disregarded by those untrained in facilitation, setting ground rules is a key component of the facilitation process especially in meetings convened to discuss difficult problems or for training. These rules are usually reiterated in some form at the outset of a facilitated meeting or workshop to ensure participants understand the various roles being employed and the responsibilities accorded to each. Certain aspects feature highly such as:
being open to suggestions
building on what is there, not knocking down ideas
allowing others space (to speak or express themselves)
mutual respect
that the facilitator does not own the topic under discussion and the identity of that owner is clear
rules of engagement such as time-outs and procedures that will be adopted
how unresolved issues will be captured and dealt with
Finally it is key that, during the meeting, it is clear that the owner of the topic is not expected to intervene to impose ideas beyond setting out parameters for consideration or to give insight. The facilitator in this respect owns the process of the meeting.
These are all closely associated with the idea of facilitation as a tool of (workplace) empowerment.
Consulting with the client A facilitator will work with a client who is someone in an organisation, or diverse group, who is calling them and has invited the facilitator to assist. They will try to understand the purpose and outcome of the meeting by discussing it with the client.
Making arrangements for the meeting The practical arrangements will be arranged or managed by the facilitator. They will also consider in detail the location and layout of the room. They will research the meeting beforehand to understand why it is being held and that all stakeholders are invited and able to attend.
Setting the agenda They will understand in detail how each item on the agenda is to be tackled and how long it should take. Using specialist techniques they will allow participants to understand all the issues at stake and all alternative courses of action. The Facilitator designs the process (agenda) based on his or her discussions with the participants and the Facilitator's process expertise.
Understanding group norms They will not make assumptions about the way people interact and will try to adapt to the ways of different cultures and organisations.
Understanding group dynamics Whilst tackling the practical aspects of a meeting they remain aware of undercurrents, both verbal and non-verbal, which may indicate problems the group is having. The facilitator may try to assist the group in becoming aware of these.
Consider the need to flexcilitate "Flex-cil-a-tate" whereby one flexibly facilitates a discussion or a meeting with an end goal and a plan in mind to get there and then adjust the plan based on the responses and direction the group go but still bring them back around to the end goal.
The role of the facilitator
See Facilitator for details of exactly how a facilitator might run a meeting.
It is important to note that the tasks and responsibilities listed below do not need to be covered by a single facilitator. The role of the facilitator is often shared by multiple people, for instance one person may arrange the logistics before the meeting, another person may keep time and monitor the agenda during the meeting, and a third person may be responsible for recording agreements.
Prior to a meeting, facilitators:
research the meeting
find out the purpose and goal (if any) of the meeting
establish who needs to attend
draw up a draft agenda and design the group processes to attain the necessary results
share the agenda with potential attendees, changing it as necessary
ensure everyone gets fully briefed for the meeting and that everyone knows the purpose and potential consequences of the meeting
During the meeting, facilitators:
monitor the agenda
keep time
manage the group process
encourage participation from all attendees
help participants understand different points of view
foster solutions that incorporate diverse points of view
manage participant behaviour
create a safe environment
teach new thinking skills and facilitate structured thinking activities
record (with an agreed phraseology) agreements. They may also note unresolved issues for later debate.
The facilitator may write up and publish the results of the meeting to everyone concerned including those who could not attend.
The form of meeting
A meeting usually means everyone is together in the same room at the same time and this is the major situation in which facilitation is practiced. With the introduction of modern telecommunications the field has grown to embrace other forms of meetings:
Same time same place The traditional meeting in a room with all parties present at the same time.
Same time different place The teleconference with either all parties at separate locations or with some in geographically dispersed sub meetings, all with audio / video connection.
Different time same place A meeting focussing on a particular physical location where people contribute as they pass by. A wall mounted notice board and/or poster display which allows individuals to add comments as they pass is one example . A survey using un-networked computers in a kiosk would also be a "different time same place" meeting.
Different time different place Meeting via a web link such as discussion groups, forums, blogs, and usenet. Specialist web-enabled group decision support software exists. Wikipedia discussion pages fall into this category.
Virtual facilitation
With the upheaval of the Digital Revolution the widespread use of Video conference combined with other digital tools for collaboration gave rise to an emergent field of virtual facilitation that occurs in the same time, different place meetings. Online meetings and workshops are great examples of virtual facilitation. In short, the approach brings remote team members together to discuss relevant topics in real-time.
See also
Decision conferencing
Dialogue mapping
Gradients of agreement scale
Graphic facilitation
References
Further reading
Bens, I. Facilitating with Ease!, (New & Revised Feb 2005) Jossey-Bass
Hogan, C.F. (1999), Facilitating Learning, Melbourne, Australia: Eruditions,
Hogan, C.F. (2000), Facilitating Empowerment, London: Kogan Page,
Hogan, C.F. (2002), Understanding Facilitation, London: Kogan Page,
Hogan, C.F. (2003), Practical Facilitation, London: Kogan Page,
Hogan, C.F. (2007), Facilitating Multicultural Groups: A Practical Guide, London: Kogan Page,
Kaner, S. with Lind, L., Toldi, C., Fisk, S., and Berger, D. Facilitator's Guide to Participatory Decision-Making, (2007) Jossey-Bass
Kayser, T. Mining Group Gold, (3rd Edition 2010) McGraw Hill
Schuman, S. (Editor). The IAF Handbook of Group Facilitation: Best Practices from the Leading Organization in Facilitation, (2005) Jossey-Bass
Schuman, S. (Editor). Creating a Culture of Collaboration, (2006) Jossey-Bass
Schwarz, R. The Skilled Facilitator, (3rd Edition 2017) Jossey-Bass
Josef W. Seifert: Visualisation - Presentation - Facilitation: Translation of the German Classic Gabal, Offenbach 2012.
Spencer, L. Winning Through Participation, (1989) Kendall Hunt Pub. Co.
Salas, Tillmann, McKee Visualisation in Participatory Programmes, (1999) Southbound, in association with UNICEF Dhaka,
Wilkinson, M. CLICK: The Virtual Meetings Book, (2013) Leadership Strategies Publishing
Wilkinson, M. The Secrets of Facilitation, (2nd Edition 2012) Jossey-Bass
External links
ATD: What Is Facilitation?
Meetings
Organizational theory | [
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228012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camping | Camping | Camping is an outdoor activity involving overnight stays away from home, either without shelter or using basic shelter such as a tent or a recreational vehicle. Typically participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment or an educational experience. The night (or more) spent outdoors distinguishes camping from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities.
Camping as a recreational activity became popular among elites in the early 20th century. With time, it grew in popularity among other socioeconomic classes. Modern campers frequent publicly owned natural resources such as national and state parks, wilderness areas, and commercial campgrounds. In a few countries, such as Sweden and Scotland, public camping is legal on privately-held land as well. Camping is a key part of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting, which use it to teach both self-reliance and teamwork.
Definition
Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation. Survivalist and wild campers typically set off with as little as possible to get by. Other campers might use specialised camping gear designed to provide comfort, including their own power and heat sources as well as camping furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is often enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, climbing, fishing, and hunting. Fastpacking involves both running and camping.
There is no universally held definition of what is and what is not camping. Just as with motels, which serve both recreational and business guests, the same campground may serve recreational campers, school field trips, migrant workers, and homeless at the same time. Fundamentally, it reflects a combination of intent and the nature of activities involved. A children's summer camp with dining hall meals and bunkhouse accommodations may have "camp" in its name but fails to reflect the spirit and form of "camping" as it is broadly understood. Similarly, a homeless person's lifestyle may involve many common camping activities, such as sleeping out and preparing meals over a fire, but fails to reflect the elective nature and pursuit of spirit rejuvenation that are integral aspect of camping. Likewise, cultures with itinerant lifestyles or lack of permanent dwellings cannot be said to be "camping" as this is considered their way of life.
History
The history of recreational camping is often traced back to Thomas Hiram Holding, a British travelling tailor, but. it was actually first popularised in the UK on the river Thames. By the 1880s, large numbers of visitors took part in the pastime, which was connected to the late Victorian craze for pleasure boating. Although Thomas Hiram Holding is often seen as the father of modern camping in the UK, he was responsible for popularising a different type of camping in the early twentieth century. He experienced the activity in his youth, when he had spent much time with his parents traveling across the American prairies. Later he embarked on a cycling and camping tour with some friends across Ireland. His book on his Ireland experience, Cycle and Camp in Connemara led to the formation of the first camping group in 1901, the Association of Cycle Campers, later to become the Camping and Caravanning Club. He wrote The Campers Handbook in 1908, so that he could share his enthusiasm for the great outdoors with the world.
Possibly the first commercial camping ground in the world was Cunningham's camp, near Douglas, Isle of Man, which opened in 1894. In 1906, the Association of Cycle Campers opened its first own camping site, in Weybridge. By that time the organization had several hundred members. In 1910 the Association was merged into the National Camping Club. Although the First World War was responsible for a certain hiatus in camping activity, the association received a new lease of life after the war when Sir Robert Baden-Powell (founder of the Boy Scouts movement) became its president in 1919.
In the US, camping may be traced to William Henry Harrison Murray's 1869 publication of Camp-Life in the Adirondacks resulting in a flood of visitors to the Adirondacks that summer.
The International Federation of Camping Clubs (Federation Internationale de Camping et de Caravanning) was founded in 1932 with national clubs from all over the world affiliating with it. By the 1960s, camping had become an established family holiday standard and today, campsites are ubiquitous across Europe and North America.
Types
Different types of camping may be named after their form of transportation, such as canoe camping, car camping,
RVing, and backpacking, including ultralight backpacking.
Camping is also labeled by lifestyle: Glamping (glamorous camping) combines camping with the luxury and amenities of a home or hotel, and has its roots in the early 1900s European and American safaris in Africa. Workamping allows campers to trade their labor variously for discounts on campsite fees, campground utilities, and even some degree of pay. Migrant camps are formed not for recreation, but as a temporary housing arrangement. Campgrounds for custom harvesters in the United States may include room to park combines and other large farm equipment.
Camping is also popular at air shows, notably at the Oshkosh air show where people often camp in a small tent under their aircraft's wing.
Equipment
The equipment used in camping varies with by intended activity. For instance, in survival camping the equipment consists of small items which have the purpose of helping the camper in providing food, heat and safety. The equipment used in this type of camping must be lightweight and it is restricted to the mandatory items. Other types of camping such as winter camping involve having specially designed equipment in terms of tents or clothing which is strong enough to protect the camper's body from the wind and cold.
Survival camping involves certain items that campers are recommended to have with them in case something goes wrong and they need to be rescued. A survival kit includes mandatory items which are small and must fit in one's pocket or which otherwise could be carried on one's person. This kit is useless in these circumstances if it is kept in the backpack that is left in camp. Such a kit should include a small metal container which can be used to heat water over a campfire, a small length of duct tape which can prove useful in many situations, and an emergency space blanket. These blankets are specially designed to occupy minimal space and are perfect for making emergency shelters, keeping the camper warm. Also because of the aluminum-like color this blanket is reflective which means it can be easily seen from an aircraft. Candle stubs are good in starting a fire as well as in warming an enclosed space. One or two band-aids are mandatory in this type of camping. Any camper, and not only the survival ones, need waterproof matches or a lighter and a large safety pin or fish hook which can be used in fishing. Rubber gloves, antiseptic wipes, tinfoil, jackknife, or halazone tablets (which purify the water) are also to be included into a survival kit. Although these seem too many items to be carried on one person, they are in fact small, lightweight and definitely useful.
Winter camping can be dangerous without respecting the basic rules when it comes to this particular activity.
List of common equipment
The following is a list of commonly used camping equipment:
First aid kit
Tent, lean-to, or other form of shelter
Hammer or mallet to drive tent stakes into the soil (hammer are often a claw hammer, which is also helpful for removing them)
Sleeping bag and/or blankets for warmth
Sleeping pad or air mattress to be placed underneath the sleeping bag for cushioning from stones and twigs, as well as for insulation from the ground
Lantern or flashlight
Hatchet, axe or saw for cutting firewood for a campfire
Fire starter for starting a campfire
Folding chairs for placement around a campfire
Ropes for stringing clothes line and for securing the shelter
Tarp for adding an additional layer of storm protection to a tent, and to shelter dining areas
Raincoat or poncho
Hiking boots
Fishing pole
Canteen (bottle)
Chuck box to hold camp kitchen items for food preparation, consumption, and cleanup
Trash bags, for the handling of waste; see leave no trace
Cathole trowel for sanitation in areas where a toilet is not provided
Insect repellent
Sunscreen for protecting the skin
Personal care products and towel
Cooler to store perishables and beverages. If electricity is available, a thermoelectric or stirling engine cooler can be used without the need for ice. Campers at modern campgrounds will normally bring perishable foods in coolers while backcountry campers will bring non-perishable foods such as dried fruits, nuts, jerky, and MREs.
Bottled water or portable water filter for areas that have access to rivers or lakes
Cooking implements such as a tripod chained grill, Dutch oven, or La Cotta clay pot can be used for cooking on a campfire. A portable stove can be used where campfires are forbidden or impractical. If using a campground with electricity, an electric frying pan or slow cooker can be used.
Firewood for campfires
Emergency Preparedness Kit
Multi-Tool or knife
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Much of the remaining needed camping equipment is commonly available in the home, including: dishes, pots, and pans; however, many people opt not to use their home items, but instead utilize equipment better tailored for camping. These amenities include heavy plastic tableware and salt and pepper shakers with tops that close in order to shelter the shakers from rain. Old kitchen gear purchased from thrift stores or garage sales may also be used in place of home items as an alternative to buying specialized (and more expensive) camping equipment. Backpackers use lightweight and portable equipment.
Campgrounds and commercial campsites
Campers span a broad range of age, ability, and ruggedness, and campsites are designed in many ways as well. Many campgrounds have sites with facilities such as fire rings, barbecue grills, utilities, shared bathrooms and laundry, as well as access to nearby recreational facilities, however, not all campsites have similar levels of development. Campsites can range from a patch of dirt, to a level, paved pad with sewer and electricity with many public and private campgrounds also offering cabin options. (For more information on facilities, see the campsite and RV park articles.)
Other vehicles used for camping include motorcycles, touring bicycles, boats, canoes, pack animals, and even bush planes; although backpacking on foot is a popular alternative.
Tent camping sites often cost less than campsites with full amenities, and most allow direct access by car. Some "walk-in" sites lie a short walk away from the nearest road, but do not require full backpacking equipment. Those who seek a rugged experience in the outdoors prefer to camp with only tents, or with no shelter at all ("under the stars").
Popularity
United States
According to an infographic produced by Red Rover Camping and based on data from the 2014 American Camper Report published by the Coleman Company, Inc. and the Outdoor Foundation, camping in the United States is gaining popularity after a fall of 4.2 million participants from 2011 to 2012.
United Kingdom
According to data provided by the Great British Tourism Survey conducted by Visit England, almost 4.5 million camping and caravanning holidays were taken by British residents during the first half of 2015, for an average of 3.7 nights. As in the United States, camping is gaining popularity, with an 8% increase in trips compared to the same period in 2014. The Caravan Club and the Camping and Caravanning Club represent UK campers.
Scotland allows "wild camping" on privately-owned wilderness.
France
Data collected by the Fédération Nationale De L'Hôtellerie De Plein Air (FNHPA) shows that around 113 million nights were taken at French campsites in 2015, which was up by 3.9% on the same period in 2014. French holidaymakers took 77 million of these, and the rest was made up of other nationalities, the majority of whom were Dutch, German and UK tourists. The French Government hopes to have 100 million tourists each year by 2030. The most popular region for camping is Languedoc and Roussillon with around 19,331,663 nights spent at campsites during 2015, whilst the department with the most campsites is the Vendée.
Camping and public access
Camping on open land, regardless of ownership, is legal in a few countries, including Sweden and Scotland. In Sweden, a right of public access – allowing outdoor recreational activity on privately held wilderness – is enshrined in the constitution. Large groups, however, must obtain the landowner's permission. In Scotland, people may camp on most uninclosed land, whether state- or privately owned. There is however a 'leave-no-trace' policy and a common-law outdoor-access code.
See also
Backpacking with animals
Bell tent
Bow drill
Camping food
Firelighting
Hammock camping
Outdoor cooking
Tarp tent
Wilderness acquired diarrhea
References
External links
Images of historic camping and hiking on the Long Trail, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Library
Reflections of Summer: Car Camping! Video produced by Oregon Field Guide
Procedural knowledge
Scoutcraft
Survival skills
Types of tourism
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228015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viterbi%20algorithm | Viterbi algorithm | The Viterbi algorithm is a dynamic programming algorithm for obtaining the maximum a posteriori probability estimate of the most likely sequence of hidden states—called the Viterbi path—that results in a sequence of observed events, especially in the context of Markov information sources and hidden Markov models (HMM).
The algorithm has found universal application in decoding the convolutional codes used in both CDMA and GSM digital cellular, dial-up modems, satellite, deep-space communications, and 802.11 wireless LANs. It is now also commonly used in speech recognition, speech synthesis, diarization, keyword spotting, computational linguistics, and bioinformatics. For example, in speech-to-text (speech recognition), the acoustic signal is treated as the observed sequence of events, and a string of text is considered to be the "hidden cause" of the acoustic signal. The Viterbi algorithm finds the most likely string of text given the acoustic signal.
History
The Viterbi algorithm is named after Andrew Viterbi, who proposed it in 1967 as a decoding algorithm for convolutional codes over noisy digital communication links. It has, however, a history of multiple invention, with at least seven independent discoveries, including those by Viterbi, Needleman and Wunsch, and Wagner and Fischer. It was introduced to Natural Language Processing as a method of part-of-speech tagging as early as 1987.
Viterbi path and Viterbi algorithm have become standard terms for the application of dynamic programming algorithms to maximization problems involving probabilities.
For example, in statistical parsing a dynamic programming algorithm can be used to discover the single most likely context-free derivation (parse) of a string, which is commonly called the "Viterbi parse". Another application is in target tracking, where the track is computed that assigns a maximum likelihood to a sequence of observations.
Extensions
A generalization of the Viterbi algorithm, termed the max-sum algorithm (or max-product algorithm) can be used to find the most likely assignment of all or some subset of latent variables in a large number of graphical models, e.g. Bayesian networks, Markov random fields and conditional random fields. The latent variables need, in general, to be connected in a way somewhat similar to an HMM, with a limited number of connections between variables and some type of linear structure among the variables. The general algorithm involves message passing and is substantially similar to the belief propagation algorithm (which is the generalization of the forward-backward algorithm).
With the algorithm called iterative Viterbi decoding one can find the subsequence of an observation that matches best (on average) to a given hidden Markov model. This algorithm is proposed by Qi Wang et al. to deal with turbo code. Iterative Viterbi decoding works by iteratively invoking a modified Viterbi algorithm, reestimating the score for a filler until convergence.
An alternative algorithm, the Lazy Viterbi algorithm, has been proposed. For many applications of practical interest, under reasonable noise conditions, the lazy decoder (using Lazy Viterbi algorithm) is much faster than the original Viterbi decoder (using Viterbi algorithm). While the original Viterbi algorithm calculates every node in the trellis of possible outcomes, the Lazy Viterbi algorithm maintains a prioritized list of nodes to evaluate in order, and the number of calculations required is typically fewer (and never more) than the ordinary Viterbi algorithm for the same result. However, it is not so easy to parallelize in hardware.
Pseudocode
This algorithm generates a path , which is a sequence of states that generate the observations with , where is the number of possible observations in the observation space .
Two 2-dimensional tables of size are constructed:
Each element of stores the probability of the most likely path so far with that generates .
Each element of stores of the most likely path so far
The table entries are filled by increasing order of :
,
,
with and as defined below. Note that does not need to appear in the latter expression, as it's non-negative and independent of and thus does not affect the argmax.
Input
The observation space ,
the state space ,
an array of initial probabilities such that stores the probability that ,
a sequence of observations such that if the observation at time is ,
transition matrix of size such that stores the transition probability of transiting from state to state ,
emission matrix of size such that stores the probability of observing from state .
Output
The most likely hidden state sequence
function VITERBI
for each state do
end for
for each observation do
for each state do
end for
end for
for do
end for
return
end function
Restated in a succinct near-Python:
# probability == p. Tm: the transition matrix. Em: the emission matrix.
function viterbi(O, S, Π, Tm, Em): best_path
trellis ← matrix(length(S), length(O)) # To hold p. of each state given each observation.
pointers ← matrix(length(S), length(O)) # To hold backpointer to best prior state
# Determine each hidden state's p. at time 0...
for s in range(length(S)):
trellis[s, 0] ← Π[s] * Em[s, O[0]]
# ...and afterwards, tracking each state's most likely prior state, k.
for o in range(1, length(O)):
for s in range(length(S)):
k ← argmax(k in trellis[k, o-1] * Tm[k, s] * Em[s, o])
trellis[s, o] ← trellis[k, o-1] * Tm[k, s] * Em[s, o]
pointers[s, o] ← k
best_path ← list()
k ← argmax( k in trellis[k, length(O)-1] ) # Find k of best final state
for o in range(length(O)-1, -1, -1): # Backtrack from last observation.
best_path.insert(0, S[k]) # Insert previous state on most likely path
k ← pointers[k, o] # Use backpointer to find best previous state
return best_path
Explanation
Suppose we are given a hidden Markov model (HMM) with state space , initial probabilities of being in state and transition probabilities of transitioning from state to state . Say, we observe outputs . The most likely state sequence that produces the observations is given by the recurrence relations
Here is the probability of the most probable state sequence responsible for the first observations that have as its final state. The Viterbi path can be retrieved by saving back pointers that remember which state was used in the second equation. Let be the function that returns the value of used to compute if , or if . Then
Here we're using the standard definition of arg max.
The complexity of this implementation is . A better estimation exists if the maximum in the internal loop is instead found by iterating only over states that directly link to the current state (i.e. there is an edge from to ). Then using amortized analysis one can show that the complexity is , where is the number of edges in the graph.
Example
Consider a village where all villagers are either healthy or have a fever and only the village doctor can determine whether each has a fever. The doctor diagnoses fever by asking patients how they feel. The villagers may only answer that they feel normal, dizzy, or cold.
The doctor believes that the health condition of his patients operates as a discrete Markov chain. There are two states, "Healthy" and "Fever", but the doctor cannot observe them directly; they are hidden from him. On each day, there is a certain chance that the patient will tell the doctor he is "normal", "cold", or "dizzy", depending on his health condition.
The observations (normal, cold, dizzy) along with a hidden state (healthy, fever) form a hidden Markov model (HMM), and can be represented as follows in the Python programming language:
obs = ("normal", "cold", "dizzy")
states = ("Healthy", "Fever")
start_p = {"Healthy": 0.6, "Fever": 0.4}
trans_p = {
"Healthy": {"Healthy": 0.7, "Fever": 0.3},
"Fever": {"Healthy": 0.4, "Fever": 0.6},
}
emit_p = {
"Healthy": {"normal": 0.5, "cold": 0.4, "dizzy": 0.1},
"Fever": {"normal": 0.1, "cold": 0.3, "dizzy": 0.6},
}
In this piece of code, start_p represents the doctor's belief about which state the HMM is in when the patient first visits (all he knows is that the patient tends to be healthy). The particular probability distribution used here is not the equilibrium one, which is (given the transition probabilities) approximately {'Healthy': 0.57, 'Fever': 0.43}. The transition_p represents the change of the health condition in the underlying Markov chain. In this example, there is only a 30% chance that tomorrow the patient will have a fever if he is healthy today. The emit_p represents how likely each possible observation, normal, cold, or dizzy is given their underlying condition, healthy or fever. If the patient is healthy, there is a 50% chance that he feels normal; if he has a fever, there is a 60% chance that he feels dizzy.
The patient visits three days in a row and the doctor discovers that on the first day he feels normal, on the second day he feels cold, on the third day he feels dizzy. The doctor has a question: what is the most likely sequence of health conditions of the patient that would explain these observations? This is answered by the Viterbi algorithm.
def viterbi(obs, states, start_p, trans_p, emit_p):
V = [{}]
for st in states:
V[0] [st] = {"prob": start_p[st] * emit_p[st] [obs[0]], "prev": None}
# Run Viterbi when t > 0
for t in range(1, len(obs)):
V.append({})
for st in states:
max_tr_prob = V[t - 1] [states[0]] ["prob"] * trans_p[states[0]] [st]
prev_st_selected = states[0]
for prev_st in states[1:]:
tr_prob = V[t - 1] [prev_st] ["prob"] * trans_p[prev_st] [st]
if tr_prob > max_tr_prob:
max_tr_prob = tr_prob
prev_st_selected = prev_st
max_prob = max_tr_prob * emit_p[st] [obs[t]]
V[t] [st] = {"prob": max_prob, "prev": prev_st_selected}
for line in dptable(V):
print(line)
opt = []
max_prob = 0.0
best_st = None
# Get most probable state and its backtrack
for st, data in V[-1].items():
if data["prob"] > max_prob:
max_prob = data["prob"]
best_st = st
opt.append(best_st)
previous = best_st
# Follow the backtrack till the first observation
for t in range(len(V) - 2, -1, -1):
opt.insert(0, V[t + 1] [previous] ["prev"])
previous = V[t + 1] [previous] ["prev"]
print ("The steps of states are " + " ".join(opt) + " with highest probability of %s" % max_prob)
def dptable(V):
# Print a table of steps from dictionary
yield " " * 5 + " ".join(("%3d" % i) for i in range(len(V)))
for state in V[0]:
yield "%.7s: " % state + " ".join("%.7s" % ("%lf" % v[state] ["prob"]) for v in V)
The function viterbi takes the following arguments: obs is the sequence of observations, e.g. ['normal', 'cold', 'dizzy']; states is the set of hidden states; start_p is the start probability; trans_p are the transition probabilities; and emit_p are the emission probabilities. For simplicity of code, we assume that the observation sequence obs is non-empty and that trans_p[i] [j] and emit_p[i] [j] is defined for all states i,j.
In the running example, the forward/Viterbi algorithm is used as follows:
viterbi(obs,
states,
start_p,
trans_p,
emit_p)
The output of the script is
$ python viterbi_example.py
0 1 2
Healthy: 0.30000 0.08400 0.00588
Fever: 0.04000 0.02700 0.01512
The steps of states are Healthy Healthy Fever with highest probability of 0.01512
This reveals that the observations ['normal', 'cold', 'dizzy'] were most likely generated by states ['Healthy', 'Healthy', 'Fever']. In other words, given the observed activities, the patient was most likely to have been healthy both on the first day when he felt normal as well as on the second day when he felt cold, and then he contracted a fever the third day.
The operation of Viterbi's algorithm can be visualized by means of a
trellis diagram. The Viterbi path is essentially the shortest
path through this trellis.
Soft output Viterbi algorithm
The soft output Viterbi algorithm (SOVA) is a variant of the classical Viterbi algorithm.
SOVA differs from the classical Viterbi algorithm in that it uses a modified path metric which takes into account the a priori probabilities of the input symbols, and produces a soft output indicating the reliability of the decision.
The first step in the SOVA is the selection of the survivor path, passing through one unique node at each time instant, t. Since each node has 2 branches converging at it (with one branch being chosen to form the Survivor Path, and the other being discarded), the difference in the branch metrics (or cost) between the chosen and discarded branches indicate the amount of error in the choice.
This cost is accumulated over the entire sliding window (usually equals at least five constraint lengths), to indicate the soft output measure of reliability of the hard bit decision of the Viterbi algorithm.
See also
Expectation–maximization algorithm
Baum–Welch algorithm
Forward-backward algorithm
Forward algorithm
Error-correcting code
Viterbi decoder
Hidden Markov model
Part-of-speech tagging
A* search algorithm
References
General references
(note: the Viterbi decoding algorithm is described in section IV.) Subscription required.
Subscription required.
(Describes the forward algorithm and Viterbi algorithm for HMMs).
Shinghal, R. and Godfried T. Toussaint, "Experiments in text recognition with the modified Viterbi algorithm," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol. PAMI-l, April 1979, pp. 184–193.
Shinghal, R. and Godfried T. Toussaint, "The sensitivity of the modified Viterbi algorithm to the source statistics," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. PAMI-2, March 1980, pp. 181–185.
External links
Implementations in Java, F#, Clojure, C# on Wikibooks
Tutorial on convolutional coding with viterbi decoding, by Chip Fleming
A tutorial for a Hidden Markov Model toolkit (implemented in C) that contains a description of the Viterbi algorithm
Viterbi algorithm by Dr. Andrew J. Viterbi (scholarpedia.org).
Implementations
Mathematica has an implementation as part of its support for stochastic processes
Susa signal processing framework provides the C++ implementation for Forward error correction codes and channel equalization here.
C++
C#
Java
Java 8
Julia (HMMBase.jl)
Perl
Prolog
Haskell
Go
SFIHMM includes code for Viterbi decoding.
Error detection and correction
Dynamic programming
Markov models
Articles with example Python (programming language) code | [
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228023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus%20Cremutius%20Cordus | Aulus Cremutius Cordus | Aulus Cremutius Cordus (died 25 AD) was a Roman historian. There are very few remaining fragments of his work, principally covering the civil war and the reign of Augustus. In AD 25 he was forced by Sejanus, who was praetorian prefect under Tiberius, to take his life after being accused violating the lex maiestas.
Life and death
Cordus was accused of treason by Satrius Secundus for having eulogized Brutus and spoken of Cassius as the last of the Romans. The Senate ordered the burning of his writings. Seneca the Younger, however, tells us that he most likely incurred Sejanus' displeasure for criticising him, because Sejanus had commissioned a statue of himself. We also know from this source—a letter to Cordus' daughter Marcia—that he starved himself to death. She was also instrumental in saving his work, so that it could be published again under Caligula. Apart from Seneca, he is mentioned by Tacitus, Quintilian, Suetonius and Dio Cassius. Even though Cordus committed suicide, his work survived.
The charge was, according to Tacitus, "a new charge for the first time heard" (novo ac tunc primum audito crimine). According to Mary R. McHugh, no one had been charged with maiestas (treason) for writing a history (editis annalibus). Tacitus wrote of him:
A few years after Cordus's death, Seneca the Younger wrote Ad Marciam in order to console Marcia, Cordus's daughter, on the occasion of her son Metilius's death. Even though Ad Marciam is not primarily about Cordus, Seneca indicates that the works of Cordus had been re-published. Suetonius unequivocally asserts that the works of Cremutius Cordus were put back into circulation during the reign of Gaius [Caligula].
Marcia seemed to have been actively involved in the re-publication of her father's works. When Seneca wrote Ad Marciam he mentioned that Metilius had died three years previously and Marcia was unable to seek solace even from her "beloved literature". Therefore, her contribution to the publication of her father's work pre-dates the death of her son.
Legacy
Vasily Rudich believes that "...the extent to which Seneca goes in his glorification of Cremutius Cordus is unbelievable." He also brings to attention the fact that "Seneca avoids any direct allusion to Cordus's alleged Republican sympathies, whatever their true character may have been."
According to Rebecca Langlands, Cordus's story "...is a tale which vividly demonstrates the possibility that a text might be received in a way which the author had not intended or anticipated, and be received in a way which might have dire consequences for author and text." As Langlands seems to suggest, Cordus was thus a man deeply misunderstood as a writer intending to vilify the royal family of the time, by his seemingly seditious work.
In his essay "Bookburning and Censorship in Ancient Rome", Frederick H. Cramer talks about the "...spineless schoolmaster Quintilian [who] grudgingly admitted that 'the bold utterances of Cremutius also have their admirers and deserve their fame, but he went on to assure readers that 'the passages that brought him to his ruin have been expurgated.'" Cramer also suggests that it was not unlikely for one of Quintilian's students to have been Tacitus, who later said:
The Fathers ordered his books to be burned...but some copies survived, hidden at the time, but afterwards published. Laughable, indeed, are the delusions of those who fancy that by their exercise of their ephemeral power, posterity can be defrauded of information. On the contrary, through persecution the reputation of the persecuted talents grows stronger. Foreign despots and all those who have used the same barbarous methods have only succeeded in bringing disgrace upon themselves and glory to their victims.
Cordus also appears in Ben Jonson's Sejanus: His Fall. According to Martin Butler, "Jonson gives Cordus an eloquent defence of the historian's objectivity, but we never learn what his ultimate fate is. History might redeem the past by preserving truth about it, but it is more likely that truth will be an early casualty of politics."
References
External links
Latin historians
Latin-language writers
Ancient Roman writers
Silver Age Latin writers
1st-century Romans
25 deaths
Year of birth unknown | [
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228026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om | Om | Ōṁ (or Aum) (; ) is the sound of a sacred spiritual symbol in Indic religions. The meaning and connotations of Om vary between the diverse schools within and across the various traditions. It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during meditation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
In Hinduism, wherein it signifies the essence of the Ultimate Reality (parabrahman) which is consciousness (paramatman), Om is one of the most important spiritual symbols. It refers to Atman (Self within) and Brahman (ultimate reality, entirety of the universe, truth, divine, supreme spirit, cosmic principles, knowledge). The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts. It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as Pranava yoga.
The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara/Omkara and Pranav/Pranava among many other names.
Common names and synonyms
The syllable Om is referred to by many names, including:
(); literally, "fore-sound", referring to Om as the primeval sound.
() or (); literally, "Om-maker", denoting the first source of the sound Om and connoting the act of creation.
(); literally, "one Om-maker", and an epithet of God in Sikhism. (see below)
(); meaning "song, chant", a word found in Samaveda and bhasya (commentaries) based on it, which is also used as a name of the syllable.
(); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single ligature. (see below)
Origin and meaning
The etymological origins of ōm/āum have long been discussed and disputed, with even the Upanishads having proposed multiple Sanskrit etymologies for āum, including: from "ām" (; "yes"), from "ávam" (; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" (; "to urge") or "āp-" (; "to attain"). In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a Proto-Indo-European introductory particle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (). However, contemporary Indologist Asko Parpola proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "*ām" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "*ākum", cognate with modern Tamil "ām" () meaning "yes".
Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable Om evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend Om as a "tool for meditation", explain various meanings that the syllable may be in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, Brahman, Atman, and Self-knowledge".
The syllable Om is first mentioned in the Upanishads, the mystical texts associated with the Vedanta philosophy. It has variously been associated with concepts of "cosmic sound" or "mystical syllable" or "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads. In the Aranyaka and the Brahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda". The symbolic foundations of Om are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads. The Aitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, for example suggests that the three phonetic components of Om (a + u + m) correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe. The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate Om with bhur-bhuvah-svah, the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to Om, such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated". The Samaveda, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps Om to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (Oum, Aum, Ovā Ovā Ovā Um, etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.
Pronunciation
When occurring within spoken Classical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of sandhi in Sanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initial o of "Om" is the guṇa vowel grade of u, not the vṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as a monophthong with a long vowel (), ie. ōm not aum. Furthermore, the final m is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as nasalisation (). As a result, Om regularly pronounced in the context of Sanskrit.
However, this o reflects the older Vedic Sanskrit diphthong au, which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to o. This being so, the syllable Om is often archaically considered as consisting of three phonemes: "a-u-m". Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong au viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the Vedas.
In the context of the Vedas, particularly the Vedic Brahmanas, the vowel is often pluta ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three morae (), that is, the time it takes to say three light syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomes with the prolongation of its first vowel. When e and o undergo they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial a prolonged, realised as an overlong open back unrounded vowel (ā̄um or a3um ). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as Arya Samaj.
However, Om is also attested in the Upanishads without pluta, and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of Om ( or ).
Written representations
South Asia
Om is represented in Devanagari as , composed of four elements: the vowel letter (), the vowel diacritic (), the consonant letter (), and the virama stroke which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. The syllable is sometimes written , notably by Arya Samaj, where (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates pluta ("three times as long"; see above) which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason Om may also be written in languages such as Hindi, with the avagraha () being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the avagraha in Sanskrit, where it would instead indicate the prodelision of the initial vowel.) Om may also be written , with an anusvara reflecting the pronunciation of in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as Urdu and Sindhi Om may be written in Arabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.
The Om symbol, , is a cursive ligature in Devanagari, combining () with () and the chandrabindu (ँ,). In Unicode, the symbol is encoded at and at as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".
In some South Asian writing systems, the Om symbol has been simplified further. In Eastern Nagari Om is written simply as without an additional curl. In languages such as Bengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for redundant. Similarly, in Odia Om is written as without an additional diacritic. In languages using these writing systems, the letter for does resemble any other so Om would already be read as as written without any an additional curl.
Nagari or Devanagari representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from Medieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. In Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura era coins (dated from the 1st to 4th centuries) are embossed with Om along with other symbols.
There have been proposals that the Om syllable may already have had written representations in Brahmi script, dating to before the Common Era. A proposal by Deb (1848) held that the swastika is "a monogrammatic representation of the syllable Om, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters () were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot". A commentary in Nature considers this theory questionable and unproven.
Roy (2011) proposed that Om was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol for Om.
East and Southeast Asia
The Om symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many Southeast Asian countries.
In Southeast Asia, the Om symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's urna curl and later a symbol of the path to nirvana, it is a popular yantra in Southest Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in sak yant religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of King Rama IV () and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia.
In Khmer and Thai, this symbol has been used as punctuation marking the end of a chapter or document. As punctuation, it is frequently referred to as koŭmotr () in Khmer and khomut () in Thai; in both cases the term is borrowed from Sanskrit (; ) and literally means "cow urine". The symbol appears frequently in Khmer Buddhist literature.
The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day.
In Chinese characters, Om is typically transliterated as either 唵 () or 嗡 ().
Representation in various scripts
Northern Brahmic
Southern Brahmic
East Asian
Other
Hinduism
In Hinduism, Om is one of the most important spiritual sounds. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts, and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as yoga.
It is the most sacred syllable symbol and mantra of Brahman, which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Self within).
It is called the Shabda Brahman (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (Pranava) of the universe.
Vedas
Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the Rigveda Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by Om but by Om followed by the formula bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ. Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with Om.
Brahmanas
Aitareya Brahmana
The Aitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explains Om as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".
Upanishads
Chandogya Upanishad
The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om". It calls the syllable Om as udgitha (; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the udgitha (song, Om).
() is speech, states the text, and () is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song. The highest song is Om, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because Adhvaryu invokes it, the Hotr recites it, and Udgatr sings it.
The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between Devas (gods) and Asuras (demons). Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively. The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the Udgitha (song of Om) unto themselves, thinking, "with this song we shall overcome the demons". The syllable Om is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.
Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable Om in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes. In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of Om evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where Om is linked to the Highest Self, and section 2.23 where the text asserts Om is the essence of three forms of knowledge, Om is Brahman and "Om is all this [observed world]".
Katha Upanishad
The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage , who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation). In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge () as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance () as the pursuit of the pleasant. It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word Om.
Maitri Upanishad
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth Prapathakas (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of Om. The text asserts that Om represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are A + U + M.
The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
as light-endowed body – Agni, Vayu, and Aditya;
as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra, and Vishnu;
as mouth-endowed body – garhapatya, dakshinagni, and ahavaniya;
as knowledge-endowed body – Rig, Saman, and Yajur;
as world-endowed body – , , and ;
as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
as heat-endowed body – breath, fire, and Sun;
as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Moon;
as thought-endowed body – intellect, mind, and psyche.
Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless. The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless isn't changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable Om as the Self.
The world is Om, its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable Om, asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on Om, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).
Mundaka Upanishad
The Mundaka Upanishad in the second Mundakam (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol Om.
Adi Shankara, in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states Om as a symbolism for Atman (Self).
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world". Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies. This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from A + U + M + "silence" (or without an element).
Om as all states of Time.
In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are Om. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is Om expressed.
Om as all states of Ātman .
In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold. Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.
Om as all states of Consciousness.
In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ekatma (being one with Self, the oneness of Self). These four are A + U + M + "without an element" respectively.
Om as all of Knowledge.
In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable Om. It states that the first element of Om is A, which is from Apti (obtaining, reaching) or from Adimatva (being first). The second element is U, which is from Utkarsa (exaltation) or from Ubhayatva (intermediateness). The third element is M, from Miti (erecting, constructing) or from Mi Minati, or apīti (annihilation). The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads. The text asserts that Om is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).
Ganapati Upanishad
The Ganapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and Om.
Ramayana
In Valmiki's Ramayana, Rama is identified with Om, with Brahma saying to Rama:
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, in the Epic Mahabharata, mentions the meaning and significance of Om in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "Om which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal Brahman".
The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the Gita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of Om during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:
Puranas
The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of Om in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.
Vaishnava traditions
The Vaishnava Garuda Purana equates the recitation of Om with obeisance to Vishnu. According to the Vayu Purana, Om is the representation of the Hindu Trimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. A for Brahma, U for Vishnu and M for Shiva. The Bhagavata Purana (9.14.46-48) identifies the Pranava as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of a-u-m as an invocation of seminal birth, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).
Shaiva traditions
In Shaiva traditions, the Shiva Purana highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the Pranava or Om. Shiva is declared to be Om, and that Om is Shiva.
Shakta traditions
In the thealogy of Shakta traditions, Om connotes the female divine energy, Adi Parashakti, represented in the Tridevi: A for the creative energy (the Shakti of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, U for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and M for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), Mahakali. The 12th book of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana describes the Goddess as the mother of the Vedas, the Adya Shakti (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.
Other texts
Yoga Sutra
The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's Yogasutra links Om to Yoga practice, as follows:
Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of Om in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.
Chaitanya Charitamrita
In Krishnava traditions, Krishna is revered as Svayam Bhagavan, the Supreme Lord himself, and Om is interpreted in light of this. According to the Chaitanya Charitamrita, Om is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. A is said to represent Bhagavan Krishna (Vishnu), U represents Srimati Radharani (Mahalakshmi), and M represents jiva, the Self of the devotee.
Jainism
In Jainism, Om is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi by their initials A+A+A+U+M ().
The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line:
By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar mantra, the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".
Buddhism
Om is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Indian Hinduism and Tantra.
In East Asian Buddhism, Om is often transliterated as the Chinese character (pinyin ) or (pinyin ).
Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana
In Tibetan Buddhism, Om is often placed at the beginning of mantras and dharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (Bīja mantra), Om is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism.
Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra to be , with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.
has been described by the 14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha". According to Simpkins, Om is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.
Japanese Buddhism
A-un
The term is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "a" and "", written in Devanagari as . In Japanese, it is often conflated with the syllable Om. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first () and the last () letters of the Devanagari abugida, with diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-" of "". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things. In Japanese Mikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe. This is comparable to Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by Christianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.
The term a-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as or , indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.
Niō guardian kings and komainu lion-dogs
The term is also used in Buddhist architecture and Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the Niō () and the komainu (). One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "A-un". The general name for statues with an open mouth is , that for those with a closed mouth .
Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist temple gates and stupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (Vajrapani).
Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (Agyō), the other closed (Ungyō).
Sikhism
Ik Onkar (; iconically represented as ) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture. Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar", Ik Onkar literally means "one Om-maker"; these words are a statement that there is "one God", understood to refer to the "absolute monotheistic unity of God" and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".
According to Pashaura Singh, Onkar is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (shabad), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".
Ik Onkar is a significant name of God in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "Aum" in the Upanishads and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (Trailokya) of creation. According to Wazir Singh, Onkar is a "variation of Om (Aum) of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying seed-force that evolves as the universe". However, in Sikhism, Onkar is interpreted differently than in other Indian religions; Onkar refers directly to the creator of ultimate reality and consciousness, and not to the creation. Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled Onkar in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".
Thelema
For both symbolic and numerological reasons, Aleister Crowley adapted aum into a Thelemic magical formula, AUMGN, adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to the m to form the compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, MGN, have a numerological value of 93, a number with polysemic significance in Thelema. Om appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's magical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the Gnostic Mass. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of Liber Samekh and in detail in chapter 7 of Magick (Book 4).
Modern reception
The Brahmic script Om-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard Devanagari form (), but the Tibetan alphabet Om () has also gained limited currency in popular culture.
In meditation
Meditating and chanting of Om can be done by first concentrating on a picture of Om and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Just say Om Joel Stein, Time Magazine Archives
Autonomic changes during "OM" meditation Telles et al. (1995)
The Mantra Om: Word and Wisdom Swami Vivekananda
External links
Brahmic graphemes
Hindu philosophical concepts
Buddhist symbols
Hindu symbols
Jain symbols
Sikh symbols
Buddhist mantras
Hindu mantras
Jain mantras
Thelema | [
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228040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20the%20Mood | In the Mood | "In the Mood" is a popular big band-era jazz standard recorded by American bandleader Glenn Miller. "In the Mood" is based on the composition "Tar Paper Stomp" by Wingy Manone. The first recording under the name "In the Mood" was released by Edgar Hayes & His Orchestra in 1938.
In 1983, the Glenn Miller recording from 1939 was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2004, the recording was inducted into the Library of Congress National Recording Registry which consists of recordings that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."
In 1999, National Public Radio (NPR) included the 1939 Glenn Miller recording in its list of "The 100 most important American musical works of the 20th century".
Glenn Miller's "In the Mood", with "I Want to Be Happy" on the B-side, became the best-selling swing instrumental.
Arrangement
"In the Mood" starts with a saxophone section theme based on repeated arpeggios that are rhythmically displaced; trumpets and trombones add accent riffs. The arrangement has two solo sections: a "tenor fight" or chase solo—in one recording between Tex Beneke and Al Klink—and a 16-bar trumpet solo by Clyde Hurley. At the end of the song, a coda climbs triumphantly, then sounds a sustained unison tonic pitch with a rim shot.
History
"In the Mood" was an arrangement by Joe Garland based on an existing melody. Lyrics were added by Andy Razaf. The main theme with repeated arpeggios rhythmically displaced appeared under the title "Tar Paper Stomp" and was credited to trumpeter Wingy Manone. Manone recorded "Tar Paper Stomp" on August 28, 1930, in Richmond, Indiana, and released it as a 78 single for Champion Records under the name Barbecue Joe and his Hot Dogs. It was re-released in 1935 by Wingy Manone's Orchestra.
Horace Henderson used the same riff in "Hot and Anxious", which was recorded by his brother Fletcher Henderson on March 19, 1931, for Columbia under the name the Baltimore Bell Hops. Don Redman recorded "Hot and Anxious" for Brunswick in 1932.
Under copyright laws, a tune that had not been written down and registered with the copyright office could be appropriated by any musician with a good ear. Manone raised the similarity between "Tar Paper Stomp" and "In the Mood" to Joe Garland and to the publisher Shapiro, Bernstein, and Company of New York. Manone also discussed the issue in DownBeat magazine.
"Tar Paper Stomp" was copyrighted on November 6, 1941, as a pianoforte version by Peer International.
The first recording of Joe Garland's version of "In the Mood" was made by Edgar Hayes and his Orchestra in 1938 with Garland participating. It was released as a B side to their recording of "Stardust" for Decca. On this recording there was a baritone saxophone duet rather than a tenor saxophone battle. The riff had appeared in a 1935 recording by the Mills Blue Rhythm Band entitled "There's Rhythm in Harlem", which had been composed and arranged by Garland. Before offering it to Miller, Garland sold it in 1938 to Artie Shaw, who chose not to record it because the original arrangement was too long, but he did perform it in concert.
Artie Shaw's version was over six minutes long and met a lackluster audience response. Jerry Gray arranged Shaw's version. The band later performed a shorter version. The Hayes recording was over three minutes in length to fit on one side of a 78 record.
The song was sold in 1939 to Glenn Miller, who experimented with the arrangement. The author of the final arrangement is unknown. One possibility is Eddie Durham because he wrote other arrangements on the same day that "In the Mood" was recorded. Other possibilities include pianist Chummy MacGregor, who was Miller's chief arranger, John Chalmers, and Miller himself. According to an account by MacGregor, "all they used of the original arrangement were the two front saxophone strains and another part that occurred later on in the arrangement." Both MacGregor and Miller were involved in creating the final arrangement: "MacGregor mentioned that additional solos were added to the original arrangement and he wrote the finishing coda. Miller probably edited some of the arrangement along with MacGregor."
Two copyrights were filed by Joseph Copeland Garland on June 8 and November 26, 1938, before the song was published by Lewis Music Pub. Co., Inc. on October 31, 1939, with Joe Garland the lone songwriter. Then on November 27, a copyright was filed with both Garland and Razaf by Shapiro, Bernstein & Co., Inc. of New York. A final copyright was filed by Shapiro, Bernstein on December 11, 1939, worded as follows: "In the mood; fox-trot, Andy Razaf & Joe Garland, arr. Joe Garland as suggested by Glenn Miller; orch. pts., with w."
Two editions of the sheet music are in circulation. The 1939 publication credited to Garland and Razaf is in A♭ and has lyrics beginning: "Mister What-cha-call-em, what-cha doin' tonight?" The 1960 reprint credited only to Garland (with piano arrangement by Robert C. Haring) is in G and has lyrics beginning: "Who's the livin' dolly with the beautiful eyes?"
The personnel on Miller's recording included Al Mastren and Paul Tanner on trombone; Clyde Hurley, Legh Knowles, and Dale McMickle on trumpet; Wilbur Schwartz on clarinet; Hal McIntyre on alto saxophone; Tex Beneke, Al Klink, and Harold Tennyson on tenor saxophone; Chummy MacGregor on piano; Richard Fisher on guitar; Rowland Bundock on double bass; and Moe Purtill on drums.
Other versions
In February 1944, the Glenn Miller RCA Victor Bluebird 1939 studio recording of "In the Mood" was released as a V-Disc, one of a series of recordings sent free by the U.S. War Department to overseas military personnel during World War II. A second version recorded by Glenn Miller's Overseas Band in 1945, was released in May 1948. A new recording by Glenn Miller with the American Band of the Allied Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was broadcast to Germany in 1944 on the radio program The Wehrmacht Hour.
This piece of music was not new in Europe. The first Swiss record of "In the Mood" were released in April 1940 by Teddy Stauffer und seine Original Teddies in Zurich. Another interpretation was made by Ernst van't Hoff in February 1941 in Berlin.
In 1951 a Ferranti Mark 1 computer at the University of Manchester played "In the Mood", one of the first songs to be played by a computer, and the oldest known recording of digitally generated music.
In December 1959, the rendition of "In the Mood" that Ernie Fields and his Orchestra recorded peaked at number 4 by means of the Billboard popular hit parade and number 7 by means of both the Rhythm and Blues and the Cash Box hit parades.
In the winter of 1977, a novelty version by the Henhouse Five Plus Too (a Ray Stevens project) employing the sounds of clucking chickens entered the U.S. Pop Top 40: (Billboard No. 40, Cash Box #37).
Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers prominently featured "In the Mood" as part of their hit medley "Swing the Mood", which was a #1 single in the UK in 1989 and reached #11 in the US in 1990.
John Lee Hooker said that "In the Mood" was the inspiration for his song "I'm in the Mood" which became a No. 1 hit on the R&B Singles chart.
In 2021, Art of Noise released an album of a 1986 live show titled In The City, Live In Tokyo, 1986 which contains an encore cover of "In The Mood".
In Popular Culture
In the Mood is mentioned in conjunction with the musician Joe Loss in Episode Six of Series Four of Are You Being Served?, entitled O What a Tangled Web.
See also
List of 1930s jazz standards
References
External links
Library of Congress essay on the National Recording Registry
United States National Recording Registry recordings
1939 songs
Glenn Miller songs
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Songs written by Andy Razaf
American jazz songs
1930s jazz standards
Swing jazz standards
Benny Goodman songs
Bluebird Records singles
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228043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campsite | Campsite | A campsite or camping pitch is a place used for overnight stay in an outdoor area. In British English, a campsite is an area, usually divided into a number of pitches, where people can camp overnight using tents, campervans or caravans; this British English use of the word is synonymous with the US English expression campground. In American English, the term campsite generally means an area where an individual, family, group, or military unit can pitch a tent or park a camper; a campground may contain many campsites.
There are two types of campsites: an impromptu area (as one might decide to stop while backpacking or hiking, or simply adjacent to a road through the wilderness),
and a designated area with various facilities.
Campgrounds
The term camp comes from the Latin word campus, meaning "field". Therefore, a campground consists typically of open pieces of ground where a camper can pitch a tent or park a camper. More specifically a campsite is a dedicated area set aside for camping and for which often a user fee is charged. Campsites typically feature a few (but sometimes no) improvements.
Dedicated campsites, known as campgrounds, usually have some amenities. Common amenities include, listed roughly in order from most to least common:
Fireplaces or fire pits in which to build campfires (this can be a circle of rocks, a metal enclosure, a metal grate, a concrete spot, or even just a hole).
Road access for vehicles
A gravel or concrete pad on which to park a vehicle
Picnic tables
Marked spaces indicating a boundary for one camper or a group of campers
Reservations to ensure there will be available space to camp
Utility hookups, such as electricity, water, and sewer, primarily for the use of travel trailers, recreational vehicles, or similar
Raised platforms on which to set up tents
Piped potable water
Campgrounds may include further amenities:
Pit toilets (outhouses)
Flush toilets and showers
Sinks and mirrors in the bathrooms
A small convenience store
Shower facilities (with or without hot water)
Wood for free or for sale for use in cooking or for a campfire
Garbage cans or large rubbish bins in which to place refuse
Camping outside a designated campsite may be forbidden by law. It is thought to be a nuisance, harmful to the environment, and is often associated with vagrancy. However some countries have specific laws and/or regulations allowing camping on public lands (see Freedom to roam). In the United States, many national and state parks have dedicated campsites and sometimes also allow impromptu backcountry camping by visitors. U.S. National Forests often have established campsites, but generally allow camping anywhere, except within a certain distance of water sources or developed areas. Camping may also be prohibited in certain ‘special areas’ of national forests containing unusual landforms or vegetation. And if conditions allow campfires, a campfire permit is required for campfires outside of developed campsites.
In Britain, it is more commonly known as wild camping, and is mostly illegal. However, Scotland has a relaxed view and wild camping is legal in most of Scotland.
In many parts of Canada, "roughing it" or "dormir a la belle etoile" (French) is considered to be wilderness camping on government owned, public land known as crown land and commonly called "the bush". There are no amenities of any kind and typically no development except for possibly logging roads or ATV trails, and few rules beyond the requirement in some provinces to move the site at least 100 metres every 21 days.
RV parks/caravan parks
In North America many campgrounds have facilities for Recreational Vehicles and are also known as RV parks. Similar facilities in the UK are known as Caravan Parks. The Kampgrounds of America (KOA) is a large chain of commercial campgrounds located throughout the United States and Canada.
Both commercial and governmental campgrounds typically charge a nominal fee for the privilege of camping there, to cover expenses, and in the case of an independent campground, to make a profit. However, there are some in North America that do not charge a use fee and rely on sources such as donations and tax dollars. Staying the night in a big-box store parking lot is also common (called "boondocking"), and some retailers welcome RVs to their parking lots.
Trailer parks
Frequently confused with campsites, campgrounds and RV parks, trailer parks are made up of long term or semi-permanent residents occupying mobile homes, park trailers or RVs.
Holiday park
The holiday park is a United Kingdom version of the North American trailer park. Created to allow coastal resorts to enable temporary and high-income accommodation to be easily created, under UK planning laws, no residents are permanent, and the park must be wholly shut to all for at least two months each year. All of the mobile homes are either available for rent from the land owner, or pitches are leased on a long-term basis from the land owner and the lease's own mobile home placed on the pitch. Permanent sites owners lease includes the provision by the land owner of water, sewerage and general site and grounds maintenance. Some holiday parks includes a small campsite for those touring the area, where they can pay to pitch tents or site touring caravans and motorhomes. Touring campsites have full access to the Holiday parks facilities, including clothes washing and showering. Most holiday parks include a central entertainments block, which can include a shop, restaurants, and a multi-purpose theatre used for both stage and activity-based entertainment.
Types of holiday park accommodation in the UK
Caravan Holiday Homes
Holiday parks vary in size and type, as do the kinds of accommodation available within them. Caravans are a popular choice with holiday makers, and modern varieties come complete with features like double glazing and central heating, cookers, fridges, showers, hot/cold water supplies, electricity and gas mains input. A standard caravan is a single unit, built to a maximum of 14 feet wide.
Other types of mobile home include Lodges and Park Homes which are more expensive than caravans and offer more luxurious features. Higher end Lodges can be built using some of the same methods as traditional bricks and mortar buildings and include familiar materials like plasterboard and tongue and groove walls for an end result that's very similar to a standard house. A standard lodge uses similar materials as a standard caravan such as wood, gypsum board and plywood where the main difference being the extra width. Lodges and Parkhomes can come in sizes up to 22 feet wide and 45 feet long, making them a popular choice with big families and large groups.
Holiday homes can be rented on an ad-hoc basis or purchased – caravans can be purchased from around £30,000 while park homes and lodges can cost between £100,000 and £500,000.
Once purchased, holiday homes have various ongoing costs including insurance, site fees, local authority rates, utility charges, winterisation and depreciation. Depending on the holiday home and the park these costs can range from £1,000 to £40,000 per year.
Certificated & Certified Locations
Certificated & Certified Locations are smaller privately owned caravan sites which have to be approved by the UK based Camping & Caravanning Club and The Caravan Club (and other organisations). These campsites are normally reserved exclusively for Club members. These smaller campsites are allowed to operate under The Public Health Act 1936 and The Caravan and Control of Development Act 1960.
Backcountry camping
In the U.S., backcountry or dispersed camping is common in large undeveloped protected areas. These areas can only be reached on foot, bicycle, canoe or on horseback. The camping areas are usually established campsites or "zones", which have a predetermined maximum number of persons that are allowed to stay in the section per night. Strict regulations are imposed regarding food storage and resource protection. Usually in organized parks or wilderness areas, backcountry campsites require a permit, which may be free, obtainable at visitor centers and ranger stations. Backcountry camping in other areas may not require a permit.
Canadians refer to it as crownland camping, or rough camping. Canadian citizens and people who have lived in Canada for at least seven months of the preceding 12-month period can camp for free up to 21 days on any one site in a calendar year. This ensures sites are available to others and helps reduce environmental impacts. You can reference the crownland atlas (map) for usage designations or visit one of the webpages (map) or blogs where the exploring is done for you.
History
United States
As with camping, campgrounds predated the automobile. When President Theodore Roosevelt addressed Congress in 1901, he called for the creation of free campgrounds on Federal lands. Already four national parks—Yellowstone, Sequoia, Yosemite, and Mount Rainier—were established and by the time Congress formally established the National Park Service in 1916, America had a dozen national parks.
While a handful of campgrounds, both public and private, could be found at tourist destinations, as late as 1936 it was still difficult to find places to stop along the route to these parks. Instead, it was common for motorists to pull off the road and set up camp on private property. This practice not only reinforced the negative, nomadic image of RV travelers, it was a detriment to expanding the trailer market. The Trailer Coach Manufacturers Association began to lobby states to establish sanitation standards and worked with civic and business leaders to establish additional campgrounds, emphasizing the economic benefits of a campground in their community. The Denver Civic Association wrote that a campground was just as essential to a town as a railway station. The trailer industry's efforts were effective. The number of campgrounds in the Trailer Travel Magazine's directory of campgrounds doubled to 1,650 by the end of 1936 and promised to double again by the end of 1937.
The campgrounds themselves also changed. Martin Hogue wrote, “The first public campgrounds in the United States were nothing more than large, dedicated clearings, free of trees, within which to concentrate groups of tourists.” A plant pathologist named Emilio Meinecke, was commissioned to study the effect of motor tourism in the Redwoods in 1929. Meinicke's recommendations explained that instead of allowing campers to park haphazardly within a park, the camper's impact on the environment could be minimized through campground roads forming a one-way loop leading to individual parking spurs next to each campsite. Although he would later continue to write of the effect of campers on nature, submitting a memorandum to the National Forest Service in 1935 entitled “The Trailer Menace,” he had established the basic design for campgrounds still used today.
Movies and documentaries
The Long, Long Trailer (1951)
Carry On Camping (1969)
Nuts in May (1976)
The Forest Primeval (1983)
Sleepaway Camp (1983)
Camping del Terrore (1986)
Dirty Dancing (1987)
Indian Summer (1993)
Sune's Summer (1993)
Camping Cosmos (1996)
Ponterosa (2001)
Mon été au camping (2003)
Happy Camper (Camping sauvage) (2004)
Once I Was a Beehive (2015)
Bodom (2016)
See also
Bear-resistant food storage container
Camping
Cantonment
List of human habitation forms
Military camp
Motorhome stopover
National Park Service
Paraje
RV park
Summer camp
References
External links
Backpacking
Property law
Human habitats
Camping | [
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228044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches%20Museum | Deutsches Museum | The Deutsches Museum (German Museum, officially (English: German Museum of Masterpieces of Science and Technology)) in Munich, Germany, is the world's largest museum of science and technology, with about 28,000 exhibited objects from 50 fields of science and technology. It receives about 1.5 million visitors per year.
The museum was founded on 28 June 1903, at a meeting of the Association of German Engineers (VDI) as an initiative of Oskar von Miller. It is the largest museum in Munich. For a period of time the museum was used to host pop and rock concerts including The Who, Jimi Hendrix and Elton John.
Museumsinsel
The main site of the Deutsches Museum is a small island in the Isar river, which had been used for rafting wood since the Middle Ages. The island did not have any buildings before 1772 because it was regularly flooded prior to the building of the Sylvensteinspeicher.
In 1772 the Isar barracks were built on the island and, after the flooding of 1899, the buildings were rebuilt with flood protection. In 1903 the city council announced that they would donate the island for the newly built Deutsches Museum. The island formerly known as Kohleninsel (coal island) was then renamed Museumsinsel.
Other sites
In addition to the main site on the Museumsinsel, the museum has two branches in and near Munich and one in Bonn.
The Flugwerft Schleißheim branch is located some 18 kilometres north of Munich's city centre close to Schleißheim Palace. It is based on the premises of one of the first military airbases in Germany founded just before World War I. It comprises the old air control and command centre as well as modern buildings added in the late 2000s after strong endorsement from Franz Josef Strauss, former prime minister of the state of Bavaria (1978 to 1988), who was a passionate flyer.
The Flugwerft Schleißheim displays various interesting airplanes for which there was insufficient room at the Museumsinsel site in downtown Munich. Among the more prominent exhibits is a Horten flying wing glider built in the 1940s, restored from the few surviving parts. A collection of the German constructions of VTOL (vertical take off and landing) planes developed in the 1950s and 1960s is unique. A range of Vietnam era fighter planes as well as Russian planes taken over from East Germany after the reunification are on display. This outstation also features a workshop dedicated to the restoration of all types of airplanes intended for static display.
In 2003 the Deutsches Museum Verkehrzentrum was opened. Located at Theresienhöhe in Munich it focuses on transportation technology.
The branch located in Bonn was opened in 1995 and focuses on German technology, science and research after 1945.
The latest opening of a branch was the Deutsches Museum Nuremberg - "Das Zukunftsmuseum", in September of 2021. It focuses on future technology and its impact on humans and society.
Oskar von Miller
Oskar von Miller studied electrical engineering and is otherwise known for building the first high voltage line from Miesbach to Munich (57 km) in 1882 for the electrical technology exhibition at the Glaspalast in Munich. In 1883 he joined AEG and founded an engineering office in Munich. The Frankfurt electricity exhibition in 1891 and several power plants contributed to the reputation of Oskar von Miller. In the early years, the exhibition and the collection of the Deutsches Museum were strongly influenced personally by Oskar von Miller.
History
A few months before the 1903 meeting of the Society of German Engineers, Oskar von Miller gathered a small group who supported his desire to found a science and technology museum. In a showing of support this group spontaneously donated 260,000 marks to the cause and elected a "Provisional Committee" to get the ball rolling.
In June 1903, Prince Ludwig agreed to act as patron of the museum and the city of Munich donated Coal Island as a site for the project. In addition, exhibits began to arrive from Munich, Germany, and abroad including collections from the Bavarian Academy. As no dedicated museum building existed, the exhibits were displayed in the National Museum.
On 12 November 1906, the temporary exhibits at the National Museum were ceremonially opened to the public and on November 13 the foundation stone was laid for the permanent museum.
The first name of the museum, the "German Museum for Masterpieces of Natural Science and Technology", was not meant to limit the museum to German advances in science and technology, but to express the importance of science and technology to the German people.
Oskar von Miller opened the new museum on his 70th birthday, 2 May 1925, after a delay of almost ten years. From the beginning, the museum displays are backed up by documents available in a public library and archives, which are open seven days a week to ensure access to the working public.
Before and during World War II the museum was put on a shoestring budget by the Nazi party and many exhibits were allowed to get out of date with a few exceptions such as the new automobile room dedicated 7 May 1937. By the end of 1944 the museum was badly damaged by air bombings with 80% of the buildings and 20% of the exhibits damaged or destroyed. As Allied troops marched into Munich in April 1945, museum director, Karl Bässler, barely managed to keep the last standing bridge to Museum Island from being blown up by retreating German troops.
Following the war the museum had to be closed for repairs and temporary tenants, such as the College of Technology and the Post Office used museum space as their own buildings were being reconstructed. The Museum was also home to the Central Committee of the Liberated Jews, representing Jewish displaced persons in the American Zone of Germany after the war, as well as to UNRRA that operated a camp for displaced persons and later an International University with over 2000 students.
In November 1945, the library was able to reopen, followed by the congress hall in January 1946. A special exhibit on fifty years of the Diesel engine opened in October 1947 and the regular exhibits began reopening in May 1948. Not until 1965, more than twenty years after the end of the war in Germany, did the exhibit area match (and then exceed) pre-war size.
During the 1950s, the museum focused on natural sciences rather than technology and many of the traditional large exhibits, such as civil engineering, were reduced in size to make way for more modern technological advances.
In August 1969, the Apollo 8 space capsule was shown in a special exhibit entitled "Man and Space" and in 1970 the first full-time director, Theo Stillger, was appointed. In the 1970s the mission statement of the museum was modified to encourage the explanation of the cultural significance of science and technology in exhibits.
The early 1980s saw severe damage to several exhibits due to arson resulting in the smallest exhibit space of 34,140 square meters. This was followed by an extensive reconstruction effort and additional building bringing the total exhibit space to 55,000 square meters by 1993. The 1980s and '90s also brought agreements with the Science Centre in Bonn and the government resulting in the creation of Deutsches Museum Bonn and the Flugwerft Schleißheim airfield exhibit.
In 1996, the Bavarian Government gave buildings at the historic Theresienhöhe site in Munich to the Deutsches Museum resulting in the creation of the new transportation museum, the Deutsches Museum Verkehrszentrum, which opened in 2003 and now houses the road vehicle and train exhibits that were removed from the original Deutsches Museum site. The Theresienhöhe quarter is a new area on the edge of the inner city of Munich, and the Museum of Transport is a part of the quarter's design of mixed use.
Chronology
1903 Museum's foundation
1906 Opening the provisional collections in the rooms of the former National Museum in Maximilianstrasse
1909 Opening additional collections in the old barracks on the Isar (Ehrhardtstraße)
1911 Topping out ceremony of collection house
1925 Opening of the Deutsches Museum in the new building on Museum Island
1928 Laying the foundation stone for the library and hall
1930 Topping out ceremony of the library and hall
1932 Opening of the library
1935 Opening of the Congress Center
1944 Destruction of 80 percent of the building
1948 Reopening after the destruction
1983 Destruction of marine and engine sections by fire
1984 Opening of the new hall for Aerospace; temporary closure of some departments to hail and water damage
1992 Opening of the Schleißheim's Aviation Museum at the Oberschleißheim's airport
1995 Opening a branch of the Deutsches Museum in Bonn
2003 Opening of the Transportation Center on the former exhibition grounds
2006 Opening the Halls I and II of Transportation Center on the Theresienhöhe
October 2015 start of the first major phase of renovation/modernization, with several exhibits closing
September 2021 Opening of the branch Deutsches Museum Nuremberg - "Das Zukunftsmuseum"
Current permanent exhibits
Aerospace
Agriculture
Altamira Cave, reproduction of a Spanish cave with stone-age paintings
Amateur Radio
Astronautics
Astronomy
Bridge Building
Ceramics
Chemistry
Chronometry
Computers
Digital Imaging (under construction as of 2006)
Electrical Power
Energy Technology
Environment
Geodesy
Glass
History of the Deutsches Museum
Hydraulic Engineering
Machine Components
Machine Tools
Marine Navigation
Masterpieces
Mining (Historical and Modern)
Metallurgy
Microelectronics
Mineral Oil and Natural Gas
Music
Paper
Pharmacy
Physics
Power Machinery
Printing
Scientific Instruments
Technical Toys
Telecommunications
Textile Technology
Tunnel Construction
Weights and Measures
See also
Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleissheim (the D.M.'s offsite aviation museum)
List of museums in Germany
MVG Museum
References
Bibliography
Deutsches Museum
Deutsches Museum, English Museum Guide, 3rd ed. 2005
Deutsches Museum (English only)
External links
Deutsches Museum
Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleißheim
Deutsches Museum Transport Centre
Deutsches Museum in Bonn
Museums in Munich
Science museums in Germany
Railway museums in Bavaria
National museums of Germany
Aerospace museums in Germany
Automobile museums in Germany
Registered historic buildings and monuments in Bavaria
Industry museums in Germany
Technology museums in Germany
Museums established in 1903 | [
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228047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20communication | Human communication | Human communication, or anthroposemiotics, is the field dedicated to understanding how humans communicate. Human communication is grounded in cooperative and shared intentions. Our ability to communicate with one another cannot be possible without an understanding of what we are referencing or thinking about. Because we are unable to fully understand another's perspective, there needs to be a creation of commonality through a shared mindset and/or viewpoint. The field of communication is very diverse. There are multiple layers to what communication is and how we use its different sectors and features as human beings.
Humans have communicatory abilities other animals do not. For example, we are able to communicate about time and place as though they are solid objects. Humans communicate to request help, to inform others, and to share attitudes for bonding. Communication is a joint activity largely dependent on the ability to maintain common attention. We share relevant background knowledge and joint experience in order to communicate content and coherence in exchanges.
The evolution of human communication took place over a long period of time. We evolved from simple pointing and hand gestures to the use of spoken language. Most face-to-face communication requires visually reading and following communication from the other person, offering replying gestures in return, and maintaining eye contact throughout the interaction. As humans, we have an obligation to communicate in the way we are taught in our youth, and if one layer of communication grows, they all do. In a way, the layers work as a system, which coordinate with one another to formulate what the field of human communication is.
Category
The current study of human communication can be branched off into two major categories; rhetorical and relational. The focus of rhetorical communication is primarily on the study of influence; the art of rhetorical communication is based on the idea of persuasion. The relational approach examines communication from a transactional perspective; two or more people interact to reach an agreed perspective.
In its early stages, rhetoric was developed to help ordinary people prove their claims in court; this shows how persuasion is key in this form of communication. Aristotle stated that effective rhetoric is based on argumentation. As explained in the text, rhetoric involves a dominant party and a submissive party or a party that succumbs to that of the most dominant party. While the rhetorical approach stems from Western societies, the relational approach stems from Eastern societies. Eastern societies hold higher standards for cooperation, which makes sense as to why they would sway more toward a relational approach for that matter. "Maintaining valued relationships is generally seen as more important than exerting influence and control over others". "The study of human communication today is more diversified than ever before in its history".
Classification of human communication can be found in the workplace, especially for group work. Co-workers need to argue with each other to gain the best solutions for their projects, while they also need to nurture their relationship to maintain their collaboration. For example, in their group work, they may use the communication tactic of "saving face".
Spoken language involves speech, mostly human quality to acquire. For example, chimpanzees are humans' closest relative, but they are unable to produce speech. Chimpanzees are the closest living species to humans. Chimpanzees are closer to humans, in genetic and evolutionary terms, than they are to gorillas or other apes. The fact that a chimpanzee will not acquire speech, even when raised in a human home with all the environmental input of a normal human child, is one of the central puzzles we face when contemplating the biology of our species. In repeated experiments, starting in the 1910s, chimpanzees raised in close contact with humans have universally failed to speak, or even to try to speak, despite their rapid progress in many other intellectual and motor domains. Each normal human is born with a capacity to rapidly and unerringly acquire their mother tongue, with little explicit teaching or coaching. In contrast, no nonhuman primate has spontaneously produced even a word of the local language.
Definition
Human communication can be defined as any Shared Symbolic Interaction.
Shared, because each communication process also requires a system of signification (the Code) as its necessary condition, and if the encoding is not known to all those who are involved in the communication process, there is no understanding and therefore fails the same notification.
Symbolic, because there is need of a signifier or sign, which allows the transmission of the message.
Interaction, since it involves two or more people, resulting in a further increase of knowledge on the part of all those who interact.
Types
Human communication can be subdivided into a variety of types:
Intrapersonal communication (communication with oneself): This very basic form of information, is the standard and foundation, of all things communication. This communication with ourselves, showcases the process in which we think on our previous and ongoing actions, as well as what we choose to understand from other types of communications and events. Out intrapersonal communication, may be shown and expressed to others by our reactions to certain outcomes, through simple acts of gestures and expressions.
Interpersonal communication (communication between two or more people) - Communication relies heavily on understanding the processes and situations that you are in, in order to communicate affectively. It is more than simple behaviors and strategies, on how and what it means to communicate with another person. Interpersonal communication, reflects the personality and characteristics, of a person, seen through the type of dialect, form, and content, a person chooses to communicate with. As simple as this is, interpersonal communication can only be correctly done if both persons involved in the communication, understand what it is to be human beings, and share similar qualities of what it means to be humans. It involves acts of trust and openness, as well as a sense of respect and care towards what the other person is talking about.
Nonverbal communication: The messages we send to each other, in ways that cover the act of word-by-mouth. These actions may be done through the use of our facial features and expressions, arms and hands, the tone of our voice, or even our very appearance can display a certain type of message.
Speech
Conversation
Visual communication
Writing
Mail
Mass media
Telecommunication
Organizational communication (communication within organizations)
Mass communication: This type of communication involves the process of communicating with known and unknown audiences, through the use of technology or other mediums. There is hardly ever an opportunity for the audience to respond directly to those who sent the message, there is a divide/separation between the sender and receiver. There are typically four players in the process of mass communication, these players are: those who send the message, the message itself, the medium in which the message is sent, and those who receive the message. These four components come together to be the communication we see and are a part of the most, as the media helps in distributing these messages to the world every day.
Group dynamics (communication within groups)
Cross-cultural communication (communication across cultures)
Important figures
See also
Communication basic topics
General semantics
History of communication
Language
Mass communication
Mass media
Outline of communication
Pragmatics
Semiotics
Intercultural communication
Cross-cultural communication
Proactive communications
References
Further reading
Richard Budd & Brent Ruben, Human Communication Handbook.
Budd & Ruben, Approaches to Human Communication.
How Human Communication Fails (Tampere University of Technology)
Society | [
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228051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapersonal%20communication | Intrapersonal communication | Intrapersonal communication is the process by which an individual comAinner speech]].
Intrapersonal communication provides individuals with the opportunity to participate in 'imaginative interactions', by which they silently engage in conversation with another person, often as a means of selecting and rehearsing their intended spoken interpersonal communication with the actual person.
Intrapersonal communication also facilitates the process by which an individual engages in unspoken internal dialogue between different and sometimes conflicting attitudes, thoughts, and feelings, often as a way of resolving psychological conflicts and making decisions.
The term 'intrapersonal communication' commonly refers to the unspoken use of words, and is used interchangeably with the terms 'self-talk' and 'inner speech.’ However, intrapersonal communication is a broader concept, encompassing all types of internal communication, including for example the biological, and electrochemical communication that occurs between neurons and hormones.
Definitions
In Communication: The Social Matrix of Psychiatry, Jurgen Ruesch and Gregory Bateson argue that intrapersonal communication is indeed a special case of interpersonal communication.
Intrapersonal communication can involve:
Speaking aloud as in reading aloud, repeating what one hears, the additional activities of speaking and hearing (in the third case of hearing again) what one thinks, reads or hears. This is considered normal although this does not exactly refer to intrapersonal communication as reading aloud may be a form of rhetorical exercise although expected in the relevant young age.
Mechanisms
Human ability to talk to oneself and think in words is a major part of the human experience of consciousness. From an early age, individuals are encouraged by society to introspect carefully, but also to communicate the results of that introspection. Simon Jones and Charles Fernyhough cite research suggesting that human ability to talk themselves is very similar to regular speech. This theory originates with the developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who observed that children will often narrate their actions out loud before eventually replacing the habit with the adult equivalent: sub-vocal articulation. During sub-vocal articulation, no sound is made but the mouth still moves. Eventually, adults may learn to inhibit their mouth movements, although they still experience the words as "inner speech".
Jones and Fernyhough cite other evidence for this hypothesis that inner speech is essentially like any other action. They mention that schizophrenics suffering auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) need only open their mouths in order to disrupt the voices in their heads. To try and explain more about how inner speech works, but also what goes wrong with AVH patients, Jones and Fernyhough adapt what is known as the "forward model" of motor control, which uses the idea of "efferent copies".
In a forward model of motor control, the mind generates movement unconsciously. While information is sent to the necessary body parts, the mind basically faxes a copy of that same information to other areas of the brain. This "efferent" copy could then be used to make predictions about upcoming movements. If the actual sensations match predictions, we experience the feeling of agency. If there is a mismatch between the body and its predicted position, perhaps due to obstructions or other cognitive disruption, no feeling of agency occurs.
Jones and Fernyhough believe that the forward model might explain AVH and inner speech. Perhaps, if inner speech is a normal action, then the malfunction in schizophrenic patients is not the fact that actions (i.e. voices) are occurring at all. Instead, it may be that they are experiencing normal, inner speech, but the generation of the predictive efferent copy is malfunctioning. Without an efferent copy, motor commands are judged as alien (i.e. one does not feel like they caused the action). This could also explain why an open mouth stops the experience of alien voices: When the patient opens their mouth, the inner speech motor movements are not planned in the first place.
Evolved to avoid silence
Joseph Jordania suggested that talking to oneself can be used to avoid silence. According to him, the ancestors of humans, like many other social animals, used contact calls to maintain constant contact with the members of the group, and a signal of danger was communicated through becoming silent and freezing. Because of the human evolutionary history, prolonged silence is perceived as a sign of danger and triggers a feeling of uneasiness and fear. According to Jordania, talking to oneself is only one of the ways to fill in prolonged gaps of silence in humans. Other ways of filling in prolonged silence are humming, whistling, finger drumming, or having TV, radio or music on all the time.
Intrapersonal communication and personal pronouns
Intrapersonal communication can be facilitated through both first-person and second-person pronouns. However, through years of research, scholars have already realized that people tend to use first-person and second-person self-talk in different situations. Generally speaking, people are more likely to use the second-person pronoun referring to the self when there is a need for self-regulation, an imperative to overcome difficulties, and facilitation of hard actions whereas first person intrapersonal talks are more frequently used when people are talking to themselves about their feelings.
Recent research also has revealed that using the second-person pronoun to provide self-suggestion is more effective in promoting the intentions to carry out behaviors and performances. The rationale behind this process lies in the idea of classical conditioning, a habit theory which argues that repetition of a stable behavior across consistent contexts can strongly reinforce the association between the specific behavior and the context. Building on such rationale, forming internal conversations using second-person pronouns can naturally reproduce the effect of previous encouragement or positive comments from others, as people have already gotten used to living under second-person instructions and encouragements in their childhood. This self-stimulated encouragement and appraisals from previous experience could also generate positive attitudes, intentions, and behaviors.
Criticism of the concept
In 1992, a chapter in Communication Yearbook #15, argued that "intrapersonal communication" is a flawed concept. The chapter first itemized the various definitions. Intrapersonal communication, it appears, arises from a series of logical and linguistic improprieties. The descriptor itself, 'intrapersonal communication' is ambiguous: many definitions appear to be circular since they borrow, apply and thereby distort conceptual features (e.g., sender, receiver, message, dialogue) drawn from normal inter-person communication; unknown entities or person-parts allegedly conduct the 'intrapersonal' exchange; in many cases, a very private language is posited which, upon analysis, turns out to be totally inaccessible and ultimately indefensible. In general, intrapersonal communication appears to arise from the tendency to interpret the inner mental processes that precede and accompany our communicative behaviors as if they too were yet another kind of communication process. The overall point is that this reconstruction of our inner mental processes in the language and idioms of everyday public conversation is highly questionable, tenuous at best.
In his later work and especially in the Philosophical Investigations, the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) uses a thought experiment to introduce a set of arguments against a hypothetical uniquely constructed "private language", such as intended to be understood only by the author alone. The arguments posit that such a language would be essentially incoherent (even to the author). Even if the author initially believed to understand full well the intended meaning of one's writings at the point of writing, future readings by the author may be fraught with misremembering the meaning intended by one's past self, thus potentially leading to misreading, misinterpretation and misguidedness. Only consensus-based convention provides a relatively stabilizing factor for the continuous maintenance of the flux of linguistic meaning. Language, in this view, is thus restricted to being an inherently social practice.
See also
References
Human communication | [
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228053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational%20communication | Organizational communication | In communication studies, organizational communication is a field of study focusing on the communication and information flow within organizations through different roles of the media. The flow of communication within the members, individuals and organizations could be either formal or informal.
History
The field traces its lineage through business information, business communication, and early mass communication studies published in the 1930s through the 1950s. Until then, organizational communication as a discipline consisted of a few professors within speech departments who had a particular interest in speaking and writing in business settings. The current field is established with its own theories and empirical concerns distinct from other fields.
Several seminal publications stand out as works broadening the scope and recognizing the importance of communication in the organizing process, and in using the term "organizational communication". Nobel Laureate Herbert A. Simon wrote in 1947 about "organization communications systems", saying communication is "absolutely essential to organizations". W. Charles Redding played a prominent role in the establishment of organizational communication as a discipline.
In the 1950s, organizational communication focused largely on the role of communication in improving organizational life and organizational output. In the 1980s, the field turned away from a business-oriented approach to communication and became concerned more with the constitutive role of communication in organizing. In the 1990s, the rise of critical theory garnered influence within the field as organizational communication scholars focused more on communication's ability to both oppress and liberate organizational members.
This shift in thought arose from the French postulations brought about by theorist Michel Foucault. Foucault is often revered as the father of Post-modern thought and has been described as a “radical relativist” by contemporaries such as Camille Paglia.
Early underlying assumptions
Some of the main assumptions underlying much of the early organizational communication research were:
Humans act rationally. Some people do not behave in rational ways, they generally have no access to all of the information needed to make rational decisions they could articulate, and therefore will make unrational decisions, unless there is some breakdown in the communication process—which is common. Irrational people rationalize how they will rationalize their communication measures whether or not it is rational.
Formal logic and empirically verifiable data ought to be the foundation upon which any theory should rest. All we really need to understand communication in organizations is (a) observable and replicable behaviors that can be transformed into variables by some form of measurement, and (b) formally replicable syllogisms that can extend theory from observed data to other groups and settings
Communication is primarily a mechanical process, in which a message is constructed and encoded by a sender, transmitted through some channel, then received and decoded by a receiver. Distortion, represented as any differences between the original and the received messages, can and ought to be identified and reduced or eliminated.
Organizations are mechanical things, in which the parts (including employees functioning in defined roles) are interchangeable. What works in one organization will work in another similar organization. Individual differences can be minimized or even eliminated with careful management techniques.
Organizations function as a container within which communication takes place. Any differences in form or function of communication between that occurring in an organization and in another setting can be identified and studied as factors affecting the communicative activity.
Herbert A. Simon introduced the concept of bounded rationality which challenged assumptions about the perfect rationality of communication participants. He maintained that people making decisions in organizations seldom had complete information, and that even if more information was available, they tended to pick the first acceptable option, rather than exploring further to pick the optimal solution.
In the early 1990s Peter Senge developed new theories on organizational communication. These theories were learning organization and systems thinking. These have been well received and are now a mainstay in current beliefs toward organizational communications.
Robert Craig suggested that there were seven components of communication theory ,seven different ways of thinking about how communication works in the world. The seven different domains are rhetorical, semiotic, phenomenological, cybernetic, sociopsychological, sociocultural and critical. The rhetorical approach can be theorized as the practical art of discourse and the semiotic approach theorized as intersubjective mediation by signs. The phenomenological approach can be theorized as experiences of otherness; dialogue, and the cybernetic approach as information processing. The socialpsychological approach can be theorized as expression, interaction and influence. The sociocultural approach is theorized as (Re)production of social order and the critical approach theorized as discursive reflection.
Communication networks
Networks are another aspect of direction and flow of communication. Bavelas has shown that communication patterns, or networks, influence groups in several important ways. Communication networks may affect the group's completion of the assigned task on time, the position of the de facto leader in the group, or they may affect the group members' satisfaction from occupying certain positions in the network. Although these findings are based on laboratory experiments, they have important implications for the dynamics of communication in formal organizations.
There are several patterns of communication, such as "chain", "wheel", "star", "all-channel" network, and "circle".
Interorganization communication
Flow nomenclature
Abbreviations are used to indicate the two-way flow of information or other transactions, e.g. B2B is "business to business". Duplex point-to-point communication systems, computer networks, non-electronic telecommunications, and meetings in person are all possible with the use of these terms. Examples:
Interpersonal communication
One-to-one or interpersonal communication between individuals may take several forms- messages may be verbal (that is, expressed in words), or non-verbal such as gestures, facial expressions, and postures ("body language"). Nonverbal messages may even stem from silence.
Managers do not need answers to operate a successful business; they need questions. Answers can come from anyone, anytime, anywhere in the world thanks to the benefits of all the electronic communication tools at our disposal. This has turned the real job of management into determining what it is the business needs to know, along with the who/what/where/when and how of
learning it. To effectively solve problems, seize opportunities, and achieve objectives, questions need to be asked by managers—these are the people responsible for the operation of the enterprise as a whole.
Ideally, the meanings sent are the meanings received. This is most often the case when the messages concern something that can be verified objectively. For example, "This piece of pipe fits the threads on the coupling." In this case, the receiver of the message can check the sender's words by actual trial, if necessary. However, when the sender's words describe a feeling or an opinion about something that cannot be checked objectively, meanings can be very unclear. "This work is too hard" or "Watergate was politically justified" are examples of opinions or feelings that cannot be verified. Thus, they are subject to interpretation and hence to distorted meanings. The receiver's background of experience and learning may differ enough from that of the sender to cause significantly different perceptions and evaluations of the topic under discussion. As we shall see later, such differences form a basic barrier to communication.
Nonverbal content always accompanies the verbal content of messages. When speaking about nonverbal communication, Birdwhistell says "it is complementary to (meaning "adds to") rather than redundant with (or repeating of) the verbal behavior". For example, if someone is talking about the length of an object, they may hold out their hands to give a visual estimate of it. This is reasonably clear in the case of face-to-face communication. As Virginia Satir has pointed out, people cannot help but communicate symbolically (for example, through their clothing or possessions) or through some form of body language. In messages that are conveyed by the telephone, a messenger, or a letter, the situation or context in which the message is sent becomes part of its non-verbal content. For example, if the company has been losing money, and in a letter to the production division, the front office orders a reorganization of the shipping and receiving departments, this could be construed to mean that some people were going to lose their jobs — unless it were made explicitly clear that this would not occur.
A number of variables influence the effectiveness of communication. Some are found in the environment in which communication takes place, some in the personalities of the sender and the receiver, and some in the relationship that exists between sender and receiver. These different variables suggest some of the difficulties of communicating with understanding between two people. The sender wants to formulate an idea and communicate it to the receiver. This desire to communicate may arise from his thoughts or feelings or it may have been triggered by something in the environment. The communication may also be influenced by the relationship between the sender and the receiver, such as status differences, a staff-line relationship, or a learner-teacher relationship.
Whatever its origin, information travels through a series of filters, both in the sender and in the receiver, and is affected by different channels, before the idea can be transmitted and re-created in the receiver's mind. Physical capacities to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch vary between people, so that the image of reality may be distorted even before the mind goes to work. In addition to physical or sense filters, cognitive filters, or the way in which an individual's mind interprets the world around him, will influence his assumptions and feelings. These filters will determine what the sender of a message says, how he says it, and with what purpose. Filters are present also in the receiver, creating a double complexity that once led Robert Louis Stevenson to say that human communication is "doubly relative". It takes one person to say something and another to decide what he said.
Physical and cognitive, including semantic filters (which decide the meaning of words) combine to form a part of our memory system that helps us respond to reality. In this sense, March and Simon compare a person to a data processing system. Behavior results from an interaction between a person's internal state and environmental stimuli. What we have learned through past experience becomes an inventory, or data bank, consisting of values or goals, sets of expectations and preconceptions about the consequences of acting one way or another, and a variety of possible ways of responding to the situation. This memory system determines what things we will notice and respond to in the environment. At the same time, stimuli in the environment help to determine what parts of the memory system will be activated. Hence, the memory and the environment form an interactive system that causes our behavior. As this interactive system responds to new experiences, new learnings occur which feed back into memory and gradually change its content. This process is how people adapt to a changing world.
Formal and informal
Informal and formal communication are used in an organization. Formal communication flows downward, horizontal and upward while informal communication is generally referred to as "the grapevine".
Formal communication refers to the flow of official information through proper, predefined channels and routes. The flow of information is controlled and needs deliberate effort to be properly communicated. Formal communication follows a hierarchical structure and chain of command. The structure is typically top down, from leaders in various departments and senior staff in the organization, which funnel down to lower level employees.
Informal communication, generally associated with interpersonal, horizontal communication, was primarily seen as a potential hindrance to effective organizational performance. This is no longer the case. Informal communication has become more important to ensuring the effective conduct of work in modern organizations.
Grapevine is a random, unofficial means of informal communication. It spreads through an organization with access to individual interpretation as gossip, rumors, and single-strand messages. Grapevine communication is quick and usually more direct than formal communication. An employee who receives most of the grapevine information but does not pass it onto others is known as a dead-ender. An employee that receives less than half of the grapevine information is an isolate. Grapevine can include destructive miscommunication, but it can also be beneficial by allowing feelings to be expressed, and increasing the productivity of employees.
Top-down approach: This is also known as downward communication. This approach is used by the top level management to communicate to the lower levels. This is used to implement policies, guidelines, etc. In this type of organizational communication, distortion of the actual information occurs. This could be made effective by feedbacks.
Additionally, McPhee and Zaug (1995) take a more nuanced view of communication as constitutive of organizations (also referred to as CCO). They identify four constitutive flows of communication, formal and informal, which become interrelated in order to constitute organizing and an organization:
organizational self-structuring
membership negotiation
activity coordination
institutional positioning
Perspectives
Shockley-Zalabak identified the following two perspectives, essentially as ways of understanding the organizational communication process as a whole.
The functional tradition
According to Shockley-Zalabak, the functional tradition is "a way of understanding organizational communication by describing what messages do and how they move through organizations." There are different functions within this process that all work together to contribute to the overall success of the organization, and these functions occur during the repetition of communication patterns in which the members of the organization engage in. The first types of functions are message functions which are "What communication does or how it contributes to the overall functioning of the organization", and we describe message functions in three different categories which are organizational functions, relationship functions, and change functions. Organizing functions as Shockley-Zalabak states, are "Messages that establish the rules and regulations of a particular environment". These messages can include items such as newsletters or handbooks for a specific organization, that individuals can read to learn the policies and expectations for a certain company. Relationship functions are "Communication that helps individuals define their roles and assess the compatibility of individual and organizational goals". These relationship functions are a key aspect to how individuals identify with a company and it helps them develop their sense of belonging which can greatly influence their quality of work. The third and final subcategory within message functions are change functions, which are defined as "messages that help organizations adapt what they do and how they do it". Change messages occur in various choice making decisions, and they are essential to meet the employee's needs as well as have success with continual adaptations within the organization.
The meaning centered approach
According to Shockley-Zalabak, the meaning centered approach is "a way of understanding organizational communication by discovering how organizational reality is generated through human interaction". This approach is more concerned with what communication is instead of why and how it works, and message functions as well as message movement are not focused on as thoroughly in this perspective.
Research
Research methodologies
Historically, organizational communication was driven primarily by quantitative research methodologies. Included in functional organizational communication research are statistical analyses (such as surveys, text indexing, network mapping and behavior modeling). In the early 1980s, the interpretive revolution took place in organizational communication. In Putnam and Pacanowsky's 1983 text Communication and Organizations: An Interpretive Approach. they argued for opening up methodological space for qualitative approaches such as narrative analyses, participant-observation, interviewing, rhetoric and textual approaches readings) and philosophic inquiries.
In addition to qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, there is also a third research approach called mixed methods. "Mixed methods is a type of procedural approach for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing, and mixing quantitative and qualitative data within a single program of study. Its rationale postulates that the use of both qualitative and quantitative research provides a better and richer understanding of a research problem than either traditional research approach alone provides." Complex contextual situations are easier to understand when using a mixed methods research approach, compared to using a qualitative or quantitative research approach. There are more than fifteen mixed method design typologies that have been identified. Because these typologies share many characteristics and criteria, they have been classified into six different types. Three of these types are sequential, meaning that one type of data collection and analysis happens before the other. The other three designs are concurrent, meaning both qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same time.
Sequential explanatory design
To achieve results from a sequential explanatory design, researchers would take the results from analyzing quantitative data and get a better explanation through a qualitative follow up. They then interpret how the qualitative data explains the quantitative data.
Sequential exploratory design
Although sequential exploratory design may resemble sequential explanatory design, the order in which data is collected is reversed. Researchers begin with collecting qualitative data and analyzing it, then follow up by building on it through a quantitative research method. They use the results from qualitative data to form variables, instruments and interventions for quantitative surveys and questionnaires.
Sequential transformative design
Researchers in line with sequential transformative design are led by a "theoretical perspective such as a conceptual framework, a specific ideology, or an advocacy position and employs what will best serve the researcher's theoretical or ideological perspective". Therefore, with this research design, it could be either the qualitative or quantitative method that is used first and priority depends on circumstance and resource availability, but can be given to either.
Concurrent triangulation design
With a concurrent triangulation design, although data is collected through both quantitative and qualitative methods at the same time, they are collected separately with equal priority during one phase. Later, during the analysis phase, the mixing of the two methods takes place.
Concurrent embedded design
In a concurrent embedded design, again, both qualitative and quantitative data is collected, although here one method supports the other. Then, one of the two methods (either qualitative or quantitative) transforms into a support for the dominant method.
Concurrent transformative design
The concurrent transformative design allows the researcher to be guided by their theoretical perspective, so their qualitative and quantitative data may have equal or unequal priority. Again, they are both collected during one phase.
Mixed methods capitalizes on maximizing the strengths of qualitative and quantitative research and minimizing their individual weaknesses by combining both data. Quantitative research is criticized for not considering contexts, having a lack of depth and not giving participants a voice. On the other hand, qualitative research is criticized for smaller sample sizes, possible researcher bias and a lack of generalizability.
During the 1980s and 1990s critical organizational scholarship began to gain prominence with a focus on issues of gender, race, class, and power/knowledge. In its current state, the study of organizational communication is open methodologically, with research from post-positive, interpretive, critical, postmodern, and discursive paradigms being published regularly.
Organizational communication scholarship appears in a number of communication journals including but not limited to Management Communication Quarterly, International Journal of Business Communication, Journal of Applied Communication Research, Communication Monographs, Academy of Management Journal, Communication Studies, and Southern Communication Journal.
Current research topics
In some circles, the field of organizational communication has moved from acceptance of mechanistic models (e.g., information moving from a sender to a receiver) to a study of the persistent, hegemonic and taken-for-granted ways in which we not only use communication to accomplish certain tasks within organizational settings (e.g., public speaking) but also how the organizations in which we participate affect us.
These approaches include "postmodern", "critical", "participatory", "feminist", "power/political", "organic", etc. and adds to disciplines as wide-ranging as sociology, philosophy, theology, psychology, business, business administration, institutional management, medicine (health communication), neurology (neural nets), semiotics, anthropology, international relations, and music.
Currently, some topics of research and theory in the field are:
Constitution, e.g.,
How communicative behaviors construct or modify organizing processes or products?
How communication itself plays a constitutive role in organizations?
How the organizations within which we interact affect our communicative behaviors, and through these, our own identities?
Structures other than organizations which might be constituted through our communicative activity (e.g., markets, cooperatives, tribes, political parties, social movements).
When does something "become" an organization? When does an organization become (an)other thing(s)? Can one organization "house" another? Is the organization still a useful entity/thing/concept, or has the social/political environment changed so much that what we now call "organization" is so different from the organization of even a few decades ago that it cannot be usefully tagged with the same word – "organization"?
Narrative, e.g.,
How do group members employ narrative to acculturate/initiate/indoctrinate new members?
Do organizational stories act on different levels? Are different narratives purposively invoked to achieve specific outcomes, or are there specific roles of "organizational storyteller"? If so, are stories told by the storyteller received differently from those told by others in the organization?
In what ways does the organization attempt to influence storytelling about the organization? under what conditions does the organization appear to be more or less effective in obtaining a desired outcome?
When these stories conflict with one another or with official rules/policies, how are the conflicts worked out? in situations in which alternative accounts are available, who or how or why are some accepted and others rejected?
Identity, e.g.,
Who do we see ourselves to be, in terms of our organizational affiliations?
Do communicative behaviors or occurrences in one or more of the organizations in which we participate effect changes in us? To what extent do we consist of the organizations to which we belong?
Is it possible for individuals to successfully resist organizational identity? what would that look like?
Do people who define themselves by their work-organizational membership communicate differently within the organizational setting than people who define themselves more by an avocational (non-vocational) set of relationships?
For example, researchers have studied how human service workers and firefighters use humor at their jobs as a way to affirm their identity in the face of various challenges. Others, have examined the identities of police organizations, prison guards, and professional women workers.
Interrelatedness of organizational experiences, e.g.,
How do our communicative interactions in one organizational setting affect our communicative actions in other organizational settings?
How do the phenomenological experiences of participants in a particular organizational setting effect changes in other areas of their lives?
When the organizational status of a member is significantly changed (e.g., by promotion or expulsion) how are their other organizational memberships affected?
What kind of future relationship between business and society does organizational communication seem to predict?
Power e.g.,
How does the use of particular communicative practices within an organizational setting reinforce or alter the various interrelated power relationships within the setting? Are the potential responses of those within or around these organizational settings constrained by factors or processes either within or outside of the organization – (assuming there is an "outside")?
Do taken-for-granted organizational practices work to fortify the dominant hegemonic narrative? Do individuals resist/confront these practices, through what actions/agencies, and to what effects?
Do status changes in an organization (e.g., promotions, demotions, restructuring, financial/social strata changes) change communicative behavior? Are there criteria employed by organizational members to differentiate between "legitimate" (i.e., endorsed by the formal organizational structure) and "illegitimate" (i.e., opposed by or unknown to the formal power structure) behaviors? When are they successful, and what do we mean by "successful" when there are "pretenders" or "usurpers" who employ these communicative means?
See also
Agenda-setting theory
Organizational learning
Anticipatory socialization
Socionics
Associations
Academy of Management
Association for Business Communication
Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators (UK)
International Association of Business Communicators
International Communication Association
National Communication Association
References
Further reading
Cheney, G., Christensen, L.T., Zorn, T.E., and Ganesh, S. 2004. Organizational Communication in an Age of Globalization: Issues, Reflections, Practices." Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Ferguson, S. D., & Terrion, J. L. (2014). Communication in Everyday Life: Personal and Professional Contexts. Oxford University Press.
Gergen, Kenneth and Tojo Joseph. 1996. "Psychological Science in a Postmodern Context." American Psychologist. October 2001. Vol. 56. Issue 10. p803-813
May, Steve and Mumby, Dennis K. 2005. "Engaging Organizational Communication Theory and Research." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Redding, W. Charles. 1985. "Stumbling Toward Identity: The Emergence of Organizational Communication as a Field of Study" in McPhee and Tompkins, Organizational Communication: Traditional Themes and New Directions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
External links
European Public Relations Education and Research Association
International Communication Association
National Communication Association
Association for Business Communication
International Association of Business Communicators
Communication studies
Interpersonal communication
Communication theory
Organizational theory | [
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228056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisque | Bisque | Bisque may refer to:
Biscuit porcelain, unglazed porcelain as a finished product
Bisque (pottery), a piece of partially fired, or "biscuit-fired" unglazed pottery
Bisque doll, a doll made of bisque or biscuit porcelain
Bisque (food), a thick, creamy soup made from puréed seafood or vegetables
Bisque, a free turn in a handicap croquet match
Bisque, a free point in a handicap real tennis match
Bisque, when a number of unpaired MPs in the United Kingdom may be allowed to be absent—at specified times on a rota basis—from votes in the Houses of Parliament.
BisQue (Bioimage Analysis and Management Platform), a computer platform for the exchange and exploration of large, complex images and datasets
bisque, a web color | [
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228058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder%20reactor | Breeder reactor | A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than it consumes. Breeder reactors achieve this because their neutron economy is high enough to create more fissile fuel than they use, by irradiation of a fertile material, such as uranium-238 or thorium-232, that is loaded into the reactor along with fissile fuel. Breeders were at first found attractive because they made more complete use of uranium fuel than light water reactors, but interest declined after the 1960s as more uranium reserves were found, and new methods of uranium enrichment reduced fuel costs.
Fuel efficiency and types of nuclear waste
Breeder reactors could, in principle, extract almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium, decreasing fuel requirements by a factor of 100 compared to widely used once-through light water reactors, which extract less than 1% of the energy in the uranium mined from the earth. The high fuel-efficiency of breeder reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply, energy used in mining, and storage of radioactive waste. Adherents claim that with seawater uranium extraction, there would be enough fuel for breeder reactors to satisfy our energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983's total energy consumption rate, thus making nuclear energy effectively a renewable energy.
Nuclear waste became a greater concern by the 1990s. In broad terms, spent nuclear fuel has two main components. The first consists of fission products, the leftover fragments of fuel atoms after they have been split to release energy. Fission products come in dozens of elements and hundreds of isotopes, all of them lighter than uranium. The second main component of spent fuel is transuranics (atoms heavier than uranium), which are generated from uranium or heavier atoms in the fuel when they absorb neutrons but do not undergo fission. All transuranic isotopes fall within the actinide series on the periodic table, and so they are frequently referred to as the actinides.
The physical behavior of the fission products is markedly different from that of the transuranics. In particular, fission products do not themselves undergo fission, and therefore cannot be used for nuclear weapons. Furthermore, only seven long-lived fission product isotopes have half-lives longer than a hundred years, which makes their geological storage or disposal less problematic than for transuranic materials.
With increased concerns about nuclear waste, breeding fuel cycles became interesting again because they can reduce actinide wastes, particularly plutonium and minor actinides. Breeder reactors are designed to fission the actinide wastes as fuel, and thus convert them to more fission products.
After spent nuclear fuel is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate. Due to a physical oddity referenced below, there is a large gap in the decay half-lives of fission products compared to transuranic isotopes. If the transuranics are left in the spent fuel, after 1,000 to 100,000 years, the slow decay of these transuranics would generate most of the radioactivity in that spent fuel. Thus, removing the transuranics from the waste eliminates much of the long-term radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel.
Today's commercial light water reactors do breed some new fissile material, mostly in the form of plutonium. Because commercial reactors were never designed as breeders, they do not convert enough uranium-238 into plutonium to replace the uranium-235 consumed. Nonetheless, at least one-third of the power produced by commercial nuclear reactors comes from fission of plutonium generated within the fuel. Even with this level of plutonium consumption, light water reactors consume only part of the plutonium and minor actinides they produce, and nonfissile isotopes of plutonium build up, along with significant quantities of other minor actinides.
Conversion ratio, break-even, breeding ratio, doubling time, and burnup
One measure of a reactor's performance is the "conversion ratio," defined as the ratio of new fissile atoms produced to fissile atoms consumed. All proposed nuclear reactors except specially designed and operated actinide burners experience some degree of conversion. As long as there is any amount of a fertile material within the neutron flux of the reactor, some new fissile material is always created. When the conversion ratio is greater than 1, it is often called the "breeding ratio."
For example, commonly used light water reactors have a conversion ratio of approximately 0.6. Pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR) running on natural uranium have a conversion ratio of 0.8. In a breeder reactor, the conversion ratio is higher than 1. "Break-even" is achieved when the conversion ratio reaches 1.0 and the reactor produces as much fissile material as it uses.
The doubling time is the amount of time it would take for a breeder reactor to produce enough new fissile material to replace the original fuel and additionally produce an equivalent amount of fuel for another nuclear reactor. This was considered an important measure of breeder performance in early years, when uranium was thought to be scarce. However, since uranium is more abundant than thought in the early days of nuclear reactor development, and given the amount of plutonium available in spent reactor fuel, doubling time has become a less-important metric in modern breeder-reactor design.
"Burnup" is a measure of how much energy has been extracted from a given mass of heavy metal in fuel, often expressed (for power reactors) in terms of gigawatt-days per ton of heavy metal. Burnup is an important factor in determining the types and abundances of isotopes produced by a fission reactor. Breeder reactors, by design, have extremely high burnup compared to a conventional reactor, as breeder reactors produce much more of their waste in the form of fission products, while most or all of the actinides are meant to be fissioned and destroyed.
In the past, breeder-reactor development focused on reactors with low breeding ratios, from 1.01 for the Shippingport Reactor running on thorium fuel and cooled by conventional light water to over 1.2 for the Soviet BN-350 liquid-metal-cooled reactor. Theoretical models of breeders with liquid sodium coolant flowing through tubes inside fuel elements ("tube-in-shell" construction) suggest breeding ratios of at least 1.8 are possible on an industrial scale. The Soviet BR-1 test reactor achieved a breeding ratio of 2.5 under non-commercial conditions.
Types of breeder reactor
Many types of breeder reactor are possible:
A 'breeder' is simply a reactor designed for very high neutron economy with an associated conversion rate higher than 1.0. In principle, almost any reactor design could be tweaked to become a breeder. An example of this process is the evolution of the Light Water Reactor, a very heavily moderated thermal design, into the Super Fast Reactor concept, using light water in an extremely low-density supercritical form to increase the neutron economy high enough to allow breeding.
Aside from water cooled, there are many other types of breeder reactor currently envisioned as possible. These include molten-salt cooled, gas cooled, and liquid-metal cooled designs in many variations. Almost any of these basic design types may be fueled by uranium, plutonium, many minor actinides, or thorium, and they may be designed for many different goals, such as creating more fissile fuel, long-term steady-state operation, or active burning of nuclear wastes.
Extant reactor designs are sometimes divided into two broad categories based upon their neutron spectrum, which generally separates those designed to use primarily uranium and transuranics from those designed to use thorium and avoid transuranics. These designs are:
Fast breeder reactor (FBR) which use fast (i.e.: unmoderated) neutrons to breed fissile plutonium and possibly higher transuranics from fertile uranium-238. The fast spectrum is flexible enough that it can also breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium, if desired.
Thermal breeder reactor which use thermal-spectrum (i.e.: moderated) neutrons to breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium (thorium fuel cycle). Due to the behavior of the various nuclear fuels, a thermal breeder is thought commercially feasible only with thorium fuel, which avoids the buildup of the heavier transuranics.
Reprocessing
Fission of the nuclear fuel in any reactor produces neutron-absorbing fission products. Because of this unavoidable physical process, it is necessary to reprocess the fertile material from a breeder reactor to remove those neutron poisons. This step is required to fully utilize the ability to breed as much or more fuel than is consumed. All reprocessing can present a proliferation concern, since it extracts weapons-usable material from spent fuel. The most-common reprocessing technique, PUREX, presents a particular concern, since it was expressly designed to separate pure plutonium. Early proposals for the breeder-reactor fuel cycle posed an even greater proliferation concern because they would use PUREX to separate plutonium in a highly attractive isotopic form for use in nuclear weapons.
Several countries are developing reprocessing methods that do not separate the plutonium from the other actinides. For instance, the non-water-based pyrometallurgical electrowinning process, when used to reprocess fuel from an integral fast reactor, leaves large amounts of radioactive actinides in the reactor fuel. More-conventional water-based reprocessing systems include SANEX, UNEX, DIAMEX, COEX, and TRUEX, and proposals to combine PUREX with co-processes.
All these systems have modestly better proliferation resistance than PUREX, though their adoption rate is low.
In the thorium cycle, thorium-232 breeds by converting first to protactinium-233, which then decays to uranium-233. If the protactinium remains in the reactor, small amounts of uranium-232 are also produced, which has the strong gamma emitter thallium-208 in its decay chain. Similar to uranium-fueled designs, the longer the fuel and fertile material remain in the reactor, the more of these undesirable elements build up. In the envisioned commercial thorium reactors, high levels of uranium-232 would be allowed to accumulate, leading to extremely high gamma-radiation doses from any uranium derived from thorium. These gamma rays complicate the safe handling of a weapon and the design of its electronics; this explains why uranium-233 has never been pursued for weapons beyond proof-of-concept demonstrations.
While the thorium cycle may be proliferation-resistant with regard to uranium-233 extraction from fuel (because of the presence of uranium-232), it poses a proliferation risk from an alternate route of uranium-233 extraction, which involves chemically extracting protactinium-233 and allowing it to decay to pure uranium-233 outside of the reactor. This process could happen beyond the oversight of organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
Waste reduction
Nuclear waste became a greater concern by the 1990s. Breeding fuel cycles attracted renewed interest because of their potential to reduce actinide wastes, particularly plutonium and minor actinides. Since breeder reactors on a closed fuel cycle would use nearly all of the actinides fed into them as fuel, their fuel requirements would be reduced by a factor of about 100. The volume of waste they generate would be reduced by a factor of about 100 as well. While there is a huge reduction in the volume of waste from a breeder reactor, the activity of the waste is about the same as that produced by a light-water reactor.
In addition, the waste from a breeder reactor has a different decay behavior, because it is made up of different materials. Breeder reactor waste is mostly fission products, while light-water reactor waste has a large quantity of transuranics. After spent nuclear fuel has been removed from a light-water reactor for longer than 100,000 years, these transuranics would be the main source of radioactivity. Eliminating them would eliminate much of the long-term radioactivity from the spent fuel.
In principle, breeder fuel cycles can recycle and consume all actinides, leaving only fission products. As the graphic in this section indicates, fission products have a peculiar 'gap' in their aggregate half-lives, such that no fission products have a half-life between 91 years and two hundred thousand years. As a result of this physical oddity, after several hundred years in storage, the activity of the radioactive waste from a Fast Breeder Reactor would quickly drop to the low level of the long-lived fission products. However, to obtain this benefit requires the highly efficient separation of transuranics from spent fuel. If the fuel reprocessing methods used leave a large fraction of the transuranics in the final waste stream, this advantage would be greatly reduced.
Both types of breeding cycles can reduce actinide wastes:
The fast breeder reactor's fast neutrons can fission actinide nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons. Such nuclei usually lack the low-speed "thermal neutron" resonances of fissile fuels used in LWRs.
The thorium fuel cycle inherently produces lower levels of heavy actinides. The fertile material in the thorium fuel cycle has an atomic weight of 232, while the fertile material in the uranium fuel cycle has an atomic weight of 238. That mass difference means that thorium-232 requires six more neutron capture events per nucleus before the transuranic elements can be produced. In addition to this simple mass difference, the reactor gets two chances to fission the nuclei as the mass increases: First as the effective fuel nuclei U233, and as it absorbs two more neutrons, again as the fuel nuclei U235.
A reactor whose main purpose is to destroy actinides, rather than increasing fissile fuel-stocks, is sometimes known as a burner reactor. Both breeding and burning depend on good neutron economy, and many designs can do either. Breeding designs surround the core by a breeding blanket of fertile material. Waste burners surround the core with non-fertile wastes to be destroyed. Some designs add neutron reflectors or absorbers.
Breeder reactor concepts
There are several concepts for breeder reactors; the two main ones are:
Reactors with a fast neutron spectrum are called fast breeder reactors (FBR) – these typically utilize uranium-238 as fuel.
Reactors with a thermal neutron spectrum are called thermal breeder reactors – these typically utilize thorium-232 as fuel.
Fast breeder reactor
In 2006 all large-scale fast breeder reactor (FBR) power stations were liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBR) cooled by liquid sodium. These have been of one of two designs:
Loop type, in which the primary coolant is circulated through primary heat exchangers outside the reactor tank (but inside the biological shield due to radioactive in the primary coolant)
Pool type, in which the primary heat exchangers and pumps are immersed in the reactor tank
All current fast neutron reactor designs use liquid metal as the primary coolant, to transfer heat from the core to steam used to power the electricity generating turbines. FBRs have been built cooled by liquid metals other than sodium—some early FBRs used mercury, other experimental reactors have used a sodium-potassium alloy called NaK. Both have the advantage that they are liquids at room temperature, which is convenient for experimental rigs but less important for pilot or full-scale power stations. Lead and lead-bismuth alloy have also been used.
Three of the proposed generation IV reactor types are FBRs:
Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) cooled by helium.
Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) based on the existing liquid-metal FBR (LMFBR) and integral fast reactor designs.
Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) based on Soviet naval propulsion units.
FBRs usually use a mixed oxide fuel core of up to 20% plutonium dioxide (PuO2) and at least 80% uranium dioxide (UO2). Another fuel option is metal alloys, typically a blend of uranium, plutonium, and zirconium (used because it is "transparent" to neutrons). Enriched uranium can also be used on its own.
Many designs surround the core in a blanket of tubes that contain non-fissile uranium-238, which, by capturing fast neutrons from the reaction in the core, converts to fissile plutonium-239 (as is some of the uranium in the core), which is then reprocessed and used as nuclear fuel. Other FBR designs rely on the geometry of the fuel itself (which also contains uranium-238), arranged to attain sufficient fast neutron capture. The plutonium-239 (or the fissile uranium-235) fission cross-section is much smaller in a fast spectrum than in a thermal spectrum, as is the ratio between the 239Pu/235U fission cross-section and the 238U absorption cross-section. This increases the concentration of 239Pu/235U needed to sustain a chain reaction, as well as the ratio of breeding to fission.
On the other hand, a fast reactor needs no moderator to slow down the neutrons at all, taking advantage of the fast neutrons producing a greater number of neutrons per fission than slow neutrons. For this reason ordinary liquid water, being a moderator and neutron absorber, is an undesirable primary coolant for fast reactors. Because large amounts of water in the core are required to cool the reactor, the yield of neutrons and therefore breeding of 239Pu are strongly affected. Theoretical work has been done on reduced moderation water reactors, which may have a sufficiently fast spectrum to provide a breeding ratio slightly over 1. This would likely result in an unacceptable power derating and high costs in a liquid-water-cooled reactor, but the supercritical water coolant of the supercritical water reactor (SCWR) has sufficient heat capacity to allow adequate cooling with less water, making a fast-spectrum water-cooled reactor a practical possibility.
The type of coolants, temperatures and fast neutron spectrum puts the fuel cladding material (normally austenitic stainless or ferritic-martensitic steels) under extreme conditions. The understanding of the radiation damage, coolant interactions, stresses and temperatures are necessary for the safe operation of any reactor core. All materials used to date in sodium-cooled fast reactors have known limits, as explored in ONR-RRR-088 review. Oxide Dispersion Strengthened (ODS) steel is viewed as the long-term radiation resistant fuel-cladding material that overcome the shortcomings of today's material choices.
There are only two commercially operating breeder reactors : the BN-600 reactor, at 560 MWe, and the BN-800 reactor, at 880 MWe. Both are Russian sodium-cooled reactors.
Integral fast reactor
One design of fast neutron reactor, specifically conceived to address the waste disposal and plutonium issues, was the integral fast reactor (IFR, also known as an integral fast breeder reactor, although the original reactor was designed to not breed a net surplus of fissile material).
To solve the waste disposal problem, the IFR had an on-site electrowinning fuel-reprocessing unit that recycled the uranium and all the transuranics (not just plutonium) via electroplating, leaving just short half-life fission products in the waste. Some of these fission products could later be separated for industrial or medical uses and the rest sent to a waste repository. The IFR pyroprocessing system uses molten cadmium cathodes and electrorefiners to reprocess metallic fuel directly on-site at the reactor. Such systems not only co-mingle all the minor actinides with both uranium and plutonium, they are compact and self-contained, so that no plutonium-containing material needs to be transported away from the site of the breeder reactor. Breeder reactors incorporating such technology would most likely be designed with breeding ratios very close to 1.00, so that after an initial loading of enriched uranium and/or plutonium fuel, the reactor would then be refueled only with small deliveries of natural uranium metal. A quantity of natural uranium metal equivalent to a block about the size of a milk crate delivered once per month would be all the fuel such a 1 gigawatt reactor would need. Such self-contained breeders are currently envisioned as the final self-contained and self-supporting ultimate goal of nuclear reactor designers. The project was canceled in 1994 by United States Secretary of Energy Hazel O'Leary.
Other fast reactors
Another proposed fast reactor is a fast molten salt reactor, in which the molten salt's moderating properties are insignificant. This is typically achieved by replacing the light metal fluorides (e.g. LiF, BeF2) in the salt carrier with heavier metal chlorides (e.g., KCl, RbCl, ZrCl4).
Several prototype FBRs have been built, ranging in electrical output from a few light bulbs' equivalent (EBR-I, 1951) to over 1,000 MWe. As of 2006, the technology is not economically competitive to thermal reactor technology, but India, Japan, China, South Korea and Russia are all committing substantial research funds to further development of fast breeder reactors, anticipating that rising uranium prices will change this in the long term. Germany, in contrast, abandoned the technology due to safety concerns. The SNR-300 fast breeder reactor was finished after 19 years despite cost overruns summing up to a total of 3.6 billion, only to then be abandoned.
India is also developing FBR technology using both uranium and thorium feedstocks.
Thermal breeder reactor
The advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR) is one of the few proposed large-scale uses of thorium. India is developing this technology, motivated by substantial thorium reserves; almost a third of the world's thorium reserves are in India, which lacks significant uranium reserves.
The third and final core of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station 60 MWe reactor was a light water thorium breeder, which began operating in 1977. It used pellets made of thorium dioxide and uranium-233 oxide; initially, the U-233 content of the pellets was 5–6% in the seed region, 1.5–3% in the blanket region and none in the reflector region. It operated at 236 MWt, generating 60 MWe and ultimately produced over 2.1 billion kilowatt hours of electricity. After five years, the core was removed and found to contain nearly 1.4% more fissile material than when it was installed, demonstrating that breeding from thorium had occurred.
The liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) is also planned as a thorium thermal breeder. Liquid-fluoride reactors may have attractive features, such as inherent safety, no need to manufacture fuel rods and possibly simpler reprocessing of the liquid fuel. This concept was first investigated at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment in the 1960s. From 2012 it became the subject of renewed interest worldwide. Japan, India, China, the UK, as well as private US, Czech and Australian companies have expressed intent to develop and commercialize the technology.
Discussion
Like many aspects of nuclear power, fast breeder reactors have been subject to much controversy over the years. In 2010 the International Panel on Fissile Materials said "After six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars, the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries". In Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, breeder reactor development programs have been abandoned. The rationale for pursuing breeder reactors—sometimes explicit and sometimes implicit—was based on the following key assumptions:
It was expected that uranium would be scarce and high-grade deposits would quickly become depleted if fission power were deployed on a large scale; the reality, however, is that since the end of the cold war, uranium has been much cheaper and more abundant than early designers expected.
It was expected that breeder reactors would quickly become economically competitive with the light-water reactors that dominate nuclear power today, but the reality is that capital costs are at least 25% more than water-cooled reactors.
It was thought that breeder reactors could be as safe and reliable as light-water reactors, but safety issues are cited as a concern with fast reactors that use a sodium coolant, where a leak could lead to a sodium fire.
It was expected that the proliferation risks posed by breeders and their "closed" fuel cycle, in which plutonium would be recycled, could be managed. But since plutonium-breeding reactors produce plutonium from U238, and thorium reactors produce fissile U233 from thorium, all breeding cycles could theoretically pose proliferation risks. However U232, which is always present in U233 produced in breeder reactors, is a strong gamma-emitter via its daughter products, and would make weapon handling extremely hazardous and the weapon easy to detect.
There are some past anti-nuclear advocates that have become pro-nuclear power as a clean source of electricity since breeder reactors effectively recycle most of their waste. This solves one of the most-important negative issues of nuclear power. In the documentary Pandora's Promise, a case is made for breeder reactors because they provide a real high-kW alternative to fossil fuel energy. According to the movie, one pound of uranium provides as much energy as 5,000 barrels of oil.
FBRs have been built and operated in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, the former USSR, India and Japan. The experimental FBR SNR-300 was built in Germany but never operated and eventually shut down amid political controversy following the Chernobyl disaster. As of 2019, two FBRs are being operated for power generation in Russia. Several reactors are planned, many for research related to the Generation IV reactor initiative.
Development and notable breeder reactors
The Soviet Union (comprising Russia and other countries, dissolved in 1991) constructed a series of fast reactors, the first being mercury-cooled and fueled with plutonium metal, and the later plants sodium-cooled and fueled with plutonium oxide.
BR-1 (1955) was 100W (thermal) was followed by BR-2 at 100 kW and then the 5MW BR-5.
BOR-60 (first criticality 1969) was 60 MW, with construction started in 1965.
BN-600 (1981), followed by Russia's BN-800 (2016)
Future plants
India has been an early leader in the FBR segment. In 2012 an FBR called the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor was due to be completed and commissioned. The program is intended to use fertile thorium-232 to breed fissile uranium-233. India is also pursuing thorium thermal breeder reactor technology. India's focus on thorium is due to the nation's large reserves, though known worldwide reserves of thorium are four times those of uranium. India's Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) said in 2007 that it would simultaneously construct four more breeder reactors of 500 MWe each including two at Kalpakkam.
BHAVINI, an Indian nuclear power company, was established in 2003 to construct, commission and operate all stage II fast breeder reactors outlined in India's three stage nuclear power programme.
To advance these plans, the Indian FBR-600 is a pool-type sodium-cooled reactor with a rating of 600 MWe.
The China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) is a 25 MW(e) prototype for the planned China Prototype Fast Reactor (CFRP). It started generating power on 21 July 2011.
China also initiated a research and development project in thorium molten-salt thermal breeder-reactor technology (liquid fluoride thorium reactor), formally announced at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) annual conference in January 2011. Its ultimate target was to investigate and develop a thorium-based molten salt nuclear system over about 20 years.
Kirk Sorensen, former NASA scientist and chief nuclear technologist at Teledyne Brown Engineering, has long been a promoter of thorium fuel cycle and particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors. In 2011, Sorensen founded Flibe Energy, a company aimed to develop 20–50 MW LFTR reactor designs to power military bases.
South Korea is developing a design for a standardized modular FBR for export, to complement the standardized PWR (pressurized water reactor) and CANDU designs they have already developed and built, but has not yet committed to building a prototype.
Russia has a plan for increasing its fleet of fast breeder reactors significantly. A BN-800 reactor (800 MWe) at Beloyarsk was completed in 2012, succeeding a smaller BN-600. In June 2014 the BN-800 was started in the minimum power mode. Working at 35% of nominal efficiency, the reactor contributed to the energy network on 10 December 2015. It reached its full power production in August 2016.
Plans for the construction of a larger BN-1200 reactor (1,200 MWe) was scheduled for completion in 2018, with two additional BN-1200 reactors built by the end of 2030. However, in 2015 Rosenergoatom postponed construction indefinitely to allow fuel design to be improved after more experience of operating the BN-800 reactor, and among cost concerns.
An experimental lead-cooled fast reactor, BREST-300 will be built at the Siberian Chemical Combine (SCC) in Seversk. The BREST (, ) design is seen as a successor to the BN series and the 300 MWe unit at the SCC could be the forerunner to a 1,200 MWe version for wide deployment as a commercial power generation unit. The development program is as part of an Advanced Nuclear Technologies Federal Program 2010–2020 that seeks to exploit fast reactors for uranium efficiency while 'burning' radioactive substances that would otherwise be disposed of as waste.
Its core would measure about 2.3 metres in diameter by 1.1 metres in height and contain 16 tonnes of fuel. The unit would be refuelled every year, with each fuel element spending five years in total within the core. Lead coolant temperature would be around 540 °C, giving a high efficiency of 43%, primary heat production of 700 MWt yielding electrical power of 300 MWe. The operational lifespan of the unit could be 60 years. The design is expected to be completed by NIKIET in 2014 for construction between 2016 and 2020.
On 16 February 2006, the United States, France and Japan signed an "arrangement" to research and develop sodium-cooled fast reactors in support of the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership.
In April 2007 the Japanese government selected Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) as the "core company in FBR development in Japan". Shortly thereafter, MHI started a new company, Mitsubishi FBR Systems (MFBR) to develop and eventually sell FBR technology.
In September 2010 the French government allocated 651.6 million to the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique to finalize the design of ASTRID (Advanced Sodium Technological Reactor for Industrial Demonstration), a 600 MW fourth-generation reactor design to be finalized in 2020. the UK had shown interest in the PRISM reactor and was working in concert with France to develop ASTRID. In 2019, CEA announced this design would not be built before mid-century.
In October 2010 GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy signed a memorandum of understanding with the operators of the US Department of Energy's Savannah River Site, which should allow the construction of a demonstration plant based on the company's S-PRISM fast breeder reactor prior to the design receiving full Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licensing approval. In October 2011 The Independent reported that the UK Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) and senior advisers within the Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) had asked for technical and financial details of PRISM, partly as a means of reducing the country's plutonium stockpile.
The traveling wave reactor (TWR) proposed in a patent by Intellectual Ventures is a fast breeder reactor designed to not need fuel reprocessing during the decades-long lifetime of the reactor. The breed-burn wave in the TWR design does not move from one end of the reactor to the other but gradually from the inside out. Moreover, as the fuel's composition changes through nuclear transmutation, fuel rods are continually reshuffled within the core to optimize the neutron flux and fuel usage at any given point in time. Thus, instead of letting the wave propagate through the fuel, the fuel itself is moved through a largely stationary burn wave. This is contrary to many media reports, which have popularized the concept as a candle-like reactor with a burn region that moves down a stick of fuel. By replacing a static core configuration with an actively managed "standing wave" or "soliton" core, TerraPower's design avoids the problem of cooling a highly variable burn region. Under this scenario, the reconfiguration of fuel rods is accomplished remotely by robotic devices; the containment vessel remains closed during the procedure, and there is no associated downtime.
See also
India's three stage nuclear power programme
Fast neutron reactor
Sodium-cooled fast reactor
Integral Fast Reactor
Lead-cooled fast reactor
Gas-cooled fast reactor
Generation IV reactor
Reduced moderation water reactor
Supercritical water reactor
Nuclear fusion-fission hybrid
David Hahn
References
External links
– on OKBM Afrikantov official pdf
Breeder terminology
US Nuclear Program
IAEA Fast Reactors Database
IAEA Technical Documents on Fast Reactors
Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Fast Reactor Technology Argonne pioneered the development of fast reactors and is a leader in the development of fast reactors worldwide. See also Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy.
Atomic Heritage Foundation – EBR-I
The Changing Need for a Breeder Reactor by Richard Wilson at The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium, September 1999
Experimental Breeder Reactor-II (EBR-II): An Integrated Experimental Fast Reactor Nuclear Power Station
International Thorium Energy Organisation – www.IThEO.org
lmfbr.com
Nuclear power reactor types | [
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228059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational%20culture | Organizational culture | Historically there have been differences among investigators regarding the definition of organizational culture. Edgar Schein, a leading researcher in this field, defined "organizational culture" as comprising a number of features, including a shared "pattern of basic assumptions" which group members have acquired over time as they learn to successfully cope with internal and external organizationally relevant problems. Elliott Jaques first introduced the concept of culture in the organizational context in his 1951 book The Changing Culture of a Factory. The book was a published report of "a case study of developments in the social life of one industrial community between April, 1948 and November 1950". The "case" involved a publicly-held British company engaged principally in the manufacture, sale, and servicing of metal bearings. The study concerned itself with the description, analysis, and development of corporate group behaviours.
Ravasi and Schultz (2006) characterise organizational culture as a set of shared assumptions that guide behaviors. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving and, even thinking and feeling. Thus organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. In addition, organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization.
Schein (1992), Deal and Kennedy (2000), and Kotter (1992) advanced the idea that organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures. Although a company may have its "own unique culture," in larger organizations there are sometimes co-existing or conflicting subcultures because each subculture is linked to a different management team. Flamholtz and Randle (2011) suggest that one can view organizational culture as "corporate personality."
They define it as it consisting of the values, beliefs, and norms which influence the behavior of people as members of an organization.
The organizational culture influences the way people interact, the context within which knowledge is created, the resistance they will have towards certain changes, and ultimately the way they share (or the way they do not share) knowledge. According to Ravasi and Schultz (2006) and Allaire and Firsirotu (1984), organizational culture represents the collective values, beliefs and principles of organizational members. It may also be influenced by factors such as history, type of product, market, technology, strategy, type of employees, management style, and national culture. Culture includes the organization's vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, environment, location, beliefs and habits.
Origins
According to Jaques, "the culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of thinking and doing of things, which is shared to a greater or lesser degree by all its members, and which new members must learn, and at least partially accept, in order to be accepted into service in the firm..." In simple terms, to the extent that people can share common wishes, desires and aspirations, they can commit themselves to work together. Sagiv (2011) and Dwyer (1997) noted that it is a matter of being able to care about the same things, and it applies to nations as well as to associations and organizations within nations.
Elaborating on the work in The Changing Culture of a Factory, Jaques said “Here is a list of valued entitlements that can reach the hearts of people, and gain from them their full commitment. Together they make up an organizational credo.” This concept of requisite organization established a list of valued entitlements or organizational values that can gain from people their full commitment Together they make an organizational culture or credo:
These general values are reflected in a specific valuing of:
Work for everyone at a level consistent with their level of potential capability, values and interests.
Opportunity for everyone to progress as his or her potential capability matures, within the opportunities available in the organization.
Fair and just treatment for everyone, including fair pay based upon equitable pay differentials for level of work and merit recognition related to personal effectiveness appraisal.
Leadership interaction between managers and subordinates, including shared context, personal effectiveness appraisal, feedback and recognition, and coaching.
Clear articulation of accountability and authority to engender trust and confidence in all working relationships.
Articulation of long-term organizational vision through direct communication from the top.
Opportunity for everyone individually or through representatives to participate in policy development.
The role of managerial leadership at every level [...] are the means of making these organizational values operationally real.
Usage
Organizational culture refers to culture in any type of organization including that of schools, universities, not-for-profit groups, government agencies, or business entities. In business, terms such as corporate culture and company culture are often used to refer to a similar concept. The term corporate culture became widely known in the business world in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Corporate culture was already used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists by the beginning of the 80s. The related idea of organizational climate emerged in the 1960s and 70s, and the terms are now somewhat overlapping, as climate is one aspect of culture that focuses primarily on the behaviors encouraged by the organization.
Smircich (1983) categorized two main approaches to studying organizational culture: a variable and a process (root metaphor). The former could be an external or internal variable including values, norms, rituals, structures, principles, assumptions, beliefs, etc. (Driskill and Brenton, 2019), which is also considered difficult to be defined primarily across different national cultures. However, according to Harris and Moran (2000), if defined, it provides an understanding of how it influences productivity, performance, innovation, etc., and provides the key to winning over the competition. Thus, one can understand the importance of understanding how national culture influences the corporate culture is fundamental to analyze the uniqueness of an organization and its performance. On the other hand, the root metaphor suggests that organization is culture, and both terms are interchangeable. Culture describes the characteristic of an environment rather than explains an element it has. Driskill and Brenton (2019) clarified that culture could be researched as a shared cognition, systems of shared symbols, and as the expression of unconscious processes. Keyton (2011, in Littlejohn et al., 2010) noted that each organization has its own values, patterns, meaning, and understanding that are unique from other organizations that influence behavior and employees’ communication activities.
If organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes an organization, it can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members. Culture as root metaphor sees the organization as its culture, created through communication and symbols, or competing metaphors. Culture is basic, with personal experience producing a variety of perspectives.
The organizational communication perspective on culture views culture in three different ways:
Traditionalism: views culture through objective things such as stories, rituals, and symbols
Interpretivism: views culture through a network of shared meanings (organization members sharing subjective meanings)
Critical-interpretivism: views culture through a network of shared meanings as well as the power struggles created by a similar network of competing meanings.
Business executive Bernard L. Rosauer (2013) defines organizational culture as an emergence – an extremely complex incalculable state that results from the combination of a few ingredients. In "Three Bell Curves: Business Culture Decoded", Rosauer outlines the three manageable ingredients which (he claims) guide business culture:
employee (focus on engagement)
the work (focus on eliminating waste increasing value) waste
the customer (focus on likelihood of referral)
Rosauer writes that the Three Bell Curves methodology aims to bring leadership, their employees, the work and the customer together for focus without distraction, leading to an improvement in culture and brand. He states: "If a methodology isn't memorable, it won't get used. The Three Bell Curves Methodology is simple (to remember) but execution requires strong leadership and diligence. Culture can be guided by managing the ingredients." Reliance of the research and findings of Sirota Survey Intelligence, which has been gathering employee data worldwide since 1972, the Lean Enterprise Institute, Cambridge, MA, and Fred Reichheld/Bain/Satmetrix research relating to NetPromoterScore.The Net Promoter Score (NPS) is defined as per Reichheld (2003) as “a widely used market research metric that typically takes the form of a single survey question asking respondents to rate the likelihood that they would recommend a company, product, or a service to a friend or colleague.” Colvin (2020) on the other hand elaborated the reason behind the popularity of this model due to its simple and transparent use method.
Ukrainian researcher Oleksandr Babych in his dissertation formulated the following definition: Corporate culture is a certain background of activity of the organization, which contributes to the strengthening of the vector of effectiveness depending on the degree of controllability of the conscious values of the organization, which is especially evident in dynamic changes in the structure or type of activity. This background includes a set of collective basic beliefs of the participants of the organization (Babych, 2005).
Typology of cultural types
Typology refers to the "study of or analysis or classification based on types or categories". Organizational culture and climate may be erroneously used interchangeably. Organizational culture has been described as an organization's ideals, vision, and mission, whereas climate is better defined as employees' shared meaning related to the company's policies and procedures and reward/consequence systems. Many factors, ranging from depictions of relative strength to political and national issues, can contribute to the type or types of culture that can be observed in organizations and institutions of all sizes. Below are examples of organizational culture types.
Strong and weak typology of organizational culture
There are two types of cultures, namely, strong and weak. A strong culture is characterized by reinforcing tools such as ceremonies and policies to ensure instilling and spreading its norms and values( Madu, 2012), its focus and orientation towards its employees and their performance, and the group conformity (Ahmad, 2012). Also, it focuses on high-performance and constructive pressure. Such actions strongly influence the behavior of employees and their common purpose and, according to Karlsen (2011), are described as a successful culture.
Flamholtz and Randle state that: "A strong culture is one that people clearly understand and can articulate. A weak culture is one that employees have difficulty defining, understanding, or explaining."
Strong culture is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, engaging in outstanding execution with only minor adjustments to existing procedures as needed.
Conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.
Research by Büschgens et al. (2013) and Farkas (2013) shows that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to embrace the culture. Chatman and Jehn (1994) and Oliva and Kallenberg (2003) noted that a "strong" culture may be especially beneficial to firms operating in the service sector since members of these organizations are responsible for delivering the service and for evaluations important constituents make about firms. Organizations may derive the following benefits from developing strong and productive cultures:
Better aligning the company towards achieving its vision, mission, and goals
High employee motivation and loyalty
Increased team cohesiveness among the company's various departments and divisions
Promoting consistency and encouraging coordination and control within the company
Shaping employee behavior at work, enabling the organization to be more efficient
Irving Janis defined groupthink as "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." This is a state in which even if group members have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking. As a result, innovative thinking is stifled. Groupthink can lead to lack of creativity and decisions made without critical evaluation. Hogg (2001) and Deanne et al. (2013) clarified that Groupthink can occur, for example, when group members rely heavily on a central charismatic figure in the organization or where there is an "evangelical" belief in the organization's values. Groupthink can also occur in groups characterized by a friendly climate conducive to conflict avoidance.
Healthy
Organizations should strive for what is considered a "healthy" organizational culture in order to increase productivity, growth, efficiency and reduce counterproductive behavior and turnover of employees. A variety of characteristics describe a healthy culture, including:
Acceptance and appreciation for diversity
Regard for fair treatment of each employee as well as respect for each employee's contribution to the company
Employee pride and enthusiasm for the organization and the work performed
Equal opportunity for each employee to realize their full potential within the company
Strong communication with all employees regarding policies and company issues
Strong company leaders with a strong sense of direction and purpose
Ability to compete in industry innovation and customer service, as well as price
Lower than average turnover rates (perpetuated by a healthy culture)
Investment in learning, training, and employee knowledge
Additionally, performance oriented cultures have been shown to possess statistically better financial growth. Such cultures possess high employee involvement, strong internal communications and an acceptance and encouragement of a healthy level of risk-taking in order to achieve innovation. Additionally, organizational cultures that explicitly emphasize factors related to the demands placed on them by industry technology and growth will be better performers in their industries.
According to Kotter and Heskett (1992), organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with unadaptive cultures. An adaptive culture translates into organizational success; it is characterized by managers paying close attention to all of their constituencies, especially customers, initiating change when needed, and taking risks. An unadaptive culture can significantly reduce a firm's effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive/operational options.
Healthy companies are able to deal with employees' concerns about the well-being of the organization internally, before the employees would even feel they needed to raise the issues externally. It is for this reason that whistleblowing, particularly when it results in serious damage to a company's reputation, is considered to be often a sign of a chronically dysfunctional corporate culture.
Another relevant concept is the notion of "cultural functionality". Specifically, some organizations have "functional" cultures while others have "dysfunctional" cultures. A "functional" culture is a positive culture that contributes to an organization's performance and success. A "dysfunctional" culture is one that hampers or negatively affects an organization's performance and success.
Management types of communication
There are many different types of communication that contribute in creating an organizational culture:
Metaphors such as comparing an organization to a machine or a family reveal employees' shared meanings of experiences at the organization.
Stories can provide examples for employees of how to or not to act in certain situations.
Rites and ceremonies combine stories, metaphors, and symbols into one. Several different kinds of rites affect organizational culture:
Rites of passage: employees move into new roles
Rites of degradation: employees have power taken away from them
Rites of enhancement: public recognition for an employee's accomplishments
Rites of renewal: improve existing social structures
Rites of conflict reduction: resolve arguments between certain members or groups
Rites of integration: reawaken feelings of membership in the organization
Reflexive comments are explanations, justifications, and criticisms of our own actions. This includes:
Plans: comments about anticipated actions
Commentaries: comments about action in the present
Accounts: comments about an action or event that has already occurred
Such comments reveal interpretive meanings held by the speaker as well as the social rules they follow.
Fantasy Themes are common creative interpretations of events that reflect beliefs, values, and goals of the organization. They lead to rhetorical visions, or views of the organization and its environment held by organization members.
Bullying culture type
Bullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that
they have the support, or at least implicitly the blessing, of senior managers to carry on their abusive
and bullying behaviour. Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as
acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.
When bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. That people may be bullied irrespective of their organisational status or rank, including senior managers, indicates the possibility of a negative ripple effect, where bullying may be cascaded downwards as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression on their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.
Tribal type of culture
David Logan and coauthors have proposed in their book Tribal Leadership that organizational cultures change in stages, based on an analysis of human groups and tribal cultures. They identify five basic stages:
Life sucks (a subsystem severed from other functional systems like tribes, gangs and prison—2 percent of population);
My life sucks (I am stuck in the Dumb Motor Vehicle line and can't believe I have to spend my time in this lost triangle of ineffectiveness—25 percent of population);
I'm great (and you're not, I am detached from you and will dominate you regardless of your intent—48 percent of population);
We are great, but other groups suck (citing Zappo's and an attitude of unification around more than individual competence—22 percent of population) and
Life is great (citing Desmond Tutu's hearing on truth and values as the basis of reconciliation—3 percent of population).
This model of organizational culture provides a map and context for leading an organization through the five stages.
Personal culture
Main: Personality psychology, Identity (social science)
Organizational culture is taught to the person as culture is taught by his/her parents thus changing and modeling his/her personal culture. Indeed, employees and people applying for a job are advised to match their "personality to a company's culture" and fit to it. Some researchers even suggested and have made case studies research on personality changing.
National culture type
Corporate culture is used to control, coordinate, and integrate company subsidiaries. However differences in national cultures exist contributing to differences in the views on management. Differences between national cultures are deep rooted values of the respective cultures, and these cultural values can shape how people expect companies to be run, and how relationships between leaders and followers should be, resulting in differences between the employer and the employee regarding expectations. (Geert Hofstede, 1991) Perhaps equally foundational; observing the vast differences in national copyright (and taxation, etc.) laws suggests deep rooted differences in cultural attitudes and assumptions about property rights and sometimes about the desired root function, place, or purpose of corporations relative to the population.
Multiplicity
Xibao Zhang (2009) carried out an empirical study of culture emergence in the Sino-Western international cross-cultural management (SW-ICCM) context in China. Field data were collected by interviewing Western expatriates and Chinese professionals working in this context, supplemented by non-participant observation and documentary data. The data were then analyzed objectively to formulate theme-based substantive theories and a formal theory.
The major finding of this study is that the human cognition contains three components, or three broad types of "cultural rules of behavior", namely, Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules, each of which has a mutually conditioning relationship with behavior. The three cognitive components are different in terms of the scope and duration of their mutual shaping of behavior. Values are universal and enduring rules of behavior; Expectations, on the other hand, are context-specific behavioral rules; while Ad Hoc Rules are improvised rules of behavior that the human mind devises contingent upon a particular occasion. Furthermore, they need not be consistent, and frequently are not, among themselves. Metaphorically, they can be compared to a multi-carriage train, which allows for the relative lateral movements by individual carriages so as to accommodate bumps and turns in the tracks. In fact, they provide a "shock-absorber mechanism", so to speak, which enables individuals in SW-ICCM contexts to cope with conflicts in cultural practices and values, and to accommodate and adapt themselves to cultural contexts where people from different national cultural backgrounds work together over extended time. It also provides a powerful framework which explains how interactions by individuals in SW-ICCM contexts give rise to emerging hybrid cultural practices characterized by both stability and change.
One major theoretical contribution of this "multi-carriage train" perspective is its allowance for the existence of inconsistencies among the three cognitive components in their mutual conditioning of behavior. This internal inconsistency view is in stark contrast to the traditional internal consistency assumption explicitly or tacitly held by many culture scholars. The other major theoretical contribution, which follows logically from the first one, is to view culture as an overarching entity which is made of a multiplicity of Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules. This notion of one (multiplicity) culture to an organization leads to the classification of culture along its path of emergence into nascent, adolescent, and mature types, each of which is distinct in terms of the pattern of the three cognitive components and behavior.
Effects
Research suggests that numerous outcomes have been associated either directly or indirectly with organizational culture. A healthy and robust organizational culture may provide various benefits, including the following:
Competitive edge derived from innovation and customer service
Consistent, efficient employee performance
Team cohesiveness
High employee morale
Strong company alignment towards goal achievement
Although little empirical research exists to support the link between organizational culture and organizational performance, there is little doubt among experts that this relationship exists. Organizational culture can be a factor in the survival or failure of an organization – although this is difficult to prove given that the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly feasible. The sustained superior performance of firms like IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Procter & Gamble, and McDonald's may be, at least partly, a reflection of their organizational cultures.
A 2003 Harvard Business School study reported that culture has a significant effect on an organization's long-term economic performance. The study examined the management practices at 160 organizations over ten years and found that culture can enhance performance or prove detrimental to performance. Organizations with strong performance-oriented cultures witnessed far better financial growth. Additionally, a 2002 Corporate Leadership Council study found that cultural traits such as risk taking, internal communications, and flexibility are some of the most important drivers of performance, and may affect individual performance. Furthermore, innovativeness, productivity through people, and the other cultural factors cited by Peters and Waterman (1982) also have positive economic consequences.
Denison, Haaland, and Goelzer (2004) found that culture contributes to the success of the organization, but not all dimensions contribute the same. It was found that the effects of these dimensions differ by global regions, which suggests that organizational culture is affected by national culture. Additionally, Clarke (2006) found that a safety climate is related to an organization's safety record.
Organizational culture is reflected in the way people perform tasks, set objectives, and administer the necessary resources to achieve objectives. Culture affects the way individuals make decisions, feel, and act in response to the opportunities and threats affecting the organization.
Adkins and Caldwell (2004) found that job satisfaction was positively associated with the degree to which employees fit into both the overall culture and subculture in which they worked. A perceived mismatch of the organization's culture and what employees felt the culture should be is related to a number of negative consequences including lower job satisfaction, higher job strain, general stress, and turnover intent.
It has been proposed that organizational culture may affect the level of employee creativity, the strength of employee motivation, and the reporting of unethical behavior, but more research is needed to support these conclusions.
Organizational culture also affects recruitment and retention. Individuals tend to be attracted to and remain engaged in organizations that they perceive to be compatible. Additionally, high turnover may be a mediating factor in the relationship between culture and organizational performance. Deteriorating company performance and an unhealthy work environment are signs of an overdue cultural assessment.
Moreover, organizational culture also has an effect on knowledge sharing. Succeeding in knowledge transfer is highly dependent on an organizational culture that fosters, adopts and utilizes knowledge-transfer processes.Also, studies in transportation organizations (e. g. bus organizations) showed that organizational culture has an effect on road traffic crashes.
Change
When an organization does not possess a healthy culture or requires some kind of organizational culture change, the change process can be daunting. Organizational culture can hinder new change efforts, especially where employees know their expectations and the roles that they are supposed to play in the organization. This is corroborated by Mar (2016:1) who argues that 70% of all change efforts fail because of the culture of an organization's employees. One major reason why such change is difficult is that organizational cultures, and the organizational structures in which they are embedded, often reflect the "imprint" of earlier periods in a persistent way and exhibit remarkable levels of inertia. Culture change may be necessary to reduce employee turnover, influence employee behavior, make improvements to the company, refocus the company objectives and/or rescale the organization, provide better customer service, and/or achieve specific company goals and results. Culture change is affected by a number of elements, including the external environment and industry competitors, change in industry standards, technology changes, the size and nature of the workforce, and the organization's history and management.
There are a number of methodologies specifically dedicated to organizational culture change such as Peter Senge's Fifth Discipline. There are also a variety of psychological approaches that have been developed into a system for specific outcomes such as the Fifth Discipline's "learning organization" or Directive Communication's "corporate culture evolution." Ideas and strategies, on the other hand, seem to vary according to particular influences that affect culture.
Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is 'leadership' that affects culture rather than 'management', and describe the difference. When one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to keep in consideration that this is a long-term project. Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.
Prior to a cultural change initiative, a needs assessment is needed to identify and understand the current organizational culture. This can be done through employee surveys, interviews, focus groups, observation, customer surveys where appropriate, and other internal research, to further identify areas that require change. The company must then assess and clearly identify the new, desired culture, and then design a change process.
Cummings & Worley (2004, p. 491 – 492) give the following six guidelines for cultural change, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995, p. 2):
Formulate a clear strategic vision (stage 1, 2, and 3). In order to make a cultural change effective a clear vision of the firm's new strategy, shared values and behaviors is needed. This vision provides the intention and direction for the culture change (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 490).
Display top-management commitment (stage 4). It is very important to keep in mind that culture change must be managed from the top of the organization, as willingness to change of the senior management is an important indicator (Cummings & Worley, 2004, page 490). The top of the organization should be very much in favor of the change in order to actually implement the change in the rest of the organization. De Caluwé & Vermaak (2004, p 9) provide a framework with five different ways of thinking about change.
Model culture change at the highest level (stage 5). In order to show that the management team is in favor of the change, the change has to be notable at first at this level. The behavior of the management needs to symbolize the kinds of values and behaviors that should be realized in the rest of the company. It is important that the management shows the strengths of the current culture as well; it must be made clear that the current organizational culture does not need radical changes, but just a few adjustments. (See for more: Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Sathe, 1983; Schall; 1983; Weick, 1985; DiTomaso, 1987). This process may also include creating committees, employee task forces, value managers, or similar. Change agents are key in the process and key communicators of the new values. They should possess courage, flexibility, excellent interpersonal skills, knowledge of the company, and patience. As McCune (May 1999) puts it, these individuals should be catalysts, not dictators.
The fourth step is to modify the organization to support organizational change. This includes identifying what current systems, policies, procedures and rules need to be changed in order to align with the new values and desired culture. This may include a change to accountability systems, compensation, benefits and reward structures, and recruitment and retention programs to better align with the new values and to send a clear message to employees that the old system and culture are in the past.
Select and socialize newcomers and terminate deviants (stage 7 & 8 of Kotter, 1995, p. 2). A way to implement a culture is to connect it to organizational membership, people can be selected and terminated in terms of their fit with the new culture (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 491). Encouraging employee motivation and loyalty to the company is key and will also result in a healthy culture. The company and change managers should be able to articulate the connections between the desired behavior and how it will affect and improve the company's success, to further encourage buy-in in the change process. Training should be provided to all employees to understand the new processes, expectations and systems.
Develop ethical and legal sensitivity. Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 491). It is also beneficial, as part of the change process, to include an evaluation process, conducted periodically to monitor the change progress and identify areas that need further development. This step will also identify obstacles of change and resistant employees, and acknowledge and reward employee improvement, which will encourage continued change and evolvement. It may also be helpful and necessary to incorporate new change managers to refresh the process. Outside consultants may also be useful in facilitating the change process and providing employee training. Change of culture in organizations is very important and inevitable. Cultural innovation is bound to be more difficult than cultural maintenance because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in existing cultures. People often resist changes, hence it is the duty of management to convince people that likely gain will outweigh the losses. Besides institutionalization, deification is another process that tends to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. The organization itself may come to be regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. The organization's members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns, and they begin to identify with it. The organization turns into a sort of clan.
Mergers and cultural leadership
One of the biggest obstacles in the way of the merging of two organizations is organizational culture. Each organization has its own unique culture and most often, when brought together, these cultures clash. When mergers fail employees point to issues such as identity, communication problems, human resources problems, ego clashes, and inter-group conflicts, which all fall under the category of "cultural differences".
One way to combat such difficulties is through cultural leadership. Organizational leaders must also be cultural leaders and help facilitate the change from the two old cultures into the one new culture. This is done through cultural innovation followed by cultural maintenance.
Cultural innovation includes:
Creating a new culture: recognizing past cultural differences and setting realistic expectations for change
Changing the culture: weakening and replacing the old cultures
Cultural maintenance includes:
Integrating the new culture: reconciling the differences between the old cultures and the new one
Embodying the new culture: Establishing, affirming, and keeping the new culture
Corporate subcultures
Corporate culture is the total sum of the values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make a company unique. Corporate culture is often called "the character of an organization", since it embodies the vision of the company's founders. The values of a corporate culture influence the ethical standards within a corporation, as well as managerial behavior.
Senior management may try to determine a corporate culture. They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization. In addition, there will also be an extant internal culture within the workforce. Work-groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affect the whole system. Roger Harrison's four-culture typology, adapted by Charles Handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be 'imported'. For example, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization, but their presence can influence the culture of the organization as a whole.
Authors Gerard Egan and William Tate speak of organizations having a "shadow side". In Egan's work on the "shadow side" of organizations, he defined the shadow side as:
Tate describes the shadow side as the "often disagreeable, messy, crazy and opaque aspects of [an] organisation’s personality".
Legal aspects
Corporate culture can legally be found to be a cause of injuries and a reason for fining companies in the US, e.g., when the US Department of Labor Mine Safety and Health Administration levied a fine of more than 10.8 million US dollars on Performance Coal Co. following the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in April 2010. This was the largest fine in the history of this U.S. government agency.
Research and models
Several methods have been used to classify organizational culture. While there is no single "type" of organizational culture and organizational cultures vary widely from one organization to the next, commonalities do exist and some researchers have developed models to describe different indicators of organizational cultures. Some are described below:
Hofstede
Hofstede (1991) defined organizational culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one organization from another." Hofstede (1980) looked for differences between over 160 000 IBM employees in 50 different countries and three regions of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that might influence business behavior. He suggested things about cultural differences existing in regions and nations, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for their own cultural introspection. Cultural differences reflect differences in thinking and social action, and even in "mental programs", a term Hofstede uses for predictable behavior. Hofstede relates culture to ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, professional, family, social and subcultural groups, national political systems and legislation, etc.
Hofstede suggests the need for changing "mental programs" with changing behavior first, which will lead to value change. Though certain groups like Jews and Gypsies have maintained their identity through centuries, their values show adaptation to the dominant cultural environment.
Hofstede demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations and identified four dimensions of culture (later five) in his study of national cultures:
Power distance (Mauk Mulder, 1977) – Different societies find different solutions regarding social inequality. Although invisible, inside organizations power inequality of the "boss-subordinate relationships" is functional and according to Hofstede reflects the way inequality is addressed in the society. "According to Mulder's Power Distance Reduction theory subordinates will try to reduce the power distance between themselves and their bosses and bosses will try to maintain or enlarge it", but there is also a degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of power. A high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger amounts of power than others. A low score reflects the view that all people should have equal rights.
Uncertainty avoidance is the way of coping with uncertainty about the future. Society copes with it with technology, law and religion (though different societies have different ways of addressing it), and according to Hofstede organizations deal with it with technology, law and rituals, or in two ways – rational and non-rational, with rituals being the non-rational. Hofstede listed some of the rituals as the memos and reports, some parts of the accounting system, a large part of the planning and control systems, and the nomination of experts.
Individualism vs. collectivism – disharmony of interests on personal and collective goals (Parsons and Shils, 1951). Hofstede raises the idea that society's expectations of Individualism/Collectivism will be reflected by the employee inside the organization. Collectivist societies will have more emotional dependence on members in their organizations; when in equilibrium an organization is expected to show responsibility to members. Extreme individualism is seen in the US. In fact, collectivism in the US is seen as "bad". Other cultures and societies than the US will therefore seek to resolve social and organizational problems in ways different from American ways. Hofstede says that a capitalist market economy fosters individualism and competition, and depends on it, but individualism is also related to the development of the middle class. Some people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism. For example, someone who highly values duty to his or her group does not necessarily give a low priority to personal freedom and self-sufficiency.
Masculinity vs. femininity – reflects whether a certain society is predominantly male or female in terms of cultural values, gender roles and power relations.
Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation which he describes as "The long-term orientation dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society's search for virtue. Societies with a short-term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth. They are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. In societies with a long-term orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results."
These dimensions refer to the effect of national cultures on management, and can be used to adapt policies to local needs.
In a follow up study, another model is suggested for organizational culture. Soeters and Schreuder (1988) have used Hofstede's dimensions to study the interaction between national and organizational cultures in accounting firms.
O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell
Two common models and their associated measurement tools have been developed by O'Reilly et al. and Denison.
O'Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell (1991) developed a model based on the belief that cultures can be distinguished by values that are reinforced within organizations. Their Organizational Cultural Profile (OCP) is a self-reporting tool which makes distinctions according eight categories – Innovation, Supportiveness, Stability, Respect for People, Outcome Orientation, Attention to Detail, Team Orientation, and Aggressiveness. The model is also suited to measure how organizational culture affects organizational performance, as it measures most efficient persons suited to an organization and as such organizations can be termed as having good organizational culture. Takeda (2007) explained that such model can measure both the person-situation fit and the person-culture fit. Such measurements allow to understand the level of compatibility between employees and companies (culture). Employee values are measured against organizational values to predict employee intentions to stay and turnover. This is done through an instrument like Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) to measure employee commitment.
Daniel Denison
Daniel Denison's model (1990) asserts that organizational culture can be described by four general dimensions – Mission, Adaptability, Involvement and Consistency. Each of these general dimensions is further described by the following three sub-dimensions:
Mission – Strategic Direction and Intent, Goals and Objectives and Vision
Adaptability – Creating Change, Customer Focus and Organizational Learning
Involvement – Empowerment, Team Orientation and Capability Development
Consistency – Core Values, Agreement, Coordination/Integration
Denison's model also allows cultures to be described broadly as externally or internally focused as well as flexible versus stable. The model has been typically used to diagnose cultural problems in organizations.
Deal and Kennedy
Deal and Kennedy (1982) defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here.
Deal and Kennedy created a model of culture that is based on 4 different types of organizations. They each focus on how quickly the organization receives feedback, the way members are rewarded, and the level of risks taken:
Work-hard, play-hard culture: This has rapid feedback/reward and low risk resulting in: Stress coming from quantity of work rather than uncertainty. High-speed action leading to high-speed recreation. Examples: Restaurants, software companies.
Tough-guy macho culture: This has rapid feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: Stress coming from high risk and potential loss/gain of reward. Focus on the present rather than the longer-term future. Examples: police, surgeons, sports.
Process culture: This has slow feedback/reward and low risk, resulting in the following: Low stress, plodding work, comfort and security. Stress that comes from internal politics and stupidity of the system. Development of bureaucracies and other ways of maintaining the status quo. Focus on security of the past and of the future. Examples: banks, insurance companies.
Bet-the-company culture: This has slow feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: Stress coming from high risk and delay before knowing if actions have paid off. The long view is taken, but then much work is put into making sure things happen as planned. Examples: aircraft manufacturers, oil companies.
Edgar Schein
According to Schein (1992), culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. His organizational model illuminates culture from the standpoint of the observer, described at three levels: artifacts, espoused values and basic underlying assumptions.
At the first and most cursory level of Schein's model is organizational attributes that can be seen, felt and heard by the uninitiated observer – collectively known as artifacts. Included are the facilities, offices, furnishings, visible awards and recognition, the way that its members dress, how each person visibly interacts with each other and with organizational outsiders, and even company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds.
Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Daniel Denison (1990) describes artifacts as the tangible aspects of culture shared by members of an organization. Verbal, behavioral and physical artifacts are the surface manifestations of organizational culture.
Rituals, the collective interpersonal behavior and values as demonstrated by that behavior, constitute the fabric of an organization's culture. The contents of myths, stories, and sagas reveal the history of an organization and influence how people understand what their organization values and believes. Language, stories, and myths are examples of verbal artifacts and are represented in rituals and ceremonies. Technology and art exhibited by members of an organization are examples of physical artifacts.
The next level deals with the professed culture of an organization's members – the values. Shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g. loyalty, customer service). At this level, local and personal values are widely expressed within the organization. Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture. Organizational behavior at this level usually can be studied by interviewing the organization's membership and using questionnaires to gather attitudes about organizational membership.
At the third and deepest level, the organization's tacit assumptions are found. These are the elements of culture that are unseen and not cognitively identified in everyday interactions between organizational members. Additionally, these are the elements of culture which are often taboo to discuss inside the organization. Many of these 'unspoken rules' exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership. Those with sufficient experience to understand this deepest level of organizational culture usually become acclimatized to its attributes over time, thus reinforcing the invisibility of their existence. Surveys and casual interviews with organizational members cannot draw out these attributes—rather much more in-depth means is required to first identify then understand organizational culture at this level. Notably, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often missed by organizational behaviorists.
Using Schein's model, understanding paradoxical organizational behaviors becomes more apparent. For instance, an organization can profess highly aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of Schein's model while simultaneously displaying curiously opposing behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. Superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the deepest level imply something completely different. This insight offers an understanding of the difficulty that organizational newcomers have in assimilating organizational culture and why it takes time to become acclimatized. It also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying tacit cultural norms are generally not understood before would-be change agents begin their actions. Merely understanding culture at the deepest level may be insufficient to institute cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often under threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while attempts are made to institute desired change.
According to Schein (1992), the two main reasons why cultures develop in organizations is due to external adaptation and internal integration. External adaptation reflects an evolutionary approach to organizational culture and suggests that cultures develop and persist because they help an organization to survive and flourish. If the culture is valuable, then it holds the potential for generating sustained competitive advantages. Additionally, internal integration is an important function since social structures are required for organizations to exist. Organizational practices are learned through socialization at the workplace. Work environments reinforce culture on a daily basis by encouraging employees to exercise cultural values.
Organizational culture is shaped by multiple factors, including the following:
External environment
Industry
Size and nature of the organization's workforce
Technologies the organization uses
The organization's history and ownership
Gerry Johnson
Gerry Johnson (1988) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence organizational culture:
The paradigm: What the organization is about, what it does, its mission, its values.
Control systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on. Role cultures would have vast rule-books. There would be more reliance on individualism in a power culture.
Organizational structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows through the business.
Power structures: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power based?
Symbols: These include organizational logos and designs, but also extend to symbols of power such as parking spaces and executive washrooms.
Rituals and routines: Management meetings, board reports and so on may become more habitual than necessary.
Stories and myths: build up about people and events, and convey a message about what is valued within the organization.
These elements may overlap. Power structures may depend on control systems, which may exploit the very rituals that generate stories which may not be true.
Stanley G. Harris
Schemata (plural of schema) are knowledge structures a person forms from past experiences, allowing the person to respond to similar events more efficiently in the future by guiding the processing of information. A person's schemata are created through interaction with others, and thus inherently involve communication.
Stanley G. Harris (1994) argues that five categories of in-organization schemata are necessary for organizational culture:
Self-in-organization schemata: a person's concept of oneself within the context of the organization, including her/his personality, roles, and behavior.
Person-in-organization schemata: a person's memories, impressions, and expectations of other individuals within the organization.
Organization schemata: a subset of person schemata, a person's generalized perspective on others as a whole in the organization.
Object/concept-in-organization schemata: knowledge an individual has of organization aspects other than of other persons.
Event-in-organization schemata: a person's knowledge of social events within an organization.
All of these categories together represent a person's knowledge of an organization.
Organizational culture is created when the schematas (schematic structures) of differing individuals across and within an organization come to resemble each other (when any one person's schemata come to resemble another person's schemata because of mutual organizational involvement), primarily done through organizational communication, as individuals directly or indirectly share knowledge and meanings.
Charles Handy
Charles Handy (1976), popularized Roger Harrison (1972) with linking organizational structure to organizational culture. The described four types of culture are:
Power culture: concentrates power among a small group or a central figure and its control is radiating from its center like a web. Power cultures need only a few rules and little bureaucracy but swift in decisions can ensue.
Role culture: authorities are delegated as such within a highly defined structure. These organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies, where power derives from the personal position and rarely from an expert power. Control is made by procedures (which are highly valued), strict roles descriptions and authority definitions. These organizations have consistent systems and are very predictable. This culture is often represented by a "Roman Building" having pillars. These pillars represent the functional departments.
Task culture: teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power is derived from the team with the expertise to execute against a task. This culture uses a small team approach, where people are highly skilled and specialized in their own area of expertise. Additionally, these cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines seen in a matrix structure.
Person culture: formed where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. It can become difficult for such organizations to continue to operate, since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue organizational goals. However some professional partnerships operate well as person cultures, because each partner brings a particular expertise and clientele to the firm.
Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn
Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn (1999) conducted research on organizational effectiveness and success. Based on the Competing Values Framework, they developed the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument that distinguishes four culture types.
Competing values produce polarities like flexibility vs. stability and internal vs. external focus – these two polarities were found to be most important in defining organizational success. The polarities construct a quadrant with four types of culture:
Clan culture (internal focus and flexible) – A friendly workplace where leaders act like father figures.
Adhocracy culture (external focus and flexible) – A dynamic workplace with leaders that stimulate innovation.
Market culture (external focus and controlled) – A competitive workplace with leaders like hard drivers
Hierarchy culture (internal focus and controlled) – A structured and formalized workplace where leaders act like coordinators.
Cameron and Quinn designated six characteristics of organizational culture that can be assessed with the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI).
Clan cultures are most strongly associated with positive employee attitudes and product and service quality. Market cultures are most strongly related with innovation and financial effectiveness criteria. The primary belief in market cultures that clear goals and contingent rewards motivate employees to aggressively perform and meet stakeholders' expectations; a core belief in clan cultures is that the organization's trust in and commitment to employees facilitates open communication and employee involvement. These differing results suggest that it is important for executive leaders to consider the match between strategic initiatives and organizational culture when determining how to embed a culture that produces competitive advantage. By assessing the current organizational culture as well as the preferred situation, the gap and direction to change can be made visible as a first step to changing organizational culture.
Robert A. Cooke
Robert A. Cooke defines culture as the behaviors that members believe are required to fit in and meet expectations within their organization. The Organizational Culture Inventory measures twelve behavioral norms that are grouped into three general types of cultures:
Constructive cultures, in which members are encouraged to interact with people and approach tasks in ways that help them meet their higher-order satisfaction needs.
Passive/defensive cultures, in which members believe they must interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security.
Aggressive/defensive cultures, in which members are expected to approach tasks in forceful ways to protect their status and security.
Constructive cultures
In constructive cultures, people are encouraged to be in communication with their co-workers, and work as teams, rather than only as individuals. In positions where people do a complex job, rather than something simple like a mechanical task, this culture is efficient.
Achievement: completing a task successfully, typically by effort, courage, or skill (pursue a standard of excellence) (explore alternatives before acting) – Based on the need to attain high-quality results on challenging projects, the belief that outcomes are linked to one's effort rather than chance and the tendency to personally set challenging yet realistic goals. People high in this style think ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mistakes.
Self-actualizing: realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities – considered as a drive or need present in everyone (think in unique and independent ways) (do even simple tasks well) – Based on needs for personal growth, self-fulfillment and the realization of one's potential. People with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet realistic thinking and a balanced concern for people and tasks.
Humanistic-encouraging: help others to grow and develop (resolve conflicts constructively) – Reflects an interest in the growth and development of people, a high positive regard for them and sensitivity to their needs. People high in this style devote energy to coaching and counselling others, are thoughtful and considerate and provide people with support and encouragement.
Affiliative: treat people as more valuable than things (cooperate with others) – Reflects an interest in developing and sustaining pleasant relationships. People high in this style share their thoughts and feelings, are friendly and cooperative and make others feel a part of things.
Organizations with constructive cultures encourage members to work to their full potential, resulting in high levels of motivation, satisfaction, teamwork, service quality, and sales growth. Constructive norms are evident in environments where quality is valued over quantity, creativity is valued over conformity, cooperation is believed to lead to better results than competition, and effectiveness is judged at the system level rather than the component level. These types of cultural norms are consistent with (and supportive of) the objectives behind empowerment, total quality management, transformational leadership, continuous improvement, re-engineering, and learning organizations.
Passive/defensive cultures
Norms that reflect expectations for members to interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security are in the Passive/Defensive Cluster.
The four Passive/Defensive cultural norms are:
Approval
Conventional
Dependent
Avoidance
In organizations with Passive/Defensive cultures, members feel pressured to think and behave in ways that are inconsistent with the way they believe they should in order to be effective. People are expected to please others (particularly superiors) and avoid interpersonal conflict. Rules, procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgment. Passive/Defensive cultures experience a lot of unresolved conflict and turnover, and organizational members report lower levels of motivation and satisfaction.
Aggressive/defensive cultures
This style is characterized with more emphasis on task than people. Because of the very nature of this style, people tend to focus on their own individual needs at the expense of the success of the group. The aggressive/defensive style is very stressful, and people using this style tend to make decisions based on status as opposed to expertise.
Oppositional – This cultural norm is based on the idea that a need for security that takes the form of being very critical and cynical at times. People who use this style are more likely to question others work; however, asking those tough question often leads to a better product. Nonetheless, those who use this style may be overly-critical toward others, using irrelevant or trivial flaws to put others down.
Power – This cultural norm is based on the idea that there is a need for prestige and influence. Those who use this style often equate their own self-worth with controlling others. Those who use this style have a tendency to dictate others opposing to guiding others' actions.
Competitive – This cultural norm is based on the idea of a need to protect one's status. Those who use this style protect their own status by comparing themselves to other individuals and outperforming them. Those who use this style are seekers of appraisal and recognition from others.
Perfectionistic – This cultural norm is based on the need to attain flawless results. Those who often use this style equate their self-worth with the attainment of extremely high standards. Those who often use this style are always focused on details and place excessive demands on themselves and others.
Organizations with aggressive/defensive cultures encourage or require members to appear competent, controlled, and superior. Members who seek assistance, admit shortcomings, or concede their position are viewed as incompetent or weak. These organizations emphasize finding errors, weeding out "mistakes" and encouraging members to compete against each other rather than competitors. The short-term gains associated with these strategies are often at the expense of long-term growth.
Adam Grant
Adam Grant, author of the book Give and Take, distinguishes organizational cultures into giver, taker and matcher cultures according to their norms of reciprocity. In a giver culture, employees operate by "helping others, sharing knowledge, offering mentoring, and making connections without expecting anything in return", whereas in a taker culture "the norm is to get as much as possible from others while contributing less in return" and winners are those who take the most and are able to build their power at the expense of others. The majority of organizations are mid-way, with a matcher culture, in which the norm is to match giving with taking, and favours are mostly traded in closed loops.
In a study by Harvard researchers on units of the US intelligence system, a giver culture turned out to be the strongest predictor of group effectiveness.
As Grant points out, Robert H. Frank argues that "many organizations are essentially winner-take-all markets, dominated by zero-sum competitions for rewards and promotions". In particular, when leaders implement forced ranking systems to reward individual performance, the organisational culture tends to change, with a giver culture giving way to a taker or matcher culture. Also awarding the highest-performing individual within each team encourages a taker culture.
Stephen McGuire
Stephen McGuire (2003) defined and validated a model of organizational culture that predicts revenue from new sources. An Entrepreneurial Organizational Culture (EOC) is a system of shared values, beliefs and norms of members of an organization, including valuing creativity and tolerance of creative people, believing that innovating and seizing market opportunities are appropriate behaviors to deal with problems of survival and prosperity, environmental uncertainty, and competitors' threats, and expecting organizational members to behave accordingly.
Elements
People and empowerment focused
Value creation through innovation and change
Attention to the basics
Hands-on management
Doing the right thing
Freedom to grow and to fail
Commitment and personal responsibility
Emphasis on the future
Eric Flamholtz
Eric Flamholtz (2001; 2011) has identified and validated a model of organizational culture components that drive financial results (Flamholtz and Randle, 2011). The model consist of five identified dimensions of corporate culture: 1) treatment of customers, 2) treatment of people, 3) performance standards and accountability, 4) innovation and change, and 5) process orientation. These five dimensions have been confirmed by factor analysis (Flamholtz and Narasimhan-Kannan, 2005) in addition, Flamholtz has published empirical research that show the impact of organizational culture on financial performance (Flamholtz, 2001). Flamholtz has also proposed that organizational (corporate) culture is not just an asset in the economic sense; but is also an "asset" in the conventional accounting sense (Flamholtz 2005). Flamholtz and Randle have also examined the evolution of organizational culture at different stages of organizational growth (Flamholtz and
Randle, 2014).
Ethical frameworks and evaluations of corporate culture
The cultural framework helps researchers to analyze culture with different ethnographic within organizations. Those frameworks can be categorized into the following:
Frameworks including
1. Kets de Vries and Miller (1984): the researcher linked neurotic styles with organizational functioning by focusing on the culture’s negative features and aspects. They categorized cultures into Paranoid, Avoidant, Charismatic, Bureaucratic, and Schizoid.
2. Mitroff and Kilmann (1975): the researchers studied managers' decision-making within a politicized culture and categorized culture types into Sensation thinking, Sensation feeling, Intuitive thinking, and Intuitive feeling.
3. Sethia and Von Gilnow in 1985: the researchers categorized culture based on the company’s main concern into Caring, Apathetic, Integrative, and Exacting.
4. Deal and Kennedy (1982): the researchers defined cultures based on organizational environment, core beliefs, heroes of the culture, folklore, myths, rites, rituals of culture, and the cultural network.
5. Jaeger (1978): the researcher classified cultures into types A (allows some decision making), J (tribal control), and Z (tribal decision making).
A cultural audit, on the other hand, is an assessment of an organization's values, and it helps organizations classify what corporate culture they have.
COVID-19 impact on organizational culture
Since the COVID-19 outbreak, cultures have been redefined within different organizations, and the responsibility to fight the spread of the disease and its transmission, especially in workplaces become a collective responsibility. For that, employees who had returned to work at offices found it necessary to wear masks either by choice or by companies’ regulations.
Joung (2020) explained that it is not new by any stretch to wear a mask in Asia; however, it became the new face of the culture in the rest of the world in retrospect after the pandemic hit at the beginning of 2020. Therefore, it is essential to understand the underlying cultural narrative behind wearing masks in Asia long before the COVID-19 pandemic.
Keggins (2021) explained the reason behind wearing masks to multiple reasons, including the spread of different types of flu in Asia over the years, such as; Spanish flu, Italian flu, Hong Kong flu, Avian flu, and Swine flu. Additionally, the spread of SARS, an increase of Pollen count and Hay fever, Great Kanto earthquake and its emissions of smoke, ash, gas, and air pollution, Tōkohu earthquake and tsunami, and radioactive particles. So naturally, after decades, wearing a mask became a common cultural practice, and wearing it is considered a good manner and a civic duty.
Somers (2021) categorized cultures based on whether the need of the individual or the group is favored on account of the other to individualistic and collectivism cultures, respectively. For example, wearing a mask is considered a characteristic of a collectivism culture, and thus the collective responsibility symbolizes solidarity and the new image of cultural value. Also, Joung (2020) explained that wearing masks could serve as a social firewall because it attracts less attention. However, Sorenson (2002, in Daum and Maraist, 2021) argued that one of the strong cultural characteristics is the resistance to the change, which puts it at a disadvantage, especially in times of pandemics and when implementing safety measures for employees. By contrast, Flynn & Chatman claimed that strong culture focuses on innovation, and thus it has a more tendency to change and adapt to crisis circumstances.
Bhattarai (2020) claimed that wearing face masks could lead to misinterpretation of attitudes during interactions because face-to-face meetings and conversation creates rapport and trust. Therefore, wearing a mask side by side with social distancing needs to be addressed as an issue to find solutions to develop a sustainable interaction between employees on one hand and employees with customers on the other hand. Having said that, Cleeland (2020) claimed that face masks are there to curtail the spread of the Corona Virus and not as a piece of personal protective equipment.
In light of this, as defined by Young and Maraist (2020), culture is the corporation personality that influences people’s stances toward “conflict, change, failure, and success.” Such influence results in imparting a sense of security and thus satisfaction for employees. Weston (2021) added that it influences employees’ working experience, engagement, stress, happiness, satisfaction, motivation, and productivity, which leads us to discuss how did the COVID-19 impact the organizational cultures, working experience, and values.
Daum and Maraist (2021) discussed in their paper titled “The importance of culture in the era of COVID-19” that COVID-19 has affected organizational culture to a large extent. The authors explain the importance and urgent need for organizations to readdress concepts such as adversity and change pre and post-pandemic as that concept is the core definition of culture.
To this end, corporate life did not stop during the pandemic; instead, the pandemic changed how operations took place. As a result, the Strategist (2020) suggested that a new model emerged, namely the “geographically dispersed delivery model.” In addition, Thomas (2021) noted that there became an accelerated utilization and adoption of digital tools to bridge distances. Such tools included; “videoconferencing, screen-sharing, digital shared file storage, simultaneous multi-authoring of documents, digital whiteboards, and smartphone chat groups.”
However, the excessive use of technology as a primary way of communication has led to many issues, including Zoom fatigue. Additionally, newly hired employees, especially in the period of pandemics, faced difficulty assimilating into their teams due to working in a remote capacity. On the other hand, older employees met a changed dynamics where it is hard to overreach the organization’s mission. Additionally, Klynn (2021) highlighted how cultures suffered, and employees felt disengaged, expandable rather than essential, alienated, and exhausted.
Klynn (2021) suggested many solutions to solve the lack of communication, advance the organization’s strategies, and keep employees in connection with the company’s core values. Such solutions included making employees feel valued, heard, and engaged, creating equity for all team members, communicating with employees through proactive conversation, identifying unnecessary old habits and getting rid of them, identifying newly emerged practices that proved valuable, designing and building the new culture/norm, and making change explicit. Similarly, Weston (2021) and Stoller (2020) stressed the need to invest in technology and multiple dissemination media to develop new policies and have iterative communication.
The Strategist (2020) suggested maintaining daily stand-ups, extending meeting time and skip meetings for informal conversation, enhancing the sense of community at work, and expressing more gratitude by saying thank you to colleagues who cannot see you. Also, Thomas (2021) suggested frequent check-ins.
It is worth mentioning that after listing possible problems that may happen due to working from home and their solutions, Sull and Sull (2020) reported that during the pandemic, employees had rated their leadership highly on account of honest communication, integrity in addressing the pandemic, and more transparency than in preceding years. Also, employers and leaders have given more attention to employees' welfare and work agility during a time of turmoil. The authors concluded that such an outcome has a positive impact on cultural values. However, Chambers (2020) claimed that such results do not reflect the organizational culture change rather a response to the pandemic. Thus corporates need to incorporate such changes in the internal culture long after the pandemic is gone.
Deloitte (2020) argued that due to COVID-19, employees originated a sense of purpose, inspiration, and contribution. On the other hand, leaders became more tolerant of employees' failure because of a significant increase in experimenting and risk-taking, which led to improved productivity. Additionally, increased agility and flexibility in policies at work, side by side with a loose hierarchy that drives a culture of accountability. In comparison, De Castro and Meneses (2020) found that organizational culture is a precise predictor of innovation. Additionally, the pandemic has helped adhocracy cultures adopt product innovations and market cultures, process innovations.
To this end, Daum and Maraist (2021) explained that the meaning of a sense of purpose does not refer to the goals and productivity of a company; instead, it relates to humans/customers and the society of which employees are part. They claimed that depending on the sector, such value might differ, bringing a comparison between hospitals and retail shops. The former had a higher sense of purpose during the pandemic, where the latter had a less sense of purpose. They added that during COVID-19, companies, whether redefined or expanded their purposes to provide emergency assistance to society. Also, the authors discussed how does the pandemic affects the way employees are treated by employers and the commitment to which employers took to ensure their safety as well as customers while at the same time focusing on making a profit.
Furthermore, working remotely from home and depending on technology as a primary way of communication resulted in creating subcultures within the central organizational culture. Having said that, subcultures initially existed in a traditional working setting and are considered as a part of a cohesive environment and the larger culture. For example, Spicer (2020) pointed out that some rituals used to occur near water coolers and are now being replaced by technological tools.
Critical views
Criticism of the usage of the term by managers began already in its emergence in the early 80s. Most of the criticism comes from the writers in critical management studies who for example express skepticism about the functionalist and unitarist views about culture that are put forward by mainstream management writers. They stress the ways in which these cultural assumptions can stifle dissent towards management and reproduce propaganda and ideology. They suggest that organizations do not encompass a single culture, and cultural engineering may not reflect the interests of all stakeholders within an organization.
Parker (2000) has suggested that many of the assumptions of those putting forward theories of organizational culture are not new. They reflect a long-standing tension between cultural and structural (or informal and formal) versions of what organizations are. Further, it is reasonable to suggest that complex organizations might have many cultures, and that such sub-cultures might overlap and contradict each other. The neat typologies of cultural forms found in textbooks rarely acknowledge such complexities, or the various economic contradictions that exist in capitalist organizations.
Among the strongest and most widely recognized writers on corporate culture, with a long list of articles on leadership, culture, gender and their intersection, is Linda Smircich. As a part of the critical management studies, she criticizes theories that attempt to categorize or 'pigeonhole' organizational culture. She uses the metaphor of a plant root to represent culture, saying that it drives organizations rather than vice versa. Organizations are the product of organizational culture; we are unaware of how it shapes behavior and interaction (also implicit in Schein's (2002) underlying assumptions of the organization. According to Packer (2002), Schein’s underlying assumptions are the beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings taken for granted and can be observed and considered the ultimate source of values and action. Such assumptions are categorized into assumptions about the problem (what is the organization trying to achieve), assumptions about the solution, and assumptions on how to organize to achieve a solution?. Such assumptions undermines attempts to categorize and define organizational culture.
See also
References
Notes
Burman, R. and Evans, A.J. (2008) "Target Zero: A Culture of safety", Defence Aviation Safety Centre Journal, pp. 22–27.
Cameron, Kim S. & Quinn, Robert E. (1999), Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the Competing Values Framework, Prentice Hall, , reprinted John Wiley & Sons, 2011
Cummings, Thomas G. & Worley, Christopher G. (2004), Organization Development and Change, 8th Ed., South-Western College Pub.
Denison, Daniel R. (1990) Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness, Wiley.
Denison, Daniel R., Haaland, S. and Goelzer, P. (2004) "Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness: Is Asia Different from the Rest of the World?" Organizational Dynamics, pp. 98–1 09
Flamholtz, Eric G and Randle, Yvonne (2011), "Corporate Culture: The Ultimate Strategic Advantage," Stanford University Press, Stanford California, pp. 5–6 and 26–27.
Flamholtz, Eric and Randle Yvonne,(2014). "Implications of organizational Life Cycles for Corporate Culture and Climate," Chapter 13 in B. Schneider and K. Barbera, The oxford Handbook of organizational Climate and Culture, Oxford Library of psychology, Oxford university press, 2014, pp. 235–265.
Handy, Charles B. (1976) Understanding Organizations, Oxford University Press
Harrison, Roger (1972) Understanding your organisation's character, Harvard Business Review
Hofstede, Geert (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Beverly Hills, CA, Sage Publications, reprinted 1984
Hofstede, Geert (1991), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind., McGraw-Hill Professional
McGuire, Stephen J.J. (2003). "Entrepreneurial Organizational Culture: Construct Definition and Instrument Development and Validation, Ph.D. Dissertation", The George Washington University, Washington, DC.
Mulder, Mauk (1977) The daily power game, Martinus Nijhoff Socìal Sciences Division
Parker, M. (2000) Organizational Culture and Identity, London: Sage.
Parsons, Talcott, Shils, Edward (1951), Toward a General Theory of Action, reprinted as Parsons, Talcott, Shils, Tolman, Stouffer and Kluckhohn et al., Toward a General Theory of Action: Theoretical foundations of the Social Sciencies, Transaction Publishers, 2001
Peters and Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence. Harper & Row (New York).
Stoykov, Lubomir (1995). Фирмената култура и комуникация (Company culture and communication), Stopanstvo, Sofia.
Zhang, Xibao (2009). Values, Expectations, Ad Hoc Rules, and Culture Emergence in International Cross Cultural Management Contexts. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Further reading
Black, Richard J. (2003) Organizational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success, London UK,
Boddy, C. R. (2011) Corporate Psychopaths: Organizational Destroyers, Palgrave Macmillan
Jex, Steven M. Jex & Britt, Thomas W. (2008) Organizational Psychology, A Scientist-Practitioner Approach, John Wiley & Sons, .
Kleinbaum, Rob and Aviva (2013). Creating a Culture of Profitability, Probabilistic Publishing, .
O'Donovan, Gabrielle (2006). The Corporate Culture Handbook: How to Plan, Implement and Measure a Successful Culture Change Programme, The Liffey Press,
Papa, Michael J., et al. (2008). Organizational Communication Perspectives and Trends (4th Ed.). Sage Publications.
Phegan, B. (1996–2000) Developing Your Company Culture, A Handbook for Leaders and Managers, Context Press,
Sopow, E. (2007). Corporate personality disorder. Lincoln Neb.: iUniverse.
Luthans, F. & Doh Jonathan, P. (2015). "International Management, Culture, Strategy and Behavior" (9th ed.). Mc Graw Hill
External links
Organizational Culture and Institutional Transformation (pdf) – From the Education Resources Information Center Clearinghouse on Higher Education Washington, DC; Corporate executives discuss the importance of building a healthy, effective organizational culture
Organizational Culture, Joel Peterson (Chairman of JetBlue Corporation and managing partner of Trammell Crow Company), Stanford Graduate School of Business
Organizational Culture Trumps Strategy, Mindy Grossman (CEO of the Home Shopping Network [HSN]), Stanford Graduate School of Business
Organizational Culture, Isadore Sharp (founder and chairman of Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts), Stanford Graduate School of Business
Organizational Debt is like Technical debt – but worse, Steve Blank (entrepreneur, investor and Stanford University professor)
Industrial and organizational psychology
Corporatism
Cultural economics
Cultural studies
Human resource management
Labour law | [
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228061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance%20improvement | Performance improvement | Performance improvement is measuring the output of a particular business process or procedure, then modifying the process or procedure to increase the output, increase efficiency, or increase the effectiveness of the process or procedure. Performance improvement can be applied to either individual performance, such as an athlete, or organisational performance, such as a racing team or a commercial business.
The United States Coast Guard has published the Performance Improvement Guide (PIG), which describes various processes and tools for performance management at the individual and organisational levels.
Organisational development
In organisational development, performance improvement is organisational change in which the managers and governing body of an organisation put into place and manage a program which measures the current level of performance of the organisation and then generates ideas for modifying organisational behaviour and infrastructure which are put into place to achieve higher output. At the organisational level, performance improvement usually involves softer forms of measurement such as customer satisfaction surveys which are used to obtain qualitative information about performance from the viewpoint of customers.
The primary goals of organisational improvement are to increase organisational effectiveness and efficiency to improve the ability of the organisation to deliver goods and or services. A third area sometimes targeted for improvement is organisational efficacy, which involves the process of setting organisational goals and objectives. Performance improvement can occur at different levels: an individual performer, a team, an organisational unit, or the organisation itself.
Corporate or commercial
In business, human performance in sales, operations and employee engagement is able to be improved through psychologically rewarding experiences "which can trigger a host of intrinsic human emotions and behaviour as identified by Maslow. Including rewards in a performance improvement solution is a proven strategy to engage employees and align them with the company's goals. Stimulating awards can be cash or non-cash. The addition of non-cash awards to the total rewards package may bring out the performance potential of people because it separates a reward from being used as or perceived as ordinary salary income. Non-cash awards are thought to motivate higher achievement of and drive greater returns on investment. Cash as a reward can also be spent on day-to-day items like food or gas and does not create the increased "psychological reward" of achieving special items, or points to acquire items. By connecting with all levels of the organisation, a complete rewards package may amplify performance across the organisation and bring personal goals into alignment with organisational goals," according to Maritz, LLC. Reward programs supporting improvement in sales and operations can be effectively paid for from the increase in revenue or profits which flow from the program, and without spending to reward for your current levels.
There is evidence that monetary rewards are not effective outside the context of very rote work. In some cases, monetary incentive plans may decrease employee morale, as in Microsoft's stack-ranking system, where the total reward amount is fixed and employees are graded on an artificially fitted distribution
Individual development
Performance improvement at the individual or employee level can be addressed through formal or informal recognition. Examples of formal recognition can include an "employee of the month" award or a spot bonus. Whereas, an example of informal recognition includes genuine acknowledgement, approval, and appreciation for work well done. Performance improvement at the operational or individual employee level usually involves processes such as statistical quality control.
Performance improvement plans
If an employee's performance is unsatisfactory, the employer may set out a performance improvement plan (PIP) to help the employee improve. This may be because the employee is failing to meet the goals for their role, or due to other problems such as poor behavior or interpersonal skills. A PIP is usually a written document, and it should clarify expectations for the employee, articulate how the employee is failing to meet them, lay out what improvements are expected, explain whether and how managers will support the employee in improving, and indicate what the consequences will be if the employee fails to improve. The expected improvements should be specific and measurable, and consequences for failing to meet them might include a transfer, demotion, or termination.
Typically, the employee's manager and someone from human resources meet with the employee to discuss the PIP. According to Donald L. Kirkpatrick, a PIP should be developed by the manager and the employee together, because it requires both of their participation in order to be successful. The American Society for Human Resource Management recommends that "a PIP should be used when there is a commitment to help the employee improve", not just as a way to prepare to terminate the employee, but some companies do use PIPs simply as a way to start a termination.
Methods
Performance is an abstract concept and must be represented by concrete, measurable phenomena or events to be measured. Baseball athlete performance is abstract covering many different types of activities. Batting average is a concrete measure of a particular performance attribute for a particular game role, batting, for the game of baseball.
Performance assumes an actor of some kind but the actor could be an individual person or a group of people acting in concert. The performance platform is the infrastructure or devices used in the performance act.
There are two main ways to improve performance: improving the measured attribute by using the performance platform more effectively, or by improving the measured attribute by modifying the performance platform, which in turn allows a given level of use to be more effective in producing the desired output.
For instance, in several sports such as tennis and golf, there have been technological improvements in the apparatuses used in these sports. The improved apparatus in turn allows players to achieve better performance with no improvement in skill by purchasing new equipment. The apparatus, the golf club and golf ball or the tennis racket, provide the player with a higher theoretical performance limit.
Performance is a measure of the results achieved. Performance efficiency is the ratio between effort expended and results achieved. The difference between current performance and the theoretical performance limit is the performance improvement zone.
Another way to think of performance improvement is to see it as improvement in four potential areas:
input requirements; e.g. working capital, material, replacement or reorder time, and set-up requirements.
throughput requirements, often viewed as process efficiency; this is measured in terms of time, waste, and resource utilisation.
output requirements, often viewed from a cost/price, quality, functionality perspective.
outcome requirements; i.e. did it end up making a difference.
Cycle
Business performance management and improvement can be thought of as a cycle:
Performance planning where goals and objectives are established.
Performance coaching where a manager intervenes to give feedback and adjust performance.
Performance appraisal where individual performance is formally documented and feedback delivered.
Behaviour modification
In his study of innate human needs, psychologist Abraham Maslow in his concept of a hierarchy of needs identified esteem and social fulfillment, garnered by recognition by family and peers, as a basic human need, and therefore able to be tied to structured programs that increase performance. Abraham Maslow, on “Third Force” psychology, combines aspects of behavioural, cognitive, and emotional psychology, and accounts for the impact of culture and society on behaviour.
See also
Employee development
Feedback
Collaborative method
Human performance technology
Performance engineering
Performance measurement
Personal development
Operations research
Management science
References
External links
The International City/County Management Association - Center for Performance Measurement/.
How to Respond.
Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering Institute CMMI.
Office of Personnel Management.
Creating a Performance Improvement Culture
International Society for Performance Improvement.
Improving the performance of a single function in ICT.
Leading Teams Performance Improvement Program.
Business process management | [
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228062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance%20appraisal | Performance appraisal | A performance appraisal, also referred to as a performance review, performance evaluation, (career) development discussion, or employee appraisal is a method by which the job performance of an employee is documented and evaluated. Performance appraisals are a part of career development and consist of regular reviews of employee performance within organizations.
Performance appraisals are most often conducted by an immediate manager, such as line managers or front-line managers (Tyskbo, 2020]) Annual performance reviews have been criticized (Evans & Tourish, 2017) as providing feedback too infrequently to be useful, and argue performance reviews in general do more harm than good. It is an element of the principal-agent framework, that describes the relationship of information between the employer and employee, and in this case the direct effect and response received when a performance review is conducted.
Main features
A performance appraisal is a systematic, general and periodic process that assesses an individual employee's job performance and productivity in relation to certain pre-established criteria and organizational objectives. Other aspects of individual employees are considered as well, such as organizational citizenship behavior, accomplishments, potential for future improvement, strengths and weaknesses, etc.
To collect PA data, there are three main methods: objective production, personnel, and judgmental evaluation. Judgmental evaluations are the most commonly used with a large variety of evaluation methods. Historically, PA has been conducted annually (long-cycle appraisals); however, many companies are moving towards shorter cycles (every six months, every quarter), and some have been moving into short-cycle (weekly, bi-weekly) PA. The interview could function as "providing feedback to employees, counseling and developing employees, and conveying and discussing compensation, job status, or disciplinary decisions". PA is often included in performance management systems. PA helps the subordinate answer two key questions: first, "What are your expectations of me?" second, "How am I doing to meet your expectations?"
Performance management systems are employed "to manage and align" all of an organization's resources in order to achieve highest possible performance and to eliminate distractions procured from individual agents that neglect the companies goals. "How performance is managed in an organization determines to a large extent the success or failure of the organization. Therefore, improving PA for everyone should be among the highest priorities of contemporary organizations".
Some applications of PA are compensation, performance improvement, promotions, termination, test validation, and more. While there are many potential benefits of PA, there are also some potential drawbacks. For example, PA can help facilitate management-employee communication; however, PA may result in legal issues if not executed appropriately, as many employees tend to be unsatisfied with the PA process, as well as, the misuse of PA's can incur apathy towards organizational goals and values. PAs created in and determined as useful in the United States are not necessarily able to be transferable cross-culturally.
Applications of results
A central reason for the utilization of performance appraisals (PAs) is performance improvement ("initially at the level of the individual employee, and ultimately at the level of the organization"). Other fundamental reasons include "as a basis for employment decisions (e.g. promotions, terminations, transfers), as criteria in research (e.g. test validation), to aid with communication (e.g. allowing employees to know how they are doing and organizational expectations), to establish personal objectives for training" programs, for transmission of objective feedback for personal development, "as a means of documentation to aid in keeping track of decisions and legal requirements" and in wage and salary administration. Additionally, PAs can aid in the formulation of job criteria and selection of individuals "who are best suited to perform the required organizational tasks". A PA can be part of guiding and monitoring employee career development. PAs can also be used to aid in work motivation through the use of reward systems.
Potential benefits
There are a number of potential benefits of organizational performance management conducting formal performance appraisals (PAs). There has been a general consensus in the belief that PAs lead to positive implications of organizations. Furthermore, PAs can benefit an organization's effectiveness. One way is PAs can often lead to giving individual workers feedback about their job performance. From this may spawn several potential benefits such as the individual workers becoming more productive.
Other potential benefits include:
Facilitation of communication: communication in organizations is considered an essential function of worker motivation. It has been proposed that feedback from PAs aid in minimizing employees’ perceptions of uncertainty. Fundamentally, feedback and management-employee communication can serve as a guide in job performance.
Enhancement of employee focus through promoting trust: behaviors, thoughts, and/or issues may distract employees from their work, and trust issues may be among these distracting factors. Such factors that consume psychological energy can lower job performance and cause workers to lose sight of organizational goals. Properly constructed and utilized PAs have the ability to lower distracting factors and encourage trust within the organization.
Goal setting and desired performance reinforcement: organizations find it efficient to match individual worker's goals and performance with organizational goals. PAs provide room for discussion in the collaboration of these individual and organizational goals. Collaboration can also be advantageous by resulting in employee acceptance and satisfaction of appraisal results.
Performance improvement: well constructed PAs can be valuable tools for communication with employees as pertaining to how their job performance stands with organizational expectations. "At the organizational level, numerous studies have reported positive relationships between human resource management (HRM) practices" and performance improvement at both the individual and organizational levels.
Determination of training needs: “Employee training and development are crucial components in helping an organization achieve strategic initiatives”. It has been argued that for PAs to truly be effective, post-appraisal opportunities for training and development in problem areas, as determined by the appraisal, must be offered. PAs can especially be instrumental for identifying training needs of new employees. Finally, PAs can help in the establishment and supervision of employees’ career goals.
Potential complications
Despite all the potential advantages of formal performance appraisals (PAs), there are also potential drawbacks. It has been noted that determining the relationship between individual job performance and organizational performance can be a difficult task. The ones conducting performance appraisals, such as line managers also often face complexities(Tyskbo, 2020) Generally, there are two overarching problems from which several complications spawn. One of the problems with formal PAs is there can be detrimental effects to the organization(s) involved if the appraisals are not used appropriately. The second problem with formal PAs is they can be ineffective if the PA system does not correspond with the organizational culture and system.
Potential complications that may arise:
Detrimental impact to performance improvement: It has been proposed that the use of PA systems in organizations adversely affects organizations’ pursuits of quality performance. It is believed by some scholars and practitioners that the use of PAs is unnecessary if there is total quality management.
Subjective evaluations: Subjectivity is related to judgement based on a supervisor's subjective impressions and opinions, which can be expressed through the use of subjective performance measures, ex post flexibility in the weighting of objective performance measures, or ex post discretional adjustment, all of which are based on factors other than performance measures specified ex ante. Traditional performance appraisals are often based upon a manager's or supervisor's perceptions of an employee's performance and employees are evaluated subjectively rather than objectively. Therefore, the review may be influenced by many non-performance factors such as employee 'likeability', personal prejudices, ease of management, and/or previous mistakes or successes. Reviews should instead be based on data-supported, measurable behaviors and results within the performers control.
Negative perceptions: "Quite often, individuals have negative perceptions of PAs". Receiving and/or the anticipation of receiving a PA can be uncomfortable and distressful and potentially cause "tension between supervisors and subordinates". If the person being appraised does not trust their employer, appraiser or believe that they will benefit from the process it may become a "tick box" exercise.
Errors: Performance appraisals should provide accurate and relevant ratings of an employee's performance as compared to pre-established criteria/goals (i.e. organizational expectations). Nevertheless, supervisors will sometimes rate employees more favorably than that of their true performance in order to please the employees and avoid conflict. "Inflated ratings are a common malady associated with formal" PA.
Legal issues: when PAs are not carried out appropriately, legal issues could result that place the organization at risk. PAs are used in organizational disciplinary programs as well as for promotional decisions within the organization. The improper application and utilization of PAs can affect employees negatively and lead to legal action against the organization.
Performance goals: performance goals and PA systems are often used in association. Negative outcomes concerning the organizations can result when goals are overly challenging or overemphasized to the extent of affecting ethics, legal requirements, or quality. Moreover, challenging performance goals can impede an employees’ abilities to acquire necessary knowledge and skills. Especially in the early stages of training, it would be more beneficial to instruct employees on outcome goals than on performance goals.
Derail merit pay or performance-based pay: some researchers contend that the deficit in merit pay and performance-based pay is linked to the fundamental issues stemming from PA systems.
Improvements
Although performance appraisals can be biased, there are certain steps that can be taken to improve the evaluations and reduce the margin of errors through the following:
Training - Bringing awareness to the potential for bias by training the Evaluators to be aware of the difference of skills and abilities between employees and how to subjectively consider these traits.
Providing Feedback to Raters - Trained raters provide managers who evaluated their subordinates with feedback, including information on ratings from other managers. This has the potential to reduce leniency errors.
Subordinate Participation - By allowing employee participation in the evaluation process, there is employee-supervisor reciprocity in the discussion for any discrepancies between self ratings and supervisor ratings, thus, increasing job satisfaction and motivation.
Effectiveness
Leadership development coach Jack Zenger urges companies to find alternatives to annual performance reviews, and says that research supports the following:
Frequent discussions with employees are better than annual reviews
Talking about future goals is more productive than past performance, especially with clear targets, deadlines, and the participation of the employee
Negative feedback can cause defensiveness and worsen productivity
Positive feedback does little to improve productivity, though does improve the interpersonal relationship with the person giving the feedback
Neither managers nor employees like performance reviews
Higher-level employees receive performance reviews less frequently
Annual reviews are often justified on the grounds they are needed for salary changes, but they are not actually necessary, and empirically they would make little difference for most employees
Seniority and labor contracts
Labor union contracts sometimes specify that promotions, layoffs, and various perks are assigned in order of seniority, rather than based on performance. Historically, this was one means to prevent cronyism, nepotism, and corruption, and could also be seen as a form of solidarity. If employers have a reliable way to distinguish productive from unproductive workers, then firing the worst employees and hiring replacements would be one way to increase the overall productivity of the firm, and possibly increase profits or lower consumer prices. Some labor contracts specify a way to take merit into account when firing or promoting, often involving performance reviews. For example, union rules might require an employer to warn a poorly performing employee and have a probationary period before firing. The records generated by performance reviews might be consulted during binding arbitration to decide whether a firing was justified.
Resistance from managers
Managers who have had unsatisfactory experiences with inadequate or poorly designed appraisal programs may be skeptical about their usefulness.
Some managers may not like to play the role of a judge and be responsible for the future of their subordinates.
They may be uncomfortable about providing negative feedback to the employees.
This tendency can lead them to inflate their assessments of the workers' job performance, giving higher ratings than deserved.
Conducting
Human resource management (HRM) conducts performance management. Performance management systems consist of the activities and/or processes embraced by an organization in anticipation of improving employee performance, and therefore, organizational performance. Consequently, performance management is conducted at the organizational level and the individual level. At the organizational level, performance management oversees organizational performance and compares present performance with organizational performance goals. The achievement of these organizational performance goals depends on the performance of the individual organizational members. Therefore, measuring individual employee performance can prove to be a valuable performance management process for the purposes of HRM and for the organization. Many researchers would argue that "performance appraisal is one of the most important processes in Human Resource Management".
The performance management process begins with leadership within the organization creating a performance management policy. Primarily, management governs performance by influencing employee performance input (e.g. training programs) and by providing feedback via output (i.e. performance assessment and appraisal). "The ultimate objective of a performance management process is to align individual performance with organizational performance". A very common and central process of performance management systems is performance appraisal (PA). The PA process should be able to inform employees about the "organization's goals, priorities, and expectations and how well they are contributing to them".
When they are conducted
Performance appraisals (PAs) are conducted at least annually, and annual employee performance reviews appear to be the standard in most American organizations. However, "it has been acknowledged that appraisals conducted more frequently (more than once a year) may have positive implications for both the organization and employee." It is suggested that regular performance feedback provided to employees may quell any unexpected and/or surprising feedback to year-end discussions. In a recent research study concerning the timeliness of PAs, "one of the respondents even suggested that the performance review should be done formally and more frequently, perhaps once a month, and recorded twice a year."
Other researchers propose that the purpose of PAs and the frequency of their feedback are contingent upon the nature of the job and characteristics of the employee. For example, employees of routine jobs where performance maintenance is the goal would benefit sufficiently from annual PA feedback. On the other hand, employees of more discretionary and non-routine jobs, where goal-setting is appropriate and there is room for development, would benefit from more frequent PA feedback. Non formal performance appraisals may be done more often, to prevent the element of surprise from the formal appraisal.
Methods of collecting data
There are three main methods used to collect performance appraisal (PA) data: objective production, personnel, and judgmental evaluation. Judgmental evaluations are the most commonly used with a large variety of evaluation methods.
Objective production
The objective production method consists of direct, but limited, measures such as sales figures, production numbers, the electronic performance monitoring of data entry workers, etc. The measures used to appraise performance would depend on the job and its duties. Although these measures deal with unambiguous criteria, they are usually incomplete because of criterion contamination and criterion deficiency. Criterion contamination refers to the part of the actual criteria that is unrelated to the conceptual criteria. In other words, the variability in performance can be due to factors outside of the employee's control. Criterion deficiency refers to the part of the conceptual criteria that is not measured by the actual criteria. In other words, the quantity of production does not necessarily indicate the quality of the products. Both types of criterion inadequacies result in reduced validity of the measure. Regardless of the fact that objective production data is not a complete reflection upon job performance, such data is relevant to job performance.
Happy-productive worker hypothesis
The happy-productive worker hypothesis states that the happiest workers are the most productive performers, and the most productive performers are the happiest workers. Yet, after decades of research, the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance produces only a weak positive correlation. Published in 2001 by Psychological Bulletin, a meta-analysis of 312 research studies produced an uncorrected correlation of 0.18. This correlation is much weaker than what the happy-productive worker hypothesis would predict.
Personnel
The personnel method is the recording of withdrawal behaviors (i.e. absenteeism, accidents). Most organizations consider unexcused absences to be indicators of poor job performance, even with all other factors being equal; however, this is subject to criterion deficiency. The quantity of an employee's absences does not reflect how dedicated he/she may be to the job and its duties. Especially for blue-collar jobs, accidents can often be a useful indicator of poor job performance, but this is also subject to criterion contamination because situational factors also contribute to accidents. Once again, both types of criterion inadequacies result in reduced validity of the measure. Although excessive absenteeism and/or accidents often indicate poor job performance rather than good performance, such personnel data is not a comprehensive reflection of an employee's performance.
Judgmental evaluation
Judgmental evaluation appears to be a collection of methods, and as such, could be considered a methodology. A common approach to obtaining PAs is by means of raters. Because the raters are human, some error will always be present in the data. The most common types of error are leniency errors, central tendency errors, and errors resulting from the halo effect. Halo effect is characterized by the tendency to rate a person who is exceptionally strong in one area higher than deserved in other areas. It is the opposite of the Horns effect, where a person is rated as lower than deserved in other areas due to an extreme deficiency in a single discipline. These errors arise predominantly from social cognition and the theory in that how we judge and evaluate other individuals in various contexts is associated with how we "acquire, process, and categorize information".
An essential piece of this method is rater training. Rater training is the "process of educating raters to make more accurate assessments of performance, typically achieved by reducing the frequency of halo, leniency, and central-tendency errors". Rater training also helps the raters "develop a common frame of reference for evaluation" of individual performance. Many researchers and survey respondents support the ambition of effectual rater training. However, it is noted that such training is expensive, time-consuming, and only truly functional for behavioral assessments.
Another piece to keep in mind is the effects of rater motivation on judgmental evaluations. It is not uncommon for rating inflation to occur due to rater motivation (i.e. "organizationally induced pressures that compel raters to evaluate ratees positively"). Typically, raters are motivated to give higher ratings because of the lack of organizational sanction concerning accurate/inaccurate appraisals, the rater's desire to guarantee promotions, salary increases, etc., the rater's inclination to avoid negative reactions from subordinates, and the observation that higher ratings of the ratees reflect favorably upon the rater.
The main methods used in judgmental performance appraisal are:
Graphic Rating Scale: graphic rating scales (see scale (social sciences)) are the most commonly used system in PA. On several different factors, subordinates are judged on 'how much' of that factor or trait they possess. Typically, the raters use a 5- or 7-point scale; however, there are as many as 20-point scales.
Employee-Comparison Methods: rather than subordinates being judged against pre-established criteria, they are compared with one another. This method eliminates central tendency and leniency errors but still allows for halo effect errors to occur. The rank-order method has raters ranking subordinates from "best" to "worst", but how truly good or bad one is on a performance dimension would be unknown. The paired-comparison method requires the rater to select the two "best" subordinates out of a group on each dimension then rank individuals according to the number of times each subordinate was selected as one of the "best". The forced-distribution method is good for large groups of ratees. The raters evaluate each subordinate on one or more dimensions and then place (or "force-fit", if you will) each subordinate in a 5 to 7 category normal distribution. The method of top-grading can be applied to the forced distribution method. This method identifies the 10% lowest performing subordinates, as according to the forced distribution, and dismisses them leaving the 90% higher performing subordinates.
Behavioral Checklists and Scales: behaviors are more definite than traits. The critical incidents method (or critical incident technique) concerns "specific behaviors indicative of good or bad job performance". Supervisors record behaviors of what they judge to be job performance relevant, and they keep a running tally of good and bad behaviors. A discussion on performance may then follow. The behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) combine the critical incidents method with rating scale methods by rating performance on a scale but with the scale points being anchored by behavioral incidents. Note that BARS are job specific. In the behavioral observation scale (BOS) approach to performance appraisal, employees are also evaluated in the terms of critical incidents. In that respect, it is similar to BARS. However, the BOS appraisal rate subordinates on the frequency of the critical incidents as they are observed to occur over a given period. The ratings are assigned on a five-point scale. The behavioral incidents for the rating scale are developed in the same way as for BARS through identification by supervisors or other subject matter experts. Similarly, BOS techniques meet equal employment opportunity because they are related to actual behavior required for successful job performance.
Peer and self assessments
While assessment can be performed along reporting relationships (usually top-down), net assessment can include peer and self-assessment. Peer assessment is when assessment is performed by colleagues along both horizontal (similar function) and vertical (different function) relationship. Self-assessments are when individuals evaluate themselves. There are three common methods of peer assessments. Peer nomination involves each group member nominating who he/she believes to be the "best" on a certain dimension of performance. Peer ratings has each group member rate each other on a set of performance dimensions. Peer ranking requires each group member rank all fellow members from "best" to "worst" on one or more dimensions of performance.
Self-assessments: for self-assessments, individuals assess and evaluate their own behavior and job performance.
Peer assessments: members of a group evaluate and appraise the performance of their fellow group members. There it is common for a graphic rating scale to be used for self-assessments. Positive leniency tends to be a problem with self-assessments. Peer assessments from multiple members of a group are often called crowd-based performance reviews, and solve many problems with peer assessments from only one member.
360-degree feedback: 360-degree feedback is multiple evaluations of employees which often include assessments from superior(s), peers, and one's self.
Negotiated performance appraisal: The negotiated performance appraisal (NPA) is an emerging approach for improving communication between supervisors and subordinates and for increasing employee productivity, and may also be adapted to an alternate mediation model for supervisor-subordinate conflicts. A facilitator meets separately with the supervisor and with the subordinate to prepare three lists. What employees do well, where the employee has improved in recently, and areas where the employee still needs to improve. Because the subordinate will present his or her lists first during the joint session, this reduces defensive behaviors. Furthermore, the subordinate comes to the joint session not only prepared to share areas of needed improvement, but also brings concrete ideas as to how these improvements can be made. The NPA also focuses very strongly on what employees are doing well, and involves a minimum of twenty minutes of praise when discussing what the employee does well. The role of the facilitator is that of a coach in the pre-caucuses, and in the joint sessions the supervisor and subordinate mostly speak to each other with little facilitator interference.
In general, optimal PA process involves a combination of multiple assessment modalities. One common recommendation is that assessment flows from self-assessment, to peer-assessment, to management assessment - in that order. Starting with self-assessment facilitates avoidance of conflict. Peer feedback ensures peer accountability, which may yield better results than accountability to management. Management assessment comes last for need of recognition by authority and avoidance of conflict in case of disagreements. It is generally recommended that PA is done in shorter cycles to avoid high-stakes discussions, as is usually the case in long-cycle appraisals.
Research has shown that the source of the feedback (either manager or peer) does not matter in influencing employees' subsequent innovative or extra-role behaviors after the feedback is received. As long as the feedback is provided, the source does not matter.
Principal - Agent Framework
The Principal-agent framework is a model describing the relationship of information held between an employer and an employee. It is used to forecast responses from employees and strategies at finding resolutions against misaligned incentives that interfere with the goals of the employer. The model makes two assumptions: the principals wants agents to work for the principal's best interest, but agents possess different goals than the principals; and, the agents have more information than the principals resulting in the asymmetry of information between the two parties. This paradigm creates adverse selections and moral hazards for the hiring company in deciding how to effectively minimize the potential threat of shirking; disruption to daily operations; and loss in output margins due to actions of the employee.
Incentive Conflict Resolutions
Incentive pay leads to the increase of agents awareness of their own actions and seek to maximize their pay by considering the best possible actions that can be taken for the success of the firm and actively explore several options to minimize opportunity costs. The issue with this form of resolution is the firm must compensate the agents for bearing a risk premium and inequitable pay.
Fixed payment ensures a safer, standardized mode of contract that delivers reassurance in spite of performance fluctuations and external environment volatility. However, lack of motivation occurs more readily and incurs shirking and adverse selections.
Organizational citizenship behavior
Also referred to as contextual behavior, prosocial behavior, and extra-role behavior, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) consists of employee behavior that contributes to the welfare of the organization but is beyond the scope of the employee's job duties. These extra-role behaviors may help or hinder the attainment of organizational goals. Research supports five dimensions of OCB: altruism, conscientiousness, courtesy, sportsmanship, and civic virtue. Researchers have found that the OCB dimensions of altruism and civic virtue can have just as much of an impact on manager's subjective evaluations of employees’ performances as employees’ objective productivity levels. The degree to which OCB can influence judgments of job performance is relatively high. Controversy exists as to whether OCB should be formally considered as a part of performance appraisal (PA).
Interviews
The performance appraisal (PA) interview is typically the final step of the appraisal process. The interview is held between the subordinate and supervisor. The PA interview can be considered of great significance to an organization's PA system. It is most advantageous when both the superior and subordinate participate in the interview discussion and establish goals together. Three factors consistently contribute to effective PA interviews: the supervisor's knowledge of the subordinate's job and performance in it, the supervisor's support of the subordinate, and a welcoming of the subordinate's participation.
The objective of performance appraisal is to assess the training development needs of employees.
Employee reactions
Numerous researchers have reported that many employees are not satisfied with their performance appraisal (PA) systems. Studies have shown that subjectivity as well as appraiser bias is often a problem perceived by as many as half of employees. Subjectivity has been associated with supervisor-subordinate conflict, psychological empowerment and subordinate performance. Appraiser bias, however, appears to be perceived as more of a problem in government and public sector organizations. Also, according to some studies, employees wished to see changes in the PA system by making "the system more objective, improving the feedback process, and increasing the frequency of review." In light of traditional PA operation defects, "organizations are now increasingly incorporating practices that may improve the system. These changes are particularly concerned with areas such as elimination of subjectivity and bias, training of appraisers, improvement of the feedback process and the performance review discussion."
According to a meta-analysis of 27 field studies, general employee participation in his/her own appraisal process was positively correlated with employee reactions to the PA system. More specifically, employee participation in the appraisal process was most strongly related to employee satisfaction with the PA system. Concerning the reliability of employee reaction measures, researchers have found employee reaction scales to be sound with few concerns through using a confirmatory factor analysis that is representative of employee reaction scales.
Researchers suggest that the study of employees' reactions to PA is important because of two main reasons: employee reactions symbolizes a criterion of interest to practitioners of PAs and employee reactions have been associated through theory to determinants of appraisal acceptance and success. Researchers translate these reasons into the context of the scientist-practitioner gap or the "lack of alignment between research and practice."
Schultz & Schultz notes that opposition to performance appraisals generally don't receive positive ratings from anyone involved. "So employees that will be directly affected by the Performance Appraisals are less than enthusiastic about participating in them". When an employee knows that their work performance has been less than perfect it's nerve-racking to be evaluated. Employees tend to be hostile knowing they could be given bad news on their performance.
Most managers prefer to begin with positive information and then add bad news or suggestions for improvement at the end. However, employees are most satisfied when bad news is addressed early in the interview and positive information is saved until the end, so that the meeting ends with a positive feeling.
Hidden Cost of Control
Whilst performance appraisals are fundamental in the assessment of efficiency levels of employees, a high frequency of testing's can result in the deterioration of employee performance, thus impacting the overall business operations. The agent's perception of these 'control' devices are that they signal mistrust to the individual and reduces working autonomy. If these management practices are arbitrarily employed without the consideration of the emotional response to control devices, then the agent's willingness to engage in the company's ambitions are greatly reduced as suggested in empirical studies.
Legal implications
There are federal laws addressing fair employment practices, and this also concerns performance appraisal (PA). Discrimination can occur within predictions of performance and evaluations of job behaviors. The revision of many court cases has revealed the involvement of alleged discrimination which was often linked to the assessment of the employee's job performance. Some of the laws which protect individuals against discrimination are "the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1991, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)." Lawsuits may also results from charges of an employer's negligence, defamation, and/or misrepresentation. A few appraisal criteria to keep in mind for a legally sound PA is to keep the content of the appraisal objective, job-related, behavior-based, within the control of the ratee, and related to specific functions rather than a global assessment. Some appraisal procedure suggestions for a legally sound PA is to standardize operations, communicate formally with employees, provide information of performance deficits and give opportunities to employees to correct those deficits, give employees access to appraisal results, provide written instructions for the training of raters, and use multiple, diverse and unbiased raters. These are valuable but not exhaustive lists of recommendations for PAs.
The Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines apply to any selection procedure that is used for making employment decisions, not only for hiring, but also for promotion, demotion, transfer, layoff, discharge, or early retirement. Therefore, employment appraisal procedures must be validated like tests or any other selection device. Employers who base their personnel decisions on the results of a well-designed performance review program that includes formal appraisal interviews are much more likely to be successful in defending themselves against claims of discrimination.
Cross-cultural implications
Performance appraisal (PA) systems, and the premises of which they were based, that have been formed and regarded as effective in the United States may not have the transferability for effectual utilization in other countries or cultures, and vice versa. Performance "appraisal is thought to be deeply rooted in the norms, values, and beliefs of a society". "Appraisal reflects attitudes towards motivation and performance (self) and relationships (e.g. peers, subordinates, supervisors, organization), all of which vary from one country to the next". Therefore, appraisal should be in conjunction with cultural norms, values, and beliefs in order to be operative. The deep-seated norms, values and beliefs in different cultures affect employee motivation and perception of organizational equity and justice. In effect, a PA system created and considered effectual in one country may not be an appropriate assessment in another cultural region.
For example, some countries and cultures value the trait of assertiveness and personal accomplishment while others instead place more merit on cooperation and interpersonal connection. Countries scoring high on assertiveness consider PA to be a way of assuring equity among employees so that higher performing employees receive greater rewards or higher salaries. Countries scoring low on assertiveness but higher in interpersonal relations may not like the social separation and pay inequity of higher/lower performing employees; employees from this more cooperative rather than individualistic culture place more concern on interpersonal relationships with other employees rather than on individual interests. High assertive countries value performance feedback for self-management and effectiveness purposes while countries low in assertiveness view performance feedback as "threatening and obtrusive". In this case, the PA of the high assertive countries would likely not be beneficial for countries scoring lower in assertiveness to employ. However, countries scoring lower in assertiveness could employ PA for purposes of improving long-term communication development within the organization such as clarifying job objectives, guide training and development plans, and lessen the gap between job performance and organizational expectations.
Developments in information technology
Computers have been playing an increasing role in PA for some time (Sulsky & Keown, 1998). There are two main aspects to this. The first is in relation to the electronic monitoring of performance, which affords the ability to record a huge amount of data on multiple dimensions of work performance (Stanton, 2000). Not only does it facilitate a more continuous and detailed collection of performance data in some jobs, e.g. call centres, but it has the capacity to do so in a non-obvious, covert manner. The second aspect is in mediating the feedback process, by recording and aggregating performance ratings and written observations and making the information available on-line; many software packages are available for this. The use of IT in these ways undoubtedly helps in making the appraisal process more manageable, especially where multiple rating sources are involved, but it also raises many questions about appraisees' reactions and possible effects on PA outcomes. Mostly, the evidence so far is positive.
Rater errors
Mistakes made by raters is a major source of problems in performance appraisal. There is no simple way to eliminate these errors, but making raters aware of them through training is helpful. Rater errors are based on the feelings and it has consequences at the time of appraisal.
Varying standards
Problem: When a manager appraises (evaluates) his or her employees and the manager uses different standards and expectations for employees who are performing similar jobs.
Example: A professor does not grade the exams of all students in the same standards, sometimes it depends on the affection that the professor has towards others. This affection will make professor give students higher or lower grades.
Solution: The rater must use the same standards and weights for every employee. The manager should be able to show coherent arguments in order to explain the difference. Therefore, it would be easier to know if it is done, because the employee has provided a good performance, or if it because the manager perception is distorted.
Recency effects
Problem: When the manager rates an individual above what the performance actually merits due to only considering the very latest performance and not taking into consideration a sufficient enough period for quality assessment.
Example: When a professor gives the course grade based just in the performance of the student only in the last week.
Solution: In order to avoid that, the manager can employ methods that track dominant traits as well as minor traits to understand adaptation over time. Total strength can be understood as the sum of the relative strengths.
Primacy effects
Problem: When the person who evaluates gives more weight according to information the manager has received first.
Example: During an evaluation the manager gives a higher score due to the initial impressions the employee made during their first few weeks, and is overlooking recent performance issues.
Solution: When the manager has to make a decision, it is better not to do it according to what he or she remembers, but should be based on all the relevant and documented data of the employees performance.
Central Tendency
Problem: When the manager evaluates every employee within a narrow range, as the average because he or she is dismissing the differences in the performance that employees have done.
Example: When a professor because the average of the class tends to grade harder. Therefore, if the performance of the class average is quite high, the professor will evaluate them more highly. On the contrary, if the average of the class is lower, he or she would appraise lower.
Leniency
Problem: Rating of all employees are at the high end of the scale.
Example: When the professor tends to grade harder, because the average of the class.
Strictness
Problem: When a manager uses only the lower part of the scale to rate employees.
Example: When the professor tends to grade lower, because the average of the class.
Solution: try to focus more on the individual performance of every employee regardless the average results.
Rater Bias
Problem: Rater's when the manager rates according to his or her values and prejudices which at the same time distort (distorsionar) the rating. Those differentiations can be made due to the ethnic group, gender, age, religion, sex, appearance...
Example: Sometimes happen that a manager treats someone different, because he or she thinks that the employee is homosexual.
Solution: If then, the examination is done by higher-level managers, this kind of appraising can be corrected, because they are supposed to be more partial.
Halo effect
Problem: When a manager rates an employee high on all items because of one characteristic that he or she likes.
Example: If a worker has few absences but the supervisor has a good relationship with that employee, the supervisor might give to the employee a high rating in all other areas of work, in order to balance the rating. Sometimes it happens due to the emotional dependability based on the good relationship they have.
Solution: Training raters to recognize the problem and differentiating the person with the performance they do.
Horn effect
Problem: This is the opposite to the halo effect and horns effect occurs when a manager rates an employee low on all items because of one characteristic that he or she dislikes.
Example: If a worker performs well but at certain times, he or she loves telling jokes, but his or her supervisor dislikes jokes, the supervisor might give the employee a lower rating in all other areas of work. Sometimes it happens when they do not have a close relationship and manager does not like the employee.
Solution: Is the same as in the halo effect. Training raters to recognize the problem and differentiating the person with the performance they provide.
Contrast
Problem: The tendency to rate people relative to other people rather than to the individual performance he or her is doing.
Example: At school, if you are sat down where all the chatty people are and you are silent but you do not pay attention and you do not do your homework, because you are drawing; when teacher gets angry with the group, you might be excluded of the bad behavior they have just because you are silent; but not because you are doing a good performance. Therefore, according to the group, you are not that chatty, but you are either doing the proper performance. However the rater will only get the idea that your behavior is not as bad as other, thus, you will be rate higher.
Solution: The rating should reflect the task requirement performance, not according to other people attitude.
Similar-to-Me / Different-from-Me
Problem: Sometimes, raters are influenced by some of the characteristics that people show. Depending if those characteristics are similar or different to the evaluators, they would be evaluated differently.
Example: A manager with higher education degree might give subordinates with higher education degree a higher appraisal than those with only bachelor’s degrees.
Solution: Try to focus on the performance the employee is doing regardless the common characteristic that you have
Sampling
Problem: When the rater evaluates the performance of an employee relying only on a small percentage of the amount of work done.
Example: An employee has to do 100 reports. Then, the manager takes five of them to check how has the work been done, and the manager finds mistakes in those five reports. Therefore the manager will appraise the work of the employee as a "poor" one, without having into account the other 95 reports that the manager has not seen, that have been made correctly.
Solution: To follow the entire track of the performance, not just a little part of it.
We have been looking one by one at the possible solutions to each of the situations, which are also complicated to put into practice, thus here we have a general solution that could be applied to all the possible rating errors. It is difficult to minimized rater errors, since we are humans and we are not objective. Moreover, sometimes, we are not aware of our behavior of having preferences towards people but there are some tools in order to have a more objective information as using available technology to track performances and record it which enables the manager to have some objective information about the process.
Consultant Marcus Buckingham and executive Ashley Goodall, reporting on a large-scale Deloitte performance management survey on Harvard Business Review, went as far as to say that, contrary to the assumptions underlying performance rating, the rating mainly measured the unique rating tendencies of the rater and thus reveals more about the rater than about the person who is rated. They referred to this as the idiosyncratic rater effect. In view of this effect, they advocate a radically different approach to performance management. In their scenario, 360-degree feedback and similar time-intensive exercises are replaced by team leaders' "performance snapshots" that focus on what they would do with each team member rather than what they think of that individual, and yearly appraisals of past performance are replaced by weekly check-ins among team leader and team member, preferably initiated by the team member, that focus on current and upcoming work.
See also
References
Evans & Tourish, 2017
Job evaluation
Personal development
Industrial and organizational psychology
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228071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet%20train | Bullet train | Bullet train may refer to:
Rail
Shinkansen high-speed trains of Japan, nicknamed for their appearance and speed
Other high-speed trains of a similar appearance to Japanese trains
Caribou (train), a passenger train formerly used in Newfoundland and colloquially referred to as The Newfie Bullet
Bullet, a former passenger train of the Central Railroad of New Jersey
Arts and media
The Bullet Train (Shinkansen Daibakuha), a 1975 Japanese movie starring Sonny Chiba
Bullet Train (band), a Japanese boyband
"Bullet Train" (song), a song by Judas Priest
Bullet Train (novel), a 2010 novel by Kōtarō Isaka
Bullet Train (film), a 2022 film based on the novel | [
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228073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Heerup | Henry Heerup | Henry Heerup (4 November 1907 – 30 May 1993) was a painter, graphic artist and sculptor. Heerup was an extremely versatile artist. His works of art included paintings, lithographs, stone sculptures, linoleum cuts and drawings as well as objects which he composed from scrap.
Biography
Henry Heerup was born in Frederiksberg, Denmark. Heerup was admitted to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in 1926 and graduated in 1932. He studied painting under Axel Jørgensen and Einar Nielsen at the Royal Danish Academy of Art. He also studied sculpture under Einar Utzon-Frank. He painted The Old Oak in Wolfvalley (1924) whichj was his first oil painting.
During the 1930s he developed his trash sculptures. During the 1940s he became a member of Corner and Høst and exhibited with them. In 1949 he joined COBRA and participated in some of their exhibitions. He developed an international reputation exhibiting across Europe and North America. From 1946 until his death in 1993, he maintained a studio and gallery on Kamstrupvej in Rødovre. Large parts of his art were created in the open in his garden.
Heerup was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog in 1968. He was also awarded the Eckersberg Medal and the Thorvaldsen Medal, and received the Storm, P. Grant, and NL Stevns Grants.Louisiana Museum of Modern Art arranged a major retrospective in celebration of Heerup's art at the time of his sixtieth birthday in 1967. The film Et år med Henry (Jørgen Roos Film. 1967) by writer and director Jens Jørgen Thorsen focused on Henry Heerup's garden and studio in Rødovre.
On his death in 1993, Henry Heerup was interred in the Assistens Cemetery in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen.
Heerup Museum
In 1958, Heerup married conservator and painter Marion Brock.
After Heerup's death, his widow donated their estate to Rødovre Municipality in 1995. Heerup Museum was designed by the architect Bernd Kjelland as an extension to the old farm Rødovregaard in Rødovre. The mainstay of the museum is a donation of Heerup's works. The museum opened on May 1, 2000.
See also
List of Danish painters
References
Other sources
Allan Daugaard Hansen (1996) Heerup : 1907-1993 : en billedkunstners livshistorie fortalt af en ven (Copenhagen: Borgen)
External links
Heerup Museum website
1907 births
1993 deaths
People from Frederiksberg
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Knights of the Order of the Dannebrog
Recipients of the Eckersberg Medal
Abstract painters
20th-century Danish sculptors
Male sculptors
20th-century male artists
20th-century Danish painters
Recipients of the Thorvaldsen Medal
Recipients of the Prince Eugen Medal
Danish male artists | [
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228074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bridges | William Bridges | William or Bill Bridges may refer to:
William Bridges (author) (1933–2013), American writer and organizational consultant
William Bridges (general) (1861–1915), commander of the Australian Army's First Australian Imperial Force in 1914–1915
William Bridges (politician) (died 1714), Member of Parliament for Liskeard and member of the Board of Ordnance
William B. Bridges (born 1934), American professor of engineering
William Bridges (preacher) (1802–1874), Methodist preacher, hat block maker and founder of the Plumstead Peculiar People
William Thomas Bridges (1821–1894), barrister in British Hong Kong
Bill Bridges (American football), American football player
Bill Bridges (basketball) (1939–2015), American basketball player
Bill Bridges (game designer) (born 1965), American RPG developer and author
See also
William Brydges (disambiguation) | [
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] |
228078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time%20large-scale%20change | Real-time large-scale change | In organizational development (OD), real-time large-scale change is an intervention designed to have a rapid impact on an entire organizational system.
See also
Prevention paradox
Systems theory | [
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228080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20France | Battle of France | The Battle of France () (10 May – 25 June 1940) also known as the Western Campaign () the French Campaign, (, ) and the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands during the Second World War. On 3 September 1939, France declared war on Germany following the German invasion of Poland. In early September 1939, France began the limited Saar Offensive and by mid-October had withdrawn to their start lines. German armies invaded Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 and attempted an invasion of France. France and the Low Countries were conquered, ending land operations on the Western Front until the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944.
In Fall Gelb ("Case Yellow"), German armoured units made a surprise push through the Ardennes and then along the Somme valley, cutting off and surrounding the Allied units that had advanced into Belgium to meet the German armies there. British, Belgian and French forces were pushed back to the sea by the Germans and the British and French navies evacuated the encircled elements of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and the French and Belgian armies from Dunkirk in Operation Dynamo.
German forces began Fall Rot ("Case Red") on 5 June 1940. The sixty remaining French divisions and the two British divisions in France made a determined stand on the Somme and Aisne but were defeated by the German combination of air superiority and armoured mobility. German armies outflanked the intact Maginot Line and pushed deep into France, occupying Paris unopposed on 14 June. After the flight of the French government and the collapse of the French Army, German commanders met with French officials on 18 June to negotiate an end to hostilities.
On 22 June 1940, the Second Armistice at Compiègne was signed by France and Germany. The neutral Vichy government led by Marshal Philippe Pétain replaced the Third Republic and German military occupation began along the French North Sea and Atlantic coasts and their hinterlands. The Italian invasion of France over the Alps took a small amount of ground and after the armistice, Italy occupied a small area in the south-east. The Vichy regime retained the (free zone) in the south. Following the Allied invasion of French Africa in November 1942, the Germans and Italians took control of the zone until it was liberated by the Allies in 1944.
Background
Maginot Line
During the 1930s, the French built the Maginot Line, fortifications along the border with Germany. The line was intended to economise on manpower and deter a German invasion across the FrancoGerman border by diverting it into Belgium, which could then be met by the best divisions of the French Army. The war would take place outside French territory, avoiding the destruction of the First World War. The main section of the Maginot Line ran from the Swiss border and ended at Longwy; the hills and woods of the Ardennes region were thought to cover the area to the north. General Philippe Pétain declared the Ardennes to be "impenetrable" as long as "special provisions" were taken to destroy an invasion force as it emerged from the Ardennes by a pincer attack. The French commander-in-chief, Maurice Gamelin also believed the area to be safe from attack, noting it "never favoured large operations". French war games held in 1938, of a hypothetical German armoured attack through the Ardennes, left the army with the impression that the region was still largely impenetrable and that this, along with the obstacle of the Meuse River, would allow the French time to bring up troops into the area to counter an attack.
German invasion of Poland
In 1939, the United Kingdom and France offered military support to Poland in the likely case of a German invasion. At dawn on 1 September 1939, the German invasion of Poland began. France and the United Kingdom declared war on 3 September, after an ultimatum for German forces immediately to withdraw their forces from Poland was not answered. Australia and New Zealand also declared war on 3 September, South Africa on 6 September and Canada on 10 September. While British and French commitments to Poland were met politically, the Allies failed to fulfill their military obligations to Poland. The possibility of Soviet assistance to Poland had ended with the Munich Agreement of 1938, after which the Soviet Union and Germany eventually negotiated the Nazi–Soviet Pact, which included an agreement to partition Poland. The Allies settled on a long-war strategy in which they would complete the rearmament plans of the 1930s while fighting a defensive land war against Germany and weakening its war economy with a trade blockade, ready for an eventual invasion of Germany.
Phoney War
On 7 September, in accordance with the Franco-Polish alliance, France began the Saar Offensive with an advance from the Maginot Line into the Saar. France had mobilised 98 divisions (all but 28 of them reserve or fortress formations) and 2,500 tanks against a German force consisting of 43 divisions (32 of them reserves) and no tanks. The French advanced until they met the thin and undermanned Siegfried Line. On 17 September, Gamelin gave the order to withdraw French troops to their starting positions; the last of them left Germany on 17 October. Following the Saar Offensive, a period of inaction called the Phoney War (the French , joke war or the German , sitting war) set in between the belligerents. Adolf Hitler had hoped that France and Britain would acquiesce in the conquest of Poland and quickly make peace. On 6 October, he made a peace offer to both Western powers.
German strategy
(Case Yellow)
On 9 October 1939, Hitler issued 6 (). Hitler recognised the necessity of military campaigns to defeat the Western European nations, preliminary to the conquest of territory in Eastern Europe, to avoid a two-front war but these intentions were absent from Directive N°6. The plan was based on the seemingly more realistic assumption that German military strength would have to be built up for several years. Only limited objectives could be envisaged and were aimed at improving Germany's ability to survive a long war in the west. Hitler ordered a conquest of the Low Countries to be executed at the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and prevent Allied air power from threatening the industrial area of the Ruhr. It would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. There was no mention in the directive of a consecutive attack to conquer the whole of France, although the directive read that as much as possible of the border areas in northern France should be occupied.
On 10 October 1939, Britain refused Hitler's offer of peace and on 12 October, France did the same. The pre-war German codename of plans for a campaign in the Low Countries was (Deployment Instruction No. 1, Case Yellow). Colonel-General Franz Halder (Chief of the General Staff (OKH), presented the first plan for on 19 October. entailed an advance through the middle of Belgium; envisioned a frontal attack, at a cost of half million German soldiers to attain the limited goal of throwing the Allies back to the River Somme. German strength in 1940 would then be spent and only in 1942 could the main attack against France begin. When Hitler raised objections to the plan and wanted an armoured breakthrough, as had happened in the invasion of Poland, Halder and Brauchitsch attempted to dissuade him, arguing that while the fast-moving mechanised tactics were effective against a "shoddy" Eastern European army, they would not work against a first-rate military like the French.
Hitler was disappointed with Halder's plan and initially reacted by deciding that the Army should attack early, ready or not, hoping that Allied unreadiness might bring about an easy victory. Hitler proposed an invasion on 25 October 1939 but accepted that the date was probably unrealistic. On 29 October, Halder presented , with a secondary attack on the Netherlands. On 5 November, Hitler informed Walther von Brauchitsch that he intended the invasion to begin on 12 November. Brauchitsch replied that the military had yet to recover from the Polish campaign and offered to resign; this was refused but two days later Hitler postponed the attack, giving poor weather as the reason for the delay. More postponements followed, as commanders persuaded Hitler to delay the attack for a few days or weeks, to remedy some defect in the preparations or to wait for better weather. Hitler also tried to alter the plan, which he found unsatisfactory; his weak understanding of how poorly prepared Germany was for war and how it would cope with losses of armoured vehicles were not fully considered. Though Poland had been quickly defeated, many armoured vehicles had been lost and were hard to replace. This led to the German effort becoming dispersed; the main attack would remain in central Belgium, secondary attacks would be undertaken on the flanks. Hitler made such a suggestion on 11 November, pressing for an early attack on unprepared targets.
Halder's plan satisfied no-one, General Gerd von Rundstedt, the commander of Army Group A () recognised that it did not adhere to the classic principles of (war of manoeuvre) that had guided German strategy since the 19th century. A breakthrough was needed to encircle and destroy the main body of Allied forces. The most practical place to achieve this would be in the region of Sedan, which lay in the sector of Army Group A. On 21 October, Rundstedt agreed with his chief of staff, Erich von Manstein, that an alternative operational plan to reflect these principles was needed, by making Army Group A as strong as possible at the expense of Army Group B to the north.
Manstein Plan
While Manstein was formulating new plans in Koblenz, Generalleutnant Heinz Guderian, commander of the XIX Army Corps, was lodged in a nearby hotel. Manstein was initially considering a move north from Sedan, directly in the rear of the main Allied mobile forces in Belgium. When Guderian was invited to contribute to the plan during informal discussions, he proposed that most of the Panzerwaffe should be concentrated at Sedan. This concentration of armour would advance to the west to the English Channel, without waiting for the main body of infantry divisions. This might lead to a strategic collapse of the enemy, avoiding the relatively high number of casualties normally caused by a Kesselschlacht (cauldron battle).
Such a risky independent use of armour had been widely discussed in Germany before the war but Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH, the German Army General Staff) doubted such an operation could work. Manstein's general operational ideas won immediate support from Guderian, who understood the terrain, having experienced the conditions with the German Army in 1914 and 1918. Manstein wrote his first memorandum outlining the alternative plan on 31 October. In it he avoided mentioning Guderian and played down the strategic part of the armoured units, to avoid unnecessary resistance. Six more memoranda followed between 31 October 1939 and 12 January 1940, each becoming more radical. All were rejected by OKH and nothing of their content reached Hitler.
Mechelen incident
On 10 January 1940, a German aircraft, carrying a staff officer with the Luftwaffe plans for an offensive through central Belgium to the North Sea, force-landed near Maasmechelen (Mechelen) in Belgium. The documents were captured but Allied intelligence doubted that they were genuine. In the full moon period in April 1940, another Allied alert was called for a possible attack on the Low Countries or Holland, an offensive through the Low Countries to outflank the Maginot Line from the north, an attack on the Maginot Line or an invasion through Switzerland. None of the contingencies anticipated the German attack through the Ardennes but after the loss of the Luftwaffe plans, the Germans assumed that the Allied appreciation of German intentions would have been reinforced. Aufmarschanweisung N°3, Fall Gelb, an amendment to the plan on 30 January, was only a revision of details. On 24 February, the main German effort was moved south to the Ardennes. Twenty divisions (including seven panzer and three motorised divisions) were transferred from Heeresgruppe B opposite Holland and Belgium to Heeresgruppe A facing the Ardennes. French military intelligence uncovered a transfer of German divisions from the Saar to the north of the Moselle but failed to detect the redeployment from the Dutch frontier to the Eifel–Moselle area.
Adoption of the Manstein Plan
On 27 January, Manstein was sacked as Chief of Staff of Army Group A and appointed commander of an army corps in East Prussia. To silence Manstein, Halder had instigated his transfer to Stettin on 9 February. Manstein's staff brought his case to Hitler, who had independently suggested an attack at Sedan, against the advice of OKH. On 2 February, Hitler was told of Manstein's plan and on 17 February, Hitler summoned Manstein, General Rudolf Schmundt (Chief of Personnel of the German Army) and General Alfred Jodl, the Chief of Operations of (OKW, Supreme Command of the Armed Forces), to a conference. The next day, Hitler ordered Manstein's thinking to be adopted, because it offered the possibility of decisive victory. Hitler recognised the breakthrough at Sedan only in tactical terms, whereas Manstein saw it as a means to an end. He envisaged an operation to the English Channel and the encirclement of the Allied armies in Belgium; if the plan succeeded, it could have a strategic effect.
Halder then went through an "astonishing change of opinion", accepting that the should be at Sedan. He had no intention of allowing an independent strategic penetration by the seven Panzer divisions of Army Group A. Much to the dismay of Guderian, this element was absent from the new plan, , issued on 24 February. The bulk of the German officer corps was appalled and called Halder the "gravedigger of the Panzer force". Even when adapted to more conventional methods, the new plan provoked a storm of protest from the majority of German generals. They thought it utterly irresponsible to create a concentration of forces in a position impossible to adequately resupply, along routes that could be cut easily by the French. If the Allies did not react as expected, the German offensive could end in catastrophe. Their objections were ignored and Halder argued that, as Germany's strategic position seemed hopeless anyway, even the slightest chance of decisive victory should be grasped. Shortly before the invasion, Hitler, who had spoken to forces on the Western Front and who was encouraged by the success in Norway, confidently predicted the campaign would take only six weeks. Personally, he was most excited over the planned glider attack on Fort Eben-Emael.
Allied strategy
Escaut Plan/Plan E
On 3 September 1939, French military strategy had been settled, taking in analyses of geography, resources and manpower. The French Army would defend in the east (right flank) and attack on the west (left flank) by advancing into Belgium, to fight forward of the French frontier. The extent of the forward move was dependent on events, which were complicated when Belgium ended the Franco-Belgian Accord of 1920 after the German Remilitarisation of the Rhineland on 7 March 1936. The neutrality of the Belgian state was reluctant openly to co-operate with France but information was communicated about Belgian defences. By May 1940, there had been an exchange of the general nature of French and Belgian defence plans but little co-ordination against a German offensive to the west, through Luxembourg and eastern Belgium. The French expected Germany to breach Belgian neutrality first, providing a pretext for French intervention or that the Belgians would request support when an invasion was imminent. Most of the French mobile forces were assembled along the Belgian border, ready to forestall the Germans.
An early appeal for help might give the French time to reach the German–Belgian frontier but if not, there were three feasible defensive lines further back. A practicable line existed from Givet to Namur, across the Gembloux Gap (), Wavre, Louvain and along the Dyle river to Antwerp, which was shorter than the alternatives. A second possibility was a line from the French border to Condé, Tournai, along the Escaut (Scheldt) to Ghent and thence to Zeebrugge on the North Sea coast, possibly further along the Scheldt (Escaut) to Antwerp, which became the Escaut Plan/Plan E. The third possibility was along field defences of the French border from Luxembourg to Dunkirk. For the first fortnight of the war, Gamelin favoured Plan E, because of the example of the fast German advances in Poland. Gamelin and the other French commanders doubted that they could move any further forward before the Germans arrived. In late September, Gamelin issued a directive to Général d'armée Gaston Billotte, commander of the 1st Army Group,
giving the 1st Army Group permission to enter Belgium, to deploy along the Escaut according to Plan E. On 24 October, Gamelin directed that an advance beyond the Escaut was only feasible if the French moved fast enough to forestall the Germans.
Dyle Plan/Plan D
By late 1939, the Belgians had improved their defences along the Albert Canal and increased the readiness of the army; Gamelin and (GQG) began to consider the possibility of advancing further than the Escaut. By November, GQG had decided that a defence along the Dyle Line was feasible, despite the doubts of General Alphonse Georges, commander of the North-Eastern Front, about reaching the Dyle before the Germans. The British had been lukewarm about an advance into Belgium but Gamelin persuaded them; on 9 November, the Dyle Plan was adopted. On 17 November, a session of the Supreme War Council deemed it essential to occupy the Dyle Line and Gamelin issued a directive that day detailing a line from Givet to Namur, the Gembloux Gap, Wavre, Louvain and Antwerp. For the next four months, the Dutch and Belgian armies laboured over their defences, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) expanded and the French army received more equipment and training. Gamelin also considered a move towards Breda in the Netherlands; if the Allies prevented a German occupation of Holland, the ten divisions of the Dutch army would join the Allied armies, control of the North Sea would be enhanced and the Germans would be denied bases for attacks on Britain.
By May 1940, the 1st Army Group was responsible for the defence of France from the Channel coast south to the Maginot Line. The Seventh Army ( Henri Giraud), BEF (General Lord Gort), First Army ( Georges Maurice Jean Blanchard) and Ninth Army ( André Corap) were ready to advance to the Dyle Line, by pivoting on the right (southern) Second Army. The Seventh Army would take over west of Antwerp, ready to move into Holland and the Belgians were expected to delay a German advance, then retire from the Albert Canal to the Dyle, from Antwerp to Louvain. On the Belgian right, the BEF was to defend about of the Dyle from Louvain to Wavre with nine divisions and the First Army, on the right of the BEF, was to hold with ten divisions from Wavre across the Gembloux Gap to Namur. The gap from the Dyle to Namur north of the Sambre, with Maastricht and Mons on either side, had few natural obstacles and was a traditional route of invasion, leading straight to Paris. The Ninth Army would take post south of Namur, along the Meuse to the left (northern) flank of the Second Army.
The Second Army was the right (eastern) flank army of the 1st Army Group, holding the line from Pont à Bar west of Sedan to Longuyon. GQG considered that the Second and Ninth armies had the easiest task of the army group, dug in on the west bank of the Meuse on ground that was easily defended and behind the Ardennes, a considerable obstacle, the traversing of which would give plenty of warning of a German attack in the centre of the French front. After the transfer from the strategic reserve of the Seventh Army to the 1st Army Group, seven divisions remained behind the Second and Ninth armies and more could be moved from behind the Maginot Line. All but one division were either side of the junction of the two armies, GQG being more concerned about a possible German attack past the north end of the Maginot Line and then south-east through the Stenay Gap, for which the divisions behind the Second Army were well placed.
Breda variant
If the Allies could control the Scheldt Estuary, supplies could be transported to Antwerp by ship and contact established with the Dutch Army along the river. On 8 November, Gamelin directed that a German invasion of the Netherlands must not be allowed to progress around the west of Antwerp and gain the south bank of the Scheldt. The left flank of the 1st Army Group was reinforced by the Seventh Army, containing some of the best and most mobile French divisions, which moved from the general reserve by December. The role of the army was to occupy the south bank of the Scheldt and be ready to move into Holland and protect the estuary by holding the north bank along the Beveland Peninsula (now the Walcheren–Zuid-Beveland–Noord-Beveland peninsula) in the Holland Hypothesis.
On 12 March 1940, Gamelin discounted dissenting opinion at GQG and decided that the Seventh Army would advance as far as Breda, to link with the Dutch. Georges was told that the role of the Seventh Army on the left flank of the Dyle manoeuvre would be linked to it and Georges notified Billotte that if it were ordered to cross into the Netherlands, the left flank of the army group was to advance to Tilburg if possible and certainly to Breda. The Seventh Army was to take post between the Belgians and Dutch by passing the Belgians along the Albert Canal and then turning east, a distance of , when the Germans were only distant from Breda. On 16 April, Gamelin also made provision for a German invasion of the Netherlands but not Belgium, by changing the deployment area to be reached by the Seventh Army; the Escaut Plan would only be followed if the Germans forestalled the French move into Belgium.
Allied intelligence
In the winter of 1939–40, the Belgian consul-general in Cologne had anticipated the angle of advance that Manstein was planning. Through intelligence reports, the Belgians deduced that German forces were concentrating along the Belgian and Luxembourg frontiers. In March 1940, Swiss intelligence detected six or seven Panzer divisions on the German-Luxembourg-Belgian border and more motorised divisions were detected in the area. French intelligence were informed through aerial reconnaissance that the Germans were constructing pontoon bridges about halfway over the Our River on the Luxembourg–German border. On 30 April, the French military attaché in Bern warned that the centre of the German assault would come on the Meuse at Sedan, sometime between 8 and 10 May. These reports had little effect on Gamelin, as did similar reports from neutral sources such as the Vatican and a French sighting of a line of German armoured vehicles on the Luxembourg border trailing back inside Germany.
Prelude
German Army
Germany had mobilised 4,200,000 men of the Heer (German Army), 1,000,000 of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force), 180,000 of the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) and 100,000 of the Waffen-SS (military arm of the Nazi Party). When consideration is made for those in Poland, Denmark and Norway, the Army had 3,000,000 men available for the offensive on 10 May 1940. These manpower reserves were formed into 157 divisions. Of these, 135 were earmarked for the offensive, including 42 reserve divisions. The German forces in the west in May and June deployed some 2,439 tanks and 7,378 guns. In 1939–40, 45 per cent of the army was at least 40 years old and 50 per cent of all the soldiers had just a few weeks' training. The German Army was far from motorised; ten per cent of their army was motorised in 1940 and could muster only 120,000 vehicles, compared with the 300,000 of the French Army. All of the British Expeditionary Force was motorised. Most of the German logistical transport consisted of horse-drawn vehicles. Only 50 per cent of the German divisions available in 1940 were fit for operations, often being worse equipped than the German army of 1914 or their equivalents in the British and French Armies. In the spring of 1940, the German Army was semi-modern; a small number of the best-equipped and "elite divisions were offset by many second and third rate divisions".
Army Group A, commanded by Gerd von Rundstedt, comprised divisions, including seven Panzer and was to execute the main movement effort through the Allied defences in the Ardennes. The manoeuvre carried out by the Germans is sometimes referred to as a "Sichelschnitt", the German translation of the phrase "sickle cut" coined by Winston Churchill after the event. It involved three armies (the 4th, 12th and 16th) and had three Panzer corps. The XV had been allocated to the 4th Army but the XLI (Reinhardt) and the XIX (Guderian) were united with the XIV Army Corps of two motorised infantry divisions on a special independent operational level in Panzergruppe Kleist (XXII Corps). Army Group B (Fedor von Bock), comprised divisions including three armoured, was to advance through the Low Countries and lure the northern units of the Allied armies into a pocket. It was composed of the 6th and 18th Armies. Army Group C, (General Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb) comprising 18 divisions of the 1st and 7th Armies, was to prevent a flanking movement from the east and with launching small holding attacks against the Maginot Line and the upper Rhine.
Communications
Wireless proved essential to German success in the battle. German tanks had radio receivers that allowed them to be directed by platoon command tanks, which had voice communication with other units. Wireless allowed tactical control and far quicker improvisation than the opponent. Some commanders regarded the ability to communicate to be the primary method of combat and radio drills were considered to be more important than gunnery. Radio allowed German commanders to co-ordinate their formations, bringing them together for a mass firepower effect in attack or defence. The French numerical advantage in heavy weapons and equipment, which was often deployed in "penny-packets" (dispersed as individual support weapons) was offset. Most French tanks also lacked radio and orders between infantry units were typically passed by telephone or verbally.
The German communications system permitted a degree of communication between air and ground forces. Attached to Panzer divisions were the Fliegerleittruppen (tactical air control troops) in wheeled vehicles. There were too few Sd.Kfz. 251 command vehicles for all of the army but the theory allowed the army in some circumstances to call Luftwaffe units to support an attack. Fliegerkorps VIII, equipped with Junkers Ju 87 dive-bombers (Stukas), was to support the dash to the Channel if Army Group A broke through the Ardennes and kept a Ju 87 and a fighter group on call. On average, they could arrive to support armoured units within 45–75 minutes of orders being issued.
Tactics
The German army conducted combined arms operations with mobile offensive units, with balanced numbers of well-trained artillery, infantry, engineer and tank formations, integrated into Panzer divisions. The various elements were united by wireless communication, which enabled them to work together at a quick tempo and exploit opportunities faster than the Allies could react. Panzer divisions could conduct reconnaissance, advance to contact or defend and attack vital positions and weak spots. Captured ground would be occupied by infantry and artillery as pivot points for further attacks. Although many German tanks were outgunned by their opponents, they could lure Allied tanks onto the divisional anti-tank guns. The avoidance of tank-versus-tank engagements conserved German tanks for the next stage of the offensive. Units carried supplies for three to four days' operations. The Panzer divisions would be supported by motorised and infantry divisions. German tank battalions () were to be equipped with the Panzerkampfwagen III and Panzerkampfwagen IV tanks but shortages led to the use of light Panzerkampfwagen II and even lighter Panzerkampfwagen I instead.
The German Army lacked a heavy tank like the French Char B1; French tanks were better designs, more numerous and with superior armour and armament but slower and with inferior mechanical reliability than the German designs. Although the German Army was outnumbered in artillery and tanks, it possessed some advantages over its opponents. The newer German Panzers had a crew of five, a commander, gunner, loader, driver and mechanic. Having a trained individual for each task allowed a logical division of labour. French tanks had smaller crews; the commander had to load the main gun, distracting him from observation and tactical deployment. The Germans enjoyed an advantage through the theory of Auftragstaktik (mission command) by which officers, NCOs and men were expected to use their initiative and had control over supporting arms, rather than the slower, top-down methods of the Allies.
Luftwaffe
Army Group B had the support of 1,815 combat, 487 transport and 50 glider aircraft and another 3,286 combat aircraft supported Army Groups A and C. The Luftwaffe was the most experienced, well-equipped and well-trained air force in the world. The combined Allied total was 2,935 aircraft, about half the size of the Luftwaffe. The Luftwaffe could provide close support with dive-bombers and medium bombers but was a broadly based force, intended to support national strategy and could carry out operational, tactical and strategic bombing operations. Allied air forces were mainly intended for army co-operation but the Luftwaffe could fly air superiority missions, medium-range interdiction, strategic bombing and close air support operations, depending on circumstances. It was not a Panzer spearhead arm, since in 1939 fewer than 15 per cent of Luftwaffe aircraft were designed for close support as this was not its main role.
Flak
The Germans also had an advantage in anti-aircraft guns (Fliegerabwehrkanone [Flak]). The totals of 2,600 heavy Flak guns and 6,700 and . Light Flak refers to the number of guns in the German armed forces, including the anti-aircraft defence of Germany and the equipment of training units. (A 9,300-gun Flak component with the field army would have involved more troops than the British Expeditionary Force.) The armies which invaded the west had 85 heavy and 18 light batteries belonging to the Luftwaffe, 48 companies of light Flak integral to divisions of the army and 20 companies of light Flak allocated as army troops, a reserve in the hands of HQs above corps level: altogether about 700 and 180 guns manned by Luftwaffe ground units and 816 guns manned by the army.
Allies
France had spent a higher percentage of its GNP from 1918 to 1935 on its military than other great powers and the government had added a large rearmament effort in 1936. France mobilised about one-third of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45, bringing the strength of its armed forces to 5,000,000. Only 2,240,000 of these served in army units in the north. The British contributed a total strength of 897,000 men in 1939, rising to 1,650,000 by June 1940. Dutch and Belgian manpower reserves amounted to 400,000 and 650,000, respectively.
Armies
The French raised 117 divisions, of which 104 (including 11 in reserve) were for the defence of the north. The British contributed 13 divisions in the BEF, three of which were untrained and poorly-armed labour divisions. Twenty-two Belgian, ten Dutch and two Polish divisions were also part of the Allied order of battle. British artillery strength amounted to 1,280 guns, Belgium fielded 1,338 guns, the Dutch 656 guns and France 10,700 guns, giving an Allied total of about 14,000 guns, 45 per cent more than the German total. The French Army was also more motorised than its opponent, which still relied on horses. Although the Belgians, British and Dutch had few tanks, the French had 3,254 tanks, more than the German tank fleet.
The French Army was of mixed quality. The mechanised light and heavy armoured divisions (DLM and DCr) were new and not thoroughly trained. Reserve B Divisions were composed of reservists, above 30 years old and ill-equipped. A serious qualitative deficiency was a lack of anti-aircraft artillery, mobile anti-tank artillery and wireless, despite the efforts of Gamelin to produce mobile artillery units. Only 0.15 per cent of military spending between 1923 and 1939 had been on radio and other communications equipment; to maintain signals security, Gamelin used telephones and couriers to communicate with field units.
French tactical deployment and the use of mobile units at the operational level of war was also inferior to that of the Germans. The French had 3,254 tanks on the north-eastern front on 10 May, against 2,439 German tanks. Much of the armour was distributed for infantry support, each army having been assigned a tank brigade () of about ninety light infantry tanks. With so many tanks available, the French could still concentrate a considerable number of light, medium and heavy tanks in armoured divisions, which in theory were as powerful as German panzer divisions. Only French heavy tanks generally carried wireless and the ones fitted were unreliable, which hampered communication and made tactical manoeuvre difficult, compared to German units. In 1940, French military theorists still mainly considered tanks as infantry support vehicles and French tanks were slow (except for the SOMUA S35) compared to their German rivals, enabling German tanks to offset their disadvantages by out-manoeuvring French tanks. On several occasions, the French were not able to achieve the same tempo as German armoured units. The state of training was also unbalanced, with the majority of personnel trained only to man static fortifications. Minimal training for mobile action was carried out between September 1939 and May 1940.
Deployment
The French Army consisted of three army groups. The 2nd and 3rd Army Groups defended the Maginot Line to the east; the 1st Army Group (General Gaston Billotte) was on the western (left) flank and would execute the movement forward into the Low Countries. Initially positioned on the left flank near the coast, the Seventh Army, reinforced by a Division Légère Mécanique (DLM, mechanised light division), was intended to move to the Netherlands via Antwerp. To the south of the Seventh Army were the motorised divisions of the BEF, which would advance to the Dyle Line on the right flank of the Belgian army, from Leuven (Louvain) to Wavre. The First Army, reinforced by two DLM and with a Division Cuirassée (DCR, Armoured Division) in reserve, would defend the Gembloux Gap between Wavre and Namur. The southernmost army involved in the move forward into Belgium was the French Ninth Army, which had to cover the Meuse sector between Namur to the north of Sedan.
Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, expected to have two or three weeks to prepare for the Germans to advance to the Dyle but the Germans arrived in four days. The Second Army was expected to form the "hinge" of the movement and remain entrenched. It was to face the elite German armoured divisions in their attack at Sedan. It was given low priority for manpower, anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons and air support, consisting of five divisions, two were over-age reservist "Serie B" divisions and the 3rd North African Division. Considering their training and equipment, they had to cover a long front and formed a weak point of the French defence system. This stemmed from the French High Command's belief that the Ardennes forest was impassable to tanks, even though intelligence from the Belgian army and from their own intelligence services warned them of long armour and transport columns crossing the Ardennes and being stuck in a huge traffic-jam for some time. French war games in 1937 and 1938 had shown that the Germans could penetrate the Ardennes and Corap called it "idiocy" to think that the enemy could not get through. Gamelin ignored the evidence, as it was not in line with his strategy.
Air forces
The Armée de l'Air had RAF Fighter Command 680 and RAF Bomber Command could contribute about Some Allied types, like the Fairey Battle, were approaching obsolescence. In the fighter force, only the British Hawker Hurricane, the US Curtiss Hawk 75 and the Dewoitine D.520 were a match for the German Messerschmitt Bf 109, the D.520 being more manoeuvrable although being slightly slower. On 10 May 1940, only 36 D.520s had been delivered. The Allies outnumbered the Germans in fighter aircraft, with 81 Belgian, 261 British and 764 French fighters (1,106) against 836 German Bf 109s. The French and British had more aircraft in reserve.
In early June 1940, the French aviation industry was producing a considerable number of aircraft, with an estimated reserve of nearly 2,000 but a chronic lack of spare parts crippled this fleet. Only about 599 (29 per cent) were serviceable, of which 170 were bombers. The Germans had six times more medium bombers than the French. Despite its disadvantages, the Armée de l'Air performed far better than expected, destroying 916 enemy aircraft in air-to-air combat, a kill ratio of 2.35:1. Almost a third of the French victories were accomplished by French pilots flying the Curtiss Hawk 75, which accounted for 12.6 per cent of the French single-seat fighter force.
Anti-aircraft defence
In addition to 580 machine guns assigned to civilian defence, the French Army had 1,152 anti-aircraft guns, with 200 auto-cannon in the process of delivery and 688 guns and 24 guns, the latter having problems with barrel wear. There were also forty First World War-vintage anti-aircraft guns available. The BEF had ten regiments of QF 3.7-inch (94 mm) heavy anti-aircraft guns, the most advanced in the world and regiments of Bofors 40 mm light anti-aircraft guns, about 300 heavy and 350 light anti-aircraft guns. The Belgians had two heavy anti-aircraft regiments and were introducing Bofors guns for divisional anti-aircraft troops. The Dutch had 84 , 39 elderly , seven , 232 anti-aircraft guns and several hundred First World War-vintage Spandau M.25 machine guns on anti-aircraft mountings.
Battle
Northern front
At 21:00 on 9 May, the code word was relayed to all German army divisions, beginning . Security was so tight that many officers, due to the constant delays, were away from their units when the order was sent. German forces occupied Luxembourg virtually unopposed. Army Group B launched its feint offensive during the night into the Netherlands and Belgium. On the morning of 10 May, (paratroopers) from the 7th Flieger Division and 22nd Luftlande Division (Kurt Student) executed surprise landings at The Hague, on the road to Rotterdam and against the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael which helped the advance of Army Group B. The French command reacted immediately, sending the 1st Army Group north in accordance with Plan D. This move committed their best forces, diminishing their fighting power by the partial disorganisation it caused and their mobility by depleting their fuel stocks. By the time the French Seventh Army crossed the Dutch border, they found the Dutch already in full retreat and withdrew into Belgium to protect Antwerp.
Invasion of the Netherlands
The Luftwaffe effort over the Netherlands comprised 247 medium bombers, 147 fighters, 424 Junkers Ju 52 transports and 12 Heinkel He 59 seaplanes. The Dutch Air Force, (Militaire Luchtvaartafdeling, ML), had a strength of 144 combat aircraft, half of which were destroyed on the first day. The remainder of the ML was dispersed and accounted for only a handful of Luftwaffe aircraft shot down. The ML managed 332 sorties, losing 110 aircraft. The German 18th Army captured bridges during the Battle of Rotterdam, bypassing the New Water Line from the south and penetrating Fortress Holland. A separate operation organised by the Luftwaffe, the Battle for The Hague, failed. Airfields around (Ypenburg, Ockenburg and Valkenburg) were captured in a costly success, with many transport aircraft lost but the Dutch army re-captured the airfields by the end of the day. Ninety-six aircraft in all were lost to Dutch artillery-fire. Luftwaffe operations had cost 125 Ju 52s destroyed and 47 damaged, a 50 per cent loss. The airborne operation also cost 50 per cent of the German paratroopers: 4,000 men, including 20 per cent of its NCOs and 42 per cent of its officers; of these casualties, 1,200 were made prisoners of war and evacuated to Britain.
The French Seventh Army failed to block the German armoured reinforcements from the 9th Panzer Division, which reached Rotterdam on 13 May. That same day in the east, following the Battle of the Grebbeberg, in which a Dutch counter-attack to contain a German breach failed, the Dutch retreated from the Grebbe line to the New Water Line. The Dutch Army, still largely intact, surrendered in the evening of 14 May after the Bombing of Rotterdam by Heinkel He 111 medium bombers of Kampfgeschwader 54 (Bomber Wing 54); an act which has remained controversial. The Dutch Army considered its strategic situation to have become hopeless and feared destruction of other Dutch cities. The capitulation document was signed on 15 May but Dutch forces continued fighting in the Battle of Zeeland with Seventh Army and in the colonies. Queen Wilhelmina established a government in exile in Britain.} Dutch casualties amounted to 2,157 army, 75 air force and 125 Navy personnel; 2,559 civilians were also killed.
Invasion of Belgium
The Germans quickly established air superiority over Belgium. Having completed thorough photographic reconnaissance, they destroyed 83 of the 179 aircraft of the within the first 24 hours of the invasion. The Belgians flew 77 operational missions but this contributed little to the air campaign. The Luftwaffe was assured air superiority over the Low Countries. Because Army Group B's composition had been so weakened compared to the earlier plans, the feint offensive by the 6th Army was in danger of stalling immediately, since the Belgian defences on the Albert Canal position were very strong. The main approach route was blocked by Fort Eben-Emael, a large fortress then generally considered the most modern in Europe, which controlled the junction of the Meuse and the Albert Canal.
Delay might endanger the outcome of the entire campaign, because it was essential that the main body of Allied troops be engaged before Army Group A established bridgeheads. To overcome this difficulty, the Germans resorted to unconventional means in the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael. In the early hours of 10 May, DFS 230 gliders landed on top of the fort and unloaded assault teams that disabled the main gun cupolas with hollow charges. The bridges over the canal were seized by German paratroopers. The Belgians launched considerable counterattacks which were broken up by the Luftwaffe. Shocked by a breach in its defences just where they had seemed the strongest, the Belgian Supreme Command withdrew its divisions to the KW-line five days earlier than planned. Similar operations against the bridges in the Netherlands, at Maastricht, failed. All were blown up by the Dutch and only one railway bridge was taken, which held up the German armour on Dutch territory for a short time.
The BEF and the French First Army were not yet entrenched and the news of the defeat on the Belgian border was unwelcome. The Allies had been convinced Belgian resistance would have given them several weeks to prepare a defensive line at the Gembloux Gap. The XVI Panzerkorps (General Erich Hoepner) consisting of the 3rd Panzer Division and the 4th Panzer Division, was launched over the newly captured bridges in the direction of the Gembloux Gap. This seemed to confirm the expectations of the French Supreme Command that the German Schwerpunkt (point of main effort, centre of gravity) would be at that point. Gembloux was located between Wavre and Namur, on flat, ideal tank terrain. It was also an unfortified part of the Allied line. To gain time to dig in there, René Prioux, commanding the Cavalry Corps of the French First Army, sent the 2nd DLM and 3rd DLM towards the German armour at Hannut, east of Gembloux. They would provide a screen to delay the Germans and allow sufficient time for the First Army to dig in.
Battles of Hannut and Gembloux
The Battle of Hannut (12–13 May) was the largest tank battle yet fought, with about 1,500 armoured fighting vehicles involved. The French knocked out about 160 German tanks for a loss of 91 Hotchkiss H35 and 30 Somua S35 tanks. The Germans were left in control of the battlefield after the French made a planned withdrawal and were able to repair many of their knocked-out tanks. The net German loss amounted to 20 tanks of the 3rd Panzer Division and 29 of the 4th Panzer Division. Prioux had achieved a tactical and operational success for the French by fulfilling his objective of delaying the panzer divisions until the First Army had time to arrive and dig in. The German attack had engaged the First Army to the north of Sedan, which was the most important objective that Hoepner had to achieve but had failed to forestall the French advance to the Dyle or to destroy the First Army. On 14 May, having been held up at Hannut, Hoepner attacked again, against orders, in the Battle of Gembloux. This was the only occasion when German tanks frontally attacked a fortified position during the campaign. The 1st Moroccan Infantry Division repulsed the attack and another 42 tanks of the 4th Panzer Division were knocked out, 26 being written off. This second French defensive success was nullified by events further south at Sedan.
Central front
Ardennes
The advance of Army Group A was to be delayed by Belgian motorised infantry and French mechanised cavalry divisions (DLC, Divisions Légères de Cavalerie) advancing into the Ardennes. The main resistance came from the Belgian 1st Chasseurs Ardennais, the 1st Cavalry Division, reinforced by engineers and the French 5e Division Légère de Cavalerie (5th DLC). The Belgian troops blocked roads, held up the 1st Panzer Division at Bodange for about eight hours and then retired northwards too quickly for the French, who had not arrived. The Belgian barriers proved ineffective when not defended; German engineers were not disturbed as they dismantled the obstacles. The French had insufficient anti-tank capacity to block the surprisingly large number of German tanks they encountered and quickly gave way, withdrawing behind the Meuse.
The German advance was hampered by the number of vehicles trying to force their way along the poor road network. Panzergruppe Kleist had more than 41,140 vehicles, which had only four march routes through the Ardennes. French reconnaissance aircrews had reported German armoured convoys by the night of 10/11 May but this was assumed to be secondary to the main attack in Belgium. On the next night, a reconnaissance pilot reported that he had seen long vehicle columns moving without lights; another pilot sent to check reported the same and that many of the vehicles were tanks. Later that day, photographic reconnaissance and pilot reports were of tanks and bridging equipment. On 13 May, Panzergruppe Kleist caused a traffic jam about long from the Meuse to the Rhine on one route. While the German columns were sitting targets, the French bomber force attacked the Germans in northern Belgium during the Battle of Maastricht and had failed with heavy losses. In two days, the bomber force had been reduced from 135 to 72.
On 11 May, Gamelin ordered reserve divisions to begin reinforcing the Meuse sector. Because of the danger the Luftwaffe posed, movement over the rail network was limited to night-time, slowing the reinforcement. The French felt no sense of urgency, as they believed the build-up of German divisions would be correspondingly slow; the French Army did not conduct river crossings unless assured of heavy artillery support. While they were aware that the German tank and infantry formations were strong, they were confident in their strong fortifications and artillery superiority. The capabilities of the French units in the area were dubious; in particular, their artillery was designed for fighting infantry and they were short of anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns. The German advance forces reached the Meuse line late in the afternoon of 12 May. To allow each of the three armies of Army Group A to cross, three bridgeheads were to be established, at Sedan in the south, Monthermé to the north-west and Dinant further north. The first German units to arrive hardly had local numerical superiority; the German artillery had an average of 12 rounds per gun per day, while French artillery had 30 rounds per gun per day.
Battle of Sedan
At Sedan, the Meuse Line consisted of a strong defensive belt deep, laid out according to the modern principles of zone defence on slopes overlooking the Meuse valley. It was strengthened by 103 pillboxes, manned by the 147th Fortress Infantry Regiment. Deeper positions were held by the 55th Infantry Division, a grade "B" reserve division. On the morning of 13 May, the 71st Infantry Division was inserted to the east of Sedan, allowing the 55th Infantry Division to narrow its front by a third and deepen its position to over . The division had a superiority in artillery to the German units present. On 13 May, Panzergruppe Kleist forced three crossings near Sedan, executed by the 1st Panzer Division, 2nd Panzer Division and 10th Panzer Division. These groups were reinforced by the elite Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland. Instead of slowly massing artillery as the French expected, the Germans concentrated most of their air power (lacking artillery) on smashing a hole in a narrow sector of the French lines by carpet bombing and dive bombing. Guderian had been promised extraordinarily heavy air support during a continual eight-hour air attack, from 08:00 am until dusk.
The Luftwaffe executed the heaviest air bombardment the world had yet witnessed and the most intense by the Germans during the war. Two Sturzkampfgeschwader (dive bomber wings) attacked, flying 300 sorties against French positions. A total of 3,940 sorties were flown by nine Kampfgeschwader (Bomber Groups). Some of the forward pillboxes were undamaged and the garrisons repulsed the crossing attempts of the 2nd Panzer Division and 10th Panzer Division. The morale of the troops of the 55th Infantry Division further back was broken by the air attacks and French gunners fled. The German infantry, at a cost of a few hundred casualties, penetrated up to into the French defensive zone by midnight. Even by then, most of the infantry had not crossed. Much of this success was due to the actions of just six German platoons, mainly assault engineers.
The disorder that had begun at Sedan spread further. At 19:00 on 13 May, troops of the 295th Regiment of the 55th Infantry Division were holding the last prepared defensive line at the Bulson ridge behind the river. They were panicked by alarmist rumours that German tanks were already behind them and fled, creating a gap in the French defences before any tanks had crossed the river. This "Panic of Bulson" also involved the divisional artillery. The Germans had not attacked their position and would not do so until 12 hours later, at 07:20 on 14 May. Recognising the gravity of the defeat at Sedan, General Gaston-Henri Billotte, commander of the 1st Army Group, whose right flank pivoted on Sedan, urged that the bridges across the Meuse be destroyed by air attack. He was convinced that "over them will pass either victory or defeat!". That day, every available Allied light bomber was employed in an attempt to destroy the three bridges but lost about 44 per cent of the Allied bomber strength for no result.
Collapse on the Meuse
Guderian had indicated on 12 May that he wanted to enlarge the bridgehead to at least . His superior, General Ewald von Kleist, ordered him, on behalf of Hitler, to limit his moves to a maximum of before consolidation. At 11:45 on 14 May, Rundstedt confirmed this order, which implied that the tank units should now start to dig in. Guderian was able to get Kleist to agree on a form of words for a "reconnaissance in force", by threatening to resign and behind-the-scenes intrigues. Guderian continued the advance, despite the halt order. In the original Manstein Plan, as Guderian had suggested, secondary attacks would be carried out to the south-east, in the rear of the Maginot Line. This would confuse the French command and occupy ground where French counter-offensive forces would assemble. This element had been removed by Halder but Guderian sent the 10th Panzer Division and Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland south over the Stonne plateau.
The commander of the French Second Army, General Charles Huntziger, intended to carry out a counter-attack at the same spot by the 3e Division Cuirassée (3e DCR, 3rd Armoured Division). The intended attack would eliminate the bridgehead. Both sides attacked and counter-attacked from 15 to 17 May. Huntziger considered this at least a defensive success and limited his efforts to protecting the flank. Success in the Battle of Stonne and the recapture of Bulson would have enabled the French to defend the high ground overlooking Sedan and bombard the bridgehead with observed artillery-fire, even if they could not take it. Stonne changed hands 17 times and fell to the Germans for the last time on the evening of 17 May. Guderian turned the 1st Panzer Division and the 2nd Panzer Division westwards on 14 May, which advanced swiftly down the Somme valley towards the English Channel.
On 15 May, Guderian's motorised infantry fought their way through the reinforcements of the new French Sixth Army in their assembly area west of Sedan, undercutting the southern flank of the French Ninth Army. The Ninth Army collapsed and surrendered en masse. The 102nd Fortress Division, its flanks unsupported, was surrounded and destroyed on 15 May at the Monthermé bridgehead by the 6th Panzer Division and 8th Panzer Division without air support. The French Second Army had also been seriously damaged. The Ninth Army was also giving way because they did not have time to dig in, as Erwin Rommel had broken through French lines within 24 hours of the battle's beginning. The 7th Panzer Division raced ahead. Rommel refused to allow the division rest and they advanced by day and night. The division advanced in 24 hours.
Rommel lost contact with General Hermann Hoth, having disobeyed orders by not waiting for the French to establish a new line of defence. The 7th Panzer Division continued to advance north-west to Avesnes-sur-Helpe, just ahead of the 1st and 2nd Panzer divisions. The French 5th Motorised Infantry Division had bivouacked in the path of the German division, with its vehicles neatly lined up along the roadsides and the 7th Panzer Division dashed through them. The slow speed, overloaded crews and lack of battlefield communications undid the French. The 5th Panzer Division joined in the fight. The French inflicted many losses on the division. However, they could not cope with the speed of the German mobile units, which closed fast and destroyed the French armour at close range. The remaining elements of the 1st DCR, resting after losing all but 16 of its tanks in Belgium, were also engaged and defeated. The 1st DCR retired with three operational tanks, while defeating only 10 per cent of the 500 German tanks.
By 17 May, Rommel claimed to have taken 10,000 prisoners while suffering only 36 losses. Guderian was delighted with the fast advance and encouraged XIX Korps to head for the channel, continuing until fuel was exhausted. Hitler worried that the German advance was moving too fast. Halder recorded in his diary on 17 May,
Through deception and different interpretations of orders to stop from Hitler and Kleist, the front line commanders ignored Hitler's attempts to stop the westward advance to Abbeville.
French Leaders
The French High Command was slow to react because of its strategy of "methodical warfare", reeled from the shock of the German offensive and was overtaken by defeatism. On the morning of 15 May, French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud telephoned the new British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill and said, "We have been defeated. We are beaten; we have lost the battle." Churchill, attempting to offer some comfort to Reynaud, reminded the Prime Minister of all the times the Germans had broken through the Allied lines in the First World War only to be stopped. Reynaud was inconsolable.
Churchill flew to Paris on 16 May. He immediately recognised the gravity of the situation when he observed that the French government was already burning its archives and was preparing for an evacuation of the capital. In a sombre meeting with the French commanders, Churchill asked General Gamelin, "Where is the strategic reserve?" referring to the reserve that had saved Paris in the First World War. Gamelin replied:
After the war, Gamelin claimed he said "There is no longer any". Churchill later described hearing this as the most shocking moment in his life. Churchill asked Gamelin where and when the general proposed to launch a counter-attack against the flanks of the German bulge. Gamelin simply replied "inferiority of numbers, inferiority of equipment, inferiority of methods".
Allied counter-attacks
Some of the best Allied units in the north had seen little fighting. Had they been kept in reserve, they might have been used in a counter-attack. Pre-war General Staff Studies had concluded that the main reserves were to be kept on French soil to resist an invasion of the Low Countries. They could also deliver a counterattack or "re-establish the integrity of the original front". Despite having a numerically superior armoured force, the French failed to use it properly or to deliver an attack on the vulnerable German bulge. The Germans combined their fighting vehicles in divisions and used them at the point of main effort. The bulk of French armour was scattered along the front in tiny formations. Most of the French reserve divisions had by now been committed. The 1st DCr had been wiped out when it had run out of fuel and the 3rd DCr had failed to take its opportunity to destroy the German bridgeheads at Sedan. The only armoured division still in reserve, the 2nd DCr, was to attack on 16 May west of Saint-Quentin, Aisne. The division commander could locate only seven of its twelve companies, which were scattered along a front. The formation was overrun by the 8th Panzer Division while still forming up and was destroyed as a fighting unit.
The 4th DCr, led by de Gaulle, attempted to launch an attack from the south at Montcornet, where Guderian had his Korps headquarters and the 1st Panzer Division had its rear services. During the Battle of Montcornet, Germans hastily improvised a defence while Guderian rushed up the 10th Panzer Division to threaten de Gaulle's flank. This flank pressure and dive-bombing by Fliegerkorps VIII (General Wolfram von Richthofen) broke up the attack. French losses on 17 May amounted to 32 tanks and armoured vehicles but the French had "inflicted loss on the Germans". On 19 May, after receiving reinforcements, de Gaulle attacked again and was repulsed with the loss of 80 out of 155 vehicles. Fliegerkorps VIII attacked French units massing on the German flanks and prevented most counter-attacks from starting. The defeat of the 4th DCr and the disintegration of the French Ninth Army was caused mainly by the Fliegerkorps. The 4th DCr had achieved a measure of success but the attacks on 17 and 19 May had only local effect.
Channel coast
On 19 May, General Edmund Ironside, the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), conferred with General Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, at his headquarters near Lens. He urged Gort to save the BEF by attacking south-west toward Amiens. Gort replied that seven of his nine divisions were already engaged on the Scheldt River and he had only two divisions left to mount such an attack. He then said that he was under the orders of General Billotte, the commander of the French 1st Army Group but that Billotte had issued no orders for eight days. Ironside confronted Billotte, whose own headquarters was nearby and found him apparently incapable of taking action. He returned to Britain, concerned that the BEF was doomed and ordered urgent anti-invasion measures.
The German land forces could not remain inactive any longer, since it would allow the Allies to reorganise their defence or escape. On 19 May, Guderian was permitted to start moving again and smashed through the weak 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division and the 23rd (Northumbrian) Division (Territorial divisions) on the Somme river. The German units occupied Amiens and secured the westernmost bridge over the river at Abbeville. This move isolated the British, French, Dutch and Belgian forces in the north from their supplies. On 20 May, a reconnaissance unit from the 2nd Panzer Division reached Noyelles-sur-Mer, to the west of their positions on 17 May. From Noyelles, they were able to see the Somme estuary and the English Channel. A huge pocket, containing the Allied 1st Army Group (the Belgian, British and French First, Seventh and Ninth armies), was created.
Fliegerkorps VIII covered the dash to the channel coast. Heralded as the finest hour of the Ju 87 (Stuka), these units responded via an extremely efficient communications system to requests for support, which blasted a path for the army. The Ju 87s were particularly effective at breaking up attacks along the flanks of the German forces, breaking fortified positions and disrupting supply routes. Radio-equipped forward liaison officers could call upon the Stukas and direct them to attack Allied positions along the axis of advance. In some cases, the Luftwaffe responded to requests within 10 to 20 minutes. Oberstleutnant Hans Seidemann, the Fliegerkorps vIII Chief of Staff, said that "never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved". Closer examination reveals the army had to wait 45–75 minutes for Ju 87 units and ten minutes for Henschel Hs 123s.
Weygand Plan
On the morning of 20 May, Gamelin ordered the armies trapped in Belgium and northern France to fight their way south and link up with French forces attacking northwards from the Somme river. On the evening of 19 May, the French Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud, had sacked Gamelin and replaced him with Maxime Weygand, who claimed his first mission as Commander-in-Chief would be to get a good night's sleep. Gamelin's orders were cancelled and Weygand took several days during the crisis to make courtesy visits in Paris. Weygand proposed a counter-offensive by the armies trapped in the north combined with an attack by French forces on the Somme front, the new French 3rd Army Group (General Antoine-Marie-Benoît Besson).
The corridor through which Panzergruppe von Kleist had advanced to the coast was narrow and to the north were the three DLMs and the BEF; to the south was the 4th DCR. Allied delays caused by the French change of command gave the German infantry divisions time to follow up and reinforce the panzer corridor. Their tanks had also pushed further along the channel coast. Weygand flew into the pocket on 21 May and met Billotte, the commander of the 1st Army Group and King Leopold III of Belgium. Leopold announced that the Belgian Army could not conduct offensive operations, as it lacked tanks and aircraft and that unoccupied Belgium had enough food for only two weeks. Leopold did not expect the BEF to endanger itself to keep contact with the Belgian Army but warned that if it persisted with the southern offensive, the Belgian army would collapse. Leopold suggested the establishment of a beach-head covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports.
Gort doubted that the French could prevail. On 23 May, the situation was worsened by Billotte being killed in a car crash, leaving the 1st Army Group leaderless for three days. He was the only Allied commander in the north briefed on the Weygand plan. That day, the British decided to evacuate from the Channel ports. Only two local offensives, by the British and French in the north at Arras on 21 May and by the French from Cambrai in the south on 22 May, took place. Frankforce (Major-General Harold Franklyn) consisting of two divisions, had moved into the Arras area. Franklyn was not aware of a French push north toward Cambrai and the French were ignorant of a British attack towards Arras. Franklyn assumed he was to relieve the Allied garrison at Arras and cut German communications in the vicinity. He was reluctant to commit the 5th Infantry Division and 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, with the 3rd DLM providing flank protection, in a limited objective attack. Only two British infantry battalions and two battalions of the 1st Army Tank Brigade, with 58 Matilda I and 16 Matilda II tanks and an attached motorcycle battalion, took part in the main attack.
The Battle of Arras achieved surprise and initial success against overstretched German forces but failed in its objective. Radio communication between tanks and infantry was poor and there was little combined arms co-ordination as practised by the Germans. German defences (including FlaK guns and field guns) eventually stopped the attack. The French knocked out many German tanks as they retired but the Luftwaffe broke up the counter-attacks and 60 British tanks were lost. The southern attack at Cambrai also failed, because V Corps had been too disorganised after the fighting in Belgium to make a serious effort. OKH panicked at the thought of hundreds of Allied tanks smashing the best forces but Rommel wanted to continue the pursuit. Early on 22 May, OKH recovered and ordered the XIX Panzerkorps to press north from Abbeville to the Channel ports. The 1st Panzer Division advanced to Calais, the 2nd Panzer Division to Boulogne and the 10th Panzer Division to Dunkirk (later, the 1st and 10th Panzer divisions' roles were reversed). South of the German salient, limited French attacks occurred on 23 May near Peronne and Amiens. French and British troops fought the Battle of Abbeville from 27 May to 4 June but failed to eliminate the German bridgehead south of the Somme.
BEF and the Channel ports
Siege of Calais
In the early hours of 23 May, Gort ordered a retreat from Arras. By now, he had no faith in the Weygand plan, nor in Weygand's proposal at least to try to hold a pocket on the Flemish coast, a so-called Réduit de Flandres. Gort knew that the ports needed to supply such a foothold were already being threatened. That same day, the 2nd Panzer Division had assaulted Boulogne. The remaining French and British there surrendered on 25 May, although 4,286 men were evacuated by Royal Navy ships. The RAF also provided air cover, denying the Luftwaffe an opportunity to attack the shipping.
The 10th Panzer Division (Ferdinand Schaal) attacked Calais on 24 May. British reinforcements (the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment, equipped with cruiser tanks and the 30th Motor Brigade) had been hastily landed 24 hours before the Germans attacked. The defenders held on to the port as long as possible, aware that an early capitulation would free up German forces to advance on Dunkirk. The British and French held the town despite the best efforts of Schaal's division to break through. Frustrated, Guderian ordered that, if Calais had not fallen by 14:00 on 26 May, he would withdraw the 10th Panzer Division and ask the Luftwaffe to destroy the town. Eventually, the French and British ran out of ammunition and the Germans were able to break into the fortified city at around 13:30 on 26 May, 30 minutes before Schaal's deadline was up. Despite the French surrender of the main fortifications, the British held the docks until the morning of 27 May. Around 440 men were evacuated. The siege lasted for four crucial days. The delaying action came at a price, about 60 per cent of Allied personnel were killed or wounded.
Halt orders
Frieser wrote that the Franco-British counter-attack at Arras had a disproportionate effect on the Germans because the German higher commanders were apprehensive about flank security. Kleist, the commander of , perceived a "serious threat" and informed Halder that he had to wait until the crisis was resolved before continuing. Colonel-General Günther von Kluge, the 4th Army commander ordered the tanks to halt, with the support of Rundstedt. On 22 May, when the attack had been repulsed, Rundstedt ordered that the situation at Arras must be restored before moved on Boulogne and Calais. At OKW, the panic was worse and Hitler contacted Army Group A on 22 May, to order that all mobile units were to operate either side of Arras and infantry units were to operate to the east.
The crisis among the higher staffs of the German army was not apparent at the front and Halder formed the same conclusion as Guderian, that the real threat was that the Allies would retreat to the channel coast too quickly and a race for the channel ports began. Guderian ordered the 2nd Panzer Division to capture Boulogne, the 1st Panzer Division to take Calais and the 10th Panzer division to seize Dunkirk. Most of the BEF and the French First Army were still from the coast but despite delays, British troops were sent from England to Boulogne and Calais just in time to forestall the XIX Corps panzer divisions on 22 May. Frieser wrote that had the panzers advanced at the same speed on 21 May as they had on 20 May, before the halt order stopped their advance for Boulogne and Calais would have fallen. (Without a halt at Montcornet on 15 May and the second halt on 21 May after the Battle of Arras, the final halt order of 24 May would have been irrelevant, because Dunkirk would have already been captured by the 10th Panzer Division.)
Operation Dynamo
The British launched Operation Dynamo, which evacuated the encircled British, French and Belgian troops from the northern pocket in Belgium and Pas-de-Calais, beginning on 26 May. About 28,000 men were evacuated on the first day. The French First Army – the bulk of which remained in Lille – fought the Siege of Lille owing to Weygand's failure to pull it back along with other French forces to the coast. The 50,000 men involved capitulated on 31 May. While the First Army was mounting its sacrificial defence at Lille, it drew German forces away from Dunkirk, allowing 70,000 Allied soldiers to escape. Total Allied evacuation stood at 165,000 on 31 May. The Allied position was complicated by Belgian King Leopold III's surrender on 27 May, which was postponed until 28 May. The gap left by the Belgian Army stretched from Ypres to Dixmude. A collapse was averted at the Battle of Dunkirk and 139,732 British and 139,097 French soldiers were evacuated by sea across the English Channel in Operation Dynamo. Between 31 May and 4 June, another 20,000 British and 98,000 French were saved; about 30,000 to 40,000 French soldiers of the rearguard remained to be captured. The total evacuated was 338,226, including 199,226 British and 139,000 French.
During the Dunkirk battle, the Luftwaffe did its best to prevent the evacuation. It flew 1,882 bombing missions and 1,997 fighter sorties. British losses at Dunkirk made up 6 per cent of their total losses during the French campaign, including 60 precious fighter pilots. The Luftwaffe failed in its task of preventing the evacuation but inflicted serious losses on the Allied forces. 89 merchantmen (of 126,518 grt) were lost; the navy lost 29 of its 40 destroyers sunk or seriously damaged. The Germans lost around 100 aircraft; the RAF lost 106 fighters. Other sources put Luftwaffe losses in the Dunkirk area at 240. Confusion still reigned. After the evacuation at Dunkirk, while Paris was enduring a short-lived siege, part of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division was sent to Brittany but was withdrawn after the French capitulation. The 1st Armoured Division under General Evans arrived in France in June and fought in the Battle of Abbeville. It did so without some of its infantry, which had earlier been diverted to the defence of Calais. At the end of the campaign, Erwin Rommel praised the staunch resistance of British forces, despite being under-equipped and without ammunition for much of the fighting.
Fall Rot
By the end of May 1940, the best and most modern French armies had been sent north and lost in the resulting encirclement; the French had also lost much of their heavy weaponry and their best armoured formations. Overall, the Allies had lost 61 divisions in Fall Gelb. Weygand was faced with the prospect of defending a long front (from Sedan to the channel), with a greatly depleted French Army now lacking significant Allied support. Weygand had only 64 French divisions and the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division available. Weygand lacked the reserves to counter a breakthrough or to replace frontline troops, should they become exhausted from a prolonged battle on a front of . The Germans had 142 divisions and air supremacy, except over the English Channel.
The French also had to deal with millions of civilian refugees fleeing the war in what became known as L'Exode (the Exodus). Automobiles and horse-drawn carts carrying possessions clogged roads. As the government had not foreseen such a rapid military collapse, there were few plans to cope. Between six and ten million French fled, sometimes so quickly that they left uneaten meals on tables, even while officials stated that there was no need to panic and that civilians should stay. The population of Chartres dropped from 23,000 to 800 and Lille from 200,000 to 20,000, while cities in the south such as Pau and Bordeaux rapidly grew in population.
Weygand line
The Germans began their second offensive on 5 June on the Somme and the Aisne. During the next three weeks, far from the easy advance the expected, they encountered strong resistance from a rejuvenated French Army. The French armies had fallen back on their lines of supply and communications and were closer to repair shops, supply dumps and stores. About 112,000 French soldiers from Dunkirk were repatriated via the Normandy and Brittany ports, a partial substitute for the lost divisions in Flanders. The French were also able to make good a significant amount of their armoured losses and raised the 1st and 2nd DCR (heavy armoured divisions). The 4th DCR also had its losses replaced. Morale rose and was very high by the end of May 1940. Most French soldiers that joined the line only knew of German success by hearsay.
French officers had gained tactical experience against German mobile units and had more confidence in their weapons after seeing that their artillery and tanks performed better than German armour. The French tanks were now known to have better armour and armament. Between 23 and 28 May, the French Seventh and Tenth armies were reconstituted. Weygand decided to implement defence in depth and use delaying tactics to inflict maximum attrition on German units. Small towns and villages were fortified for all-round defence as tactical hedgehogs. Behind the front line, the new infantry, armoured and half-mechanised divisions formed up, ready to counter-attack and relieve the surrounded units, which were to hold out at all costs.
The 47 divisions of Army Group B attacked either side of Paris with the majority of the mobile units. After 48 hours, the German offensive had not broken through. On the Aisne, the XVI Panzerkorps employed over 1,000 AFVs in two Panzer divisions and a motorised division against the French. German offensive tactics were crude and Hoepner soon lost 80 out of 500 AFVs in the first attack. The 4th Army captured bridgeheads over the Somme but the Germans struggled to get over the Aisne. At Amiens, the Germans were repeatedly driven back by French artillery-fire and realised that French tactics were much improved.
The German Army relied on the to silence French artillery, to enable German infantry to inch forward. German progress was made only late on the third day of operations, finally forcing crossings. The French Air Force () attempted to bomb them but failed. German sources acknowledged the battle was "hard and costly in lives, the enemy putting up severe resistance, particularly in the woods and tree lines continuing the fight when our troops had pushed past the point of resistance". South of Abbeville, the French Tenth Army (General Robert Altmayer) was forced to retreat to Rouen and then south over the Seine river. The 7th Panzer Division forced the surrender of the British 51st (Highland) Division and the French IX Corps on 12 June at Saint-Valery-en-Caux and then crossed the Seine river to race through Normandy, capturing the port of Cherbourg on 18 June. German spearheads were overextended and vulnerable to counter-attack but the denied the French the ability to concentrate and the fear of air attack negated their mass and mobility.
On 10 June, the French government declared Paris an open city. The German 18th Army then deployed against Paris. The French resisted the approaches to the capital strongly but the line was broken in several places. Weygand asserted it would not take long for the French Army to disintegrate. On 13 June, Churchill attended a meeting of the Anglo-French Supreme War Council at Tours and suggested a Franco-British Union but this was refused. On 14 June, Paris fell. Parisians who stayed in the city found that in most cases the Germans were extremely well mannered.
The situation in the air had also worsened; air superiority had become air supremacy as the came to the verge of collapse. The French had only just begun to make the majority of bomber sorties; between 5 and 9 June (during Operation Paula), over 1,815 sorties, 518 by bombers, were flown. The number of sorties declined as losses were now becoming impossible to replace. After 9 June, French aerial resistance virtually ceased; some surviving aircraft withdrew to French North Africa. The now "ran riot". Its attacks were focused on the direct and indirect support of the German Army. The attacked lines of resistance, which then quickly collapsed under armoured attack. The RAF attempted to divert the attention of the with 660 sorties flown against targets over the Dunkirk area but suffered many losses. On 21 June, 37 Bristol Blenheims were destroyed.
Collapse of the Maginot line
Meanwhile, to the east, Army Group C was to help Army Group A encircle and capture the French forces on the Maginot line. The goal of the operation was to envelop the Metz region, with its fortifications, to prevent a French counteroffensive from the Alsace region against the German line on the Somme. Guderian's XIX Korps was to advance to the French border with Switzerland and trap the French forces in the Vosges Mountains while the XVI Korps attacked the Maginot Line from the west, into its vulnerable rear to take the cities of Verdun, Toul and Metz. The French, meanwhile, had moved the French 2nd Army Group from the Alsace and Lorraine to the 'Weygand line' on the Somme, leaving only small forces guarding the Maginot line. After Army Group B had begun its offensive against Paris and into Normandy, Army Group A began its advance into the rear of the Maginot line. On 15 June, Army Group C launched Operation Tiger, a frontal assault across the Rhine and into France.
German attempts to break open or into the Maginot line prior to Tiger had failed. One assault lasted for eight hours on the extreme north of the line, costing the Germans 46 dead and 251 wounded. In this attack, just two French were killed (one at Ferme-Chappy and one at Fermont fortress). On 15 June, the last well-equipped French forces, including the French Fourth Army, were preparing to leave as the Germans struck. The French now holding the line were skeletal. The Germans greatly outnumbered the French. They could call upon the I Armeekorps of seven divisions and 1,000 artillery pieces, although most were First World War vintage and could not penetrate the thick armour of the fortresses. Only guns could do the job and 16 were allocated to the operation. To bolster this, and eight railway batteries were also employed. The Luftwaffe deployed the Fliegerkorps V to give air support.
The battle was difficult and slow progress was made against strong French resistance. However, each fortress was overcome one by one. One fortress (Schoenenbourg) fired 15,802 rounds at attacking German infantry. It was the most heavily shelled of all the French positions. Nevertheless, its armour protected it from fatal damage. The same day Tiger was launched, Operation Kleiner Bär began. Five assault divisions of the VII Armeekorps crossed the Rhine into the Colmar area with a view to advancing to the Vosges Mountains. They had 400 artillery pieces bolstered by heavy artillery and mortars. They drove the French 104th Division and 105th Division back into the Vosges Mountains on 17 June. On the same day, Guderian's XIX Korps reached the Swiss border the Maginot defences were cut off from the rest of France. Most units surrendered on 25 June and the Germans claimed to have taken 500,000 prisoners. Some main fortresses continued the fight, despite appeals for surrender. The last only capitulated on 10 July, after a request from Georges and only then under protest. Of the 58 main fortifications on the Maginot Line, ten were captured by the Wehrmacht in battle.
Second BEF evacuation
The evacuation of the second BEF took place during Operation Aerial between 15 and 25 June. The , with complete domination of the French skies, was determined to prevent more Allied evacuations after the Dunkirk . 1 was assigned to the Normandy and Brittany sectors. On 9 and 10 June, the port of Cherbourg was subject to of German bombs, while Le Havre received 10 bombing attacks that sank 2,949 GRT of Allied shipping. On 17 June, Junkers Ju 88s—mainly from 30—sank a "10,000 tonne ship", the 16,243 GRT liner off St Nazaire, killing about 4,000 Allied troops and civilians. This was nearly double the British killed in the battle of France, yet the failed to prevent the evacuation of 190,000–200,000 Allied personnel.
Battle of the Alps
Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June but it was not prepared for war and made little impact during the last two weeks of fighting in the Italian invasion of France. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was aware of this and sought to profit from the German success. Mussolini felt the conflict would soon end and he reportedly said to the Army's Chief-of-Staff, Marshal Pietro Badoglio, "I only need a few thousand dead so that I can sit at the peace conference as a man who has fought". In a two-week battle, the Army of the Alps (General René Olry) mostly repelled the numerically superior Italian Army. When the armistice took effect on 25 June, only the town of Menton and a few alpine passes had been gained by Mussolini's army.
Armistice
Discouraged by his cabinet's hostile reaction to a British proposal for a Franco-British union to avoid defeat and believing that his ministers no longer supported him, Reynaud resigned on 16 June. He was succeeded by Pétain, who delivered a radio address to the French people announcing his intention to ask for an armistice with Germany. When Hitler received word from the French government that they wished to negotiate an armistice, he selected the Forest of Compiègne as the site for the negotiations. Compiègne had been the site of the 1918 Armistice, which ended the First World War with a humiliating defeat for Germany; Hitler viewed the choice of location as a supreme moment of revenge for Germany over France.
On 21 June 1940, Hitler visited the site to start the negotiations, which took place in the same railway carriage in which the 1918 Armistice was signed. It had just been removed from a museum building and placed on the spot where it was located in 1918. Hitler sat in the same chair in which Marshal Ferdinand Foch had sat when he faced the defeated German representatives. After listening to the reading of the preamble, Hitler left the carriage in a calculated gesture of disdain for the French delegates and negotiations were turned over to Wilhelm Keitel, the Chief of Staff of OKW. The armistice was signed on the next day at 18:36 (French time), by General Keitel for Germany and Huntziger for France. The armistice and cease-fire went into effect two days and six hours later, at 00:35 on 25 June, once the Franco-Italian Armistice had also been signed, at 18:35 on 24 June, near Rome.
Aftermath
Analysis
The title of Ernest May's book Strange Victory: Hitler's Conquest of France (2000) nods to an earlier analysis, Strange Defeat (1946) by the historian Marc Bloch (1886 – 1944), a participant in the battle. May writes that Hitler had better insight into the French and British governments than vice versa and knew that they would not go to war over Austria and Czechoslovakia, because he concentrated on politics rather than the state and national interest. From 1937 to 1940, Hitler stated his views on events, their importance and his intentions, then defended them against contrary opinion from the likes of former Chief of the General Staff Ludwig Beck and Ernst von Weizsäcker. Hitler sometimes concealed aspects of his thinking but he was unusually frank about priority and his assumptions. May referred to John Wheeler-Bennett (1964),
May asserted that in Paris, London and other capitals, there was an inability to believe that someone might want another world war. He wrote that, given public reluctance to contemplate another war and a need to reach consensus about Germany, the rulers of France and Britain were reticent (to resist German aggression), which limited dissent at the cost of enabling assumptions that suited their convenience. In France, Édouard Daladier withheld information until the last moment and in September 1938 presented the Munich Agreement to the French cabinet as a fait accompli, thus avoiding discussions over whether Britain would follow France into war or if the military balance was really in Germany's favour or how significant it was. The decision for war in September 1939 and the plan devised in the winter of 1939–1940 by Daladier for war with the USSR followed the same pattern.
Hitler miscalculated Franco-British reactions to the invasion of Poland in September 1939, because he had not realised that a shift in public opinion had occurred in mid-1939. May wrote that the French and British could have defeated Germany in 1938 with Czechoslovakia as an ally and also in late 1939, when German forces in the West were incapable of preventing a French occupation of the Ruhr, which would have forced a capitulation or a futile German resistance in a war of attrition. France did not invade Germany in 1939 because it wanted British lives to be at risk too and because of hopes that a blockade might force a German surrender without a bloodbath. The French and British also believed that they were militarily superior, which guaranteed victory. The run of victories enjoyed by Hitler from 1938 to 1940 could only be understood in the context of defeat being inconceivable to French and British leaders.
May wrote that when Hitler demanded a plan to invade France in September 1939, the German officer corps thought that it was foolhardy and discussed a coup d'état, only backing down when doubtful of the loyalty of the soldiers to them. With the deadline for the attack on France being postponed so often, OKH had time to revise (Case Yellow) for an invasion over the Belgian Plain several times. In January 1940, Hitler came close to ordering the invasion but was prevented by bad weather. Until the Mechelen incident in January forced a fundamental revision of Fall Gelb, the main effort () of the German army in Belgium would have been confronted by first-rate French and British forces, equipped with more and better tanks and with a great advantage in artillery. After the Mechelen Incident, OKH devised an alternative and hugely risky plan to make the invasion of Belgium a decoy, switch the main effort to the Ardennes, cross the Meuse and reach the Channel coast. May wrote that although the alternative plan was called the Manstein Plan, Guderian, Manstein, Rundstedt, Halder and Hitler had been equally important in its creation.
War games held by (Major-General) Kurt von Tippelskirch, the chief of army intelligence and Oberst Ulrich Liss of (FHW, Foreign Armies West), tested the concept of an offensive through the Ardennes. Liss thought that swift reactions could not be expected from the "systematic French or the ponderous English" and used French and British methods, which made no provision for surprise and reacted slowly when one was sprung. The results of the war games persuaded Halder that the Ardennes scheme could work, even though he and many other commanders still expected it to fail. May wrote that without the reassurance of intelligence analysis and the results of the war games, the possibility of Germany adopting the ultimate version of would have been remote. The French Dyle-Breda variant of the Allied deployment plan was based on an accurate prediction of German intentions, until the delays caused by the winter weather and shock of the Mechelen Incident, led to the radical revision of . The French sought to assure the British that they would act to prevent the using bases in the Netherlands and the Meuse valley and to encourage the Belgian and Dutch governments. The politico-strategic aspects of the plan ossified French thinking, the Phoney War led to demands for Allied offensives in Scandinavia or the Balkans and the plan to start a war with the USSR. French generals thought that changes to the Dyle-Breda variant might lead to forces being taken from the Western Front.
French and British intelligence sources were better than the German equivalents, which suffered from too many competing agencies but Allied intelligence analysis was not as well integrated into planning or decision-making. Information was delivered to operations officers but there was no mechanism like the German system of allowing intelligence officers to comment on planning assumptions about opponents and allies. The insularity of the French and British intelligence agencies meant that had they been asked if Germany would continue with a plan to attack across the Belgian plain after the Mechelen Incident, they would not have been able to point out how risky the Dyle-Breda variant was. May wrote that the wartime performance of the Allied intelligence services was abysmal. Daily and weekly evaluations had no analysis of fanciful predictions about German intentions. A May 1940 report from Switzerland that the Germans would attack through the Ardennes was marked as a German spoof. More items were obtained about invasions of Switzerland or the Balkans, while German behaviour consistent with an Ardennes attack, such as the dumping of supplies and communications equipment on the Luxembourg border or the concentration of Luftwaffe air reconnaissance around Sedan and Charleville-Mézières, was overlooked.
According to May, French and British rulers were at fault for tolerating poor performance by the intelligence agencies; that the Germans could achieve surprise in May 1940, showed that even with Hitler, the process of executive judgement in Germany had worked better than in France and Britain. May referred to Strange Defeat (Marc Bloch, 1940), that the German victory was a "triumph of intellect", which depended on Hitler's "methodical opportunism". May further asserted that, despite Allied mistakes, the Germans could not have succeeded but for outrageous good luck. German commanders wrote during the campaign and after, that often only a small difference had separated success from failure. Prioux thought that a counter-offensive could still have worked up to 19 May but by then, roads were crowded with Belgian refugees when they were needed for redeployment and the French transport units, which performed well in the advance into Belgium, failed for lack of plans to move them back. Gamelin had said "It is all a question of hours." but the decision to sack Gamelin and appoint Weygand, caused a two-day delay.
Occupation
France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north and west and a (free zone) in the south. Both zones were nominally under the sovereignty of the French rump state headed by Pétain that replaced the Third Republic; this rump state is often referred to as Vichy France. In response to the formation of a new political structure in France mandated by the Nazi government of Germany, De Gaulle, who had been made an Undersecretary of National Defence by Reynaud in London at the time of the armistice, delivered his Appeal of 18 June. With this speech, De Gaulle refused to recognise Pétain's Vichy government as legitimate and began the task of organising the Free French Forces.
The British doubted Admiral François Darlan's promise not to allow the French fleet at Toulon to fall into German hands by the wording of the armistice conditions. They feared the Germans would seize the French Navy's fleet, docked at ports in Vichy France and North Africa and use them in an invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion). Within a month, the Royal Navy attacked the French naval forces stationed in North Africa in the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir. The British Chiefs of Staff Committee had concluded in May 1940 that if France collapsed, "we do not think we could continue the war with any chance of success" without "full economic and financial support" from the United States. Churchill's desire for American aid led in September to the Destroyers for Bases agreement that began the wartime Anglo-American partnership.
The occupation of the various French zones continued until November 1942, when the Allies began Operation Torch, the invasion of Western North Africa. To safeguard southern France, the Germans enacted Case Anton and occupied Vichy France. In June 1944, the Western Allies launched Operation Overlord, followed by the Operation Dragoon on the French Mediterranean coast on 15 August. This threatened to cut off German troops in western and central France and most began to retire toward Germany. (The fortified French Atlantic U-boat bases remained as pockets until the German capitulation.) On 24 August 1944, Paris was liberated and by September 1944 most of the country was in Allied hands.
The Free French provisional government declared the re-establishment of a provisional French Republic to ensure continuity with the defunct Third Republic. It set about raising new troops to participate in the advance to the Rhine and the Western Allied invasion of Germany by using the French Forces of the Interior as military cadres and manpower pools of experienced fighters to allow a very large and rapid expansion of the French Liberation Army (Armée française de la Libération). It was well equipped and well supplied despite the economic disruption brought by the occupation thanks to Lend-Lease and grew from 500,000 men in the summer of 1944 to over 1,300,000 by V-E day, making it the fourth largest Allied army in Europe.
The 2e Division Blindée (2nd Armoured Division), part of the Free French forces that had participated in the Normandy Campaign and had liberated Paris, went on to liberate Strasbourg on 23 November 1944, fulfilling the Oath of Kufra made by General Leclerc almost four years earlier. The unit under his command, barely above company size when it had captured the Italian fort, had grown into an armoured division. The I Corps was the spearhead of the Free French First Army that had landed in Provence as a part of Operation Dragoon. Its leading unit, the 1re Division Blindée, was the first Western Allied unit to reach the Rhône (25 August), the Rhine (19 November) and the Danube (21 April 1945). On 22 April, it captured the Sigmaringen enclave in Baden-Württemberg, where the last Vichy regime exiles were hosted by the Germans in one of the ancestral castles of the Hohenzollern dynasty.
By the end of the war, some 580,000 French citizens had died (40,000 of these were killed by the western Allied forces during the bombardments of the first 48 hours of Operation Overlord). Military deaths were 55,000–60,000 in 1939–40. Some 58,000 were killed in action from 1940 to 1945 fighting in the Free French forces. Some 40,000 malgré-nous ("against our will", citizens of the re-annexed Alsace-Lorraine province drafted into the Wehrmacht) became casualties. Civilian casualties amounted to around 150,000 (60,000 by aerial bombing, 60,000 in the resistance and 30,000 murdered by German occupation forces). Prisoners of war and deportee totals were around 1,900,000. Of these, around 240,000 died in captivity. An estimated 40,000 were prisoners of war, 100,000 racial deportees, 60,000 political prisoners and 40,000 died as slave labourers.
Casualties and losses
German casualties are hard to determine but commonly accepted figures are: 27,074 killed, 111,034 wounded and 18,384 missing. German dead may have been as high as 45,000 men, due to non-combat causes, died of wounds and missing who were later listed as dead. The battle cost the 28 per cent of its front line strength; some 1,236–1,428 aircraft were destroyed (1,129 to enemy action, 299 in accidents), 323–488 were damaged (225 to enemy action, 263 in accidents), making 36 per cent of the strength lost or damaged. casualties amounted to 6,653 men, including 4,417 aircrew; of these 1,129 were killed and 1,930 were reported missing or captured, many of whom were liberated from French prison camps upon the French capitulation. Italian casualties amounted to 631 or 642 men killed, 2,631 wounded and 616 reported missing. A further 2,151 men suffered from frostbite during the campaign. The official Italian numbers were compiled for a report on 18 July 1940, when many of the fallen still lay under snow and it is probable that most of the Italian missing were dead. Units operating in more difficult terrain had higher ratios of missing to killed but probably most of the missing had died.
According to the French Defence Historical Service, 85,310 French military personnel were killed (including 5,400 Maghrebis); 12,000 were reported missing, 120,000 were wounded and 1,540,000 prisoners (including 67,400 Maghrebis) were taken. Some recent French research indicates that the number of killed was between 55,000 and 85,000, a statement of the French Defence Historical Service tending to the lower end. In August 1940, 1,540,000 prisoners were taken into Germany, where roughly 940,000 remained until 1945, when they were liberated by advancing Allied forces. At least 3,000 Senegalese Tirailleurs were murdered after being taken prisoner. While in captivity, 24,600 French prisoners died; 71,000 escaped; 220,000 were released by various agreements between the Vichy government and Germany; several hundred thousand were paroled because of disability and/or sickness. Air losses are estimated at 1,274 aircraft destroyed during the campaign. French tank losses amount to 1,749 tanks (43 per cent of tanks engaged), of which 1,669 were lost to gunfire, 45 to mines and 35 to aircraft. Tank losses are amplified by the large numbers that were abandoned or scuttled and then captured.
The BEF suffered or died of wounds, and missing or taken prisoner. About 64,000 vehicles were destroyed or abandoned and 2,472 guns were destroyed or abandoned. RAF losses from 10 May – 22 June, amounted to 931 aircraft and 1,526 casualties. The British also lost 243 ships to bombing in Dynamo, including eight destroyers and eight troopships. Belgian losses were 6,093 killed, 15,850 wounded and more than 500 missing. Those captured amounted to 200,000 men whom 2,000 died in captivity. The Belgians also lost 112 aircraft. The Dutch Armed forces lost 2,332 killed and 7,000 wounded. Polish losses were around 5,500 killed or wounded and 16,000 prisoners, nearly 13,000 troops of the 2nd Infantry Division were interned in Switzerland for the duration of the war.
Popular reaction in Germany
Hitler had expected a million Germans to die in conquering France; instead, his goal was accomplished in just six weeks with only 27,000 Germans killed, 18,400 missing and 111,000 wounded, little more than a third of the German casualties in the Battle of Verdun during World War I. The unexpectedly swift victory resulted in a wave of euphoria among the German population and a strong upsurge in war-fever. Hitler's popularity reached its peak with the celebration of the French capitulation on 6 July 1940.
On 19 July, during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony at the Kroll Opera House in Berlin, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank of field marshal.
Walther von Brauchitsch, Commander in Chief of the Army
Wilhelm Keitel, Chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW)
Gerd von Rundstedt, Commander in chief of Army Group A
Fedor von Bock, Commander in chief of Army Group B
Wilhelm von Leeb, Commander in chief of Army Group C
Günther von Kluge, Commander of the 4th Army
Wilhelm List, Commander of the 12th Army
Erwin von Witzleben, Commander of the 1st Army
Walther von Reichenau, Commander of the 6th Army
Albert Kesselring, Commander of Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2)
Erhard Milch, Inspector General of the Luftwaffe
Hugo Sperrle, Commander of the Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3)
This number of promotions to what had previously been the highest rank in the Wehrmacht (Hermann Göring, Commander in chief of the Luftwaffe and already a Field Marshal, was elevated to the new rank of Reichsmarschall) was unprecedented. In the First World War, Kaiser Wilhelm II had promoted only five generals to Field Marshal.
Witness accounts
From Lemberg to Bordeaux (Von Lemberg bis Bordeaux), written by Leo Leixner, a journalist and war correspondent, is a witness account of the battles that led to the fall of Poland and France. In August 1939, Leixner joined the Wehrmacht as a war reporter, was promoted to sergeant and in 1941 published his recollections. The book was originally issued by Franz Eher Nachfolger, the central publishing house of the Nazi Party.
Tanks Break Through! (Panzerjäger Brechen Durch!), written by Alfred-Ingemar Berndt, a journalist and close associate of propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, is a witness account of the battles that led to the fall of France. When the 1940 attack was in the offing, Berndt joined the Wehrmacht, was sergeant in an anti-tank division and afterward published his recollections. The book was originally issued by Franz Eher Nachfolger, the central publishing house of the Nazi Party, in 1940.
Escape via Berlin (De Gernika a Nueva York), written by José Antonio Aguirre, president of the Basque Country, describes his passage through occupied France and Belgium on his way to exile. Aguirre supported the loyalist side during the Spanish Civil war and was forced to exile in France, where the German invasion took him by surprise. He joined the wave of refugees trying to flee France and finally managed to escape to the United States through a long journey involving disguise.
See also
British Expeditionary Force order of battle (1940)
Polish Army in France (1939–40)
Historiography of the Battle of France
Military history of France during World War II
List of French World War II military equipment
List of British military equipment of World War II
List of Belgian military equipment of World War II
List of Dutch military equipment of World War II
List of German military equipment of World War II
Timeline of the Battle of France
Western Front (World War II)
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
online
Journals
Websites
Further reading
Books
Theses
External links
In
The Battle of France 1940 (Official Nazi propaganda account of the Battle of France)
The invasion of Holland in May 1940
Conflicts in 1940
1940 in France
France
Battles and operations of World War II involving Poland
Battles involving the French Foreign Legion
Battles of World War II involving Canada
Military history of Canada during World War II
Battles of World War II involving France
Battles of World War II involving Italy
France
Western European theatre of World War II
Invasions by Germany
Invasions of France
May 1940 events
June 1940 events | [
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228089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell%20Johnson | Wendell Johnson | Wendell Johnson (April 16, 1906 – August 29, 1965) was an American psychologist, author and was a proponent of general semantics (or GS). He was born in Roxbury, Kansas and died in Iowa City, Iowa where most of his life's work was based. The Wendell Johnson Speech and Hearing Center, which houses the University of Iowa's speech pathology and audiology programs, is named after him. Aside from his contributions to speech–language pathology, he is known for the experiment he created with Mary Tudor nicknamed "The Monster Study" for the damage it did to its human subjects.
Early life
Johnson began to stutter when he was around the age of five or six. When he turned twenty he began his studies at the University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa during 1926 to study English. He switched to psychology for his Master's degree.
The Monster Study
Wendell Johnson developed a study with the hopes of gathering a better understanding into the depths of stuttering. During the fall of 1938, Wendell Johnson recruited Mary Tudor, one of his clinical psychology graduate students His goal was to see if she would be able to cause children who spoke perfectly well to adopt a speech defect. She drove to the Iowa Soldiers and Sailors Orphans' home where there were more than 600 orphans as well as children whose parents were unable to care for them. Of the 600 orphans, Tudor selected twenty-two children who would go on to become her subjects in what is now known as the monster study.
The twenty-two children were separated into four groups: Group IA, Group IB, Group IIA, and Group IIB. Group IA consisted of five children who did in fact stutter and were given the label “stutterers” although the goal for this group of children was to remove the label placed on them. They were told they spoke normally as opposed to being ostracized into a group of individuals who spoke otherwise. Group IB consisted of five children as well who were also labelled as “stutterers” however, unlike with Group IA these children were not told they spoke perfectly well, instead, these children were treated as such, stutterers. Group IIA consisted of six children who spoke outside the bounds of stuttering although they were labelled as “stutterers”. Unlike with the children in Group IA who did in fact stutter but were told they spoke perfectly well, the children in group IIA spoke perfectly well and were told they had an issue with stuttering. Lastly was Group IIB which consisted of six children as well who did not stutter and had no negative speech connotations placed on them. Each group of children were treated according to their labels
This study lasted the full semester and Mary Tudor had speech sessions with each of the children in order to record their progress to add to her data. After the semester long study the results were observed. As expected, there were no major changes with the children in groups IA, IB, and IIB. However the children in group IIA had a “decrease in verbal output” as well as “they were reluctant to speak and spoke only when they were urged to” (Leonard 2019, p. 72).
One of the many issues that arose from this study was the use of children without the use of informed consent. The major issue that arose from Johnson’s experiment was the induction of stuttering in children who had not previously had issues with speech. This was in some ways an accomplishment in terms of what it was Johnson was trying to prove although it came at the expense of these children. Leonard discusses the legalities circulating around the individuals who were a part of group IIA. The six members sued the State of Iowa in 2003 and ultimately ended up being awarded $900,000 in 2007 by Iowa state in compensation.
Wendell Johnson’s son, Nicholas Johnson, defended his father’s study by arguing that it would pass institutional review board (IRB) approval in today’s society:
In 1965, the year of Wendell Johnson’s death, he was in the process of writing the Encyclopædia Britannica entry on “Speech Disorders”, defending both his work and his study when he suffered a heart attack. Although not fully completed, his 4,000 word essay was still published.
Stuttering contributions
Considered one of the earliest and most influential speech pathologists in the field, Johnson spent most of his life trying to find the cause and cure for stuttering – through teaching, research, scholarly and other writing, lecturing, supervision of graduate students, and persuading K-12 schools, the Veterans Administration and other institutions of the need for speech pathologists. He played a major role in the creation of the American Speech and Hearing Association. In 1930 Johnson published the book Because I Stutter, based on his master's thesis, which describes his struggles with stuttering from an autobiographical perspective.
The stutterer, if I may speak for him as a type, does not want pity any more than he wants contempt, but he does want the understanding which the normal respect of one human being for another makes possible. He is a human being, trying to make a stutterer's adaptation to a world of glib speakers.
Johnson's book People in Quandaries: The Semantics of Personal Adjustment (1946; still in print from the Institute of General Semantics) is an introduction to general semantics applied to psychotherapy. In 1956 his Your Most Enchanted Listener was published; in 1972, his Living With Change: The Semantics of Coping, a collection of selected portions of transcriptions of hundreds of his talks, organized by Dorothy Moeller, provided further general semantic insights. He also published many articles in his lifetime, in journals, including ETC: A Review of General Semantics. [1] Neil Postman acknowledges the influence of People in Quandaries in his own general semantics book Crazy Talk, Stupid Talk (1976, Delacorte, New York):
I am tempted to say that there are two kinds of people in the world – those who will learn something from this book (People in Quandaries) and those who will not. The best blessing I can give you is to wish that as you go through life you will be surrounded by the former and neglected by the latter.
Patricia Zebrowski, University of Iowa assistant professor of speech pathology and audiology, notes, "The body of data that resulted from Johnson's work on children who stutter and their parents is still the largest collection of scientific information on the subject of stuttering onset. Although new work has determined that children who stutter are doing something different in their speech production than non-stutterers, Johnson was the first to talk about the importance of a stutterer's thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. We still don't know what causes stuttering, but the 'Iowa' way of approaching study and treatment is still heavily influenced by Johnson, but with an added emphasis on speech production."
Attacks on the 1930s master's thesis, and the journalistic labeling as a "Monster Study", due to the experimentation on orphaned children and the massive, lifelong damage it did to them, contributed to controversy. On the one hand, speech research scientists Nicoline Grinager Ambrose and Ehud Yairi are critical of the conclusions that Mary Tudor drew from her data, but believe that no harm was done to the subjects and that there was no intention to do harm. Others felt the study was unethical by today's standards but fell within the bounds of those standards in 1939.
On the other hand, Richard Schwartz concludes in Chapter 6 of the book that the study "was unfortunate in Tudor and Johnson's lack of regard for the potential harm to the children who participated and in their selection of institutionalized children simply because they were easily available. The deception and the apparent lack of debriefing were also not justifiable." Other authors concur claiming the orphan experiment was not within the ethical boundaries of acceptable research. The University of Iowa paid a settlement to some of the surviving subjects of over $900,000 in 2007.
Personal life
Johnson had a son, Nicholas Johnson (September 23, 1934) who was the former American Federal Communications Commission (FCC) commissioner from the years 1966 to 1973.
See also
Human experimentation in the United States
References
External links
Wendell A. L. Johnson (1906-1965) Memorial Home Page
1906 births
1965 deaths
American psychologists
General semantics
Human subject research in the United States
People from McPherson County, Kansas
University of Iowa faculty
Speech and language pathologists
Communication scholars
20th-century psychologists
Stuttering | [
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228091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freda%20Payne | Freda Payne | Freda Charcilia Payne (born September 19, 1942) is an American singer and actress. Payne is best known for her career in music during the mid–1960s through the mid–1980s. Her most notable record is her 1970 hit single, "Band of Gold". Payne was also an actress in musicals and film, as well as the host of a TV talk show. Payne is the older sister of Scherrie Payne, a former singer with the American vocal group The Supremes.
Biography
Early life and career
Payne was born in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up listening to jazz singers, such as Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday. As a teenager, she attended the Detroit Institute of Musical Arts; she soon began singing radio commercial jingles, and took part in (and won many) local TV and radio talent shows. In 1963, she moved to New York City and worked with many entertainers, including Quincy Jones, Pearl Bailey, and Bill Cosby. The next year, her debut album, a jazz recording with arranger Manny Albam entitled After the Lights Go Down Low and Much More!!! was released on the Impulse! label. (This album was re-issued on CD in Japan in early 2002, and again in the United States in 2005.) In 1965 she toured Europe for the first time recording an album in Sweden with Don Gardner and Bengt-Arne Wallin. In 1966, she released her second American album, again in the jazz idiom, How Do You Say I Don't Love You Anymore, for MGM Records. She also made occasional guest appearances on television shows including The Merv Griffin Show and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.
She added theatrical credits to her repertoire: she understudied Leslie Uggams for the Broadway show Hallelujah Baby in 1967, and appeared with the Equity Theatre in a production of Lost in the Stars. In 1969, her old friends back home in Detroit, Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Edward Holland, Jr., persuaded her to sign with their newly formed record label Invictus. During that same year, her first Invictus single, "Unhooked Generation" (a minor R&B hit), was released. Shortly thereafter, Eddie Holland offered her a song entitled "Band of Gold", which he along with Brian Holland and Lamont Dozier co-wrote (under the pen name Edythe Wayne) with Ronald Dunbar. In early 1970, the song became an instant pop smash reaching #3 in the US and #1 in the UK for six consecutive weeks; it also gave Payne her first gold record. Global sales were estimated at two million. An album of the same name proved to be fairly successful as well. Other Invictus singles included "Deeper and Deeper", which reached # US24 and UK #33 at the end of 1970;"You Brought the Joy", and the Vietnam War protest song "Bring the Boys Home" (U.S. Billboard Hot 100 #12, 1971), her second gold record. Her other Invictus albums were Contact (1971), The Best of Freda Payne (1972, a compilation which included four new, unissued songs), and her last Invictus album Reaching Out (1973).
In 1973, she left Invictus and recorded albums for ABC/Dunhill and Capitol, but she never found the commercial success that she had enjoyed with Invictus. She recorded a duet "I Wanna See You Soon" with Capitol stablemates Tavares. She released three disco albums for Capitol from 1977 to 1979, Stares And Whispers, Supernatural High and Hot. The first one features the disco hit "Love Magnet" produced by Frank Wilson (1977).
In 1981, she briefly hosted her own talk show Today's Black Woman, and also found work acting in different movies, Broadway and other theatre productions throughout the 1980s. Although she was concentrating more on acting by that time, she never gave up music; in 1982, she recorded a single entitled "In Motion" for the Sutra label in New York, and in 1986, she recorded a remake of her old hit "Band of Gold" with Belinda Carlisle. In 1990, she recorded three songs for Ian Levine's UK Motorcity label: another remake of "Band of Gold," "Memories and Souvenirs," and "Only Minutes Away". In the mid-1990s, she released two albums for Dove Music: An Evening with Freda Payne: Live in Concert which featured her sister Scherrie Payne on background vocals, and her first (and only) Christmas album Christmas With Freda and Friends, which featured a duet between Freda and Scherrie (both 1996). She also continued her acting career appearing in the films, Private Obsession (1995), Ragdoll (1999), Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000), and Fire & Ice (made-for-TV, 2001).
Later career
In early 2001, Payne released a new album entitled Come See About Me for the Volt Records label (the title track is a remake of The Supremes' hit). In early 2003, she performed in a show called Love & Payne, with Darlene Love at Feinstein's at the Regency in New York, and at the Cinegrill in the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in Los Angeles, getting excellent reviews. During the early 2000s, the following compilation albums of her music were released: Lost in Love (which includes nine of her post-Invictus recordings), Band of Gold: The Best of Freda Payne (both 2000), Unhooked Generation: The Complete Invictus Recordings (2001), and The Best of Freda Payne: Ten Best Series (2002). In late 2002, Payne appeared with many R&B stars on the "Rhythm, Love, and Soul" edition of the PBS series American Soundtrack. Her performance of "Band of Gold" was included on the accompanying live album that was released in 2004. On April 22, 2009 Payne appeared on American Idol and sang "Band of Gold". In February 2010, Payne joined Kanye West, Jordin Sparks, Jennifer Hudson, Barbra Streisand and many more on We Are the World for Haiti Relief. In 2011 Payne recorded a duet, "Saving A Life", with British pop star Sir Cliff Richard for inclusion on his Soulicious album. She also joined Richard on his "Soulicious" tour of the UK in October of the same year. She sang the new duet with Richard along with her own hit "Band Of Gold".
In January 2018, she performed "A Tribute to Ella Fitzgerald," in the Sitnik Theatre of the Lackland Performing Arts Center, in Hackettstown, NJ.
Personal life and honors
Payne was married to American singer Gregory Abbott from 1976 until 1979. Payne and Abbott had a son, Gregory Abbott, Jr., who was born on September 19, 1977, Payne's 35th birthday. Payne later had a relationship with American musician Edmund Sylvers (lead singer of The Sylvers) from 1979 until January 1983. Sylvers wrote and produced her 1982 single "In Motion". In 1974, she made the cover of Jet magazine after she was made a Dame of Malta by the Knights of Malta. In 2017, Payne was inducted into the 2017 class of the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame, in her hometown of Detroit.
Discography
Singles
Studio albums
Live albums
1965: Freda Payne in Stockholm' with Don Gardner Quintet with Dee Dee Ford and Jimmy Ricks (Swedish release 1965, USA release 1971)
1996: An Evening with Freda Payne: Live in Concert
1999: Live in Concert
Compilations albums
Filmography
Concerts
2006: Flashbacks: Soul Sensation – Compilation
2009: Freda Payne: High Standards with Stanley Turrentine and Jerome Richardson
2009: Live in Concert with The Stylistics
As an actress
1973: Book of Numbers
1997: Sprung
1999: Ragdoll
2000: Nutty Professor II: The Klumps
2001: Deadly Rhapsody
2007: Cordially Invited
2014: Ella: First Lady of Song
2014: The Divorce
2017: Kinky
See also
List of soul musicians
List of disco artists (F–K)
List of people from Detroit
List of acts who appeared on American Bandstand
List of people who appeared on Soul Train
List of performers on Top of the Pops
Notes
References
External links
Freda Payne Artist Page
1942 births
Living people
African-American women singers
American women pop singers
American soul singers
Dames of Malta
Actresses from Detroit
Northern soul musicians
Impulse! Records artists
MGM Records artists
Dunhill Records artists
Capitol Records artists
American film actresses
African-American television talk show hosts
American television talk show hosts
American women television personalities
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
African-American actresses
Singers from Detroit
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women singers
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers | [
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228100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20%28sports%29 | Defense (sports) | In many team sports, defense (American spelling) or defence (Commonwealth spelling) is the action of preventing an opponent from scoring. The term may also refer to the tactics involved in defense, or a sub-team whose primary responsibility is defense. Similarly, a defense player or defender is a player who is generally charged with preventing the other team's forwards from being able to bear down directly on their own team's goalkeeper or goaltender. Such positions exist in association football, ice hockey, water polo and many other sports.
By sport
Field sports
American football
Association football
Australian rules football
Bat-and-ball sports
In bat-and-ball sports, the defending team is in the field, while the offensive team sends only a few players into the field to try to score at a time. These sports generally involve a member of the defense throwing the ball to a member of the offensive team, who then tries to hit it and run to various safe areas of the field to score points. Failing to hit the ball properly, or failing to reach the safe areas before the ball is used against the offensive player, can result in that player being left unable to score.
Baseball
Baseball is unlike most other competitive sports in that the defense is given control of the ball. Additionally, the number of players on the field at any given time is lopsided in favor of the defense which always has nine players on the field; the offense has between one and four.
Historically, each player on the team had a role both on offense and defense. Most amateur and professional leagues have adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule introduced by the American League of Major League Baseball. In leagues that use the DH, pitchers usually do not bat, and the DH bats in lieu of the pitcher and does not play a defensive position. The main leagues that have not adopted the DH rule are the National League of MLB and the Central League of Nippon Professional Baseball.
Each play starts with the ball in the hands of the pitcher, whose job as a member of the defense is to use his skills to somehow prevent the batter from reaching base. The pitcher throws the ball toward the catcher, who must catch the pitched ball if it is not hit by the batter. In each half-inning, the defense attempts to force three outs.
There are three basic ways in which an out can occur: 1.) If three strikes are recorded against the batter, 2.) if a ball hit by a batter is caught by a defensive player before it hits the ground, or 3.) if a runner who is between bases or has not reached a base to which he is forced is put out by a defensive player in possession of the ball.
If the batter manages to hit the ball, all nine defensive players become active and use the ball in attempting to prevent the batter from reaching base and runners already on base from advancing or scoring. while the offense is busy attempting to move runners around the baseball diamond toward home plate, the defense uses the ball in various ways to achieve outs.
If the defense forces three outs, their team is moved into the offensive role. The exception is if it is the ninth or an extra inning and they are ahead, in which case, the game ends and the defensive team wins.
Cricket
In cricket, the fielding team is the defense, while the batting team is the offense; the batting team can only put two players on the field at a time. By getting the batting team's batsmen out before they can hit the ball to the boundary or run between the two batsmen's grounds, the fielding team can prevent the batting team from scoring points. Players can be gotten out if they hit the ball in the air and it is caught by a defensive player before touching the ground, or if the ball hits a batsman's wicket, either when delivered by the bowler or when the batsman is not in his ground. By getting all but one of the batting team's players out, the fielding team ends their opponent's scoring turn, and may begin its own scoring turn next (though it can choose not to, in the case of the follow-on).
Water sports
Beach volleyball
Water polo
In water polo, if an offensive player, such as the center forward, has the ball in front of the goal, and the defender cannot steal the ball, he may intentionally commit a foul. The forward then has a free throw but must pass the ball off to another offensive player, rather than making a shot at the goal. Defensive perimeter players may also intentionally cause a foul and then move toward the goal, away from their attacker, who must take a free throw. This technique, called 'sloughing', allows the defense an opportunity to double-team the center forward and possibly steal the inbound pass. The water polo referee may refrain from declaring a foul caused by a defensive player, if in his judgment this would give the advantage to the defending team. This is known as the Advantage Rule.
Floor and court sports
Futsal
Winter sports
Ice skating team sports
There are four officially established ice skating team sports worldwide, excluding their variants. This group includes: bandy, ice hockey, ringette, and rinkball.
Ice hockey
In ice hockey, there are normally two defencemen on the ice. One is usually a more offensive player better known for their ability to glean assists or goals rather than for their strong defensive play. Such players are known as offensive defencemen. The other is usually in a more defensive role and rarely show-up on the score sheet but are important for their defensive prowess; these players are known as stay-at-home defence.
Bandy
In bandy, the number of defenders on the ice at a given time depends on the format being played, either "big ice" bandy which has a type of field format, or rink bandy.
Ringette
In ringette, there are two designated defenders on the ice in any normal game situation (the team is not serving any penalties). However, due to ringette's first-three-in rule these situations can vary; those playing in the defensive zone are not always designated defenders.
Rinkball
In rinkball, the number of defenders on the ice at a given time depends on the format being played.
Skateless winter team sports
There are three known organized skateless winter team sports worldwide, that are not organized forms of snowball fighting. This group includes: broomball, Spongee ( "sponge hockey"), and Moscow broomball.
Broomball
In broomball, the number of defenders on the ice at a given time depends on the format being played.
Spongee
In spongee ( "sponge hockey"), the number of defenders on the ice at a given time depends on the format being played.
Moscow broomball
In Moscow broomball, the number of defenders on the ice at a given time depends on the format being played.
See also
Offense (sports)
Goalkeeper
Goaltender
Man-to-man defense
Notes
Terminology used in multiple sports | [
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228102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20%28legal%29 | Defense (legal) | In a civil proceeding or criminal prosecution under the common law or under statute, a defendant may raise a defense (or defence) in an attempt to avoid civil liability or criminal conviction. A defense is put forward by a party to defeat a suit or action brought against the party, and may be based on legal grounds or on factual claims.
Besides contesting the accuracy of an allegation made against the defendant in the proceeding, the defendant may also make allegations against the prosecutor or plaintiff or raise a defense, arguing that, even if the allegations against the defendant are true, the defendant is nevertheless not liable. Acceptance of a defense by the court completely exonerates the defendant and not merely mitigates the liability.
The defense phase of a trial occurs after the prosecution phase, that is, after the prosecution "rests". Other parts of the defense include the opening and closing arguments and the cross-examination during the prosecution phase.
Since a defense is raised by the defendant in a direct attempt to avoid what would otherwise result in liability, the defendant typically holds the burden of proof. For example, a defendant who is charged with assault may claim provocation, but they would need to prove that the plaintiff had provoked the defendant.
Common law defenses
In common law, a defendant may raise any of the numerous defenses to limit or avoid liability. These include:
Lack of personal or subject matter jurisdiction of the court, such as diplomatic immunity. (In law, this is not a defense as such but an argument that the case should not be heard at all.)
Failure to state a cause of action or other insufficiencies of pleading.
Any of the affirmative defenses.
Defenses conferred by statute – such as a statute of limitations or the statute of frauds.
Ex turpi causa non oritur actio – the action against the defendant arises from an illegality.
Volenti non fit injuria – consent by the victim or plaintiff.
In pari delicto – both sides equally at fault.
Act of God is an unforseable natural phenomenon which involves no human agency due directly to natural causes which cannot be foreseen.
Necessity harm done to prevent a greater evil is not actionable even though the harm was caused intentionally.
Mistake whether of fact or of law is no defence to action.
The law permits use of reasonable force to protect one's person or property. If force is used for self-defence they will not be liable for harm.
Unclean hands.
In addition to defenses against prosecution and liability, a defendant may also raise a defense of justification – such as self-defense and defense of others or defense of property.
In English law, one could raise the argument of a contramandatum, which was an argument that the plaintiff had no cause for complaint.
Strategies
The defense in a homicide case may attempt to present evidence of the victim's character, to try to prove that the victim had a history of violence or of making threats of violence that suggest a violent character. The goal of presenting character evidence about the victim may be to make more plausible a claim of self-defense, or in the hope of accomplishing jury nullification in which a jury acquits a guilty defendant despite its belief that the defendant committed a criminal act.
Costs
Litigation is expensive and often may last for months or years. Parties can finance their litigation and pay for their attorneys' fees or other legal costs in a number of ways. A defendant can pay with their own money, through legal defense funds, or legal financing companies. For example, in the United Kingdom, a defendant's legal fees may be covered by legal aid.
See also
Absolute defense
Lawsuit
Legal defense fund
Legal financing
Self-defense
Atturnato faciendo vel recipiendo
References
External links
Criminal procedure
Civil procedure
Evidence law
Testimony | [
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228107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%20%28mechanics%29 | Stress (mechanics) | In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that neighbouring particles of a continuous material exert on each other, while strain is the measure of the deformation of the material. For example, when a solid vertical bar is supporting an overhead weight, each particle in the bar pushes on the particles immediately below it. When a liquid is in a closed container under pressure, each particle gets pushed against by all the surrounding particles. The container walls and the pressure-inducing surface (such as a piston) push against them in (Newtonian) reaction. These macroscopic forces are actually the net result of a very large number of intermolecular forces and collisions between the particles in those molecules. Stress is frequently represented by a lowercase Greek letter sigma (σ).
Strain inside a material may arise by various mechanisms, such as stress as applied by external forces to the bulk material (like gravity) or to its surface (like contact forces, external pressure, or friction). Any strain (deformation) of a solid material generates an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a spring, that tends to restore the material to its original non-deformed state. In liquids and gases, only deformations that change the volume generate persistent elastic stress. However, if the deformation changes gradually with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous stresses are usually combined under the name mechanical stress.
Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible or non-existent (a common assumption when modeling the flow of water). Stress may exist in the absence of external forces; such built-in stress is important, for example, in prestressed concrete and tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material without the application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature or chemical composition, or by external electromagnetic fields (as in piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials).
The relation between mechanical stress, deformation, and the rate of change of deformation can be quite complicated, although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are sufficiently small. Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.
In some branches of engineering, the term stress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of "internal force". For example, in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a beam, rather than the force divided by the area of its cross-section.
History
Humans have known about stress inside materials since ancient times. Until the 17th century, this understanding was largely intuitive and empirical, though this did not prevent the development of relatively advanced technologies like the composite bow and glass blowing.
Over several millennia, architects and builders in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious devices such as the capitals, arches, cupolas, trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals.
Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo Galilei's rigorous experimental method, René Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium and calculus of infinitesimals. With those tools, Augustin-Louis Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress in a homogeneous medium. Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum).
The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton, who provided a differential formula for friction forces (shear stress) in parallel laminar flow.
Overview
Definition
Stress is defined as the force across a "small" boundary per unit area of that boundary, for all orientations of the boundary. Being derived from a fundamental physical quantity (force) and a purely geometrical quantity (area), stress is also a fundamental quantity, like velocity, torque or energy, that can be quantified and analyzed without explicit consideration of the nature of the material or of its physical causes.
Following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopic concept. Namely, the particles considered in its definition and analysis should be just small enough to be treated as homogeneous in composition and state, but still large enough to ignore quantum effects and the detailed motions of molecules. Thus, the force between two particles is actually the average of a very large number of atomic forces between their molecules; and physical quantities like mass, velocity, and forces that act through the bulk of three-dimensional bodies, like gravity, are assumed to be smoothly distributed over them. Depending on the context, one may also assume that the particles are large enough to allow the averaging out of other microscopic features, like the grains of a metal rod or the fibers of a piece of wood.
Quantitatively, the stress is expressed by the Cauchy traction vector T defined as the traction force F between adjacent parts of the material across an imaginary separating surface S, divided by the area of S. In a fluid at rest the force is perpendicular to the surface, and is the familiar pressure. In a solid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the force F may not be perpendicular to S; hence the stress across a surface must be regarded a vector quantity, not a scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude generally depend on the orientation of S. Thus the stress state of the material must be described by a tensor, called the (Cauchy) stress tensor; which is a linear function that relates the normal vector n of a surface S to the traction vector T across S. With respect to any chosen coordinate system, the Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as a symmetric matrix of 3×3 real numbers. Even within a homogeneous body, the stress tensor may vary from place to place, and may change over time; therefore, the stress within a material is, in general, a time-varying tensor field.
Normal and shear stress
In general, the stress T that a particle P applies on another particle Q across a surface S can have any direction relative to S. The vector T may be regarded as the sum of two components: the normal stress (compression or tension) perpendicular to the surface, and the shear stress that is parallel to the surface.
If the normal unit vector n of the surface (pointing from Q towards P) is assumed fixed, the normal component can be expressed by a single number, the dot product . This number will be positive if P is "pulling" on Q (tensile stress), and negative if P is "pushing" against Q (compressive stress) The shear component is then the vector .
Units
The dimension of stress is that of pressure, and therefore its coordinates are commonly measured in the same units as pressure: namely, pascals (Pa, that is, newtons per square metre) in the International System, or pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial system. Because mechanical stresses easily exceed a million Pascals, MPa, which stands for megapascal, is a common unit of stress.
Causes and effects
Stress in a material body may be due to multiple physical causes, including external influences and internal physical processes. Some of these agents (like gravity, changes in temperature and phase, and electromagnetic fields) act on the bulk of the material, varying continuously with position and time. Other agents (like external loads and friction, ambient pressure, and contact forces) may create stresses and forces that are concentrated on certain surfaces, lines, or points; and possibly also on very short time intervals (as in the impulses due to collisions). In active matter, self-propulsion of microscopic particles generates macroscopic stress profiles. In general, the stress distribution in a body is expressed as a piecewise continuous function of space and time.
Conversely, stress is usually correlated with various effects on the material, possibly including changes in physical properties like birefringence, polarization, and permeability. The imposition of stress by an external agent usually creates some strain (deformation) in the material, even if it is too small to be detected. In a solid material, such strain will in turn generate an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a stretched spring, tending to restore the material to its original undeformed state. Fluid materials (liquids, gases and plasmas) by definition can only oppose deformations that would change their volume. However, if the deformation is changing with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Such stresses can be either shear or normal in nature. Molecular origin of shear stresses in fluids is given in the article on viscosity. The same for normal viscous stresses can be found in Sharma (2019).
The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation, can be quite complicated (although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough). Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.
Simple stress
In some situations, the stress within a body may adequately be described by a single number, or by a single vector (a number and a direction). Three such simple stress situations, that are often encountered in engineering design, are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear stress, and the isotropic normal stress.
Uniaxial normal stress
A common situation with a simple stress pattern is when a straight rod, with uniform material and cross section, is subjected to tension by opposite forces of magnitude along its axis. If the system is in equilibrium and not changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the top part must pull on the bottom part with the same force, F with continuity through the full cross-sectional area, A. Therefore, the stress σ throughout the bar, across any horizontal surface, can be expressed simply by the single number σ, calculated simply with the magnitude of those forces, F, and cross sectional area, A. On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force (hence no stress) between the two halves across the cut.
This type of stress may be called (simple) normal stress or uniaxial stress; specifically, (uniaxial, simple, etc.) tensile stress. If the load is compression on the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except that the force F and the stress change sign, and the stress is called compressive stress.
This analysis assumes the stress is evenly distributed over the entire cross-section. In practice, depending on how the bar is attached at the ends and how it was manufactured, this assumption may not be valid. In that case, the value = F/A will be only the average stress, called engineering stress or nominal stress. However, if the bar's length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over any cross-section that is more than a few times D from both ends. (This observation is known as the Saint-Venant's principle).
Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and compression. If an elastic bar with uniform and symmetric cross-section is bent in one of its planes of symmetry, the resulting bending stress will still be normal (perpendicular to the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the outer part will be under tensile stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is the hoop stress that occurs on the walls of a cylindrical pipe or vessel filled with pressurized fluid.
Simple shear stress
Another simple type of stress occurs when a uniformly thick layer of elastic material like glue or rubber is firmly attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft metal bar that is being cut by the jaws of a scissors-like tool. Let F be the magnitude of those forces, and M be the midplane of that layer. Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side of M must pull the other part with the same force F. Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M can be expressed simply by the single number , calculated simply with the magnitude of those forces, F and the cross sectional area, A.However, unlike normal stress, this simple shear stress is directed parallel to the cross-section considered, rather than perpendicular to it. For any plane S that is perpendicular to the layer, the net internal force across S, and hence the stress, will be zero.
As in the case of an axially loaded bar, in practice the shear stress may not be uniformly distributed over the layer; so, as before, the ratio F/A will only be an average ("nominal", "engineering") stress. However, that average is often sufficient for practical purposes. Shear stress is observed also when a cylindrical bar such as a shaft is subjected to opposite torques at its ends. In that case, the shear stress on each cross-section is parallel to the cross-section, but oriented tangentially relative to the axis, and increases with distance from the axis. Significant shear stress occurs in the middle plate (the "web") of I-beams under bending loads, due to the web constraining the end plates ("flanges").
Isotropic stress
Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions. This is the case, for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a larger mass of fluid; or inside a cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal perpendicular forces — provided, in both cases, that the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that the effect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected.
In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always directed perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation. This type of stress may be called isotropic normal or just isotropic; if it is compressive, it is called hydrostatic pressure or just pressure. Gases by definition cannot withstand tensile stresses, but some liquids may withstand surprisingly large amounts of isotropic tensile stress under some circumstances. see Z-tube.
Cylinder stresses
Parts with rotational symmetry, such as wheels, axles, pipes, and pillars, are very common in engineering. Often the stress patterns that occur in such parts have rotational or even cylindrical symmetry. The analysis of such cylinder stresses can take advantage of the symmetry to reduce the dimension of the domain and/or of the stress tensor.
General stress
Often, mechanical bodies experience more than one type of stress at the same time; this is called combined stress. In normal and shear stress, the magnitude of the stress is maximum for surfaces that are perpendicular to a certain direction , and zero across any surfaces that are parallel to . When the shear stress is zero only across surfaces that are perpendicular to one particular direction, the stress is called biaxial, and can be viewed as the sum of two normal or shear stresses. In the most general case, called triaxial stress, the stress is nonzero across every surface element.
The Cauchy stress tensor
Combined stresses cannot be described by a single vector. Even if the material is stressed in the same way throughout the volume of the body, the stress across any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that surface, in a non-trivial way.
However, Cauchy observed that the stress vector across a surface will always be a linear function of the surface's normal vector , the unit-length vector that is perpendicular to it. That is, , where the function satisfies
for any vectors and any real numbers .
The function , now called the (Cauchy) stress tensor, completely describes the stress state of a uniformly stressed body. (Today, any linear connection between two physical vector quantities is called a tensor, reflecting Cauchy's original use to describe the "tensions" (stresses) in a material.) In tensor calculus, is classified as second-order tensor of type (0,2).
Like any linear map between vectors, the stress tensor can be represented in any chosen Cartesian coordinate system by a 3×3 matrix of real numbers. Depending on whether the coordinates are numbered or named , the matrix may be written as
or
The stress vector across a surface with normal vector (which is covariant - "row; horizontal" - vector) with coordinates is then a matrix product (where T in upper index is transposition, and as a result we get covariant (row) vector ) (look on Cauchy stress tensor), that is
The linear relation between and follows from the fundamental laws of conservation of linear momentum and static equilibrium of forces, and is therefore mathematically exact, for any material and any stress situation. The components of the Cauchy stress tensor at every point in a material satisfy the equilibrium equations (Cauchy’s equations of motion for zero acceleration). Moreover, the principle of conservation of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is , , and . Therefore, the stress state of the medium at any point and instant can be specified by only six independent parameters, rather than nine. These may be written
where the elements are called the orthogonal normal stresses (relative to the chosen coordinate system), and the orthogonal shear stresses.
Change of coordinates
The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of coordinates. A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's circle of stress distribution.
As a symmetric 3×3 real matrix, the stress tensor has three mutually orthogonal unit-length eigenvectors and three real eigenvalues , such that . Therefore, in a coordinate system with axes , the stress tensor is a diagonal matrix, and has only the three normal components the principal stresses. If the three eigenvalues are equal, the stress is an isotropic compression or tension, always perpendicular to any surface, there is no shear stress, and the tensor is a diagonal matrix in any coordinate frame.
Stress as a tensor field
In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over a material body, and may vary with time. Therefore, the stress tensor must be defined for each point and each moment, by considering an infinitesimal particle of the medium surrounding that point, and taking the average stresses in that particle as being the stresses at the point.
Stress in thin plates
Man-made objects are often made from stock plates of various materials by operations that do not change their essentially two-dimensional character, like cutting, drilling, gentle bending and welding along the edges. The description of stress in such bodies can be simplified by modeling those parts as two-dimensional surfaces rather than three-dimensional bodies.
In that view, one redefines a "particle" as being an infinitesimal patch of the plate's surface, so that the boundary between adjacent particles becomes an infinitesimal line element; both are implicitly extended in the third dimension, normal to (straight through) the plate. "Stress" is then redefined as being a measure of the internal forces between two adjacent "particles" across their common line element, divided by the length of that line. Some components of the stress tensor can be ignored, but since particles are not infinitesimal in the third dimension one can no longer ignore the torque that a particle applies on its neighbors. That torque is modeled as a bending stress that tends to change the curvature of the plate. However, these simplifications may not hold at welds, at sharp bends and creases (where the radius of curvature is comparable to the thickness of the plate).
Stress in thin beams
The analysis of stress can be considerably simplified also for thin bars, beams or wires of uniform (or smoothly varying) composition and cross-section that are subjected to moderate bending and twisting. For those bodies, one may consider only cross-sections that are perpendicular to the bar's axis, and redefine a "particle" as being a piece of wire with infinitesimal length between two such cross sections. The ordinary stress is then reduced to a scalar (tension or compression of the bar), but one must take into account also a bending stress (that tries to change the bar's curvature, in some direction perpendicular to the axis) and a torsional stress (that tries to twist or un-twist it about its axis).
Other descriptions of stress
The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small deformations where the differences in stress distribution in most cases can be neglected. For large deformations, also called finite deformations, other measures of stress, such as the first and second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor, are required.
Solids, liquids, and gases have stress fields. Static fluids support normal stress but will flow under shear stress. Moving viscous fluids can support shear stress (dynamic pressure). Solids can support both shear and normal stress, with ductile materials failing under shear and brittle materials failing under normal stress. All materials have temperature dependent variations in stress-related properties, and non-Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.
Stress analysis
Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal distribution of internal forces in solid objects. It is an essential tool in engineering for the study and design of structures such as tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study phenomena like plate tectonics, vulcanism and avalanches; and in biology, to understand the anatomy of living beings.
Goals and assumptions
Stress analysis is generally concerned with objects and structures that can be assumed to be in macroscopic static equilibrium. By Newton's laws of motion, any external forces being applied to such a system must be balanced by internal reaction forces, which are almost always surface contact forces between adjacent particles — that is, as stress. Since every particle needs to be in equilibrium, this reaction stress will generally propagate from particle to particle, creating a stress distribution throughout the body.
The typical problem in stress analysis is to determine these internal stresses, given the external forces that are acting on the system. The latter may be body forces (such as gravity or magnetic attraction), that act throughout the volume of a material; or concentrated loads (such as friction between an axle and a bearing, or the weight of a train wheel on a rail), that are imagined to act over a two-dimensional area, or along a line, or at single point.
In stress analysis one normally disregards the physical causes of the forces or the precise nature of the materials. Instead, one assumes that the stresses are related to deformation (and, in non-static problems, to the rate of deformation) of the material by known constitutive equations.
Methods
Stress analysis may be carried out experimentally, by applying loads to the actual artifact or to scale model, and measuring the resulting stresses, by any of several available methods. This approach is often used for safety certification and monitoring. However, most stress analysis is done by mathematical methods, especially during design.
The basic stress analysis problem can be formulated by Euler's equations of motion for continuous bodies (which are consequences of Newton's laws for conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum) and the Euler-Cauchy stress principle, together with the appropriate constitutive equations. Thus one obtains a system of partial differential equations involving the stress tensor field and the strain tensor field, as unknown functions to be determined. The external body forces appear as the independent ("right-hand side") term in the differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. The basic stress analysis problem is therefore a boundary-value problem.
Stress analysis for elastic structures is based on the theory of elasticity and infinitesimal strain theory. When the applied loads cause permanent deformation, one must use more complicated constitutive equations, that can account for the physical processes involved (plastic flow, fracture, phase change, etc.).
However, engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected stresses are well within the range of linear elasticity (the generalization of Hooke’s law for continuous media); that is, the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly related to them. In this case the differential equations that define the stress tensor are linear, and the problem becomes much easier. For one thing, the stress at any point will be a linear function of the loads, too. For small enough stresses, even non-linear systems can usually be assumed to be linear.
Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of loads allow the structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis of trusses, for example, the stress field may be assumed to be uniform and uniaxial over each member. Then the differential equations reduce to a finite set of equations (usually linear) with finitely many unknowns. In other contexts one may be able to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one, and/or replace the general stress and strain tensors by simpler models like uniaxial tension/compression, simple shear, etc.
Still, for two- or three-dimensional cases one must solve a partial differential equation problem.
Analytical or closed-form solutions to the differential equations can be obtained when the geometry, constitutive relations, and boundary conditions are simple enough. Otherwise one must generally resort to numerical approximations such as the finite element method, the finite difference method, and the boundary element method.
Alternative measures of stress
Other useful stress measures include the first and second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor.
Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor
In the case of finite deformations, the Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensors express the stress relative to the reference configuration. This is in contrast to the Cauchy stress tensor which expresses the stress relative to the present configuration. For infinitesimal deformations and rotations, the Cauchy and Piola–Kirchhoff tensors are identical.
Whereas the Cauchy stress tensor relates stresses in the current configuration, the deformation gradient and strain tensors are described by relating the motion to the reference configuration; thus not all tensors describing the state of the material are in either the reference or current configuration. Describing the stress, strain and deformation either in the reference or current configuration would make it easier to define constitutive models (for example, the Cauchy Stress tensor is variant to a pure rotation, while the deformation strain tensor is invariant; thus creating problems in defining a constitutive model that relates a varying tensor, in terms of an invariant one during pure rotation; as by definition constitutive models have to be invariant to pure rotations). The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor, is one possible solution to this problem. It defines a family of tensors, which describe the configuration of the body in either the current or the reference state.
The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor, relates forces in the present ("spatial") configuration with areas in the reference ("material") configuration.
where is the deformation gradient and is the Jacobian determinant.
In terms of components with respect to an orthonormal basis, the first Piola–Kirchhoff stress is given by
Because it relates different coordinate systems, the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress is a two-point tensor. In general, it is not symmetric. The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress is the 3D generalization of the 1D concept of engineering stress.
If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor will vary with material orientation.
The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress is energy conjugate to the deformation gradient.
2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor
Whereas the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress relates forces in the current configuration to areas in the reference configuration, the 2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor relates forces in the reference configuration to areas in the reference configuration. The force in the reference configuration is obtained via a mapping that preserves the relative relationship between the force direction and the area normal in the reference configuration.
In index notation with respect to an orthonormal basis,
This tensor, a one-point tensor, is symmetric.
If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor remain constant, irrespective of material orientation.
The 2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor is energy conjugate to the Green–Lagrange finite strain tensor.
See also
Bending
Compressive strength
Critical plane analysis
Kelvin probe force microscope
Mohr's circle
Lamé's stress ellipsoid
Residual stress
Shear strength
Shot peening
Strain
Strain tensor
Strain rate tensor
Stress–energy tensor
Stress–strain curve
Stress concentration
Transient friction loading
Tensile strength
Thermal stress
Virial stress
Yield (engineering)
Yield surface
Virial theorem
References
Further reading
Dieter, G. E. (3 ed.). (1989). Mechanical Metallurgy. New York: McGraw-Hill. .
Landau, L.D. and E.M.Lifshitz. (1959). Theory of Elasticity.
Love, A. E. H. (4 ed.). (1944). Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. New York: Dover Publications. .
Solid mechanics
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