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228489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croquet%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Croquet at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, three croquet events were contested. Seven men and three women participated. The doubles competition was scheduled first, though it is unclear whether the French pair that won had any competition. The one-ball singles was played the next week, followed by two-ball singles the week after. France, which supplied all 10 competitors, therefore won all the medals.
This was the only Olympiad where croquet was part of the official programme, though there was the variant called roque at the 1904 Summer Olympics. All events which were restricted to amateurs, open to all nations, open to all competitors, and without handicapping, are now regarded as Olympic events (except for ballooning). Although croquet satisfied three criteria, it had been thought to have an entrant from Belgium, Marcel Haëntjens, (Haëntjens is a Flemish name) and thus have been an international competition. Haëntjens is now known to have been from France, as were the other croquet players. Only one paying spectator attended the event.
Medal table
Sources:
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 10 players from 1 nation competed at the Paris Games:
See also
List of Olympic venues in discontinued events
Roque at the 1904 Summer Olympics
References
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Croquet 1900". Accessed 10 January 2006. Available electronically at .
Mallon, Bill. "The First Two Women Olympians" in Citius, Altius, Fortius, Autumn 1995, No. 3, p. 38. Available in pdf format from the AAFLA .
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900 in croquet
Croquet at the Summer Olympics
Croquet competitions in France
Discontinued sports at the Summer Olympics | [
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|
228490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Cycling at the 1900 Summer Olympics | The 1900 Summer Olympics were held as part of the 1900 World's Fair, during which many cycling events were contested. The IOC website currently affirms a total of 3 medal events, after accepting, as it appears, the recommendation of Olympic historian Bill Mallon regarding events that should be considered "Olympic". These additional events include the men's points race. Thus, three cycling events are considered Olympic events. These three competitions were held between 9 September and 16 September 1900. The cycling part of the World's Fair included 250 competitors, 160 of them French. In the sprint and 25 km events, 72 competitors, all men, from seven nations competed.
Medal summary
Daily summary
11 September
In the first two rounds of the 2000 metre sprint, the United States and Italy made their cycling debuts, as did the Olympic-debut nations Belgium and Bohemia. Germany, which had won a silver medal four years earlier, and France, with 4 golds, a silver, and a bronze, were the returning nations.
Bohemia's lone cyclist was eliminated in the first round. The Belgian cyclist was eliminated in the second round of the day, the quarterfinals. Germany's trio fared no better, with all having dropped out by the end of the day. Antonio Restelli was the only one of Italy's 7 to move on. He was joined by the sole American John Henry Lake and by 7 Frenchmen.
13 September
The semifinals and the final of the sprint were held on the 13th.
The semifinal round pared the 9 remaining cyclists down to 3, with the winners of each of the semifinals guaranteed a medal in the three-man final. Restelli took second place to Fernand Sanz, dropping Italy from contention. Lake won his semifinal, joining Sanz and Georges Taillandier in the final.
Taillandier and Sanz reaffirmed French dominance of the sport, taking the top two spots in the final. Lake took the United States' first medal in cycling.
15 September
The 25 kilometres was held on the 15th. Frenchman Louis Bastien, Briton Louis Hildebrand, and American Lake were the primary contenders, with Bastien the favorite. Lake was unable to keep pace with Hildebrand, however, and dropped out of the race. Bastien won, followed by Hildebrand and Auguste Daumain. Future Tour de France winner Louis Trousselier was among the rest of the pack.
The amateur points race, or "Course de Primes", was also held on 15 September. It was a 5 kilometre race — 10 laps of the track — with points awarded at the end of each lap.
Participating nations
A total of 72 cyclists from 7 nations competed at the sprint and 25 km cycling events during the Paris Games:
Medal table
Non-Olympic events
In 1900, there was no official distinction between Olympic events and non-Olympic events held during the Exposition Universelle (1900). Most events were open for all cyclists. The cycling events satisfying all of these criteria — restricted to amateurs, open to all nations, open to all competitors and without handicapping — are now regarded as Olympic events. Before July 2021 the IOC has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not. Other events were:
50 kilometres
Tandems
Inter-rêgionale
100 miles (winner: Taylor, France)
Grand Prix de l’Exposition - Sprint for professionals (winner: Harie Meyers, The Netherlands)
100 kilometers (winner: Arthur Adalbert Chase, England)
Grand Course des Nations (winner: American team)
Handicap
Amateurs handicap
Professional points race
Individual pursuit
Bol d'Or (Winner: Mathieu Cordang, Netherlands)
References
General
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Cycling - track 1900". Accessed 19 March 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Report, La 84 Foundation
Specific
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
Cycling in Paris
1900 in cycle racing
1900 in track cycling | [
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|
228491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubilee%20%28biblical%29 | Jubilee (biblical) | The Jubilee ( yōḇel; Yiddish: yoyvl) is the year at the end of seven cycles of shmita (Sabbatical years) and, according to biblical regulations, had a special impact on the ownership and management of land in the Land of Israel. According to the Book of Leviticus, Hebrew slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts would be forgiven, and the mercies of Yahweh would be particularly manifest.
Rabbinic literature mentions a dispute between the Sages and Rabbi Yehuda over whether it was the 49th year (the last year of seven sabbatical cycles, referred to as the Sabbath's Sabbath), or whether it was the following (50th) year. The Jubilee ("Year of Release") deals largely with land, property, and property rights.
The biblical rules concerning Sabbatical years are still observed by many religious Jews in Israel, but the regulations for the Jubilee year have not been observed for many centuries. According to the post-exile rabbinic interpretation of Torah, observance of Jubilee only applied when the Jewish people live in the land of Israel according to their tribes. Thus, with the exile of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh (about 600 BCE), Jubilee has not been applicable.
Etymology
The Septuagint used the phrase "a trumpet-blast of liberty" (ἀφέσεως σημασία apheseôs sêmasia), and the Vulgate used the Latin iobeleus; the English term Jubilee derives from the Latin term.
Early modern biblical scholars believed that the Latin term derived from the Hebrew term yobel, used in the Masoretic Text, which in turn derived from yobhel, meaning ram; the Jubilee year was announced by a blast on a shofar, an instrument made from a ram's horn, during that year's Yom Kippur.
An alternative etymology for the English and Latin terms notes that the Latin verb iūbilō, "shout for joy," predates the Vulgate, and proposes that instead the Latin jubilo (meaning shout, from Proto-Italic *jū), as well as Middle Irish ilach (victory cry), English yowl, and Ancient Greek iuzō (ἰύζω: shout), derived from a Proto-Indo-European root *yu- (shout for joy). In this interpretation, the Hebrew term is either a borrowing from an Indo-European language, or an independent word with no etymological relation to the Latin word.
Origin and purpose
states:
Ancient Near Eastern societies regularly declared noncommercial debts void, typically at the coronation of a new king or at the king’s order. Biblical scholars once argued that the Jubilee was an obvious development of the Sabbatical year. Rather than waiting for the 50th or 49th year, the Deuteronomic Code requires that Hebrew slaves be liberated during their 7th year of service, as does the Covenant Code, which some textual scholars regard as pre-dating the Holiness code; the Book of Ezekiel, which some textual scholars also regard as earlier than the Holiness Code, refers to a year of liberty (שנת דרור), during which property is returned to the original owner (or their heirs), (earlier written mentioning in Sum: ama-gi, ama-ar-gi, 'return to the mother') but the word דרור is used by Jeremiah to describe the release of slaves during the Sabbatical year, which various scholars take to imply that Ezekiel must have been referring to the sabbatical year. Scholars suspect that the transfer of these regulations to 49th or 50th year was a deliberate attempt to parallel the fact that Shavuot is 50 days after Passover, and follows seven weeks of harvest; this parallel is regarded as significant in Kabbalah.
According to the documentary hypothesis, originally proposed by Julius Wellhausen, the Biblical chapters that contain the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation (chapters 25 and 27 of Leviticus) were part of the so-called "P" or Priestly Code that Wellhausen believed represented the last stage in the development of Israel's religion. Wellhausen dated those chapters to a late exilic or post-exilic period though many modern proponents of the Documentary Hypothesis have arrived at different datings.
Wellhausen's theory that the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation was written in the exilic or post-exilic period, specifically after the time of Ezekiel, has always been challenged by scholars who have maintained the traditional position of Judaism and Christianity for the Mosaic authorship of Leviticus. Recently, however, the theories of Wellhausen and others who date the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation to the exilic period or later have also been challenged by scholars who generally do not have a conservative view of the Bible. Yehezekel Kaufmann has argued that the book of Ezekiel quotes from the Sabbatical and Jubilee legislation of the Book of Leviticus, which must have been in existence before Ezekiel's writings. This argument has been expanded by Risa Levitt Kohn. Kohn examined in detail the 97 terms and phrases that are shared between Ezekiel and the Priestly Code. She concludes:
John Bergsma provides a further argument against an exilic or post-exilic date for the codifying of the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation, saying that the Sitz im Leben (life situation) of the exilic or post-exilic period is not at all addressed by this legislation.
Bergsma therefore points out the incongruity of Wellhausen's ascribing an exilic or post-exilic date to the Jubilee and Sabbatical-year legislation, since this would conflict with the Sitz im Leben of Israel during, and after, the exile. In addition, Bergsma shows that the problem that this legislation was addressing was a problem recognized by the kings of Babylon in the second millennium BC, which naturally suggests the possibility of a much earlier date of codification. These Babylonian kings (to whom could be added Ammi-Saduqa) occasionally issued decrees for the cancellation of debts and/or the return of the people to the lands they had sold. Such "clean slate" decrees were intended to redress the tendency of debtors, in ancient societies, to become hopelessly in debt to their creditors, thus accumulating most of the arable land into the control of a wealthy few. The decrees were issued sporadically. Economist Michael Hudson maintains that the Biblical legislation of the Jubilee and Sabbatical years addressed the same problems encountered by these Babylonian kings, but the Biblical formulation of the laws presented a significant advance in justice and the rights of the people. This was due to the "clean slates" now being codified into law, rather than relying on the whim of the king. Furthermore, the regular rhythm of the Sabbatical and Jubilee years meant that everyone would know when the next release was due, thereby giving fairness and equity to both creditor and debtor. Hudson therefore maintains that not only was the Levitical legislation a significant advance over the prior attempts to deal with indebtedness, but this legislation was also eminently practical, in contradiction to many Biblical interpreters who are not economists and who have labeled it "utopian".
Regulations
The biblical regulations concerning the Jubilee year appear in . According to these regulations, the Jubilee was to be sounded once 49 years had been counted, raising an ambiguity over whether the Jubilee was within the 49th year, or followed it as an intercalation in the 7-year sabbatical cycles; scholars and classical rabbinical sources are divided on the question.
The biblical requirement is that the Jubilee year was to be treated like a Sabbatical year, with the land lying fallow, but also required the compulsory return of all property to its original owners or their heirs, except the houses of laymen within walled cities, in addition to the manumission of all Israelite indentured servants.
The biblical regulations state that the land was to rest a "Sabbath" when the Children of Israel came to the land God was giving them Israel. The Seder Olam Rabbah (second century AD), stated that this verse meant that the counting was not to start until after the Israelites had gained control of Canaan, which the Seder Olam, based upon received tradition, placed at 14 years after their entry into the land. This interpretation has been largely adopted in later rabbinic scholarship. One reason for this interpretation of the Levitical text was that if counting started before the land was completely conquered, it would require the Israelites to return the land to the Canaanites within 50 years; similar nationalistic concerns about the impact of the Jubilee on land ownership have been raised by Zionist settlers. From a legal point of view, the Jubilee law effectively banned sale of land as fee simple, and instead land could only be leased for no more than 50 years. The biblical regulations go on to specify that the price of land had to be proportional to how many years remained before the Jubilee, with land being cheaper the closer it is to the Jubilee.
Length of the Jubilee cycle
Since the 49th year was already a sabbatical year, the land was required to be left fallow during it, but if the 50th year also had to be kept fallow, as the Jubilee, then no new crops would be available for two years, and only the summer fruits would be available for the following year, creating a much greater risk of starvation overall; Judah the Prince contended that the jubilee year was identical with the sabbatical 49th year. However, the majority of classical rabbis believed that the biblical phrase hallow the fiftieth year, together with the biblical promise that there would be three years worth of fruit in the sixth year, implies that the jubilee year was the 50th year. The opinion of the Geonim, and generally of later authorities, was that prior to the Babylonian captivity the Jubilee was the intercalation of the 50th year, but after the captivity ended the Jubilee was essentially ignored, except for the blast of the shofar, and coincided with the sabbatical 49th year; the reason was that the Jubilee was only to be observed when the Jews controlled all of Canaan, including the territories of Reuben and Gad and the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh.
The length of the Jubilee cycle continues to be of interest to modern scholarship, as does the question of the practicality of the legislation, and whether it was ever put into effect on a nationwide basis. Regarding the length of the cycle, three significant scholarly studies devoted to the Jubilee and Sabbatical years agree that it was 49 years, while disagreeing somewhat on the interpretation of the other issues involved. These major studies were those of Benedict Zuckermann, Robert North, and Jean-François Lefebvre. The reasons given by these authors to support a 49-year cycle are both textual (examining all relevant Biblical texts) and practical.
Calendrical document 4Q319 from the Dead Sea Scrolls "represents a calendrical system based on the weekly rotation of the twenty-four priestly courses during a six-year period and constructed into six consecutive Jubilees, i.e. 294 years.".
Textual and practical considerations
An example of the textual argument is given by North in his comparison of with . The first passage establishes the timing, in days, for the Festival of Weeks (Shavuot), while the second prescribes the timing, in years, for the Jubilee. In the first passage, the start of counting for the Festival of Weeks is said to be "the day after the Sabbath" (mimaharat ha-shabat, ), and is to end "the day after the seventh Sabbath" (mimaharat ha-shabat ha-sheviyit, ). These seven weeks would constitute 49 days in most modern methods of reckoning. Nevertheless, verse 16 says that they are to be reckoned as 50 days. This method of reckoning (sometimes called "inclusive numbering") is fairly common in Scripture; for example, the Feast of Tabernacles is to last for seven days (), but the last day is called the eighth day (v. 36). North found this comparison between Leviticus 23 (Feast of Weeks) and Leviticus 25 (Jubilees) to be "the strongest possible support for the forty-ninth year" as the Jubilee year. His conclusion that the Jubilee was identical with the seventh Sabbatical year was followed by Lefebvre, for this as well as additional reasons.
The consideration that the Jubilee was identical with the seventh Sabbatical year solves the various practical problems, as also addressed by these authors. If the Jubilee were separate from, and following the seventh Sabbatical year, then there would be two fallow years in succession. Lefebvre points out, however, that there is no support in Scripture for two voluntary fallow years in succession, even though some have misinterpreted as if this refers to a Jubilee year following a Sabbatical year, which is not the sense of the passage. Lefebvre shows that this cannot be the case because planting is mentioned for the eighth year; it is the year after a Sabbath, a year in which planting and harvesting resume. Another practical problem that would occur if the Jubilee cycle were 50 years is that, after the first cycle, the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles would be out of phase unless the seventh Sabbatical cycle was stretched to eight years. But Scripture gives no instructions for making such an adjustment. Instead, it is assumed that the two cycles will always be in phase so that the shofar can be sounded in the seventh year of the seventh Sabbatical cycle.
In contrast, the consideration that the Jubilee year is an intercalated year separate and distinct from the Sabbatical cycles resolves an issue of the requirement for observation of the Torah of both and . For in the former passage, the command is that sowing and pruning must occur for 6 consecutive years, whereas in the latter, the command is to neither sow, nor reap nor gather from untended vines in the Jubilee year. If the Jubilee year is the 50th year as confirmed by , it must necessarily be a separate year from the first 49 years comprising the whole of the first seven Sabbatical cycles. Therefore it cannot be identical with the seventh Sabbatical year, as 49 does not equal 50. Were the Jubilee year to be considered identical with year 1 of the following Sabbatical cycle, the requirement of observing 6 consecutive years of sowing and pruning could not be observed as only 5 years would therefore be available for sowing and reaping, not the specified six as requires. A lot of the misunderstanding comes from not carefully reading the original Hebrew text. There was no requirement in the Law to observe 6 consecutive years of sowing. The command stated that you may sow for 6 years but in the 7th year the land must observe a sabbath rest. It would be a double negative to command the land to be sowed for 6 years in cases of famine and war.
Historical considerations
Although not cited by these authors, two historical arguments also argue for a 49-year cycle. The first is that the Samaritans celebrated a 49-year cycle. Although the Samaritans stopped counting for the Jubilee some hundreds of years ago, according to a recent report an effort is underway to determine the date when counting ceased in order to resume. The counting will again be according to a 49-year cycle. A second historical argument has been presented to the effect that the two instances of a Jubilee mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud (tractates Arakin 12a and Megillah 14b) appear to be proper historical remembrances, because the known calculation methods of rabbinic scholarship were incapable of correctly calculating the dates of the Jubilees mentioned. Rabbinic (Talmudic) scholarship always assumed non-accession reckoning for kings, whereby the first partial year of a king was double-counted both for him and as the last year of the deceased king. This reckoning would give 47 years from the Jubilee mentioned in the 18th year of Josiah (Megillah 14b) to the Jubilee that took place 14 years after Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians (Arakin 12a), whereas the correct difference was 49 years (623 BC to 574 BC). This has been presented as additional evidence that the cycle was 49 years, and further that the cycles were being measured until the last Jubilee in the days of Ezekiel, when the stipulations of the Jubilee year, long neglected except in the counting of the priests, could no longer be observed because the people were captive in a foreign land.
The date when counting began
The Seder Olam Rabbah recognized the importance of the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles as a long-term calendrical system, and attempted at various places to fit the Sabbatical and Jubilee years into its chronological scheme. As mentioned above, the Seder Olam put forth the idea that the counting for these cycles was deferred until 14 years after entry into the land. The reasons for this are given in Seder Olam chapter 11. In Joshua chapter 14, Caleb mentions that he was 40 years old when he was sent out as a spy in the second year of the 40-year wilderness journey, and his present age was 85, which meant he received his inheritance seven years after entering Canaan. Rabbi Jose assumed that everyone else received their inheritance when Caleb did, or had already received it, so that the allotment of the land to the tribes was finished at this time. Because the division of the land took seven years, the conquest that followed must also have taken seven years. "One has to say that 14 years Israel spent at Gilgal, seven when they were conquering and seven when they were distributing." Then, after putting up the Tabernacle at Shiloh, "At that moment, they started to count years for tithes, Sabbatical years, and Jubilee years."
Another explanation has been offered for Rabbi Jose's postponement of counting until 14 years had elapsed. In this same chapter 11 of the Seder Olam, Rabbi Jose stated (for unknown reasons) that Israel's time in its land must have lasted an integral number of Jubilee periods. If this were true, one of those periods should have ended at the beginning of the exile in 587 BC. Yet Rabbi Jose also believed that Ezekiel 40:1 marked the beginning of the seventeenth Jubilee, and this was 14 years after the city fell. In other words, the Jubilee came 14 years too late, according to the idea that the time in the land must comprise an integral number of Jubilee cycles. Rodger Young proposes that the knowledge of when a genuine Jubilee was due was the real reason for the supposition of a delay before the start of counting:
The reason for the fourteen-year delay in Seder ‘Olam 11 is that Rabbi Yose (primary author of the Seder ‘Olam) had the idée fixe that the total time that Israel spent in its land must come out to an exact number of Jubilee cycles. If that had been the case, then we should have expected that 587 BC, when the exile began, would have been at the end of a Jubilee period. However, Rabbi Yose cited Ezek 40:1 as designating the time of the seventeenth Jubilee, and since he knew this was fourteen years after the city fell, he presumed that counting had been delayed for fourteen years so that he could account for the fourteen years between the fall of the city and the observance of the seventeenth Jubilee. He also mentioned the previous Jubilee, in the time of Josiah. As much as he would have liked to put these last two Jubilees fourteen years earlier in order to be consistent with his idée fixe, Rabbi Yose could not do it because he knew these were historical dates, not dates that came from his own calculation.
An alternative account is that counting started at the entry into the land. This follows from a straightforward reading of the relevant text in Leviticus:
The then spoke to Moses at Mount Sinai, saying, "Speak to the sons of Israel, and say to them, 'When you come into the land which I shall give you, then the land shall have a sabbath to the . Six years you shall sow your field, and six years you shall prune your vineyard and gather in its crop, but during the seventh year the land shall have a sabbath rest, a sabbath to the ... You are also to count off seven sabbaths of years for yourself, seven times seven years, so that you have the time of the seven sabbaths of years, namely, forty-nine years. You shall then sound a ram's horn abroad on the tenth day of the seventh month; on the day of atonement you shall sound a horn all through your land. You shall thus consecrate the fiftieth year and proclaim a release through the land to all its inhabitants. It shall be a jubilee for you (Leviticus 25:1–4, 8–10, NASB).
The Talmud states that the people of Israel counted 17 Jubilees from the time they entered the Land of Canaan until their exile at the destruction of the First Temple. If counting is measured back 17 cycles from Ezekiel's Jubilee (Ezekiel 40:1) that began in Tishri of 574 BC, based on Thiele's computation, the first year of the first cycle would have been 1406 BC. According to the religious calendar that started the year in Nisan, and in accordance with Joshua 5:10 that places the entry in the land in Nisan, Nisan of 1406 BC is the month and year when counting started. But 1406 BC is the year of entry into the land that is traditionally derived by another method, namely taking Thiele's date of 931/930 BC for the start of the divided kingdom after Solomon's death, in conjunction with 1 Kings 6:1 (Solomon's fourth year was 480th year of Exodus-era), to derive the date of the Exodus in 1446 BC. The method of determining the date of the Exodus and entry into Canaan from the Jubilee cycles is independent of the method of deriving these dates from 1 Kings 6:1, yet the two methods agree.
The Jubilee in Jewish tradition
A different approach is taken in the Talmud (Arakhin 12a–b) which, like Seder Olam, assigns only 410 years to the First Temple, preceded by 480 years from the exodus to its building by Solomon () in 832 BC (by the rabbinic accounting) and its destruction in 422 BC. The Talmud (Arakhin 12b) accounts for 40 years of wandering in the wilderness, and 7 years taken to conquer the land of Canaan and 7 years to divide the land among the tribes, putting the first Jubilee cycle precisely 54 years after the exodus (i.e. in 1258 BC), and saying that the people of Israel counted 17 Jubilees from the time they entered the Land of Canaan until their departure, and that the last Jubilee occurred 14 years after the First Temple's destruction (i.e. in 408 BC). Talmudic exegete, Rashi, explains in the Talmud (Arakhin 12b) that the year of the First Temple's destruction (422 BC) was actually the 36th year in the Jubilee cycle, and that fourteen years later (408 BC) would have been the next Jubilee. This time span, taken together (from 1258 BC to 408 BC), accrues to 850 years, during which time the people counted seventeen Jubilees.
The historian Josephus, however, had a different tradition, writing in his work Antiquities (10.8.5) that the First Temple stood 470 years, which would, of necessity, offset the number of Jubilee cycles. Moreover, Josephus' reckoning of the timeline of events does not always align with Seder Olam, the book on which rabbinic tradition is so dependent. The discrepancies between Josephus and Seder Olam have led some scholars to think that the dates prescribed in Seder Olam are only approximations, as Josephus brings down supportive evidence by making use of two basic epochs, the Olympiad era counting and the Seleucid era counting, drawn principally from other writers, to verify the historicity of many of these events. In spite of their differences in the general span of years, there is not necessarily disagreement between Josephus and Seder Olam when Josephus refers to dates of Sabbatical years during the Second Temple period, as the time-frame for these dates overlap those mentioned in Seder Olam (chapter 30) for the Grecian, Hasmonean, and Herodian periods.
Theological significance
The text of the Book of Leviticus argues that the Jubilee existed because the land was the possession of Yahweh, and its current occupiers were merely aliens or tenants, and therefore the land should not be sold forever. Midrashic sources argue that the Jubilee was created to preserve the original division of land between the Israelite tribes, as evidenced by the rabbinical tradition that the Jubilee should not be imposed until the Israelites were in control of Canaan. Leviticus also states that the Israelites were the servants of Yahweh, which classical rabbis took as justification for the manumission of Israelite slaves at the Jubilee, using the argument that no man should have two masters, and thus, as the servants of Yahweh, the Israelites should not also be the servants of men.
A further theological insight afforded by the Jubilee cycles is explained in Andrew Steinmann's monograph on Biblical chronology. Steinmann has an extended discussion of the evidence for various pre-exilic Sabbatical years, and how they all occurred an integral number of seven-year periods before Ezekiel’s Jubilee (see the Historical Sabbatical Years article). He also notes that the date of the entry into the land implied by Ezekiel's Jubilee (the seventeenth) is in exact agreement with the date calculated from 1 Kings 6:1 and Joshua 5:6. These chronological considerations are usually neglected in discussions of the legislation for the Jubilee and Sabbatical years, but Steinmann stresses their theological importance as follows:
See also
Bank holiday
Jewish holidays
Jubilee in the Catholic Church
Sed festival
References
Bibliography
External links
The economic and social significance of the Sabbath and Sabbatical years by Manfred Davidmann
When is the Jubilee Year?
Model of land economy with Jubilee
Hebrew calendar
Jewish courts and civil law
Hebrew words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible
Shabbat
Land of Israel laws in Judaism | [
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|
228492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hridaynath%20Mangeshkar | Hridaynath Mangeshkar | Hridaynath Mangeshkar (Marathi pronunciation: [ɦɾud̪əjnaːt̪ʰ məŋɡeːʃkəɾ]) is an Indian music director. He is the only son of musician Deenanath Mangeshkar and younger brother of Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle. He is popularly known as Balasaheb in the music and film industry.
Career
Hridaynath debuted his music career in 1955 with the Marathi film Akash Ganga. Since then, he has composed for various Marathi films such as Sansar, Chaani, Ha Khel Savalyancha, Janaki, Jait Re Jait, Umbartha and Nivdung and a few Bollywood films; the most notable among them being Subah, Lekin... and Maya Memsaab.
He has been very selective with his work. He has composed songs in Marathi and Hindi. His songs often have complex meters and require singers of great range and depth for enjoyable renditions. His composition of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar's poem Saagara Pran Talamalala is a case in point. His 1982 album Dnyaneshwar Mauli, featuring compositions from Jñāneśvar, one of the most famous poets in Marathi literature, set the standard for modern devotional music in Marathi.
He also composed music for Doordarshan musical drama Phoolwanti.
He has also composed folk songs. Staying true to the spirit, his Koli Geets (fishermen songs) reflect the traditional rhythms of the fishermen of Konkan. His music to the critically acclaimed movie Jait Re Jait is another example of his prowess in this genre. One of his most popular works is the composition for the Marathi film Nivdung.
At one point, Hridaynath was a student of Ustad Amir Khan; however, he feels that his guru is not as timeless as his sister Lata.
He has been the recipient of several awards throughout his career, such as the prestigious National Award at the hands of the President of India, the Lata Mangeshkar Award of Maharashtra state, and seven Maharashtra State Awards for Best Vocalist and Music Director/Composer.
He was awarded the title pandit by the people of Maharashtra at the hands of Bhimsen Joshi and Jasraj. The Shankaracharya has conferred upon him the title Bhaav Gandharva.
He was awarded Padma Shri by the Government of India in 2009.
Some of his most memorable Hindi film scores are Harishchandra Taramati, Prarthana, Chakra, Lekin..., Maya Memsaab, Lal Salaam, Yash Chopra's Mashaal, Dhanwan and Chaani, to name a few.
He is also the first Indian composer to compose and release two entire albums featuring the poems and songs of the poet-saint Meera, titled Chala Vahi Des and Meera Bhajans. He has recently also composed and released an album titled Meera Soor Kabeera, featuring the works of Meera, Kabir and Surdas. He produced an album featuring the ghazals of Ghalib, titled Ghalib and sung by Lata Mangeshkar. His collaborations with noted Marathi poets such as Shanta Shelke and Suresh Bhat have produced many Marathi classic songs of unmatched popularity.
He joined the political party Shiv Sena in 2009.
Filmography
Marathi
Akash Ganga (1955)
Sansar (1971)
Ha Khel Savalyancha (1976)
Chaani (1977)
Janaki
Jait Re Jait (1977)
Umbartha (1982)
Nivdung (1989)
Hindi
Harishchandra Taramati (1963)
Dhanwan (1981)
Subah
Prarthana
Chakra
Mashaal (1984)
Lekin... (1991)
Maya Memsaab (1993)
Lal Salaam (2002)
Awards
1990 (38th National Film Awards) – National Film Award for Best Music Direction for Lekin...
Official citation: For using traditional tunes and instruments creatively, with lilting melody and haunting perfection.
2009 – Padma Shri
See also
Mangeshkar Family
References
External links
Indian male playback singers
Singers from Mumbai
Indian people of Goan descent
Living people
Marathi-language singers
Marathi playback singers
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Shiv Sena politicians
Best Music Direction National Film Award winners
Hridaynath
1937 births | [
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|
228494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrian%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Equestrian at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, five equestrian events were contested. Three of these had been considered "Olympic" by the International Olympic Committee in the past. The IOC website currently has affirmed a total of 95 medal events, after accepting, as it appears, the recommendation of Olympic historian Bill Mallon for events that should be considered "Olympic". These additional events include two equestrian driving events. It is not certain how many competitors there were, but it is likely that there were between 37 and 64. Calculation of number of competitors is complicated by the fact that a rider might enter an event multiple times on different horses. Five nations competed in the Olympic jumping events, with three more (Germany, Spain, and Austria) in the two driving events. There were two female riders: Elvira Guerra, who competed in the hacks and hunter combined event, as well as a Frenchwoman "Moulin", whose first name is not known.
Medal table
Medal summary
Participating nations
An estimated total of 60 riders from 6 nations (excluding riders known to have competed only in the non-jumping events) competed at the Paris Games:
See also
List of Olympic medalists in equestrian
Notes
References
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Equestrian 1900". Accessed 19 January 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Summer Olympics events
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|
228496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lies%20%281999%20film%29 | Lies (1999 film) | Lies (거짓말, Gojitmal) is a South Korean erotic drama film adapted from the banned novel Tell me a Lie by Jang Jung Il, which depicts a sadomasochistic sexual relationship between a 38-year-old sculptor and an 18-year-old highschool student. The film was shot in a semi-cinéma vérité style and features interviews with the author and cast spliced in between scenes. Intended to provoke, the film contains full-frontal nudity, unsimulated sex, coprophilia, and criticisms of South Korean society. It was heavily censored upon its initial release in South Korea but international releases were left uncut.
Synopsis
Y is an 18 year-old highschool senior whose friend Woori has struck up a correspondence with J, a 38 year-old sculptor. After talking to him on the phone, she is aroused by the sound of his voice and arranges to meet him at a love hotel so she can have her first sexual encounter on her own terms instead of losing her virginity to rape like her two sisters did. The two have sex as soon as they enter the motel and proceed to have anal and oral sex. In their next tryst, he confides in her his interest in sadomasochism and she allows him to beat her on her buttocks before they have sex again.
As time goes on, they engage in regular trysts where he beats her with increasing intensity, using a wide variety of implements. At first, Y only goes along with it to make J happy, telling Woori that she desires whatever he does, but she eventually takes a liking to being beaten. When J visits his wife in Paris, his relationship with his wife deteriorates when he begs her to beat him; she refuses and the film reveals that his sexual desires have been a strain on their marriage for years.
After an unusually intense beating, Y becomes angry and J offers to let her beat him. She assumes the dominant role in the relationship and they ultimately take turns beating each other. Y's brother discovers the affair and sets fire to J's house. Y cuts her hair and drops out of university and J leaves home and they spend the remainder of their relationship living in hotels, having sex every night, carving tattoos onto their inner thighs, forgoing work and rejecting society. When Y's brother dies in a motorcycle accident and when J runs out of money, Y leaves J in spite of his pleas for her not to. J ultimately moves to Paris to live with his wife.
Years later, J receives a phone call from Y, who is stopping over in Paris on her way to South America to live with her sister. They meet one last in a hotel and she changes into her old school uniform and beats him with the handle of a pickaxe, fulfilling a fantasy he once expressed to her. After the encounter, they never see each other again. When J asks him where he got the tattoo, he lies.
See also
Nudity in film (East Asian cinema
since 1929)
Sadism and masochism in fiction
Unsimulated Sex
References
External links
Village Voice review
British Film Institute review
1999 films
1990s erotic films
BDSM in films
South Korean erotic films
South Korean films
Films about virginity
Films based on South Korean novels
1990s Korean-language films
Films directed by Jang Sun-woo
Obscenity controversies in film
Censored films
Films about sculptors | [
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|
228497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20%245.98%20E.P.%20%E2%80%93%20Garage%20Days%20Re-Revisited | The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited | The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited (released on CD format as The $9.98 CD – Garage Days Re-Revisited) is the first extended play by American heavy metal band Metallica, released on August 21, 1987, by Elektra Records. It consists entirely of covers of late-'70s and early-'80s new wave of British heavy metal bands and punk rock music rehearsed in Lars Ulrich's soundproofed garage and then recorded in Los Angeles over the course of six days. It is the group's first release following the death of bassist Cliff Burton and the first to feature his successor, Jason Newsted.
Development
With Metallica scheduled to play the 1987 Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington, the band's UK label Vertigo Records suggested that they release new material to mark the occasion. Initial songwriting attempts with new bassist Jason Newsted resulted only in a demo for "Blackened", and vocalist/guitarist James Hetfield subsequently broke his arm skateboarding and was unable to play guitar for several weeks. Given these obstacles, the band decided to record covers of some of their favorite songs rather than work on new material. Newsted utilized his earlier experience as a construction worker to soundproof Lars Ulrich's garage in El Cerrito, California, where the band would rehearse the material prior to recording.
While rehearsing the song "White Lightning" by new wave of British heavy metal band Paralex, Kirk Hammett started playing "The Wait" by post-punk group Killing Joke, and the band subsequently decided to try recording the song. Other tracks considered but dropped include "Signal Fire" by Japanese band Bow Wow and another NWOBHM song, Gaskin's "I'm No Fool". Though "Last Caress" and "Green Hell" are combined into a single track by Metallica, the original Misfits versions were featured on different albums and were recorded five years apart.
The band included The $5.98 E.P. in the title in an effort to ensure that retailers did not overcharge fans. The original cassette release included a sticker stating "If they try to charge more, STEAL IT!" The title of the official American CD release was amended to The $9.98 CD, as the retail price of CDs was much higher than cassette; other countries (such as Australia) still displayed The $5.98 E.P. with a sticker stating that this is the "title" and not the price. "The Wait" was omitted from the UK pressings in order to conform to local music-industry rules regarding the length of EPs.
The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited was out of print from 1989 to 2018, and the original release is considered a collector's item. All five tracks were included on the 1998 double album Garage Inc. along with other covers and new recordings. The cover of the CD also was used as a basis for the Garage Inc. back cover, which shows the original Garage Days cover with pictures of the band members' faces, circa 1998, taped over the original faces, along with Garage Inc. covering the original album name.
In 2018, The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited was reissued under Metallica's own Blackened Recordings label and also was made available in vinyl format.
Track listing
Personnel
James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar
Jason Newsted – bass guitar, backing vocals
Lars Ulrich – drums
Production
All information derived from the liner notes.
Arranged and "not very produced" by Metallica
Engineer: Csaba Petocz; assisted by Greg Dennen and Marnie Riley
Recorded and mixed at A&M and Conway Studios
Original mastering by Ron Lewter (at The Mastering Lab)
Remastering by Chris Bellman at Bernie Grundman Mastering
Chart positions
Album
Certifications
See also
Garage Inc.
A Garage Dayz Nite
References
Metallica EPs
Covers EPs
1987 EPs
Elektra Records EPs
Vertigo Records EPs
Thrash metal EPs | [
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|
228498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20brushtail%20possum | Common brushtail possum | The common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula, from the Greek for "furry tailed" and the Latin for "little fox", previously in the genus Phalangista) is a nocturnal, semiarboreal marsupial of the family Phalangeridae, native to Australia and naturalised in New Zealand, and the second-largest of the possums.
Like most possums, the common brushtail possum is nocturnal. It is mainly a folivore, but has been known to eat small mammals such as rats. In most Australian habitats, eucalyptus leaves are a significant part of the diet, but rarely the sole item eaten. Its tail is prehensile and naked on its lower underside. The four colour variations are silver-grey, brown, black, and gold.
It is the Australian marsupial most often seen by city dwellers, as it is one of few that thrive in cities and a wide range of natural and human-modified environments. Around human habitations, common brushtails are inventive and determined foragers with a liking for fruit trees, vegetable gardens, and kitchen raids.
The common brushtail possum was introduced to New Zealand in the 1850s to establish a fur industry, but in the mild subtropical climate of New Zealand, and with few to no natural predators, it thrived to the extent that it became a major agricultural and conservation pest.
Description
The common brushtail possum has large and pointed ears. Its bushy tail (hence its name) is adapted to grasping branches, prehensile at the end with a hairless ventral patch. Its fore feet have sharp claws and the first toe of each hind foot is clawless, but has a strong grasp. The possum grooms itself with the third and fourth toes which are fused together. It has a thick and woolly pelage that varies in colour depending on the subspecies. Colour patterns tend to be silver-grey, brown, black, red, or cream. The ventral areas are typically lighter and the tail is usually brown or black. The muzzle is marked with dark patches.
The common brushtail possum has a head and body length of 32–58 cm with a tail length of 24–40 cm. It weighs 1.2-4.5 kg. Males are generally larger than females. In addition, the coat of the male tends to be reddish at the shoulders. As with most marsupials, the female brushtail possum has a forward-opening, well-developed pouch. The chest of both sexes has a scent gland that emits a reddish secretion which stains that fur around it. It marks its territory with these secretions.
Biology and ecology
Range and habitat
The common brushtail possum is perhaps the most widespread marsupial of Australia. It is found throughout the eastern and northern parts of the continent, as well as some western regions, Tasmania and a number of offshore islands, such as Kangaroo Island and Barrow Island. It is also widespread in New Zealand since its introduction in 1850. The common brushtail possum can be found in a variety of habitats, such as forests, semi-arid areas and even cultivated or urban areas. It is mostly a forest inhabiting species, however it is also found in treeless areas. In New Zealand, possums favour broadleaf-podocarp near farmland pastures. In southern beech forests and pine plantations, possums are less common. Overall, brushtail possums are more densely populated in New Zealand than in their native Australia. This may be because Australia has more fragmented eucalypt forests and more predators. In Australia, brushtail possums are threatened by humans, tiger quolls, dogs, foxes, cats, goannas, carpet snakes, and powerful owls. In New Zealand, brushtail possums are threatened only by humans and cats. The IUCN highlight the population trend in Australia as decreasing.
Food and foraging
The common brushtail possum can adapt to numerous kinds of vegetation. It prefers Eucalyptus leaves, but also eats flowers, shoots, fruits, and seeds. It may also consume animal matter such as insects, birds' eggs and chicks, and other small vertebrates. Brushtail possums may eat three or four different plant species during a foraging trip, unlike some other arboreal marsupials, such as the koala and the greater glider, which focus on single species. The brushtail possum's rounded molars cannot cut Eucalyptus leaves as finely as more specialised feeders. They are more adapted to crushing their food, which enables them to chew fruit or herbs more effectively. The brushtail possums' caecum lacks internal ridges and cannot separate coarse and fine particles as efficiently as some other arboreal marsupials. The brushtail possum cannot rely on Eucalyptus alone to provide sufficient protein. Its more generalised and mixed diet, however, does provide adequate nitrogen.
Behaviour
The common brushtail possum is largely arboreal and nocturnal. It has a mostly solitary lifestyle, and individuals keep their distance with scent markings (urinating) and vocalisations. They usually make their dens in natural places such as tree hollows and caves, but also use spaces in the roofs of houses. While they sometimes share dens, brushtails normally sleep in separate dens. Individuals from New Zealand use many more den sites than those from Australia. Brushtail possums compete with each other and other animals for den spaces, and this contributes to their mortality. This is likely another reason why brushtail possum population densities are smaller in Australia than in New Zealand. Brushtail possums are usually not aggressive towards each other and usually just stare with erect ears. They vocalise with clicks, grunts, hisses, alarm chatters, guttural coughs, and screeching.
Reproduction and life history
The common brushtail possum can breed at any time of the year, but breeding tends to peak in spring, from September to November, and in autumn, from March to May, in some areas. Mating is promiscuous and random; some males can sire several young in a season, while over half sire none. In one Queensland population, males apparently need a month of consorting with females before they can mate with them. Females have a gestation period of 16–18 days, after which they give birth to single young. A newborn brushtail possum is only 1.5 cm long and weighs only 2 g. As usual for marsupials, the newborn may climb, unaided, through the female's fur and into the pouch and attach to a teat. The young develops and remains inside the mother's pouch for another 4–5 months. When older, the young is left in the den or rides on its mother's back until it is 7–9 months old. Females reach sexual maturity when they are a year old, and males do so at the end of their second year. Brushtail possums can live up to 13 years in the wild.
Female young have a higher survival rate than their male counterparts due to establishing their home ranges closer to their mothers, while males travel farther in search of new nesting sites, encountering established territories from which they may be forcibly ejected. In New Zealand's Ōrongorongo population, female young have been found to continue to associate with their mothers after weaning, and some inherit the prime den sites. A possible competition exists between mothers and daughters for dens, and daughters may be excluded from a den occupied by the mother. In forests with shortages of den sites, females apparently produce more sons, which do not compete directly for den sites, while in forests with plentiful den sites, female young are greater in number.
Relationship with humans
The common brushtail possum is considered a pest in some areas, as it is known to cause damage to pine plantations, regenerative forest, flowers, fruit trees, and buildings. Like other possums, it is rather tolerant of humans and can sometimes be hand fed, although it is not encouraged, as their claws are quite sharp and can cause infection or disease to humans if scratched. It is a traditional food source for some indigenous Australians.
Australia
Its fur has been considered valuable and has been harvested. Although once hunted extensively for its fur in Australia, the common brushtail possum is now protected in mainland states, but it has only been partially protected in Tasmania, where an annual hunting season is used. In addition, Tasmania gives crop-protection permits to landowners whose property has been damaged.
While its populations are declining in some regions due to habitat loss, urban populations indicate an adaptation to the presence of humans. In some mainland states, possum trapping is legal to catch when attempting to evict possums from human residences (e.g. roofs), but possums must be released after dusk within 24 hours of capture, no more than 50 m from the trapping site. In some states, e.g. Victoria, trapped possums may be taken to registered veterinarians for euthanasia. In South Australia, they are fully protected and permits are required for trapping possums in human residences or for keeping or rescuing sick or injured wild possums and other native animals. In Queensland, they can only be trapped by licensed commercial relocators who must release possums within 25 metres of the point of capture to ensure that an animal is not released into another possum’s home range (possums are less likely to survive if they are released into a new area where they do not have access to a den or must compete with a neighbouring possum for den space).
New Zealand
Since its introduction from Australia by European settlers in the 1850s, the common brushtail possum has become a major threat to New Zealand native forests and birds. It is also a host for the highly contagious bovine tuberculosis. (This is not an issue in Australia, where the disease has been eradicated).
By the 1980s, the peak population had reached an estimated 60–70 million, but is now down to an estimated 30 million due to control measures. The New Zealand Department of Conservation controls possum numbers in many areas via the aerial dropping of 1080-laced bait. Hunting is not restricted, but the population seems to be stable despite the annual killing of thousands of the animals.
References
Further reading
Marsh, K. J., Wallis, I. R., & Foley, W. J. (2003). The effect of inactivating tannins on the intake of Eucalyptus foliage by a specialist Eucalyptus folivore (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) and a generalist herbivore (Trichosurus vulpecula). Australian Journal of Zoology, 51, 41–42.
External links
Blog.forestandbird.org.nz
Brushtail possum
Landcare Research NZ
Common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) at ARKive
PossumBase
Possums
Mammals described in 1792
Mammals of Tasmania
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of the Northern Territory
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of New South Wales
Marsupials of Australia
Mammals of New Zealand | [
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|
228499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Fencing at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, seven fencing events were contested. 260 fencers from 19 nations competed. The events took place at the Tuileries Garden.
Medal summary
Weekly summary
The fencing events were spread out over a good deal of time. The competitions began on Monday, 14 May.
14–20 May
The first round of the amateur foil competition was held on 14 May and 15 May. Judging was subjective, a change from the 3-touch format from four years earlier. 37 of the 54 fencers advanced, including some who had nominally lost their bouts (when the judges felt that both fencers displayed good skill) and excluding some who had nominally won.
The quarterfinals, repechage, and semifinals were also held for the foil event in the first week. The quarterfinals and repechage were again judged subjectively, but the semifinal was a round-robin pool format with matches won or lost counting towards advancement to the final. The only non-French fencer to advance past this stage was Rudolf Brosch of Austria.
21–27 May
The foil competition continued with the consolation pool and the final on 21 May. These round-robin pools determined the top 16 places in the tournament, with the top 7 going to France as Brosch finished last in the final.
The first two rounds, the repechage, and the first half of the semifinals of the masters foil event were held this week. Again, early rounds were judged subjectively but the semifinal used match results.
28 May-3 June
The masters foil competition concluded with the second half of the semifinals on 28 May and the consolation and final rounds on 29 May. France again swept the medals, though Italians Antonio Conte and Italo Santelli made strong showings, with 4th and 7th places, respectively.
Épée made its Olympic debut, with the amateur event beginning with part of the first round on 1 June and 2 June. All rounds of the event consisted of round-robin pools.
4–10 June
The épée competition continued with the second half of the first round, the quarterfinals, and the semifinals. Ramón Fonst of Cuba and Eduardo Camet of Argentina joined 7 French épéeists in advancing to the final.
11–17 June
The masters épée competition began on 11 June, with the semifinals on 13 June. France dominated the competition, taking all of the finals spots.
On 14 June, the finals of both the masters and amateur épée events were held. France took its third medal sweep in the masters event, but Fonst took the gold in the amateur event to give Cuba its first Olympic medal.
An unusual event, a competition between the amateurs and masters in the épée, was held on 15 June. The top four fencers in each class played in a one-day round-robin pool in the amateur-master event. Albert Robert Ayat, the winner of the professional event, went undefeated to win the gold medal, but the amateurs took the next three spots, including a silver medal for Fonst to make Cuba one of two nations in 1900 to win a medal with every competition entry (Luxembourg, with a marathon win as their only entry, was the other).
18–24 June
The first round, semifinals, and final of the amateur sabre event were held. The sabre events were much more internationally balanced than the other two weapons, with 3 Austrians, 2 Hungarians, and 3 Frenchmen making the final. France still took the top two spots, giving the host nation its 5th gold medal in 6 attempts.
The first round and the semifinals of the masters event of the sabre also took place in the sixth week of fencing competition. In the most international field of the events, the 8 fencers advancing to the final hailed from 5 different nations: Italy, France, Russia, Belgium, and Austria.
25–27 June
Fencing competition ended with the final of the masters sabre on Wednesday, 27 June. France won no medals in the event, as Conte and Santelli did even better in the sabre than they had in the foil, winning the gold and silver medals in the sabre. Milan Neralić of Austria took the bronze.
Participating nations
A total of 260 fencers from 19 nations (including 3 nations not recognized by the IOC) competed at the Paris Games:
Medal table
References
External links
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Fencing 1900". Accessed 21 January 2006. Available electronically at .
1900
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900 in fencing
International fencing competitions hosted by France | [
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228506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20doll | Sex doll | A sex doll (also love doll or blowup doll) is a type of anthropomorphic sex toy in the size and shape of a sexual partner. The sex doll may consist of an entire body, or just a head, pelvis, or other body part (vagina, anus, mouth, penis, breasts) intended for sexual stimulation. The parts sometimes vibrate and may be moveable and interchangeable. Sex dolls exist in many forms, but are usually distinguished from sex robots, which are anthropomorphic creations designed to be able to engage in more complex interactions.
History
Some of the first sex dolls were created by French (dame de voyage) and Spanish (dama de viaje) sailors in the sixteenth century who would be isolated during long voyages. These masturbatory dolls were often made of sewn cloth or old clothes and were a direct predecessor to today's sex dolls. Later, the Dutch sold some of these dolls to Japanese people during the Rangaku period, and the term "Dutch wives" is still sometimes used in Japan to refer to sex dolls.
One of the earliest recorded appearances of manufactured sex dolls dates to 1908, in Iwan Bloch's The Sexual Life of Our Time. Bloch wrote:
In 1918, Austrian artist Oskar Kokoschka commissioned a life-sized doll of Alma Mahler (whom Kokoschka was in love with) to German puppet maker Hermine Moos, while he was in Dresden. Although intended to simulate Alma and receive his affection, the "Alma doll" did not satisfy Kokoschka and he destroyed it during a party.
German surrealist artist Hans Bellmer has been described as “the father figure of the modern sex doll” for his sex puppets in the 1930s whose more realistic models moved sex dolls further into the future. Bellmer made three dolls, increasingly sophisticated in design, which also made waves in the international art community.
A report that, as part of the Borghild Project, Nazi Germany made sex dolls for soldiers during World War II has not been verified by reliable sources and is now considered to be a hoax. It is however said that the commercial sex doll has its origins in Germany, especially since the creation of the Bild Lilli doll in the 1950s, which was in turn the inspiration for creating the famous Barbie doll.
The production of human simulacra to substitute for human sexual partners took several technological leaps forward in the late twentieth century. By the 1970s, vinyl, latex and silicone had become the materials most frequently used in the manufacture of sex dolls; silicone, in particular, allowed a greater degree of realism.
A 1982 attempt to import a consignment of sex dolls into Britain had the unintended consequence of ending the law against importing "obscene or indecent" items that were not illegal to sell within the UK. Having had the dolls seized by Her Majesty's Customs and Excise officers, David Sullivan's Conegate Ltd. took the case all the way to the European Court of Justice, and won in 1987. Britain was forced to lift its stringent import prohibitions dating from 1876 because for imports from within the European Community they constituted a barrier to free trade under the terms of the Treaty of Rome.
Shin Takagi, founder of the company Trottla, manufactures lifelike child sex dolls in the belief that doing so provides a safe and legal outlet for men expressing pedophilic desires. This has been disputed by paraphilia researcher Dr. Peter J. Fagan, who argues that contact with the products would likely have a reinforcing effect, increasing the risk of pedophilic action being taken. Since 2013, Australian officials have confiscated imported shipments of juvenile sex dolls legally classified as child exploitation material.
Sales of sex dolls increased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Commercial forms
Cheaper sex dolls are inflatable, using air. These dolls, representing the lowest price range (less than US$75), are usually made of welded vinyl and bear only a passing resemblance to actual people. They have an artificial and typically crudely designed vagina or penis, but due to their affordability, many users are willing to overlook their shortcomings. They often burst at the seams after a few uses, although they are commonly given as gag gifts and therefore many may not be used at all. In Russia, for some years the Bubble Baba Challenge humorously featured participants river rafting on blowup dolls as a matter of entertainment but in 2013 the race was canceled on "health and safety" grounds.
At the middle market price range ($100 to approximately $1,000), dolls are made of thicker vinyl or heavy latex without welded seams or a polyurethane and silicone mixture, typically surrounding a foam core. Most have plastic mannequin-style heads and styled wigs, plastic or glass eyes, and occasionally properly molded hands and feet. Some vinyl dolls can contain water-filled body areas such as the breasts or buttocks. Latex dolls were made in Hungary, China and France but only the French manufacturer Domax now remains in production.
The manufacturing process causes most latex dolls to be delivered with a fine coating of zinc oxide covering the skin, which is usually removed by the consumer by placing the doll under the shower. Otherwise, latex is an inert and non-toxic natural material; although a small percentage of users may discover a latex allergy.
The most expensive sex dolls (approximately $1,200 and up) are usually made from silicone (usually above $3,000 at 2016 prices) or thermoplastic elastomer known as TPE (below $3,000). Dolls made of either material can be very lifelike, with faces and bodies modeled on real people in some instances, with realistic skin material (similar to that used for movie special effects), and with realistic (or even real) hair. These dolls usually have an articulated PVC or metal skeleton with flexible joints that allow them to be positioned in a variety of positions for display and for sexual acts. Silicone or TPE dolls are much heavier than vinyl or latex inflatable ones (which consist mostly of air), but are roughly half the weight of a real human being of comparable size.
Because of their ability to be posed in different positions silicone dolls are popular with artists and photographers as models.
In Japan, sex dolls are known as , which now refers to relatively inexpensive dolls. Their name originates from the term, possibly English, for the thick rattan or bamboo bolster, used to aid sleep in humid countries by keeping one's limbs lifted above sweaty sheets.
Orient Industry is considered to be the leading manufacturer of high-end silicone dolls in Japan, which started using another term around 1998 to distinguish their dolls from the image of inflatable dolls associated with the term "Dutch wife". The term has stuck and is now used generally to refer to any high-end product.
There is a business, Doru no Mori (Doll Forest) in Tokyo, that rents love dolls and rooms to male customers. In March 2007 the Japanese daily Mainichi Shimbun newspaper reported that there are also rental businesses that bring the dolls to the customer's home, and that the specialist love-doll magazine i-doloid has a print-run of 10,000 copies per issue.
The middle market and high-end market emerged in the USA around 1992. The market has grown for two main reasons. Firstly, the last twenty years have seen huge improvements over earlier types of sex dolls, and customers come to realize this through using the web. Secondly, the method of retail purchase has also improved, now showing customers what the actual doll, seams, hair, and even orifices look like.
In China the market has mushroomed on account of the demographic effects of the one child policy and accordingly numerous new Chinese manufacturers have appeared in recent years.
Non-standard forms
In Japan one can purchase inflatable or stuffed love pillows or dakimakura that can be fitted with a cover printed with a life-size picture of a porn star or anime character. Other less common novelty love dolls include overweight, intersex, and alien dolls, which are usable for pleasure but also tend to be given as gag gifts.
Some companies manufacture cloth sex dolls using the same technology that is used to create plush toys. With widespread cultural use of the internet amongst younger generations, numerous forums exist for amateurs who create their own sex dolls from fabric or other materials. There are even mailing lists for discussing techniques and experiences with MLDs (material love dolls) .
Some inflatable sex dolls are made in the form of animals, most notably sheep and cows. These dolls are more of a joke gift or party novelty and are often not suitable for sexual use.
New materials and technologies
Silicone dolls were at first made from tin-cure silicone but platinum technology has better longevity, less prone to tears and compression marks. For this reason, the "RealDoll" manufacturer reported switching from the tin to the platinum material in June 2009 and all other manufacturers have followed suit.
Since 2012 or so a thermoplastic elastomer alternative known as TPE has come into common use particularly by Chinese manufacturers which have enabled realistic dolls to be made which are cheaper than those composed of the high quality expensive platinum cure silicone.
CybOrgasMatrix dolls used an elastic gel, which they claimed to be superior to silicone in elasticity, shape memory, and durability. Both this company and the company "First Androids" once offered pelvic thruster motor, audio capability, and heated orifices, though these options are no longer available. Several modern doll manufacturers now offer the last option on their silicone dolls, with the addition of an internal heating system.
Foam dolls have now become available from EX Doll and SeeDree dolls, in hope of making Sex Dolls a lighter weight. Cloud Climax reports that they can be as low as 9 kg, whilst being a life-sized doll and that the heads are silicone for realism.
Legal restrictions and issues
General
In 2019, the Israeli media reported on an incident where a European sex dolls company created a sex doll that is based on the Israeli model, Yael Cohen Aris, without her permission. In 2020, the same story was further investigated and reported by Playboy, and was mentioned in relation to Deepfake.
The importation of sex dolls for men has been banned in Botswana according to Section 178 of the Botswana Penal Code. The law further abolishes the right to "possess, lend, trade-in, export, import, and or exhibit obscene objects or any objects tending to corrupt morals in Botswana", which includes sex dolls.
Austria
As prostitution is legalized and regulated, there are no legal restrictions concerning sex dolls in Austria and numerous brothels are offering sex dolls for clients. Although sex dolls originally started appearing in Austria around 1980, they gained popularity in 2017 when a brothel started offering sex doll services to clients. This can be attributed to the fact that the dolls have become more realistic in recent years.
In addition to being able to have intercourse with the sex doll, some places allow clients to purchase sex dolls for themselves. One of the biggest laufhauses in Vienna offers sex in the laufhaus with dolls alongside real women.
According to brothel owners who offer sex dolls, the dolls are being properly cleaned after every session. Unprotected sex with sex dolls is also allowed, but it is not advised as there is no guarantee that the dolls are being cleaned after each client.
South Korea
In 2018 the South Korean Supreme Court ruled to legalize the sale of sex dolls. The issue still remains controversial in the country.
China
In China, it is legal to buy and use sex dolls. In the past year, sex doll experience halls have appeared in many cities in China.
United States
Sex dolls that look like children have been banned in Florida, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
Sex robots
In June 2006, Henrik Christensen of the European Robotics Research Network told the UK's Sunday Times that "people are going to be having sex with robots within five years."
Reacting to the ongoing development of "sex robots" or "sexbots", in September 2015, Kathleen Richardson of De Montfort University and Erik Billing of the University of Skövde created the Campaign Against Sex Robots, calling for a ban on the creation of anthropomorphic sex robots. They argue that the introduction of such devices would be socially harmful, and demeaning to women and children.
State of research
Compared to pornography for which thousands, and compared to sex robots for which dozens of scientific studies are available, sex dolls, their use and effects have been relatively little researched so far. This is not surprising because sex dolls are a subtype of sex toys, and sex toys as material sexual objects are fairly under-researched in general.
Nevertheless, a systematic review from the year 2020 was able to identify 29 published academic studies on sex dolls. These sex doll studies deal with the following five research questions:
1. What are appropriate theoretical conceptualizations of sex dolls?
2. How are sex dolls represented in art and media?
3. What empirical findings on the use and effect of sex dolls are available through interviews, surveys or analyses of sex doll online forums?
4. What therapeutic uses and effects of sex dolls are documented in clinical case studies?
5. Should there be a legal regulation of child sex dolls, and if yes, why and how?
Overall, the current state of research shows that sex doll owners (so far, the majority are men) and their uses are diverse and that sex dolls can be associated with negative and positive effects. Likewise, the available empirical studies with sex doll owners indicate that they do not only regard and treat their dolls as “sex” dolls, but sometimes also as “love” dolls or social companions. A clinical case study explained how living with a doll helped a divorced man to overcome relationship trauma and get ready to approach real women again. Psychological theories that can explain the human-doll relationship are, among others, the theory of transitional objects or the theory of parasocial interactions and relationships usually applied to media personas.
See also
Agalmatophilia
Artificial vagina
CandyGirl
RealDoll
Doll fetish
Gynoid
List of inflatable manufactured goods
Robot fetishism
Uncanny valley
Sex machine
Object sexuality
Xdolls
References
Notes
Further reading
Alexandre, Elisabeth. Des Poupées et des hommes — enquete sur l'amour Artif. (2005). (Book is in French - 'Dolls and Men — Investigation into Artificial Love').
Dorfman, Elana. Still Lovers (2005). . (Female art/fashion photographer photographs men and their dolls).
Guys and Dolls: Art, Science, Fashion, and relationships. Royal Pavilion, Libraries, and Museums. (2005). (102-page catalog of a major exhibition at Brighton Museum and Art Gallery, England).
Moya, Cynthia Ann. (2006) "Artificial Vaginas and Sex Dolls: An Erotological Investigation." Dissertation, San Francisco, CA: Institute for Advanced Study of Human Sexuality. Available in hardcopy or CD-ROM.
External links
"Just Like a Woman" - Salon.com article describing cultural phenomenon of RealDolls
- original, more detailed version of the Salon article
Sexbot slaves - Thanks to new technology, sex toys are becoming tools for connection - but will sexbots reverse that trend? (June 2014), Leah Reich, Aeon
"Will Sex Dolls Replace Prostitutes?" - (Sep 2021), Love Doll Palace | [
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228508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack%20submarine | Attack submarine | An attack submarine or hunter-killer submarine is a submarine specifically designed for the purpose of attacking and sinking other submarines, surface combatants and merchant vessels. In the Soviet and Russian navies they were and are called "multi-purpose submarines". They are also used to protect friendly surface combatants and missile submarines. Some attack subs are also armed with cruise missiles, increasing the scope of their potential missions to include land targets.
Attack submarines may be either nuclear-powered or diesel-electric ("conventionally") powered. In the United States Navy naming system, and in the equivalent NATO system (STANAG 1166), nuclear-powered attack submarines are known as SSNs and their anti-submarine (ASW) diesel-electric predecessors were SSKs. In the US Navy, SSNs are unofficially called "fast attacks".
History
Origins
During World War II submarines that fulfilled the offensive surface attack role were termed fleet submarines in the U.S. Navy and "ocean-going", "long-patrol", "type 1" or "1st class" by continental European navies.
In the action of 9 February 1945, sank while both were at periscope depth. This was the first and so far only intentional sinking of a submerged submarine by a submerged submarine. U-864 was snorkeling, thus producing much noise for Venturers hydrophones (an early form of passive sonar) to detect, and Venturer was fortunate in having over 45 minutes to plot the U-boat's zig-zag course by observing the snorkel mast. Venturers commander, James S. "Jimmy" Launders, was astute in assuming the U-boat would execute an "emergency deep" maneuver once it heard the torpedoes in the water, thus the "spread" of four torpedoes immediately available was aimed on that assumption. One hit, sinking the U-boat.
Following World War II, advanced German submarines, especially the Type XXI U-boat, became available to the Allies, particularly the United States Navy and the Soviet Navy. Initially, the Type XVII U-boat, with a Walter hydrogen peroxide-fueled gas turbine allowing high sustained underwater speed, was thought to be more developed than was actually the case, and was viewed as the submarine technology of the immediate future. However, the Type XXI, streamlined and with a high battery capacity for high submerged speed, was fully developed and became the basis for most non-nuclear submarine designs worldwide through the 1950s. In the US Navy, the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) was developed to modernize World War II submarines along the lines of the Type XXI. By 1955 the U.S. Navy was using the term 'attack submarine' to describe the GUPPY conversions and the first postwar submarines (the and the ).
Beginnings of a separate hunter-killer submarine type (SSK)
It was realized that the Soviet Union had acquired Type XXI and other advanced U-boats and would soon be putting their own equivalents into production. In 1948 the US Navy prepared estimates of the number of anti-submarine warfare (ASW)-capable submarines that would be needed to counter the hundreds of advanced Soviet submarines that were expected to be in service by 1960. Two scenarios were considered: a reasonable scenario assuming the Soviets would build to their existing force level of about 360 submarines, and a "nightmare" scenario projecting that the Soviets could build submarines as fast as the Germans had built U-boats, with a force level of 2,000 submarines. The projected US SSK force levels for these scenarios were 250 for the former and 970 for the latter. Additional anti-surface (i.e., 'attack'), guided missile, and radar picket submarines would also be needed. By comparison, the total US submarine force at the end of World War II, excluding obsolescent training submarines, was just over 200 boats.
A small submarine suitable for mass production was designed to meet the SSK requirement. This resulted in the three submarines of the K-1 class (later named the Barracuda class), which entered service in 1951. At surfaced, they were considerably smaller than the boats produced in World War II. They were equipped with an advanced passive sonar, the bow-mounted BQR-4, but had only four torpedo tubes. Initially, a sonar located around the conning tower was considered, but tests showed that bow-mounted sonar was much less affected by the submarine's own noise.
While developing the purpose-built SSKs, consideration was given to converting World War II submarines into SSKs. The less-capable was chosen for this, as some of the deeper-diving - and boats were being upgraded as GUPPYs. Seven Gato-class boats were converted to SSKs in 1951–53. These had the bow-mounted BQR-4 sonar of the other SSKs, with four of the six bow torpedo tubes removed to make room for the sonar and its electronics. The four stern torpedo tubes were retained. Two diesel engines were removed, and the auxiliary machinery was relocated in their place and sound-isolated to reduce the submarine's own noise.
The Soviets took longer than anticipated to start producing new submarines in quantity. By 1952 only ten had entered service. However, production was soon ramped up. By the end of 1960 a total of 320 new Soviet submarines had been built (very close to the USN's 1948 low-end assumption), 215 of them were the Project 613 class (NATO Whiskey class), a smaller derivative of the Type XXI. Significantly, eight of the new submarines were nuclear-powered.
Nuclear era
End of the U.S. conventional hunter-killers (SSK)
, the world's first nuclear submarine, was operational in 1955; the Soviets followed this only three years later with their first Project 627 "Kit"-class SSN (NATO November class). Since a nuclear submarine could maintain a high speed at a deep depth indefinitely, conventional SSKs would be useless against them except in shallow water. As the development and deployment of nuclear submarines proceeded, in 1957–59 the US Navy's SSKs were decommissioned or redesignated and reassigned to other duties. It had become apparent that all nuclear submarines would have to perform ASW missions.
Other new technologies
Research proceeded rapidly to maximize the potential of the nuclear submarine for the ASW and other missions. The US Navy developed a fully streamlined hull form and tested other technologies with the conventional , commissioned in 1953. The new hull form was first operationalized with the three conventional boats and the six nuclear boats, when both classes entered service beginning in 1959. The was declared the "world's fastest submarine" following trials, although the actual speed was kept secret.
Sonar research showed that a sonar sphere capable of three-dimensional operation, mounted at the very bow of a streamlined submarine, would increase detection performance. This was recommended by Project Nobska, a 1956 study ordered by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke. The one-off in 1960 and the starting in 1961 were the first with a bow-mounted sonar sphere; midships torpedo tubes angled outboard were fitted to make room for the sphere.
Failure to develop a U.S. nuclear hunter-killer (SSKN)
Tullibee was a type of nuclear-powered SSK; technologically very successful, intentionally slow but ultra-quiet with turbo-electric drive. Her unexpectedly high cost compared with the Thresher coupled with her lower performance was judged to be not cost-effective and the type was not repeated; the Navy decided to merge the hunter-killer role with the attack submarines, making the terms interchangible. Thresher was faster and had an increased diving depth, carried twice as many torpedoes, included comparable sound silencing improvements, and was commissioned only nine months later.
Thresher'''s loss in April 1963 triggered a major redesign of subsequent US submarines known as the SUBSAFE program. However, Threshers general arrangement and concept were continued in all subsequent US Navy attack submarines.
Later developments
Britain commissioned its first nuclear attack submarine in 1963.
The first fully streamlined Soviet attack submarines were the Project 671 "Yorsh" class (NATO Victor I class), which first entered service in 1967.
China commissioned its first nuclear attack submarine Changzheng 1 in 1974, and France its first Rubis-class submarine in 1983. Déconstruction : le SNA « Rubis » attendu début 2017 à Cherbourg, le marin.fr
The only time in history that a nuclear attack submarine engaged and sank an enemy warship was in the Falklands War, when on 2 May 1982 the British nuclear submarine torpedoed and sank the Argentine light cruiser .
As of 2021 Brazil has a nuclear attack submarine under construction, India has finalized a nuclear attack submarine interim design, and Australia has started a nuclear attack submarine program under the AUKUS security pact with UK and US assistance. This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence.
Modern conventional submarines
Conventional attack submarines have however remained relevant throughout the nuclear era, with the British class and the Soviet , , and classes being good examples which served during the Cold War. With the advent of air-independent propulsion technology, these submarines have grown more and more capable. Examples include the Type 212, and classes of submarine. The US Navy leased to perform the opposing force role during ASW exercises tactics. The Gotland caused a stir in 2005 when during training it "sank" the American carrier .
Operators
operates six s.
operates one Type 209 submarine and one .
operates six s.
operates two Ming-class submarines.
operates five Type 209 submarines and three s.
operates four s purchased from the United Kingdom.
operates two Type 209 submarines and two s.
operates 9 Shang-class submarines, 3 Han-class submarines, 18 Yuan-class submarines, 12 Song-class submarines, 12 s, and 4 Ming-class submarines.
operates two s, one and one .
operates two Type 209 submarines.
operates two Type 209 submarines.
operates four Type 209 submarines and four s.
operates five s and one .
operates six Type 212 submarines.
operates four Type 209 submarines, three s, eight s.
operates three s and one .
operates seven Type 209 submarines and four Type 214 submarines.
operates three s.
operates six s.
operates four Type 212 submarines and four s.
operates 12 s, 9 s, and one .
operates 20 s.
operates nine s and eight Type 214 submarines.
operates two s.
operates a single purchased from India and a single Ming-class submarine purchased from China.
operates four s.
operates six s.
operates five s.
operates six Type 209 submarines.
operates one .
operates two Type 214 submarines.
possesses a single , though it is not operational.
operates 10 s, 2 s, two s, 21 s, and one .
operates two s and two s, all purchased from Sweden.
operates three Type 209 submarines.
operates two s.
operates three s and one .
operates 12 Type 209 submarines.
operates four s and three s.
operates 28 s, three s, and 19 s.
operates two Type 209 submarines.
operates six s.
Former operators
lost its entire fleet following the Empire's collapse after World War I.
two s were seized by the Soviet Union in 1940.
forced to decommission all five of its submarines following World War II under the Paris Peace Treaty.
decommissioned its last in 1951.
retired its six s from active service in 1984.
retired all four of its s in 1989.
retired all three of its s in the 1990s.
retired all three of its s in 1993.
retired its last two s and its lone in 2005.
transferred its entire navy to Montenegro upon their independence in 2006.
decommissioned its last in 2006.
two s were seized by the Soviet Union in 1940. After Estonia regained independence in 1991, it took back , and was kept in ceremonial commission as the flagship until 2011.
decommissioned its last , Slava'' in 2011.
only submarine, was captured by the Russian Navy during the 2014 Annexation of Crimea.
See also
List of submarine classes in service
List of submarine operators
References
Citations
Sources
External links
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|
228513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Byers | Stephen Byers | Stephen John Byers (born 13 April 1953) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Wallsend between 1992 and 1997, and North Tyneside from 1997 to 2010. He was implicated in the MP expenses scandal and retired from politics in 2010.
During Byers' ministerial career, he was Chief Secretary to the Treasury, Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, and Secretary of State for Transport, Local Government and the Regions in the Cabinet.
Early career
Stephen Byers was born in Wolverhampton. He was educated at Wymondham College, a state-run day and boarding school, Chester City Grammar School and the Chester College of Further Education. He then gained a law degree at Liverpool John Moores University and became a law lecturer at Newcastle Polytechnic (now Northumbria University) in 1977, a post he retained until his election as a Member of Parliament in 1992.
Byers was elected as a councillor to the North Tyneside District Council in 1980 and was its deputy leader from 1985 until he became an MP in 1992. Reportedly a former supporter of the entryist Militant group once active within the Labour Partya claim which he says is untrue Byers had publicly rejected the group's approach by 1986. In the 1983 general election, he contested the Conservative stronghold seat of Hexham, finishing in third place and some 14,000 votes behind the former Cabinet minister Geoffrey Rippon. He was first elected to Parliament in the 1992 general election in Wallsend, a Labour stronghold, following the retirement of Ted Garrett, and secured a majority of 19,470.
In 1993, Byers joined the influential Home Affairs Select committee. He became an ally of Tony Blair, a fellow northeastern Labour MP, who was also in favour of 'modernising' the Labour Party. Blair gave him a job as soon as he became the Leader of the Opposition, placing Byers in the Whips Office. He became a spokesman for the Department for Education and Employment in 1995, and he identified himself as an "outrider" for the New Labour project, regularly floating radical ideas on Blair's behalf to test reaction. An instance of this is when Byers briefed journalists in 1996 saying that the party might sever its links with the trade unions. Byers was swiftly appointed to Shadow ministerial posts and became the Minister for School Standards with the title of Minister of State at the Department of Education and Employment following the victorious 1997 general election. While at this post, Byers drew attention to himself when he said 8 times 7 was 54 in a BBC interview promoting a Government numeracy drive.
His Wallsend constituency was abolished in 1997 and he was elected for the equally safe North Tyneside constituency with a 26,643 vote majority.
Cabinet appointment
He joined the Cabinet in July 1998, as Chief Secretary to the Treasury and became a Member of the Privy Council. After the sudden resignation of Peter Mandelson, Byers was appointed as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry in December 1998. After the 2001 general election, he was made Secretary of State for Transport, Local Government & the Regions.
MG Rover
Byers was heavily criticised for his part in the collapse of the MG Rover Group. Byers, as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, advocated the 2000 deal with the Phoenix Consortium instead of the bid from Alchemy Partners, a successful turnaround private equity investor that would have slimmed down the business. Although this deal prolonged the existence of the group for five years, it ultimately collapsed at extensive cost to the British tax payers while giving large profits from a dowry given by the seller BMW to the Phoenix Consortium. Byers responded to this criticism in his submission to the Trade and Industry committee, stating that his actions had largely been in line with government policy and that the long slow collapse of MG Rover Group had been preferable to a short sudden collapse.
Railtrack
The first source of controversy in the Railtrack incident was the decision, taken at short notice with disregard for the regulator Tom Winsor, and implemented over a weekend, to ask the High Court to put the privatised railway infrastructure company Railtrack into railway administration, on 7 October 2001. This ultimately led to the creation of Network Rail, which effectively renationalised Britain's railway infrastructure company. The British Office for National Statistics insisted that the placement of Network Rail in the private sector was correct. Byers later admitted that he had not been truthful.
Byers' decision angered those private investors who had lost money, and under pressure from The City, the government eventually had to offer compensation. The action also led to the largest class legal action ever seen in the British courts.
Exit from the Cabinet
In late 2001, it was revealed that Byers' political adviser, Jo Moore, had sent an email on 11 September 2001, suggesting that the September 11, 2001 attacks made it "a very good day to get out anything we want to bury". Moore and Byers survived the resulting outrage, but, in February 2002, the public uproar broke out again. A leaked email from the Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions's head of news, Martin Sixsmith, a former BBC news reporter, seemed to warn Moore not to "bury" any more bad news on the day of Princess Margaret's funeral, implying that she was attempting to do so. On 15 February, the resignations of both Moore and Sixsmith were announced. Later on, however, Sixsmith stated that he had not agreed to go, but rather that Byers had insisted on the head of news' departure as his price to pay for losing Moore. In May it was confirmed by the Department that Byers had announced Sixsmith's resignation prematurely, though the Government said that this was due to a misunderstanding, and he had done nothing wrong.
Byers' troubles continued over the following months. The Labour-dominated House of Commons Transport Select Committee criticised the party's transport strategy, and a long-running row over Byers' decision as Trade Secretary to allow pornographic-magazine publisher Richard Desmond to buy the Daily Express newspaper returned to the limelight. The pressure on Byers was too much, and he resigned on 28 May 2002 to be replaced by Alastair Darling.
Return to backbenches
On the backbenches, Byers kept up pressure for the Labour Party to keep to the centre ground. In August 2006, he suggested that Labour heir-apparent, Gordon Brown, should discard the inheritance tax to prove his "New Labour" credentials to Middle England. This suggestion was widely criticised by many MPs, who claimed that the publicity surrounding Byers' plan would "frighten constituents in the high-priced south into believing they would have to pay death duties, when most won't".
On 14 November 2009, he announced that he would be stepping down from Parliament at the 2010 general election.
Following the criticism of the Prime Minister over the budget of 2007, which dismissed the ten percent starting rate of income tax as well as that of 2008, which included a planned two percent rise in fuel duties, Byers accused Gordon Brown of manipulating the tax system for "tactical advantage" and urged an "immediate halt" to proposals to increase taxes on motorists. He also condemned the government's proposed inheritance tax reforms that had been launched in response to Opposition proposals to reform the tax. He went on to urge the government to carry out a fundamental rethinking of tax policy.
Expenses
As part of a series of reports highlighting MPs' expenses claims, on 10 May 2009, The Sunday Telegraph reported that Byers had claimed more than in second home allowances for a London flat owned by his partner, where the MP lived rent-free. Allegedly included in his expenses claims was £27,000 for redecoration, maintenance, and appliances for the property.
Lobbyist investigation
In March 2010, Byers was among the politicians caught out by undercover journalists who were posing as lobbyists from an international company. The journalists were from The Sunday Times and filming for a Channel Four investigatory series called Dispatches. He was shown describing himself as a "cab for hire" and offering to lobby his parliamentary contacts in support of the fictitious company for a financial payment of between £3,000 and £5,000 per day. Byers claimed to have influenced outcomes for National Express and Tesco through his relationships with Lord Adonis, Transport Secretary, and Lord Mandelson, Business Secretary, respectively. He claimed that he phoned Mandelson to put a stop to "massively bureaucratic" food labelling regulations after he had been contacted by Tesco. He later withdrew his name for consideration by the fictitious lobbying company via email, claiming he had over-stated his role, writing, "I have not spoken to Andrew Adonis or Peter Mandelson about the matters I mentioned". When the story broke, National Express and Tesco also denied there was any truth in Byers' statements. Byers referred himself to John Lyon, the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards. Byers expressed confidence that Lyon would clear his name, but he was eventually banned from the parliamentary estate. On 22 March 2010, Byers' administrative suspension from the membership of the Parliamentary Labour Party was announced alongside those of Patricia Hewitt, Geoff Hoon and Margaret Moran. However, all four remained members of the Labour Party itself.
On 9 December 2010, Geoff Hoon along with Stephen Byers and Richard Caborn were banned from parliament, the Standards and Privileges Committee banned Geoff Hoon for a minimum five years as his was the most serious breach, whilst Byers received two years and Caborn six months.
See also
List of residents of Wolverhampton
Footnotes
External links
Guardian Unlimited Politics – Ask Aristotle: Stephen Byers MP
BBC News report on Stephen Byer's sacking from the UK Government by Tony Blair
TheyWorkForYou.com – Stephen Byers MP
|-
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|-
1953 births
Living people
Academics of Northumbria University
Alumni of Liverpool John Moores University
British Secretaries of State
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Friends of Israel
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Chester City Grammar School
People from Wolverhampton
Secretaries of State for Transport (UK)
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
Councillors in Tyne and Wear
People educated at Wymondham College
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Labour Party (UK) councillors | [
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|
228514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrobatidae | Acrobatidae | The Acrobatidae are a small family of gliding marsupials containing two genera, each with a single species, the feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus) from Australia and feather-tailed possum (Distoechurus pennatus) from New Guinea.
This family of the order Diprotodontia, which can be found in the east coast and inland of Australia and in some islands of New Guinea, is characterized by their very small size, which has side effects: because their mass-to-surface-area ratio is so small, heat escapes quicker from their bodies than it would in larger animals (the larger the mass-to-surface-area ratio, the harder it is to get rid of heat). Therefore, when temperature drops or food is scarce, they have trouble maintaining their body temperature and they enter a state known as torpidity (not to be confused with hibernation, which is not known in marsupials) which can last between one day and two weeks. In this state, the animal's breathing slows down, its temperature drops to almost that of its surroundings, and the animal becomes unresponsive.
Taxonomy
Family Acrobatidae
Genus Acrobates
Feathertail glider, Acrobates pygmaeus
Genus Distoechurus
Feather-tailed possum, Distoechurus pennatus
References
Possums
Mammal families | [
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|
228515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feathertail%20glider | Feathertail glider | The feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus), also known as the pygmy gliding possum, pygmy glider, pygmy phalanger, flying phalanger and flying mouse, is a species of marsupial native to eastern Australia. It is the world's smallest gliding mammal and is named for its long feather-shaped tail.
A second species, the broad-toed feathertail glider (Acrobates (Dromicia) frontalis, De Vis 1887) is recognised by some authors based on unpublished genetic studies and cryptic morphological differences in toe and tail characteristics. With this recognition, it is suggested that Acrobates pygmaeus takes the common name 'narrow-toed feathertail glider'.
Description
At just in head-and-body length and weighing about , the feathertail glider is only around the size of a small mouse, and is the world's smallest gliding mammal. The fur is soft and silky, and is a uniform greyish brown on the upper body, and white on the underside. There are rings of dark fur around the eyes, the rhinarium is hairless and deeply cleft, and the ears are moderately large and rounded. The glider also has an unusually large number of whiskers, sprouting from the snout and cheeks, and from the base of each ear.
Like other gliding mammals, the feathertail glider has a patagium stretching between the fore and hind legs. Only reaching the elbows and knees, this is smaller than that of the petaurid gliding possums, although the presence of a fringe of long hairs increases its effective area. The tail is about the same length as the head and body combined, oval in cross-section, only slightly prehensile, and has very short fur except for two distinctive rows of long, stiff hairs on either side. This gives the tail the appearance of a feather or a double-sided comb. The hindfeet possess enlarged, opposable first digits, which unlike all the other toes on both fore and hind feet, lack claws.
The tongue is long and thin, reaching as much as , and has numerous long papillae that give it a brush-like appearance. This improves the animal's ability to collect pollen and consume semi-liquid food. The structure of the ear is also unusual, since the animal possesses a unique bony disc with a narrow crescent-shaped slit just in front of the eardrum. The function of this bone is unclear, but it may act as a Helmholtz resonator and enhance sensitivity to certain frequencies of sound. The brain has been recorded as weighing .
The female has two vaginae, which merge into a single sinus before opening into a cloaca together with the rectum. The pouch opens towards the front, as is common in diprotodont marsupials, and contains four teats.
Distribution and habitat
Feathertail gliders are found across the eastern seaboard of continental Australia, from northern Queensland to Victoria and extreme south-eastern South Australia. There are no recognised subspecies. They inhabit a wide range of forest types across the region, from sea level to at least . Fossils belonging to the genus Acrobates have been identified from deposits in Queensland dating back to 0.5 million years ago, during the late Pleistocene.
Behaviour and biology
Feathertail gliders are omnivorous, feeding on nectar, pollen, and arthropods such as moths, ants, and termites. They are arboreal, and although they do occasionally descend to the ground to forage, they spend as much as 87% of their time over above the ground, particularly in eucalyptus trees. They are nocturnal, spending the day resting in nests in tree hollows, lined with leaves or shredded bark. They are social animals, and up to five may share a single nest, especially during the breeding season.
They are highly adept climbers, able to cling to the smooth trunks of eucalyptus trees. In experiments, they have even proved able to climb vertical panes of glass, a feat that is due to a combination of fine skin ridges and sweat that allow their feet to function as suction cups. Movement through the trees is aided by their gliding ability; they are able to glide as far as , and typically do so three to five times every hour through the night.
Feathertail gliders do not hibernate as such, but are capable of entering torpor during cold weather at any time of the year. Torpor can last for several days, during which time the animal's body temperature can drop to as low as and oxygen consumption to just 1% of normal. Torpid gliders curl into a ball, wrapping their tail around themselves and folding their ears flat, and often huddling together with up to four other individuals to reduce heat loss and conserve energy.
The breeding season lasts from July to January in Victoria, and may be longer further to the north. Females typically give birth to two litters of up to four young in a season, and are able to mate again shortly after the first litter is born. The second litter then enters embryonic diapause, and is not born until the first litter has finished weaning at about 105 days. Multiple paternity is common, even within litters, as the females are sexually promiscuous. The young remain in the pouch for the first 65 days of life, and the maximum lifespan is about five years.
In captivity
The New Zoo in Poznań, Poland, was the first European zoo to breed feathertail gliders in 1999 (their animals originated from Sydney's Taronga Zoo). Some of the feathertail gliders born in Poznań have been sent to other European zoos, meaning that the entire European captive population is of Poznań descent. Australia's Taronga Zoo was the first zoo to breed feathertail gliders in captivity.
In culture
A feathertail glider was featured on the reverse of the Australian 1-cent coin until 1991 when the 1-cent denomination was discontinued.
References
External links
Photos and information about the feathertail glider — Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland
Photos and information about the feathertail glider — University of Michigan Museum of Zoology
Mammals described in 1793
Gliding possums
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of Victoria (Australia) | [
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228519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voices%20of%20a%20Distant%20Star | Voices of a Distant Star | is a Japanese science fiction original video animation (OVA) short film created and animated by Makoto Shinkai. It follows the lives of two close childhood friends, a boy and a girl, who get separated once the girl is sent into space to fight in a war against aliens. As the 15-year-old girl goes deeper and deeper into space, the texts she sends take longer to reach the Earth; the film simultaneously follows her battles and the boy's life as he receives her texts over the years.
The OVA premiered in Japan in February 2002 in an advance screening. It was followed by two DVD releases on April 19 and October 6, 2002. ADV Films licensed the OVA for release in North America and the United Kingdom, Madman Entertainment licensed it for Australasia, and Anime Limited licensed it for the United Kingdom. In 2002, it won the Animation Kobe award for packaged work. It also won the 2003 Seiun Award for Best Media. It was very positively received by critics, who praised its artistic dimension, plot, and music; the English-language version, however was criticized for its dubbing.
The OVA was adapted into a drama CD by Pioneer LDC and a novel was written by Waku Ōba, illustrated by Makoto Shinkai and Kou Yaginuma, and published by Media Factory's imprint MF Bunko J. Makoto Shinkai adapted a manga from the OVA, illustrated by Mizu Sahara; Kodansha serialized it in its manga magazine, Afternoon, from April 2004, and released the manga as a one-shot on February 23, 2005. The manga was licensed for a North American release by Tokyopop, which published it on August 1, 2006.
Plot
A schoolgirl named Mikako Nagamine (Mika Shinohara (original Japanese), Sumi Muto (Japanese), Cynthia Martinez (English)) is recruited into the UN Space Army to fight in a war against a group of aliens called the Tarsiansnamed after the Tharsis region of Mars where they were first encountered. As a Special Agent, Mikako pilots a giant robotic mecha called a Tracer as part of a fighting squadron attached to the spacecraft carrier Lysithea. When the Lysithea leaves Earth to search for the Tarsians, Mikako's friend Noboru Terao (Makoto Shinkai (original Japanese), Chihiro Suzuki (Japanese), Adam Colon (English)) remains on Earth. The two continue to communicate across space using the e-mail facilities on their mobile telephones. As the Lysithea travels deeper into space, messages take increasingly longer to reach Noboru on Earth, and the time-lag of their correspondence eventually spans years.
The narrative begins in 2047. Mikako is apparently alone in a hauntingly empty city, trying to contact people through her mobile telephone. She wakes up in her Tracer orbiting an extrasolar planet. She then goes to Agartha, the fictional fourth planet of the Sirius Solar System. Mikako sends an e-mail to Noboru (which shows the date 2047-09-16), with the subject "I am here", which would reach him eight years later. Some flashes of imagery, perhaps indicative of memory, a hallucination, or even a mystical encounter, are then shown. The room shown at the beginning of the animation is presented again; Mikako is squatting in the corner, sobbing and pleading with her doppelganger to let her see Noboru again so she can tell him she loves him.
The ship's alarm warns Mikako that the Tarsians are surrounding her, but she does not understand. A climactic battle ensues. On Earth, Noboru receives the message almost nine years later. At Agartha, three of the four carriers equipped with the warp engines which brought the expeditionary force to Sirius have been destroyed. The Lysithea is still intact after Mikako joins the fight and stops its destruction. After winning the battle, Mikako lets her damaged Tracer drift in space.
In the manga, 16-year-old Mikako sends a message to 25-year-old Noboru, telling him that she loves him. By this time, Noboru himself has joined the UN, which has launched a rescue mission for the Lysithea. When Mikako hears that the UN is sending help for their rescue, she consults a list of people on the mission, and finds that Noboru is among them. The manga ends with Mikako saying that they will definitely meet again.
Production
Voices of a Distant Star was written, directed and produced by Makoto Shinkai on his Power Mac G4 using LightWave, Adobe Photoshop 5.0, Adobe After Effects 4.1 and Commotion 3.1 DV software. Around June 2000, Shinkai drew the first picture for Voicesof a girl holding a mobile telephone in a cockpit.
Shinkai said the OVA was inspired by Dracula and Laputa. He stated that production took seven months to complete. He said another inspiration was his frequent sending of text messaging to his wife when he was working. Shinkai cited the availability of digital hardware and software tools for image production at his workplace, Falcom, and friends' view that individual film production could occur because of the improvement of consumer electronics.
Makoto and his then girlfriend, Mika Shinohara, provided the voice acting for the working dub. A second Japanese dub was later created for the DVD release with professional voice actors. Makoto's friend Tenmon, who had worked with Makoto's video game company, provided the soundtrack. The song and film were created together in sync during storyboarding. Sometimes, the timing of the animation had to be changed to match the music.
The ending theme to the OVA, "Through the Years and Far Away" (Hello, Little Star), was composed by Tenmon, with lyrics written by K. Juno and sung by Low.
Media
OVA
The Voices of a Distant Star OVA was directed, written and produced by Makoto Shinkai. Shinkai and his fiancé, Mika Shinohara, provided the voices of the characters for the original video. The OVA was released for an advanced screening in February 2002. Yoshihiro Hagiwara produced the DVD release, and the voice actors were Chihiro Suzuki and Sumi Mutoh. CoMix Wave Inc. released it on DVD on April 19, 2002. A DVD Book version of the story was released by Tokuma Shoten on October 6, 2002.
In July 2002, ADV Films announced it had licensed Voices of a Distant Star for a North American release. Steven Foster, director of ADV Films, directed the dubbing of the film into English, with voices provided by Adam Colon and Cynthia Martinez. ADV Films released the North American DVD on June 10, 2003. On June 30, 2003, ADV recalled the North American DVDs because they failed to include the original Japanese tracks made by Shinkai and Shinohara. ADV Films UK released the DVD in the United Kingdom on November 17, 2003. ADV Films UK also released a Shinkai Collection DVD set, containing Voices of a Distant Star and The Place Promised in Our Early Days, on September 3, 2007. Anime Limited has since taken over ADV Film's license for the film and has announced DVD and Blu-ray twin-pack releases of Voices of a Distant Star and The Place Promised in Our Early Days in the UK. The film was licensed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment, which released the DVD on October 15, 2003.
The film was licensed in France by Kazé, in Italy by D/visual, in Russia by XLM Media, in Taiwan by Proware Multimedia International. Crunchyroll streamed Voices for free for 48 hours beginning on March 5, 2010, to celebrate Shinkai as director.
Other
A drama CD was released by Pioneer LDC on June 25, 2002. A novel was adapted from the OVA by Waku Ōba and illustrated by Makoto Shinkai and Kou Yaginuma. The novel was published by Media Factory's imprint MF Bunko J on July 25, 2002.
The OVA was adapted into a manga by Makoto Shinkai and illustrated by Mizu Sahara. It was serialized in Kodansha's manga magazine, Afternoon from April 2004. Kodansha released the manga as a one-shot on February 23, 2005. The manga was licensed for a North American release by Tokyopop, which published the manga on August 1, 2006. The manga was also licensed in Italy by D/visual, in Germany by Egmont Manga & Anime and in Portugal by Panini Comics. The manga was re-licensed in English by Vertical. A second novel, Words of Love/Across the Stars, was written by Arata Kanoh and initially released in 2006, although it would not get an English translation and release by Vertical until 2019.
Reception
Voices of A Distant Star film was listed 100th on DVD Verdict's Top 100 DVD Films list. It has also won the Animation Kobe for packaged work in 2002 and the 2003 Seiun Award for best media.
Anime News Network's Jonathan Mays criticized Steven Foster's dubbing of the film. He said, "Foster carelessly omits critical details, completely rewrites some scenes, misinterprets emotions, and even adds new dialogue where the original track had silence". In an Anime News Network interview, Foster said he "made some changes to make the jokes more accessible". Mays also said, "The animation is breathtaking. Shinkai's backgrounds have very few equals. The character designs look uninspired, but paired with the animator's beautifully realized worlds, the generic appearance fades into the magnificence of the scene." He said Shinkai's use of lighting is "masterful", "incredibly realistic" and conveys the characters' moods well. He called the characters "unoriginal". DVD Verdict's Rob Lineberger commended the music, saying "the simple score infuses the animation with meaning. Solitary piano notes are sluggish, as though the pianist lacked the enthusiasm needed to pick up his fingers. When the action kicks in, it arrives with a sonic punch from 5.1 speakers. Rockets scream around you, birds move overhead, engines thrum quietly in your wake. The soundtrack does what it is supposed to do: transport you to another world".
THEM Anime Review's Carlos Ross said, "The voice-acting is remarkable, the directing is solid, and music is quite competent. But the real kicker here is the animation quality, which actually equals (and sometimes exceeds) that of excellent television series like Vandread and Full Metal Panic ... there is a remarkable amount of storyline; the plot is well-written and executed, and never gets a chance to be too drawn out. And Shinkai gives equal time to the slick action sequences and the well-handled, genuinely touching romance". IGN's A.E. Sparrow said, "While [the film] was visually one of the best pieces of eye-candy I have seen in a year or so, it's ultimately a voice track over a sequence of pretty pictures. Don't get me wrong, it was absolutely beautiful, but it left me wanting more". Mania's Chris Beveridge commended ADV Films for obtaining the original computer files that were used to create it. He said, "the transfer here is simply gorgeous. Colors are amazingly lush and deep, saturated without bleeding. Cross coloration is non-existent and only a few very minor areas of aliasing occur. The only real 'flaw' that I could see with this transfer is during some of the panning sequences up and down, there’s a slight stutter that’s simply inherent in the materials". DVDs Worth Watching's Johanna Draper Carlson said, "the character designs are familiar and uninspired, and the cross-cutting choppy".
IGN's A.E. Sparrow said that compared with the film, the manga has "a healthy amount of additional storylines, characters and dialogue ... " He also said, "Mizu Sahara's artwork brings a bit of clarity to scenes that might have come off as muddled in the anime". Anime News Network's Theron Martin said the manga has "strong storytelling which carries good emotional appeal, fleshes out the original anime" but said it "unnecessarily adds on to the ending", and that "character designs were not Shinkai's strong point, and Sahara's are only a slight improvement".
Manga Worth Reading's Johanna Draper Carlson said, "the art is denser than in many manga, with toned backgrounds anchoring the drawn world. Faces are often in shadow, suggesting separation and loss." Pop Culture Shock's Melinda Beasi wrote, "the manga is absolutely beautiful. The art is nicely detailed and very expressive, and the panel layouts, including the placement and style of dialogue and narrative text, make the story visually interesting and easy to follow". She also said, "Sahara also spends more time exploring both Mikako’s and Noboru’s feelings about Mikako’s appointment to the Lysithea, which is very revealing for both characters". Mania.com's Sakura Eries said, stating "there's not a lot of detail in the backgrounds, the mecha designs are dull, and the warp scenes, which were so spectacular in the anime, don't make much of an impact".
References
External links
2000s animated short films
2002 anime OVAs
2002 Japanese novels
2004 manga
Action anime and manga
ADV Films
Anime short films
Anime with original screenplays
CoMix Wave Films films
Doujin anime
Films about space warfare
Films about mobile phones
Films set in 2046
Films set in 2047
Films set in 2048
Films set in 2056
Films directed by Makoto Shinkai
Films set in Saitama Prefecture
Japanese romantic drama films
Japanese science fiction action films
Japanese science fiction drama films
Japanese teen films
Kodansha manga
Madman Entertainment anime
Mecha anime and manga
MF Bunko J
Romance anime and manga
Seinen manga
Single OVAs
Tokyopop titles
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|
228520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lover%20%28Duras%20novel%29 | The Lover (Duras novel) | The Lover (French: L'Amant) is an autobiographical novel by Marguerite Duras, published in 1984 by Les Éditions de Minuit. It has been translated into 43 languages and was awarded the 1984 Prix Goncourt. It was adapted to film in 1992 as The Lover.
Plot summary
Set against the backdrop of French Indochina, The Lover reveals the intimacies and intricacies of a clandestine romance between a pubescent girl from a financially strapped French family and an older, wealthy Chinese - Vietnamese man.
In 1929, a 15-year-old nameless girl is traveling by ferry across the Mekong Delta, returning from a holiday at her family home in the town of Sa Đéc to her boarding school in Saigon. She attracts the attention of a 27-year-old son of a Chinese business magnate, a young man of wealth and heir to a fortune. He strikes up a conversation with the girl; she accepts a ride back to town in his chauffeured limousine.
Compelled by the circumstances of her upbringing, this girl, the daughter of a bankrupt, manic depressive widow, is newly awakened to the impending and all-too-real task of making her way alone in the world. Thus, she becomes his lover, until he bows to the disapproval of his father and breaks off the affair.
For her lover, there is no question of the depth and sincerity of his love, but it is not until much later that the girl acknowledges to herself her true feelings.
Published versions
There are two published versions of The Lover: one written in the form of an autobiography, without any superimposed temporal structures, as the young girl narrates in first-person; the other, called The North China Lover and released in conjunction with the film version of the work, is in film script form, in the third person, with written dialogue and without internal monologue. This second version also contains more humor than the original.
In the first version of Avital Inbar's Hebrew translation (Maariv publishers, 1986), there is (page 11) an excerpt, dictated by Marguerite Duras on the phone to her translator. A section that does not appear in any other version of the book.
Barbara Bray's English translation won the Scott Moncrieff Prize and PEN/Book-of-the-Month Club Translation Prize in 1986.
Real-life connections
Duras published The Lover when she was 70, 55 years after she met Léo, the Chinese man of her story (she never revealed his surname). She wrote about her experience in three works: The Sea Wall, The Lover, and The North China Lover.
References
External links
L'Amant at the Editions de Minuit homepage
1984 French novels
Novels by Marguerite Duras
French autobiographical novels
French novels adapted into films
Novels about ephebophilia
Interracial romance novels
Novels set in Vietnam
Prix Goncourt winning works | [
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|
228526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%28%20%29%20%28album%29 | ( ) (album) | ( ) is the third full-length album from Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós, first released in October 2002. It comprises eight untitled tracks, divided into two parts: the first four tracks are lighter and more optimistic, while the latter four are bleaker and more melancholic. The two-halves are divided by a 36-second silence, and the album opens and closes with a click of distortion. Lead singer Jón Þór Birgisson ("Jónsi") sang the album's lyrics entirely in "Hopelandic", a made-up language consisting of gibberish words. ( ) reached No. 51 on the Billboard 200 and received acclaim from music critics, although some reviewers found the album weaker than the band's previous album Ágætis byrjun.
This is the first album to feature drummer Orri Páll Dýrason who joined the band in 1999, replacing their previous drummer Ágúst Ævar Gunnarsson.
Production
The album's title consists of two opposing parentheses, representing either the album's two-halves, or the idea that the album has no title, leaving the listener free to determine it. Members of the band have referred to ( ) as Svigaplatan, which translates to "The Bracket Album". In the credits of the film Heima, it is referred to as The Untitled Album. The outside packaging of ( ) consists of a plastic protective sleeve with two parentheses cut out, revealing the image printed on the CD case underneath. There are four versions of this cover art, which consist of modified photographs of nature around the band's Mosfellsbær studio, sold in four parts of the world: Europe, the United States, Australia, and Japan. In Iceland, all four cover designs are sold. The back of the packaging shows an image of a sleepwalking boy, adapted from a photograph by John Yang. In 2011, Yang's daughter, Naomi Yang, of the band Galaxie 500, said that the band used the image without permission or payment to her father. There are no liner notes or production credits included, although packaged with the album is a booklet of twelve blank pages, on which listeners are invited to write or draw their own interpretations of the album's music. A limited edition version of ( ) released in Spain includes a 94-page book of contemporary art.
( ) was co-produced and engineered by Ken Thomas, who also worked with the band on their previous album, Ágætis byrjun. This is the first album Sigur Rós recorded at their studio based in Álafoss, Mosfellsbær, a small rural town outside Reykjavík, Iceland. The band refers to the studio as "Sundlaugin", or "The Pool". ( ) includes the work of the string quartet Amiina. ( ) was given more production and recording time than Ágætis byrjun, although lead singer Jónsi considers the ( ) album "less polished" than its predecessor. He characterized the record as being "much more bare and alive and there are far fewer little slick things and much less sweet stuff." The strings of Ágætis byrjun were recorded in just two days, while two weeks were given for their recording on ( ). In addition, the former was performed by the Iceland Symphony Orchestra, while the latter was done by Amiina. Because of this, the string parts required less preparation prior to recording. The band "just let them 'jam' in the studio until everybody was happy", according to Jónsi.
Music and lyrics
( ) consists of eight tracks divided in half by thirty-six seconds of silence which, in concept, replicates the separation of two sides of a gramophone record. Ironically, on the actual vinyl version of the record, the thirty-six seconds of silence occurs in the middle of side 2 (the vinyl consists of 4 sides). The first half of the album is "light and optimistic" musically, with a heavier emphasis on the use of keyboards than guitar, and the sampling of Jónsi's voice. The second half is more melancholic, playing with the emotions of the listener, as described by Jónsi. None of the tracks on ( ) have titles; band guitarist and keyboardist Kjartan Sveinsson said of this choice, "we didn't want to put titles on the record just because there are supposed to be titles on the record." The songs are listed as "Untitled #1", "Untitled #2", etc., although each track has an unofficial name used by the band.
Jónsi sang the lyrics of ( ) entirely in "Vonlenska" ("Hopelandic"), a made-up "language" which consists of meaningless words and syllables. Jónsi uses Hopelandic in place of songs which do not yet have lyrics, although some tracks on Sigur Rós albums Von and Takk... are only sung in the language. Its names in English and Icelandic are derived from "Von" ("Hope" in English), the ninth track on the album Von, which is the first instance in which Hopelandic is used in the band's music. The Hopelandic of ( ) consists of one eleven-syllable phrase, with various permutations and subsequent variations thereof sung over the course of the album. ( ) is made up of material that Sigur Rós had been playing live for over two years. For this reason, the band did not want to give the songs actual lyrics. Drummer Orri Páll Dýrason said of this, "[the songs] were fully formed and it would have been strange to suddenly insert lyrics into these finished products."
Release
Pitchfork placed ( ) 29th on its list of the fifty best albums of 2002, and 135th on its list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s (decade). The album also peaked at No. 51 on the Billboard 200. A music video for "Untitled #1" directed by Floria Sigismondi was released in April 2003. The video depicts a dystopian future in which schoolchildren wearing gas masks are playing amidst black snow and a red sky. In November 2003, Sigismondi's video was given the award for "Best Video" at the MTV Europe Music Awards in Edinburgh, UK.
Critical reception
( ) received critical acclaim, holding a Metacritic score of 82/100 based on twenty reviews, which makes it the twenty-sixth highest-scored album of 2002 according to Metacritic. Daniel Becker of Dusted Magazine wrote that the album is "gorgeous music..the songs are vast, unhurried, and vivid, and that only makes them more powerful." He considers ( ) a "logical extension of Ágætis Byrjun, relying on the same interplay of instruments to create a similarly picturesque and eerily calm atmosphere." Chris Ott of Pitchfork wrote that "Sigur Rós' music has all the depth, resonance and humanity of a Brueghel landscape, and is best appreciated at loud volumes in open spaces, as a soundtrack for scenery, real or imagined." Sean Adams of Drowned in Sound said that "( ) is as pioneering, unnerving, inspiring, confusing, as lyrically anarchic as every thing that has moved the world, ever" and "why I love music, why this website has this name and why art exists. ( ) [is] yours to discover." Gavin Mueller of Stylus Magazine found that Jónsi's voice "never [has] sounded more exposed, giving [the band] a strength that Ágætis Byrjun often obscured. The final track’s ultimate climax is nothing short of harrowing, as a crashing storm of frantic drum fills overwhelms Birgisson’s urgent guitar strumming and plaintive wail."
Andy Kellman of AllMusic said that with ( ), Sigur Rós made "only adjustments – no significant developments – in the group's sound" and that "The fact that the emotional extremes are few and far between makes the album difficult to wade through". Ott wrote that ( ) "doesn't shine with the same nascent glimmer as its predecessor. If the band weren't so headstrong, it wouldn't even be a consideration, but from the beginning they've claimed they would change music forever, and that this record in particular would be even better than [Ágætis byrjun]". In addition, he found the album's main Hopelandic phrase repetitive, and that ( ) lacked the innovation of its predecessor. Gavin Edwards of Rolling Stone called ( ) "impressive" but "remarkably similar" in sound; "it's just packaged more pretentiously." Ott said of the blank booklet included with ( ), "I fail to see how this tactic enriches the band's cinematic balladry", adding, "evidence that they just thought it would be cool to package the record this way is abundant". Mueller called the title of ( ) "forehead-slappingly pretentious", and considered the album's nameless tracks "a jab at Yorke-worshippers who couldn’t pronounce the Icelandic titles of Sigur Ros’s previous work anyway." In his review for PopMatters, music critic Matt Cibula wrote, "I don't think there are any real meanings to these songs, other than the ones we bring to them, each on our own", adding:
My only clue – and here I'm cheating massively – is that I saw them in concert a month ago, and these songs were invariably accompanied by hazy images of children, of childhood ... but even if this stuff is about the end of childhood or innocence or any of those trotted-out tropes, I wouldn't know, and it probably tells you more about me than the opening section of this record.A book on the album was released in the 33⅓ series on 28 August 2014. The series are short books inspired by or focused on albums and are generally written as longform essays. The book, written by composer Ethan Hayden, was cited by Pitchfork as one of the "33 Best 33⅓ Books."
Media usage
A snippet from "Untitled #8" can be heard during the trailer for the Oliver Hirschbiegel film The Invasion.
"Untitled #7" is featured in the trailer for the 2008 video game Dead Space.
"Untitled #4", as well as "Svefn-g-englar" and the title track from Ágætis byrjun and a video backdrop used during a Sigur Rós concert in Los Angeles, are featured in the film Vanilla Sky. This was the first case of the band licensing their music for a movie; Jónsi allowed for it in part "because he thought the idea of Tom Cruise acting over their music was 'funny'".
"Untitled #4" was played in the American TV series Queer as Folk, as well as the season 3 finale of Canadian TV series Orphan Black.
"Untitled #3", listed as its alternate title "Samskeyti", was used in the credits for the Gregg Araki-directed film Mysterious Skin (based on the novel by Scott Heim),
in an episode from the second season of the British serial drama Skins and in the 2009 film The Boys Are Back (directed by Scott Hicks and starring Clive Owen) during the final shots. Various tracks off ( ) were used in the American crime drama CSI: Miami. Vaka was also heavily used in the soundtrack to the 2010 Norwegian film King of Devil's Island.
The 2006 Academy Award-nominated Danish film After the Wedding also uses "Untitled #1" (Vaka) as background music during the funeral of a major character.
Track listing
All tracks are officially untitled, although each has an alternative name by which the band refers to it.
Personnel
Sigur Rós
Jón Þór Birgisson – vocals, guitar, keyboards
Kjartan Sveinsson – keyboards, guitar
Georg Hólm – bass guitar, keyboards, glockenspiel
Orri Páll Dýrason – drums, keyboards
Amiina
María Huld Markan – violin
Edda Rún Ólafsdóttir – violin
Ólöf Júlía Kjartansdóttir – viola
Sólrún Sumarliðadóttir – cello
Production
Sigur Rós – production
Ken Thomas – production, engineering, mixing
Marco Migliari – engineering
Mandy Parnell – mastering
Charts
Certifications and sales
References
External links
( ) at sigur-ros.co.uk
( ) at discogs
Sigur Rós albums
2002 albums
FatCat Records albums
PIAS Recordings albums
Bad Taste (record label) albums | [
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|
228531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81g%C3%A6tis%20byrjun | Ágætis byrjun | Ágætis byrjun (, A good beginning) is the second studio album by Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós, released on 12 June 1999. The album was recorded between the summer of 1998 and the spring of 1999 with producer Ken Thomas. Ágætis byrjun represented a substantial departure from the band's previous album Von, with that album's extended ambient soundscapes replaced by Jónsi Birgisson's cello-bowed guitarwork and orchestration, using a double string octet amongst other chamber elements.
Ágætis byrjun became Sigur Rós's breakthrough album, both commercially and critically. It received a 2000 release in the United Kingdom and a 2001 release in the United States. According to their label Smekkleysa, the album sold 10,000 copies on its first year of release in Iceland, earning the band platinum status. It won numerous awards, and has appeared on multiple critics' lists of the best albums of the 2000s.
Ágætis byrjun is the band's first album to feature keyboardist Kjartan Sveinsson, and their last to feature drummer Ágúst Ævar Gunnarsson, who left the band several months after the album was released. Gunnarsson was replaced by Orri Páll Dýrason in the same year.
Composition
The ten songs on the album include some self-reference: the introduction contains backmasked parts from the title track, and the last song, "Avalon", consists of a different take of an instrumental passage from "Starálfur" slowed to around a quarter of its original speed. The strings in "Starálfur" are palindromic; they are the same forwards and backwards.
All vocals are sung in Icelandic, except for those on "Olsen Olsen" and the last section of the title track, which are sung in the gibberish language Vonlenska. Sigur Rós' subsequent album, ( ), used Vonlenska exclusively for its vocals.
Packaging
The album's title came from a friend hearing the first song they had written for the album, which would become the title track. After hearing the song, he said it was "a good beginning"; the name stuck. The name has also been translated as "An alright start."
The sketch on the cover was drawn by Gotti Bernhöft with a Bic Cristal ballpoint pen. The booklet cover for the CD edition of the album features the line: "Ég gaf ykkur von sem varð að vonbrigðum... þetta er ágætis byrjun" which translates to "I gave you (plural) hope that became a disappointment... this is a good beginning". This line is a reference to their two previous releases, Von and Von brigði.
Sigur Rós assembled and glued together the cases of the first print of Ágætis byrjun themselves. As a result, many of the CDs were unusable due to glue stains.
Reception
While released to little fanfare, the album quickly gained radio exposure in Iceland, and spent the autumn of 1999 climbing the Icelandic album charts, finally resting at the top for a number of weeks. After surprising success in Iceland, the album subsequently gained strong international buzz with numerous articles in many prominent publications, hype from internet message boards and blogs, as well as often exuberant critical praise. Ágætis byrjun was released in the United Kingdom in 2000, and in the North American market in 2001 by Fat Cat Records. In 2001, Ágætis byrjun won the inaugural Shortlist Music Prize.
An acclaimed music video was made for "Viðrar vel til loftárása". The album's tracks have also been featured in soundtracks; "Starálfur" was used in The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou and the Emmy winning 2005 TV film The Girl in the Café. "Svefn-g-englar" was used in Vanilla Sky, amongst others. The song "Flugufrelsarinn" has been arranged by Stephen Prustman for the Kronos Quartet, and is available on their download-only release Kronos Quartet Plays Sigur Rós.
Ágætis byrjun was placed by Pitchfork at number 2 on their annual Best Albums list for 2000, and was placed at 8 on their top 200 albums of the 2000s, released on 2 October 2009.
In December 2009, Rolling Stone ranked Ágætis byrjun the 29th best album of the 2000s.
In the Q and Mojo Classic Special Edition "Pink Floyd & The Story of Prog Rock", the album placed at number 27 in its list of "40 Cosmic Rock Albums".
The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
It was announced in 2009 that a deluxe edition would be released to mark the 10th anniversary of Ágætis byrjuns international release. It was slated for release in early summer 2015. It was to feature previously unheard studio and live recordings as well as photographic and documentary material from the band's personal archives.
Ágætis byrjun peaked at No. 24 on Billboards Top Independent Albums chart in January and it has sold 227,000 copies in the US, according to Nielsen SoundScan. In Europe it was upgraded to Platinum by Impala award for 400,000+ copies sold up to 2012.
Track listing
20th Anniversary Deluxe Edition
On July 5, 2019, the band released an anniversary edition of the album as a 4-CD box set, and as a limited-edition, 7-vinyl-album set. It features early versions and demos of the songs on the record, and unreleased songs, pulled together from the band's personal archive, as well as The Icelandic Opera (Íslenska Óperan) June 12, 1999 concert, recorded for the Icelandic radio.
Personnel
Jón Þór Birgisson – vocals, guitar
Kjartan Sveinsson – keyboard
Georg Hólm – bass guitar
Ágúst Ævar Gunnarsson – drums (several tracks only)
Charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
References
External links
Ágætis byrjun page on the Sigur Rós website
Sigur Rós albums
1999 albums
FatCat Records albums | [
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|
228532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swansong%20%28album%29 | Swansong (album) | Swansong is the fifth studio album by English extreme metal band Carcass. It was released on 10 June 1996 in the UK by Earache Records. It is the only Carcass album to feature guitarist Carlo Regadas. This album was intended to be their major label debut, having been signed by Columbia Records following the success of Heartwork, but disputes with that record company caused them to return to Earache. The album was re-released on 21 July 2008, as a dualdisc including the fifth part of The Pathologist's Report. It was the band's last studio release for over 17 years, until the release of Surgical Steel in 2013, and the last one to feature drummer Ken Owen.
Background
In The Pathologist's Report, drummer Ken Owen states that he considers Swansong the ultimate Carcass album. The band's sense of humour is illustrated with titles such as "Keep on Rotting in the Free World".
The disc art is the "Unfinished Pyramid et al." from the Great Seal of the United States, but it reads "carcass" instead of "annuit coeptis", "somnus pecunia cibus" instead of "novus ordo seclorum" and "MCMXCV" instead of "MDCCLXXVI".
Release
Swansong was released on 10 June 1996 on Earache Records. A limited edition of this album was released as a brain-shaped CD, with a bonus 2-track CD titled Somnus Pecunia Cibus. The reason for the bonus disc was to include "Go to Hell", which wouldn't fit on the brain shaped CD, due to the cutting required for the brain shape.
On 21 July 2008, a twelve-panel digipak version of the album was released, with full artwork and lyrics as well as a limited edition sticker sheet with classic Carcass motifs. The reissue also features the previously Japanese-only bonus track "Death Rider Da" which was made to be used as a jingle on a Japanese critic Masa Ito's radio program at the time, as well as the fifth and final part of the extensive interview The Pathologist's Report on a dualdisc. Later editions contain the album on a CD and the documentary on a separate DVD, and do not include the sticker sheet.
In November 2013, Earache rereleased Swansong on full dynamic range vinyl in different colours and with limited circulation.
Track listing
Personnel
Carcass
Jeffrey Walker – bass, vocals
Carlo Regadas – guitar
Bill Steer – guitar
Ken Owen – drums
Technical personnel
Colin Richardson – production, vocals (13)
Nick Brine – assistant engineering
Jim Brumby – assistant engineering
Gee – painting
Stephen Harris – engineering
Barney Herbert – assistant engineering
Noel Summerville – mastering
Antz – Design
Roalba Picerno – band photos
Charts
References
Carcass (band) albums
1996 albums
Earache Records albums
Death 'n' roll albums | [
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|
228533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartwork | Heartwork | Heartwork is the fourth album by British extreme metal band Carcass. The album was released in the UK through Earache Records on 18 October 1993, and in the United States on 11 January 1994 through Columbia Records, making it the band's only major label release. Heartwork has been described as the band's "breakthrough" and "mid-period masterpiece", as well as a landmark album in the melodic death metal genre. The album was recorded at Parr Street Studios, Liverpool from 18 May – 21 June 1993.
The sculpture depicted in the cover art, "Life Support 1993," was designed by H. R. Giger, and is an update of a sculpture he created in the late 1960s. The video for the song "Heartwork" features a real-life interpretation of the sculpture, including a human welded as a part of it. The album was reissued as a Dualdisc on 2 June 2008.
Until 2021's Torn Arteries, this was the only Carcass album to have the same lineup as the previous album. Guitarist Michael Amott left the band after the recording of the album before founding Spiritual Beggars, and was temporarily replaced by Mike Hickey. In The Pathologist's Report, Bill Steer says Heartwork is his favourite Carcass album.
Release
Heartwork sold at least 81,000 units. It spawned one single under the same name that featured the title track and non-album tracks "This is Your Life" and "Rot 'n' Roll".
2008 reissue
The album was re-released in 2008 as part of an ongoing series of Carcass reissues to tie in with their reunion. The main album is presented as one side of a Dualdisc, while the DVD side features the fourth part of an extended interview/documentary titled The Pathologist's Report Part IV: Epidemic. Also included in the reissue is a bonus disc including the entire album in demo form, something recorded by the band before recording the actual album in an effort to be better prepared. The demo features the same 10 songs in a slightly different order. Later editions have the DVD on a separate disc, bringing the total to 3 discs. The album is presented in a 12-panel digipak with full lyrics and artwork.
Critical reception
In an October 2007 interview, Evile frontman Matt Drake described Heartwork as "just one of the best albums ever." Described in 2013 by Hank Schteamer of Pitchfork as Carcass's "mid-period masterpiece," he praised Heartwork as being "perhaps the greatest example to date of an extreme-metal band nodding to the polish and swagger of above-ground rock while retaining their core ferocity." Johnny Loftus called the album the band's "breakthrough release" on AllMusic, and suggested that while "some purists might decry its melodic breaks for soloing or nods toward conventional structure[,] Heartwork is that rare album that so carefully dissects and reconstructs its original form that its additional body parts seem like they were there all along."
In May 2013, Heartwork was inducted into the Decibel Magazine Hall of Fame, becoming the 100th overall inductee and second Carcass album to be featured in the Decibel Hall of Fame, right after Necroticism.
In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Heartwork as 51st on their list of 'The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.'
Legacy
The band Carnal Forge named themselves after the song of the same name from this album.
Track listing
Personnel
Carcass
Jeff Walker – bass, vocals
Michael Amott – lead guitar
Bill Steer – lead guitar
Ken Owen – drums
Additional personnel
Keith Andrews – engineering
Dave Buchanan – assistant engineering
Colin Richardson – production
Andrea Wright – assistant engineering
H. R. Giger – front album sculpture
Jurg Kümmer – photo
Andrew Tuohy – design
References
Carcass (band) albums
1993 albums
Columbia Records albums
Earache Records albums
Albums with cover art by H. R. Giger | [
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|
228535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeknife | Stakeknife | "Stakeknife" is the code name of a high-level spy who successfully infiltrated the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) while working for the top-secret Force Research Unit (FRU) of the British Army. Reports claim that Stakeknife worked for British intelligence for 25 years. Stakeknife has been accused of being a double agent who oversaw the murders of informers within the paramilitary organisation while working for the British. British officials launched Operation Kenova to investigate these claims of state involvement in the kidnap, torture and murder of more than 50 individuals, leading to the arrest of Freddie Scappaticci in January 2018 on accusations that he was Stakeknife—a claim which Scappaticci denied.
Activity
"Stakeknife" had his own dedicated handlers and agents, and it was suggested that he was important enough that MI5 set up an office dedicated solely to him. Rumours suggested that he was being paid at least £80,000 a year and had a bank account in Gibraltar.
Serious allegations have emerged to the effect that the British government allowed up to 40 people to be killed via the IRA's Internal Security Unit or "Nutting Squad" to protect his cover.
Purported exposure
In 1987, Sam McCrory, an Ulster Defence Association/"Ulster Freedom Fighters" member, killed the 66-year-old Francisco Notarantonio at his home in Ballymurphy in West Belfast. The UDA/UFF had decided to target a senior Belfast IRA member who unbeknownst to them was an informer for the Force Research Unit (FRU). It has been alleged that FRU agent Brian Nelson gave Notarantonio's name to the UDA/UFF to protect the identity of the real spy.
On 11 May 2003, several newspapers named Freddie Scappaticci as Stakeknife. Scappaticci, born in Belfast to Italian parents, denied the claims and launched an unsuccessful legal action to have the British government state he was not their agent. He later left Northern Ireland and was rumoured to be living in Cassino, Italy. There were also reported sightings in Tenerife.
A report in a February 2007 edition of the Belfast News Letter reported that a cassette recording allegedly of Scappaticci talking about the number of murders he was involved in via the "Nutting Squad", as well as his work as an Army agent, had been lodged with the PSNI in 2004 and subsequently passed to the Stevens Inquiry in 2005.
The former British Intelligence agent who worked in the FRU known as "Martin Ingram" has written a book titled Stakeknife since the original allegations came to light in which it says Scappaticci was the agent in question.
In October 2015, it was announced that Scappaticci was to be investigated by the Police Service of Northern Ireland over at least 24 murders. In June 2016, it was announced that this investigation would be carried out by Bedfordshire Police and would examine the possible involvement of members of the RUC, Army and MI5 in murders carried out by the IRA, and their knowledge of them through the information supplied via Stakeknife. Scappaticci was arrested in connection with Operation Kenova in January 2018.
On 29 October 2020, the Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland decided that there was insufficient evidence to put him on trial on charges of perjury. Stephen Herron, the PPS director in the area, also ruled out prosecutions of former members of the security services who are understood to have been his handlers as well as a former member of the PPS. This means that there is little chance of him appearing in a criminal trial, despite a multimillion pound investigation into his role as a state agent inside the IRA.
References
Further reading
Matthew Teague, (April 2006) "Double Blind: The untold story of how British intelligence infiltrated and undermined the IRA." The Atlantic
Greg Harkin and Martin Ingram (2004), Stakeknife: Britain's secret agents in Ireland, O'Brien Press
British Irish Rights Watch Report
stakeknife.eu
External links
Operation Kenova
Provisional Irish Republican Army
British spies
Espionage scandals and incidents
Irish spies during The Troubles (Northern Ireland)
Unidentified people | [
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|
228538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Might%20Be%20Wrong%3A%20Live%20Recordings | I Might Be Wrong: Live Recordings | I Might Be Wrong: Live Recordings is a live album by the English rock band Radiohead, released on 12 November 2001 in the UK by Parlophone and a day later in the US by Capitol Records. Recorded during Radiohead's 2001 tour, it comprises songs from their fourth and fifth albums Kid A (2000) and Amnesiac (2001). It received mainly positive reviews.
Content
Recorded during Radiohead's 2001 Amnesiac tour, I Might Be Wrong comprises live performances songs from Kid A (2000) and Amnesiac (2001), plus "True Love Waits", which was not released on a studio album until A Moon Shaped Pool in 2016. The electronic track "Like Spinning Plates" appears rearranged as a piano ballad.
Reception
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, I Might Be Wrong has an average score of 76 based on 16 reviews, indicating "generally favourable" reviews.
Several critics felt the album was too short. Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club wrote that it "cast new light" on Kid A and Amnesiac, but that it was "marred by characteristically unrevealing packaging and inexplicable brevity". AllMusic's Sam Samuelson suggested it could instead have been packaged with Amnesiac as a "complete Kid A sessions package, rather than a couple of thrown-together releases". Matt LeMay of Pitchfork criticised the lack of older Radiohead songs, and said it had the feeling of a "promotional item" for Kid A and Amnesiac.
LeMay praised the performance of "Like Spinning Plates", which showcases Radiohead's "songwriting virtuosity rather than their sonic adventurousness", and "True Love Waits", which is "absolutely gorgeous ... it can hold its own against any song on OK Computer". Entertainment.ie critic Andrew Lynch wrote: "Unlike most live albums, this one captures some of the excitement of actually being there and gives Radiohead back the human dimension they've recently been in danger of losing." Rolling Stone described the album as "explosively raw", praising the "twisty, insular" performance of "Idioteque" and Yorke's "beautifully chilling voice" on "Like Spinning Plates".
Track listing
All songs written by Radiohead except where noted.
Personnel
Adapted from the EP liner notes.
Radiohead
Thom Yorke
Jonny Greenwood
Ed O'Brien
Colin Greenwood
Philip Selway
Production
Jim Warren - engineering and mixing (tracks 1, 4, 6, 8)
Nigel Godrich and Will Shapland - engineering and mixing (tracks 2, 3, 5, 7)
Release history
References
External links
Albums produced by Nigel Godrich
Live EPs
Radiohead EPs
2001 live albums
2001 EPs
Capitol Records live albums
Parlophone live albums
Capitol Records EPs
Parlophone EPs
Radiohead live albums | [
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|
228539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necroticism%20%E2%80%93%20Descanting%20the%20Insalubrious | Necroticism – Descanting the Insalubrious | Necroticism – Descanting the Insalubrious is the third album by British extreme metal band Carcass. It was released on 30 October 1991 through Earache Records. This album is the first to feature guitarist Michael Amott and marked the first time Carcass had recorded as a four-piece. Many of the tracks describe economical ways to dispose of dead bodies. Necroticism continues the move towards a predominant death metal sound which was started in Symphonies of Sickness, featuring songs with longer sections and complex structures, more akin to the then-burgeoning technical death metal subgenre.
Release
Necroticism was originally released on 21 October 1991 through Earache Records. The album was re-released in 2008 as part of an ongoing series of Carcass reissues, to tie in with their reunion. The main album is presented as one side of a dualdisc, while the DVD side features the third part of an extended documentary titled The Pathologist's Report Part III: Mass Infection, and a 23-minute interview with Walker and Amott from 1993, recorded on the Gods of Grind tour. Later editions of the reissue contain the album on a CD and the documentary on a separate DVD. Also included in the reissue is a set of four art cards. The reissue is presented in a 12-panel digipak with full lyrics and artwork.
Musical style
Ken Owen and Jeff Walker said during The Pathologist's Report Part III: Mass Infection that they rejected the descriptions of Carcass's music on this album being grindcore. While Owen acknowledges its death metal characteristics, both he and Walker expressed that they are more inclined towards calling their music on this album "progressive".
Reception
AllMusic gave Necroticism four out of five stars, stating that the worthy addition of Michael Amott made the record an excellent guitarist's album. Kerrang! notably gave the album a perfect score in their 364th magazine issue. Metal Storm gave Necroticism a 9.6/10 calling it a masterpiece and a transitional album that every metalhead should own (melodic or extreme) and suggested that people should buy the album immediately.
Accolades
In 2005, Necroticism was ranked number 294 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. In September 2005, Necroticism was inducted into the Decibel Magazine Hall of Fame, being the eighth album overall to be featured in the Decibel Hall of Fame.
Track listing
Credits
Writing, performance and production credits are adapted from the album liner notes.
Personnel
Carcass
Jeffrey Walker – bass, lead vocals
Michael Amott – guitar, backing vocals
Bill Steer – guitar, co-lead vocals
Ken Owen – drums, backing vocals
Production
Colin Richardson – production, mixing
Carcass – mixing
Keith Hartley – engineering
Ian McFarlane – assistance
Dave Buchmann – assistance
John Paul – remastering
Visual art
Carcass – cover art
Tom Warner – layout
Studios
Amazon Studios, Simonswood, UK – recording
Mine Music – remastering
References
External links
Necroticism: Descanting the Insalubrious at Earache Records
1991 albums
Carcass (band) albums
Earache Records albums | [
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|
228540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/360-degree%20feedback | 360-degree feedback | A 360-degree feedback (also known as multi-rater feedback, multi source feedback, or multi source assessment) is a process through which feedback from an employee's subordinates, colleagues, and supervisor(s), as well as a self-evaluation by the employee themselves is gathered. Such feedback can also include, when relevant, feedback from external sources who interact with the employee, such as customers and suppliers or other interested stakeholders. 360-degree feedback is so named because it solicits feedback regarding an employee's behavior from a variety of points of view (subordinate, lateral, and supervisory). It therefore may be contrasted with "downward feedback" (traditional feedback on work behavior and performance delivered to subordinates by supervisory or management employees only; see traditional performance appraisal), or "upward feedback" delivered to supervisory or management employees by subordinates only.
Organizations have most commonly utilized 360-degree feedback for developmental purposes, providing it to employees to assist them in developing work skills and behaviors. However, organizations are increasingly using 360-degree feedback in performance evaluations and employment decisions (e.g., pay; promotions). When 360-degree feedback is used for performance evaluation purposes, it is sometimes called a "360-degree review".
There is a great deal of debate as to whether 360-degree feedback should be used exclusively for development purposes or for evaluation purposes as well. This is due primarily to feedback providers' subjectivity and motivations, inter-rater variations, and whether feedback providers have the ability to fairly evaluate attainment of work and organizational objectives. While these issues exist when 360-degree feedback is used for development, they are more prominent when employers use them for performance evaluation purposes, as they can unfairly influence employment decisions, and even lead to legal liability.
History
The origins are with the German Reichswehr around 1930, when the military psychologist Johann Baptist Rieffert developed a methodology to select officer candidates. One of the earliest recorded uses of surveys to gather information about employees occurred in the 1950s at the Esso Research and Engineering Company. From there, the idea of 360-degree feedback gained momentum, and by the 1990s most human resources and organizational development professionals understood the concept. The problem was that collecting and collating the feedback demanded a paper-based effort including either complex manual calculations or lengthy delays. The first led to despair on the part of practitioners; the second to a gradual erosion of commitment by recipients.
However, due to the rise of the Internet and the ability to conduct evaluations online with surveys, multi-rater feedback use steadily increased in popularity. Outsourcing of human resources functions also has created a strong market for 360-degree feedback products from consultants. This has led to a proliferation of 360-degree feedback tools on the market.
Today, studies suggest that over one-third of U.S. companies use some type of multi-source feedback. Others claim that this estimate is closer to 90% of all Fortune 500 firms. In recent years, this has become encouraged as Internet-based services have become standard in corporate development, with a growing menu of useful features (e.g., multiple language options, comparative reporting, and aggregate reporting). However, issues abound regarding such systems' validity and reliability, particularly when used in performance appraisals.
Issues
Many 360-degree feedback tools are not customized to the needs of the organizations in which they are used. 360-degree feedback is not equally useful in all types of organizations and with all types of jobs. Additionally, using 360-degree feedback tools for appraisal purposes has increasingly come under fire as performance criteria may not be valid and job based, employees may not be adequately trained to evaluate a co-worker's performance, and feedback providers can manipulate these systems. Employee manipulation of feedback ratings has been reported in some companies who have utilized 360-degree feedback for performance evaluation including GE (Welch 2001), IBM (Linman 2011), and Amazon (Kantor and Streitfeld 2015).
Some members of the U.S. military have criticized its use of 360-degree feedback programs in employment decisions because of problems with validity and reliability. Other branches of the U.S. government have questioned 360-degree feedback reviews as well. Still, these organizations continue to use and refine their assessments that offer multi-rater feedback in their development processes since they offer unique opportunities for leaders to increase their self-awareness of how they are perceived by their
subordinates, peers, and supervisors.
Accuracy
Adopting the 360-degree review approach is purported to be superior to other traditional forms of evaluation and feedback for evaluating employee performance. When successfully implemented, this method initiates a vast positive change and provides a more efficient, thorough, and accurate assessment of performance reviews. Participants must feel the survey instruments are reliable and valid otherwise this multi-source approach can be viewed as problematic. Management has to ensure their employees are aware of the context in the survey to maximize accuracy and minimize bias in responses. Several inconsistencies and errors can arise in the feedback depending on whether or not:
The rater interacts with the employee regularly
The rater lets their emotions influence their judgement
The employee reveals themselves to the rater honestly and completely
The rating has been retained confidentially (if not the rater may not provide an honest rating)
The rater has a high level of confidence in the accuracy of their rating
There is a personal relationship between the employee and rater
The amount and level of training in 360-degree feedback for both the rater and ratee can affect the level of accuracy of the feedback. If no guidance is given, individual bias may affect the rater’s ratings and the ratee’s interpretation of the feedback. However, even with training measures in place, unconscious bias may still occur due to factors such as the cultural influences or relationship quality between the rater and ratee. Additionally, if there are potential consequences from rater feedback, rater motivation may shift from providing accurate feedback to providing feedback based on self-motivated reasons such as promoting or harming a particular individual. Therefore, it is imperative that a baseline of trust be established between the raters and ratees to improve rater accountability and feedback accuracy.
Furthermore, it is important to recognize who will receive the data collected and who will maintain the confidentiality of that data. The manager or HR employee who manages the collection of data will need to ensure its confidentiality. When participants remain anonymous, they are more likely to provide more accurate feedback because their fear of being reprimanded is eliminated thereby strengthening the accuracy of the review. Moreover, the data should only be available to the employee who has been reviewed and the manager who will be facilitating the feedback for developmental purposes.
It is also vital to standardize how information is collected during the review process. 360-degree feedback may be susceptible to decreased accuracy based on the style of survey used. Research has shown that feedback results may change based on the rating scale used in the survey as well as the length of the survey. Furthermore, rater feedback may change based on the time they completed the survey.
A study on the patterns of rater accuracy shows that the length of time that a rater has known the individual being evaluated has the most significant effect on the accuracy of a 360-degree review. The study shows that subjects in the group "known for one to three years" are the most accurate, followed by those "known for less than one year," followed by those "known for three to five years" and the least accurate being those "known for more than five years." The study concludes that the most accurate ratings come from those who have known the individual being reviewed long enough to get past the first impression, but not so long that they begin to generalize favorably.
It has been suggested that multi-rater assessments often generate conflicting opinions and that there may be no way to determine whose feedback is accurate. Studies have also indicated that self-ratings are generally significantly higher than the ratings given from others. The motivations and biases of feedback providers must be taken into account.
Results
Several studies indicate that the use of 360-degree feedback helps to improve employee performance because it helps the evaluated see different perspectives of their performance. In a 5-year study, no improvement in overall rater scores was found from the 1st year to the 2nd, but scores rose with each passing year from 2nd to 4th. Reilly et al. (1996) found that performance increased between the 1st and 2nd administrations, and sustained this improvement 2 years later. Additional studies show that 360-degree feedback may be predictive of future performance.
Some authors maintain, however, that there are too many confounding variables related to 360-degree evaluations to reliably generalize their effectiveness. Bracken et al. (2001b) and Bracken and Timmreck (2001) focus on process features that are likely to also have major effects on creating behavior change. Greguras and Robie (1998) tracked how the number of raters used in each particular category (direct report, peer, manager) affects the reliability of the feedback. Their research showed that direct reports are the least reliable and, therefore, more participation is required to produce a reliable result. Multiple pieces of research have demonstrated that the scale of responses can have a major effect on the results, and some response scales are better than others. Goldsmith and Underhill (2001) report the powerful influence of the evaluated individual following up with raters to discuss their results, which cannot be done when feedback is anonymous. Other potentially powerful factors affecting behavior change include how raters are selected, manager approval, instrument quality, rater training and orientation, participant training, supervisor training, coaching, integration with HR systems, and accountability.
Some researchers claim that the use of multi-rater assessment does not improve company performance. One 2001 study found that 360-degree feedback was associated with a 10.6 percent decrease in market value, and concludes that "there is no data showing that [360-degree feedback] actually improves productivity, increases retention, decreases grievances, or is superior to forced ranking and standard performance appraisal systems."
One group of studies proposed four paradoxes that explain why 360-degree evaluations do not elicit accurate data: (1) the Paradox of Roles, in which an evaluator is conflicted by being both peer and the judge; (2) the Paradox of Group Performance, which admits that the vast majority of work done in a corporate setting is done in groups, not individually; (3) the Measurement Paradox, which shows that qualitative, or in-person, techniques are much more effective than mere ratings in facilitating change; and (4) the Paradox of Rewards, which shows that individuals evaluating their peers care more about the rewards associated with finishing the task than the actual content of the evaluation itself.
Additional studies found no correlation between an employee's multi-rater assessment scores and his or her top-down performance appraisal scores (provided by the person's supervisor). They advise that although multi-rater feedback can be effectively used for appraisal, care needs to be taken in its implementation or results will be compromised. This research suggests that 360-degree feedback and performance appraisals get at different outcomes. Therefore, traditional performance appraisals as well as 360-degree feedback should be used in evaluating overall performance.
References
Further reading
Job evaluation
Personal development
Industrial and organizational psychology
Workplace
Workplace programs | [
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228541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate-coated%20marshmallow%20treats | Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats | Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats are confections consisting of a biscuit base topped with marshmallow-like filling and then coated in a hard shell of pure milk chocolate, first produced and distributed by Viau in Montreal as early as 1901. Some variants of these confections have previously been known in many countries by names comprising equivalents of the English word "negro".
National varieties
1901, Montreal, Whippets
Whippets are produced in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. They consist of a biscuit base topped with marshmallow-like filling and then coated in a hard shell of pure chocolate.
Whippets first came to the market in 1927, although they had been produced and distributed by Viau under the name "Empire" as early as 1901. They are not associated with the traditional Empire biscuits popular in Western Canada. Today, Whippets are still produced in Montreal at the east end of the Viau factory, which is now owned by Dare Foods. They are currently available with both dark chocolate and milk chocolate coatings, and with several flavors of artificial fruit jam filling inside the marshmallow-like filling.
The cookies are similar to Mallomars of New York City. They also bear a striking resemblance to Tunnock's Tea Cakes as well as Krembos. However, the Tunnock tea cake does not have the same kind of chocolate nor filling.
The Whippet is a distinct part of Montreal culture because it does not travel well outside its area of production. This is partly because the pure chocolate melts very easily (compared with compound chocolate) and therefore they require refrigerated transport in summer. Furthermore, the combination of the hard chocolate shell and the air-filled inner marshmallow make them self-destruct when placed in the unpressurised or semi-pressurised cargo section of an airplane. However, they are currently widely available at grocery locations throughout Canada and occasionally in the US.
Though usually known by their proper trade name "Whippets", these biscuits are also popularly referred to in the Montreal area as "Nun's Farts" in the Anglophone community. Though they bear absolutely no resemblance to the Quebec pastry confections called pets de soeurs, it has been suggested that the combination of dark chocolate coating and white marshmallow filling is evocative of the black and white habits of certain orders of Quebec nuns. This, in conjunction with their light and airy texture, may have given rise to the cheeky Anglo-Quebecois moniker. It is not used by the francophone community.
An episode of the Canadian science program How It's Made showed the production process behind the cookie. However, many aspects of the production process (the amount of marshmallow filling, the ingredients, etc.) were not revealed. The show's narrator described these aspects as "classified information". As Canadian law requires an ingredient list on each package, the amount of confidential information involved is limited.
Another Canadian cookie, "Viva Puffs", is produced by Dare Foods in five flavours. Viva is a trade name; these confections have been known in (English) Canada for at least 50 years as "chocolate puffs".
1910, Great Britain, Walnut whips
See Walnut whip
These differ from the domed biscuit or wafer based styles and contain a higher proportion of thicker rippled chocolate, topped with a half walnut.
1913, United States, Mallomars
In the United States, Mallomars are produced by Nabisco. A graham cracker circle is overlaid with extruded marshmallow, then coated in a thin shell of dark chocolate. Mallomars were introduced to the public in 1913, the same year as the Moon Pie (a confection that has similar ingredients). The first box of Mallomars was sold in West Hoboken, New Jersey (now Union City, New Jersey).
Mallomars are generally available from early October through to April. They are not distributed during the summer months, supposedly because they melt easily in summer temperatures, though this is as much for marketing reasons as for practical ones. Devoted eaters of the cookie have been known to stock up during winter months and keep them refrigerated over the summer, although Nabisco markets other chocolate-coated cookie brands year-round. Eighty-five percent of all Mallomars are sold in the New York metropolitan area. They are produced entirely within Canada, at a factory in Scarborough, Ontario.
1920, Germany, Schokokuss / Negerkuss / Mohrenkopf
In Germany, the was first made commercially in 1920, although the first mention of them dates to 1892. Industrial manufacturing started in the 1950s. The sweets are made all year long, with approximately one billion made per year, placing average consumption at about one dozen per person per year. They are available in supermarkets and bakeries and are traditionally sold at fairs.
Sometimes they are consumed pressed between two halves of a bun, which is also referred to as a ("Mud Roll" or "Squished Bread Roll")mostly by children. The interior is always egg white foam, sweetened with sugar, but there are also varieties using sugar substitutes available on the German market.
The original colloquial names were ("Moor's Head") and ("Negro's Kiss"), but after recognising that these names are racist and therefore inappropriate most companies changed the product-name to or ("Chocolate Kiss"), or ("Foam Kiss") or to brand-specific names.
In German-speaking Switzerland they are still sold as . In the French-speaking part of Switzerland, as well as in France, they are known as Têtes Choco ("chocolate heads") or more commonly as in France.
The German word (pl. ) is an outdated word for persons with dark skin, and is considered discriminatory by Duden, the pre-eminent language resource of the German language. It is derived from the Latin , sharing etymological roots with the word "Moor".
1956, Scotland, Tunnock's teacake
Scottish chef Boyd Tunnock invented Tunnock's teacake in 1956 when he developed the idea of using Italian meringue, adding it to a biscuit base, and covering it in milk chocolate. In the United Kingdom this confection is known as a chocolate teacake,
though it is entirely unlike the usual English teacake, a sweet roll with dried fruit which is served toasted and buttered. Teacakes are generally served in the afternoon alongside a traditional British tea. There are several manufacturers of chocolate teacakes in the UK, though the best known is Tunnock's, a Scottish company founded in 1890. It was invented by Sir Boyd Tunnock in 1956. He developed the idea of using Italian meringue. He made a biscuit base, hand piped the mallow onto the base and covered it in milk chocolate. The Tunnock's teacake is commonly regarded in the same food category as the British biscuit, eaten at break times with a cup of tea as shown in advertising for the product.
Popular throughout the UK, the Tunnock's Teacake enjoys iconic status in Scotland, evoking memories of childhood, or symbolising "home" for Scots around the world. The Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service gives Tunnock's Teacakes to blood donors in Scotland after giving blood. There is an online appreciation society for the Tunnock's Teacake and Dundee University also has an appreciation society for the Tunnocks Teacake. A giant fully edible replica of a Tunnocks Teacake was made by Michelle Kershaw and Nick Dodds at Pimp That Snack. The opening ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow featured giant dancing Tunnocks Teacakes. At Hillington, in Glasgow, the biscuit manufacturer William Macdonald gave the world "Penguin", "Munchmallow", "Yo-Yo" and "Bandit" biscuits in the 1940s and 1950s before becoming part of the large United Biscuits conglomerate. Tunnock's teacake is more or less the same as the munchmallow which is now produced in Serbia.
The product itself consists of a small round shortbread base covered with a hemisphere of Italian meringue, a whipped egg white concoction similar to marshmallow. As this soft white fondant is based on egg white rather than gelatine, it is much more delicate than marshmallow. This is then coated in a thin layer of milk or plain chocolate and, in the case of Tunnock's, wrapped in a distinctive red and silver foil for the more popular milk chocolate variety, and a blue and gold wrapping for the plain chocolate type. Several competing brands to Tunnock's, such as Lees' Foods, also include jam in the centre of the teacake.
In 2013 British café chain Costa Coffee introduced the giant marshmallow teacake, which is around 3 times the size of a standard teacake, with a chocolate biscuit base topped with marshmallow and raspberry jam in the centre.
An argument about whether the teacake is a biscuit or a cake led to an action in the European Court of Justice by British company Marks and Spencer. The UK tax authorities eventually accepted the company's argument that the teacakes were cakes (chocolate covered biscuits are taxed, cakes are not) but refused to repay most of the VAT. The European court ruled that in principle the tax should be repaid and in a further hearing before the UK Law Lords in 2009, after 13 years of litigation, Marks and Spencer won full repayment of the tax they had paid from 1973 to 1994, amounting to £3.5 million. This case was fought with Jaffa cakes.
1950s, Lebanon, Tarboosh
In Lebanon, a local variation went on sale in the 1950s under the name ras el abd (slave's head) by Gandour; however, it has since been changed to Tarboush or Tarboosh (Fez) but continues to be referred to by the former name in public.
1960s, New Zealand, MallowPuffs
Since the 1960s, the New Zealand biscuit manufacturers Griffin's have made MallowPuffs, a chocolate biscuit that is described as a "light fluffy marshmallow sitting on top of a shortcake biscuit, covered in luxurious milk chocolate". The marshmallow in MallowPuffs tends to be more dense and rubbery than in some similar products (such as Tunnock's chocolate teacakes). They come in a variety of flavours, including Cookies and Cream, Hokey Pokey, Toffee, Rocky Road, Double Chocolate and original chocolate. The slogan from a national advertising campaign for MallowPuffs, "Have you done enough for a MallowPuff", has entered the New Zealand cultural lexicon.
1980, Hungary, Négercsók
In Hungary, the product is called négercsók ("Negro kiss") and was first introduced in 1980 by the New World Farming and Food Industry Co-operative Society (Hungarian: Újvilág Mezőgazdasági és Élelmiszeripari Szövetkezet) to great success. The production was based on a Danish example, with Danish machinery. Production gradually declined in the 1990s when local confectionaries and food factories had to face heavy competition from abroad.
Denmark, Flødebolle / Negerbolle / Negerkys
In Denmark the treat was originally made using cream (hence the Danish name flødeboller (cream buns)), but the filling was later made from egg whites to help industrialize production and improve shelf life. In Denmark the confection is known as a flødebolle (cream bun) and was in some parts, mostly in the Copenhagen area of Denmark, formerly known as a negerbolle (negro bun) or negerkys (negro kiss). In the 1960s through 1980s the term negro was phased out by all major producers due to its use as a racial slur. Denmark also markets a variation shaped more like a patty, hence the name bøf (steak).
Denmark is one of the largest producers of chocolate-coated marshmallow treats, producing approximately 800 million of these every year. The largest Danish producer, Elvirasminde, produces roughly 650 million treats, sending 400 million abroad and leaving the remaining 250 million to be eaten by the Danish population, putting the amount of flødeboller eaten at 45 per Dane per year.
In Denmark chocolate-coated marshmallow treats are traditionally handed out in school by children on their birthday. They are found in any supermarket, and most confectioners will have delicacy versions. It is also a popular addition to ice cream cones, offered at most shops selling ice cream. Usually they are placed on top of the last ball of ice cream with whipped cream and jam (Or "Guf", a topping made of whipped egg whites with sugar and fruit flavoring) Sometimes they are even found in restaurants. Many baking enthusiasts see them as a challenge, and it was a technical challenge in Den store Bagedyst (The Great Bake Off) on Danish TV.
The popularity of the treat is evident from the sheer number of varieties. Variation in coating ranging from white chocolate over dark chocolate to licorice coating, with or without sprinkles. The base is often a plain wafer in commercial products, but delicacy and homemade versions often have shortbread, marzipan biscuits or other bases. Flavored filling is also very common especially when homemade, but licorice, marzipan and other flavors are commercially available. Variation in form is also common, often this is seen in commercial products ranging from wide and flat (bøf) to tall with sharp edges (Christmas tree).
Within the last 10 years, luxury versions have become more popular, and has also made the image of the 'flødebolle' change from a basic candy or Cake, to a luxury product suitable as a dessert or present, similar to a box of high-quality chocolates. The luxury versions have a much thicker layer of chocolate, and the chocolate is of a much higher quality, available in many variations and additional toppings (Everything from chunked nuts, to small pieces of very thin gold). The bottom biscuit (That usually has a very neutral taste) is replaced with Marzipan. These types were usually homemade and only found in special chocolate stores and restaurants, but is now available in most supermarkets, since mass-produced versions have become a huge success.
Israel, Krembo
Krembo, or Creambo (, a contraction meaning literally "Cream-in-it"), is the name of a chocolate-coated marshmallow treat that is popular in Israel, especially in the winter as an alternative to ice-cream. "Krembo whipped snack" consists of a round biscuit base (17% of total weight), topped with fluffy marshmallow creme-like foam (53%), coated in a thin layer of compound chocolate (about 30%) and wrapped in colorful, thin aluminum foil. Over time, different flavorings have been attempted for the foam by the different manufacturers, but the most popular have always predominantly been the vanilla flavoring and, to a lesser extent, the mocha flavoring. According to a study funded by Strauss, Israel's leading krembo producer, 69% of Israelis prefer to eat krembos from the top down (starting with the cream), and only 10% start with the biscuit at the bottom; the rest had no preference.
History
European chocolate-coated marshmallow treats were popular as homemade sweets in Mandate Palestine, when it was known as Kushi (Hebrew כושי, roughly Negro) and Rosh Kushi (Hebrew language: ראש כושי roughly "Negro's head") This name was borrowed from the names then used in Europe. It entered mass production in 1966. The first manufacturer, the Whitman Company, coined the name Krembo. In Hebrew, the word krembo is a combination of krem (cream) and bo (in it). A mocha flavour was introduced in 1967. In 1979 Whitman was acquired by Strauss which has the major part of the krembo market in Israel. During the 1980s and 1990s smaller manufacturers introduced additional flavours such as banana and strawberry but failed to achieve a significant market share. Today Strauss controls 54% of the krembo market in Israel.
Krembos are a seasonal treat sold only four months a year, from October to February. Nevertheless, 50 million krembos are sold each year—an average of 9 per person. Krembos are exported to the United States and Canada, and sold mostly in kosher shops and import stores.
In 2005, Strauss signed an agreement with Unilever to export ice cream and krembos to the United States and Canada due to a demand for products of this type with strict Kosher certification. Under terms of the agreement, they may be sold only in kosher supermarkets and import shops. The distributor in North America is Dairy Delight, a subsidiary of Norman's Dairy. In 2007, Nestlé introduced an ice cream variation of krembo called Lekbo (Hebrew: לקבו, "lick inside").
Nutritional information
The average krembo weighs and has 115 calories. According to the fine print on packing foil, per 100 g of krembo there are 419 calories, 3.2 g protein, 64 g carbohydrates (of which 54 g are sugars); 16.7% Fats (of which 13.9% are poly-saturated fatty acids, less than 0.5% are trans fatty acids) and 67 mg sodium.
Halachic debate about blessing
Under kashrut, the dietary rules of Jewish law (or Halacha), some orthodox rabbis find significance to the order in which one eats a Krembo. The blessing over the biscuit is boreh miney mezonot, whereas the blessing over the cream and chocolate is shehakol nihiyya bidvaro. According to halacha, when eating a dish of mixed components, one need pronounce only the blessing over the main components, thus for a chocolate croissant one would say the blessing over the dough, and skip the blessing over the chocolate. But in the case of the Krembo, there is no consensus as to which is the "main" component: the biscuit, or the cream and chocolate. One solution is to bless over each component separately.
Slovenia, Indijančki
In Slovenia these confections are known as indijančki (literally "little Indians").
Finland, Brunberg's Kisses
In Finland, the name originated from Germany, and they were named "Negro Kisses" (neekerinsuukot) in 1951. In 2001 the name was changed to "Brunberg's Kisses", after the manufacturer Brunberg from Porvoo, for largely the same reasons as in Denmark, Germany, and elsewhere.
Flanders, Negerinnentetten
In Flanders, the confection is known as negerinnentetten. The word can either be translated as "negress's tits" or could originate from the French word for head: "tête", as the French word for this confection used to be tête de nègre, which is French for "negro's head". This is also the probable origin of an alternative name negertetten. Nowadays manufacturers market the confection under a different name, as the aforementioned terms are considered to be offensive.
Belgium, Melo-Cakes
In Belgium, Milka branded it under the name Melo-Cakes. These popular treats are sold in packages of 6 pieces, and up to 30 pieces (family pack).
Netherlands, Negerzoenen
In the Netherlands the name is Negerzoenen ("Negro kisses") though some companies have changed the name to Zoenen ("Kisses"). This led to some controversy, since the Dutch word neger was generally perceived as more neutral compared to the English equivalent negro, which is considered pejorative and racist. Those often package nine per box to create the play on words Negen Zoenen ("Nine Kisses").
Philippines, Choco Mallows
In the Philippines, Fibisco makes a product similar to Mallomars called Choco Mallows that, unlike Mallomars, is available year-round. Likely to allow for a better shelf life in the tropical climate, the "hard chocolate shell" of a Choco Mallow is a soft chocolate covering that does not completely melt at room temperature.
Bolivia, Beso de Negro
In Bolivia, Chocolates Condor is the traditional manufacturer of "Beso de Negro" (Negro Kiss). The confection is similar to the German Schokoküsse in its use of a sweetened egg white foam filling rather than a marshmallow-based filling. There have been attempts to introduce variations in flavor, but the "classic" version remains the most popular.
Peru, Beso de Moza
In Peru, the confections are known as "Beso de Moza" (Girl's Kiss), sold by Nestlé. Currently there is a contest between strawberry and lucuma flavors to become permanent versions of the product.
Colombia, Beso de Negra
In Colombia and Ecuador, it's called Beso de Negra (Black Woman's Kiss) or "Chocmelo", a portmanteau of chocolate and masmelo (marshmallow). However, these last ones don't always have a cookie as its base.
In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, Nestlé announced it would rename the confectionary and remove the image on its packaging of a black woman with bare shoulders and a colorful dress.
Poland, Ciepłe lody
Warm ice cream ()
Portugal, Bombocas
In Portugal, these confections are known as "Bombocas". Sold by different brands, usually the supermarket ones. They are sold in 3 main flavors: meringue (white interior), strawberry (pink) and vanilla (yellow). They are being called "Beijinhos" in the last few years.
Serbia, Munchmallow
Produced in Serbia by Jaffa, it has a biscuit base and a soft mallow filling covered by a chocolate flavoured coating, and is very similar to the original Glasgow version.
Brazil, Nhá Benta
In Brazil the dessert is known as Nhá Benta and is manufactured by the Kopenhagen chocolaterie, but other variants exists in Brazil such as Cacau Show's Montebello (doesn't contain the waffle base) and the one that popularised the international formula for the masses in Brazil, the Dan-Top. The cookies are sold in a variety of flavours, including coconut, lemon, passion fruit, caramel, boysenberry, tonka bean and coffee. It is also known as "teta-de-nega" ("black woman's tit").
Uruguay, Ricardito
In Uruguay it is known as "Ricardito", meringue covered in chocolate manufactured by Ricard.
Russian, Zefir
Zefir (, may also be spelled zephyr or zephir) is made from fruit and berry purée with added sugar and whipped egg whites. It is commonly produced and sold in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The recipe is a merger of the traditional Russian pastila with French meringue. The name given after the Greek god of the light west wind Zephyr symbolizes its delicate airy consistency.
The consistency is similar to that of marshmallows, Schokokuss or krembo. The form typically resembles traditional meringue. However, in contrast to commercial meringue, it is never crisp. Both pure and chocolate-coated versions are widespread. In contrast to the other confectioneries of this type, it has no biscuit base.
Australia, Chocolate Royals
Arnott's Chocolate Royals are a chocolate coated-marshmallow treat of Australia, which are available in milk and dark chocolate varieties, and are similar in appearance to a Tunnock's teacake.
South Africa, Sweetie Pies
In South Africa, a similar confection is Sweetie Pies, originally made by Cadbury's but now by Beyers.
Other varieties
In Iran this is considered a popular treat for children. The local version is sold under several brands, all commonly called بستنی زمستانی (literally meaning "winter ice cream").
In Turkey, there is no single term in common use. It could be called by related brand names such as "Çokomel."
Chocolate fish
In New Zealand, a common chocolate-coated marshmallow treat is the chocolate fish. A fish-shaped delicacy, 12 to 20 centimeters (5 to 8 inches) in length, it is made of pink or white marshmallow covered in a thin layer of milk chocolate. The milk chocolate's texture features scale-like ripples on the fish, created by the fish moving under a blower during production.
In Kiwi culture, the chocolate fish is a common immediate reward or prize for a small job done well (e.g. "Give that kid a chocolate fish") so much so that a phrase suggesting a person be awarded one can be said regardless of availability of the treat (and either as a compliment or sarcastically).
Chocolate marshmallow pies
Chocolate marshmallow pies differ from regular chocolate-coated marshmallow treats in that there is a cake- or cookie-like layer above as well as below the marshmallow filling – that is, the marshmallow filling is sandwiched between two layers of cake or cookie, the entirety then being enrobed in chocolate. Some local names for chocolate marshmallow pies are:
"Chocolate marshmallow pie" (a generic term) in the United States (e.g., Little Debbie Chocolate Flavored Marshmallow Pies).
"Moon Pie" (a brand name of Chattanooga Bakery) in the United States, particularly the Southern United States.
"Scooter Pie" (a brand name of Burry's) in the United States, particularly in the Northeastern United States.
"Choco pie" (originally a brand name, now a common noun as a generic trademark), originally in South Korea but now also in Russia and other parts of East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia.
"Angel pie" (a brand name of Morinaga) in Japan.
"Wagon Wheels" (a brand name used by both Burton's Biscuit and Dare Foods) in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and certain other countries.
See also
List of chocolate-covered foods
Chocolate marshmallow log
S'more
Whoopie pie
Modjeska (confection)
Notes
References
External links
Food Timeline: History notes
Salon.com: a brief reminiscence of Mallomars
Video of marshmallow cookie factory
Marshmallows
Chocolate-covered foods
German confectionery
Scottish confectionery
Danish confectionery
German cuisine
Finnish confectionery
Cuisine of Quebec
Israeli confectionery
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228543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerburg | Westerburg | Westerburg is a small town of roughly 6,000 inhabitants in the Westerwaldkreis in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The town is named after the castle built on a hill above the mediaeval town centre (Burg is German for “castle”)
Geography
Location
The town lies in easternmost Rhineland-Palatinate, 4 km from the boundary with Hesse. It is the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Westerburg – a kind of collective municipality – which administers the town and 24 surrounding municipalities.
Constituent communities
The former Ortsgemeinden – communities belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde – of Gershasen, Wengenroth and Sainscheid belong to the town of Westerburg.
History
The earliest witnesses to human beings settling in what is now Westerburg are some urns that point to cremations performed here about 700 BC.
The earliest documentary mention of the constituent community of Wengenroth is dated 9 November 879 from the time when Gebhard, Count of the Lahngau donated holdings here to the St. Severus Monastery in Gemünden.
The first time that Westerburg was named in a document came in 1209 when Siegfried III of Runkel acquired Westerburg by marrying a countess from the House of Leiningen and thereafter began calling himself Siegfried von Runkel und von Westerburg. Two of his sons had bequests from him: Siegfried IV of Runkel, whose seat was in Westerburg, and Dietrich I of Runkel, whose seat was in Runkel. Family squabbles began about 1250 and under Siegfried's grandsons led to a permanent rift between the houses of Westerburg and Runkel by 1288. Dietrich's son Siegfried V of Runkel drove his cousin Heinrich out of Runkel, whereupon Siegfried, who was Siegfried IV's son, began calling himself Heinrich I of Westerburg. There are express indications of settlement next to the castle for the first time in 1270.
On 7 July 1292, Westerburg was raised to town at the same time as Wetzlar by King Adolf of Nassau, who also granted both towns the same town rights. In 1303, a jurymen's court (Schöffengericht) was approved in the town. Later these jurymen, whose number soon became fixed at eight, took turns serving as the town's mayor. No later than 1304, there were individual fortification works. Later, the town was divided into the upper town (Oberflecken) within the ring of walls finished by 1400 and the unwalled lower town (Unterflecken). There are known to have been 20 Burgmann houses in the upper town, but only from documents; archaeology has yielded no confirmation. In 1514, the first townsman's house (Bürgerhaus) is mentioned, and in 1560, a new building. In 1630, a prison is avouched.
In 1448 and 1534, great fires beset the town. After the unification of the County of Leiningen-Dagsburg with the Barony of Westerburg in 1467, Reinhard IV of Westerburg, who as of 1481 began calling himself Count Reinhard I at Leiningen-Westerburg, moved his seat to the County of Leiningen. Only as of 1557 was Westerburg once again a seat for sidelines of the once more sundering House of Leiningen or its family branch, Leiningen-Westerburg. Westerburg townsmen (Bürger) had at their disposal several privileges, in particular blood court jurisdiction (Halsgerichtsbarkeit) at their jurymen's court. Moreover, taxation privileges and laying out economic estates about the town time and again put the townsmen at loggerheads with the lords of the day.
In 1806, Westerburg passed to the Duchy of Berg. After 1815, the town was assigned to the Duchy of Nassau. On 2 September 1814, the lower town burnt down, and likewise the upper town on 13 October 1819. As of 1866, Prussia held sway. From 1866 to 1885, Westerburg belonged to the Amt of Rennerod and thereby also to the newly formed district of Oberwesterwaldkreis, whose seat was in Bad Marienberg. District reform in 1885 brought Westerburg a broader administrative function once again as it became the seat of a like-named district, which was in force until 1932. In that year, the Oberwesterwaldkreis was newly founded and Westerburg became its seat. In 1974, however, the two districts of Oberwesterwaldkreis and Unterwesterwaldkreis were amalgamated, and since then, Westerburg has no longer been a district seat.
Ecclesiastically, Westerburg was assigned to the St. Severus Monastery at Gemünden. The Late Romanesque tower of what is now an Evangelical church might stem from the first church building next to the castle chapel. A further chapel stood in the lower town by 1350. It is believed that shortly after 1560, the Reformation was introduced into Westerburg. Jews are first mentioned in 1616. In 1760, the Jewish community comprised 75 persons with one rabbi, and by 1754, there was a Jewish school. Public schooling is first known to have been instituted in 1557. Later, the school was also run temporarily as a Latin school.
The oldest census, from 1540, shows 124 assessable inhabitants. Eighty-six households are witnessed in 1607, and 39 in 1656. In 1760, 1,144 inhabitants were counted, and in 1807, 1,245.
Most inhabitants of course worked at agriculture or market gardening in the Middle Ages and on into early modern times, but they were hardly townsman farmers (Ackerbürger). Westerburg seems much more to have been a craft centre for the surrounding region in which even such rare crafts as arrowsmithing and crossbow making were settled. Also showing this are the many traders’ markets held in the town. Several guilds formed in this comparatively small town: in 1581 the bakers’ guild, which joined with the brewers’ guild in 1657, in 1532 the woolweavers’ and clothmakers’ guild (dissolved in 1710), in 1574 the tanners’ and shoemakers’ guild, in 1611 the linen weavers’ guild, and by 1658 also the tailors’ and merchants’. The woolweavers are known to have had their own hall, "Westerburger Hall" in Frankfurt am Main in 1605. Furthermore, it has been established that there were several mills, a forest smithy, a limekiln (mentioned in 1537) and a brickworks (built in 1612).
By 1518 there was also a sickhouse, and the town had an apothecary by 1697.
Politics
Community council
The municipal council in Westerburg consists of 22 council members, as well as the honorary and presiding mayor (Stadtbürgermeister), who were elected at the municipal elections on 25 May 2014.
The distribution of seats in the council is as follows:
FWG = Freie Wähler Gruppe Stadt Westerburg e. V.
WuB = Wir unabhängigen Bürger Westerburger Land e. V.
Mayor
Since 2019, Janick Pape (CDU) has been the town's mayor.
Town partnerships
Westerburg has partnership arrangements with the following places:
Daventry, Northamptonshire, England, United Kingdom
Le Cateau-Cambrésis, Nord, France
Nowa Wieś Wielka, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland
Złotoryja, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland
Economy and infrastructure
The Westerburg countryside has at its disposal, by reason of its lying between the urban agglomerations of Rhine-Main and Cologne-Düsseldorf-Ruhr, great appeal (according to a self-description at its website)
To ensure it, the municipality and the chamber of commerce (Verein für Handel, Handwerk, Industrie und Gewerbe e.V.) undertook in early 2005 to work on professional local marketing for Westerburg and the Westerburger Land (the outlying countryside), in which all fields of economic and political endeavour in the town and the area took part.
Transport
Autobahnen A 3 (Cologne–Frankfurt), A 45 (Dortmund–Gießen) and A 48 (Montabaur–Trier) each lie roughly 20 km away.
Westerburg station lies on the Oberwesterwaldbahn (railway) to Limburg and Au (Sieg). From there, the cities of Cologne, Koblenz, Frankfurt am Main and Wiesbaden may be reached directly.
The opening of InterCityExpress service on the new Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line with its Montabaur and Limburg stations with bring strengthened impetus to growth and development in the Westerburger Land.
Near Westerburg lies Ailertchen airport (ICAO code: EDGA).
Education
Westerburg is a schooling centre with every kind of school. The following educational institutions are to be found here:
Konrad-Adenauer-Gymnasium
Geschwister-Scholl-Realschule
Rolf-Simon-Schaumburger-Hauptschule
Regenbogenschule (“Rainbow School”, primary school)
Berufsbildende Schule Westerburg (vocational training school) with associated economic Gymnasium
Friedrich-Schweizer-Schule (special school for students with learning disabilities)
Adolf-Reichwein-Studienseminar for teaching office at primary schools and Hauptschulen
Volkshochschule Westerburg (folk high school)
Sport
Among sporting venues are the Westerwaldstadion and the Schulsportstadion (stadiums), competitive track type B with grass playing field, plastic running track and further competition-ready facilities for athletics. In the runup to the 2006 FIFA World Cup, this was the training facility used by the Czech Republic national football team, who stayed in a sport hotel at the Wiesensee (lake) in the Verbandsgemeinde of Westerburg.
Furthermore, Westerburg has a heated swimming pool at its disposal with a sunbathing field. This is run by a private club and is open in the summer months, from about May to September.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The castle, Schloss Westerburg, was first mentioned in 1192, and together with the castle church from the 16th century it is the town's landmark.
References
External links
Official website
Verbandsgemeinde of Westerburg
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Westerwaldkreis
Hesse-Nassau | [
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|
228545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake%20Up%20and%20Smell%20the...%20Carcass | Wake Up and Smell the... Carcass | Wake Up and Smell the... Carcass is a compilation album by the band Carcass, and is also the name of a video/DVD compilation of the band's songs. The cover is a photo of John F. Kennedy's autopsy.
Track listing
Tracks 1-5 are the band's promo videos, 6-15 were recorded live in 1992 on the "Gods of Grind" tour, and 16-22 were recorded in 1989 on the "Grindcrusher Tour".
Personnel
Carcass
Ken Owen – drums, backing vocals (12, 14–17)
Bill Steer – guitar, vocals (12–14, 16–17)
Jeffrey Walker – bass guitar, vocals, compilation compiling
Michael Amott – lead guitar (12–13)
Carlo Regadas – lead guitar (1–9)
Technical personnel
Colin Richardson – production (1–5, 12–14), mixing (10–11)
Stephen Harris – engineering (1–5)
Nick Brine – assistant engineering (1–5)
Barney Herbert – assistant engineering (1–5)
Jim Brumby – assistant engineering (1–5)
Tony Wilson – production (6–9)
Ted De Bono – engineering (6–9)
Ken Nelson – engineering (10–11)
Andrea Wright – assistant engineering (10–11)
Keith Hartley – engineering (12–16)
Ian McFarlane – assistant engineering (12–14)
Keith Andrews – engineering (17)
Digby Pearson – executive production
Mitch Dickinson – compilation compiling
Noel Summerville – mastering
Antz White – art direction, design, digital manipulation
Dan Tobin – sleeve notes
References
Carcass (band) compilation albums
1996 compilation albums
2001 video albums
2001 compilation albums
2001 live albums
Live video albums
Music video compilation albums
Earache Records compilation albums
Earache Records video albums
Earache Records live albums | [
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|
228547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla%20Thunderbird | Mozilla Thunderbird | Mozilla Thunderbird is a free and open-source cross-platform email client, personal information manager, news client, RSS and chat client developed by the Mozilla Foundation and operated by subsidiary MZLA Technologies Corporation. The project strategy was originally modeled after that of Mozilla's Firefox web browser.
Features
Thunderbird is an email, newsgroup, news feed, and chat (XMPP/IRC) client with personal information manager (PIM) functionality, inbuilt since version 78.0 and previously available from the Lightning calendar extension. Additional features are available from extensions.
Message management
Thunderbird manages multiple email, newsgroup, and news feed accounts and supports multiple identities within accounts. Features such as quick search, saved search folders ("virtual folders"), advanced message filtering, message grouping, and tags help manage and find messages. On Linux-based systems, system mail (movemail) accounts were supported until version 91.0. Thunderbird provides basic support for system-specific new email notifications and can be extended with advanced notification support using an add-on.
Junk filtering
Thunderbird incorporates a Bayesian spam filter, a whitelist based on the included address book, and can also understand classifications by server-based filters such as SpamAssassin.
Extensions and themes
Extensions allow the addition of features through the installation of XPInstall modules (known as "XPI" or "zippy" installation) via the add-ons website that also features an update functionality to update the extensions.
Thunderbird supports a variety of themes for changing its overall look and feel. These packages of CSS and image files can be downloaded via the add-ons website at Mozilla Add-ons.
Standards support
Thunderbird follows industry standards for email:
POP. Basic email retrieval protocol.
IMAP. Thunderbird has implemented many of the capabilities in IMAP, in addition to adding their own extensions and the de facto standards by Google and Apple.
LDAP address auto-completion.
S/MIME: Inbuilt support for email encryption and signing using X.509 keys provided by a centralised certificate authority.
OpenPGP: Inbuilt support for email encryption and signing since version 78.2.1, while older versions used extensions such as Enigmail.
For web feeds (e.g. news aggregators), it supports Atom and RSS.
For chat, it supports the IRC and XMPP protocol.
For newsfeeds, it uses NNTP and supports NNTPS.
File formats supported
Thunderbird provides mailbox format support using plugins, but this feature is not yet enabled due to related work in progress. The mailbox formats supported are:
mbox – Unix mailbox format (one file holding many emails)
maildir – known as maildir-lite (one file per email). "there are still many bugs", so this is disabled by default.
Thunderbird also uses Mork and (since version 3) MozStorage (which is based on SQLite) for its internal database. Mork was due to be replaced with MozStorage in Thunderbird 3.0, but the 8.0 release still uses the Mork file format.
Big file linking
Since version 38, Thunderbird has integrated support for automatic linking of large files instead of attaching them directly to the mail message.
HTML formatting and code insertion
Thunderbird provides a wysiwyg editor for composing messages formatted with HTML (default). The delivery format auto-detect feature will send unformatted messages as plain text (controlled by a user preference). Certain special formatting like subscript, superscript and strikethrough is available from the Format menu. The Insert > HTML menu provides the ability to edit the HTML source code of the message. There is basic support for HTML template messages, which are stored in a dedicated templates folder for each account.
Limitations and known issues
As with any software, there may be limitations to the number and sizes of files and objects represented. For example, POP3 folders are subject to filesystem design limitations, such as maximum file sizes on filesystems that do not have large-file support, as well as possible limitations of long filenames, and other issues.
Cross-platform support
Thunderbird runs on a variety of platforms. Releases available on the primary distribution site support the following operating systems:
Linux
Windows
macOS
Unofficial ports are available for:
FreeBSD
OpenBSD
Ports for older versions available for OS/2 (including ArcaOS and eComStation).
The source code is freely available and can be compiled to be run on a variety of other architectures and operating systems.
Internationalization and localization
With contributors all over the world, Thunderbird has been translated into more than 65 languages, although email addresses are currently limited to ASCII local parts. Thunderbird does not yet support SMTPUTF8 (RFC 6531) or Email Address Internationalization.
Security
Thunderbird provides security features such as TLS/SSL connections to IMAP and SMTP servers. It also offers inbuilt support for secure email with digital signing and message encryption through OpenPGP (using public and private keys) or S/MIME (using certificates). Any of these security features can take advantage of smartcards with the installation of additional extensions.
Other security features may be added through extensions. Up to version 68, the Enigmail extension was required for OpenPGP support (now inbuilt).
Optional security protections also include disabling loading of remote images within messages, enabling only specific media types (sanitizer), and disabling JavaScript.
The French military uses Thunderbird and contributes to its security features, which are claimed to match the requirements for NATO's closed messaging system.
History
Originally launched as Minotaur shortly after Phoenix (the original name for Mozilla Firefox), the project failed to gain momentum. With the success of Firefox, however, demand increased for a mail client to go with it, and the work on Minotaur was revived under the new name of Thunderbird, and migrated to the new toolkit developed by the Firefox team.
On December 7, 2004, version 1.0 was released, and received more than 500,000 downloads in its first three days of release, and 1,000,000 in ten days.
Significant work on Thunderbird restarted with the announcement that from version 1.5 onward the main Mozilla suite would be designed around separate applications using this new toolkit. This contrasts with the previous all-in-one approach, allowing users to mix and match the Mozilla applications with alternatives. The original Mozilla Suite continues to be developed as SeaMonkey.
On December 23, 2004, Project Lightning was announced which tightly integrated calendar functionality (scheduling, tasks, etc.) into Thunderbird. Lightning supports the full range of calendar mechanisms and protocols supported by the Mozilla Calendar infrastructure, just as with modern (post-0.2) Sunbird.
On October 11, 2006, Qualcomm and the Mozilla Foundation announced that "future versions of Eudora will be based upon the same technology platform as the open source Mozilla Thunderbird email program." The project was code-named Penelope.
In late 2006, Debian rebranded Thunderbird as Icedove due to trademark and copyright reasons. This was the second product to be rebranded.
On July 26, 2007, the Mozilla Foundation announced that Thunderbird would be developed by an independent organization, because the Mozilla Corporation (a subsidiary of the foundation) was focusing on Mozilla Firefox development.
On September 17, 2007, the Mozilla Foundation announced the funding of a new internet communications initiative with David Ascher of ActiveState. The purpose of this initiative was "to develop Internet communications software based on the Thunderbird product, code, and brand".
On February 19, 2008, Mozilla Messaging started operations as a subsidiary of the Mozilla Foundation responsible for the development of email and similar communications. Its initial focus was on the then upcoming version of Thunderbird 3. Alpha Preview releases of Thunderbird 3 were codenamed "Shredder". On April 4, 2011, Mozilla Messaging was merged into the Mozilla Labs group of the Mozilla Foundation.
On July 6, 2012, a confidential memo from Jb Piacentino, the Thunderbird Managing Director at Mozilla, was leaked and published to TechCrunch. The memo indicated that Mozilla would be moving some of the team off the project and further development of new features would be left up to the community. The memo was slated for release on July 9, 2012. A subsequent article by the Executive Chair of Mozilla, Mitchell Baker, stated Mozilla's decision to make a transition of Thunderbird to a new release and governance model. On July 6, 2012, Mozilla announced the company was dropping the priority of Thunderbird development because the continuous effort to extend Thunderbird's feature set was mostly fruitless. The new development model shifted to Mozilla offering only "Extended Support Releases", which deliver security and maintenance updates, while allowing the community to take over the development of new features.
On November 25, 2014, Kent James of the volunteer-led Thunderbird Council announced on the Thunderbird blog that active contributors to Thunderbird gathered at the Mozilla office in Toronto and discussed the future of the application. They decided that more staff were required working full-time on Thunderbird so that the Thunderbird Team could release a stable and reliable product and make progress on features that had been frequently requested by the community.
On December 1, 2015, Mitchell Baker suggested in a company-wide memo that Thunderbird should be uncoupled from Firefox's infrastructure. She referred to Thunderbird as being a tax on Firefox and said that she did not believe Thunderbird had the potential for "industry-wide impact" that Firefox did. Mozilla remained interested in having a role in Thunderbird, but sought more assistance to help with development. On December 1, 2015, Mozilla Executive Chair Mitchell Baker announced in a company-wide memo that Thunderbird development needed to be uncoupled from Firefox. She referred to Thunderbird developers spending large efforts responding to changes to Mozilla technologies, while Firefox was paying a tax to support Thunderbird development. She also said that she does not believe Thunderbird has the potential for "industry-wide impact" that Firefox does. At the same time, it was announced that Mozilla Foundation would provide at least a temporary legal and financial home for the Thunderbird project.
On May 9, 2017, Philipp Kewisch announced that the Mozilla Foundation would continue to serve as the legal and fiscal home for the Thunderbird project, but that Thunderbird would migrate off Mozilla Corporation infrastructure, separating the operational aspects of the project. Mozilla brought Thunderbird back in-house in an announcement on May 9, 2017, and continued to support its development. The Thunderbird development team expanded by adding several new members and overhauled security and the user interface.
The interim/beta versions Thunderbird 57 and 58, released in late 2017, began to make changes influenced by Firefox Quantum, including a new "Photon" user interface.
Despite the removal in Firefox Quantum of support for XUL-based legacy add-ons in favor of WebExtensions, the stable/ESR release of Thunderbird 60 in mid-2018 continued to support them, although most would require updates, and it did not support WebExtensions except for Themes.
In 2018, work was underway for planned support in Thunderbird 63 of WebExtensions and to continue to "somewhat" support legacy addons, according to Mozilla.
With the release of Thunderbird 68 in August 2019 it now only supports WebExtension addons. Legacy Addons can still be used if a special "legacy mode" is enabled, but even for this, the legacy Addon has to be converted.
Instead of upgrading to WebExtension technology, the Thunderbird version of the popular OpenPGP addon Enigmail was retired and its functionality was largely integrated into Thunderbird instead. Mainly for licensing reasons, this is no longer based on GnuPG, but on the RNP library, which has more liberal licensing terms.
On January 28, 2020, the Mozilla Foundation announced that the project would henceforth be operating from a new wholly owned subsidiary, MZLA Technologies Corporation, in order to explore offering products and services that were not previously possible and to collect revenue through partnerships and non-charitable donations.
As of version 78.7.1, Thunderbird will no longer allow installation of addons that use Legacy WebExtensions. Only MailExtensions are now compatible with Thunderbird. MailExtensions are WebExtensions but with "some added features specific to Thunderbird".
With version 91. The main improvements and new features of Thunderbird are: User interface improvements to Calendar display, message compose window, message composer, and customized the order of accounts; Improved the performance, New context menu in the compose window; Updated printing UI; Major revamped account setup wizard; Import or Export Thunderbird profiles; Automatically suggesting replacements for discontinued or incompatible add-ons; Supports CardDAV address books; PDF.js viewer is now included by default; Updates the enterprise policies and the printing dialog; Defaults the IRC server for new chat accounts to Libera Chat; Encrypt emails to BCC recipients; Native support for Apple Silicon CPUs.
Releases
Thunderbird development releases occur in three stages, called Beta, Earlybird, and Daily, which correspond to Firefox's Beta, Aurora, and Nightly stages. The release dates and Gecko versions are exactly the same as Firefox; for example, Firefox 7 and Thunderbird 7 were both released on September 27, 2011, and were both based on Gecko 7.0.
References
External links
2003 software
Cross-platform free software
Email client software for Linux
Free email software
Free multilingual software
Free software programmed in C++
Free Usenet clients
News aggregator software
MacOS email clients
OS/2 software
Portable software
Software that uses XUL
Software using the Mozilla license
Unix Internet software
Windows email clients
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|
228551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor%20of%20Provence | Eleanor of Provence | Eleanor of Provence (c. 1223 – 24/25 June 1291) was a French noblewoman who became Queen consort of England as the wife of King Henry III from 1236 until his death in 1272. She served as regent of England during the absence of her spouse in 1253.
Although she was completely devoted to her husband, and staunchly defended him against the rebel Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, she was very much hated by the Londoners. This was because she had brought many relatives with her to England in her retinue; these were known as "the Savoyards", and they were given influential positions in the government and realm. On one occasion, Eleanor's barge was attacked by angry Londoners who pelted her with stones, mud, pieces of paving, rotten eggs and vegetables.
Eleanor had five children, including the future King Edward I of England. She also was renowned for her cleverness, skill at writing poetry, and as a leader of fashion.
Early life
Born in the city of Aix-en-Provence in southern France, she was the second daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (1198–1245) and Beatrice of Savoy (1198–1267), the daughter of Thomas I of Savoy and his wife Margaret of Geneva. She was well educated as a child, and developed a strong love of reading. Her three sisters also married kings. After her elder sister Margaret married Louis IX of France, their uncle William corresponded with Henry III of England to persuade him to marry Eleanor. Henry sought a dowry of up to twenty thousand silver marks to help offset the dowry he had just paid for his sister Isabella, but Eleanor's father was able to negotiate this down to no dowry, just a promise to leave her ten thousand when he died.
Like her mother, grandmother, and sisters, Eleanor was renowned for her beauty. She was a dark-haired brunette with fine eyes. Piers Langtoft speaks of her as "The erle's daughter, the fairest may of life". On 22 June 1235, Eleanor was betrothed to King Henry III (1207–1272). Eleanor was probably born latest in 1223; Matthew Paris describes her as being "jamque duodennem" (already twelve) when she arrived in the Kingdom of England for her marriage.
Queen consort
Eleanor was married to King Henry III of England on 14 January 1236. She had never seen him prior to the wedding at Canterbury Cathedral and had never set foot in his kingdom. Edmund Rich, Archbishop of Canterbury, officiated. She was dressed in a shimmering golden dress that fitted tightly at the waist and flared out to wide pleats at her feet. The sleeves were long and lined with ermine. After riding to London the same day where a procession of citizens greeted the bridal pair, Eleanor was crowned queen consort of England in a ceremony at Westminster Abbey which was followed by a magnificent banquet with the entire nobility in full attendance. Her love for her husband grew significantly from 1236 onward.
Unpopularity
Eleanor was a loyal and faithful consort to Henry, but she brought in her retinue a large number of uncles and cousins, "the Savoyards", and her influence with the King and her unpopularity with the English barons created friction during Henry's reign. Her uncle William of Savoy became a close advisor of her husband, displacing and displeasing English barons.Though Eleanor and Henry supported different factions at times, she was made regent of England when her husband left for Gascony in 1253. Eleanor was devoted to her husband's cause, stoutly contested Simon de Montfort, raising troops in France for Henry's cause.
On 13 July 1263, she was sailing down the Thames when her barge was attacked by citizens of London. Eleanor stoutly hated the Londoners, who returned her hatred; in revenge for their dislike Eleanor had demanded from the city all the back payments due on the monetary tribute known as queen-gold, by which she received a tenth of all fines which came to the Crown. In addition to the queen-gold other such fines were levied on the citizens by the Queen on the thinnest of pretexts. In fear for her life as she was pelted with stones, loose pieces of paving, dried mud, rotten eggs and vegetables, Eleanor was rescued by Thomas Fitzthomas, the Mayor of London, and took refuge at the bishop of London's home.
Queen dowager and death
In 1272 Henry died, and her son Edward, who was 33 years old, became king of England. She remained in England as queen dowager, and raised several of her grandchildren—Edward's son Henry and daughter Eleanor, and Beatrice's son John. When her grandson Henry died in her care in 1274, Eleanor went into mourning and gave orders for his heart to be buried at the priory at Guildford which she founded in his memory. In January 1275 she expelled the Jews from all of her lands. Eleanor's two remaining daughters died in 1275, Margaret on 26 February and Beatrice on 24 March.
She retired in 1286 to Amesbury Priory in Wiltshire, eight miles north of Salisbury, where she was visited by her son, King Edward. Two of her granddaughters – Mary of Woodstock (daughter of Edward) and Eleanor of Brittany – were already nuns there, each having entered the priory on reaching the age of seven.
Eleanor died on 24/25 June 1291 at the priory and was buried there. The site of her grave is unknown, making her the only English queen without a marked grave. Her heart was taken to London where it was buried at the Franciscan priory of Greyfriars.
Cultural legacy
Eleanor was renowned for her learning, cleverness, and skill at writing poetry, as well as her beauty; she was also known as a leader of fashion, continually importing clothes from France. She often wore parti-coloured cottes (a type of tunic), gold or silver girdles into which a dagger was casually thrust, she favoured red silk damask, and decorations of gilt quatrefoil, and to cover her dark hair she wore jaunty pillbox caps. Eleanor introduced a new type of wimple to England, which was high, "into which the head receded until the face seemed like a flower in an enveloping spathe".
She had developed a love for the songs of the troubadours as a child, and continued this interest. She bought many romantic and historical books, covering stories from ancient times to contemporary romances written in the period (13th century).
Eleanor is the protagonist of The Queen From Provence, a historical romance by British novelist Jean Plaidy which was published in 1979. Eleanor is a main character in the novel Four Sisters, All Queens by author Sherry Jones, as well as the novels The Sister Queens by Sophie Perinot, and "My Fair Lady: A Story of Henry III's Lost Queen" by J. P. Reedman. She is also the subject of Norwegian Symphonic metal band Leave's Eyes in their song "Eleonore De Provence" from their album Symphonies of the Night.
Issue
Eleanor and Henry had five children together. Eleanor seems to have been especially devoted to her eldest son, Edward; when he was deathly ill in 1246, she stayed with him at the abbey at Beaulieu in Hampshire for three weeks, long past the time allowed by monastic rules. It was because of her influence that King Henry granted the duchy of Gascony to Edward in 1249. Her youngest child, Katherine, seems to have had a degenerative disease that rendered her deaf. When the little girl died at the age of three, both her royal parents suffered overwhelming grief. Eleanor possibly had four other sons who also died in childhood, but their existence is in doubt as there is no contemporary record of them.
Edward I (1239–1307), married Eleanor of Castile (1241–1290) in 1254, by whom he had issue, including his heir Edward II. His second wife was Margaret of France, by whom he had issue.
Margaret (1240–1275), married King Alexander III of Scotland, by whom she had issue.
Beatrice (1242–1275), married John II, Duke of Brittany, by whom she had issue.
Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster (1245–1296), married Aveline de Forz in 1269, who died four years later without issue; married Blanche of Artois in 1276, by whom he had issue.
Katherine (25 November 1253 – 3 May 1257)
Notes
References
Bibliography
|-
|-
1220s births
1291 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
13th-century viceregal rulers
13th-century women rulers
13th-century French people
13th-century English people
13th-century French women
Women in 13th-century warfare
13th-century English poets
13th-century English women writers
Irish royal consorts
People from Aix-en-Provence
English royal consorts
Duchesses of Aquitaine
House of Aragon
People of the Barons' Wars
Women in medieval European warfare
Henry III of England
Regents of England
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|
228552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo%20Ball | Hugo Ball | Hugo Ball (; 22 February 1886 – 14 September 1927) was a German author, poet, and essentially the founder of the Dada movement in European art in Zürich in 1916. Among other accomplishments, he was a pioneer in the development of sound poetry.
Life and work
Hugo Ball was born in Pirmasens, Germany, and was raised in a middle-class Catholic family. He studied sociology and philosophy at the universities of Munich and Heidelberg (1906–1907). In 1910, he moved to Berlin in order to become an actor and collaborated with Max Reinhardt. At the beginning of World War I, he tried joining the army as a volunteer, but was denied enlistment for medical reasons. After witnessing the invasion of Belgium, he was disillusioned, saying: "The war is founded on a glaring mistake – men have been confused with machines." Considered a traitor in his country, he crossed the frontier with the cabaret performer and poet Emmy Hennings, whom he would marry in 1920, and settled in Zürich, Switzerland. There, Ball continued his interest in anarchism and in Mikhail Bakunin in particular; he also worked on a book of translations of works by Bakunin, which never got published. Although interested in anarchist philosophy, he nonetheless rejected it for its militant aspects, and viewed it as only a means to his personal goal of socio-political enlightenment.
In 1916, Hugo Ball created the Dada Manifesto, making a political statement about his views on the terrible state of society and acknowledging his dislike for philosophies of the past that claimed to possess the ultimate truth. In the manifesto Ball aimed to legitimize the new artistic movement's ambition to not merely "write poetry with words", but to "write poetry out of the words", to create an entirely new language, due to the fact that the old language was viewed as "doomed", and "ruined by the filthy hands of capital". The central thought of modernism since Baudelaire regarding that the language has to be fixed, is here given a distinctive critique of economy as a motivation. The same year as the Manifesto, in 1916, Ball wrote his poem "," a poem consisting of nonsensical words. The meaning, however, resides in its meaninglessness, reflecting the chief principle behind Dadaism. Some of his other best known works include the poem collection , the drama , a memoir of the Zürich period Flight Out of Time: A Dada Diary, and a biography of Hermann Hesse, entitled (1927).
As co-founder of the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, he led the Dada movement in Zürich and is one of the people credited with naming the movement "Dada," by allegedly choosing the word at random from a dictionary. His companion and future wife, Emmy Hennings, was also a member of Dada.
His involvement with the Dada movement lasted approximately two years. He then worked for a short period as a journalist for in Bern. After returning to Catholicism in July 1920, Ball retired to the canton of Ticino, where he lived a religious and relatively poor life with Emmy Hennings. He contributed to the journal Hochland during this time. He also began the process of revising his diaries from 1910 to 1921, which were later published under the title Die Flucht aus der Zeit (Flight Out of Time). These diaries provide a wealth of information concerning the people and events of the Zürich Dada movement. He died in Sant'Abbondio (Gentilino), Switzerland, of stomach cancer on 14 September 1927.
Adaptations
Ball's poem "Gadji beri bimba" was adapted to the song "I Zimbra" on the 1979 Talking Heads album Fear of Music. Ball received a writing credit for the song on the track listing.
The song contains these lines:
Gadji beri bimba clandridi
Lauli lonni cadori gadjam
A bim beri glassala glandride
E glassala tuffm I zimbra
The complete "Gadji beri bimba" poem by Ball reads:
gadji beri bimba glandridi laula lonni cadori
gadjama gramma berida bimbala glandri galassassa laulitalomini
gadji beri bin blassa glassala laula lonni cadorsu sassala bim
gadjama tuffm i zimzalla binban gligla wowolimai bin beri ban
o katalominai rhinozerossola hopsamen laulitalomini hoooo
gadjama rhinozerossola hopsamen
bluku terullala blaulala loooo
zimzim urullala zimzim urullala zimzim zanzibar zimzalla zam
elifantolim brussala bulomen brussala bulomen tromtata
velo da bang band affalo purzamai affalo purzamai lengado tor
gadjama bimbalo glandridi glassala zingtata pimpalo ögrögöööö
viola laxato viola zimbrabim viola uli paluji malooo
tuffm im zimbrabim negramai bumbalo negramai bumbalo tuffm i zim
gadjama bimbala oo beri gadjama gaga di gadjama affalo pinx
gaga di bumbalo bumbalo gadjamen
gaga di bling blong
gaga blung
A voice-cut-up collage of his poem "Karawane" by German artist Kommissar Hjuler, member of Boris Lurie's NO!art movement, was released on an LP on the Greek Shamanic Trance label in 2010. "Karawane" was also set to music in 2012 by Australian composer Stephen Whittington, as an "anti-song cycle" of seventeen songs — one for each line of the poem, lasting approximately two minutes each. The same poem and its historical context was used by Esa-Pekka Salonen for his 28-minute composition for mixed choir and orchestra, Karawane.
Bibliography
Die Nase des Michelangelo. Tragikomödie in vier Auftritten, 1911
Der Henker von Brescia. Drei Akte der Not und Ekstase, 1914
Flametti oder Vom Dandysmus der Armen. Roman. Reiss, Berlin 1918
Zur Kritik der deutschen Intelligenz. Der Freie Verlag, Bern 1919
redeveloped as: Die Folgen der Reformation. Duncker & Humblot, München 1924
Byzantinisches Christentum. Drei Heiligenleben (on Joannes Klimax, Dionysius Areopagita und Symeon dem Styliten). Duncker & Humblot, München 1923
Hermann Hesse. Sein Leben und sein Werk. S. Fischer, Berlin 1927
Die Flucht aus der Zeit (Diary). Duncker & Humblot, München 1927
Gesammelte Gedichte mit Photos und Faksimiles, ed.. Annemarie Schütt-Hennings. Arche, Zürich 1963
Tenderenda der Phantast. Roman. Arche, Zürich 1967
Bibliography in English
Blago Bung, Blago Bung, Hugo Ball's Tenderenda the Fantast, Richard Huelsenbeck's Fantastic Prayers, and Walter Serner's Last Loosening – three key texts of Zürich ur-Dada. Translated and introduced by Malcolm Green. Atlas Press,
Flametti, or The Dandyism of the Poor, trans. Catherine Schelbert, Wakefield Press, Massachusetts, 2014,
See also
Hans Arp
Richard Huelsenbeck
Hans Leybold
Hans Richter
Walter Serner
Tristan Tzara
References
External links
International Dada Archive
Hugo Ball (DADA Companion)
Opening-Manifest of the 1st Dada-Evening by Hugo Ball
, Ball recites "Karawane", 1916 (at 2:32)
Sound recordings of the poems of Hugo Ball on UbuWeb
1886 births
1927 deaths
People from Pirmasens
People from the Palatinate (region)
German Roman Catholics
20th-century German poets
Writers from Rhineland-Palatinate
Dada
German male poets
German-language poets
Modernist theatre
20th-century German male writers
German dadaists
Critics of political economy | [
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228564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy%20Thorpe | Jeremy Thorpe | John Jeremy Thorpe (29 April 1929 – 4 December 2014) was a British politician who served as the Member of Parliament for North Devon from 1959 to 1979, and as leader of the Liberal Party from 1967 to 1976. In May 1979 he was tried at the Old Bailey on charges of conspiracy and incitement to murder, arising from an earlier relationship with Norman Scott, a former model. Thorpe was acquitted on all charges, but the case, and the furore surrounding it, ended his political career.
Thorpe was the son and grandson of Conservative MPs, but decided to align with the small and ailing Liberal Party. After reading Law at Oxford University he became one of the Liberals' brightest stars in the 1950s. He entered Parliament at the age of 30, rapidly made his mark, and was elected party leader in 1967. After an uncertain start during which the party lost ground, Thorpe capitalised on the growing unpopularity of the Conservative and Labour parties to lead the Liberals through a period of notable electoral success. This culminated in the general election of February 1974, when the party won 6 million votes. Under the first-past-the-post electoral system this gave them only 14 seats, but in a hung parliament, no party having an overall majority, Thorpe was in a strong position. He was offered a cabinet post by the Conservative prime minister, Edward Heath, if he would bring the Liberals into a coalition. His price for such a deal, reform of the electoral system, was rejected by Heath, who resigned in favour of a minority Labour government.
The February 1974 election was the high-water mark of Thorpe's career. Thereafter his and his party's fortunes declined, particularly from late 1975 when rumours of his involvement in a plot to murder Norman Scott began to multiply. Thorpe resigned the leadership in May 1976, when his position became untenable. When the matter came to court three years later, Thorpe chose not to give evidence to avoid being cross-examined by counsel for the prosecution. This left many questions unanswered; despite his acquittal, Thorpe was discredited and did not return to public life. From the mid-1980s he was disabled by Parkinson's disease. During his long retirement he gradually recovered the affections of his party, and by the time of his death was honoured by a later generation of leaders, who drew attention to his record as an internationalist, a supporter of human rights, and an opponent of apartheid.
Family background and early childhood
Thorpe was born in South Kensington, London, on 29 April 1929. His father was John Henry Thorpe, a lawyer and politician who was the Conservative MP for Manchester Rusholme between 1919 and 1923. His mother, Ursula Norton-Griffiths (1903–1992), was the daughter of another Conservative MP, Sir John Norton-Griffiths, widely known as "Empire Jack" because of his passionate imperialism. The Thorpe family claimed kinship with distant forebears carrying the name, including Sir Robert Thorpe, who was briefly Lord Chancellor in 1372, and Thomas Thorpe, who was Speaker of the House of Commons in 1453–54. There is no direct evidence of any link between these figures and Jeremy Thorpe's family.
The more recent Thorpe ancestors were Irish, stemming from the elder of two brothers who were, according to family tradition, soldiers under Cromwell during the re-conquest of Ireland. Both were rewarded with land; the descendants of the younger brother—from County Carlow—prospered in Dublin as High Sheriffs and Lord Mayors, but those of the elder lost their land and became tenant farmers and tradesmen. Jeremy Thorpe's great-grandfather, William Thorpe, was a Dublin policeman who, having been a labourer, joined the police as a constable and rose to the rank of superintendent. One of his many sons, John Thorpe, became an Anglican priest and served as Archdeacon of Macclesfield from 1922 to 1932. The archdeacon's marriage in 1884 to a daughter of the prosperous Anglo-Irish Aylmer family brought considerable wealth to the Thorpes, as did his elder daughter Olive's marriage into the influential Christie-Miller family of Cheshire. Both John Henry and Jeremy Thorpe would benefit from this connection, as the Christie-Millers paid the costs of their education.
Jeremy was his parents' third child, following two sisters. His upbringing was privileged and protected, under the care of nannies and nursemaids until, in 1935, he began attending Wagner's day school in Queen's Gate. He became a proficient violinist, and often performed at school concerts. Although John Henry Thorpe was no longer in parliament, he had maintained many of his political contacts and friendships, and leading politicians were regularly entertained at the Thorpe home. Among the strongest of these friendships was that with the Lloyd George family—Ursula Thorpe was a close friend of the former Liberal prime minister's daughter, Megan, who became Jeremy's godmother. The former prime minister David Lloyd George, an occasional visitor, became Jeremy's political hero and role model, and helped form his ambitions for a political career in the Liberal Party.
Education
Schooling
In January 1938 Jeremy went to Cothill House, a school in Oxfordshire that prepared boys for entry to Eton. By summer 1939 war looked likely, and the Thorpe family moved from London to the Surrey village of Limpsfield where Jeremy attended Hazelwood School. War began in September 1939; in June 1940, with invasion threatening, the Thorpe children were sent to live with their American aunt, Kay Norton-Griffiths, in Boston. In September that year Jeremy began at the Rectory School in Pomfret, Connecticut. He remained there for three generally happy years; his main extracurricular task, he later recalled, was looking after the school's pigs. In 1943 it was thought safe for the children to return to England, and John Henry used his political connections to secure for Jeremy a passage in the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Phoebe.
Thorpe started at Eton in September 1943. He proved an indifferent scholar, he lacked sporting aptitude, and although superficially a rebel against conformity, his frequent toadying to authority earned him the nickname "Oily Thorpe". He also annoyed his fellow-pupils by parading his acquaintance with a range of famous and important people. He offended the school's traditionalists by resigning from the school's cadet force, and shocked others by expressing his intention to marry Princess Margaret, then second in line to the British throne. Thorpe revealed little about his Eton years, beyond his membership of the school orchestra and his winning a cup for his violin playing—he briefly considered the possibility of a career as a professional violinist. His time at Eton was marred by the death of his father in 1944, at the age of 57.
Oxford
Having secured a place at Trinity College, Oxford, Thorpe left Eton in March 1947. In September he began 18 months' National Service, but within six weeks was discharged on medical grounds after collapsing while attempting an assault course. As his place at Oxford was unavailable until the following year, Thorpe worked as a temporary preparatory school teacher before his admission to Trinity on 8 October 1948.
Thorpe was reading Law, but his primary interests at Oxford were political and social. From his earliest undergraduate days he drew attention to himself by his flamboyant behaviour; according to Thorpe's biographer, Michael Bloch, his "pallid appearance, dark hair and eyes and angular features, gave him a diabolonian air". He was quick to seek political office, initially in the Oxford University Liberal Club (OULC) which, despite the doldrums affecting the Liberal Party nationally, was a thriving club with over 800 members. Thorpe was elected to the club's committee at the end of his first term; in November 1949 he became its president. Outside Oxford, Thorpe showed a genuine commitment to Liberalism in his enthusiastic contributions to the party's national election campaigns, and on reaching his 21st birthday in April 1950, applied to have his name added to the party's list of possible parliamentary candidates.
Beyond the OULC, Thorpe achieved the presidency of the Oxford University Law Society, although his principal objective was the presidency of the Oxford Union, an office frequently used as a stepping-stone to national prominence. Normally, would-be presidents first served in the Union's junior offices, as Secretary, Treasurer or Librarian, but Thorpe, having impressed as a confident and forceful debater, decided early in 1950 to try directly for the presidency. He was easily defeated by the future broadcaster Robin Day. His single-minded pursuit of office, and the dubious strategies he sometimes employed, led to some acrimonious campaigns, but he gained many supporters, and later in 1950 beat two formidable contenders—the socialist Dick Taverne and the Conservative William Rees-Mogg—to secure the presidency for the Hilary term of 1951.
Thorpe's term as president was marked by the range of distinguished guest speakers that he recruited, among them the future Lord Chancellor Lord Hailsham, the barrister and former Liberal MP Norman Birkett, and the humorist Stephen Potter. The time-consuming nature of his various offices meant that Thorpe required a fourth year to complete his law studies, which ended in the summer of 1952 with a third-class honours degree.
At Oxford Thorpe enjoyed numerous friendships with his contemporaries, many of whom later achieved distinction. These were almost exclusively with men; even so, he was not identified as a member of any of Oxford's homosexual sets. He confided to a friend that politics provided him with the necessary level of emotional excitement, thus making sexual relationships unnecessary. Thus, Bloch suggests, he was accepted by his fellow-students as "a basically asexual character, wrapped up in politics and his career".
Early career
Parliamentary candidate
Having been accepted as a potential Liberal parliamentary candidate, Thorpe looked for a constituency. The general elections of 1950 and 1951 had seen the party's MPs fall, first to nine, then six; some commentators saw little future except "further attrition and further losses to the two major parties". The journalist Julian Glover writes that Thorpe's determination to stay with the party, despite its woes, showed a more principled commitment to Liberalism than many critics have acknowledged; his prospects of reaching parliament would have been considerably greater within either the Conservative or Labour parties.
Initially the young would-be candidate was offered the opportunity of succeeding the party leader, Clement Davies, in the Welsh seat of Montgomeryshire, when Davies decided to retire. There being no immediate prospect of that, Thorpe looked elsewhere, in particular to Devon and Cornwall, where the party had long-standing traditions and had polled respectably in 1950 and 1951. In these elections Thorpe had assisted the Liberal candidate for North Cornwall, Dingle Foot, whose agent recommended him to the neighbouring North Devon constituency. The Torrington local party was also anxious to adopt Thorpe as their candidate, while Foot saw him as a possible successor in North Cornwall. Thorpe chose to fight North Devon, a seat once held by the Liberals although, in 1951, the party had finished in third place behind Conservative and Labour, with less than 20% of the vote.
Thorpe was adopted as North Devon's Liberal candidate in April 1952. His political stance matched that of other young activists, who believed that the party should offer a radical non-socialist alternative to the Conservative government. He and others founded the Radical Reform Group, to drive the party in that direction. He spent much of his spare time cultivating the voters in North Devon; at rallies and on the doorstep he mixed local concerns with conspicuously liberal views on larger, international issues such as colonialism and apartheid. When Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Winston Churchill as prime minister, called a snap general election in April 1955, Thorpe fought an energetic local campaign. He succeeded in halving the Conservative majority in the constituency, and restoring the Liberals to second place.
Barrister-at-law and television journalist
In need of a paid occupation Thorpe opted for the law, and in February 1954 was called to the bar in the Inner Temple. Initially he found it difficult to earn a living from his fees; he needed another source of income, and found it in television journalism. Thorpe was employed by Associated Rediffusion, at first as chairman of a science discussion programme, The Scientist Replies, and later as an interviewer on the station's major current affairs vehicle This Week. Among various assignments for This Week, he travelled to Ghana in 1957 to cover the country's independence celebrations, and in 1958 he reported from Jordan on a plot to assassinate King Hussein. Thorpe was a skilled broadcaster, and in addition to his television work he became a regular guest on the BBC radio programme Any Questions? In 1959 he was offered the post of chief commentator by Associated Rediffusion, but as the condition was that he gave up his parliamentary candidature, he declined.
Through the later 1950s Thorpe juggled his legal and television work with his political duties in North Devon, where he worked tirelessly to build up support. From September 1956 the Liberal Party was led by Jo Grimond, a more up-to-date figure than his elderly predecessor Davies, and more in tune with the ideas of Thorpe and the Radical Reform Group. After an uncertain beginning—the Liberals lost one of their six seats to Labour in a February 1957 by-election—Grimond's leadership began to produce results. The party polled well in a series of by-elections during 1957 and 1958, culminating in a victory at Torrington in March 1958—a seat which the party had not contested in the 1955 general election. Thorpe, who had figured prominently in the Torrington campaign, saw this victory in an adjoining Devon constituency as a harbinger of his own future success.
Thorpe's television and radio work had brought him a measure of celebrity, and his colourful and individualistic campaigning style was widely admired. The journalist Christopher Booker recalled: "He had an extraordinary ability both to cheer up his followers and send up his opponents". Throughout the 1950s Thorpe was leading a secret homosexual life, at a time when all such activity was illegal in the United Kingdom, and subject to heavy penalties; exposure would have ended his political prospects instantly. This sexual orientation, concealed from the wider public, was known and tolerated in North Devon, and was at least suspected by many in the wider Liberal Party.
Member of Parliament
Thorpe's efforts in North Devon came to fruition in the October 1959 general election, when he won the seat with a majority of 362 over his Conservative opponent—the Liberal Party's solitary gain in what was generally an electoral triumph for Harold Macmillan's Conservative government. On 10 November 1959, he made his maiden speech, during a debate on the government's local employment bill. He highlighted poor communications as the principal reason for the lack of employment opportunities in North Devon, and called for urgent government action.
Thorpe was a diligent MP, active in promoting local issues—a new general hospital, and a link road to the Exeter-Taunton motorway—and campaigned successfully to save the Barnstaple-to-Exeter railway line from the "Beeching axe". On broader questions he made no secret of his anti-hanging, pro-immigrant, pro-Europe opinions, largely not shared by his constituents. He championed freedom from colonial and minority rule, and was an outspoken opponent of regimes he considered oppressive such as those in South Africa and the short-lived Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. He was also noted for his verve and wit; when in 1962, after a series of by-election disasters, Macmillan sacked a third of his cabinet, Thorpe's reported comment, an inversion of the biblical verse John 15:13, was "Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his friends for his life".
Within the Liberal Party, Thorpe helped to found an informal organisation known as "Winnable Seats", which directed energy and funding to selected target constituencies. This strategy led to some notable by-election performances during 1961–62, culminating in March 1962 with victory in Orpington, where a 14,760 Conservative majority was turned into a Liberal majority of 7,855. These results were accompanied by substantial Liberal gains in municipal elections; national opinion polls briefly showed the party on equal terms with the Labour and Conservative parties. This advance was barely reflected in the results of the October 1964 general election; the party nearly doubled its share of the national vote, to 11.2%, but secured a net gain of only two seats. One of the new Liberals was Peter Bessell, who won the Cornish seat of Bodmin. In North Devon, Thorpe increased his personal majority to over 5,000.
After the election, which Labour won with a small majority, Thorpe was seen by many as Grimond's natural successor; his speeches were generally the highlights of the party's annual assemblies, and he strengthened his position when, in 1965, he secured the important post of party treasurer. He proved to be an excellent fund-raiser, although his insistence on personal control of much of the party's funds aroused criticism and resentment. In July 1965, after the end of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Thorpe toured Central and East Africa, visiting both Zambia and Rhodesia. On his return he advised the prime minister, Harold Wilson, that the all-white Rhodesian government under Ian Smith would make a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) before the end of the year, unless deterred by the threat of armed intervention. Wilson would not countenance the use of troops; the UDI took place on 11 November. In a speech to the Liberal Assembly in September 1966, Thorpe condemned Wilson's handling of the Rhodesia issue ("misjudged and misplanned"), and called for the bombing by United Nations aircraft of the rail link through which the post-UDI Rhodesian government received its oil supplies. The speech delighted the more radical elements in the Liberal Party but outraged many Conservatives, who used the derisive nickname "Bomber Thorpe" for the rest of Thorpe's parliamentary career.
In March 1966 Wilson called an election, hoping to improve his tiny parliamentary majority. He did so, increasing it to almost 100. The Liberals, although their overall share of the vote fell to 8.5%, increased their number of MPs from nine to 12, an indication of success in targeted campaigning under the "Winnable Seats" strategy. Thorpe suffered a personal disappointment in North Devon, where his majority dropped to 1,166.
Party leader
1967–1970
After the 1966 election, Grimond confided to senior party officials that he wished soon to step down from the leadership. Thorpe was now the senior Liberal MP after Grimond, and the party's highest-profile member, although Timothy Beaumont, chairman of the party's organising committee, noted in his diary: "I am pretty certain that he has little popularity within the Parliamentary Party". When Grimond finally resigned, on 17 January 1967, an election to replace him was arranged to take place within 48 hours, leaving little time for manoeuvring. The 12 Liberal MPs formed the whole electorate; after the first ballot, Thorpe had secured six votes against three each for Eric Lubbock, the Orpington MP, and Emlyn Hooson who had succeeded to the Montgomeryshire seat. On 18 January Lubbock and Hooson withdrew their candidacies, and Thorpe was declared the winner.
As Liberal leader, Thorpe provided a clear contrast with the pedestrian images of Wilson and Edward Heath, the Conservative leader since March 1965. He was considerably younger, and much more telegenic. His first years of leadership were problematic; he found himself at odds with the Young Liberals, who were advocating policies far to the left of the Liberal mainstream. Their demands for workers' control in nationalised industries, British withdrawal from NATO, and massive cuts in the defence budget, caused bitter disputes within the party and damaged its public image. At this time the political climate was not conducive to radical policies; the Wilson government's rapid descent into unpopularity brought a sharp swing to the right among voters. The beneficiaries were the Conservatives, who made spectacular by-election gains at Labour's expense while the Liberals failed to make any real impact. Discontent against Thorpe's leadership was being voiced within a year of his election, culminating in June 1968 when disaffected senior party members combined with Young Liberals in an attempt to depose him. Thorpe had just married Caroline Allpass, and was abroad on honeymoon when the plotters struck. The timing of their attempted coup, widely seen in and out of the party as treachery, ensured that on Thorpe's return the party executive backed him by 48 votes to 2.
Thorpe's marriage provided him with a period of emotional stability; a son, Rupert, was born in April 1969. Shortly afterwards, Thorpe received a political boost when the Liberals unexpectedly won a by-election at Birmingham Ladywood, in a previously safe Labour seat. This was a solitary success, and the party faced the general election of June 1970 with little confidence. The results justified their gloomy premonitions; the party's share of the vote fell to 7.5%, and seven of its thirteen seats, including Ladywood, were lost. Thorpe barely hung on in North Devon, his majority reduced to 369. Three of his colleagues had comparably small majorities; only Grimond, Hooson and Russell Johnston were relatively safe. Heath's Conservatives secured a 30-seat majority.
1970–1974
After the Liberals' poor election performance Thorpe came under fire, but such criticisms were stifled when, ten days after the election, Caroline Thorpe was killed in a car crash. For the rest of 1970 and for much of 1971, Thorpe was preoccupied with his loss and his plan for a permanent memorial to Caroline. Meanwhile, the party began to recover, chiefly through its adoption of "community politics"—engagement with local rather than national issues—and achieved modest gains in the 1971 local elections.
By early 1972, with the monument to Caroline erected on Codden Hill, Thorpe was fully re-engaged in political life. In February he assisted the passage through the House of Commons of Heath's European Communities Bill, approving the United Kingdom's accession to the European Economic Community. The bill was opposed by Labour and by some Conservatives. By aligning his party with the government, Thorpe ensured a majority of eight for the bill's second reading, and it duly became law. By mid-1972 the Liberals' fortunes were rising significantly; the public was equally disenchanted with both major parties, and community politics were proving popular. Impressive local election results were followed by sensational by-election results. In October 1972 Rochdale was won from Labour, and in the next year four victories were achieved over the Conservatives: Sutton, Isle of Ely, Ripon and Berwick-upon-Tweed.
On 14 March 1973, Thorpe married Marion Stein, a concert pianist and the former wife of George Lascelles, 7th Earl of Harewood. The couple had been brought together a year earlier by a mutual acquaintance, the pianist Moura Lympany. The year ended less happily for Thorpe, when the secondary banking firm of London & County Securities, of which he had been a director since May 1971, collapsed amid rumours of mismanagement and fraud, marking the start of the secondary banking crisis of 1973–75; the details were not revealed until 1976. In February 1974, Heath, whose government had been plagued by industrial unrest, called a general election on the issue of "Who governs Britain?". During the election campaign there was evidence of disaffection with both Heath and Wilson, and of a surge in Liberal support. Thorpe was confident that the party would make a significant breakthrough; on election day, 28 February, it secured its highest national vote to date, 6 million, and its highest share of the vote (19.3%) since 1929. Under the first-past-the-post voting system, these figures translated into just 14 seats. Thorpe's majority in North Devon rose to 11,072.
Coalition negotiations
The February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament; neither Labour, with 301 seats, nor the Conservatives, with 297 seats, achieved an overall majority. As was his right as the sitting Prime Minister, Heath did not resign, hoping to persuade the Liberals into a Conservative-led coalition. He met Thorpe on 2 March to discuss possible bases for co-operation, Heath's preferred option being a formal coalition in which Thorpe would be given a cabinet post, and junior ministries would be allocated to other senior Liberals. As the combined Conservative-Liberal vote amounted to 57% of the electorate, such a government would, Heath thought, have some moral legitimacy. If Thorpe would not accept coalition, a less formal basis of inter-party co-operation might be agreed which would enable the Conservative government to retain office.
The next day, after discussions with senior colleagues, Thorpe advised Heath that a commitment to electoral reform would be a prerequisite to any arrangement between the two parties. Thorpe proposed that Heath establish a Speaker's Conference whose recommendations on electoral reform would, if acceptable to the Liberals, form the basis of subsequent legislation with full cabinet approval. After further consultations with their parties, the two leaders met again; Heath reported that while his party would not object to a Speaker's Conference, they could not commit themselves in advance to accepting its recommendations, which would be subject to a free House of Commons vote. This was unacceptable to Thorpe, who then made a separate proposal that an all-party "Government of national unity" be formed to tackle the urgent economic problems facing the country. This idea was rejected by Heath, who resigned on Monday 4 March.
Thorpe later admitted that a coalition agreement would have torn the party apart; the more radical elements, in particular the Young Liberals, would never have accepted it. Furthermore, Thorpe said that "even with our support Heath wouldn't have had a parliamentary majority"; without some arrangements with the Scottish Nationalists or the Ulster Unionists, the coalition could have been brought down by the first vote on the Queen's Speech. Following Heath's resignation, Wilson formed a Labour minority government.
Declining fortunes
As Harold Wilson did not have an overall majority after the February 1974 election, he was widely expected to call another election before too long; he did so in September 1974. Thorpe anticipated a turning point in the Liberals' fortunes and campaigned under the slogan "one more heave", aiming for a complete breakthrough with entering a coalition a last resort. The phrase is attributed to advertising agent and Liberal parliamentary candidate Adrian Slade. Future Liberal Party leader David Steel called the whole campaign "a slightly less successful re-run of February." In the October 1974 general election, the Liberals received over 700,000 fewer votes and returned 13 MPs, down one, with Wilson achieving an overall majority of three.
Thorpe and the Liberals were deflated by the outcome of the October 1974 election. Wilson's majority, albeit slim, denied Thorpe the role of kingmaker, leaving the Liberals without a clear role; as Dutton observes, apart from being neither Conservative or Labour, the Liberals lacked a distinctive identity and their policies were largely unknown to the public. A further problem for the party was the divergence between its activists, who were radicals well to the left of the official party, and a large section of its recent supporters who were disgruntled Conservatives. Thorpe, whose personal majority in North Devon had fallen to under 7,000 in October, confided to an associate that, unless the party were soon to make a significant impact, his days as leader might be numbered.
During 1975 Thorpe campaigned for electoral reform, citing the "Great Vote Robbery" of the year before. He argued that electoral reform on a proportional basis would bring about a centrist stability to British politics that would favour British business. In the June 1975 referendum on the UK's continuing membership of the EEC, Thorpe campaigned for a "yes" vote alongside the pro-Europeans of both major parties, appearing with Heath (recently replaced as Conservative leader by Margaret Thatcher) at the Oxford Union. The referendum resulted in a two-to-one approval of the UK's membership, but Thorpe failed to stem the decline in his party's electoral fortunes. In the Woolwich West by-election on 26 June 1975 the party lost more than two-thirds of its October 1974 vote, a "major humiliation" according to The Guardian.
Relationship with Norman Scott
Thorpe's homosexual activities from time to time came to the attention of the authorities, and were investigated by the police; information was added to his MI5 file, but in no case was action taken against him. In 1971 he survived a party inquiry after a complaint against him by Norman Scott, a riding instructor and would-be model. Scott maintained that in the early 1960s he had been in a sexual relationship with Thorpe, who had subsequently mistreated him. The inquiry dismissed the allegations. but the danger represented by Scott continued to preoccupy Thorpe who, according to his confidant David Holmes, felt "he would never be safe with that man around".
Scott (known then as Norman Josiffe) had first met Thorpe early in 1961 when the former was a 20-year-old groom working for one of Thorpe's wealthy friends. The initial meeting was brief, but nearly a year later Scott, by then in London and destitute, called at the House of Commons to ask the MP for help. Thorpe later acknowledged that a friendship had developed, but denied any physical relationship; Scott claimed that he had been seduced by Thorpe on the night following the Commons meeting. Over the following years Thorpe made numerous attempts to help Scott find accommodation and work, but Scott became increasingly resentful towards Thorpe, threatening him with exposure.
In 1965 Thorpe asked his parliamentary colleague Peter Bessell to help him resolve the problem. Bessell met Scott and warned him that his threats against Thorpe might be considered blackmail; he offered to help Scott obtain a new National Insurance card, the lack of which had been a long-running source of irritation. This quietened matters for a while, but within a year Scott came calling again. With Thorpe's agreement, Bessell began paying Scott a "retainer" of £5 a week, supposedly as compensation for the welfare benefits that Scott had been unable to obtain because of his missing card. Bessell later stated that by 1968 Thorpe was considering ways in which Scott might be permanently silenced; he thought David Holmes might organise this. Holmes had been best man at Thorpe's wedding, and was completely loyal to him.
When Scott unexpectedly married in 1968, it appeared that the problem might be over, but by 1970 the marriage had ended. Early in 1971 Scott moved to the village of Talybont, in North Wales, where he befriended a widow, Gwen Parry-Jones, to whom he recounted his tale of ill-treatment at the hands of Thorpe. She passed the information to Emlyn Hooson, who was MP for the adjoining Welsh constituency; Hooson precipitated the party inquiry which cleared Thorpe. After Parry-Jones's death the following year, Scott fell into a depression and for a while was quiescent. In time, he began to tell his story to anyone who would listen. By 1974 Thorpe, at the crest of the Liberal revival, was terrified of exposure that might lose him the Liberal leadership. As Dominic Sandbrook observes in his history of the times: "The stakes had never been higher; silencing Scott had never been more urgent".
Resignation
Over the years Scott made several attempts to publicise his story, but no newspapers were interested. The satirical magazine Private Eye decided in late 1972 that the story "was defamatory, unproveable, and above all was ten years old". From late 1974 Holmes took the lead in furthering plans to silence Scott; through various intermediaries he found Andrew Newton, an airline pilot, who said he would dispose of Scott for a fee of between £5,000 and £10,000. Meanwhile, Thorpe procured £20,000 from Sir Jack Hayward, the Bahamas-based millionaire businessman who had previously donated to the Liberal Party, stating that this was to cover election expenses incurred during 1974. Thorpe arranged for these funds to be secretly channelled to Holmes rather than the party. He later denied that this money had been used to pay Newton, or anyone else, as part of a conspiracy.
In October 1975, Newton made a bungled attempt to shoot Scott that resulted in the killing of Scott's Great Dane Rinka. Newton was arrested on charges of possession of a firearm with intent to endanger life, yet the press remained muted, possibly awaiting the bigger story that they hoped would break. Their reticence ended in January 1976 when Scott, in court on a minor social security fraud charge, claimed he was being hounded because of his previous sexual relationship with Thorpe. This statement, made in court and thus protected from the libel laws, was widely reported.
On 29 January the Department of Trade published its report into the collapse of London & County Securities. The report criticised Thorpe's failure to investigate the true nature of the company before involving himself, "a cautionary tale for any leading politician". Thorpe received some relief when his former colleague Peter Bessell, who had resigned from parliament and relocated to California to escape from a string of business failures, re-emerged in early February after discovery by the Daily Mail. Bessell gave muddled accounts of his involvement with Scott, but insisted that his former chief was innocent of any wrongdoing.
On 16 March 1976 Newton's trial began at Exeter Crown Court, where Scott repeated his allegations against Thorpe despite the efforts of the prosecution's lawyers to silence him. Newton was found guilty and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, but did not incriminate Thorpe. The erosion of public support for the Liberal Party continued with several poor by-election results in March, which the former leader Grimond attributed to increasing lack of confidence in Thorpe. On 14 March, The Sunday Times printed Thorpe's answer to Scott's various allegations, under the heading "The Lies of Norman Scott". Nevertheless, many of the party's senior figures now felt that Thorpe should resign.
Thorpe's problems multiplied when Bessell, alarmed by his own position, confessed to the Daily Mail on 6 May that in his earlier statements he had lied to protect his former leader. Scott was threatening to publish personal letters from Thorpe who, to forestall him, arranged for The Sunday Times to print two letters from 1961. Although these did not conclusively indicate wrongdoing, their tone indicated that Thorpe had not been frank about the true nature of his friendship with Scott. On 10 May 1976, amid rising criticism, Thorpe resigned the party leadership, "convinced that a fixed determination to destroy the Leader could itself result in the destruction of the Party".
Post-resignation
Interlude
Thorpe's resignation brought him a period of temporary calm. The new Liberal leader, David Steel, made him party spokesman on foreign affairs, with responsibility for European issues. Wilson had by this time retired as prime minister, and been replaced by James Callaghan. Thorpe lobbied the government hard for legislation to introduce direct elections to the European Parliament; at that time MEPs were appointed by member nations' parliaments.
By-election losses eroded and finally removed Labour's small parliamentary majority, and in March 1977 Callaghan was in danger of losing a confidence vote that would have precipitated a general election. Opinion polls indicated that an election at that time would have been equally disastrous for the Labour and Liberal parties; to ensure mutual survival, a "Lib–Lab pact" was agreed, whereby in return for certain policy concessions the Liberals would support the Government. Thorpe used his influence to insist that legislation for direct elections to the European Parliament was part of the pact, but was unable to secure his principal objective, a commitment to a proportional basis in these elections. In parliament, Thorpe spoke in favour of Scottish and Welsh devolution, arguing that there was no alternative to home rule except total separation. In the various debates related to the unresolved issue of Rhodesia, Thorpe pressed for the involvement of representatives from the African nationalists, in the form of the Patriotic Front, in negotiations for a peaceful settlement to the long-running Rhodesian Bush War.
Although the press was generally quiet after Thorpe's resignation, reporters were still investigating him. The most persistent of these were Barry Penrose and Roger Courtiour, collectively known as "Pencourt", who had begun by believing that Thorpe was a target of South African intelligence agencies, until their investigations led them to Bessell in California. Bessell, no longer covering for Thorpe, gave the reporters his version of the conspiracy to murder Scott, and Thorpe's role in it. Pencourt's progress was covered in Private Eye, to Thorpe's extreme vexation; when the pair attempted to question him outside his Devon home early in 1977, he threatened them with prosecution.
Thorpe's relatively peaceful interlude ended in October 1977 when Newton, released from prison, sold his story to the London Evening News. Newton's claim that he had been paid "by a leading Liberal" to kill Scott caused a sensation, and led to a prolonged police investigation. Throughout this period Thorpe endeavoured to continue his public life, in and out of parliament. In the House of Commons on 1 August 1978, when it appeared certain he would face criminal charges, he asked the Attorney-General what sum of capital possessed by an applicant would prevent him from receiving legal aid. The next day he made his final speech in the House, during a debate on Rhodesia.
On 4 August, Thorpe, along with Holmes and two of Holmes's associates, was charged with conspiracy to murder Scott. Thorpe was additionally charged with incitement to murder, on the basis of his alleged 1968 discussions with Bessell and Holmes. After being released on bail, Thorpe declared his innocence and his determination to refute the charges. Although he remained North Devon's MP he withdrew almost completely from public view, except for a brief theatrical appearance at the Liberals' 1978 annual assembly on 14 September—to the annoyance of the party's leaders who had asked him to stay away.
Committal, electoral defeat
In November 1978, Thorpe, Holmes and two of the latter's business acquaintances, John le Mesurier (a carpet salesman, not to be confused with the actor of that name) and George Deakin, appeared before magistrates at Minehead, Somerset, in a committal hearing to determine whether they should stand trial. The court heard evidence of a conspiracy from Scott, Newton and Bessell; it also learned that Bessell was being paid £50,000 by The Sunday Telegraph for his story. At the conclusion, the four defendants were committed for trial at the Old Bailey. This was set to begin on 30 April 1979, but when in March the government fell, and a general election was called for 3 May, the trial was postponed until 8 May.
Thorpe accepted the invitation of his local party to fight the North Devon seat, against the advice of friends who were certain he would lose. His campaign was largely ignored by the national party; of its leading figures only John Pardoe, the MP for North Cornwall, visited the constituency. Thorpe, supported by his wife, his mother and some loyal friends, fought hard, although much of his characteristic vigour was missing. He lost to his Conservative opponent by 8,500 votes. Overall, the Conservatives obtained a majority of 43 seats, and Margaret Thatcher became prime minister. The Liberal Party's share of the national vote fell to 13.8%, and its total seats from 13 to 11. Dutton attributes much of the fall in the Liberal vote to the lengthy adverse publicity generated by the Thorpe affair.
Trial and acquittal
The trial, which lasted for six weeks, began on 8 May 1979, before Mr Justice Cantley. Thorpe was defended by George Carman. Carman quickly undermined Bessell's credibility by revealing that he had a significant interest in Thorpe's conviction; in the event of an acquittal, Bessell would receive only half of his newspaper fee. During his cross-examination of Scott on 22 May, Carman asked: "You knew Thorpe to be a man of homosexual tendencies in 1961?" This oblique admission of his client's sexuality was a stratagem to prevent the prosecution from calling witnesses who would testify to Thorpe's sex life. Nevertheless, Carman insisted, there was no reliable evidence of any physical sexual relationship between Thorpe and Scott, whom Carman dismissed as "this inveterate liar, social climber and scrounger".
Following weeks in which the court heard the prosecution's evidence from the committal hearings, the defence opened on 7 June. Deakin testified that although he introduced Newton to Holmes, he had thought that this was to help deal with a blackmailer—he knew nothing of a conspiracy to kill. Deakin was the only defendant to testify; Thorpe and the others chose to remain silent and call no witnesses, on the basis that the testimonies of Bessell, Scott and Newton had failed to make the prosecution's case.
On 18 June, following closing speeches from prosecution and defence counsel, the judge began his summing-up. While emphasising Thorpe's distinguished public record, he was scathing about the principal prosecution witnesses: Bessell was a "humbug", Scott a fraud, a sponger, a whiner, a parasite—"but of course he could still be telling the truth." Newton was "determined to milk the case as hard as he can." On 20 June the jury retired; they returned two days later and acquitted the four defendants on all charges. In a brief public statement, Thorpe said that he considered the verdict "a complete vindication." Scott said he was "unsurprised" by the outcome, but was upset by the aspersions on his character made by the judge from the safety of the bench.
Later life
Following his acquittal, Thorpe announced that he proposed to attend the 1979 Liberal assembly and the forthcoming Liberal International Congress in Canada. His failure to explain himself under oath was widely criticised in the press, and the public perception was that he had been fortunate to have "got off". Reluctantly, Thorpe accepted that there was no future role for him within the Liberal Party, and informed the North Devon association that he would not seek to fight the seat again. Steel expressed the hope that Thorpe would, "after a suitable period of rest and recuperation ... find many avenues where his great talents may be used."
In his search for a new career Thorpe applied unsuccessfully for the posts of administrator of the Aldeburgh Festival, and race relations adviser to the Greater London Council. His attempts to restart a career in television also came to nothing. In February 1982, it was announced that he was to become director of the British section of Amnesty International, but the appointment was opposed by many of the organisation's membership, and he withdrew from the post after a month of controversy. He kept his position as chairman of the political committee of the United Nations Association, but in 1985 the progression of Parkinson's disease, which had first been diagnosed in 1979, led to the curtailment of most of his public activity. He continued to live in North Devon, and in 1987 accepted the honorary presidency of the North Devon Liberal Democrat association, formed after the Liberal–SDP merger. He thought he might return to parliament via a life peerage in the House of Lords, but although friends lobbied on his behalf, the merged party's leadership refused to recommend him. Within the party generally, feelings towards him warmed, and when he attended the 1997 annual conference he received a standing ovation.
In 1999 Thorpe published an anecdotal memoir, In My Own Time, an anthology of his experiences in public life. In the book he repeated his denial of any sexual relationship with Scott, and maintained that the decision not to offer evidence was made to avoid prolonging the trial, since it was clear that the prosecution's case was "shot through with lies, inaccuracies and admissions". In the 2005 general election campaign Thorpe appeared on television, attacking both the Conservative and Labour parties for supporting the Iraq War. Three years later, in 2008, he gave interviews to The Guardian and to the Journal of Liberal History. York Membery, the Liberal journal's interviewer, found Thorpe able to communicate only in a barely audible whisper, but with his brain power unimpaired. Thorpe asserted that he "still had steam in my pipes"; reviewing the current political situation, he considered the Labour prime minister Gordon Brown "dour and unimpressive", and dubbed the Conservative leader David Cameron "a phoney ... a Thatcherite trying to appear progressive". Some of Thorpe's pro-Europeanism had been eroded over the years; In his final years, he thought that the European Union had become too powerful, and insufficiently accountable.
Final years and death
Thorpe's last public appearance was in 2009, at the unveiling of a bust of himself in the Grimond Room at the House of Commons. Thereafter he was confined to his home, nursed by Marion until she became too infirm. She died on 6 March 2014; Thorpe survived for nine more months, dying from complications of Parkinson's disease on 4 December, aged 85. His funeral was at St Margaret's, Westminster, on 17 December.
Appraisal
Most assessments of Thorpe's career emphasise his downfall rather than his political achievements, "a fall unparalleled in British political history", according to the Daily Telegraph obituarist. While Thorpe hoped that acquittal would ensure he would be remembered primarily for his revival of Liberal fortunes in the 1960s and 1970s, the trial shattered his reputation irretrievably. The prosecuting counsel at the Old Bailey likened the case to "a tragedy of truly Greek or Shakespearian proportions—the slow but inevitable destruction of a man by the stamp of one defect."
After Thorpe's death, sympathetic commentators drew attention to his internationalism and social liberalism, highlighting his long involvement with the Anti-Apartheid Movement, his denunciations of dictators, his opposition to the death penalty, and his rejection of racism. There is wide agreement that he was an outstanding political campaigner—persuasive, witty, and warm: "his astonishing memory for faces persuaded voters that they were intimate friends ... his resourceful mind afforded quips and stunts for every occasion." A different perspective on Thorpe, quoted by Michael Bloch, was given by a former friend, the art expert David Carritt, at the time of the trial: "Self-centred ...Mildly entertaining, slightly sinister. Said to be witty, but ... if one doesn't care for impersonations, he's really a bit of a bore".
In assessing Thorpe's 10 years as party leader, Nick Clegg credited him with providing "the driving force that continued the Liberal revival that began under Jo Grimond", and Douglas Murray, writing for The Spectator, recognised his strategy of identifying and concentrating on winnable seats as the basis for the major Liberal Democrat breakthrough in the 1997 election. Dutton, in his party history, took a more qualified view, suggesting that in spite of Thorpe's bold style and charisma, "the party drifted without a sense of conviction and underlying purpose ... [and was] dominated by tactics rather than ideas". Thorpe positioned the Liberals in the "moderate centre", equidistant from Labour and Conservative, a strategy which was very successful in February 1974 when dissatisfaction with the two main parties was at its height, but which left the party's specific identity obscure, and its policies largely unknown.
The political journalist Andrew Rawnsley described Thorpe as a "dandy, exhibitionist, superb showman, shallow thinker, wit and mimic, cunning opportunist, sinister intriguer, idealistic internationalist and a man with a clandestine homosexual life". Thorpe never discussed his sexuality publicly, although throughout his political career he led a double life—responsible politician by day while, according to Murray, "by night he was not only very gay but rather carefree about being so." The writer and broadcaster Jonathan Fryer, who was a gay activist within the Liberal Party in the 1970s, maintained that in the repressive climate of the time Thorpe "couldn't have come out, even if he'd wanted to". His double standard irritated and alienated the gay Liberals: "He wanted the best of both worlds—his fun and a family."
In his review of Michael Bloch's biography, Murray writes: "Jeremy Thorpe had hoped to be remembered as a great political leader. I suppose they all do. And perhaps he will be remembered longer than many other politicians of his age or ours. But it will always be for the same thing. Jeremy, Jeremy, bang, bang, woof, woof."
In popular media
In 2009, the BBC attempted to film a TV biopic of Thorpe's life, with Rupert Everett in the title role, but this was subsequently abandoned after legal threats from Thorpe. A Very English Scandal, a true crime non-fiction novel covering the Thorpe/Scott affair, by John Preston, was published on 5 May 2016 by Viking Press. The book was described as "a political thriller, with urgent dialogue, well-staged scenes, escalating tension and plenty of cliffhangers, especially once the trial begins". A British three-part television series, also titled [[A Very English Scandal (TV series)|A Very English Scandal]]'', based on Preston's novel, aired on the BBC in May 2018, directed by Stephen Frears, with actor Hugh Grant starring as Thorpe and Ben Whishaw as Norman Scott.
Notes and references
Notes
Citations
Books
Online
External links
"Former Liberal Party Leader Jeremy Thorpe dies at 85". Liberal Democrats tribute page, 4 December 2014
Jeremy Thorpe Papers, housed at the British Library.
1929 births
2014 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
Neurological disease deaths in England
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
English male non-fiction writers
English memoirists
English people of Irish descent
Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK)
LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
LGBT politicians from England
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People acquitted of crimes
People educated at Eton College
People educated at Hazelwood School
Presidents of the Oxford Union
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies | [
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|
228565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruud%20Janssen | Ruud Janssen | Ruud Janssen (born 29 July 1959 in Tilburg) is a Dutch Fluxus and mail artist currently living in Breda in the Netherlands.
Life and Work
Janssen studied physics and mathematics before he became active with mail art in 1980, doing several international mail art projects. From 1994 till 2001 he has conducted interviews with Fluxus and mail artists. These interviews have been published in booklets and on the internet since 1996. In later years, Janssen focused on acrylic painting and individual correspondences.
Janssen was selected to publish an essay as one of eleven contemporary "New Fluxus" artists who are seen to 'inhabit the site of Fluxus, developing and interpreting the Fluxus tradition in a new way.' in a special double issue of the journal Visible Language on Fluxus.
In 1994, Janssen began a series of mail-interviews. He interviewed Fluxus and mail art personalities by using all the communication-forms that were available (fax, e-mail, envelope, personal meeting, telephone). The question traveled by one form and the answer could be sent back in another form. This concept resulted in a series of mail-interviews. These interviews were published in booklet-form and the complete texts are also available online. In 2008, a selection of the mail-interviews were published in book form.
In 1997 Janssen had a solo exhibition of his mail art work and interviews in Guy Bleus' E-Mail Art Archives (Provincial Center for Visual Arts, now Z33) in Hasselt, Belgium.
TAM-Publications
Janssen publishes articles, magazines and booklets with his TAM-Publications and participates in international mail art projects, collaborations and exhibitions.
International Union of Mail-Artists
He founded IUOMA (International Union of Mail-Artists) in 1988 and is also the curator of the TAM-Rubberstamp Archive, the result of a Mail Art collection that has been accumulated by him from 1983 till now. The archive contains art prints, original rubber stamps, magazines and literature.
Fluxus Heidelberg Center
In 2003 Janssen and Litsa Spathi founded the Fluxus Heidelberg Center for which they are building up a collection of Fluxus material and where they also publish their own works.
Publications
References
External links
Official site of Ruud Janssen, IUOMA and TAM-Publications
Fluxus Heidelberg Center website
1959 births
Living people
Fluxus
Dutch bloggers
People from Tilburg | [
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228566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail%20art | Mail art | Mail art, also known as postal art and correspondence art, is an artistic movement centered on sending small-scale works through the postal service. It initially developed out of what eventually became Ray Johnson's New York Correspondence School and the Fluxus movements of the 1960s, though it has since developed into a global movement that continues to the present.
Characteristics
Media commonly used in mail art include postcards, paper, a collage of found or recycled images and objects, rubber stamps, artist-created stamps (called artistamps), and paint, but can also include music, sound art, poetry, or anything that can be put in an envelope and sent via post. Mail art is considered art once it is dispatched. Mail artists regularly call for thematic or topical mail art for use in (often unjuried) exhibition.
Mail artists appreciate interconnection with other artists. The artform promotes an egalitarian way of creating that frequently circumvents official art distribution and approval systems such as the art market, museums, and galleries. Mail artists rely on their alternative "outsider" network as the primary way of sharing their work, rather than being dependent on the ability to locate and secure exhibition space.
Mail art can be seen as anticipating the cyber communities founded on the Internet.
History
Artist Edward M. Plunkett has argued that communication-as-art-form is an ancient tradition; he posits (tongue in cheek) that mail art began when Cleopatra had herself delivered to Julius Caesar in a rolled-up carpet.
Ray Johnson, the New York Correspondance School, and Fluxus
The American artist Ray Johnson is considered to be the first mail artist. Johnson's experiments with art in the mail began in 1943, while the posting of instructions and soliciting of activity from his recipients began in the mid-1950s with the mailing of his "moticos", and thus provided mail art with a blueprint for the free exchange of art via post.
The term "mail art" was coined in the 1960s. In 1962, Plunkett coined the term "New York Correspondence School" to refer to Johnson's activities; Johnson adopted this moniker but sometimes intentionally misspelled it as "correspondance." The deliberate misspelling was characteristic of the playful spirit of the Correspondance School and its actions.
Most of the Correspondance School members are fairly obscure, and the letters they sent, often featuring simple drawings or stickers, often instructed the recipient to perform some fairly simple action. Johnson's work consists primarily of letters, often with the addition of doodles and rubber stamped messages, which he mailed to friends and acquaintances. The Correspondance School was a network of individuals who were artists by virtue of their willingness to play along and appreciate Johnson's sense of humor. One example of the activities of the Correspondance School consisted in calling meetings of fan clubs, such as one devoted to the actress Anna May Wong. Many of Johnson's missives to his network featured a hand drawn version of what became a personal logo or alter-ego, a bunny head.
In a 1968 interview, Johnson explained that he found mailed correspondence interesting because of the limits it puts on the usual back and forth interaction and negotiation that comprises communication between individuals. Correspondence is "a way to convey a message or a kind of idea to someone which is not verbal; it is not a confrontation of two people. It's an object which is opened in privacy, probably, and the message is looked at ... You look at the object and, depending on your degree of interest, it very directly gets across to you what is there ..."
In 1970, Johnson and Marcia Tucker organized The New York Correspondence School Exhibition at the Whitney Museum in New York, which was the first significant public exhibition of the mail art genre.
On April 5, 1973, Johnson declared the "death" of the New York Correspondance School in an unpublished letter to the Obituary Department of The New York Times and in copies that he circulated to his network. However, he continued to practice mail art even after this.
Although much of Johnson's work was initially given away, this hasn't prevented it from attaining a market value. Andy Warhol is quoted as saying he "would pay ten dollars for anything by Johnson."
In his 1973 diagram showing the development and scope of Fluxus, George Maciunas included mail art among the activities pursued by the Fluxus artist Robert Filliou. Filliou coined the term the "Eternal Network" that has become synonymous with mail art. Other Fluxus artists have been involved since the early 1960s in the creation of artist's postage stamps (Robert Watts, Stamp Dispenser, 1963), postcards (Ben Vautier, The Postman's Choice, 1965: a postcard with a different address on each side) and other works connected to the postal medium. "Indeed, the mail art network counts many Fluxus members among its earliest participants. While Johnson did not consider himself directly as a member of the Fluxus school, his interests and attitudes were consistent with those of a number of Fluxus artists.
1970s and 1980s
In the 1970s, the practice of mail art grew considerably, providing a cheap and flexible channel of expression for cultural outsiders. It was particularly widespread where state censorship prevented a free circulation of alternative ideas, as in certain countries behind the Iron Curtain or in South America.
The growth of a sizable mail art community, with friendships born out of personal correspondence and, increasingly, mutual visits, led in the 1980s to the organization of several festivals, meetings and conventions where networkers could meet, socialize, perform, exhibit and plan further collaborations. Among these events were the Inter Dada Festivals organized in California in the early 1980s and the Decentralized Mail Art Congress of 1986.
In 1984 curator Ronny Cohen organized an exhibition for the Franklin Furnace, New York, called "Mail Art Then and Now." The exhibition was to have an historical aspect as well as showing new mail art, and to mediate the two aspects Cohen edited the material sent to Franklin Furnace, breaking an unwritten but commonly accepted custom that all works submitted must be shown. The intent to edit, interpreted as censorship, resulted in a two-part panel discussion sponsored by Artists Talk on Art (organized by mail artist Carlo Pittore and moderated by art critic Robert C. Morgan) in February of that year, where Cohen and the mail artists were to debate the issues.
The night preceding the second panel on February 24, Carlo Pittore, John P. Jacob, Chuck Welch a.k.a. CrackerJack Kid, David Cole and John Held Jr. crafted a statement asking Dr. Cohen to step down as the panel moderator. Welch delivered the statement whereby Dr. Cohen was asked to remain on the panel but forfeit her right to serve as moderator. Instead of remaining, Cohen chose to leave the event. After some give and take with both panelists and audience, Dr. Cohen left, saying, "Have fun, boys." Her entourage walked out with her during the ensuing melee.
The excluded works were ultimately added to the exhibition by the staff of the Franklin Furnace, but the events surrounding it and the panels revealed ideological rifts within the mail art community. Simultaneously fanning the flames and documenting the extent to which it was already dominated by a small, mostly male, coterie of artists, the discussions were transcribed and published by panelist John P. Jacob in his short-lived mail art zine PostHype. In a letter to panelist Mark Bloch, Ray Johnson (who was not a panelist) commented on the reverse-censorship and sexism of the event.
The rise of mail art meetings and congresses during the late 80s, and the articulation of various "isms" proclaimed by their founders as movements within mail art, were in part a response to fractures made visible by the events surrounding the Franklin Furnace exhibition. Even if "tourism" was proposed satirically as a new movement by H.R. Fricker, a Swiss mail artist who was one of the organizers of the 1986 Mail Art Congress, nevertheless mail art in its pure form would continue to function without the personal meeting between so-called networkers.
In the mid-1980s, Fricker and Bloch, in a bilingual "Open Letter To Everybody in the Network" stated, "1) An important function of the exhibitions and other group projects in the network is: to open channels to other human beings. 2) After your exhibition is shown and the documentation sent, or after you have received such a documentation with a list of addresses, use the channels! 3) Create person-to-person correspondence... 4) You have your own unique energy which you can give to others through your work: visual audio, verbal, etc. 5) This energy is best used when it is exchanged for energy from another person with the same intentions. 6) the power of the network is in the quality of the direct correspondence, not the quantity." The manifesto concludes, "We have learned this from our own mistakes."
1990s and the impact of the Internet era
In 1994, Dutch mail artist Ruud Janssen began a series of mail-interviews which became an influential contribution in the field of mail art.
By the 1990s, mail art's peak in terms of global postal activities had been reached, and mail artists, aware of increasing postal rates, were beginning the gradual migration of collective art projects towards the web and new, cheaper forms of digital communication. The Internet facilitated faster dissemination of mail art calls (invitations) and precipitated the involvement of a large number of newcomers.
Philosophy and norms of the mail artist network
In spite of the many links and similarities between historical avant-garde, alternative art practices (visual poetry, copy art, artist's books) and mail art, one aspect that distinguishes the creative postal network from other artistic movements, schools or groups (including Fluxus) is the way it disregards and circumvents the commercial art market. Any person with access to a mailbox can participate in the postal network and exchange free artworks, and each mail artist is free to decide how and when to answer (or not answer) a piece of incoming mail. Participants are invited by network members to take part in collective projects or unjuried exhibitions in which entries are not selected or judged. While contributions may be solicited around a particular theme, work to a required size, or sent in by a deadline, mail art generally operates within a spirit of "anything goes."
The mail art philosophy of openness and inclusion is exemplified by the "rules" included in invitations (calls) to postal projects: a mail art show has no jury, no entry fee, there is no censorship, and all works are exhibited. The original contributions are not to be returned and remain the property of the organizers, but a catalogue or documentation is sent free to all the participants in exchange for their works. Although these rules are sometimes stretched, they have generally held up for four decades, with only minor dissimilarities and adjustments, like the occasional requests to avoid works of explicit sexual nature, calls for projects with specific participants, or the recent trend to display digital documentation on blogs and websites instead of personally sending printed paper to contributors.
Mail art has been exhibited in alternative spaces such as private apartments, municipal buildings, and shop windows, as well as in galleries and museums worldwide. Mail art shows, periodicals, and projects represent the "public" side of postal networking, a practice that has at its core the direct and private interaction between the individual participants. Mail artists value the process of exchanging ideas and the sense of belonging to a global community that is able to maintain a peaceful collaboration beyond differences of language, religion and ideology; this is one aspect that differentiates the mail art network from the world of commercial picture postcards and of simply "mailed art."
A mail artist may have hundreds of correspondents from many different countries, or build a smaller core circle of favorite contacts. Mail art is widely practiced in Europe, North and South America, Russia, Australia and Japan, with smaller numbers of participants also in Africa, and China. In addition to being kept by the recipient, mail art archives have attracted the interest of libraries, archives, museums, and private collectors. Or, the works may be 'worked into' and recycled back to the sender or to another networker.
Ray Johnson suggested (with a pun) that "mail art has no history, only a present", and mail artists have followed his playful attitude in creating their own mythologies. Parody art movements like neoism and plagiarism have challenged notions of originality, as have the shared pseudonymous names Monty Cantsin and Karen Eliot, which were proposed for serial use by anyone. Semi-fictional organizations have been set up and virtual lands invented, imaginary countries for which artistamps are issued. Furthermore, attempts have been made to document and define the history of a complex and underestimated phenomenon that has spanned five decades. Various essays, graduate theses, guides and anthologies of mail art writings have appeared in print and on the Internet, often written by veteran networkers.
A sub-group of envelope art has its genesis in the Grateful Dead Ticket Service. Looking to help their fans avoid the high fees that are generated by national ticket services the Grateful Dead started their own service, commonly referred to as mail order. At some point fans started decorating their envelopes with art. Some for art's sake, others to grab the attention of the people that dole out tickets in hope of better seats.
Media and artistic practices in the creation of mail artworks
Because the democratic ethos of mail art is one of inclusion, both in terms of participants ('anyone who can afford the postage') and in the scope of art forms, a broad range of media are employed in creation of mail artworks. Certain materials and techniques are commonly used and frequently favored by mail artists due to their availability, convenience, and ability to produce copies.
Rubberstamps and artistamps
Mail art has adopted and appropriated several of graphic forms already associated with the postal system. The rubber stamp officially used for franking mail, already utilized by Dada and Fluxus artists, has been embraced by mail artists who, in addition to reusing ready-made rubber stamps, have them professionally made to their own designs. They also carve into erasers with linocut tools to create handmade ones. These unofficial rubber stamps, whether disseminating mail artists' messages or simply announcing the identity of the sender, help to transform regular postcards into artworks and make envelopes an important part of the mail art experience.
Mail art has also appropriated the postage stamp as a format for individual expression. Inspired by the example of Cinderella stamps and Fluxus faux-stamps, the artistamp has spawned a vibrant sub-network of artists dedicated to creating and exchanging their own stamps and stamp sheets. Artist Jerry Dreva of the conceptual art group Les Petits Bonbons created a set of stamps and sent them to David Bowie who then used them as the inspiration for the cover of the single "Ashes to Ashes" released in 1980. Artistamps and rubber stamps, have become important staples of mail artworks, particularly in the enhancement of postcards and envelopes. The most important anthology of rubberstamp art was published by the artist Hervé Fischer in his book Art and Marginal Communication, Balland, Paris, 1974 - in French, English and German, to note also the catalog of the exhibition "Timbres d'artistes", Published of Musée de la Poste, Paris, 1993, organized by the French artist Jean-Noël Laszlo - in French, English.
Envelopes
Some mail artists lavish more attention on the envelopes than the contents within. Painted envelopes are one-of-a-kind artworks with the handwritten address becoming part of the work. Stitching, embossing and an array of drawing materials can all be found on postcards, envelopes and on the contents inside.
Printing and copying
Printing is suited to mail artists who distribute their work widely. Various printmaking techniques, in addition to rubber stamping, are used to create multiples. Copy art (xerography, photocopy) is a common practice, with both mono and color copying being extensively used within the network. Ubiquitous 'add & pass' sheets that are designed to be circulated through the network with each artist adding and copying, chain-letter fashion, have also received some unfavorable criticism. However, Xerography has been a key technology in the creation of many short-run periodicals and zines about mail art, and for the printed documentation that has been the traditional project culmination sent to participants. Inkjet and laserprint computer printouts are also used, both to disseminate artwork and for reproducing zines and documentation, and PDF copies of paperless periodicals and unprinted documentation are circulated by email. Photography is widely used as an art form, to provide images for artistamps and rubber stamps, and within printed and digital magazines and documentation, while some projects have focused on the intersection of mail art with the medium itself.
Lettering and language
Lettering, whether handwritten or printed, is integral to mail art. The written word is used as a literary art form, as well as for personal letters and notes sent with artwork and recordings of the spoken word, both of poetry and prose, are also a part of the network. Although English has been the de facto language, because of the movement's inception in America, an increasing number of mail artists, and mail artist groups on the Internet, now communicate in Breton, French, Italian, German, Spanish, and Russian.
Other media
In addition to appropriating the postage stamp model, mail artists have assimilated other design formats for printed artworks. Artists' books, decobooks and friendship books, banknotes, stickers, tickets, artist trading cards (ATCs), badges, food packaging, diagrams and maps have all been used.
Mail artists routinely mix media; collage and photomontage are popular, affording some mail art the stylistic qualities of pop art or Dada. Mail artists often use collage techniques to produce original postcards, envelopes and work that may be transformed using copy art techniques or computer software, then photocopied or printed out in limited editions.
Printed matter and ephemera are often circulated among mail artists, and after artistic treatment, these common items enter into the mail art network. Small assemblages, sculptural forms or found objects of irregular shapes and sizes are parceled up or sent unwrapped to deliberately tease and test the efficiency of the postal service. Mailable fake fur ("Hairmail") and Astroturf postcards were circulated in the late 1990s.
Having borrowed the notion of intermedia from Fluxus, mail artists are often active simultaneously in several different fields of expression. Music and sound art have long been celebrated aspects of mail art, at first using cassette tape, then on CD and as sound files sent via the Internet.
Performance art has also been a prominent facet, particularly since the advent of mail art meetings and congresses. Performances recorded on film or video are communicated via DVD and movie files over the internet. Video is also increasingly being employed to document mail art shows of all kinds.
Quotations
"Correspondence art is an elusive art form, far more variegated by its very nature than, say, painting. Where a painting always involves paint and a support surface, correspondence art can appear as any one of dozens of media transmitted through the mail. While the vast majority of correspondence art or mail art activities take place in the mail, today's new forms of electronic communication blur the edges of that forum. In the 1960s, when correspondence art first began to blossom, most artists found the postal service to be the most readily available - and least expensive - medium of exchange. Today's micro-computers with modern facilities offer anyone computing and communicating power that two decades ago were available only to the largest institutions and corporations, and only a few decades previous weren't available to anyone at any price." - Ken Friedman
"Cultural exchange is a radical act. It can create paradigms for the reverential sharing and preservation of the earth's water, soil, forests, plants and animals. The ethereal networker aesthetic calls for guiding that dream through action. Cooperation and participation, and the celebration of art as a birthing of life, vision, and spirit are first steps. The artists who meet each other in the Eternal Network have taken these steps. Their shared enterprise is a contribution to our common future." - Chuck Welch
"The purpose of mail art, an activity shared by many artists throughout the world, is to establish an aesthetical communication between artists and common people in every corner of the globe, to divulge their work outside the structures of the art market and outside the traditional venues and institutions: a free communication in which words and signs, texts and colours act like instruments for a direct and immediate interaction." - Loredana Parmesani
References
Notes
Further reading
Thomas Bey William Bailey, Unofficial Release: Self-Released And Handmade Audio In Post-Industrial Society, Belsona Books Ltd., 2012
Vittore Baroni, Arte Postale: Guida al network della corrispondenza creativa, Bertiolo 1997
Vittore Baroni, Postcarts - Cartoline d'artista, Rome 2005
Tatiana Bazzichelli, Networking: The Net as Artwork, Aarhus 2008
Mark Bloch, Communities Collaged: Mail Art and The Internet, New Observations, No. 126, The Art is in the Mail(ing), New York, 2000
Ina Blom, The Name of the Game. The Postal Performance of Ray Johnson, Oslo/Kassel/Sittard, 2003
Ulises Carrión, "El Arte Correo y el Gran Monstruo", Tumbona ediciones, Mexico, 2013
Michael Crane & Mary Stofflet (editors), Correspondence Art: Sourcebook for the Network of International Postal Art Activity, San Francisco 1984
Donna De Salvo & Catherine Gugis (editors), Ray Johnson: Correspondences, Paris-New York 1999
Fernando García Delgado, El Arte Correo en Argentina, Vortice Argentina Ediciones., 2005
Franziska Dittert, Mail Art in der DDR. Eine intermediale Subkultur im Kontext der Avantgarde, Berlin 2010
James Warren Felter, Artistamps – Francobolli d'artista, Bertiolo 2000
Hervé Fischer, Art et Communication Marginale: Tampons d'Artistes, Paris 1974
H. R. Fricker, I Am A Networker (Sometimes), St. Gallen 1989
Faith Heisler International Mail Art--Part II: The New Cultural Strategy, Women Artists News, 1984
John Held Jr., L'arte del timbro - Rubber Stamp Art, Bertiolo 1999
John Held Jr., Mail Art: An Annotated Bibliography, Metuchen 1991
Ramzi Turki, (préf. d’Olivier Lussac), L’e-mail-art, création d’une nouvelle forme artistique, Paris, Édition Edilivre, 2015
Jon Hendricks, Fluxus Codex, New York 1988
Jennie Hinchcliff & Carolee Gilligan Wheeler, Good Mail Day: A Primer for Making Eye-Popping Postal Art, Quarry 2009
John P. Jacob, The Coffee Table Book of Mail Art: The Intimate Letters of J.P. Jacob, 1981-1987, Riding Beggar Press, New York, 1987
John P. Jacob, Mail Art: A Partial Anatomy, PostHype volume 3 number 1, New York, 1984
Jean-Noël Laszlo (editor), Timbres d'Artistes, Musée de la Poste, Paris 1993
Giovanni Lista, L'Art Postal Futuriste, Paris 1979
Ginny Lloyd, Blitzkunst: have you ever done anything illegal in order to survive as an artist?, Kretschmer & Grossmann, Frankfurt, 1983
Ginny Lloyd, Inter DADA 84: True DADA Confessions, Jupiter 2014
Ginny Lloyd, The Storefront: A living art project, San Francisco, 1984
Ginny Lloyd, Tour '81 Sketch BOOK, TropiChaCHa Press, Jupiter, 1981 - 2011
Ginny Lloyd, Women in the Artistamp Spotlight, Jupiter 2012
Graciela Gutiérrez Marx, Artecorreo – artistas invisibles en la red postal, La Plata, Argentina 2010
Joni K. Miller & Lowry Thompson, The Rubber Stamp Album, New York 1978
Sandra Mizumoto Posey, Rubber Soul: Rubber Stamps and Correspondence Art, Jackson 1996
Géza Perneczky, The Magazine Network: The Trends of Alternative Art in the Light of Their Periodicals 1968–1988, Köln 1993
Jean-Marc Poinsot, Mail Art: Communication A Distance Concept, Paris 1971
Kornelia Röder, Topologie und Funktionsweise des Netzwerkes der Mail Art, Bremen 2008
Günther Ruch (editor), MA-Congress 86, Out-press, Geneva 1987
Craig J. Saper, Networked Art, Minneapolis-London 2001
Renaud Siegmann, Mail Art: Art postal – Art postè, Paris 2002
Chuck Welch (editor), Eternal Network: A Mail Art Anthology, Calgary 1995
Chuck Welch, Networking Currents: Contemporary Mail Art Subjects and Issues, Boston 1986
Friedrich Winnes-Lutz Wohlrab, Mail Art Szene DDR 1975 – 1990'', Berlin 1994
External links
Mail Art-Archive at the Staatliches Museum Schwerin, 30,000 pieces
"You've Got Mail Art: Discovering John Held Jr.'s Role as Librarian and Mail Artist," Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution
E.F.Higgins III - Doo Da Postage Works
Mail art digital collection from the University at Buffalo Libraries
Visual arts genres
Visual arts media
Artistic techniques
Contemporary art
DIY culture
Fluxus
Postmodern art
Art movements
Cassette culture 1970s–1990s | [
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228568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20movement | Art movement | An art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal, followed by a group of artists during a specific period of time, (usually a few months, years or decades) or, at least, with the heyday of the movement defined within a number of years. Art movements were especially important in modern art, when each consecutive movement was considered as a new avant-garde movement.
Concept
According to theories associated with modernism and the concept of postmodernism, art movements are especially important during the period of time corresponding to modern art. The period of time called "modern art" is posited to have changed approximately halfway through the 20th century and art made afterward is generally called contemporary art. Postmodernism in visual art begins and functions as a parallel to late modernism and refers to that period after the "modern" period called contemporary art. The postmodern period began during late modernism (which is a contemporary continuation of modernism), and according to some theorists postmodernism ended in the 21st century. During the period of time corresponding to "modern art" each consecutive movement was often considered a new avant-garde.
Also during the period of time referred to as "modern art" each movement was seen corresponding to a somewhat grandiose rethinking of all that came before it, concerning the visual arts. Generally there was a commonality of visual style linking the works and artists included in an art movement. Verbal expression and explanation of movements has come from the artists themselves, sometimes in the form of an art manifesto, and sometimes from art critics and others who may explain their understanding of the meaning of the new art then being produced.
In the visual arts, many artists, theorists, art critics, art collectors, art dealers and others mindful of the unbroken continuation of modernism and the continuation of modern art even into the contemporary era, ascribe to and welcome new philosophies of art as they appear. Postmodernist theorists posit that the idea of art movements are no longer as applicable, or no longer as discernible, as the notion of art movements had been before the postmodern era. There are many theorists however who doubt as to whether or not such an era was actually a fact; or just a passing fad.
The term refers to tendencies in visual art, novel ideas and architecture, and sometimes literature. In music it is more common to speak about genres and styles instead. See also cultural movement, a term with a broader connotation.
As the names of many art movements use the -ism suffix (for example cubism and futurism), they are sometimes referred to as isms.
19th century
Academic, c. 16th century–20th century
Aesthetic Movement
American Barbizon school
American Impressionism
Amsterdam Impressionism
Art Nouveau, c. 1890–1910
Arts and Crafts Movement, founded 1860s
Barbizon school, c. 1830s–1870s
Biedermeier, c. 1815–1848
Cloisonnism, c. 1888–1900s (decade)
Danish Golden Age c. 1800s-1850s
Decadent movement
Divisionism, c. 1880s–1910s
Düsseldorf School
Etching revival
Expressionism, c. 1890s–1930s
German Romanticism, c. 1790s–1850s
Gründerzeit
Hague School, c. 1860s–1890s
Heidelberg School, c. 1880s–1900s (decade)
Hoosier Group
Hudson River School, c. 1820s–1900s (decade)
Hurufiyya movement mid-20th-century in North Africa and the Middle East
Impressionism, c. 1860s–1920s
Incoherents, c. 1882-1890s
Jugendstil
Les Nabis, c. 1890s–1900s (decade)
Les Vingt
Letras y figuras, c. 1845-1900s
Luminism
Lyon School
Macchiaioli c. 1850s–1900s (decade)
Mir iskusstva, founded 1898
Modernism, c. 1860s-ongoing
Naturalism
Nazarene, c. 1810s–1830
Neo-Classicism, c. 1780s–1900s (decade)
Neo-impressionism, c. 1880s–1910s
Norwegian romantic nationalism, c. 1840–1867
Norwich School, founded 1803
Orientalism
Peredvizhniki
Pointillism, c. 1880s–1910s
Pont-Aven School, c. 1850s–1890s
Post-Impressionism, c. 1880s–1900s (decade)
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Realism, c. 1850s–1900s (decade)
Realism, c. 1850s–1900s (decade)
Romanticism, c. 1750s–1890s
Secession groups, c. 1890s–1910s
Society of American Artists, c. 1877–1906
Spanish Eclecticism, c. 1845-1890s
Symbolism
Synthetism, c. 1877–1900s (decade)
Tipos del País
Tonalism, c. 1880–1915
Vienna Secession, founded 1897
Volcano School
White Mountain art, c. 1820s–1870s
Spiritualist art, c. 1870–
20th century
1900–1921
Academic, c. 1900s (decade)-ongoing
American realism, c. 1890s–1920s
Analytic Cubism, c. 1909–1912
Art Deco, c. 1910–1939
Ashcan School, c. 1890s–1920s
Australian tonalism, c. 1910s–1930s
Berliner Sezession, founded 1898
Bloomsbury Group, c. 1900s (decade)–1960s
Brandywine School
Camden Town Group, c. 1911–1913
Constructivism, c. 1920–1922, 1920s–1940s
Cubism, c. 1906–1919
Cubo-Futurism, c. 1912–1918
Czech Cubism, c. 1910–1914
Dada, c. 1916–1922
Der Blaue Reiter, c. 1911–1914
De Stijl, c. 1917–1931
Deutscher Werkbund, founded 1907
Die Brücke, founded 1905
Expressionism c. 1890s–1930s
Fauvism, c. 1900–1910
Futurism, c. 1909–1916
German Expressionism, c. 1913–1930
Group of Seven (Canada), c. 1913–1930s
Jack of Diamonds, founded 1909
Luminism (Impressionism), c. 1900s (decade)–1930s
Modernism, c. 1860s–ongoing
Neo-Classicism, c. 1900s (decade)–ongoing
Neo-primitivism, from 1913
Neue Künstlervereinigung München
Novembergruppe, founded 1918
Objective Abstraction, c. 1933–1936
Orphism, c. 1910–1913
Photo-Secession, founded c. 1902
Pittura Metafisica, c. 1911–1920
Proto-Cubism, c. 1906–1908
Purism, c. 1917–1930s
Rayonism
Section d'Or, c. 1912–1914
Suprematism, formed c. 1915–1916
Synchromism, founded 1912
Synthetic Cubism, c. 1912–1919
The Eight, c. 1909–1918
The Ten, c. 1897–1920
Vorticism, founded 1914
1920–1945
American Scene painting, c. 1920s–1950s
Arbeitsrat für Kunst
Art Deco
Bauhaus, c. 1919–1933
Concrete art
Der Ring
De Stijl, c. 1917–1931
Ecole de Paris
Geometric abstraction
Gruppo 7
International Style, c. 1920s–1970s
Kapists, c. 1930s
Magic Realism
Neo-Romanticism
Neue Sachlichkeit
Novecento Italiano
Novembergruppe, founded 1918
Precisionism, c. 1918–1940s
Regionalism (art), c. 1930s–1940s
Return to order, 1918–1922
Scuola Romana, c. 1928–1945
Social Realism, c. 1920s–1960s
Socialist Realism
Surrealism, c. 1920s–1960s
Universal Constructivism, c. 1930–1970
1940–1965
Abstract expressionism
Action painting
Arte Povera
Art Informel
Assemblage
Beatnik art
Chicago Imagists
CoBrA, c. 1948–1951
Color Field painting
Combine painting
De-collage
Fluxus
Happening
Hard-Edge Painting
Kinetic Art
Kitchen Sink School
Lettrism
Lyrical abstraction
Neo-Dada
New Brutalism
Northwest School
Nouveau Réalisme
Op Art
Organic abstraction
Outsider Art
Panic Movement
Pop Art
Post-painterly abstraction
Process art
Public art
Retro art
Serial art
Shaped canvas
Situationist International
Tachism
Video art
1965–2000
Abstract Illusionism
Appropriation
Arte Povera
Art Photography
Body Art
Classical Realism
Conceptual Art
Dogme 95
Earth Art
Figuration Libre
Funk art
Graffiti art
Hyperrealism
Installation art
Internet Art
Land art
Late modernism
Light and Space
Lowbrow
Lyrical Abstraction
Mail art
Massurrealism
Maximalism
Minimalism
Neo-Expressionism
Neo-figurative
Neo-pop
Performance Art
Postminimalism
Postmodernism
Photorealism
Psychedelic art
Relational art
Site-specific art
Sound Art
Transavanguardia
Young British Artists
21st century
Algorithmic art
Altermodernism
Biomorphism
Computer art
Computer graphics
Craftivism
Digital art
Electronic Art
Environmental art
Excessivism
Intentism
Internet art
Intervention art
Metamodernism
Modern European ink painting
Neo-minimalism
New Media Art
Pixel art
Post-postmodernism
Relational art
Remodernism
Social practice (art)
SoFlo Superflat
Stuckism International
Superflat
Superstroke
Transgressive art
Toyism
Unilalianism
Vaporwave
Postinternet
See also
20th-century Western painting
Art periods
List of art movements
Post-expressionism
Western art history
References
External links
the-artists.org Art movements since 1900.
20th-Century Art Compiled by Dr.Witcombe, Sweet Briar College, Virginia.
WebMuseum, Paris Themes index and detailed glossary of art periods.
Art history
Style
Visual arts | [
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228569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation | Conversation | Conversation is interactive communication between two or more people. The development of conversational skills and etiquette is an important part of socialization. The development of conversational skills in a new language is a frequent focus of language teaching and learning. Conversation analysis is a branch of sociology which studies the structure and organization of human interaction, with a more specific focus on conversational interaction.
Definition and characterization
No generally accepted definition of conversation exists, beyond the fact that a conversation involves at least two people talking together. Consequently, the term is often defined by what it is not. A ritualized exchange such as a mutual greeting is not a conversation, and an interaction that includes a marked status differential (such as a boss giving orders) is also not a conversation. An interaction with a tightly focused topic or purpose is also generally not considered a conversation. Summarizing these properties, one authority writes that "Conversation is the kind of speech that happens informally, symmetrically, and for the purposes of establishing and maintaining social ties."
From a less technical perspective, a writer on etiquette in the early 20th century defined conversation as the polite give and take of subjects thought of by people talking with each other for company.
Conversations follow rules of etiquette because conversations are social interactions, and therefore depend on social convention. Specific rules for conversation arise from the cooperative principle. Failure to adhere to these rules causes the conversation to deteriorate or eventually to end. Contributions to a conversation are responses to what has previously been said.
Conversations may be the optimal form of communication, depending on the participants' intended ends. Conversations may be ideal when, for example, each party desires a relatively equal exchange of information, or when the parties desire to build social ties. On the other hand, if permanency or the ability to review such information is important, written communication may be ideal. Or if time-efficient communication is most important, a speech may be preferable.
Conversation involves a lot more nuanced and implied context that lies beneath just the words.
Conversation is generally face-to-face person-to-person at the same time (synchronous) – possibly online with video applications such as Skype, but might also include audio-only phone calls. It would not generally include internet written communication which tends to be asynchronous (not same time – can read and respond later if at all) and does not fit the 'con'='with' in 'conversation'. In face to face conversation it has been suggested that 85% of the communication is non-verbal/body language – a smile, a frown, a shrug, tone of voice conveying much added meaning to the mere words. Short forms of written communication such as sms are thus frequently misunderstood.
Classification
Banter
Banter is short witty sentences that bounce back and forth between individuals. Often banter uses clever put-downs and witty insults, misunderstandings (often intentional), zippy wisecracks, zingers, flirtation, and puns. The idea is that each line of banter should "top" the one before it and be, in short, a verbal war of wit.
Films that have used banter as a way of structure in conversations are:
The Big Sleep (1946)
His Girl Friday (1940)
Bringing Up Baby (1938)
Much Ado About Nothing (1993)
Important factors in delivering a banter is the subtext, situation and the rapport with the person. Every line in a banter should be able to evoke both an emotional response and ownership without hurting one's feelings. Following a structure that the involved parties understand is important, even if the subject and structure is absurd, a certain level of progression should be kept in a manner that it connects with the involved parties.
Different methods of story telling could be used in delivering banter, like making an unexpected turn in the flow of structure (interrupting a comfortable structure), taking the conversation towards an expected crude form with evoking questions, doubts, self-conscientiousness (creating intentional misunderstandings) or layering the existing pattern with multiple anchors...etc. It is important to quit the bantering with the sensibility of playground rules, both parties shouldn't obsess on topping each other, continuously after a certain point of interest. It is as Shakespeare said "Brevity is the soul of wit."
Discussion
One element of conversation is discussion: sharing opinions on subjects that are thought of during the conversation. In polite society the subject changes before discussion becomes dispute or controversial. For example, if theology is being discussed, maybe no one is insisting a particular view be accepted.
Subject
Many conversations can be divided into four categories according to their major subject content:
Subjective ideas, which often serve to extend understanding and awareness.
Objective facts, which may serve to consolidate a widely held view.
Other people (usually absent), which may be either critical, competitive, or supportive. This includes gossip.
Oneself, which sometimes indicate attention-seeking behavior or can provide relevant information about oneself to participants in the conversation.
Practically, few conversations fall exclusively into one category. Nevertheless, the proportional distribution of any given conversation between the categories can offer useful psychological insights into the mind set of the participants. This is the reason that the majority of conversations are difficult to categorize.
Functions
Most conversations may be classified by their goal. Conversational ends may shift over the life of the conversation.
Functional conversation is designed to convey information in order to help achieve an individual or group goal.
Small talk is a type of conversation where the topic is less important than the social purpose of achieving bonding between people or managing personal distance, such as 'how is the weather' might be portrayed as an example, which conveys no practicality whatsoever.
Aspects
Differences between men and women
A study completed in July 2007 by Matthias Mehl of the University of Arizona shows that contrary to popular belief, there is little difference in the number of words used by men and women in conversation. The study showed that on average each of the sexes uses about 16,000 words per day.
Between strangers
There are certain situations, typically encountered while traveling, which result in strangers sharing what would ordinarily be an intimate social space such as sitting together on a bus or airplane. In such situations strangers are likely to share intimate personal information they would not ordinarily share with strangers. A special case emerges when one of the travelers is a mental health professional and the other party shares details of their personal life in the apparent hope of receiving help or advice.
Narcissism
Conversational narcissism is a term used by sociologist Charles Derber in his book, The Pursuit of Attention: Power and Ego in Everyday Life.
Derber observed that the social support system in America is relatively weak, and this leads people to compete mightily for attention. In social situations, they tend to steer the conversation away from others and toward themselves. "Conversational narcissism is the key manifestation of the dominant attention-getting psychology in America," he wrote. "It occurs in informal conversations among friends, family and coworkers. The profusion of popular literature about listening and the etiquette of managing those who talk constantly about themselves suggests its pervasiveness in everyday life."
What Derber describes as "conversational narcissism" often occurs subtly rather than overtly because it is prudent to avoid being judged an egotist.
Derber distinguishes the "shift-response" from the "support-response". A shift response takes the focus of attention away from the last speaker and refocuses on the new speaker, as in: "John: I'm feeling really starved. Mary: Oh, I just ate." Whereas a support response maintains the focus on the last speaker, as in: "John: I'm feeling really starved. Mary: When was the last time you ate?"
Artificial intelligence
The ability to generate conversation that cannot be distinguished from a human participant has been one test of a successful artificial intelligence (the Turing test). A human judge engages in a natural-language conversation with one human and one machine, during which the machine tries to appear human (and the human does not try to appear other than human). If the judge cannot tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed the test. One limitation of this test is that the conversation is by text as opposed to speech, not allowing tone to be shown.
One's self
Also called intrapersonal communication, the act of conversing with oneself can help solve problems or serve therapeutic purposes like avoiding silence.
Literature
Authors who have written extensively on conversation and attempted to analyze its nature include:
Milton Wright wrote The Art of Conversation, a comprehensive treatment of the subject, in 1936. The book deals with conversation both for its own sake, and for political, sales, or religious ends. Milton portrays conversation as an art or creation that people can play with and give life to.
Kerry Patterson, Joseph Grenny, Al Switzler, and Ron McMillan have written two New York Times bestselling books on conversation. The first one, Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking When Stakes are High, McGraw-Hill, 2002, teaches skills for handling disagreement and high-stakes issues at work and at home. The second book, Crucial Accountability: Tools for Resolving Violated Expectations, Broken Commitments, and Bad Behavior, McGraw-Hill, 2013, teaches important skills for dealing with accountability issues.
Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most (Viking Penguin, 1999) , a book by Bruce Patton, Douglas Patterson and Sheila Heen was one of the work products from the Harvard Negotiation Project. This book built on, and extended the approach developed by Roger Fisher and William Ury in Getting To Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In (Houghton Mifflin, 1981). The book introduced useful concepts such as the Three Conversations ( The 'What Happened' Conversation, The Feelings Conversation, and The Identity Conversation ), Creating a Learning Conversation, and Collaborative Problem Solving.
Charles Blattberg has written two books defending an approach to politics that emphasizes conversation, in contrast to negotiation, as the preferred means of resolving conflict. His From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, , is a work of political philosophy; and his Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada, Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003, , applies that philosophy to the Canadian case.
Paul Drew & John Heritage – Talk at Work, a study of how conversation changes in social and workplace situations.
Neil Postman – Amusing Ourselves to Death (Conversation is not the book's specific focus, but discourse in general gets good treatment here)
Deborah Tannen
The Argument Culture: Stopping America's War of Words
Conversational Style: Analyzing Talk Among Friends,
Gender and Discourse
I Only Say This Because I Love You
Talking from 9 to 5: Women and Men at Work
That's Not What I Meant!
You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation
Daniel Menaker – A Good Talk: The Story and Skill of Conversation (published 2010)
In fiction
Conversation in the Cathedral (1969) is one of the main novels by the Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa.
In "Six Benefits of Better Conversation"
The benefits are:
Being better understood
Better understanding
Better self-confidence
Workplace value
Better self-care
Better relationships
See also
A Complete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious Conversation (book)
Aizuchi
Awkward silence
Bohm Dialogue
Compulsive talking
Conversation theory
Conversational narcissism
Conversational scoreboard
"Conversation" Sharp MPdoyen of the Georgian period conversationalists
Conversazionea social gathering for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature and science.
Debate
Dialogue
Discourse
King of Clubsfamous Whig conversation club
Online chat
Speech (public address)
References
Works cited
External links
Empathic listening skills How to listen so others will feel heard, or listening first aid (University of California). Download a one-hour seminar on empathic listening and attending skills.
"The art of conversation", Economist, 19 December 2006
Oral communication | [
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|
228571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking | Talking | Talking may refer to:
Speech, the product of the action of to talk
Communication by spoken words; conversation or discussion
Other uses
"Talking" (The Rifles song), 2007
"Talking" (A Flock of Seagulls song), 1983
"Talking", a song by London Grammar from their 2021 album Californian Soil
Talking with Chris Hardwick, a talk show
See also
Talking With..., a 1982 play
Talk (disambiguation)
Talking Head (disambiguation)
Talking point (disambiguation) | [
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|
228574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speak | Speak | Speak or SPEAK may refer to:
Speech, the vocal form of human communication
People
Speak (Hungarian rapper) (born 1976), known for his song and music video "Stop the War"
Speak! (born 1987), American rapper and songwriter
Geoffrey Lowrey Speak (1924–2000), British teacher in Hong Kong
George Speak, English footballer
Literature and film
Speak (Anderson novel), a 1999 novel by Laurie Halse Anderson
Speak (film), the film based on Anderson's book
Speak (Hall novel), a novel by Louisa Hall
Music
Speak (band), a synthpop band from Austin, Texas
"Speak" (Bachelor Girl song), a 2018 single by Australian pop band Bachelor Girl
"Speak" (Godsmack song), a 2006 song by the band Godsmack
Speak (Jimmy Needham album), 2006
Speak (Lindsay Lohan album), the debut album by the actress Lindsay Lohan
Speak (Londonbeat album), the debut album by the British-American dance band Londonbeat, 1988
"Speak" (Nickel Creek song), a single by progressive bluegrass band Nickel Creek
Speak (I and Thou album), 2012
Speak (No-Man album), a compilation album by No-Man
Speak (The Roches album), 1989
Speak (Warren Dean Flandez album), 2018
Speak!!!, the 3rd album from The Mad Capsule Markets
"Speak", a song by Sevendust from Sevendust
Organizations
SPEAK campaign, an animal rights campaign in Oxford
SPEAK network, a Christian student campaigning network
Other
SPEAK (test), the Speaking Proficiency English Assessment Kit from the Educational Testing Service
Speak (The Tick), the pet of comic superhero The Tick
Speak (Unix), a Unix utility
Speak (imprint), young adult division of the publishing company the Penguin Group
Wii Speak, a microphone accessory for Nintendo's Wii video game console
See also
Speech (disambiguation)
Spic (disambiguation) | [
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|
228579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Brown%20%28philosopher%29 | Thomas Brown (philosopher) | Thomas Brown (9 January 17782 April 1820) was a Scottish philosopher and poet.
Biography
Early life
Brown was born at Kirkmabreck, Kirkcudbrightshire, the son of Rev. Samuel Brown (died 1779) (minister of Kirkmabreck and Kirkdale) and Mary Smith.
Their son was a wide reader and an eager student. Educated at several schools in London, he went to the University of Edinburgh in 1792, where he attended Dugald Stewart's moral philosophy class, but does not appear to have completed his course. After studying law for a time he took up medicine; his graduation thesis De Somno was well received. But his strength lay in metaphysical analysis.
Career
Brown set an answer to the objections raised against the appointment of Sir John Leslie to the mathematical professorship (1805). Leslie, a follower of David Hume, was attacked by the clerical party as a sceptic and an infidel, and Brown took the opportunity to defend Hume's doctrine of causality as in no way inimical to religion. His defence, at first only a pamphlet, became in its third edition a lengthy treatise entitled Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect, and is a fine specimen of Brown's analytical faculty.
In 1806, Brown became a medical practitioner in partnership with James Gregory (1753–1821), but, though successful, preferred literature and philosophy. After twice failing to gain a professorship in the university, he was invited, during an illness of Dugald Stewart in the session of 1808–1809, to act as his substitute, and during the following session he undertook much of Stewart's work. The students received him with enthusiasm, due partly to his splendid rhetoric and partly to the novelty and ingenuity of his views. In 1810 he was appointed as colleague to Stewart, a position which he held for the rest of his life. Brown was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. He wrote his lectures at high pressure, and devoted much time to the editing and publication of the numerous poems which he had written at various times during his life. He was also preparing an abstract of his lectures as a handbook for his class. His health, never strong, gave way under the strain of his work.
He was advised to take a trip to London, where he died in 1820 aged 42. His body was returned to Kirkmabreck for burial.
Criticism of Erasmus Darwin
One of Brown's notable works included a critique of Erasmus Darwin's theory of transmutation. The philosopher published it in the form of a detailed study Observations on the zoonomia of Erasmus Darwin (1798), which was recognized as a mature work of criticism.
There, Brown wrote:
Noteworthy, Brown's criticism of the Darwinian thesis, like that of Rudolf Virchow, did not come from any religious feeling. In fact, Brown's critique bears an uncanny resemblance to Thomas Robert Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) in which Malthus's main objection against Darwin's thesis, like that of Brown, was epistemological rather than religious.
Reception
Brown's philosophy occupies an intermediate place between the earlier Scottish school and the later associational psychology, to which he really belonged. Later criticism of Brown's philosophy lessened its popularity, a severe attack being made by Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet in his Discussions and Lectures on Metaphysics. A high estimate of his merits was shown in John Stuart Mill's Examination of Hamilton. Also, in David Welsh's Account of the Life and Writings (1825) and James McCosh's Scottish Philosophy. Friedrich Eduard Beneke, who found in him anticipations of some of his own doctrines.
The philosopher Schopenhauer wrote of him in 1844:
Quite recently Thomas Brown has taught ... in his extremely tedious book Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect (4th ed., 1835), ... that knowledge springs from an innate, intuitive, and instinctive conviction; he is therefore essentially on the right path. However, the crass ignorance is unpardonable by which, in this book of 476 pages, 130 of which are devoted to the refutation of Hume, no mention at all is made of Kant, who cleared up the matter seventy years ago.|The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, Chapter IV
In his On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, § 20, Schopenhauer claimed that Brown intended to provide support for the Cosmological Proof of God's Existence. "… sometimes there is an intention…a theological design flirting with the Cosmological Proof…. We find the clearest instance of this in Thomas Browne's [sic] book, On the Relation of Cause and Effect…this Englishman rightly recognizes, that the causal law has invariably to do with changes, and that every effect is accordingly a change. Yet…he is unwilling to admit that every cause is likewise a change and that the whole process is therefore nothing but the uninterrupted connection of changes succeeding one another in time. On the contrary, he persists in clumsily calling the cause an object or substance, which precedes the change…in order that his definition may on no account stand in the way of the Cosmological Proof…."
His friend and biographer, David Welsh (1793–1845), superintended the publication of Brown's text-book, the Physiology of the Human Mind, and his Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, which was published by his successors, John Stewart and Edward Milroy. The Lectures were well received both in England (where it reached a 19th edition) and in the USA.
Among Brown's poems, which were influenced by Alexander Pope and Akenside were: Paradise of Coquettes (1814); Wanderer in Norway (1815); Warfiend (1816); Bower of Spring (1817); Agnes (1818); Emily (1819); a collected edition in 4 vols. appeared in 1820. His poetry, though graceful, lacked force, and is now forgotten.
Brown was one of the first contributors to the Edinburgh Review. In its second number, he published a criticism of Immanuel Kant's philosophy, based on Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's account of it.
See also
Associationism
James Braid (surgeon)
References
1778 births
1820 deaths
Philosophers of mind
Scottish philosophers
19th-century Scottish medical doctors
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People from Dumfries and Galloway
Metaphysicians
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Members of the American Antiquarian Society | [
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|
228583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Johnson | Ray Johnson | Raymond Edward "Ray" Johnson (October 16, 1927 – January 13, 1995) was an American artist. Known primarily as a collagist and correspondence artist, he was a seminal figure in the history of Neo-Dada and early Pop art and was described as "New York's most famous unknown artist". Johnson also staged and participated in early performance art events as the founder of a far-ranging mail art network – the New York Correspondence School – which picked up momentum in the 1960s and is still active today. He is occasionally associated with members of the Fluxus movement but was never a member. He lived in New York City from 1949 to 1968, when he moved to a small town in Long Island and remained there until his suicide.
Early years and education
Born in Detroit, Michigan, on October 16, 1927, Ray Johnson grew up in a working-class neighborhood and attended Cass Technical High School where he was enrolled in the advertising art program. He took weekly classes at the Detroit Art Institute and spent a summer drawing at Ox-Bow School in Saugatuck, Michigan, affiliated with the Art Institute of Chicago.
Johnson left Detroit after high school in the summer of 1945 to attend the progressive Black Mountain College (BMC) in North Carolina, where he stayed for the next three years (spending the spring 1946 semester at the Art Students League in New York but returning the following summer). Josef Albers, before and after his notable sabbatical in Mexico, was in residence at Black Mountain College for six of the ten semesters that Johnson studied there. Anni Albers, Walter Gropius, Lyonel Feininger, Robert Motherwell, Ossip Zadkine, Paul Rand, Alvin Lustig, Ilya Bolotowski, Jacob Lawrence, Beaumont Newhall, M. C. Richards, and Jean Varda also taught at BMC during Johnson's time there. Johnson decided on Albers' advice to stay at BMC for a final term in summer 1948, when the visiting faculty included John Cage, Merce Cunningham, Willem de Kooning, Buckminster Fuller, and Richard Lippold. Johnson took part in "The Ruse of Medusa" – the culmination of Cunningham's Satie Festival - with Cage, Cunningham, Fuller, Willem and Elaine de Kooning, Lippold, Ruth Asawa, Arthur Penn, and others among the cast and crew. "Because of those who participated, the event has taken on the reputation of a watershed event in 'mixed media' " wrote Martin Duberman in his history of BMC.
In the documentary How to Draw a Bunny, Richard Lippold delicately but candidly confesses to carrying on a love affair with Johnson for many years which began at Black Mountain College.
I risk to say, [that at Black Mountain College] 'anything went'—between the students and the faculty ... As I said to my wife the other day, 'I think I'm a good old man now, but I was a very bad boy.' ... She agreed. We had a little house, my family and me, and he would arrive every morning with a little bouquet of wild flowers, and singing. Eventually our relationship became very intimate, so I brought him back to New York ... and obviously, we didn't live together, steadily, because I had my family. We were quite close together until 1974, so that's a long period of time. From '48 to '74, twenty some years. Because it was a very intimate relationship, a loving relationship. And it would be very hard for me to separate him as a person from his work. I don't think I could do that.
New York years
Johnson moved with Richard Lippold to New York City by early 1949, rejoining Cage and Cunningham and befriending, within the next couple of years, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Cy Twombly, Ad Reinhardt, Stan Vanderbeek, Norman Solomon, Lucy Lippard, Sonia Sekula, Carolyn Brown and Earle Brown, Judith Malina, Diane di Prima, Julian Beck, Remy Charlip, James Waring, and innumerable others. With the American Abstract Artists group, Johnson painted geometric abstractions that, in part, reflected the influence of Albers. But by 1953 he turned to collage and left the American Abstract Artists, rejecting his early paintings, which it is rumored that he later burned in Cy Twombly's fireplace. Johnson began to create small, irregularly shaped works incorporating fragments from popular culture, most notably the Lucky Strikes logo and images from fan magazines of such movie stars as Elvis Presley, James Dean, Marilyn Monroe, and Shirley Temple. In the summer of 1955, he coined a term for these small collages: "moticos". He carried boxes of moticos around New York, showing them on sidewalks, at cafes, in Grand Central Station and other public places; he asked passersby what they thought of them, and recorded some of their responses. He began mailing collages to friends and strangers, along with a series of manifestos, mimeographed for distribution, including "What is a Moticos?", excerpts of which were published in an article by John Wilcock in the inaugural issue of The Village Voice.
A friend of Johnson's, art critic Suzi Gablik, brought photographer Elisabeth Novick to document an installation of dozens of Johnson's moticos in autumn of 1955. (Most of these were destroyed or recycled by the artist.) "The random arrangement ,,, on a dilapidated cellar door in Lower Manhattan may even have been the first informal Happening," she recalled later. According to Henry Geldzahler, "[Ray's] collages Elvis Presley No. 1 and James Dean stand as the Plymouth Rock of the Pop movement." Johnson's friend Lucy Lippard would later write that "The Elvis ... and Marilyn Monroe [collages] ,,, heralded Warholian Pop." Johnson was quickly recognized as part of the nascent Pop generation. A note about the cover image in January 1958's Art News pointed out that "[Jasper] Johns' first one-man show ... places him with such better-known colleagues as Rauschenberg, Twombly, Kaprow and Ray Johnson".
Johnson worked part-time at the Orientalia Bookstore in the Lower East Side as he began to deepen his understanding of Zen philosophy and to employ "chance" in his work. Both of these interests increasingly informed his collages, performances, and mail art. Johnson also found occasional work as a graphic designer. He had met Andy Warhol by 1956; both designed several book covers for New Directions and other publishers. Johnson had a series of whimsical flyers advertising his design services printed via offset lithography, and began mailing these out. These were in joined in 1956-7 by two small promotional artists' books, BOO/K/OF/THE/MO/NTH(sic) and P/EEK/A/BOO/K/OFTHE/WEE/K(sic), self-published in editions of 500.
Johnson participated in about a dozen performance art events between 1957 and 1963 – in his own short pieces (Funeral Music for Elvis Presley and Lecture on Modern Music), in those of others (by James Waring and Susan Kaufman), and via his own compositions performed by his colleagues at The Living Theatre and during the Fluxus Yam Festival of 1963. From 1961 on, Johnson periodically staged events he called "Nothings", described to his friend William Wilson as "an attitude as opposed to a happening", which would parallel the "Happenings" of Allan Kaprow and later Fluxus events. The first of these, "Nothing by Ray Johnson", was part of a weekly series of events in July 1961 at the AG Gallery, a venue in New York operated by George Maciunas and Almus Salcius; Yoko Ono's first solo show was on view in the gallery at the time. Ed Plunkett later recalled entering an empty room. "Visitors began to enter the premises. Most of them looked quite dismayed that nothing was going on ... Well, finally Ray arrived ... and he brought with him a large corrugated cardboard box of wooden spools. Soon after arriving Ray emptied this box of spools down the staircase ... with these ... one had to step cautiously to avoid slipping ... I was delighted with this gesture." Johnson's Second Nothing took place at Maidman Playhouse, New York, in 1962. It was part of a variety show that was organized by Nicholas Cernovich and Alan Marlow of New York Poet's Theatre, had lighting design by Billy Name (aka Billy Linich), and featured artists such as Fred Herko, George Brecht, Simone Morris, La Monte Young, Stan Vanderbeek, and others. In 1964/65, Ray Johnson circulated publicity for an imaginary gallery called the Robin Gallery, which was a pun on the Rueben Gallery where some of the earliest happenings took place and was said by one critic to “put the happenings out on the street in a series of irresponsible exploits and escapades."
Johnson's first known piece of mail directing a recipient to "please send to..." someone else dates from 1958; the phrases "please add to and return", "please add and send to", and even "please do not send to" followed. Johnson's mail art activities became more systematic with the help of several friends, particularly Bill Wilson and his mother, assemblage artist May Wilson, along with Marie Tavroges Stilkind and later Toby Spiselman. In 1962, Ed Plunkett named Johnson's endeavors 'the New York Correspondence School' (NYCS). In early 1962, Joseph Byrd responded to several mailings with a red rubber stamp, "THIS IS NOT ART," which Johnson then used in his mailings for several months. On April 1, 1968, the first of the meeting of the NYCS was held at the Society of Friends Meeting House on Rutherford Place in New York City. Two more meetings were called by Johnson in the following weeks, including the Seating-Meeting at New York's Finch College, about which John Gruen reported: "It was ... attended by many artists and 'members' ... all of whom sat around wondering when the meeting would start. It never did ... people wrote things on bits of paper, on a blackboard, or simply talked. It was all strangely meaningless – and strangely meaningful." Johnson staged such events regularly, often following them up with witty typed reports, photocopied for wide distribution via the post. Such gatherings continued to be held in various guises into the mid-1980s.
Johnson produced the 12 known unbound pages of his enigmatic Book About Death in 1963 to 1965. Consisting of cryptic texts and drawings (mostly) by Johnson, they were mailed a few at a time, randomly, and offered for sale via a classified ad in The Village Voice., thus very few people ever received all the pages. Something Else Press published Johnson's The Paper Snake for a wider audience in 1965. Remarking about himself and the book, Johnson said:
I'm an artist and a, well, I shouldn't call myself a poet but other people have. What I do is classify the words as poetry. ... The Paper Snake ... is all my writings, rubbings, plays, things that I had given to the publisher, Dick Higgins, editor and publisher, which I mailed to him or brought to him in cardboard boxes or shoved under his door, or left in his sink, or whatever, over a period of years. He saved all these things, designed and published a book, and I simply as an artist did what I did without classification. So when the book appeared the book stated, "Ray Johnson is a poet", but I never said, "this is a poem", I simply wrote what I wrote and it later became classified.
Long out of print, The Paper Snake was re-printed by Siglio Press in 2014.
On June 3, 1968 – the same day that Andy Warhol was shot by Valerie Solanas with a gun she'd stored under May Wilson's bed – Johnson was mugged at knifepoint. Two days later, Robert Kennedy was assassinated. Severely shaken, Johnson moved to Glen Cove, Long Island, and the next year bought a house in nearby Locust Valley, where Richard Lippold and his family resided. He began to live in a state of increasing reclusion in what he called a "small white farmhouse with a Joseph Cornell attic."
Johnson appeared twice in the Art in Process series, described by Greg Allen as "a series of topical, process-oriented, teaching exhibitions organized by Finch College Museum director Elayne Varian. They included sketches, models and studies to show how the artist did what he was doing."
Locust Valley years
From 1966 into the mid-1970s, Johnson's work was shown at the Willard Gallery (New York) and Feigen Gallery (Chicago and New York), as well as by Angela Flowers in London and Arturo Schwarz in Milan. In 1970, mail from 107 participants to curator Marcia Tucker was exhibited in a Ray Johnson – New York Correspondence School exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York – a significant moment of cultural validation for Johnson. Another notable exhibition followed – Correspondence: An Exhibition of the Letters of Ray Johnson at the North Carolina Museum of Art in Raleigh, 1976, organized by Richard Craven: 81 lenders' works, 35 years of Johnson's outgoing mail. Around that time, Johnson began his silhouette project, creating approximately 200 profiles of personal friends, artists, and celebrities which became the basis for many of his later collages. His subjects included Chuck Close, Andy Warhol, William S. Burroughs, Edward Albee, Louise Nevelson, Larry Rivers, Lynda Benglis, Nam Jume Paik, David Hockney, David Bowie, Christo, Peter Hujar, Roy Lichtenstein, Paloma Picasso, James Rosenquist, Richard Feigen, among others – a who's who of the New York arts and letters scene.
During the 1980s Johnson purposefully receded from view, cultivating his role as outsider, maintaining personal connections via mail art and telephone largely in place of physical interaction. In 1981, he began a longstanding correspondence with librarian and artists' book specialist, Clive Phillpot. Only a handful of people were ever allowed into his house in Locust Valley. Eventually, Johnson ceased to exhibit or sell his work commercially altogether. His underground reputation bubbled beneath the surface into the 1980s and 90s despite his general absence from the flourishing New York art scene. Johnson feverishly continued to work on richer and more complex collages, such as Untitled (Seven Black Feet with Eyelashes), in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art. It demonstrates the artist's incorporation of text into collage, which is his preferred medium. In contrast to his physical seclusion, Johnson's pre-digital network of correspondents increased in size exponentially.
Death
On January 13, 1995, Johnson was seen diving off a bridge in Sag Harbor, Long Island, and backstroking out to sea. His body washed up on the beach the following day. Many aspects of his death involved the number "13": the date; his age, 67 (6+7=13); the room number of a motel he had checked into earlier that day, 247 (2+4+7=13), etc. Some continue to speculate about a 'last performance' aspect of Johnson's drowning. Hundreds of collages were found carefully arranged in his home. He left no will and his estate is now administered by Adler Beatty.
Film, television and music
Following his suicide, filmmakers Andrew Moore and John Walter (in conjunction with Frances Beatty of Richard L. Feigen & Co.) spent six years probing the mysteries of Johnson's life and art. Their collaboration yielded the award-winning documentary How to Draw a Bunny, released in 2002. The film includes interviews with artists Chuck Close, James Rosenquist, Billy Name, Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Judith Malina, and many others.
The Manic Street Preachers wrote and recorded a song about Johnson, titled "Locust Valley." Released as a B-side on the "Found That Soul" single (2001), "Locust Valley" describes Johnson as "famously unknown/elusive and dismantled".
John Cale's song "Hey Ray" from the Extra Playful EP (2011) is about Cale's encounters with Johnson in New York during the 1960s.
Canadian art rock band Women's 2010 album Public Strain includes two songs that directly reference Ray Johnson. Locust Valley is the town where Johnson lived in New York State. Venice Lockjaw is a phrase Johnson incorporated in pins that he made to be given away at the Ubi Fluxus ibi Motus exhibit in 1990 at the Venice Biennale. Their 2008 album Women also featured a song called Sag Harbor Bridge, referencing the place of Johnson's death.
References
External links
Ray Johnson's Estate
Ray Johnson Resources
Ray Johnson and New York School by William S. Wilson 1966
The Ray Johnson Videos
Introduction to Not Nothing by Elizabeth Zuba
Essay by Ina Blom
R A Y J O H N S O N
The Paper Snake, Siglio Press
Not Nothing, Siglio Press
Ray Johnson mail art collection held by Special Collections, University of Delaware
Ray Johnson Mail Art Collection at the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
Black Mountain College alumni
Cass Technical High School alumni
American contemporary artists
1927 births
1995 deaths
American pop artists
Artists who committed suicide
American performance artists
1995 suicides
Suicides by drowning in the United States
Suicides in New York (state)
20th-century American artists | [
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228592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery | Lottery | A lottery is a form of gambling that involves the drawing of numbers at random for a prize. Some governments outlaw lotteries, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of regulation of lottery by governments. The most common regulation is prohibition of sale to minors, and vendors must be licensed to sell lottery tickets. Although lotteries were common in the United States and some other countries during the 19th century, by the beginning of the 20th century, most forms of gambling, including lotteries and sweepstakes, were illegal in the U.S. and most of Europe as well as many other countries. This remained so until well after World War II. In the 1960s, casinos and lotteries began to re-appear throughout the world as a means for governments to raise revenue without raising taxes.
Lotteries come in many formats. For example, the prize can be a fixed amount of cash or goods. In this format, there is risk to the organizer if insufficient tickets are sold. More commonly, the prize fund will be a fixed percentage of the receipts. A popular form of this is the "50–50" draw, where the organizers promise that the prize will be 50% of the revenue. Many recent lotteries allow purchasers to select the numbers on the lottery ticket, resulting in the possibility of multiple winners.
Classical history
The first recorded signs of a lottery are keno slips from the Chinese Han Dynasty between 205 and 187 BC. These lotteries are believed to have helped to finance major government projects like the Great Wall of China. From the Chinese Book of Songs (2nd millennium BC.) comes a reference to a game of chance as "the drawing of wood", which in context appears to describe the drawing of lots.
The first known European lotteries were held during the Roman Empire, mainly as an amusement at dinner parties. Each guest would receive a ticket, and prizes would often consist of fancy items such as dinnerware. Every ticket holder would be assured of winning something. This type of lottery, however, was no more than the distribution of gifts by wealthy noblemen during the Saturnalian revelries. The earliest records of a lottery offering tickets for sale is the lottery organized by Roman Emperor Augustus. The funds were for repairs in the City of Rome, and the winners were given prizes in the form of articles of unequal value.
Medieval history
The first recorded lotteries to offer tickets for sale with prizes in the form of money were held in the Low Countries in the 15th century. Various towns held public lotteries to raise money for town fortifications, and to help the poor. The town records of Ghent, Utrecht, and Bruges indicate that lotteries may be even older. A record dated 9 May 1445 at L'Ecluse refers to raising funds to build walls and town fortifications, with a lottery of 4,304 tickets and total prize money of 1737 florins (worth about US$170,000 in 2014). In the 17th century it was quite usual in the Netherlands to organize lotteries to collect money for the poor or in order to raise funds for a wide range of public usages. The lotteries proved very popular and were hailed as a painless form of taxation. The Dutch state-owned Staatsloterij is the oldest running lottery (1726). The English word lottery is derived from the Dutch noun "lot" meaning "fate".
The first recorded Italian lottery was held on 9 January 1449 in Milan organized by the Golden Ambrosian Republic to finance the war against the Republic of Venice. However, it was in Genoa that Lotto became very popular. People used to bet on the name of Great Council members, who were drawn by chance, five out of ninety candidates every six months. This kind of gambling was called Lotto or Semenaiu. When people wanted to bet more frequently than twice a year, they began to substitute the candidates names with numbers and modern lotto was born, to which both modern legal lotteries and the illegal numbers game can trace their ancestry.
Early modern history
France, 1539–1789
King Francis I of France discovered the lotteries during his campaigns in Italy and decided to organize such a lottery in his kingdom to help the state finances. The first French lottery, the Loterie Royale, was held in 1539 and was authorized with the edict of Châteaurenard. This attempt was a fiasco, since the tickets were very costly and the social classes which could afford them opposed the project. During the two following centuries lotteries in France were forbidden or, in some cases, tolerated.
England, 1566–1826
Although the English probably first experimented with raffles and similar games of chance, the first recorded official lottery was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I, in the year 1566, and was drawn in 1569. The 400,000 tickets issued cost £ each (roughly three weeks of wages for ordinary citizens), with the grand prize worth roughly £5,000. This lottery was designed to raise money for the "reparation of the havens and strength of the Realme, and towardes such other publique good workes", including the rebuilding of ports and new ships for the royal fleet. Each ticket holder won a prize, and the total value of the prizes equalled the money raised. Prizes were in the form of both "ready money" and valuable commodities such as silver plate, tapestries, and fine linen cloth. Additionally, each participant was granted immunity from one arrest, "so long as the crime wasn't piracy, murder, felonies, or treason." The lottery was promoted by scrolls posted throughout the country showing sketches of the prizes.
Thus, the lottery money received was an interest free loan to the government during the three years that the tickets ('without any Blankes') were sold. In later years, the government sold the lottery ticket rights to brokers, who in turn hired agents and runners to sell them. These brokers eventually became the modern day stockbrokers for various commercial ventures.
Most people could not afford the entire cost of a lottery ticket, so the brokers would sell shares in a ticket; this resulted in tickets being issued with a notation such as "Sixteenth" or "Third Class".
Many private lotteries were held, including raising money for The Virginia Company of London to support its settlement in America at Jamestown. The English State Lottery ran from 1694 until 1826. Thus, the English lotteries ran for over 250 years, until the government, under constant pressure from the opposition in parliament, declared a final lottery in 1826. This lottery was held up to ridicule by contemporary commentators as "the last struggle of the speculators on public credulity for popularity to their last dying lottery".
Early United States 1612–1900
An English lottery, authorized by King James I in 1612, granted the Virginia Company of London the right to raise money to help establish settlers in the first permanent English colony at Jamestown, Virginia.
Lotteries in colonial America played a significant part in the financing of both private and public ventures. It has been recorded that more than 200 lotteries were sanctioned between 1744 and 1776, and played a major role in financing roads, libraries, churches, colleges, canals, bridges, etc.
In the 1740s, the foundation of Princeton and Columbia Universities was financed by lotteries, as was the University of Pennsylvania by the Academy Lottery in 1755.
During the French and Indian Wars, several colonies used lotteries to help finance fortifications and their local militia. In May 1758, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts raised money with a lottery for the "Expedition against Canada".
Benjamin Franklin organized a lottery to raise money to purchase cannons for the defense of Philadelphia. Several of these lotteries offered prizes in the form of "Pieces of Eight". George Washington's Mountain Road Lottery in 1768 was unsuccessful, but these rare lottery tickets bearing Washington's signature became collectors' items; one example sold for about $15,000 in 2007. Washington was also a manager for Col. Bernard Moore's "Slave Lottery" in 1769, which advertised land and slaves as prizes in The Virginia Gazette.
At the outset of the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress used lotteries to raise money to support the Colonial Army. Alexander Hamilton wrote that lotteries should be kept simple, and that "Everybody ... will be willing to hazard a trifling sum for the chance of considerable gain ... and would prefer a small chance of winning a great deal to a great chance of winning little". Taxes had never been accepted as a way to raise public funding for projects, and this led to the popular belief that lotteries were a form of hidden tax.
At the end of the Revolutionary War the various states had to resort to lotteries to raise funds for numerous public projects.
German-speaking countries
The first big lottery on German soil was held in 1614 in Hamburg.
In Austria the first lottery was drawn in 1751, during the reign of Empress Maria Theresia, and was named Lotto di Genova since it was based on 90 numbers.
Spain, 1763
Spain offers a wealth of lottery games, the majority of which are operated by Loterías y Apuestas del Estado with the remaining lotteries operated by the ONCE and the Catalan government. The first Spanish lottery game was played back in 1763 and, over the last two centuries, playing the lottery in Spain has developed into a tradition.
The Spanish Christmas Lottery (officially Sorteo Extraordinario de Navidad [soɾˈteo ekstɾaorðiˈnaɾjo ðe naβiˈðað] or simply Lotería de Navidad [loteˈɾia ðe naβiˈðað]) is a national lottery. It is organized every year since 1812 by a branch of the Spanish Public Administration, now called Loterías y Apuestas del Estado. The name Sorteo de Navidad was used for the first time in 1892.
The Spanish Christmas lottery is the second longest continuously running lottery in the world. This includes the years during the Spanish Civil War when the lottery draw was held in Valencia after the Republicans were forced to relocate their capital from Madrid. After the overthrow of the Republican government the lottery continued uninterrupted under the Franco regime.
Ticket gallery
Modern history by country
Notable prizes on different continents are:
Australia
The first lottery in Australia took place in the 1880s in Sydney. It was a private sweepstakes that was quickly prohibited, despite being moved to other areas such as Queensland and Victoria. In 1916, the Australian government started their own lottery, named the 'Golden Casket Art Union', with the intention of raising money for charities and projects. Its first draw is credited with raising funds for veterans of World War One.
Canada
Lotteries in Canada are administered by five regional organizations; the Atlantic Lottery Corporation (which serves Atlantic Canada), Loto-Québec, the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation, the Western Canada Lottery Corporation (which serves Western and Northern Canada, excluding British Columbia), and the British Columbia Lottery Corporation. The five regional lotteries are members of a consortium known as the Interprovincial Lottery Corporation, which administrates national games, including the flagship Lotto 6/49 and Lotto Max. The five lotteries offer draw games, scratch cards, and sports betting—the latter primarily under the brand Sport Select.
The largest single jackpot record in Canadian lottery history was a Lotto Max drawing on January 7, 2020 for a jackpot of $70 million.
Finland
In Finland, Veikkaus began selling lottery tickets in December 1970, and the first draw was televised on January 3, 1971. The lottery turned 40 on January 3, 2011, and by then the lottery had been drawn 2,126 times. Since then, there has been one lottery draw every week. Lottery game time usually ends on Saturday at 9:45 p.m., and the draw is usually held on Saturday at 10:15 p.m. Large public holidays on Saturdays may postpone the draw to Sunday. The lottery has two official supervisors; from 3 January 1971 to 29 September 2013, the lottery was televised on Yle TV1, and in October 2013, the lottery draws were postponed on MTV3 after ten evening news, because according to FICORA, the sponsorship cooperation between Veikkaus and Yle was illegal.
In the current lottery played in Finland, the player chooses seven numbers between 1 and 40 (initially, until the autumn of 1980, six numbers between 1 and 40 were chosen, then for a few years seven numbers between 1 and 37 and then seven numbers between 1 and 39). In the draw, seven numbers and one (previously three and then two) additional numbers are drawn; the line price is 1 euro. The profit categories were changed, for example, from the 2011 round 41. The main victory at that time was with 7 correct results and the smallest victory with three actual and one additional number, the number of which was reduced from three to two. The lottery return percentage is 41.1.
Another lottery game played in Finland is Vikinglotto, which can be played in all Nordic countries as well as in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. In Vikinglotto, six actual numbers and two additional numbers out of 48 are drawn. There are five winning categories: 6 correct, 5 + extra number, 5 correct, 4 correct and 3 correct.
In Finland, an average of six million euros in winnings go unredeemed each year.
Malaysia
Lottery industry start operated in Malaysia on early 1969 by Berjaya Group. Sports Toto Malaysia Sdn Bhd is a Malaysian company, which operates in the gambling sector.
Founded and incorporated by the Malaysian Government in 1969, it was focused on the commercialisation of 4-Digits–based games. On 1 August 1985, the government in a non-tender privatisation, sold the company to businessman Vincent Tan who merged it into his Berjaya Group.
Today, Sports Toto is a wholly owned subsidiary of Berjaya Sports Toto Berhad (MYX: 1562), which is listed on the main market of Bursa Malaysia. It claims to be the largest operator in Malaysia of 4D-based games, with 680 sales outlets offering a total of 7 games.
Mexico
The Mexican Lotería Nacional dates back to the late 18th century. The goal of the Lotería is to create jobs and to "impulse the wealth redistribution process". The Lotería is also a member of the North American Association of State and Provincial Lotteries.
Spain
As measured by the total prize payout, the Spanish Christmas Lottery is considered the biggest lottery worldwide. In 2012, if all of the tickets had been sold, the total amount payout of prizes would have been worth €2.52 billion (70% of ticket sales). The total amount of all prizes of the first category called El Gordo ("the fat one") was €720 million which was distributed among 180 winning tickets (billetes) that win €4 million each.
For 2013, due to falling demand, the number of €20 tickets available was reduced from 180 million to 160 million, reducing the potential maximum prize pool to €2.24 billion (70% of ticket sales), with a maximum potential El Gordo of €720 million.
Thailand
A lottery was first held in Thailand (then known as Siam) in 1874 during the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), as part of an international fair organised for his birthday. A lottery was organised in 1917 by the British government with Thai consent to help finance Britain's war effort. Lotteries were held intermittently until 1933, when they became regularised under the finance department.
The present Thai lottery is managed by The Government Lottery Office, a state enterprise managed by the Ministry of Finance. The drawings take place on the 1st and 16th of each month, with the top price now up to 32 million baht.
Shrines of local folklore and popular religion, such as Nang Ta-Khian, are often propitiated in order to be lucky in the Thai lottery draw.
United Kingdom
The principal lottery in the United Kingdom is the National Lottery, a state-franchised lottery sanctioned by the Gambling Commission (formerly the National Lottery Commission), and established in 1994. It is operated by the Camelot Group, which was first granted the franchise in 1994. Camelot's current franchise agreement runs through 2019. 28% of National Lottery revenue, along with all unclaimed prizes, are distributed as grants to charitable causes. 12% of the revenue from the National Lottery is expected to go to the government, 5% goes to lottery retailers, 5% is retained by Camelot Group for operating costs, and 50% remains for the total prize fund of which 5% is diverted to a Super Draw fund, leaving 45% for normal prizes.
Northern & Shell also operates a commercial lottery known as The Health Lottery, which distributes its revenue to support health-related charities and causes. To comply with the Gambling Act, which forbids other parties from operating a national lottery, The Health Lottery operates as an umbrella corporation representing a group of 51 society lotteries across the United Kingdom with a common drawing and prize pool. Each drawing is held on behalf of one or more of the society lotteries, whose revenues go to support health-related causes in their respective area. The Health Lottery received criticism on launch for only pledging to donate 20.3% of ticket costs to charity, compared to the National Lottery's 28%, and that the lottery's structure was designed to contravene British law regarding lotteries. In the UK, winning the lottery is correlated to expressing more preference for the Conservative Party. Winning larger prizes results in a larger shift in favor of the Conservative Party.
United States
Lotteries are operated at the state level in the U.S.; 44 states and 3 territories operate state lotteries, and nearly all of them are members of consortiums that operate regional games, and the two near-national games Mega Millions and Powerball. In January 2016, Powerball set a record for the largest lottery jackpot in U.S. history, with its January 13, 2016 draw having an estimated jackpot of US$1.5 billion.
The precursor to legal lotteries were the underground "numbers game" of the 1800s, which operated out of "Policy shops" where bettors choose numbers. In 1875, a report of a select committee of the New York State Assembly stated that "the lowest, meanest, worst form ... [that] gambling takes in the city of New York, is what is known as policy playing". The game was also popular in Italian neighborhoods known as the Italian lottery, and it was known in Cuban communities as bolita ("little ball"). By the early 20th century, the game was associated with poor communities, and could be played for as little as $0.01. The game's attractions to low income and working class bettors were the ability to bet small amounts of money, and that bookies could extend credit to the bettor. In addition, policy winners could avoid paying income tax. Different policy banks would offer different rates, though a payoff of 600 to 1 was typical. Since the odds of winning were 1000:1, the expected profit for racketeers was enormous.
The first modern government-run US lottery was established in Puerto Rico in 1934, followed by New Hampshire in 1964.
In 2018, Ohio became one of the first states to offer people a digital lottery option. The technology, developed by Linq3, allows players to play the lottery on their smart phones.
India
There are many lotteries in India. All lotteries are run by state governments but only 13 of the 28 Indian states allow them. The leader within Indian lotteries is the Kerala State Government that started their lottery department in 1967 following the country wide ban on private lotteries.
The Kerala State Lotteries became an inspiration for other Indian states that started their own lotteries. As of right now lotteries are available in Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Sikkim, Nagaland and Mizoram.
The public ban on lotteries in other states has not been very effective since several lottery providers allow Indians to play online. Indian players can play lotteries from all over the world thanks to online lottery agents and bookkeepers. Some states have tried to combat this with different measures. The state government of Tamil Nadu decided to ban GooglePay since it allows payments to online lotteries and awards its users in India with Scratchcards.
Indian lotteries provide a substantial economic boost for the states that provide them. In the fiscal year 2017-2018 Kerala collected GST worth Rs 908 crore and state revenue of Rs 1,691 crore.
Mathematical analysis
The purchase of lottery tickets cannot be accounted for by decision models based on expected value maximization. The reason is that lottery tickets cost more than the expected gain, as shown by lottery mathematics, so someone maximizing expected value should not buy lottery tickets. Yet, lottery purchases can be explained by decision models based on expected utility maximization, as the curvature of the utility function can be adjusted to capture risk-seeking behavior. More general models based on utility functions defined on things other than the lottery outcomes can also account for lottery purchase. In addition to the lottery prizes, the ticket may enable some purchasers to experience a thrill and to indulge in a fantasy of becoming wealthy. If the entertainment value (or other non-monetary value) obtained by playing is high enough for a given individual, then the purchase of a lottery ticket could represent a gain in overall utility. In such a case, the disutility of a monetary loss could be outweighed by the combined expected utility of monetary and non-monetary gain, thus making the purchase a rational decision for that individual.
Probability of winning
The chances of winning a lottery jackpot can vary widely depending on the lottery design, and are determined by several factors, including the count of possible numbers, the count of winning numbers drawn, whether or not order is significant, and whether drawn numbers are returned for the possibility of further drawing.
In a simple 6-from-49 lotto, a player chooses six numbers from 1 to 49 (no duplicates are allowed). If all six numbers on the player's ticket match those produced in the official drawing (regardless of the order in which the numbers are drawn), then the player is a jackpot winner. For such a lottery, the chance of being a jackpot winner is 1 in 13,983,816.
In bonusball lotteries where the bonus ball is compulsory, the odds are often even lower. In the Mega Millions multi-state lottery in the United States, 5 numbers are drawn from a group of 75 and 1 number is drawn from a group of 15, and a player must match all 6 balls to win the jackpot prize. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 258,890,850.
The odds of winning can also be reduced by increasing the group from which numbers are drawn. In the SuperEnalotto of Italy, players must match 6 numbers out of 90. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 622,614,630.
Most lotteries give lesser prizes for matching just some of the winning numbers, with a lesser prize for fewer matches. Although none of these additional prizes affect the chances of winning the jackpot, they do improve the odds of winning something and therefore add a little to the value of the ticket.
Scams and frauds
Lotteries, like any form of gambling, are susceptible to fraud, despite the high degree of scrutiny claimed by the organizers. Numerous lottery scams exist.
Some advance fee fraud scams on the Internet are based on lotteries. The fraud starts with spam congratulating the recipient on their recent lottery win. The email explains that in order to release funds the email recipient must part with a certain amount (as tax/fees) as per the rules or risk forfeiture.
Another form of scam involves the selling of "systems" which purport to improve a player's chances of selecting the winning numbers in a Lotto game. These scams are generally based on the buyer's (and perhaps the seller's) misunderstanding of probability and random numbers. Sale of these systems or software is legal, however, since they mention that the product cannot guarantee a win, let alone a jackpot.
There have also been several cases of cashiers at lottery retailers who have attempted to scam customers out of their winnings. Some locations require the patron to hand the lottery ticket to the cashier to determine how much they have won, or if they have won at all, the cashier then scans the ticket to determine one or both. In cases where there is no visible or audible cue to the patron of the outcome of the scan some cashiers have taken the opportunity to claim that the ticket is a loser or that it is worth far less than it is and offer to "throw it away" or surreptitiously substitute it for another ticket. The cashier then pockets the ticket and eventually claims it as their own.
The BBC TV series The Real Hustle showed a variation of the lottery scam in which a group of scammers pretended to have won a lottery, but was prevented from claiming the prize as the person who wrote the name on the back of the ticket was supposedly out of the country on that date. They were able to persuade a stranger to put up money as collateral in order to share in the prize pool.
On some occasions, the actual lottery draw itself has been compromised by fraudsters. The 1980 Pennsylvania Lottery scandal involved weighting balls in The Daily Number. In the Hot Lotto fraud scandal software code was added to the Hot Lotto random number generator allowing a fraudster to predict winning numbers on specific days of the year.
In 2003, Mohan Srivastava, a Canadian geological statistician, found non-random patterns in "Tic-Tac-Toe" tickets sold by the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation. "Tic-Tac-Toe" was pulled off the shelves, and became the first game ever recalled by the OLG.
Payment of prizes
Winnings (in the U.S.) are not necessarily paid out in a lump sum, contrary to the expectation of many lottery participants. In certain countries, mainly the U.S., the winner gets to choose between an annuity payment and a one-time payment. The one-time payment (cash or lump sum) is a "smaller" amount than the advertised (annuity) jackpot, having regard to the time value of money, even before applying any income taxes to which the prize is subject. While withholdings vary by jurisdiction and how winnings are invested, it is suggested that a winner who chooses lump sum expects to pocket of the advertised jackpot at the end of the tax year. Therefore, a winner of a $90m jackpot who chooses cash can expect $30m net after filing income tax document(s) for the year in which the jackpot was won.
Lottery annuities are often for a period from 20 to 30 years. Some U.S. lottery games, especially those offering a "lifetime" prize, do not offer a lump-sum option. According to some experts, choosing the annuity is better than opting for the lump-sum, especially for those who lack investment experience.
In some online lotteries, the annual payments are only $25,000, with a balloon payment in the final year. This type of installment payment is often made through investment in government-backed securities. Online lotteries pay the winners through their insurance backup. However, many winners choose lump sum, since they believe they can get a better rate of return on their investment elsewhere.
In some countries, lottery winnings are not subject to personal income tax, so there are no tax consequences to consider in choosing a payment option. In France, Canada, Australia, Germany, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Finland, and the United Kingdom all prizes are immediately paid out as one lump sum, tax-free to the winner. In Liechtenstein, all winnings are tax-free and the winner may opt to receive a lump sum or an annuity with regard to the jackpot prizes.
In the US, federal courts have consistently held that lump sum payments received from third parties in exchange for the rights to lottery annuities are not capital assets for tax purpose. Rather, the lump sum is subject to ordinary income tax treatment.
Some people hire a third party to cash the lottery ticket for them. This can be done to avoid paying income taxes, hide the winnings from being seized for child support, or for money laundering of profits from illegal activity; some jurisdictions investigate overly frequent "winners" and may freeze payments to prevent these abuses.
In jurisdictions where public disclosure is required for winners to claim their prizes, some winners may hire an attorney to set up a blind trust for them so they can claim their prize and remain anonymous. This is done so that winners can avoid scams, jealousy, and other disadvantages that can come with winning a lottery jackpot.
Outcomes for big winners
A study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that people in Sweden who won large sums of money from the lottery tended to retain their wealth over a period of 10 years, often kept their jobs but took more vacation, and maintained or increased their happiness and mental health. The same study states that the common anecdote that "70% of people who receive a large influx of money will lose it within a few years" is false, and is falsely attributed to the National Endowment for Financial Education (NEFE). NEFE released a statement disassociating themselves from the claim.
Time Magazine mentions a "curse of the lottery". Financial consultant Don McNay provides anecdotes supporting this claim in his book, Life Lessons from the Lottery.
See also
Betting pool
Combinatorial number system
Gambling
Gaming mathematics
GTech Corporation
Intralot
Keno
List of lotteries
Lotteries by country
Lottery payouts
Problem gambling
Scratchcard
References
Further reading
A History of English Lotteries, by John Ashton, London: Leadenhall Press, 1893
Fortune's Merry Wheel, by John Samuel Ezell, Harvard University Press, 1960.
Lotteries and Sweepstakes, 1932 by Ewen L'Estrange
The Lottery Encyclopedia, 1986 by Ron Shelley (NY Public Library)
Fate's Bookie: How The Lottery Shaped The World by Gary Hicks, History Press, 2009
External links
World Lottery Association
Gaming the Lottery: An international investigation into the global lottery industry. | [
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228594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Higgins | Dick Higgins | Dick Higgins (1938–1998) was an American artist, composer, art theorist, poet, publisher, printmaker, and a co-founder of the Fluxus international artistic movement (and community). Inspired by John Cage, Higgins was an early pioneer of electronic correspondence. Higgins coined the word intermedia<ref>Hannah B Higgins,"The Computational Word Works of Eric Andersen and Dick Higgins", Mainframe Experimentalism: Early Digital Computing in the Experimental Arts, Hannah Higgins, & Douglas Kahn, eds., pp. 271-281</ref> to describe his artistic activities, defining it in a 1965 essay by the same name, published in the first number of the Something Else Newsletter. His most notable audio contributions include Danger Music scores and the Intermedia concept to describe the ineffable inter-disciplinary activities that became prevalent in the 1960s.
Life
Dick Higgins was the son of Carter Chapin Higgins and Katherine Huntington Bigelow. He was born in Cambridge, England in 1938 into a rather rich family, due to his father owning Worcester Pressed Steel in Worcester, Massachusetts. He grew up with a brother and sister, Mark and Lisa. His younger brother Mark Huntington Higgins was murdered in the Congo in 1960.
As a boy, Higgins grew up and was educated in private boarding schools around the New England area, including Worcester, Massachusetts, Putney, Vermont, and Concord, New Hampshire. When he got older, he spent a lot of time in school, he attended Yale University, Columbia University (1960), Manhattan School of Printing, and the New School. He trained under many influential artists of this time, such as John Cage and Henry Cowell. He earned a bachelor's degree in English from Columbia, and participated in John Cage’s monumental music composition course at the New School.
In 1960, he wed Alison Knowles, a fellow artist, and four years later, they had their daughters, Hannah Higgins and Jessica Higgins. They both grew up to continue the family Fluxus dynasty. One daughter of Higgins and Knowles, Hannah Higgins, is the author of Fluxus Experience, an authoritative volume about the Fluxus movement. Her twin sister, Jessica, is a New York based intermedia artist closely associated with seminal curator Lance Fung. Higgins and Knowles divorced in 1970 after 10 years of marriage and remarried in 1984.
Higgins died of a heart attack after a performance in Quebec, Canada.
Career
Higgins heard the John Cage Twenty-five-year Retrospective Concert in May 1958, and began studying with him that summer. Higgins and Alison Knowles both took part in the Wiesbaden, Germany Fluxus festival in 1962, that marked the founding of Fluxus activity. He founded Something Else Press in 1963, which published many important texts including Gertrude Stein, Bern Porter, Marshall McLuhan, Cage, Merce Cunningham, Cage's teacher Henry Cowell, as well as his contemporaries such as artists Allan Kaprow, Al Hansen, Claes Oldenburg, and Ray Johnson as well as leading Fluxus members La Monte Young, George Brecht, Wolf Vostell, Daniel Spoerri, Emmett Williams, Eric Andersen, Ken Friedman, Ben Patterson, and others. The Something Else Press series of "Great Bear Pamphlets," documented the earliest Fluxus performances.
He was an early and ardent proponent and user of computers as a tool for art making, dating back to the mid-1960s, when Alison Knowles and he created the first computer-generated literary texts. His A Book About Love & War & Death, a book-length aleatory poem published in 1972 included one of those. In his introduction, Higgins states, having finished the first three parts of the poem throwing dice, he wrote a FORTRAN IV program to produce part (or Canto) four. Higgins also created metadrama poems that were minimal emotional statements or narratives. Between 1976 and 1994 he collaborated with the Italian writer and visual artist Luciano Caruso through email correspondence.
Higgins wrote and edited forty-seven books, including George Herbert's Pattern Poems: In Their Tradition and On the Composition of Signs and Images, his edition of a Giordano Bruno text, which he annotated. He saw Bruno's essay on the art of memory also as an early text on intermedia. A Dialectic of Centuries: Notes towards a Theory of the New Arts collected many of his essays and theoretical works in 1976. In 1972, Higgins founded Unpublished Editions (later renamed Printed Editions) to publish his short novel Amigo. In 2018, Siglio Press published a posthumous collection of Higgins's writings titled Fluxus, Intermedia and the Something Else Press. Selected Writings by Dick Higgins edited by Steve Clay of Granary Books and Fluxus artist Ken Friedman.
Books
What are Legends. Illustrated by Bern Porter. Calais, Maine: Bern Porter, 1960.
Jefferson’s Birthday/Postface. New York: Something Else Press, 1964.
A Book about Love & War & Death. Canto One. New York: Something Else Press, 1965.
Die Fabelhafte Geträume von Taifun-Willi. A Hear Show for the Boys at Garnisht Kiegele. Stuttgart: Reflection Press, 1966.
Act. A Game of 52 Soaphorse Operas. New York, NY: Threadneedle Editions, 1967.
Some Graphis Mirrors. New York, NY: Threadneedle Editions, 1967.
A Book about Love & War & Death. San Francisco: Nova Broadcast Press, 1969.
Foew&ombwhnw. A grammar of the mind and a phenomenology of love and a science of the arts as seen by a stalker of the wild mushroom. New York: Something Else Press, 1969.
Computers for the Arts. Somerville, Massachusetts: Abyss Publications, 1970.
Die Fabelhafte Geträume von Taifun Willi. Somerville, Massachusetts: Abyss Publications, 1970.
A Book About Love & War & Death. Barton, Vermont: Something Else Press, 1972.
For Eugene in Germany. Barton, Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1973.
The Ladder to the Moon. Barton, Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1973.
Modular Poems. Barton, Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1974.
City with All the Angles. A Radio Play. West Glover Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1974.
Spring Game. An Opera for Shadow Puppets. West Glover Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1974.
Classic Plays. New York: Unpublished Editions, 1976.
Cat Alley. A Long Short Novel. Willits, California: Tuumba Press, 1976.
Five Traditions of Art History. An Essay. New York: Unpublished Editions, 1976.
An Exemplativist Manifesto. New York: Unpublished Editions, 1976.
Legends & Fishnets. Barton, Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1976.
George Herbert's Pattern Poems. In Their Tradition. West Glover, Vermont: Unpublished Editions, 1977.
The Epitaphs = Gli Epitaphi. Napoli, Italy: Morra, 1977.
Everyone Has Sher Favorite (His or Hers). New York: Unpublished Editions, 1977.
Ett Exemplativistiskt Manifest. Lund: Kalejdoskop Förlag, 1977.
The Epickall Quest of the Brothers Dichtung and Other Outrages. Illustrated by Ken Friedman. New York: Printed Editions, 1978.
A Dialectic of Centuries. Notes Towards a Theory of the New Arts. New York: Printed Editions, 1978.
Of Celebration of Morning. New York: Printed Editions, 1980.
Piano Album. Short Piano Pieces, 1962-1984. New York: Printed Editions, 1980.
Twenty-Six Mountains for Viewing the Sunset From. Barrytown, New York: Printed Editions, 1981.
The Word and Beyond. Four Literary Cosmologists (with Richard Morris, Donald Phelps, and Harry Smith). New York: The Smith, 1982.
Horizons. The Poetics and Theory of the Intermedia. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.
Pattern Poetry. Guide to an Unknown Literature. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
The Journey. Eight Colored Scenes. Barrytown, New York: Left Hand Books, 1992.
Buster Keaton Enters into Paradise. Barrytown, New York: Left Hand Books, 1994.
Modernism since Postmodernism. Essays on Intermedia. San Diego, California: San Diego State University, 1997.
As editor with Wolf Vostell
Pop Architektur. Concept Art. Düsseldorf: Droste, 1969.
Fantastic Architecture. New York: Something Else Press, 1971.
See also
Intermedia
Something Else Press
Fluxus
References
Further reading
Steve Clay and Ken Friedman, eds. (2018). Fluxus, Intermedia and the Something Else Press. Selected Writings by Dick Higgins. Catskill, NY: Siglio.
External links
Official Dick Higgins Archive Website
Fluxus Performance Workbook
1966 Statement on Intermedia
Dick Higgins' page on UbuWeb
Ruud Janssen interview with Dick Higgins about mail art
Dick Higgins Intermedia book back in print with SDSU Press (scroll down, near the bottom)
Dick Higgins collection, 1958-2002 – at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Dick Higgins Collection, 1968-1993 (MsC 790) – at the University of Iowa
Dick Higgins papers, 1960-1994 – the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California
Dick Higgins Archive -- Northwestern University
Fluxus, Intermedia and the Something Else Press. Selected Writings by Dick Higgins. – Higgins book at Siglio Press edited by Steve Clay and Ken Friedman
Something Else Newsletter – a complete open access set of Dick Higgins's Something Else Newsletter at Primary Information
An Interview With Dick Higgins, 1971 – recorded at the KPFA studios on June 13, 1971, after Higgins resigned his post at California Institute of the Arts
Dick Higgins Collections 43
Select Writings by Dick Higgins
Dick Higgins Dick Higgins Biography at Monoskop
Dick Higgins Danger Music Number Seventeen'' from Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine Fluxus issue archived at UbuWeb
1938 births
1998 deaths
People from Cambridge
Fluxus
British emigrants to the United States
Language poets
Mass media theorists
Signalism
20th-century English poets
Private press movement people | [
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|
228596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Thailand | Flag of Thailand | The flag of the Kingdom of Thailand (; , meaning 'tricolour flag') shows five horizontal stripes in the colours red, white, blue, white and red, with the central blue stripe being twice as wide as each of the other four. The design was adopted on 28 September 1917, according to the royal decree issued by Rama VI. Since 2016, that day is a national day of importance in Thailand celebrating the flag.
The colours are said to stand for nation-religion-king, an unofficial motto of Thailand, red for the land and people, white for religions and blue for the monarchy, the last having been the auspicious colour of Rama VI. As the king declared war on Germany that July, some note the flag now bore the same colours as those of the UK, France, Russia and the United States.
Design
The Flag Act of BE 2522 (1979) stipulates the design of the national flag as "rectangular in shape with 6 part width and 9 part length, divided into five stripes throughout the length of the flag; with the middle stripe being 2 part wide, of deep blue colour, and the white stripes being 1 part wide next to each side of the deep blue stripes, and the red stripes being 1 part wide next to each side of the white stripes. The National Flag shall also be called the Tri-Rong flag".
Colour standards
The colours of the flag were standardised in an announcement of the Office of the Prime Minister dated 30 September 2017, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of its adoption. It gives recommended values for determining the standard colours of physical cloth flags, defined in the CIELAB colour space under Illuminant D65 as follows.
Construction Sheet
History
The first flag used for Siam was probably a plain red one, first used under Narai (1656–1688). Naval flags later used different symbols on the red ground—a white chakra, or a white elephant inside the chakra.
Officially the first flag was created in 1855 by Mongkut (Rama IV), showing a white elephant on red ground, as the plain coloured flag was not distinct enough for international relations.
In 1916 the flag was changed to show a white elephant in royal regalia. In 1916, the current design, but with the middle colour being the same red as the outer stripe, was defined as the civil ensign. The story goes that during a flood Vajiravudh (Rama VI) saw the flag hanging upside-down, and to prevent this from happening again created a new flag which was symmetrical. Later in 1917, the middle colour was changed to dark blue, which was similar in tone to indigo, which at the time was regarded as the auspicious colour for Saturday, the day Vajiravudh was born. According to other sources, the blue colour was also chosen to show solidarity with the Allies of World War I, which also had the colours blue-red-white in their flags.
Timeline
Maritime flags
The naval ensign of the Royal Thai Navy (RTN) is the national flag with a red circle in the middle that reaches as far as the red stripes at the top and bottom. In the circle stands a white elephant, in full caparison, facing the hoist. The kingdom's naval jack is the national flag defaced with the emblem of the Royal Thai Navy in the middle. The regimental colours of the RTN is as same as this flag; both ensigns were adopted in 1917.
See also
List of Thai flags
Royal Standard of Thailand
Royal Flags of Thailand
List of Military flags of Thailand
Flag of India, which has a similar name "Tiranga"
Flag of Costa Rica
Flag desecration#Thailand
Flag of North Korea
Sources
References
External links
Royal Flags (Thailand)
Siam Flag museum (Thai only)
Historical thai flag
National symbols of Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand | [
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|
228599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSJ%20decomposition | JSJ decomposition | In mathematics, the JSJ decomposition, also known as the toral decomposition, is a topological construct given by the following theorem:
Irreducible orientable closed (i.e., compact and without boundary) 3-manifolds have a unique (up to isotopy) minimal collection of disjointly embedded incompressible tori such that each component of the 3-manifold obtained by cutting along the tori is either atoroidal or Seifert-fibered.
The acronym JSJ is for William Jaco, Peter Shalen, and Klaus Johannson. The first two worked together, and the third worked independently.
The characteristic submanifold
An alternative version of the JSJ decomposition states:
A closed irreducible orientable 3-manifold M has a submanifold Σ that is a Seifert manifold (possibly disconnected and with boundary) whose complement is atoroidal (and possibly disconnected).
The submanifold Σ with the smallest number of boundary tori is called the characteristic submanifold of M; it is unique (up to isotopy).
The boundary of the characteristic submanifold Σ is a union of tori that are almost the same as the tori appearing in the JSJ decomposition. However there is a subtle difference: if one of the tori in the JSJ decomposition is "non-separating", then the boundary of the characteristic submanifold has two parallel copies of it (and the region between them is a Seifert manifold isomorphic to the product of a torus and a unit interval).
The set of tori bounding the characteristic submanifold can be characterised as the unique (up to isotopy) minimal collection of disjointly embedded incompressible tori such that closure of each component of the 3-manifold obtained by cutting along the tori is either atoroidal or Seifert-fibered.
Warning: Cutting the manifold along the tori bounding the characteristic submanifold is also sometimes called the JSJ decomposition, though it may have more tori than the JSJ decomposition defined in the introduction.
Warning: the JSJ decomposition is not quite the same as the decomposition in the geometrization conjecture, because some of the pieces in the JSJ decomposition might not have finite volume geometric structures. For example, the mapping torus of an Anosov map of a torus has a finite volume sol structure, but its JSJ decomposition cuts it open along one torus to produce a product of a torus and a unit interval, and the interior of this has no finite volume geometric structure.
See also
Geometrization conjecture
Manifold decomposition
Satellite knot
References
.
Jaco, William; Shalen, Peter B. Seifert fibered spaces in 3-manifolds. Geometric topology (Proc. Georgia Topology Conf., Athens, Ga., 1977), pp. 91–99, Academic Press, New York-London, 1979.
Jaco, William; Shalen, Peter B. A new decomposition theorem for irreducible sufficiently-large 3-manifolds. Algebraic and geometric topology (Proc. Sympos. Pure Math., Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif., 1976), Part 2, pp. 71–84, Proc. Sympos. Pure Math., XXXII, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., 1978.
Johannson, Klaus, Homotopy equivalences of 3-manifolds with boundaries. Lecture Notes in Mathematics, 761. Springer, Berlin, 1979.
External links
Allen Hatcher, Notes on Basic 3-Manifold Topology.
William Jaco, JSJ Decomposition of 3-manifolds. This lecture gives a brief introduction to Seifert fibered 3-manifolds and provides the existence and uniqueness theorem of Jaco, Shalen, and Johannson for the JSJ decomposition of a 3-manifold.
William Jaco, An Algorithm to Construct the JSJ Decomposition of a 3-manifold. An algorithm is given for constructing the JSJ-decomposition of a 3-manifold and deriving the Seifert invariants of the Characteristic submanifold.
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228600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20State%20University | Washington State University | Washington State University (Washington State, WSU, or Wazzu) is a public land-grant research university with its flagship, and oldest, campus in Pullman, Washington. Founded in 1890, WSU is also one of the oldest land-grant universities in the American West. With an undergraduate enrollment of 24,278 and a total enrollment of 28,581, it is the second largest institution for higher education in Washington state behind the University of Washington. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".
The WSU Pullman campus stands on a hill and is characterized by open spaces and a red brick and basalt material palette—materials originally found on site. The university sits within the rolling topography of the Palouse in rural eastern Washington and remains closely connected to the town and the region. The university also operates campuses across Washington at WSU Spokane, WSU Tri-Cities, and WSU Vancouver, all founded in 1989. In 2012, WSU launched an Internet-based Global Campus, which includes its online degree program, WSU Online. In 2015, WSU expanded to a sixth campus at WSU Everett. These campuses award primarily bachelor's and master's degrees. Freshmen and sophomores were first admitted to the Vancouver campus in 2006 and to the Tri-Cities campus in 2007.
WSU's athletic teams are called the Cougars and the school colors are crimson and gray. Six men's and nine women's varsity teams compete in NCAA Division I in the Pac-12 Conference. Both men's and women's indoor track teams compete in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation.
History
Agricultural College, Experiment Station, and School of Science
In 1862 President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act of 1862 into law, allowing for the creation of land-grant colleges “to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts ...in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes." The Hatch Act of 1887 expanded on the Morrill Act, providing federal funds for the establishment of agriculture experiment stations at land-grant colleges. Shortly after attaining statehood on November 11, 1889, the Washington State Legislature began taking steps to claim a land-grant college, and fewer than five months later on March 28, 1890 passed House Bill 90 for the creation of the Agricultural College, Experiment Station and School of Science of the State of Washington. Governor Elisha P. Ferry signed the bill into law a few days later. Soon after, a second act of legislature expanded the school's educational mission to include general arts and sciences. The university and the experiment station would aid enterprise by improving farm management, conducting research, and teaching the skills needed to be better farmers. WSU's role as a statewide institution became clear in 1894 with the launch of its first agricultural experiment station west of the Cascade Mountains near Puyallup.
According to the legislation, the site of the land-grant college was to be determined by a three-member committee appointed by the governor, but it stipulated that the site must be located in the southeast corner of the state. After an exhaustive examination of bidding towns such as Yakima and other towns in the Palouse region, the state's new land-grant college opened to 59 students in Pullman on January 13, 1892, offering three major courses of study: agriculture, engineering, and domestic science. Pullman was possibly selected because of a generous land gift by the city and its railroad connections to Spokane and Portland, Oregon. A five-member Board of Regents was appointed with George W. Lilley acting as the school's first President.
The school started out with a faculty of five, with a student-body largely consisting of children from the surrounding community, who, if they were residents of Washington would have attended tuition-free. The year 1897 saw the first graduating class of seven men and women.
The Bryan years
Enoch Albert Bryan, appointed July 22, 1893 and serving for 22 years, was the first influential president of WSU and considered by many as the true founder of the university. Bryan previously served as the president of Vincennes University in Indiana and was an alumnus of Indiana University and held a graduate degree from Harvard. When Bryan learned he was nominated for the presidency by a friend in Oregon, he had never even heard of the college. Before Bryan's arrival, the fledgling university suffered through significant organizational instability. Under Bryan's term as president, the curriculum included both a practical and liberal arts component, where chemistry, mathematics as well as history, English literature and two foreign languages were core courses, required for graduation regardless of major. Under Bryan, music and art held importance too, in 1905 he gained the approval of the Board of Regents for a School of Music. Bryan guided the college toward respectability and is arguably the most influential figure in the university's history. The landmark clock tower in the center of campus is his namesake. As the college approached the end of its first decade of existence, Bryan and others tried to garner the necessary support to change the name of the school, which resulted in the introduction of a bill to change the school name to “Washington State College” in 1899. This and similar efforts in 1901 and 1903 were defeated with strong opposition for attempting to create another state university which would undermine the clout of the University of Washington (UW) in Seattle. However, in 1905 the school was finally able to officially change its name to the “State College of Washington” or more informally as Washington State College (WSC).
Washington State College
Ernest O. Holland succeeded Enoch Bryan as President of the Washington State College in 1915. That same year, a close friend of his whom he shared a room with while studying at Columbia University, Henry Suzzallo, became the President of the University of Washington. Holland's early years as president and friendship with Suzzallo would be challenged during his tenure as president. In 1909, the institutional rivalry between WSC and UW worsened when state legislators, the majority of which held seats in western Washington, were dismayed to find a foreign language department, an English Department headed by a Harvard-educated PhD, a school of architecture, and many departments with graduate students. The legislative committee promptly advised demoting the college to “trade school” status, an idea which Suzzallo supported. Suzzallo penned a letter to Holland promising to make WSC “the greatest school of agriculture in the world” only if Holland agreed to abandon all other disciplines to UW; Suzzallo's proposal specifically sought to shut down WSC's schools of architecture and pharmacy. After years of wrangling, the Washington legislature decided against limiting the academic mission and scope of WSC. The two presidents and their respective institutions would continue to have a row over curriculum and state appropriations until Suzzallo was relieved of his position in 1926 due to the influence of Washington governor, Roland H. Hartley. In trying to outdo his former peer at UW, Holland wanted to build a library that rivaled the grandness of the newly built library at UW that bears Suzzallo's name. Funding for the Holland Library was delayed by the state however until 1950.
Budgetary woes hit WSC in the Great Depression years starting in the 1930s. The budget, faculty, salaries, and enrollment slumped dramatically. Enrollment didn't reach pre-Depression levels until 1936 and salaries until 1937 in nominal terms. With the start of World War II, the Washington State College was contracted by the War Department to house and train the Army Signal Corps where they were given pre-flight school training and lessons in Japanese language. The college hosted as many as 1,900 military personnel in the vacated dormitories and fraternities. It was during this time in 1944 however, when WSC saw the exciting introduction of the Cougar Gold brand of sharp white cheddar cheese from the campus creamery. The cheese was developed and gets its namesake from dairy bacteriologist Dr. N.S. Golding who was studying molds for cheese production. After the war ended and the passing of the G.I. Bill, the college went from having virtually no men on campus to being inundated with them. The school had to scramble to accommodate the former servicemen by buying migrant housing and using temporary housing units provided by the federal government. The campus became so crowded, that President Wilson Compton mulled moving the college to Spokane, but in 1947, he ultimately figured that it would be too impractical.
Washington State University
On September 1, 1959, the state legislature passed a bill unopposed that officially changed the name to Washington State University. The maturing university partly owed the success of this to the establishment of the WSU Honors College, which is one of the oldest in the nation and a highly respected university program for gifted students. The university joined the Athletic Association of Western Universities in 1962, which included the University of Washington, and four other universities in California at the time. In an effort to improve the graduate program and research credentials of WSU, a low-grade nuclear reactor was constructed, funded by Atomic Energy Commission grants, and new doctoral programs were introduced.
By the 1970s, WSU's enrollment quadrupled from its level in the 1940s to 14,000 students with an influx from the Baby Boom Generation. President Glenn Terrell took steps to increase funding for undergraduate and graduate education amid the nationwide recession of the mid 1970s. Terrell didn't make any major cuts to the athletics department however, which didn't go unnoticed and was a cause for anger about his leadership among some of the faculty.
State-wide university
Beginning with the start of Samuel H. Smith’s term as President in 1985, marked a large period of growth for WSU. In 1989, WSU gained branch campuses in Spokane, the Tri-Cities, and Vancouver with established extension offices and research centers in all regions of the state, with facilities in Prosser and Wenatchee. Smith proved to be a consummate fundraiser, with about $760 million raised during his term, thanks in some part to Microsoft co-founder and alumnus Paul Allen. In the 1990s Smith began to clamp down and take action regarding student alcohol abuse and disciplinary issues after some high-profile incidents on campus in an effort to improve the university's image. The efforts seemed to have paid off when WSU lost its rank and was completely excluded from The Princeton Review’s party school list in August 2000. Improving the quality of education was the defining goal of the university under V. Lane Rawlins, who raised admission requirements and sought to improve the academic profile of the school with improved curricula and research facilities. After Rawlins retired in 2006, Elson Floyd succeeded him as president. Under Floyd's leadership, increasing the diversity of the student body and continuing to raise the stature and reach of the university were a focus. In his eight years as president, WSU enrollment figures went up by 17 percent, including a 12.5 percent increase in the number of students of color, the amount of research grants awarded to WSU tripled to $600 million a year, and he led expansions in all of WSU's branch campuses-most notably successfully campaigning for the creation of the public medical school that now bears his name at WSU - Spokane, the Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine. The second public medical school in Washington, and only one of three in the state, is seen as key to the university's organizational mission as a state land-grant university and its ambitions as a research university. Created five years after the passage of the Affordable Care Act in 2015, the medical school's goal is to alleviate a physician shortage in rural and eastern Washington using a community-based approach. The med school is said to be a key component in the university's new research-focused $1.5 billion Drive to 25 campaign under President Kirk Schulz, which seeks to make WSU among the nations top 25 public research universities by 2030. The Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine achieved full accreditation in June, 2021.
Campus
The Pullman campus of Washington State University is and is in the Palouse region. The average elevation of the campus is approximately above sea level, and is west of the Idaho border and Moscow, home of the University of Idaho, also a land-grant institution. The university communities are connected by Highway 270 and the Bill Chipman Palouse Trail.
The Palouse is defined by its unique rolling hills that were created by wind-blown soil, which supports one of the world's most productive dry-land agricultural regions. The main crops are wheat, peas, barley, and lentils. Evenings are often highlighted by a spectacular blue-pink sunset, which the first Board of Regents decided to use as the college's colors (later changed to the current crimson and gray colors). Perched atop College Hill (one of the four main hills in Pullman), the campus overlooks downtown Pullman.
Built environment
Campus architecture is diverse, but its prevailing image is perhaps best characterized by a handful of red-brick buildings in the older campus core designed in a neo-Georgian or Renaissance Revival mode, many of which were constructed between the world wars. Yet WSU was hardly immune to modernist, "international style" trends of the post-World War II period, and features some notable examples of the type, particularly the Regents Hill dormitory complex, designed by Paul Thiry, on the north side of campus. By the 1990s, the university began to encourage eye-catching designs, including a 1994 addition to the old Holland Library (now called Terrell Library), by the Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Partnership (now ZGF Architects LLP) with a curving sweep of windows and a cone-shaped skylight above its atrium; an amenity-filled recreation center with a massive jacuzzi and fireplace in 2001; and the Samuel H. Smith Center for Undergraduate Education, or "CUE," named for WSU president Smith, who served from 1985–2000. The latter two buildings were designed by Yost Grube Hall of Portland.
The busiest part of campus is the Glenn Terrell Friendship Mall, referred to as "the mall" by students. This walkway, which prior to the 1970s was a road with parking available along the sides, was named after Terrell, WSU's president from 1967 to 1985. His secretary was known to set meetings ten minutes behind schedule to make up for the time he would spend talking to students along the way. The library complex (Terrell and Holland Libraries), the student union (Compton Union Building), and three academic buildings surround the mall. The new crimson-colored cube that distinguishes the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art opened in the spring of 2018, just across from the club seating entrance to the football stadium.
The football venue, Martin Stadium, named after Governor Clarence D. Martin, also figures prominently on campus. It is situated near the geographical center of the campus with the south grandstands built into the Hill (the Information Technology building is part of the south grandstands), and Terrell Library and the Vogel Plant BioSciences buildings overlooking the west and east ends, respectively. Football has been played here since 1895, first as Soldier Field, later renamed Rogers Field, rebuilt in 1936. After a fire to the main wooden grandstand in 1970, it was replaced with Martin Stadium, which opened in 1972. Even though it is the smallest in the Pac-12, it offers the most seating to students in the conference. After the 2006 season, Martin Stadium went under a massive renovation to expand the seating capacity and offer greater amenities for players and spectators, as well as made improvements to the general facilities such as bathrooms and concession stands. The Cougar Football Project is the proposed renovation of Martin Stadium that consists of two separate projects. The first project, called the Southside Project, would replace the old press box on the south stands with a new structure that includes a new press box, club seats, loge boxes, luxury suites and a club room. The Southside Project is now finished and was completed in November 2012. The second project, originally called the "West End-Zone Project" and now the Football Operations Building, provides a home for the Cougar football program, and includes new weight, locker, equipment. and training rooms for players, in addition to meeting rooms and coaches' offices. It also features a WSU Football heritage area along the west side and a game-day home for Gray W former letter winners.
Other notable buildings include Thompson Hall (1895), Stevens Hall (1896), the Math Learning Annex (1908), and Bryan Hall (1909), the university's oldest surviving buildings which help enclose a sloping quadrangle featuring the "Lowell Elm," a large American Elm (Ulmus americana) brought from Elmwood in 1893 by Harriet Bryan, wife of newly-appointed president Bryan. Thompson Hall, with its distinctive turrets and its resemblance to a chateau in the Loire Valley of France, was the original administration building, and "Administration Building" is still carved above the original west-facing entrance. Today, Thompson Hall is home to the foreign language department and also provides the administrative offices for the College of Arts and Sciences. Bryan Hall is perhaps the most noticeable building on campus, with its tall four-sided tower enclosing a carillon and displaying a clock that lights up neon-red in the evening. Stevens Hall, to Bryan Hall's northwest, is reputed to be the oldest surviving all-women's dormitory west of the Mississippi. Stevens Hall and Thompson Hall are on the National Register of Historic Places, and both were designed by the Seattle firm of Stephen & Josenhans.
Also significant are the Lewis Alumni Centre and the Webster Physical Science Building. The alumni center is an old beef cattle barn dating from the 1920s that was thoroughly transformed in the 1980s into event space and offices for the WSU Alumni Association. Rooms in the alumni center include the Board of Regents' Boardroom, Lighty Library, the Athletics Hall of Fame, the Alumni Presidents' Room, and the "Great Hall" for large social events on the second floor. Webster Hall, completed in 1974 and designed by the Seattle-based architectural firm of Naramore, Bain, Brady, and Johanson (NBBJ) is the tallest building on campus with twelve above-ground floors of offices and an expansive view of the region from a lounge on the northwest side of the top floor.
From 1911 to 1923, Rudolph Weaver was the first chairman of the architecture department. He designed seven buildings on the WSU campus, including:
Beef Barn, now the Lewis Alumni Centre, 1922
Carpenter Hall, which was not finished until 1927.
Community Hall. 1921
McCroskey Hall, 1920
President's House, 1912.
Stimson Hall, 1922
Wilson-Short Hall, 1917, first used, but not finished until later.
Residential campus
WSU is a residential campus. Many freshmen live in residence halls, while some live in fraternity and sorority houses or in off-campus housing. After their first year, many students move to apartments, several owned by WSU. Most apartments are less than from campus. Off-campus housing is popularly divided into two sections that are commonly known by students as College Hill and "Apartment Land." College Hill houses many members of the Greek community who no longer live-in their fraternity/sorority houses, and are commonly known as "live-outs".
Residence halls
A number of the residence halls are co-ed, but there are single-gender living environments as well as a variety of other living options that include age-restricted housing, a mix of domestic and international students, and a global learning community. All of the residence halls, except for McEachern, are part of the RHA (Residence Hall Association).
Residence halls on campus include:
The Hill Halls: Community/Duncan-Dunn, Elmina White Honors Hall, McCroskey, Wilmer-Davis and Stevens
The Northside Halls: Regents Hill, Scott/Coman, Streit-Perham, Northside, and Global Scholars
Southside Halls: Stimson, Waller, Gannon-Goldsworthy, Rogers, Orton, McEachern, and Olympia
The Stephenson Residential Complex: Stephenson East, Stephenson North and Stephenson South
Each hall has its own government which organizes events, manages its budget, and acts as a forum for student involvement. These halls range in size from the exclusive Stevens Hall (approximately 70 residents), to the massive Stephenson Complex (approximately 1200 residents total). The highlight of the year for the residence halls is often Homecoming Week when the residence halls, off-campus students, and Greeks compete in various events. Events such as the chariot race determine the winner of Homecoming Week. In the past decade, the winner of Homecoming Week has most often been a residence hall team. In 2008, the Residence Halls swept Homecoming. Waller/Wilmer-Davis/Stevens took first, Scott-Coman took second and Stimson/Regents took third.
Greek life
There are currently 27 fraternities in the Interfraternity Council, 14 sororities in the Panhellenic Council, 14 fraternities and sororities in the United Greek Association, and 10 fraternities and sororities in the National Panhellenic Council at Washington State University. There are 26 primarily residential fraternities and 14 primary residential sororities that are located on College Hill. Kappa Sigma is the oldest national fraternity at WSU with a founding date in 1909 and Alpha Delta Pi was the first sorority at WSU with a founding date in 1912. The average chapter size of the community organizations is 64 members. Between 25-30 percent of undergraduate students are in the Greek community annually. Greek affiliates have the highest GPA on WSU's campus, averaging 3.2 for sorority women and 2.97 for fraternity men based on figures from Spring 2018. Individuals join houses by going through recruitment, often a week at the beginning of one or both semesters where chapter members hold events to meet potential new members. Washington State University has a zero tolerance policy on hazing both potential new members and current members. Each year Greek chapters submit 6 Pillars of Excellence, each pillar representing a value of Greek Life at WSU, and do reports at the end of the year as a self-evaluation for each chapter. Washington State University "recognizes the right of each fraternity and sorority to create policies and regulations of internal governance, as long as said policies do not conflict with those described in this document or any of its appendices."
College Hill
Greek Row is situated on College Hill just downhill from Bryan Hall and the Hill Halls (the historic single-gender dormitories) on the WSU campus, and among the homes of faculty, Greek live-outs, and apartment buildings. The Greek Row and College Hill area is a diverse community of students, faculty members, and families. College Hill is also home to the President of WSU, Kirk Schulz. College Hill is supported by The College Hill Association, whose mission envisions a vibrant, diverse, and improving community that welcomes all residents and values the historic character of the neighborhood. Restaurants, thrift stores and various bars line Colorado Street, the main street on College Hill. The bars on College Hill include Cougar Cottage (informally, the Coug), currently in its 87th year of operation, Valhalla (informally, V-Hall), and Stubblefield's (informally, Mike's); all boast a large number of customers on the weekends as well as many themed weekdays.
Recreation and the outdoors
The university has the Student Recreation Center (SRC), which was the largest student recreation center in the United States when it was opened in 2001. The SRC contains a elevated indoor track, four basketball courts, two volleyball courts, roller hockey rink, four racquetball courts, swimming pool, 50-person jacuzzi, free weights, weight machines, cardio equipment, exercise instruction rooms, outdoor sand volleyball courts, and a low to high ropes course. The campus also has several other basketball courts, dance rooms, a climbing wall, and the Outdoor Recreation Center where students can check out equipment or register for various events and trips. The Bill Chipman Palouse Trail links Pullman with Moscow and links to the Latah Trail to Troy, from WSU. Another bike trail wraps around the Pullman campus (about long). The school has an intramural program, and club sports are also very popular on campus. The university also has The Chinook, a 69,000 square foot space designed for students. It features fitness facilities, study spaces, social spaces for events, and Freshens Fresh Food Studio.
The campus added a championship golf course in 2008; Palouse Ridge, a $12.3 million project, opened on August 29. It intends to improve the school's golf teams, provide a laboratory for students in turf grass courses, and give boosters and alumni a new reason to visit the campus. From the back tees (Crimson), the course rating is 75.9 with a slope rating of 140. It replaces a sub-standard 9-hole course that was built in 1923 and was mostly unimproved. It closed in 2006 for the redesign to create Palouse Ridge, on the same site and adjacent land. The UI Golf Course in Moscow also offers student rates. It opened in 1937 and added its second nine in 1970; the back tees are at , with a course rating of 72.4 and a slope rating of 135.
Within , many students have the option to hike at Kamiak Butte and Steptoe Butte. Moscow Mountain, at in the Palouse Range in Idaho, provides opportunities for hiking and mountain biking. For aquatic adventures, students can cliff jump or boat at the Snake River. Farther out, white-river rafting, downhill skiing, and hiking in the nearby foothills of the Rocky Mountains are available. WSU formerly operated its own alpine ski area in Idaho, the North-South Ski Bowl, which was sold in the early 1980s.
Arboretum and Botanical Garden
The WSU Arboretum Committee continues to develop an Arboretum and Botanical Garden on a hilltop adjacent to the Lewis Alumni Center. In addition, about on the east edge of campus has been identified for a more expansive Arboretum and Botanical Garden, including a wildlife center. Students interested in contributing to the development of the WSU Arboretum are working with the Native Plant & Landscape Restoration Nursery to help establish tree plantings, future habitat restoration sites, or native plant displays that may be part of a campus green belt design.
Environmental record and sustainability initiatives
Energy use on campus
WSU has one LEED-silver certified building on campus, and two more buildings that meet LEED-silver standards but are not certified. The university has also encouraged the use of energy efficient lighting, energy management systems, and insulating steam lines, to reduce wasted power.
Energy profile
WSU's energy is generated in part by an on-campus steam plant, powered by natural gas with diesel fuel back-up. This accounts for 38% of carbon emissions, or 53,922 metric tonnes eCO2 out of 136,166 metric tons total. The remaining carbon emissions is predominantly the result of purchased electricity (52%), with less than 10% the result of commuting, air travel, refrigerant leaks, and waste incineration. The university has committed to lowering carbon emissions 36% below 2005 levels by 2035, though thus far emission levels have remained relatively flat.
WSU is active in clean energy research, though the campus does not currently have any renewable energy installations.
Energy investments
WSU does not currently commit to establishing a committee or policy that supports climate and sustainability shareholder proposals at companies where the endowment funds are invested. The university is exploring investing in renewable energy, but otherwise is focused on optimizing investment returns. Proxy voting is not possible due to the fact the endowment fund is entirely invested in comingled investment vehicles.
Sustainability
The university promotes on-campus sustainability primarily though the Sustainability and Environment Committee and the ASWSU Environmental Task Force. Undergraduates who have an idea to improve campus sustainability can apply for funding from the Cougar Green Fund, which is funded by an optional $5 student fee. WSU also provides a free bikeshare system through its Greenbike program.
Museums and collections
The Museum of Art/WSU has several permanent collections, including the Ernest O. Holland Collection given by the university's fourth president and the Charles Orton Collection, given by a former regent. Others are the Goya and Daumier Collections, Chaplin Woodcuts, Consortium Collections, Meyer Shapiro Print Collection, Elwood Collection and Marian E. Smith Collection of Northwest glass art. Other permanent collections contain works by Northwest artists D. Griffin, Mark Tobey, Kenneth Callahan, Margaret Tomkins, and former faculty members from WSU and the University of Washington.
The university also has an extensive collection of outdoor art on its Pullman campus. Pieces range from a life-size bronze book-figure "Bookin'" by Terry Allen to "Palouse Columns" (2003) by Robert Maki to "The Technicolor Heart," a fourteen-foot painted bronze work by Jim Dine. A large part of WSU's public art collection is made possible by the percent-for-art Art in Public Places program of the Washington State Arts Commission.
Beginning in 2005 the Museum of Art began organizing its own traveling exhibitions. These exhibitions, including works by Roy Lichtenstein, Gaylen Hansen, and Chris Jordan, have been seen across the country. Between 2005 and 2011, exhibitions organized by the Museum of Art will have traveled to 20 museums in 11 states, and will have been seen by more than 300,000 people. The Museum has also published 6 trade books since 2004. The Museum of Art's latest exhibition publication, Running the Numbers, an American self-portrait, features essays by Chris Bruce, Paul Hawken and Lucy R. Lippard.
Several other museums and collections are found on the WSU Pullman campus. One of the largest is the Charles R. Conner Museum of Natural History, exhibiting more than 700 mounts of birds and mammals, and possessing more than 65,000 research specimens. The Connor Museum has its roots in an 1894 gift of the state of Washington's exhibits from the Chicago's World's Fair, encouraged by then President of the Board of Regents Charles R. Conner. Located on the first floor of Abelson Hall, the museum is open 8 a.m.–5 p.m. daily except major holidays.
The Museum of Anthropology, with archaeological and ethnographic collections, also draws visitors. Open 9 a.m.–4 p.m. Monday through Friday during the school year, the museum has varied exhibits and special events. It also has a collection of objects representing the culture of Native American tribes in the Inland Northwest, and is an official repository for archaeological collections from Eastern Washington.
Also at WSU are the Harold E. Culver Collection, with fossils of pre-historic animals; the Lyle and Lela Jacklin Collection of Silicified Wood & Minerals; and S. Elroy McCaw Fluorescent Mineral Display. Research collections include an Historic Costume and Textiles Collection, the Maurice T. James Entomological Collection, the Marion Ownbey Herbarium, the Mycological Herbarium, and the Henry W. Smith Soil Monolith Collection.
Organization and administration
The university offers bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees in 200 fields of study through 65 departments, schools, and programs.
Colleges
These departments, schools, and programs are organized into 10 academic colleges as follows:
College of Agricultural, Human, and Natural Resource Sciences
College of Arts and Sciences
Carson College of Business
Edward R. Murrow College of Communication
College of Education
Voiland College of Engineering and Architecture
Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine
College of Nursing
College of Pharmacy
College of Veterinary Medicine
In addition, WSU has an all-university honors college, a graduate school, an online global campus, and an accredited intensive English program for non-native speakers (the Intensive American Language Center).
Board of regents
Washington State University is chartered by the State of Washington. A board of regents governs the university and provides direction to the president. There are ten regents appointed by the governor, nine of whom serve six-year terms. The tenth is a student regent appointed on an annual basis.
A bill adding an eleventh regent, who would be a full-time or emeritus faculty member, stalled in the Washington legislature in 2018. Currently the regents are Theodor P. Baseler, Brett Blankenship, Scott E. Carson, Marty Dickinson, Ron Sims, Jordan Frost (student), Lura J. Powell, Heather Redman, Lisa K. Schauer, and Michael C. Worthy.
Leadership
Kirk Schulz currently serves as WSU's president and chief executive officer. Daniel Bernardo currently serves as provost and handles academics, research and faculty matters for WSU statewide. The former president, Elson Floyd, also the former president of University of Missouri System, succeeded V. Lane Rawlins on May 21, 2007, and served until his death on June 20, 2015. Bernardo was formerly dean of the WSU College of Agricultural, Human, and Natural Resource Sciences.
WSU has had 11 presidents in its 125-year history: George W. Lilley (1891–1892), John W. Heston (1892–1893), Enoch A. Bryan (1893–1915), Ernest O. Holland (1916–1944), Wilson M. Compton (1945–1951), C. Clement French (1952–1966), Glenn Terrell (1967–1985), Samuel H. Smith (1985–2000), V. Lane Rawlins (2000–2007), Elson S. Floyd (2007–2015), and Kirk Schulz (2016-). Former acting president Bernardo is not counted among those; nor are previous acting presidents William Pearl (1951-1952) and Wallis Beasley (1966-1967).
WSU Foundation
The WSU Foundation is an independent, private corporation with its own board of governors and chief executive officer that serves as a fundraising organization for the university. The board chair is Judy Rogers.
Faculty
The faculty senate serves as the sounding board for the more than 2,261 faculty members. All major academic decisions must be approved by the senate. The senate is composed of representatives from each academic college and department, and from all four WSU campuses.
Academics
Fall freshman statistics
WSU has 12 colleges and a graduate school. The liberal arts and sciences have an important place in the curriculum, along with business, communication, education, architecture, pharmacy, nursing, and the traditional land-grant disciplines of agriculture, engineering, and veterinary medicine.
WSU offers more than 200 fields of study, including 98 majors, 86 minors, options, and over 140 graduate and professional degrees. Bachelor's degrees are available in all major areas, with master's and doctoral degrees available in most. The undergraduate core curriculum, including the writing program, is nationally recognized. WSU confers nearly 5,900 bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees statewide in a typical year. WSU employs over 1,400 instructional faculty members.
Rankings
WSU was ranked tied for 176th nationally and tied for 87th among public universities in the 2021 U.S. News & World Report rankings. It also ranked tied for 69th best undergraduate engineering program at 206 engineering schools whose highest degree is a doctorate. WSU's College of Veterinary Medicine ranked 14th out of 28 evaluated by U.S. News & World Report in 2019.
The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) in 2020 ranked WSU in the 95–114 range nationally and in the 301–400 range globally. WSU was ranked 400th in the world by the QS World University Rankings for 2020.
WSU Libraries
The WSU Libraries coordinate the administration of three major libraries on the WSU Pullman campus (Animal Health, Holland/Terrell, and Owen Science & Engineering Libraries) and five libraries off the Pullman campus (the Betty M. Anderson, WSU Energy Program, and WSU Spokane libraries, and the WSU Tri-Cities and WSU Vancouver libraries). Five reading rooms libraries on the Pullman campus (the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Allies; Heritage House; Human Relations and Diversity; Music; and Women's Resource Center collections) are outside the WSU Libraries.
The WSU Libraries also participates in the Orbis Cascade Alliance, a consortium of 36 university and college libraries in Washington and Oregon offering the Summit catalog and an inter-library loan system and the WSU Libraries participates in the Greater Western Library Alliance (GWLA). a consortium of 35 research libraries in the central and western United States. WSU Libraries utilizes ILLiad, RAPID, and DOCLINE for document delivery. The WSU Libraries is a member of the Association of Research Libraries.
The WSU Libraries holds 2,266,616 print volumes and WSU faculty and students downloaded 2,022,603 from its licensed online collections in 2012.
Research
According to the National Science Foundation, WSU spent $360 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 71st in the nation.
Research and scholarship at WSU is rooted in agriculture, natural for a land-grant university. The institution's first leader, George W. Lilley (1891–1892), was both president of the then-named Washington Agricultural College and School of Science and director of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. Subjects taught by the first five faculty members included agriculture, botany, horticulture, forestry, and veterinary science.
In 1894, the sixth faculty member, William Jasper Spillman, arrived to teach plant science and mathematics and serve as the first wheat breeder. The WSU wheat research and breeding program continues to serve the Washington wheat industry, the sixth largest industry in the nation in 2008–2009. The state's wheat growers work closely with WSU researchers on development of new wheat varieties that meet their needs.
The university's food and agriculture research helps sustain the state's annual $29 billion food industry. Faculty partnered with agriculture interests to create today's $3 billion a year wine grape business. The Apple Genome Project draws collaboration from scientists worldwide to map the apple genome, research aimed at supporting the apple industry.
Food science is another long-time research field at WSU. Work in the 1940s on types of cheese suitable for storing in cans or tins led to creation of now award-winning Cougar Gold cheese, a white cheddar produced at the WSU Creamery with milk from the university's dairy herd. In 2009, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of microwave energy for producing pre-packaged, low-acid foods, and WSU professor Juming Tang led development of the technology by university, industry and U.S. military scientists.
In terms of productivity, WSU plant sciences faculty rank No. 2 in the nation, animal sciences faculty rank fourth, and food science faculty rank sixth according to Academic Analytics' 2007 Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index. In addition, WSU agricultural studies have helped shape U.S. public policy by showing how sustainable farming practices sidestep the environmental hazards of conventional agriculture. The Climate Friendly Farming project helps farmers adopt methods that mitigate global climate change. Research in agriculture is a strength for WSU, where the university has led in research and development funding from the US Department of Agriculture.
Veterinary medicine and animal health are also important research areas at WSU. In 2008, a $25 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation funded a large share of the cost for a research facility for a new WSU School for Global Animal Health. Its scientists address global infectious disease challenges by detecting diseases within animal populations and controlling their transmission. The Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory at WSU works closely with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to develop and deploy diagnostic tests for livestock diseases.
In the area of clean technologies, university researchers work to raise the efficiency and reliability of the nation's electrical power grid, improve air quality forecasting in the Northwest, and conduct cooperative research projects under the United States Department of Energy's Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (NERI). Scholars are developing an algae-based biofuel that consumes greenhouse gases in its production and are working to patent nanospring technology that would fit into an ordinary gas tank, solving the problem of hydrogen storage. In 2001, WSU professor M. Grant Norton and University of Idaho physics professor David McIlroy were the first scientists to create nanosprings.
WSU is also home to one of the few remaining nuclear research reactors in the country. The Nuclear Radiation Center is a 1 MW TRIGA conversion reactor built in 1961 during President Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace initiative. It is a very potent research tool utilized by WSU's radiochemistry graduate program, as well as providing education on the nuclear industry to the public through talks and facility tours.
Other recent research highlights include studies of the effects of sleep and sleep loss on human cognitive functioning, work to advance shock compression science with contracts awarded to the WSU Institute for Shock Physics by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the department of energy, and a program funded by the National Science Foundation that trains doctoral students to analyze evolutionary processes. Reproductive biologist Patricia A. Hunt was named one of the top 50 researchers of 2007 by Scientific American for her work showing a potential threat to human health posed by bisphenol A (BPA), a component of the polycarbonate plastics used to make food and beverage containers.
Over the years, WSU research and scholarship included the 1968 discovery of the Marmes Man at the Marmes Rockshelter in southeastern Washington, the nation's oldest human remains at that time; the development of high-yielding dwarf wheat; discovery of insect resistance to pesticides; and creation of a method to store cheese in tins, which led to the university's well known and still produced Cougar Gold Cheese. WSU fruit breeders have developed many varieties for the state including, in 1952, the sweet, yellow Rainier cherry, and in 2010 an apple specifically for Washington, named Cosmic Crisp.
Outreach and public service
The WSU Extension has offices in each of Washington's 39 counties, providing training and assistance in agricultural practices, natural resource management, human and life skills, diversity understanding and outreach, the state 4-H program, and many other programs. In 1973 in Seattle, WSU Extension founded the now national Master Gardener Programs of trained volunteers. WSU Extension faculty and staff have also provided assistance for programs in under-developed and developing countries. Many faculty members have appointments to do research, teach, and provide extension services.
The State of Washington's network of Small Business Development Centers is a cooperative effort of Washington State University, other public educational institutions, economic development organizations and the US Small Business Administration. A source of counsel on starting and growing small firms, the centers are found in 17 locations in Western Washington and seven location in Eastern and Central Washington.
The WSU Creamery, an outreach and teaching program, has garnered a reputation for fine dairy products, most notably the Cougar Gold cheese sold at the creamery store, Ferdinand's, as well as online and at some local Pullman stores. The cheese is regionally famous and fetches a starting price of $22 for a 30 oz can. Cougar Gold is marketed as "a white, sharp cheddar with a taste that resembles Swiss or Gouda" and is "aged for at least one year." Cougar Cheese also comes in other varieties, including American Cheddar, Smoky Cheddar, Viking, Dill Garlic, Sweet Basil, Hot Pepper and Crimson Fire.
Washington State University Press each year publishes an average of eight titles that focus on the American West, with particular emphasis on the prehistory, history, environment, politics, and culture of the greater Northwest region. A member of the Association of American University Presses, the WSU Press publishes in varied genres, including scholarly and trade monographs, reminiscences, essays, biographies and works that tell the story of the West in innovative ways.
Through the Center for Civic Engagement on the Pullman campus, students participate in an estimated 30,000 hours annually of credit and non-credit service activities in the community.
In 2008, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching granted WSU its Community Engagement elective classification, both for curricular engagement and for outreach and partnerships.
WSU operates a research extension out of Prosser, Washington. AgWeatherNet
(AWN) provides access to current and historical weather data from Washington State University's automated weather station network along with a range of models and decision aids. The weather data, advisories, weather data products and decision support systems provided by AgWeatherNet and WSU can help improve production and product quality, optimize resource use and reduce environmental impact.
Student life
Student life on WSU's Pullman campus is influenced by a variety of student organizations and their committees. Open to all students, they create educational, entertaining and cultural programming for WSU students and the local community. Committees include Asian Pacific American Student Coalition (APASC), Black Student Union (BSU), Environmental Sustainability Alliance (ESA), Gender and Sexuality Alliance (GSA), International Students' Council (ISC), Ku Ah Mah, KZUU Radio, Middle Eastern Students Association (MESA), Movimiento Estudianti Chicano de Aztian (MEChA), Student Legal Services (SLS), Veteran's Student Committee, and GIVE on the Pullman Campus. There are also more than 300 registered student organisations (RSOs) that cover many interests. All ASWSU committees are members of "Committee Squared," the coalition of all ASWSU Committee leaders. ASWSU also consists of the President and Vice President who oversee the Executive Staff. The staff consists of a variety of directors and assistant directors advancing student causes via student life, diversity affairs, campus life, and others. The 23-member Senate represents students via academic colleges as well as the Honors College and Freshman class. The Senate meets weekly to debate legislation, hear reports from the Executive Staff, and appoint the various officers of ASWSU. The Senate also provides financial support to the nearly 400 registered student organizations on campus via the Senate Finance Committee. Finally, the Election Board and the Judicial Board complete the association.
There are several other influential student organizations. Interfraternity Council, Panhellenic Council, the United Greek Council, and the National Pan-Hellenic Council are governmental bodies for university-recognized Greek social organizations. The Residence Hall Association is a government body for students in the residence halls, governing all of the residence halls on campus excluding McEachern and Stimson Halls. It is the second biggest registered student organization at Washington State, representing about 4,700 on-campus resident students.
The board of directors of the Students' Book Corporation has a total of nine directors. Five are students at WSU, two are faculty and two are administrative directors. These people oversees the non-profit campus bookstore separate from WSU. The Students' Book Corporation provides a 10% point of sale discount. On average the dividend total has been about $85,000. This is then received at ASWSU organizations at each campus to be distributed to various groups and activities. The Compton Union Board (CUB) oversees the management of the student union building and its services. The University Recreation Board oversees the management of university recreation. The Student Alumni Connection hosts several major campus events.
The Student Entertainment Board (SEB) is a student-led board composed of undergraduate students. Positions on the board include: Spotlight, Films, Up All Night, Lectures, CUB Gallery, Concerts, VPLAC (Visual, Performing, and Literary Arts Committee), Special Event (Homecoming and Springfest), Associate Director, and Director. They are responsible for bringing diverse arts & entertainment to campus.
The Coalition for Women Students provides much of the multicultural programs on campus, including the annual Women of Color symposium, the Week Without Violence, and Take Back the Night rally and march. CWS is made up of Association for Pacific and Asian Women, Black Women's Caucus, Mujeres Unidas, Native American Women's Association, and the YWCA of WSU. The organization also funds the all-volunteer Women's Transit, a safe door-to-door transportation program for women who would otherwise walk alone at night.
Student government
WSU has two representative student body organizations: the Associated Students of Washington State University (ASWSU) founded in 1915 and the Graduate and Professional Students Association (GPSA) founded about 1970.
In recent years, the student body completed several major projects on campus. In addition to passing a $15 transportation fee to increase Pullman Transit's service, the student body also voted to remodel the Compton Union Building. The building closed in May 2006 and re-opened in August 2008. In March 2006, ASWSU voted to support the renovation of Martin Stadium, adding $25 per semester to undergraduate student fees.
Associated Students of Washington State University
ASWSU's organizational framework is similar to that of most American governments complete with an appointed and confirmed judiciary, elected representatives (from districts) to a senate, and an annually elected president and vice-president team. The president also has a paid staff led by the chief of staff ranging in size from 6–12 members, depending on the year.
Graduate and Professional Students Association
GPSA is similar, but differs in that it lacks a judiciary or a paid staff. The GPSA is centered on the senate which is composed of a large number of senators that represent different graduate and professional programs. The GPSA also has an executive Council that consists of the (GPSA) President, Vice-Presidents, and nine District Representatives elected from the nine colleges of WSU.
Media
Washington State Magazine is the alumni and research magazine of Washington State University. Published quarterly, the magazine covers news and issues of interest to Washington State University faculty, staff, students, alumni, and the people of Washington. The magazine was first published in 2001. Before Washington State Magazine, WSU alumni news was published in HillTopics from 1969 to 2000, and The PowWow, the alumni magazine from 1910 to 1969. Research news at the university appeared in Universe magazine in the 1990s.
WSU News is the university's official news website and daily e-newsletter for faculty, staff and graduate students.
The Daily Evergreen is Washington State University's student newspaper. The first issue of the Evergreen was published in 1895.
WSU broadcast media include Northwest Public Radio and Television, the network of public radio and television stations in the Northwest owned and operated by Washington State University. NWPR's flagship station—KWSU 1250 in Pullman—signed on December 10, 1922, as KFAE, became KWSC in 1925, and then KWSU in the 1960s. WSU alumnus Edward R. Murrow got his start in radio at KWSC.
Cable 8 Productions is a local student-operated cable TV channel serving WSU and the Pullman-Moscow area. KZUU 90.7 FM, a non-commercial college radio station, is a service of ASWSU. It gained FCC approval in 1979. KUGR Sports Rock is a student-operated, online radio station.
Among the students who operate these media are broadcasting students in WSU's Edward R. Murrow College of Communication.
Song
"The Fight Song" is the school's fight song. It was composed in 1919 by students Phyllis Sayles and lyrics were written by Zella Melcher, as a class project.
The lyrics are found on the Washington State University visitor website.
Additionally, Washington State has embraced Andy Grammer's “Back Home” in recent years, featured prominently during sporting events and appearing on merchandise sold by the university.
Athletics
Washington State University is a member of the Pac-12 Conference. The school's mascot is "Butch T. Cougar" and the school's colors are crimson and gray. Varsity athletics include men's baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, and track and field, as well as women's basketball, cross country, golf, rowing, soccer, swimming, volleyball, tennis, and track and field. In the past WSU had varsity programs of boxing, wrestling, gymnastics, and men's swimming. In 1917, WSU won its first national championship in men's basketball. In 1937, Roy Petragallo and Ed McKinnon won the NCAA boxing championship, another national championship. The Cougars third and most recent national championship was earned in 1977 in indoor track and field.
University Recreation also supports 26 club sports, including bowling, men's crew, cricket, cycling, equestrian show team, men's and women's flag football, fencing, polo, men's and women's ice hockey, judo, men's lacrosse, logger sports, rodeo, men's rugby union, women's rugby, sailing, ski team, men's soccer, women's fast-pitch softball, taekwondo, triathlon, Ultimate, men's and women's volleyball, water polo and wrestling.
Washington State's biggest rival is the University of Washington Huskies. Strong rivalries also exist between WSU and the other Pac-12 teams of the Pacific Northwest: the University of Oregon Ducks and Oregon State University Beavers. WSU's closest geographic rival is the University of Idaho Vandals, a fellow land-grant school only east of Pullman across the state line in Moscow. Conference rivals until 1959, their rivalry football game, the "Battle of the Palouse", was played on an annual basis from 1901 until 1978 when the NCAA Division I split. After Idaho returned to Division I-A, a renewed series lasted a decade, from 1998 until 2007. The renewed series was dropped from the schedule due to the Cougars' continued dominance of the Vandals in the series, and each school's ability to generate more revenue by playing other opponents. Vandal head coach Robb Akey, a former WSU defensive coordinator, preferred the game as an occasional rather regular attraction. On hiatus for five seasons, it returned for one year in 2013.
Notable alumni and faculty
The University has 196,257 living alumni in fall 2015, according to WSU Quick Facts.
Among the 39 WSU alumni to receive the Regents' Distinguished Alumnus Award since 1962 are recipient of the 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Irwin Rose, broadcaster Edward R. Murrow, journalist Ana Cabrera, Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, astronaut John M. Fabian, cartoonist Gary Larson, action movie star Dolph Lundgren, molecular evolutionist Allan Wilson, banking executive Phyllis J. Campbell, painter and pioneer of Abstract Expressionism Clyfford Still, Canadian Football League player and champion George Reed, Entrepreneur Clint Hedin, sociologist William Julius Wilson, author and film director Sherman Alexie, veterinary researcher John Gorham, wheat breeder Orville Vogel, physicist Philip Abelson and physician Neva Abelson.
1984 Olympic gold medalist in men's double sculls, Paul Enquist, started his rowing career at Washington State.
Medal of Honor recipients Colonel James P. Fleming and Staff Sergeant Ronald Shurer are both Washington State University alumni. Colonel Fleming entered the Air Force after receiving his commission through ROTC at Washington State in 1966. Staff Sergeant Shurer attended Washington State from 1997 to 2002 earning a bachelor's degree in business administration and starting an MBA before enlisting in the US Army.
Counterculture icon Timothy Leary received a graduate degree from Washington State in the mid-1940s.
Musician Krist Novoselic earned a BSc in social sciences from Washington State University Global Campus in 2016.
Edmund Schweitzer, founder of Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories (SEL), graduated with his Ph.D. from Washington State in 1977. He received the IEEE Medal in Power Engineering in 2012, and was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2019.
Images
See also
List of business schools in the United States
List of cheesemakers
List of forestry universities and colleges
List of nursing schools in the United States
List of pharmacy schools
List of schools of veterinary medicine
References
Further reading
External links
Washington State Athletics website
Educational institutions established in 1890
Land-grant universities and colleges
Public universities and colleges in Washington (state)
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Education in Whitman County, Washington
Buildings and structures in Pullman, Washington
Tourist attractions in Whitman County, Washington
Pullman, Washington
Cheesemakers
1890 establishments in Washington (state) | [
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228601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenfunction | Eigenfunction | In mathematics, an eigenfunction of a linear operator D defined on some function space is any non-zero function in that space that, when acted upon by D, is only multiplied by some scaling factor called an eigenvalue. As an equation, this condition can be written as
for some scalar eigenvalue The solutions to this equation may also be subject to boundary conditions that limit the allowable eigenvalues and eigenfunctions.
An eigenfunction is a type of eigenvector.
Eigenfunctions
In general, an eigenvector of a linear operator D defined on some vector space is a nonzero vector in the domain of D that, when D acts upon it, is simply scaled by some scalar value called an eigenvalue. In the special case where D is defined on a function space, the eigenvectors are referred to as eigenfunctions. That is, a function f is an eigenfunction of D if it satisfies the equation
where λ is a scalar. The solutions to Equation may also be subject to boundary conditions. Because of the boundary conditions, the possible values of λ are generally limited, for example to a discrete set λ1, λ2, … or to a continuous set over some range. The set of all possible eigenvalues of D is sometimes called its spectrum, which may be discrete, continuous, or a combination of both.
Each value of λ corresponds to one or more eigenfunctions. If multiple linearly independent eigenfunctions have the same eigenvalue, the eigenvalue is said to be degenerate and the maximum number of linearly independent eigenfunctions associated with the same eigenvalue is the eigenvalue's degree of degeneracy or geometric multiplicity.
Derivative example
A widely used class of linear operators acting on infinite dimensional spaces are differential operators on the space C∞ of infinitely differentiable real or complex functions of a real or complex argument t. For example, consider the derivative operator with eigenvalue equation
This differential equation can be solved by multiplying both sides by and integrating. Its solution, the exponential function
is the eigenfunction of the derivative operator, where f0 is a parameter that depends on the boundary conditions. Note that in this case the eigenfunction is itself a function of its associated eigenvalue λ, which can take any real or complex value. In particular, note that for λ = 0 the eigenfunction f(t) is a constant.
Suppose in the example that f(t) is subject to the boundary conditions f(0) = 1 and . We then find that
where λ = 2 is the only eigenvalue of the differential equation that also satisfies the boundary condition.
Link to eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices
Eigenfunctions can be expressed as column vectors and linear operators can be expressed as matrices, although they may have infinite dimensions. As a result, many of the concepts related to eigenvectors of matrices carry over to the study of eigenfunctions.
Define the inner product in the function space on which D is defined as
integrated over some range of interest for t called Ω. The * denotes the complex conjugate.
Suppose the function space has an orthonormal basis given by the set of functions {u1(t), u2(t), …, un(t)}, where n may be infinite. For the orthonormal basis,
where δij is the Kronecker delta and can be thought of as the elements of the identity matrix.
Functions can be written as a linear combination of the basis functions,
for example through a Fourier expansion of f(t). The coefficients bj can be stacked into an n by 1 column vector . In some special cases, such as the coefficients of the Fourier series of a sinusoidal function, this column vector has finite dimension.
Additionally, define a matrix representation of the linear operator D with elements
We can write the function Df(t) either as a linear combination of the basis functions or as D acting upon the expansion of f(t),
Taking the inner product of each side of this equation with an arbitrary basis function ui(t),
This is the matrix multiplication Ab = c written in summation notation and is a matrix equivalent of the operator D acting upon the function f(t) expressed in the orthonormal basis. If f(t) is an eigenfunction of D with eigenvalue λ, then Ab = λb.
Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of Hermitian operators
Many of the operators encountered in physics are Hermitian. Suppose the linear operator D acts on a function space that is a Hilbert space with an orthonormal basis given by the set of functions {u1(t), u2(t), …, un(t)}, where n may be infinite. In this basis, the operator D has a matrix representation A with elements
integrated over some range of interest for t denoted Ω.
By analogy with Hermitian matrices, D is a Hermitian operator if Aij = Aji*, or:
Consider the Hermitian operator D with eigenvalues λ1, λ2, … and corresponding eigenfunctions f1(t), f2(t), …. This Hermitian operator has the following properties:
Its eigenvalues are real, λi = λi*
Its eigenfunctions obey an orthogonality condition, if i ≠ j
The second condition always holds for λi ≠ λj. For degenerate eigenfunctions with the same eigenvalue λi, orthogonal eigenfunctions can always be chosen that span the eigenspace associated with λi, for example by using the Gram-Schmidt process. Depending on whether the spectrum is discrete or continuous, the eigenfunctions can be normalized by setting the inner product of the eigenfunctions equal to either a Kronecker delta or a Dirac delta function, respectively.
For many Hermitian operators, notably Sturm-Liouville operators, a third property is
Its eigenfunctions form a basis of the function space on which the operator is defined
As a consequence, in many important cases, the eigenfunctions of the Hermitian operator form an orthonormal basis. In these cases, an arbitrary function can be expressed as a linear combination of the eigenfunctions of the Hermitian operator.
Applications
Vibrating strings
Let denote the transverse displacement of a stressed elastic chord, such as the vibrating strings of a string instrument, as a function of the position along the string and of time . Applying the laws of mechanics to infinitesimal portions of the string, the function satisfies the partial differential equation
which is called the (one-dimensional) wave equation. Here is a constant speed that depends on the tension and mass of the string.
This problem is amenable to the method of separation of variables. If we assume that can be written as the product of the form , we can form a pair of ordinary differential equations:
Each of these is an eigenvalue equation with eigenvalues and , respectively. For any values of and , the equations are satisfied by the functions
where the phase angles and are arbitrary real constants.
If we impose boundary conditions, for example that the ends of the string are fixed at and , namely , and that , we constrain the eigenvalues. For these boundary conditions, and , so the phase angles , and
This last boundary condition constrains to take a value , where is any integer. Thus, the clamped string supports a family of standing waves of the form
In the example of a string instrument, the frequency is the frequency of the -th harmonic, which is called the -th overtone.
Schrödinger equation
In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation
with the Hamiltonian operator
can be solved by separation of variables if the Hamiltonian does not depend explicitly on time. In that case, the wave function leads to the two differential equations,
Both of these differential equations are eigenvalue equations with eigenvalue . As shown in an earlier example, the solution of Equation is the exponential
Equation is the time-independent Schrödinger equation. The eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian operator are stationary states of the quantum mechanical system, each with a corresponding energy . They represent allowable energy states of the system and may be constrained by boundary conditions.
The Hamiltonian operator is an example of a Hermitian operator whose eigenfunctions form an orthonormal basis. When the Hamiltonian does not depend explicitly on time, general solutions of the Schrödinger equation are linear combinations of the stationary states multiplied by the oscillatory , or, for a system with a continuous spectrum,
The success of the Schrödinger equation in explaining the spectral characteristics of hydrogen is considered one of the greatest triumphs of 20th century physics.
Signals and systems
In the study of signals and systems, an eigenfunction of a system is a signal that, when input into the system, produces a response , where is a complex scalar eigenvalue.
See also
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Hilbert–Schmidt theorem
Spectral theory of ordinary differential equations
Fixed point combinator
Fourier transform eigenfunctions
Notes
Citations
Works cited
(Volume 2: )
External links
More images (non-GPL) at Atom in a Box
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|
228606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keele%20University | Keele University | Keele University, officially known as the University of Keele, is a public research university in Keele, approximately from Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire, England. Keele was granted university status by Royal Charter in 1962 and was founded in 1949 as the University College of North Staffordshire.
Keele occupies a rural campus close to the village of Keele and consists of extensive woods, lakes and Keele Hall set in Staffordshire Potteries. It has a science park and a conference centre, making it the largest campus university in the UK. The university's School of Medicine operates the clinical part of its courses from a separate campus at the Royal Stoke University Hospital. The School of Nursing and Midwifery is based at the nearby Clinical Education Centre.
History
Establishment
Cambridge and Oxford Extension Lectures had been arranged in the Potteries since the 1890s, but outside any organised educational framework or establishment. In 1904, funds were raised by local industrialists to support teaching by the creation of a North Staffordshire College, but the project, without the backing of Staffordshire County Council, was abandoned.
By the late 1930s the Staffordshire towns of Longton, Fenton, Burslem, Hanley had grown into the largest conurbation without some form of university provision. A large area including Staffordshire, Shropshire and parts of Cheshire and Derbyshire did not have its own university. Stoke, in particular, demanded highly qualified graduates for the regional pottery and mining industries and also additional social workers, teachers and administrators. A. D. Lindsay, Professor of Philosophy and Master of Balliol College, Oxford, was a strong advocate of working-class adult education, and suggested a "people's university" in an address to the North Staffordshire Workers' Educational Association in 1925.
Curricular philosophy
Recently appointed to the House of Lords, Lindsay participated in producing the influential Foreign Office report University Reform in Germany, which argued that no institution deserved the name of "university" unless it combined teaching and research. Consistent with his democratic ideals of education, Lindsay also warned of the dangers of training the specialist intellect in the natural sciences and the need to introduce elements of social sciences at university level by broadening the academic agenda. Lindsay believed technological excesses sponsored by the state without a review of the social and political consequences had been a major contributor to Germany's downfall. This was to heavily influence Keele's curriculum. On 13 March 1946, Lindsay wrote to Sir Walter Moberly, chair of the University Grants Committee (UGC), suggesting the creation of a college "on new lines". The committee wanted a university for the 20th century that could overcome the division between arts and sciences, and what Moberly was calling the "evil of departmentalism". The UGC argued that "The tasks of the modern citizen and the study of modern society should be central to the curriculum." North Staffordshire was seen as an ideal site since it "presented many typical problems thrown up by modern industrial conglomerations, such as those posed by technical innovation in the pottery and mining industries." The college could become a "social laboratory" for industries and the local communities they catered for.
Normal practice was for new colleges (such as Southampton, Exeter and Nottingham) to be launched without degree-awarding powers. Students would instead matriculate with and take external degrees from the University of London. Lindsay wanted to "get rid of the London external degree" and instead found a college with degree-awarding authority, as well as the power to set its own syllabus, perhaps acting under the sponsorship of an established university. This would allow the college to start afresh in the setting of its curriculum. Lindsay wrote to the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford, tentatively requesting such sponsorship.
An exploratory committee was established by Stoke-on-Trent City Council, and, having secured public funding from the UGC in January 1948, the committee acquired Keele Hall on the outskirts of Newcastle-under-Lyme from its owner, Ralph Sneyd. The Hall was purchased together with the bulk of the Sneyd estate and a number of prefabricated structures erected by the Army during the Second World War for £31,000.
In August 1949 the university college was granted the right to award its own degrees. The first graduate was George Eason, who had studied mathematics at Birmingham University and gained a BSc in 1951. He received his MSc in 1952 from Keele. In 1954 the first graduate studying fully at Keele was Margaret Boulds, who received a dual honours degree in philosophy and English.
Receiving university status
Growing steadily to 1,200 students, the university college was granted university status in 1962, receiving a new royal charter in January that year, and adopting the name "University of Keele". Alternatives were considered, including "The University of Stoke" or "Stoke-on-Trent", but both were rejected because the estate is situated in the borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. "Staffordshire University" was also discussed (this is now the name of the former North Staffordshire Polytechnic).
The university is a short distance west of the civil parish of Keele, and it was decided to name it after the village. It is the only establishment of higher education in the UK to be named after a village, and this has long attracted questions as to its location. Together with Reading, Nottingham, Southampton, Hull, Exeter and Leicester, all university colleges founded a short time before or after the First World War, Keele was identified as one of the "younger civic universities" by the Robbins Report.
In 1968 the Royal Commission on Medical Education (1965–68) issued the Todd Report, which examined the possibility of a medical school being established at Keele. It was considered that North Staffordshire would be a good site, having a large local population and several hospitals. However, a minimum intake of 150 students each year would be necessary to make a medical school economically and educationally viable, and the university was at that time too small to support a medical school of this size.
Keele's International Relations Department was founded in 1974 by Alan James and was one of the first institutions to offer a full degree in the subject. The Keele World Affairs Group, closely associated, followed suit in 1980. Keele's first female professor was appointed to the Chair of Social Work in 1976. In 1978, Keele Department of Postgraduate Medicine was created, although it did not cater for undergraduate medical students.
Government funding cuts
In late 1985, after a series of cuts in university funding, Keele briefly considered merging with North Staffordshire Polytechnic, but negotiations collapsed. In September 1983, the Secretary of State, via the UGC, had encouraged the idea, asserting that the most radical way of increasing the size of departments and diminishing their number is by the merger of institutions. At the time, Keele had a population of 2,700 students, compared to 6,000 at the less academically exclusive Polytechnic. Edwina Currie, then Conservative MP for South Derbyshire, remarked, "A university which is now below 3,000 students has got problems. It simply isn't big enough". Keele University Science & Business Park Ltd (KUSP Ltd) opened in 1987, partly to generate and diversify alternative sources of income.
In 1994, the Oswestry and North Staffordshire School of Physiotherapy (ONSSP), which had been a separate institution based at the Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital in Oswestry, Shropshire, merged with Keele University, becoming Keele's Department of Physiotherapy Studies (now School of Health & Rehabilitation). It moved to the Keele University campus. In August 1995, Keele University merged with North Staffordshire College of Nursing and Midwifery, forming the new School of Nursing and Midwifery.
In 1998 and 1999 there was some controversy when the university decided to sell the Turner Collection, a valuable collection of printed mathematical books, including some which had belonged to and had been heavily annotated by Isaac Newton, in order to fund major improvements to the university library. Senior university officials authorised the sale of the collection to a private buyer, with no guarantee that it would remain intact or within the UK. Although the sale was legal, it was unpopular among the academic community, and the controversy was fuelled by prolonged negative press coverage suggesting that the £1m sale price was too low and that the collection was certain to be broken up.
21st Century Developments
New Schools of Medicine, Pharmacy, Nursing and Midwifery
Sir David Weatherall was named as Chancellor in 2000. In 2001, Keele was awarded an undergraduate medical school in partnership with Manchester University. Initially, some students from Manchester Medical School began being taught at Keele. Finally Keele's own medical school opened in 2007 with the first of cohort of students graduating in 2012. In 2009, the university was awarded a Queen's Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education, for 'pioneering work with the NHS in early intervention and primary care in the treatment of chronic pain and arthritis, linking research to delivery to patients through GP networks and user groups'. In 2006 the School of Pharmacy was created with the launch of MPharm degree programmes.
In early 2001, to cut costs, the faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences merged. Due to declining popularity and funding, the German department closed in December 2004 with the university retaining its physics degree despite the subject facing similar pressures. Although degrees ceased to be offered in modern languages, a Language Learning Unit was created to provide Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Russian and Spanish teaching for Keele students and staff. This can lead to an enhanced degree title given sufficient electives taken.
The foundation year was eliminated in 1998 but re-introduced in 2012 with new programmes of study, the international foundation year and the accelerated international foundation year which add to the existing offer, as well as the humanities, science, social science, health, general foundation years and foundation year for people who are visually impaired.
Environmental agenda and energy projects
Starting in 2012, Keele has placed environmental sustainability at the heart of its strategy. In 2016, Keele was finalist in the Green Gowns Awards for its "significant reduction in carbon emissions and to a dedicated programme of carbon reduction projects supported by an excellent energy management system". In the People & Planet Green League 2015 assessments for environmental and ethical performance, Keele ranked 48 of 151 educational establishments. The creation of a SMART energy centre due for completion in 2021 will allow the campus to become energy self-sufficient via waste recycling and alternative energy sources.
Business School relocation and STEM expansion
In 2017, Keele School of Management (KMS), which was at the time housed in the Darwin Building, decided to expand its offering at undergraduate level with new single honours programmes. The new science park Mercia Centre for Innovation and Leadership (MCIL) initiative, due for completion in 2019 serve as a relocation for the school. KMS also elected to work more closely with regional business actors e.g. Michelin Tyre PLC in Stoke-on-Trent by offering first year students the opportunity to work on live projects. Additionally, Keele has embarked on a major expansion of STEM subjects with a £45m investment.
Veterinary School with Harper Adams University
The university is in advanced discussions with Shropshire's Harper Adams University for the creation of a joint Veterinary School on-campus with its first student intake expected in 2019. The development will comprise a veterinary hospital, a clinical skills centre, and the Keele campus-based Veterinary School hub facilities. Developed by CVS on the Keele University Science and Innovation Park, the facilities will be ready for the first student intake in autumn 2020.
Symbols
Heraldry
The heraldic grant of arms features the scythe of the Sneyd family, who owned the Keele park estate from 1540 to 1949, and includes the Sneyd family's motto "Thanke God for All". The shield features the colours red and yellow to represent the County of Staffordshire as well as the Staffordshire chevron. The Stafford knot for Stafford, the Fleur-de-Lys for Burton upon Trent and the Fret depict the historical association with the industry of Stoke-on-Trent. An open book joins Rodin's Le Penseur, which is represented amid a wreath of laurel vert. Variations on this have appeared in various corporate logos and shield but this remains the formal grant of arms in official documents.
Corporate Logo
Prior to 1986, the university shield was principally utilized on marketing (e.g.university prospectus) and communications material (corporate letterheads etc.). With the opening of the Science park, brand identity evolved with a new, modern corporate wordmarque featuring 'Congress' and 'Proteus' typefaces. In 1995, the corporate logo changed again with an intertwined ribbon motif representing the overlapping of educational disciplines. In 2011, the university shield returned relying heavily on the armorial bearings but with a modern twist for the digital age.
Academic dress
The academic gowns reflect the colours of the County of Staffordshire and emphasise red and yellow. Higher Doctorates utilise purple, whilst the College of Fellows uses red and gold.
Campus
Setting
Located in North Staffordshire, Keele's campus is rural with many 19th-century architectural features such as Keele Hall predating the concrete and red-brick buildings of the modern university. The campus occupies a 625-acre (250 ha) rural campus close to the village of Keele and consists of extensive woods, lakes and Keele Hall set in Staffordshire Potteries. The estate was originally given by King Henry II of England to the Knights Templars in 1180. When the Templars were condemned and dissolved by the Council of Vienne in 1311, their possessions were annexed by the Knights Hospitallers until their dissolution by Henry VIII. The estate was purchased from the Crown by the Sneyd family and remained their property until acquisition by the Stoke-on-Trent Corporation in 1948. Apart from increasing numbers of academic and residential buildings, other facilities include an astronomical observatory, arts and cultural programme, arboretum, Islamic centre, shops, cafés and places to eat and drink. The campus has science, business enterprise parks and conference centres. It is home to the Earth Science Education Unit (ESEU). The chapel is located in the centre of the campus, close to the university library and student union. From the onset, Christian worship was central to University life. Lindsay, first principal of the University College, was an ardent Christian preaching every Sunday in the Library Reading room of Keele Hall. A permanent structure was required and the chapel was built in 1965. Built from Staffordshire blue brick, the chapel accommodates different Christian traditions.
Halls of residence
There are five halls of residence on the main campus: Horwood, Lindsay, Barnes, Holly Cross and The Oaks. (Hawthorns Hall was located off site in Keele village just outside the main entrance. However, the site has been sold for redevelopment, and the halls demolished.) These halls provide accommodation for 70% of all full-time students. Three of the oldest halls, Horwood (1957), Lindsay (1964) and Barnes (1970) are named after the founding fathers of the university. The Oaks (1992), west of Lindsay Hall, is named after four oak trees that were felled to pave the way for the university residence and Holly Cross (1993). The Hawthorns (1957), remnants of the Sneyd property in Keele Village, was originally a large house, two paddocks and gardens totalling 13 acres.
Planned developments
Following student demand for accommodation on-campus, in 2018, Barnes hall of residence will be re-developed with new residential units added to cater for an additional 453 bedrooms, funded from the proceeds of the sale of the Hawthorns.
Science Park
The university operates a Science Park under a wholly owned subsidiary company, Keele University Science & Business Park Limited.
Library
When the university was founded in 1948, the Librarian's office was located above a public house in Stoke, near the Town Hall. In 1952, the old Sneyd Library was used with 20,000 items which increased to 70,000 by 1954. By 1955, 155,000 volumes were accounted for and necessitating 12 full-time staff. Later, the Senate Room in Keele Hall was used to house the material. Construction of the new library campus began in 1961 with additional expansion completed in 1966. By the early 1970s, the library was able to accommodate 750 readers and 600,000 books.
Material acquisition
The university purchased the collection of deceased Belgian Professor Charles Saroléa, consisting of between 150,000 and 300,000 items. A viewing was organized and an agreement reached with the trustees to the acquisition of 120,000 books at a cost of £1348. However, the books were stocked in Edinburgh and removing the items without delay was one of the conditions of the agreement. A price per ton was fixed and the books arrived, first in a Methodist church school where each item was sorted and cataloged. The books were transferred to the new campus building in 1961.
Later developments
The library catalogue and circulation system was automated in 1990. In 1993, the Computer Centre merged with the library, renamed Keele Information Services (KIS). The library allowed for new PC labs and an IT Helpdesk to assist students. With further modernisation in 2006, a self-service digitised counter was opened and refurbishment of different library wings. In 2005, following students' requests, a group study area was incorporated in the Short-Loan library. The library is now opened 24/7 during each semester.
Health Library
Since the founding of the Keele University School of Medicine, a Health Library is available to both Keele students and National Health Service (NHS) staff at the Royal Stoke University Hospital. An IT suite complements the material with 60 workstations.
Organisation and administration
Liberal arts college ethos
The university's curriculum required every student to study two principal subjects to honours level, as well as further subsidiary subjects, with an additional requirement that students should study at least one subject from each of the subject groupings of Arts, Sciences and Social Sciences. The cross-disciplinary requirement was reinforced by the Foundation Year, an innovation which meant that for the first year of the four-year programmes, all students would study a common course of interdisciplinary "foundation studies". This key particularity of the Keele curriculum led Michael Brawne to remark in 1966 that the university was "the nearest thing in Britain to the small liberal arts college in the US".
Standard three-year degrees were introduced in 1973 and the numbers of students following the Foundation Year course have steadily dwindled since. The Foundation Year has never been formally discontinued, however, and remains an option for prospective students who qualify for entry into higher education, but lack subject-specific qualifications for specific degree programmes. By contrast, almost 90 per cent of current undergraduates read dual honours. Able to combine any two available subjects, students have a choice of over 500 degree courses in all. The university also offers a study abroad semester to most of its students.
As an experimental community, Keele was initially founded as a "wholly residential" institution. Of the initial intake of 159 students in October 1950, 149 were resident on campus, and it was required of the first professors appointed that they should also be in residence. With the expansion of the university, total residency has long since been abandoned, but the proportion of full-time students resident on campus remains above average at 62% in 2011.
Faculties, departments and schools
Keele's academic activities are organised into the following 3 faculties and schools:
All Keele's courses, with the exception of Medicine and Pharmacy, are modular, with the academic year divided into two semesters, with breaks at Christmas and Easter. There are approximately 14 students to every member of staff.
Governance
The statutes of the university are laid out in its Royal Charter granted in 1962. These describe the organisational structure and powers that allow the university to function and govern its affairs. The Chancellor is appointed by an elected council every 5 years or until resignation and supplemented by a Pro-Chancellor and Deputy Pro-Chancellors. The Vice-Chancellor, also appointed by the council, requires approval from the senate and is the principal academic and administrative officer of the university. All are officers of the university.
University partnerships & overseas exchange programmes
The university operates several collaborative arrangements with educational establishments in the UK and abroad. In 2016, in the UK and regionally, Keele held joint contracts/awards with Liverpool University (Marie Curie Palliative Care Institution), University of Salford and Staffordshire University. Keele also has multiple franchise agreements, represented in South East Asia with SEGo College, KDU University College and the Sri Lankan Institute of Information Technology. Early overseas exchange programmes in the 1950s debuted in the US with Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania and Reed College, Oregon whilst, in continental Europe, with Université de Nancy. Today, Keele has exchange agreements with over 80 academic institutions worldwide.
Finance
According to the university's Statement of Accounts for 2015/16, total income for the year ending 31 July 2016 was just over £148.5 million with a total expenditure of £140.5 million. This amounted to a consolidated surplus of £8 million and a slight increase of £3.6 million on a yearly basis. For 2015/16, income was primarily derived from academic fees raking £71.3 million with home and European Union students the largest group accounting for £50.3 million followed by international students with £13.6 million. Tuition fees and education contracts account for 48% of total income received before donations and endowments. The university has continued to invest in capital projects with the refurbishments of the Walter Moberley and Huxley buildings, an upgrade to the Sports Centre facilities and a new HR/payroll system.
Keele College of Fellows
In 2011, Keele established a college of fellows to promote the activities of the university outside the traditional realm of academia. Current members includes alumni who have demarcated themselves in the field of industry, media and/or public service as well as key stakeholders from in and around Staffordshire.
Academic profile and reputation
Keele has a graduation rate of over 90%, with 68.4% achieving 1sts or 2:1s. 90% of undergraduates are state-educated, and over 25% of students are from working-class backgrounds. In recent years Keele has attempted to boost this number by reaching out to local schools and hosting a summer school. In February 2011, a Sutton Trust report revealed that 3·4% of students had received free school meals, whilst 7·9% had attended independent schools. This compares the national figures for England of 14% eligible for free school meals, and 7% independently educated.
Admissions
New students entering Keele in 2016 had an average of 128 UCAS points or ABB at A'Level. Typically three-year degree courses ask for A'Level grades (or equivalent) of between AAB and BBC with the exception of Medicine. Keele has made it a priority to attract applicants with ABB grades and above at A'Level. The university also aspires to enter the top 30 across league tables by 2020. In May 2012 Keele was listed by the Times Higher Education (THE) magazine as among the world's top 100 new (50 years old or less) universities. In September 2016, Keele was awarded 'University of the Year for Student Experience' (The Times and The Sunday Times annual University of the Year awards, 2017).
UCAS clearing
Keele has traditionally participated in the UCAS clearing process and it has become customary for the university to lower its requirements to fill outstanding places. In September 2018, the university reduced its academic demands to 72 UCAS points or higher equivalent to 2 A'Levels at grades B and C in dual and single honours degree programmes with vacancies remaining.
Teaching
According to the National Student Survey (NSS) and excluding private or specialist institutions, the university ranked first for Student Satisfaction in 2014, 2015 and 2016 (jointly with St Andrews University) amongst broad-based educational establishments. The NSS is aimed at final year undergraduates, gathering opinions about their experience of their courses and the institution. It is conducted independently and a key quality indicator of higher education in the UK. In 2015, disciplines that scored highest included Education, Geology, Medicine, Pharmacy, Nursing, Physiotherapy, Biochemistry, English and Mathematics. In June 2017, Keele was awarded Gold in the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) which measures excellence in three areas: teaching quality, the learning environment and the educational and professional outcomes achieved by students.
Research
Keele submitted 60% of its staff to the 2014 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) and ranked 57 of 128 institutions by grade point average (GPA) The university scored particularly well in public health, health services and primary care. Medical research includes detecting Parkinson's disease early, and using stem cell research to aid the healing process. The cochlear implant was developed in the Department of Communication and Neuroscience at Keele. Other notable medical pursuits includes attempts to explain the evolution of the human brain, looking into links between cannabis and mental illness (cited in the 2009 reclassification debate), as well as tumour and cancer research. In August 2009, university astronomers, led by David Anderson, discovered the first planet that orbits in the opposite direction to the spin of its star. The planet was named WASP-17b. In 2010 Richard Stephens, John Atkins, and Andrew Kingston won the Ig Nobel prize for confirming the widely held belief that swearing relieves pain. In 2010 a medical centre in Newport, Shropshire was completed, for students to learn in real medical situations and to research medical sciences.
Student life
Students' Union
Keele University Students' Union organises social activities throughout the year. The principal Students' Union building was designed by Stillman & Eastwick-Field (now part of the T. P. Bennett practice), with some guidance from the university's architect, J. A. Pickavance. It opened in 1962 and was completed in 1963, extended in the 1970s and the ground-floor interior remodelled in 2011–2012. Its magazine, Concourse, was founded in 1964 and is issued monthly during term time. It is editorially independent of both the university and the students' union.
Student activity
The Keele team won the 1968 series of University Challenge. The same team also made runner up to Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (1979) in the 2002 special University Challenge: Reunited.
Student radio
There is a student radio station called KUBE Radio (Keele University Broadcasting Enterprises) with broadcast over the Internet.
Student sports
Keele sports range from rugby to lacrosse and dodgeball. Sports teams and issues raised are managed by the Athletic Union. The centre has two national standard sports halls, a single court gymnasium, a fitness centre, dance studio and climbing wall. Outside there is an all weather floodlit AstroTurf pitch, tennis courts and extensive playing fields. It is also the first university centre in the UK to offer a full "Kinesis" gym facility.
Keele University Sports Centre hosts the matches of Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club, providing around 110 tiered seats with the perfect view of some of the best matches in English Volleyball. In 2012, Keele University took part in the first official inter-university Muggle Quidditch match, winning and thus becoming the top ranked team in the country. The sport has since expanded and Keele has remained one of the forerunners, finishing in second place at the British Quidditch Cup in November 2013. The university also hosted eight teams for the Northern Cup in March 2014.
Varsity
Keele University's Athletic Union plays an annual multi-sports series against the neighbouring Staffordshire University. The event was founded as a charity football match in 2001. Since 2007, Keele University's Athletic Union has played an annual multi-sports varsity series against local rivals Staffordshire University. The varsity match occurs at both universities sports facilities, alternating between the venues each year. Sports included in the contest include football, cricket, rugby, badminton, lacrosse, swimming, volleyball, netball, hockey, fencing, tennis, basketball and frisbee. Team Keele and Team Staffs went head to head across a record 23 sports in 2017. Keele has won the varsity trophy in 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 & 2019. Staffordshire University won in 2007 and 2009.
Notable people
In popular culture
Keele University featured prominently in Marvellous, the biographical film about honorary graduate Neil Baldwin broadcast on BBC Two in September 2014. The BBC filmed parts of its surreal comedy A Very Peculiar Practice (1986–1988) at the Keele University campus and students played extra parts.
References
Bibliography
Whyte, William (16 March 2015), Redbrick: A Social and Architectural History of Britain's Civic Universities. Oxford University Press.
External links
Keele University
Keele University Science and Business Park
Keele University Students Union
1949 establishments in England
Educational institutions established in 1949
Keele University
Universities UK
Student radio in the United Kingdom | [
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|
228610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Hall | George Hall | George Hall may refer to:
People
The arts
George Hall (actor) (1916–2002), Canadian-American actor
George Hall (musician) (c. 1893 – c. 1989), American bandleader
George Hall (cartoonist) (born 1960), Australian comic book writer and artist
George Lothian Hall (1825–1888), watercolour artist
George Henry Hall (artist) (1825–1913), American still-life and landscape artist
Military and politics
George Hall (Australian politician) (1811–1867), South Australian MLC and businessman
George Hall (British administrator), private secretary in South Australia then governor of Parkhurst Prison
George Hall (New York politician) (1770–1840), US congressman
George Hall, 1st Viscount Hall (1881–1965), First Lord of the Admiralty of the UK
George Barker Hall (1819–1858), lawyer, judge and political figure in Canada West
George Benson Hall (1780–1821), naval officer and Upper Canada politician
George J. Hall (1921–1946), American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
Sir George King-Hall (1850–1939), Royal Navy admiral and last commander of the Australia Squadron
George R. Hall, businessman and former Federal Energy Regulatory Commission commissioner
George W. Hall, American mayor of Seattle in the 1890s
George Williamson Hall (1818–1896), Member of Parliament in Christchurch, New Zealand
George Hall (Brooklyn) (1795–1868), American mayor of Brooklyn
George Joseph Hall (1857–1924), member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
Religion
George Hall (bishop of Chester) (1613–1668), English Anglican bishop
George Hall (bishop of Dromore) (1753–1811), Irish Church of Ireland bishop
Sportspeople
George Hall (American football) (born 1984), American football player
George Hall (baseball) (1849–1923), British-American baseball player
George Hall (Australian footballer) (1880–1954), Australian rules footballer
George Hall (English footballer) (1912–1989), English footballer
George Hall (footballer, born 2004) English footballer
George William Hall, the birth name of Willie Hall (English footballer) (1912–1967), English footballer
Other
Geo. Hall (1818–1881), manufacturer of soft drinks in South Australia
George G. Hall (born 1925), English mathematician and quantum chemist
George William Hall (1770–1843), Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University
Places
George Hall, the residence of darts pundit Bobby George
George Hall (Mississippi State University), named for James Z. George
Georgievsky Hall or St. George Hall, Grand Kremlin Palace, Moscow
Hall, George
Architectural disambiguation pages | [
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228613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfish | Starfish | Starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea (). Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied to ophiuroids, which are correctly referred to as brittle stars or basket stars. Starfish are also known as asteroids due to being in the class Asteroidea. About 1,900 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the world's oceans, from warm, tropical zones to frigid, polar regions. They are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths, at below the surface.
Starfish are marine invertebrates. They typically have a central disc and usually five arms, though some species have a larger number of arms. The aboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, and is covered with overlapping plates. Many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tube feet operated by a hydraulic system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunistic feeders and are mostly predators on benthic invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and suspension feeding. They have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defense. The Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish, such as the ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus) and the reef sea star (Stichaster australis), have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology. The tropical crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is a voracious predator of coral throughout the Indo-Pacific region, and the northern Pacific sea star is considered to be one of the world's 100 worst invasive species.
The fossil record for starfish is ancient, dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago, but it is rather sparse, as starfish tend to disintegrate after death. Only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved, making remains hard to locate. With their appealing symmetrical shape, starfish have played a part in literature, legend, design and popular culture. They are sometimes collected as curios, used in design or as logos, and in some cultures, despite possible toxicity, they are eaten.
Anatomy
Most starfish have five arms that radiate from a central disc, but the number varies with the group. Some species have six or seven arms and others have 10–15 arms. The Antarctic Labidiaster annulatus can have over fifty.
Body wall
The body wall consists of a thin cuticle, an epidermis consisting of a single layer of cells, a thick dermis formed of connective tissue and a thin coelomic myoepithelial layer, which provides the longitudinal and circular musculature. The dermis contains an endoskeleton of calcium carbonate components known as ossicles. These are honeycombed structures composed of calcite microcrystals arranged in a lattice. They vary in form, with some bearing external granules, tubercles and spines, but most are tabular plates that fit neatly together in a tessellated manner and form the main covering of the aboral surface. Some are specialised structures such as the madreporite (the entrance to the water vascular system), pedicellariae and paxillae. Pedicellariae are compound ossicles with forceps-like jaws. They remove debris from the body surface and wave around on flexible stalks in response to physical or chemical stimuli while continually making biting movements. They often form clusters surrounding spines. Paxillae are umbrella-like structures found on starfish that live buried in sediment. The edges of adjacent paxillae meet to form a false cuticle with a water cavity beneath in which the madreporite and delicate gill structures are protected. All the ossicles, including those projecting externally, are covered by the epidermal layer.
Several groups of starfish, including Valvatida and Forcipulatida, possess pedicellariae. In Forcipulatida, such as Asterias and Pisaster, they occur in pompom-like tufts at the base of each spine, whereas in the Goniasteridae, such as Hippasteria phrygiana, the pedicellariae are scattered over the body surface. Some are thought to assist in defence, while others aid in feeding or in the removal of organisms attempting to settle on the starfish's surface. Some species like Labidiaster annulatus, Rathbunaster californicus and Novodinia antillensis use their large pedicellariae to capture small fish and crustaceans.
There may also be papulae, thin-walled protrusions of the body cavity that reach through the body wall and extend into the surrounding water. These serve a respiratory function. The structures are supported by collagen fibres set at right angles to each other and arranged in a three-dimensional web with the ossicles and papulae in the interstices. This arrangement enables both easy flexion of the arms by the starfish and the rapid onset of stiffness and rigidity required for actions performed under stress.
Water vascular system
The water vascular system of the starfish is a hydraulic system made up of a network of fluid-filled canals and is concerned with locomotion, adhesion, food manipulation and gas exchange. Water enters the system through the madreporite, a porous, often conspicuous, sieve-like ossicle on the aboral surface. It is linked through a stone canal, often lined with calcareous material, to a ring canal around the mouth opening. A set of radial canals leads off this; one radial canal runs along the ambulacral groove in each arm. There are short lateral canals branching off alternately to either side of the radial canal, each ending in an ampulla. These bulb-shaped organs are joined to tube feet (podia) on the exterior of the animal by short linking canals that pass through ossicles in the ambulacral groove. There are usually two rows of tube feet but in some species, the lateral canals are alternately long and short and there appear to be four rows. The interior of the whole canal system is lined with cilia.
When longitudinal muscles in the ampullae contract, valves in the lateral canals close and water is forced into the tube feet. These extend to contact the substrate. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving which gives maximum exposure of the sensory tube feet and the eyespot to external stimuli.
Having descended from bilateral organisms, starfish may move in a bilateral fashion, particularly when hunting or in danger. When crawling, certain arms act as the leading arms, while others trail behind. Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the leather star (Dermasterias imbricata), which can manage just in a minute. Some burrowing species from the genera Astropecten and Luidia have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, "gliding" across the ocean floor. The sand star (Luidia foliolata) can travel at a speed of per minute. When a starfish finds itself upside down, two adjacent arms are bent backwards to provide support, the opposite arm is used to stamp the ground while the two remaining arms are raised on either side; finally the stamping arm is released as the starfish turns itself over and recovers its normal stance.
Apart from their function in locomotion, the tube feet act as accessory gills. The water vascular system serves to transport oxygen from, and carbon dioxide to, the tube feet and also nutrients from the gut to the muscles involved in locomotion. Fluid movement is bidirectional and initiated by cilia. Gas exchange also takes place through other gills known as papulae, which are thin-walled bulges on the aboral surface of the disc and arms. Oxygen is transferred from these to the coelomic fluid, which acts as the transport medium for gasses. Oxygen dissolved in the water is distributed through the body mainly by the fluid in the main body cavity; the circulatory system may also play a minor role.
Digestive system and excretion
The gut of a starfish occupies most of the disc and extends into the arms. The mouth is located in the centre of the oral surface, where it is surrounded by a tough peristomial membrane and closed with a sphincter. The mouth opens through a short oesophagus into a stomach divided by a constriction into a larger, eversible cardiac portion and a smaller pyloric portion. The cardiac stomach is glandular and pouched, and is supported by ligaments attached to ossicles in the arms so it can be pulled back into position after it has been everted. The pyloric stomach has two extensions into each arm: the pyloric caeca. These are elongated, branched hollow tubes that are lined by a series of glands, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients from the food. A short intestine and rectum run from the pyloric stomach to open at a small anus at the apex of the aboral surface of the disc.
Primitive starfish, such as Astropecten and Luidia, swallow their prey whole, and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs. Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption ensues. In more advanced species of starfish, the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism's body to engulf and digest food. When the prey is a clam or other bivalve, the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly, and inserts a small section of its stomach, which releases enzymes to digest the prey. The stomach and the partially digested prey are later retracted into the disc. Here the food is passed on to the pyloric stomach, which always remains inside the disc. The retraction and contraction of the cardiac stomach is activated by a neuropeptide known as NGFFYamide.
Because of this ability to digest food outside the body, starfish can hunt prey much larger than their mouths. Their diets include clams and oysters, arthropods, small fish and gastropod molluscs. Some starfish are not pure carnivores, supplementing their diets with algae or organic detritus. Some of these species are grazers, but others trap food particles from the water in sticky mucus strands that are swept towards the mouth along ciliated grooves.
The main nitrogenous waste product is ammonia. Starfish have no distinct excretory organs; waste ammonia is removed by diffusion through the tube feet and papulae. The body fluid contains phagocytic cells called coelomocytes, which are also found within the hemal and water vascular systems. These cells engulf waste material, and eventually migrate to the tips of the papulae, where a portion of body wall is nipped off and ejected into the surrounding water. Some waste may also be excreted by the pyloric glands and voided with the faeces.
Starfish do not appear to have any mechanisms for osmoregulation, and keep their body fluids at the same salt concentration as the surrounding water. Although some species can tolerate relatively low salinity, the lack of an osmoregulation system probably explains why starfish are not found in fresh water or even in many estuarine environments.
Sensory and nervous systems
Although starfish do not have many well-defined sense organs, they are sensitive to touch, light, temperature, orientation and the status of the water around them. The tube feet, spines and pedicellariae are sensitive to touch. The tube feet, especially those at the tips of the rays, are also sensitive to chemicals, enabling the starfish to detect odour sources such as food. There are eyespots at the ends of the arms, each one made of 80–200 simple ocelli. These are composed of pigmented epithelial cells that respond to light and are covered by a thick, transparent cuticle that both protects the ocelli and acts to focus light. Many starfish also possess individual photoreceptor cells in other parts of their bodies and respond to light even when their eyespots are covered. Whether they advance or retreat depends on the species.
While a starfish lacks a centralized brain, it has a complex nervous system with a nerve ring around the mouth and a radial nerve running along the ambulacral region of each arm parallel to the radial canal. The peripheral nerve system consists of two nerve nets: a sensory system in the epidermis and a motor system in the lining of the coelomic cavity. Neurons passing through the dermis connect the two. The ring nerves and radial nerves have sensory and motor components and coordinate the starfish's balance and directional systems. The sensory component receives input from the sensory organs while the motor nerves control the tube feet and musculature. The starfish does not have the capacity to plan its actions. If one arm detects an attractive odour, it becomes dominant and temporarily over-rides the other arms to initiate movement towards the prey. The mechanism for this is not fully understood.
Circulatory system
The body cavity contains the circulatory or haemal system. The vessels form three rings: one around the mouth (the hyponeural haemal ring), another around the digestive system (the gastric ring) and the third near the aboral surface (the genital ring). The heart beats about six times a minute and is at the apex of a vertical channel (the axial vessel) that connects the three rings. At the base of each arm are paired gonads; a lateral vessel extends from the genital ring past the gonads to the tip of the arm. This vessel has a blind end and there is no continuous circulation of the fluid within it. This liquid does not contain a pigment and has little or no respiratory function but is probably used to transport nutrients around the body.
Secondary metabolites
Starfish produce a large number of secondary metabolites in the form of lipids, including steroidal derivatives of cholesterol, and fatty acid amides of sphingosine. The steroids are mostly saponins, known as asterosaponins, and their sulphated derivatives. They vary between species and are typically formed from up to six sugar molecules (usually glucose and galactose) connected by up to three glycosidic chains. Long-chain fatty acid amides of sphingosine occur frequently and some of them have known pharmacological activity. Various ceramides are also known from starfish and a small number of alkaloids have also been identified. The functions of these chemicals in the starfish have not been fully investigated but most have roles in defence and communication. Some are feeding deterrents used by the starfish to discourage predation. Others are antifoulants and supplement the pedicellariae to prevent other organisms from settling on the starfish's aboral surface. Some are alarm pheromones and escape-eliciting chemicals, the release of which trigger responses in conspecific starfish but often produce escape responses in potential prey. Research into the efficacy of these compounds for possible pharmacological or industrial use occurs worldwide.
Life cycle
Sexual reproduction
Most species of starfish are gonochorous, there being separate male and female individuals. These are usually not distinguishable externally as the gonads cannot be seen, but their sex is apparent when they spawn. Some species are simultaneous hermaphrodites, producing eggs and sperm at the same time and in a few of these, the same gonad, called an ovotestis, produces both eggs and sperm. Other starfish are sequential hermaphrodites. Protandrous individuals of species like Asterina gibbosa start life as males before changing sex into females as they grow older. In some species such as Nepanthia belcheri, a large female can split in half and the resulting offspring are males. When these grow large enough they change back into females.
Each starfish arm contains two gonads that release gametes through openings called gonoducts, located on the central disc between the arms. Fertilization is generally external but in a few species, internal fertilization takes place. In most species, the buoyant eggs and sperm are simply released into the water (free spawning) and the resulting embryos and larvae live as part of the plankton. In others, the eggs may be stuck to the undersides of rocks. In certain species of starfish, the females brood their eggs – either by simply enveloping them or by holding them in specialised structures. Brooding may be done in pockets on the starfish's aboral surface, inside the pyloric stomach (Leptasterias tenera) or even in the interior of the gonads themselves. Those starfish that brood their eggs by "sitting" on them usually assume a humped posture with their discs raised off the substrate. Pteraster militaris broods a few of its young and disperses the remaining eggs, that are too numerous to fit into its pouch. In these brooding species, the eggs are relatively large, and supplied with yolk, and they generally develop directly into miniature starfish without an intervening larval stage. The developing young are called lecithotrophic because they obtain their nutrition from the yolk as opposed to "planktotrophic" larvae that feed in the water column. In Parvulastra parvivipara, an intragonadal brooder, the young starfish obtain nutrients by eating other eggs and embryos in the brood pouch. Brooding is especially common in polar and deep-sea species that live in environments unfavourable for larval development and in smaller species that produce just a few eggs.
In the tropics, a plentiful supply of phytoplankton is continuously available for starfish larvae to feed on. Spawning takes place at any time of year, each species having its own characteristic breeding season. In temperate regions, the spring and summer brings an increase in food supplies. The first individual of a species to spawn may release a pheromone that serves to attract other starfish to aggregate and to release their gametes synchronously. In other species, a male and female may come together and form a pair. This behaviour is called pseudocopulation and the male climbs on top, placing his arms between those of the female. When she releases eggs into the water, he is induced to spawn. Starfish may use environmental signals to coordinate the time of spawning (day length to indicate the correct time of the year, dawn or dusk to indicate the correct time of day), and chemical signals to indicate their readiness to breed. In some species, mature females produce chemicals to attract sperm in the sea water.
Larval development
Most starfish embryos hatch at the blastula stage. The original ball of cells develops a lateral pouch, the archenteron. The entrance to this is known as the blastopore and it will later develop into the anus—together with chordates, echinoderms are deuterostomes, meaning the second (deutero) invagination becomes the mouth (stome); members of all other phyla are protostomes, and their first invagination becomes the mouth. Another invagination of the surface will fuse with the tip of the archenteron as the mouth while the interior section will become the gut. At the same time, a band of cilia develops on the exterior. This enlarges and extends around the surface and eventually onto two developing arm-like outgrowths. At this stage the larva is known as a bipinnaria. The cilia are used for locomotion and feeding, their rhythmic beat wafting phytoplankton towards the mouth.
The next stage in development is a brachiolaria larva and involves the growth of three short, additional arms. These are at the anterior end, surround a sucker and have adhesive cells at their tips. Both bipinnaria and brachiolaria larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. When fully developed, the brachiolaria settles on the seabed and attaches itself with a short stalk formed from the ventral arms and sucker. Metamorphosis now takes place with a radical rearrangement of tissues. The left side of the larval body becomes the oral surface of the juvenile and the right side the aboral surface. Part of the gut is retained, but the mouth and anus move to new positions. Some of the body cavities degenerate but others become the water vascular system and the visceral coelom. The starfish is now pentaradially symmetrical. It casts off its stalk and becomes a free-living juvenile starfish about in diameter. Starfish of the order Paxillosida have no brachiolaria stage, with the bipinnaria larvae settling on the seabed and developing directly into juveniles.
Asexual reproduction
Some species of starfish are able to reproduce asexually as adults either by fission of their central discs or by autotomy of one or more of their arms. Which of these processes occurs depends on the genus. Among starfish that are able to regenerate their whole body from a single arm, some can do so even from fragments just long. Single arms that regenerate a whole individual are called comet forms. The division of the starfish, either across its disc or at the base of the arm, is usually accompanied by a weakness in the structure that provides a fracture zone.
The larvae of several species of starfish can reproduce asexually before they reach maturity. They do this by autotomising some parts of their bodies or by budding. When such a larva senses that food is plentiful, it takes the path of asexual reproduction rather than normal development. Though this costs it time and energy and delays maturity, it allows a single larva to give rise to multiple adults when the conditions are appropriate.
Regeneration
Some species of starfish have the ability to regenerate lost arms and can regrow an entire new limb given time. A few can regrow a complete new disc from a single arm, while others need at least part of the central disc to be attached to the detached part. Regrowth can take several months or years, and starfish are vulnerable to infections during the early stages after the loss of an arm. A separated limb lives off stored nutrients until it regrows a disc and mouth and is able to feed again. Other than fragmentation carried out for the purpose of reproduction, the division of the body may happen inadvertently due to part being detached by a predator, or part may be actively shed by the starfish in an escape response. The loss of parts of the body is achieved by the rapid softening of a special type of connective tissue in response to nervous signals. This type of tissue is called catch connective tissue and is found in most echinoderms. An autotomy-promoting factor has been identified which, when injected into another starfish, causes rapid shedding of arms.
Lifespan
The lifespan of a starfish varies considerably between species, generally being longer in larger forms and in those with planktonic larvae. For example, Leptasterias hexactis broods a small number of large-yolked eggs. It has an adult weight of , reaches sexual maturity in two years and lives for about ten years. Pisaster ochraceus releases a large number of eggs into the sea each year and has an adult weight of up to . It reaches maturity in five years and has a maximum recorded lifespan of 34 years.
Ecology
Distribution and habitat
Echinoderms, including starfish, maintain a delicate internal electrolyte balance that is in equilibrium with sea water, making it impossible for them to live in a freshwater habitat. Starfish species inhabit all of the world's oceans. Habitats range from tropical coral reefs, rocky shores, tidal pools, mud, and sand to kelp forests, seagrass meadows and the deep-sea floor down to at least . The greatest diversity of species occurs in coastal areas.
Diet
Most species are generalist predators, eating microalgae, sponges, bivalves, snails and other small animals. The crown-of-thorns starfish consumes coral polyps, while other species are detritivores, feeding on decomposing organic material and faecal matter. A few are suspension feeders, gathering in phytoplankton; Henricia and Echinaster often occur in association with sponges, benefiting from the water current they produce. Various species have been shown to be able to absorb organic nutrients from the surrounding water, and this may form a significant portion of their diet.
The processes of feeding and capture may be aided by special parts; Pisaster brevispinus, the short-spined pisaster from the West Coast of America, can use a set of specialized tube feet to dig itself deep into the soft substrate to extract prey (usually clams). Grasping the shellfish, the starfish slowly pries open the prey's shell by wearing out its adductor muscle, and then inserts its everted stomach into the crack to digest the soft tissues. The gap between the valves need only be a fraction of a millimetre wide for the stomach to gain entry. Cannibalism has been observed in juvenile sea stars as early as four days after metamorphosis.
Ecological impact
Starfish are keystone species in their respective marine communities. Their relatively large sizes, diverse diets and ability to adapt to different environments makes them ecologically important. The term "keystone species" was in fact first used by Robert Paine in 1966 to describe a starfish, Pisaster ochraceus. When studying the low intertidal coasts of Washington state, Paine found that predation by P. ochraceus was a major factor in the diversity of species. Experimental removals of this top predator from a stretch of shoreline resulted in lower species diversity and the eventual domination of Mytilus mussels, which were able to outcompete other organisms for space and resources. Similar results were found in a 1971 study of Stichaster australis on the intertidal coast of the South Island of New Zealand. S. australis was found to have removed most of a batch of transplanted mussels within two or three months of their placement, while in an area from which S. australis had been removed, the mussels increased in number dramatically, overwhelming the area and threatening biodiversity.
The feeding activity of the omnivorous starfish Oreaster reticulatus on sandy and seagrass bottoms in the Virgin Islands appears to regulate the diversity, distribution and abundance of microorganisms. These starfish engulf piles of sediment removing the surface films and algae adhering to the particles. Organisms that dislike this disturbance are replaced by others better able to rapidly recolonise "clean" sediment. In addition, foraging by these migratory starfish creates diverse patches of organic matter, which may play a role in the distribution and abundance of organisms such as fish, crabs and sea urchins that feed on the sediment.
Starfish sometimes have negative effects on ecosystems. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish have caused damage to coral reefs in Northeast Australia and French Polynesia. A study in Polynesia found that coral cover declined drastically with the arrival of migratory starfish in 2006, dropping from 50% to under 5% in three years. This had a cascading effect on the whole benthic community and reef-feeding fish. Asterias amurensis is one of a few echinoderm invasive species. Its larvae likely arrived in Tasmania from central Japan via water discharged from ships in the 1980s. The species has since grown in numbers to the point where they threaten commercially important bivalve populations. As such, they are considered pests, and are on the Invasive Species Specialist Group's list of the world's 100 worst invasive species.
Threats
Starfish may be preyed on by conspecifics, sea anemones, other starfish species, tritons, crabs, fish, gulls and sea otters. Their first lines of defence are the saponins present in their body walls, which have unpleasant flavours. Some starfish such as Astropecten polyacanthus also include powerful toxins such as tetrodotoxin among their chemical armoury, and the slime star can ooze out large quantities of repellent mucus. They also have body armour in the form of hard plates and spines. The crown-of-thorns starfish is particularly unattractive to potential predators, being heavily defended by sharp spines, laced with toxins and sometimes with bright warning colours. Other species protect their vulnerable tube feet and arm tips by lining their ambulacral grooves with spines and heavily plating their extremities.
Several species sometimes suffer from a wasting condition caused by bacteria in the genus Vibrio; however, a more widespread wasting disease, causing mass mortalities among starfish, appears sporadically. A paper published in November 2014 revealed the most likely cause of this disease to be a densovirus the authors named sea star-associated densovirus (SSaDV).
The protozoan Orchitophrya stellarum is known to infect the gonads of starfish and damage tissue. Starfish are vulnerable to high temperatures. Experiments have shown that the feeding and growth rates of P. ochraceus reduce greatly when their body temperatures rise above and that they die when their temperature rises to . This species has a unique ability to absorb seawater to keep itself cool when it is exposed to sunlight by a receding tide. It also appears to rely on its arms to absorb heat, so as to protect the central disc and vital organs like the stomach.
Starfish and other echinoderms are sensitive to marine pollution. The common starfish is considered to be a bioindicator for marine ecosystems. A 2009 study found that P. ochraceus is unlikely to be affected by ocean acidification as severely as other marine animals with calcareous skeletons. In other groups, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution when the pH is lowered. Researchers found that when P. ochraceus were exposed to and 770 ppm carbon dioxide (beyond rises expected in the next century), they were relatively unaffected. Their survival is likely due to the nodular nature of their skeletons, which are able to compensate for a shortage of carbonate by growing more fleshy tissue.
Evolution
Fossil record
Echinoderms first appeared in the fossil record in the Cambrian. The first known asterozoans were the Somasteroidea, which exhibit characteristics of both groups. Starfish are infrequently found as fossils, possibly because their hard skeletal components separate as the animal decays. Despite this, there are a few places where accumulations of complete skeletal structures occur, fossilized in place in Lagerstätten – so-called "starfish beds".
By the late Paleozoic, the crinoids and blastoids were the predominant echinoderms, and some limestones from this period are made almost entirely from fragments from these groups. In the two major extinction events that occurred during the late Devonian and late Permian, the blastoids were wiped out and only a few species of crinoids survived. Many starfish species also became extinct in these events, but afterwards the surviving few species diversified rapidly within about sixty million years during the Early Jurassic and the beginning of the Middle Jurassic. A 2012 study found that speciation in starfish can occur rapidly. During the last 6,000 years, divergence in the larval development of Cryptasterina hystera and Cryptasterina pentagona has taken place, the former adopting internal fertilization and brooding and the latter remaining a broadcast spawner.
Diversity
The scientific name Asteroidea was given to starfish by the French zoologist de Blainville in 1830. It is derived from the Greek aster, ἀστήρ (a star) and the Greek eidos, εἶδος (form, likeness, appearance). The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum Echinodermata. As well as the starfish, the echinoderms include sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle and basket stars, sea cucumbers and crinoids. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry, but during metamorphosis this is replaced with radial symmetry, typically pentameric. Adult echinoderms are characterized by having a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres. Starfish are included in the subphylum Asterozoa, the characteristics of which include a flattened, star-shaped body as adults consisting of a central disc and multiple radiating arms. The subphylum includes the two classes of Asteroidea, the starfish, and Ophiuroidea, the brittle stars and basket stars. Asteroids have broad-based arms with skeletal support provided by calcareous plates in the body wall while ophiuroids have clearly demarcated slender arms strengthened by paired fused ossicles forming jointed "vertebrae".
The starfish are a large and diverse class with over 1,900 living species. There are seven extant orders, Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida and Velatida and two extinct ones, Calliasterellidae and Trichasteropsida. Living asteroids, the Neoasteroidea, are morphologically distinct from their forerunners in the Paleozoic. The taxonomy of the group is relatively stable but there is ongoing debate about the status of the Paxillosida, and the deep-water sea daisies, though clearly Asteroidea and currently included in Velatida, do not fit easily in any accepted lineage. Phylogenetic data suggests that they may be a sister group, the Concentricycloidea, to the Neoasteroidea, or that the Velatida themselves may be a sister group.
Living groups
Brisingida (2 families, 17 genera, 111 species)
Species in this order have a small, inflexible disc and 6–20 long, thin arms, which they use for suspension feeding. They have a single series of marginal plates, a fused ring of disc plates, a reduced number of aboral plates, crossed pedicellariae, and several series of long spines on the arms. They live almost exclusively in deep-sea habitats, although a few live in shallow waters in the Antarctic. In some species, the tube feet have rounded tips and lack suckers.
Forcipulatida (6 families, 63 genera, 269 species)
Species in this order have distinctive pedicellariae, consisting of a short stalk with three skeletal ossicles. They tend to have robust bodies and have tube feet with flat-tipped suckers usually arranged in four rows. The order includes well-known species from temperate regions, including the common starfish of North Atlantic coasts and rock pools, as well as cold-water and abyssal species.
Notomyotida (1 family, 8 genera, 75 species)
These starfish are deep-sea dwelling and have particularly flexible arms. The inner dorso-lateral surfaces of the arms contain characteristic longitudinal muscle bands. In some species, the tube feet lack suckers.
Paxillosida (7 families, 48 genera, 372 species)
This is a primitive order and members do not extrude their stomach when feeding, lack an anus and have no suckers on their tube feet. Papulae are plentiful on their aboral surface and they possess marginal plates and paxillae. They mostly inhabit soft-bottomed areas of sand or mud. There is no brachiolaria stage in their larval development. The comb starfish (Astropecten polyacanthus) is a member of this order.
Spinulosida (1 family, 8 genera, 121 species)
Most species in this order lack pedicellariae and all have a delicate skeletal arrangement with small or no marginal plates on the disc and arms. They have numerous groups of short spines on the aboral surface. This group includes the red starfish Echinaster sepositus.
Valvatida (16 families, 172 genera, 695 species)
Most species in this order have five arms and two rows of tube feet with suckers. There are conspicuous marginal plates on the arms and disc. Some species have paxillae and in some, the main pedicellariae are clamp-like and recessed into the skeletal plates. This group includes the cushion stars, the leather star and the sea daisies.
Velatida (4 families, 16 genera, 138 species)
This order of starfish consists mostly of deep-sea and other cold-water starfish often with a global distribution. The shape is pentagonal or star-shaped with five to fifteen arms. They mostly have poorly developed skeletons with papulae widely distributed on the aboral surface and often spiny pedicellariae. This group includes the slime star.
Extinct groups
Extinct groups within the Asteroidea include:
† Calliasterellidae, with the type genus Calliasterella from the Devonian and Carboniferous
† Palastericus, a Devonian genus
† Trichasteropsida, with the Triassic genus Trichasteropsis (at least 2 species)
Phylogeny
External
Starfish are deuterostome animals, like the chordates. A 2014 analysis of 219 genes from all classes of echinoderms gives the following phylogenetic tree. The times at which the clades diverged is shown under the labels in millions of years ago (mya).
Internal
The phylogeny of the Asteroidea has been difficult to resolve, with visible (morphological) features proving inadequate, and the question of whether traditional taxa are clades in doubt. The phylogeny proposed by Gale in 1987 is:
The phylogeny proposed by Blake in 1987 is:
Later work making use of molecular evidence, with or without the use of morphological evidence, had by 2000 failed to resolve the argument. In 2011, on further molecular evidence, Janies and colleagues noted that the phylogeny of the echinoderms "has proven difficult", and that "the overall phylogeny of extant echinoderms remains sensitive to the choice of analytical methods". They presented a phylogenetic tree for the living Asteroidea only; using the traditional names of starfish orders where possible, and indicating "part of" otherwise, the phylogeny is shown below. The Solasteridae are split from the Velatida, and the old Spinulosida is broken up.
Human relations
In research
Starfish are deuterostomes, closely related, together with all other echinoderms, to chordates, and are used in reproductive and developmental studies. Female starfish produce large numbers of oocytes that are easily isolated; these can be stored in a pre-meiosis phase and stimulated to complete division by the use of 1-methyladenine. Starfish oocytes are well suited for this research as they are large and easy to handle, transparent, simple to maintain in sea water at room temperature, and they develop rapidly. Asterina pectinifera, used as a model organism for this purpose, is resilient and easy to breed and maintain in the laboratory.
Another area of research is the ability of starfish to regenerate lost body parts. The stem cells of adult humans are incapable of much differentiation and understanding the regrowth, repair and cloning processes in starfish may have implications for human medicine.
Starfish also have an unusual ability to expel foreign objects from their bodies, which makes them difficult to tag for research tracking purposes.
In legend and culture
An aboriginal Australian fable retold by the Welsh school headmaster William Jenkyn Thomas (1870–1959) tells how some animals needed a canoe to cross the ocean. Whale had one but refused to lend it, so Starfish kept him busy, telling him stories and grooming him to remove parasites, while the others stole the canoe. When Whale realized the trick he beat Starfish ragged, which is how Starfish still is today.
In 1900, the scholar Edward Tregear documented The Creation Song, which he describes as "an ancient prayer for the dedication of a high chief" of Hawaii. Among the "uncreated gods" described early in the song are the male Kumulipo ("Creation") and the female Poele, both born in the night, a coral insect, the earthworm, and the starfish.
Georg Eberhard Rumpf's 1705 The Ambonese Curiosity Cabinet describes the tropical varieties of Stella Marina or Bintang Laut, "Sea Star", in Latin and Malay respectively, known in the waters around Ambon. He writes that the Histoire des Antilles reports that when the sea stars "see thunder storms approaching, [they] grab hold of many small stones with their little legs, looking to ... hold themselves down as if with anchors".
Starfish is the title of novels by Peter Watts and Jennie Orbell, and in 2012, Alice Addison wrote a non-fiction book titled "Starfish - A year in the life of bereavement and depression". The Starfish and the Spider is a 2006 business management book by Ori Brafman and Rod Beckstrom; its title alludes to the ability of the starfish to regenerate itself because of its decentralized nervous system, and the book suggests ways that a decentralized organisation may flourish.
In the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, the eponymous character's best friend is a dim-witted starfish, Patrick Star.
As food
Starfish are widespread in the oceans, but are only occasionally used as food. There may be good reason for this: the bodies of numerous species are dominated by bony ossicles, and the body wall of many species contains saponins, which have an unpleasant taste, and others contain tetrodotoxins which are poisonous. Some species that prey on bivalve molluscs can transmit paralytic shellfish poisoning. Georg Eberhard Rumpf found few starfish being used for food in the Indonesian archipelago, other than as bait in fish traps, but on the island of "Huamobel" the people cut them up, squeeze out the "black blood" and cook them with sour tamarind leaves; after resting the pieces for a day or two, they remove the outer skin and cook them in coconut milk. Starfish are sometimes eaten in China, Japan and in Micronesia.
As collectables
Starfish are in some cases taken from their habitat and sold to tourists as souvenirs, ornaments, curios or for display in aquariums. In particular, Oreaster reticulatus, with its easily accessed habitat and conspicuous coloration, is widely collected in the Caribbean. In the early to mid 20th century, this species was common along the coasts of the West Indies, but collection and trade have severely reduced its numbers. In the State of Florida, O. reticulatus is listed as endangered and its collection is illegal. Nevertheless, it is still sold throughout its range and beyond. A similar phenomenon exists in the Indo-Pacific for species such as Protoreaster nodosus.
In industry and military history
With its multiple arms, the starfish provides a popular metaphor for computer networks, companies and software tools. It is also the name of a seabed imaging system and company.
Starfish has repeatedly been chosen as a name in military history. Three ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Starfish: an A-class destroyer launched in 1894; an R-class destroyer launched in 1916; and an S-class submarine launched in 1933 and lost in 1940. In the World War II, Starfish sites were large-scale night-time decoys created during The Blitz to simulate burning British cities. Starfish Prime was a high-altitude nuclear test conducted by the United States on 9 July 1962.
References
Bibliography
External links
, a blog about sea stars by a passionate and professional specialist.
Articles containing video clips
Late Ordovician first appearances
Extant Ordovician first appearances
Taxa named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville | [
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228615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Mansell | Nigel Mansell | Nigel Ernest James Mansell, (; born 8 August 1953) is a British former racing driver who won both the Formula One World Championship (1992) and the CART Indy Car World Series (1993). Mansell was the reigning F1 champion when he moved over to CART, becoming the first person to win the CART title in his debut season, and making him the only person to hold both the World Drivers' Championship and the American open-wheel National Championship simultaneously.
His career in Formula One spanned 15 seasons, with his final two full seasons of top-level racing being spent in the CART series. Mansell is the second most successful British Formula One driver of all time in terms of race wins with 31 victories, (behind Lewis Hamilton with wins), and is seventh overall on the Formula One race winners list, behind Hamilton, Michael Schumacher, Sebastian Vettel, Alain Prost, Ayrton Senna and Fernando Alonso. He held the record for the most poles set in a single season, which was broken in by Sebastian Vettel. He was rated in the top 10 Formula One drivers of all time by longtime Formula One commentator Murray Walker. In 2008, ESPN.com ranked him 24th on their "Top 25 Drivers of All Time" list. He was also ranked No. 9 of the 50 greatest F1 drivers of all time by the Times Online on a list that also included such drivers as Prost, Senna, Jackie Stewart and Jim Clark.
Mansell raced in the Grand Prix Masters series in 2005, and won the championship title. He later signed a one-off race deal for the Scuderia Ecosse GT race team to drive their number 63 Ferrari F430 GT2 car at Silverstone on 6 May 2007. He has since competed in additional sports car races with his sons Leo and Greg, including the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, and was inducted to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005.
Early life and career
Nigel Ernest James Mansell was born on 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, the son of Eric, an engineer, and Joyce Mansell. He grew up in Hall Green, Birmingham.
Mansell had a fairly slow start to his racing career, using his own money to help work his way up the ranks. After considerable success in kart racing, he moved to the Formula Ford series to the disapproval of his father. In 1976, Mansell won six of the nine races he took part in, including his debut event at Mallory Park. He entered 42 races the following year and won 33 to become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a qualifying session at Brands Hatch. Doctors told him he had been perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell discharged himself from the hospital and returned to racing. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned from his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford. Later that year he was given the chance to race a Lola T570 Formula 3 car at Silverstone. He finished fourth and decided that he was ready to move into the higher formula.
Mansell raced in Formula Three in 1978–1980. Mansell's first season in Formula Three started with a pole position and a second-place finish. However, the car was not competitive, as a commercial deal with Unipart required his team to use Triumph Dolomite engines that were vastly inferior to the Toyota engines used by the leading teams. After three seventh-place finishes and a fourth in his last race, he parted from the team. The next season saw him drive for David Price Racing. Following a first win in the series at Silverstone in March, he went on to finish eighth in the championship. His racing was consistent, but a collision with Andrea de Cesaris resulted in a huge cartwheeling crash which he was lucky to survive. Again he was hospitalised, this time with broken vertebrae.
His driving was noticed by Colin Chapman, owner of Lotus, and shortly after his accident, hiding the extent of his injury with painkillers, Mansell performed well enough during a tryout at the Paul Ricard circuit with Lotus, where he was pitted against a number of other drivers to determine who was going to take the second seat for the 1980 season alongside Mario Andretti, as Argentinean Carlos Reutemann was leaving to go to Williams. Driving a 79, the seat eventually went to Italian driver Elio de Angelis, but Mansell was selected to become a test driver for the Norfolk-based Formula One team.
Formula One
1980–1984: Lotus
1980 and 1981
Mansell's skill as a test driver, including setting the fastest lap around Silverstone in a Lotus car at the time, impressed Chapman enough to give him a trio of starts in F1 in , driving a development version of the Lotus 81 used by the team, the Lotus 81B. In his Formula One debut at the 1980 Austrian Grand Prix, a fuel leak in the cockpit that developed shortly before the start of the race left him with painful first and second degree burns on his buttocks. An engine failure forced him to retire from that race and his second, however an accident at his third event at Imola meant he failed to qualify. Team leader Mario Andretti wrote his car off in a start-line accident during the Canadian Grand Prix at Montreal, so Mansell had to give up his car for Andretti to compete in for his home race, the final race of the season at Watkins Glen in the United States. Andretti announced he was leaving to move to Alfa Romeo at the end of the season leaving Lotus with a vacant race seat.
Despite Mansell being unpopular with sponsor David Thieme of Essex Petroleum, and much speculation in the press that Jean-Pierre Jarier would fill the vacancy, Chapman announced at the start of the season that the seat would be filled by Mansell.
Mansell's four years as a full-time Lotus driver were a struggle, as the cars were unreliable and he was continually out-performed by teammate Elio de Angelis. Out of 59 race starts with the team, he finished just 24 of them. He managed a best finish of third place, which he achieved five times during the four years, including Lotus's fifth race of the season, and only the seventh of Mansell's Formula One career. Teammate Elio de Angelis took a surprise win at the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix, and was frequently faster than his less-experienced colleague Mansell.
1982
During the season, Mansell planned to race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans sportscar event in order to earn extra money. At the time Mansell was paid £50,000 a year and was offered £10,000 to take part in Le Mans. Chapman believed that by entering the Le Mans race, Mansell was exposing himself to unnecessary risk and paid him £10,000 not to take part in the race. Chapman extended Mansell's contract to the end of the season in a deal that made him a millionaire.
As a result of the gestures, such as described above, Mansell became very close to Chapman, who made him equal number one in the team with de Angelis, and was devastated by Chapman's sudden death in 1982. In his autobiography Mansell stated that when Chapman died, "The bottom dropped out of my world. Part of me died with him. I had lost a member of my family." Following Chapman's death, relationships at Lotus became strained, as replacement team principal Peter Warr did not have a high regard for him as a driver or person. Warr in his book titled Team Lotus – My View From The Pit Wall stated about the 1982 season:
"After carefully analysing the season just finished, it was completely clear who was the number one. It was Elio. He was faster, he had out-qualified Nigel ten times to three. Elio had seven points scoring finishes to Nigel's two and in addition to Elio's win in Austria, had a tally of more than three times the number of points gained by Nigel. What is more, the margin by which Elio eclipsed his team-mate in qualifying overall was a huge 4.5 per cent. And all this in the year when, as near as can be reasonably achieved, the two drivers were given equal equipment and treatment."
1983
De Angelis was then promoted back to outright number one for the 1983 season. This was demonstrated by the fact that he had exclusive use of the quick but unreliable Renault turbo-charged 93T for the whole season, and Mansell did not get to drive a turbocharged car until the ninth round, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, a race where he climbed from 16th to second and eventually finished fourth in a brand-new, hastily designed 94T. Due to their tumultuous relationship and a lack of decent results, Warr was not keen on honouring the last year of the contract that Mansell had signed with Chapman. However, with encouragement from Lotus's sponsors, John Player Special (who allegedly preferred a British driver), and with the only other remaining top British driver (Derek Warwick, after John Watson's retirement) already confirmed to be joining the factory Renault team, it was announced Mansell would be staying with the team.
1984
In 1984, Mansell finished in the championship top 10 for the first time, and took his first career pole position but still finished behind teammate de Angelis, who finished third, in the championship. At the 1984 Monaco Grand Prix Mansell surprised many by overtaking Alain Prost in a wet race for the lead, but soon after retired from the race after losing control on the slippery painted lines on the road surface on the run up the hill on lap 15. Late in the season, Lotus announced the recruitment of Ayrton Senna for the following year, leaving Mansell with no race seat at Lotus. After receiving offers from Arrows and Williams, and first turning down Williams's offer, it was announced before the Dutch Grand Prix that he would indeed be joining Williams.
Mansell was remembered by many that year when he collapsed while pushing his car to the finish line after the transmission failed on the last lap of the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix. The race was one of the hottest on record, and after two hours of driving in 104 °F (about 40 °C) conditions Mansell fainted while pushing his car over the line to salvage a sixth-place finish (and thus one championship point) in a race of which he had led half, having started from pole.
In his autobiography, Mansell claimed that his final race with the Lotus team—the 1984 Portuguese Grand Prix—was heavily compromised by Warr's unwillingness to give Mansell the brake pads he desired for the race. With 18 laps of the race remaining, and with Mansell in second position, the brakes on his car failed. On Mansell's departure, Warr was quoted as saying "He'll never win a Grand Prix as long as I have a hole in my arse".
1985–1988: Williams
1985
In Frank Williams hired Mansell to drive alongside Keke Rosberg as part of the Williams team, Mansell later saying "We have the greatest respect for each other." Mansell was given the "Red 5" number on his car, which he carried on subsequent Williams and Newman/Haas cars and which was brought to the public's attention mainly through commentator Murray Walker for the BBC.
Rosberg, the World Champion who was heading into his fourth season with the team, was initially against Williams signing Mansell based on the clash the pair had at Dallas the previous year (Rosberg won that race and in an interview while on the podium publicly berated Mansell's blocking tactics while leading early in the race, which earned Rosberg a round of boos from the crowd who had appreciated Mansell's courage in trying to push his Lotus to the finish in the extreme heat). Other factors were what Rosberg later said in a 1986 interview was second-hand information about Mansell which ultimately proved to be false. The drivers found they got along well and from early in the pre-season formed a good working and personal relationship.
1985 initially appeared to provide more of the same for Mansell, although he was closer to the pace than before, especially as the Honda engines became more competitive by mid-season.
During practice for the 1985 French Grand Prix, Mansell unwillingly broke the record for the highest speed crash in Formula One history. At the end of the Paul Ricard Circuit's 1.8 km long Mistral Straight he went off at the fast Courbe de Signes at over in his Williams FW10. Mansell suffered concussion which kept him out of the race. Teammate Rosberg claimed the pole for the race and finished second behind the Brabham-BMW of Nelson Piquet.
Mansell achieved second place at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps, and followed this with his first victory in 72 starts at the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in England. He achieved a second straight victory at the South African Grand Prix in Kyalami. These triumphs helped turn Mansell into a Formula One star.
1986
Going into , the Williams-Honda team had a car, the FW11 which was capable of winning regularly, and Mansell had a new confidence that led to establishing himself as a potential World Championship contender. He also had a new teammate in twice World Champion Nelson Piquet who had joined Williams looking to be a regular winner and contender again after the Brabham-BMWs had become increasingly unreliable and uncompetitive. The Brazilian publicly described Mansell as "an uneducated blockhead" and had also criticised Mansell's wife Roseanne's looks, later retracting these statements following threats of legal action.
Mansell won five Grand Prix in 1986 and also played a part in one of the closest finishes in Formula One history, finishing second to Ayrton Senna in the Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez by a mere 0.014 seconds (Mansell later jokingly said they should give himself and Senna 7½ points each). The 1986 season was led mostly by Mansell in championship points, and it went down to the wire in Adelaide, Australia for the Australian Grand Prix with Prost, Piquet and Mansell all still in contention for the title. The equation was simple, Prost and Piquet needed to win and have Mansell finish no higher than fourth. After aiming for a third-place finish which would guarantee him the title, Mansell would narrowly miss out on winning it after his left-rear tyre exploded in spectacular fashion on the main straight with only 19 laps of the race to go. In a 2012 interview for Sky Sports Legends of F1 Mansell revealed that, had he hit the wall rather than wrestling the car safely to a halt in the run-off area at the end of the straight, the stewards would most likely have red flagged the race. As the race was over two thirds distance, he would have kept his position and won his first F1 world title. Instead Mansell ended the season as runner-up to Alain Prost. His efforts in 1986 led to his being voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year.
1986 proved to be a tough year for both Mansell and the Williams team, off the track at least. After a pre-season test session at the Paul Ricard Circuit in the south of France, team owner Frank Williams was involved in a horrific road accident which left him a tetraplegic. Williams would not return to the scene until making a surprise appearance at the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch where Mansell and Piquet finished 1–2. Williams's absence from the day-to-day running of the team actually created tension between the team and engine supplier Honda. The Japanese giant regarded dual World Champion Nelson Piquet as the team's number one driver (they were reportedly paying the bulk of Piquet's multimillion-dollar retainer) and were reportedly unhappy that the team's co-owner and Technical Director Patrick Head did not rein in Mansell during races and allowed him to take both points and wins from Piquet. As it was, while Williams dominated the Constructors' Championship, the two drivers took enough points from each other to allow McLaren's Alain Prost to sneak through and win the Drivers' Championship.
Before the season had started Honda had reportedly attempted to persuade Frank Williams to replace Mansell with their own test driver Satoru Nakajima. Williams, who was always more interested in the Constructors' title than the Drivers' as it showed that his team was the best, refused to do this, rightly believing that having two proven F1 winners in Piquet and Mansell would better-serve the team than Nakajima would as an F1 rookie.
1987
Six more wins followed in , including an emotional and hugely popular victory at Silverstone for the British Grand Prix in which he came back from 28 seconds behind in 30 laps to beat teammate Piquet, with his car running out of fuel on the slowing down lap. A serious qualifying accident at Suzuka in Japan for the penultimate race of the season severely injured Mansell's back (a spinal concussion). Trying to beat Piquet's lap time, Mansell made a mistake and hit the guardrail. As a result of Mansell's absence from the remaining two races, Piquet became champion for the third time. Piquet called his win over Mansell "a win of intelligence over stupidity". The Brazilian also added that he won because he was more consistent than his teammate, racking up points and podiums where Mansell often ran into trouble. Piquet's was a percentage driving policy which worked well in the ultra-competitive Williams-Honda, whereas Mansell was a hard charger who many felt often pushed his luck too far.
1988
In , for the first time in his career, Mansell was a team's first driver, having won more races in the previous two seasons than any other driver. However, Williams lost the turbo power of Honda to McLaren, and had to settle with a naturally aspirated Judd V8 engine in its first season in F1. A dismal season followed, which saw Mansell's Williams team experiment with a terribly unreliable (but extremely innovative) active suspension system (the system had worked well when introduced by the team in 1987 where it could draw on approximately 5% of the reported produced by the Honda turbo, but struggled with the Judd V8). Mansell would complete only two of the 14 races in which he appeared in 1988, both being podium finishes. One of these was a second place at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone where, overnight, the team had stopped using its active suspension (after months of Patrick Head telling Mansell and teammate Riccardo Patrese that it would take many months of work to do so), and reverted to a passive suspension set-up.
Mansell contracted chickenpox in the summer of 1988 and after a competitive (but ill-advised) drive in the very hot conditions of the 1988 Hungarian Grand Prix the illness became worse, forcing him to miss the next two Grands Prix in Belgium where he was replaced by Martin Brundle, and Italy where he was replaced by Frenchman Jean-Louis Schlesser. By missing the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Mansell missed the traditional welcome by the Tifosi for a newly signed Ferrari driver after he had announced he would be leaving Williams to join the Maranello-based team for .
1989–1990: Ferrari
1989
In preparation for the season, Mansell became the last Ferrari driver to be personally selected by Enzo Ferrari before his death in August 1988, an honour Mansell described as "one of the greatest in my entire career". Enzo Ferrari presented a 1989 Ferrari F40 as a gift to Mansell. In Italy he became known as "il leone" ("the lion") by the tifosi because of his fearless driving style. The season was one of change in the sport, with the banning of turbo engines by the FIA and the introduction of the electronically controlled semi-automatic transmission by Ferrari.
Mansell believed that 1989 would be a development year and that he would be able to challenge for the championship the following season. In his first appearance with the team he scored a very unlikely win in the 1989 Brazilian Grand Prix at the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet in Rio de Janeiro; his least favourite track, and the home race of his bitter rival Piquet. He later joked that he had booked an early flight home for halfway through the race as he predicted the car's new electronic gearbox would last only a few laps (as it had done throughout pre-season testing and in qualifying for the race). Mansell became the first driver to win a race in a car with a semi-automatic gearbox. The race saw him as the first driver to win in their debut race for the Scuderia since Mario Andretti had won the 1971 South African Grand Prix and he would remain the last man to win on his Ferrari debut until Kimi Räikkönen won the 2007 Australian Grand Prix.
The rest of 1989 was characterised by gearbox and various other problems, including a disqualification at the Canadian Grand Prix and a black-flagged incident at the Portuguese Grand Prix for reversing in the pit lane, which resulted in a ban for the next race in Spain. However, Mansell finished fourth in the Championship with the help of a second win for Ferrari at the tight and twisty Hungaroring for the Hungarian Grand Prix. Early in practice Mansell had seen that trying to qualify the car high on the grid was a pointless exercise and he decided instead to concentrate on a good race set-up. After qualifying 12th (0.681s behind teammate Gerhard Berger in sixth and 2.225s behind pole man Riccardo Patrese in his Williams-Renault) and not even being considered a chance for the race, he charged his way through the field until he pulled off a sensational passing manoeuvre on the McLaren-Honda of World Champion Ayrton Senna on lap 58 to take a lead he would not lose.
1990
A tough followed with Ferrari, in which his car suffered more reliability problems, forcing him to retire from seven races. He was paired with Alain Prost, (who was also the reigning World Champion), and who took over as the team's lead driver. Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix, the car he drove did not handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position. On confronting the mechanics, it transpired that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and as a result, they were swapped without telling Mansell. After retiring from the race, he announced he was retiring from the sport altogether at the end of the season. This, combined with the fact that Frenchman Prost was not only a triple World Champion and the winner of more Grands Prix than anyone in history, but also spoke fluent Italian, whereas Mansell's Italian was only conversational at best, gave Prost greater influence within the Maranello-based team. According to Prost, Mansell only attended two or three mechanical briefings throughout the season, preferring playing golf. One notable highlight of the season was a daring pass on Gerhard Berger around the daunting high speed Peraltada corner that was later renamed in his honour. Approaching the corner for the penultimate time Mansell was bobbing from side to side in Berger's mirrors. Heading into one of the quickest corners on the calendar at the time, where the Ferraris had registered forces of 4.7g during practice, Mansell launched to the outside of Berger and flashed past to take second place.
Mansell scored only a single win, at the 1990 Portuguese Grand Prix, and finished a thrilling second to Nelson Piquet in Australia, and finished fifth in the World Championship. His retirement plans were halted when Frank Williams again stepped in. Williams signed Mansell on 1 October 1990 after Mansell was assured the contract stated that he would be the focus of the team, having experienced being the 'Number Two' driver at Ferrari. Mansell would be paid £4.6 million a season, a deal which made him the highest paid British sportsman at the time.
1991–1992: Return to Williams
1991
Mansell's return to Williams was not straightforward. He would agree to return only if a list of demands were met, including undisputed number one status over Riccardo Patrese (who had remained with the team through 1989 and 1990), guarantees of support in a wide variety of areas with each guarantee in writing, and assurances from suppliers such as Renault and Elf that they would do everything necessary to help him win. Frank Williams said the demands were 'impossible'; Mansell concluded that if that were the case he would be happy to retire. Three weeks later the impossible had happened and Mansell was a Williams driver.
His second stint with Williams was even better than the first. Back in the familiar 'Red 5', he won five races in , including the Spanish Grand Prix. In this race he went wheel-to-wheel with Ayrton Senna, with only centimetres to spare, at over on the main straight. Quite a different spectacle was offered following Mansell's victory in the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. Senna's car had stopped on the final lap, but, rather than leave his rival stranded out on the circuit (the two had come to blows in the pits following their first lap tangle during the 1987 Belgian Grand Prix and were hardly close friends), Mansell pulled over on his victory lap and allowed Senna to ride on the Williams sidepod back to the pits.
The Williams team's decision to develop their new semi-automatic gearbox by racing with it at the start of the season was at the cost of points in the opening rounds of the championship. Senna was on 40 points with four straight wins to open the season by the time Mansell gained his first finish with a second in Monaco. Mansell then had the next race in Canada practically won when his Williams FW14 stopped half a lap from the finish with what was reported to be transmission failure, though it was claimed that Mansell had let his engine revs drop too low while he was waving to the crowd in celebration and stalled his engine. This handed Nelson Piquet his 23rd and last F1 race win. Despite a good mid-season, which included a hat-trick of victories, Senna's consistency and Mansell's retirements at key races meant that he finished second in the Championship for the third time in his career, this time behind Senna.
1992
Mansell started the season with five straight victories (a record not equalled until Michael Schumacher in ). At the sixth round of the season in Monaco, he took pole and dominated much of the race. However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Ayrton Senna's McLaren-Honda. Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps. The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just 0.2 seconds behind the Brazilian. Mansell became the most successful British driver of all time when he won the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, as he surpassed Jackie Stewart's record of 27 wins with his 28th. Mansell was finally crowned Formula One World Champion at the age of 39 early in the season at the Hungarian Grand Prix, the 11th round of that season, where his second-place finish clinched the Drivers' Championship, securing the title in the fewest Grands Prix since the 16-race season format started. Mansell also set the then-record for the most wins in one season (9); both records stood until broken by Schumacher in 2002. He managed 14 pole positions that year, a record only broken by Sebastian Vettel in 2011 in the Brazilian Grand Prix on 26 November. He also held the record for the most races before becoming World Champion with 180 races; this record was broken by Nico Rosberg in 2016 with 206 races.
Other Formula One records set in 1992 that he still holds are the highest percentage of pole positions in a season (88%), most wins from pole position in a season (nine) and most runner-up championship finishes before becoming World Champion (three). Mansell also holds the record for obtaining pole position and scoring the fastest lap and subsequently retiring from the race (1987 German Grand Prix, 1990 British Grand Prix, 1992 Japanese Grand Prix, and 1992 Italian Grand Prix). He is the driver having the most wins (31) without ever winning Monaco.
He won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award again in 1992, one of only four people to have won the award twice.
During this season, Mansell gained a reputation for a psychological competitiveness and mind games. After the announcement by the FIA that the organization would be weighing drivers, Mansell, known for ignoring diet, starved and dehydrated himself the day prior to weigh-ins. This measure led to Mansell weighing less than his teammate Riccardo Patrese by half a kilogram.
CART IndyCar World Series
Despite being world champion, Mansell had a public disagreement with Williams. In his autobiography Mansell writes that this was because of a deal made at the previous Hungarian Grand Prix, which Williams reneged on, and the prospect of his former teammate Alain Prost, who had sat out the 1992 season, joining the Renault-powered team.
Despite Mansell's early and subsequent success during 1992, his contract was due to expire at the end of the season.
According to Patrick Head (in an interview many years later), Mansell pushed for a contract extension to be agreed early in the season. Despite this being unusual for the team, Mansell's perseverance purportedly paid off, and met with both Frank Williams and Patrick Head at the Williams Motorhome in Jerez, where they discussed and subsequently shook hands on a deal for a further two seasons (1993 and 1994). They followed this up with a written contract sent to Nigel's home address in the Isle of Man for final review and signature. According to Head, Mansell procrastinated on returning the signed agreement however, whilst winning back-to-back races over the upcoming months, finally resulting in Mansell asking for more money, which infuriated and frustrated the Williams leadership team.
According to Mansell however, Williams had initially neglected to tell him that Prost had signed for 1993 at only the second race of the 1992 season in Mexico, a position that Mansell felt would be similar to their days together at Ferrari. To boot, Ayrton Senna had expressed a strong desire to drive for Williams and even offered to drive for them at no salary (only to later be rebuffed as Prost, whose rivalry with the Brazilian was just as intense as the one he had with Mansell, had a clause written into his contract which enabled him to block Senna's effort). Williams decided that there was little sense in paying the high fees Mansell went on to demand, and told him that he needed to sign on the original deal or Senna was ready to instead. When Mansell discovered this to be untrue and a ruse, he decided to move on and called a press conference to announce his retirement. An 11th hour offer was made to him at the Italian Grand Prix, but by then the damage was done - Mansell retired from F1.
Mansell then signed with Newman/Haas Racing to pair with Mario Andretti in the CART series, replacing Mario's son Michael who moved to F1 and McLaren. At the season opener at Surfers Paradise, Australia, he became the first "rookie" to take pole position and win his first race. A few weeks later however, he suffered a substantial crash at the Phoenix International Raceway, severely injuring his back. At the 1993 Indianapolis 500, Mansell would lead the race only to finish third after losing the lead to Emerson Fittipaldi and Arie Luyendyk after a poor restart. On his 40th birthday, however, Mansell would avenge his loss at Indianapolis to score a 200-mile race victory at New Hampshire International Speedway, perhaps his most exciting CART victory. He would go on to score five wins for the 1993 CART season, which, with more high-placed finishes, was good enough to earn him the championship. This enabled Mansell to become the only driver in history to hold both the Formula One and CART championships at the same time; when he won the 1993 CART championship he was still the reigning F1 world champion, the 1993 F1 championship not yet having been decided.
Following this successful season in CART, Mansell received several awards, including a Gold Medal from the Royal Automobile Club and the 1994 ESPY Award for Best Driver.
His Newman/Haas car was much less reliable the following year, 1994, and results suffered. It was during this season that Mansell "wore out his welcome" in the United States with glimpses of rude behaviour, particularly after he was knocked out of the Indianapolis 500. After the crash, he stormed out of the track hospital, and refused medical care. When reporter Dr. Jerry Punch asked Mansell if he had spoken with Dennis Vitolo, the driver who had crashed into him, Mansell replied, "You speak to him" and shoved the camera away. Subsequently, Mansell was due to sign autographs at a K-mart store (the primary sponsor of his car), but because of a lack of demand the event was cancelled. Mansell was also the catalyst for the breakdown in the relationship between himself and Mario Andretti. Mario has since remarked "I guess if Ronnie Peterson was the best team-mate I ever had, Nigel Mansell was the worst" and "I had a lot of respect for him as a driver, but not as a man".
Brief return to Formula One
1994: Williams
In , after the CART season ended, Mansell returned to F1 and re-joined the Williams team. Since he had left it in 1993, the team had undergone some significant changes. Damon Hill had been promoted from test driver and was running full-time in one car. Prost, Mansell's replacement, won the 1993 Drivers' Championship and then retired after the season. This allowed Williams and Ayrton Senna to finally work out an agreement, and the team received a new sponsor in Rothmans International for a season in which they were expected to remain as champions. However, the car proved unreliable and tricky to handle early in the season, leading Senna to retire from the opening rounds despite claiming pole. In the third race at Imola, Senna was killed in a crash on the Tamburello curve.
Williams test driver David Coulthard took over Senna's seat for the majority of 1994 and Williams got permission from Newman/Haas Racing to bring back Mansell at the French Grand Prix and the final three races of 1994 in Europe, Japan and Australia. Mansell was paid approximately £900,000 per race, compared to teammate Damon Hill being paid £300,000 for the entire season. Mansell's return was helped by Bernie Ecclestone helping unravel his contracts in the United States. It was important for F1 to have a world champion driving that season and with worldwide TV viewing figures starting to decline, they needed Mansell. The 41-year-old was not as quick as Hill in race trim but signs that his speeds were coming back were evident in Japan during a battle with the Ferrari of Jean Alesi. Mansell took his final Grand Prix victory in Adelaide, the last race of the season, having out-qualified the two title contenders at the time, Damon Hill and Michael Schumacher, in the process (helped out by the second qualifying session being held on a wet track, with the times from the first session making up the grid). The plan initially was for Mansell to protect Hill from Schumacher, but both drivers passed him at the start and eventually collided (causing the retirement of both), handing Schumacher his first world title.
Mansell purportedly agreed a new contract to drive for Williams again in 1995, but later claimed this was rescinded. Williams ultimately opted for youth over experience and hired Coulthard for the 1995 season.
1995: McLaren
After losing the Williams seat to David Coulthard, Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in .
McLaren's title sponsors Marlboro wanted a world champion, whereas McLaren and their engine suppliers Mercedes wanted a lower-profile driver for what was Mercedes' second year back in Formula One since abandoning it in .
Before the season started, Mansell could not fit into the narrow car and was deputised by Mark Blundell for the opening two rounds in Brazil and Argentina. Mansell's car was completed in 33 days and in time for Imola, where despite being in the top six late in the race, a clash with Eddie Irvine saw him finish 10th and out of the points. The Spanish Grand Prix saw Mansell become frustrated over his car's handling characteristics, he chose to retire after just two races with the team. Mansell cited the decision to retire as his not wanting to make up the numbers and with no hope of the McLaren MP4/10 being competitive. In 2015, Mansell stated that he was wrong to leave McLaren so soon and that in hindsight he should have continued with the team for the season and help improve the car.
Comeback considered
A few testing sessions with F1 teams including Jordan suggested another comeback could be on the cards, but it never happened. Reports at the time suggested that the Mansell–Jordan partnership for 1997 was a real possibility with Eddie Jordan's title sponsor willing to pay for the deal. The Jordan team said after the tests in Barcelona in December 1996 that Mansell decided against it.
British Touring Car Championship
Mansell took part in the 1993 TOCA Shootout, held at Donington Park. Mansell drove a Ford Mondeo with his usual red number 5. The race ended in disaster for Mansell; he was knocked unconscious following a crash with six laps remaining. He lost control of his car through the exit of the Old Hairpin, over-corrected the slide and collided with Tiff Needell's Vauxhall Cavalier, resulting in a spin and a bad crash into the tyre wall under the bridge.
Mansell made a return to racing in 1998 in the British Touring Car Championship, driving in a Ford Mondeo for three rounds. With the number 5 already taken by James Thompson, Mansell raced with the red number 55.
At his first event at Donington Park, he retired three laps into the sprint race, meaning he would start the feature race in 19th position on the grid. As the conditions changed and the track became wetter, Mansell found himself leading the race for several laps, and he finished in fifth position. The race was regarded by many fans as one of the greatest in touring car history.
It was to be his best finish in the series, as he failed to finish either race at the next round he participated in at Brands Hatch, and at his final race at Silverstone he finished in 14th and 11th place. Having competed in three of the 13 rounds, he finished 18th out of 21 in the Drivers' Championship.
Subsequent appearances
On 16 July 2005, Mansell took part in a Race of Legends exhibition event at the Norisring round of the DTM. He competed against other Formula One World Champions Jody Scheckter, Alain Prost and Emerson Fittipaldi, as well as Motorcycle Grand Prix World Champions Mick Doohan and Johnny Cecotto (himself a former F1 driver), each driver having an opportunity to drive Audi, Mercedes and Opel cars. Prost was announced as the winner by the DTM organisers.
Mansell became a financial stakeholder and a driver in the new Grand Prix Masters series. Following a period of testing and developing the car, Mansell made a successful race comeback by winning the inaugural race of the series in Kyalami in November 2005 (Mansell had won at the old Kyalami circuit in 1985 and had also won at the new circuit in 1992). After the success of the race at Kyalami, four dates were scheduled for the GP Masters Series in 2006, including one at Silverstone. Mansell won the season opener at Qatar in April from pole position. The Monza round of the series was cancelled due to noise limitations at the venue, whilst technical issues quickly ruled him out of the Silverstone race.
Also in 2006 he appeared at Brands Hatch, scene of his first Grand Prix win, in October 1985, driving some demonstration laps in the BMW M3 GTR that Andy Priaulx drove to victory in the 2005 24 Hours Nürburgring, as part of the World Touring Car Championship event.
On the weekend of 6 May 2007 he made an appearance in the second round of the FIA GT Championship at Silverstone driving a Ferrari 430 GT2 for the Scuderia Ecosse team. He was paired with Chris Niarchos, finishing seventh in class and 21st overall.
Mansell, with his son Leo, tested a Chamberlain-Synergy team Le Mans prototype Lola-AER B06/10 during the week commencing 14 July 2008, at the Estoril circuit. The pair were said to be considering a drive in the American Le Mans series, possibly commencing as soon as October 2008 in the Petit Le Mans event, although neither driver was in the final field.
On 3 July 2009, Mansell tested his other son Greg's World Series by Renault car at the Silverstone Circuit, setting a best time six seconds off the pace of the fastest driver in the session.
Mansell took part in the last round of the 2009 Le Mans Series, the 1000 km of Silverstone, driving Team LNT's Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S alongside his son Greg and team boss Lawrence Tomlinson.
Mansell raced a Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, alongside his two sons. According to the BBC, this was the first time a father has raced at Le Mans in the same car as his two sons. However, in the race he crashed after only five laps, following a tire puncture. Reports at the time indicated that he had suffered a concussion, but Mansell later revealed that the accident left him unable to talk or recognize his wife and children. To recover, he took up magic in order to “get [his] brain to work in different ways.” Since taking up the hobby, Mansell has become a member of the Magic Circle and gone on to perform around the world.
For the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Mansell took this role at the 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 British Grands Prix.
Also Monaco GP 2012, US GP 2013, Brazil GP 2015.
Biographies
Mansell has written several autobiographies and books on racing in general:
In the Driving Seat (1989) (with Derick Allsop)
Driven to Win (1990)
Mansell and Williams: Challenge for the Championship (1991)
Indycar Racing (1993) (with Jeremy Shaw)
My Story (1995) (with James Allen)
Staying on Track (2015)
Television and video games
Mansell participated in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament (1987).
There were three video games endorsed by Mansell: Nigel Mansell's Grand Prix (1988, Martech), Nigel Mansell's World Championship Racing (1993, Gremlin Graphics), and Newman/Haas IndyCar (1994). Mansell also appeared as a playable driver for Williams in Codemasters' F1 2013.
Personal life
Mansell has been married to Roseanne since 1975 after meeting as students.
He lived in Port Erin on the Isle of Man during most of his F1 career until 1995. Mansell currently lives in Jersey, Channel Islands. He spent 11 years of his life as a Special Constable on the Isle of Man during his driving career, and in Devon after he retired from racing. During this period, he also developed a golf course in Devon.
A keen golfer, Mansell revealed a desire to compete in the British Open Golf Championship and briefly participated in the 1988 Australian Open.
Mansell is the owner of the Team UK Youth cycling team.
Mansell appeared without his moustache in the first half of the 1988 season. After his official retirement from Formula One in 1995, he shaved it off. The moustache made a re-appearance when Mansell was interviewed by the BBC at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix.
His sons Leo and Greg are also former racing drivers, while his daughter Chloe is a designer.
Helmet
Mansell raced with a blue helmet with two red and white arrows on each side forming on the front a drawing resembling the Union Jack with the upper angles of the arrows united by a red and white 'U' with the white chin area, when he entered Williams, a blue ring was added on the white part of the helmet. His sons Leo and Greg inherited his helmet design, but Leo's helmet has the red chin area and the white part that envelops the visor (not counting the top) is red with white outline, while Greg's helmet has the blue chin area and the white area that envelopes the visor is blue with white outline.
"Red 5"
Although teams in motor racing series are generally allocated numbers, Mansell has been associated with the number 5 for many years. This began when he joined Williams in 1985 and was allocated car number 5, as at the time Formula One racing numbers were allocated by constructor and Williams received numbers 5 and 6. For the first four races of the 1985 season, both Williams cars had white numbers, but from a distance the numerals "5" and "6" resembled each other. As a consequence, it was decided to give Mansell's car a red number to make it more distinctive. While this was initially just for recognition, BBC F1 commentator Murray Walker began describing Mansell's car as "Red Five", leading to Mansell retaining the red coloured number throughout his first spell at Williams. On his return to the team in 1991, Williams had retained the number 5 car, allowing Mansell to race as "Red Five" once again. After his departure to CART in 1993 to drive for Newman/Haas, he again retained the red number 5. In addition, "Red Five" fit well into the livery of his Indy car, as Newman Haas's main sponsors Texaco and Kmart both shared corporate colors of black, white and red. When he returned to Williams for four races in 1994 the team's numbers were 0 and 2 as they had won the Drivers' and Constructors' titles in 1993 but would not run #1 as Alain Prost had retired. Damon Hill drove car #0 while Mansell raced the #2 with the number on the nose of the car painted red. So associated with the red 5 is Mansell that, in 2004, he purchased a yacht from Sunseeker, one of his longtime sponsors, which he named Red 5.
Awards and honours
Mansell was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992. Only four other people have won the award more than once, including fellow racing drivers and former F1 World Champions Damon Hill and Lewis Hamilton. Mansell was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. Mansell won the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an award for the leading British or Commonwealth driver in F1 each year seven times.
Already an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), Mansell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to children and young people (as president of UK Youth).
In 2015 turn 17 of the Autodromo Hermanos Rodríguez was renamed in honour of Mansell, twice winner of the Mexican Grand Prix (1987 and 1992). He received The London Classic Car Show Icon Award in 2018.
He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2006.
Racing record
Career summary
Complete European Formula Two Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
American open-wheel racing
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
PPG Indy Car World Series
Indianapolis 500
Complete British Touring Car Championship results
(key; Races in bold indicate pole position – 1-point awarded all races; Races in italics indicate fastest lap; * signifies that driver led feature race for at least one lap – 1-point awarded)
Complete Grand Prix Masters results
(key) Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap.
Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results
Notes
References
Hamilton, Maurice Frank Williams Macmillan
Mansell, Nigel My Autobiography Collins Willow
Warr, Peter Team Lotus – My View From The Pit Wall Haynes Publishing
BTCC Pages
Crash.net
External links
1953 births
Living people
People from Upton-upon-Severn
Jersey athletes
English racing drivers
BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners
European Formula Two Championship drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
Champ Car champions
Champ Car drivers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year
Indianapolis 500 drivers
English Formula One drivers
Ferrari Formula One drivers
Team Lotus Formula One drivers
McLaren Formula One drivers
Williams Formula One drivers
Formula One race winners
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
FIA GT Championship drivers
British Touring Car Championship drivers
Sportspeople from Birmingham, West Midlands
Segrave Trophy recipients
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
BRDC Gold Star winners
Grand Prix Masters drivers
Formula Ford drivers
British special constables
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
European Le Mans Series drivers
Manx police officers
Sportspeople from Worcestershire | [
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|
228617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Football at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, an association football tournament was contested for the first time. Only two matches were held between the three club sides, and no medals were awarded.
France's representatives were determined by the USFSA, which elected the Parisian champion Club Français. For Belgium, after Racing Club de Bruxelles declined to participate, a student selection with players from the Université libre de Bruxelles was sent by the Federation. The team was reinforced with a few non-students. On the other hand, English club Upton Park F.C. represented Great Britain.
Despite this, the International Olympic Committee currently credits Great Britain, France and a "Mixed Team" with gold, silver and bronze medals, respectively, as part of its attempt to reconcile early Olympic Games with the modern award scheme. The Belgian team included one British and one Dutch player.
The football matches were held at the Vélodrome de Vincennes in Paris.
Competition schedule
The match schedule of the tournament.
Venue
Squads
Matches
In the first game, the British squad had little difficulty defeating the USFSA XI. Upton Park led 2–0 after the first half, getting two more goals in the second to win 4–0. Gaston Peltier scored in the first minute to give the USFSA XI an early lead, but Université de Bruxelles scored twice to take a 2–1 first half lead. The French scored five goals in the second half, however, to take the match 6–2.
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Final ranking
Medal summary
Medal table
Medalists
See also
List of Olympic medalists in football
References
football
1900
1900
1900
Olympics
Olympics
Olympics
Olympics | [
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|
228618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkley | Berkley | Berkley may refer to:
People
Berkley (surname)
Berkley Bedell (1921–2019), American politician
Places
United Kingdom
Berkley, Somerset
United States
Berkley, Colorado
Berkley, Iowa
Berkley, Maryland
Berkley, Massachusetts
Berkley, Michigan
Berkley, Virginia, formerly a town, and now a neighborhood in Norfolk, Virginia
Berkley (Washington, D.C.), a neighborhood also known as Foxhall Crescent
Other uses
Berkley Books, an imprint of Penguin Group (USA) (also known as Berkley Publishing Co.)
Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., United States
Berkley (fishing), a fishing tackle company, Spirit Lake, Iowa, United States
See also
Berkley Bridge (disambiguation)
Berkeley (disambiguation)
Berklee College of Music in Boston, Massachusetts, United States | [
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|
228619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force%20Research%20Unit | Force Research Unit | The Force Research Unit (FRU) was a covert military intelligence unit of the British Army part of the Intelligence Corps. It was established in 1982 during the Troubles to obtain intelligence from secretly penetrating terrorist organisations in Northern Ireland by recruiting and running agents and informants.
It worked alongside existing intelligence agencies the Royal Ulster Constabulary Special Branch and MI5. In 1988, the All-Source Intelligence Cell was formed to improve the sharing of intelligence between the FRU, Special Branch and MI5.
The FRU was renamed to the Joint Support Group (JSG) following the Stevens Inquiry into allegations of collusion between the security forces and Protestant paramilitary groups.
The FRU was found to have colluded with loyalist paramilitaries in the murder of civilians. This has been confirmed by some former members of the unit. From 1987 to 1991, it was commanded by Gordon Kerr.
Collusion with loyalist paramilitaries
In the mid 1980s, the FRU recruited Brian Nelson as a double agent inside the Ulster Defence Association (UDA). The UDA was a legal Ulster loyalist paramilitary group that had been involved in hundreds of attacks on Catholic and nationalist civilians, as well as a handful on republican paramilitaries. The FRU helped Nelson become the UDA's chief intelligence officer. In 1988, weapons were shipped to loyalists from South Africa under Nelson's supervision. Through Nelson, the FRU helped the UDA to target people for assassination. FRU commanders say their plan was to make the UDA "more professional" by helping it to kill republican activists and prevent it from killing uninvolved Catholic civilians. They say if someone was under threat, agents like Nelson were to inform the FRU, who were then to alert the police. Gordon Kerr, who ran the FRU from 1987 to 1991, claimed Nelson and the FRU saved over 200 lives in this way. However, the Stevens Inquiries found evidence that only two lives were saved and said many loyalist attacks could have been prevented but were allowed to go ahead. The Stevens team believes that Nelson was responsible for at least 30 murders and many other attacks, and that many of the victims were uninvolved civilians. One of the most prominent victims was solicitor Pat Finucane. Although Nelson was imprisoned in 1992, FRU intelligence continued to help the UDA and other loyalist groups. From 1992 to 1994, loyalists were responsible for more deaths than republicans for the first time since the 1960s.
Allegations exist that the FRU sought restriction orders in advance of a number of loyalist paramilitary attacks in order to facilitate easy access to and escape from their target. A restriction order is a de-confliction agreement to restrict patrolling or surveillance in an area over a specified period. This de-confliction activity was carried out at a weekly Tasking and Co-ordination Group which included representatives of the Royal Ulster Constabulary, MI5 and the British Army. It is claimed the FRU asked for restriction orders to be placed on areas where they knew loyalist paramilitaries were going to attack.
Alleged infiltration of republican paramilitary groups
FRU are also alleged to have handled agents within republican paramilitary groups. A number of agents are suspected to have been handled by the FRU including IRA units who planted bombs and assassinated. Attacks are said to have taken place involving FRU-controlled agents highly placed within the IRA. The main agent to have been uncovered so far was codenamed "Stakeknife". There is a debate as to whether this agent is IRA member Freddie Scappaticci or another, as yet unidentified, IRA member.
"Stakeknife" is thought to have been a member of the IRA's Internal Security Unit - a unit responsible for counter-intelligence, interrogation and court martial of informers within the IRA. It is believed that "Stakeknife" was used by the FRU to influence the outcome of investigations conducted by the IRA's Internal Security Unit into the activities of IRA volunteers.
It is alleged that in 1987 the UDA came into possession of idetails relating to the identity of the FRU-controlled IRA volunteer codenamed "Stakeknife". It is further alleged that the UDA, unaware of this IRA volunteer's value to the FRU, planned to assassinate him. It is alleged that after the FRU discovered
"Stakeknife" was in danger from UDA assassination they used Brian Nelson to persuade the UDA to assassinate Francisco Notarantonio instead, a Belfast pensioner who had been interned as an Irish republican in the 1940s. The killing of Notarantonio was claimed by the UFF at the time. Following the killing of Notarantonio, unaware of the involvement of the FRU, the IRA assassinated two UDA leaders in reprisal attacks. It has been alleged that the FRU secretly passed details of the two UDA leaders to the IRA via "Stakeknife" in an effort to distract attention from "Stakeknife" as a possible informer.
FRU and the Stevens Inquiry
Former FRU operative Martin Ingram asserted that the arson attack which destroyed the offices of the Stevens Inquiry was carried out by the FRU to destroy evidence on operational activities collected by Stevens' team.
See also
Stakeknife
References
External links
Relatives For Justice
Madden & Finucane
Brian Nelson
Transcript of BBC Panorama programme titled 'Collusion', 23 June 2002
Series of articles appearing in the Sunday Herald about the activities of the FRU.
Lengthy Interview given by Martin Ingram on Radio Free Eireann describing his FRU activities NOTE: Interview with Ingram starts around 25 minutes into the mp3.
Transcript of Insight TV documentary : Licensed to Kill - Inside the Force Research Unit
Units of the Intelligence Corps (British Army)
History of Ashford, Kent
British Army in Operation Banner
Military units and formations established in 1982
Military units and formations disestablished in 2007 | [
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|
228620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Golf at the 1900 Summer Olympics | The 1900 Summer Olympics took place in Paris, France, and was the first time ever that golf debuted in the Olympics. Two golf events were contested, individual events for men and women. As with most other events in the 1900 Olympics, few, if any, of the competitors had any idea that they were competing in an Olympic Games.
Format
The men's division consisted of a 36-hole stroke play tournament, while the women's division consisted of only a 9-hole stroke play tournament.
Location
The men's and women's event took place at the Compiègne Club, which is about 50 km (30 miles) north of Paris. This golf club was built in 1896 and is one of few golf courses built outside Great Britain or Ireland in the 19th century. The golf course was designed by M.W. Freemantle and built within the horse racing track of Compiègne. The layout of the course is flat, with dense rough surrounding the fairways and very tiny "postage stamp" sized greens.
Tournament play
The men's tournament was played on 2 October 1900 where they played two 18-hole rounds back-to-back. The following day, 3 October 1900, the women's tournament began, where they only played 9 holes.
Men's division
Charles Sands, representative of the St. Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York finished the 36 hole tournament with 82-85 defeating Walter Rutherford of Jedburgh, Scotland by a mere one stroke. Finishing third for the men's division and receiving the bronze medal was David Robertson. Sands started playing golf in 1895 and three months later participated and made it to the final round of the first U.S. Amateur only to be beaten badly by Charles B. MacDonald. The only other golf tournament Sands ever competed in was the 1900 Summer Olympics.
Women's division
The women's division was a stage for many firsts that occurred in the Olympic games. Not only was this the first time women were ever able to compete in the Olympic games, the women's division was won by Margaret Abbott of Chicago Golf Club. Abbott shot a 47 to win and became the first ever American female to win a gold medal in the Olympic Games, though she received a gilded porcelain bowl as a prize instead of a medal. She is also the second overall American woman to receive an Olympic medal. Abbott's mother, Mary Abbott, also competed in this Olympic event and finished tied for seventh, shooting a 65. They were the first and only mother and daughter that have ever competed in the same Olympic event at the same time.
Margaret never knew that they were competing in the Olympics; she thought it was a normal golf tournament and died not knowing. Her historic victory was not known until University of Florida professor Paula Welch began to do research into the history of the Olympics and discovered that Margaret Abbott had placed first. Over the course of ten years, she contacted Abbott's children and informed them of their mother's victory.
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 22 golfers from 4 nations competed at the Paris Games:
Medal table
References
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Golf 1900". Accessed 27 January 2006. Available electronically at .
See also
List of Olympic medalists in golf
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
Golf tournaments in France
1900 in golf | [
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|
228621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Gymnastics at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics one gymnastics event for men was contested. The competition was held on Sunday, 29 July 1900, and on Monday, 30 July 1900. There were 135 competitors from 8 nations. The top 18 places were taken by French gymnasts, of which there were more than 100. The event was won by Gustave Sandras, with Noël Bas finishing second and Lucien Démanet third. The highest-placing foreign gymnast was Jules Ducret of Switzerland, in a tie for 19th place.
Medal summary
Background
This was the first appearance of an all-around event. There had been various apparatus events at the 1896 Games, but no overall competition. In contrast, the 1900 Games saw only the all-around event without medals or separate events for any individual apparatus. At the time, athletics events were often combined with gymnastics events in combined events such as this one.
The Swiss championships were scheduled for a week after this competition, resulting in few Swiss gymnasts competing here.
Competition format
Gymnasts performed in 16 exercises, many of them being two competitions of the same discipline with one compulsory exercise and one voluntary exercise. There was a maximum of 20 points in each exercise, leading to a total maximum of 320 points. The events were mostly gymnastic in nature, but also included a number of athletics events and a weightlifting competition.
1. and 2. - Horizontal bar (compulsory and optional exercises)
3. and 4. - Parallel bars (compulsory and optional exercises)
5. and 6. - Rings (compulsory and optional exercises)
7. and 8. - Pommel horse (compulsory and optional exercises)
9. and 10. - Floor exercise (compulsory and optional exercises)
11. - Horse vault (compulsory exercise)
12. - Combined high jump
13. - Long jump
14. - Pole vault
15. - Rope climbing
16. - Weightlifting
The combined high jump required a jump over a rope that was 1.25 metres above the ground and 1 metre away from the take-off. The scoring standard for the long jump was 5 metres; for the pole vault, 2.2 metres. The rope climbing featured a rope of 6 metres. The weightlifting used a 50 kilograms weight, with 2 points for each overhead lift up to 10 lifts.
Schedule
Results
Participating nations
A total of 135 gymnasts from 8 nations competed at the Paris Games:
Medal table
References
External links
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Gymnastics 1900". Accessed 25 February 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
Gymnastics in Paris
International gymnastics competitions hosted by France
1900 in gymnastics | [
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|
228622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berwick | Berwick | Berwick may refer to:
Places
Antarctica
Berwick Glacier
Australia
Berwick, Victoria
City of Berwick, Victoria (defunct)
Canada
Berwick, New Brunswick
Berwick, Nova Scotia
Berwick, Ontario
New Zealand
Berwick, New Zealand
United Kingdom
England
Berwick-upon-Tweed, Northumberland
Berwick, East Sussex
Berwick railway station (East Sussex)
Berwick, Gloucestershire
Berwick Street Market, London
Berwick Tunnel, Shropshire
Berwick St John, Wiltshire
Scotland
North Berwick, East Lothian, Scotland
North Berwick Law, a hill situated to the south of the town
County of Berwick, a historic county in south-east Scotland
Berwick (Parliament of Scotland constituency)
United States
Berwick, Illinois
Berwick Township, Warren County, Illinois
Berwick, Iowa
Berwick, Kansas
Berwick, Louisiana
Berwick Bay, Louisiana
Berwick, Maine
Berwick (CDP), Maine, a census-designated place within the town
Berwick, Missouri
Berwick Township, Newton County, Missouri
Berwick, Ohio
Berwick Hotel, Cambridge, Ohio
Berwick, Columbus, Ohio
Berwick, North Dakota
Berwick, Pennsylvania
Berwick Area School District, Pennsylvania
Berwick Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania
People
Berwick (surname)
Berwick (cricketer), English cricketer
Other uses
Berwick Academy (disambiguation)
Berwick High School (disambiguation)
Berwick (automobile), an electric car produced in 1904
Berwick cockle, a confection from Berwick upon Tweed
Berwick Prize, in mathematics, named for William Edward Hodgson Berwick
Berwick RFC, a rugby union team in Berwick-upon-Tweed
Berwick Rangers F.C., a football team in Berwick-upon-Tweed
Berwick Secondary College, a secondary college in Berwick, Victoria, Australia
Berwick Castle, in Berwick-upon-Tweed
HMS Berwick, several Royal Navy ships
Treaty of Berwick (disambiguation), several treaties
Berwick railway station (disambiguation), several stations | [
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|
228623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque%20pelota%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Basque pelota at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, a Basque pelota tournament was contested.
Only two teams entered, from Spain and France, but the French team, which included Maurice Durquetty and Etchegaray, withdrew before the competition: therefore, the tournament was scratched and the Spanish team were awarded first prize.
This is the only Olympics to date where pelota was an official sport, being revived at the 1924, 1968 and 1992 Games as a demonstration sport.
Medalists
References
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Pelota 1900". Accessed 25 February 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
Olympics
1900 in basque pelota
Men's events at the 1900 Summer Olympics | [
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228624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-generic | Semi-generic | Semi-generic is a legal term used in by the United States Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau to refer to a specific type of wine designation. The majority of these were originally based on the names of well-known European wine-producing regions. Consumers didn't recognize grape varieties at that time and New World producers used the familiar names to suggest the style of wine they were offering for sale. U.S. regulations require that semi-generic names (for example, California champagne) may be used on a wine label only if there appears next to such name the appellation of "the actual place of origin" in order to prevent any possible consumer confusion.
The practice primarily ceased in 2006 with the Wine Trade Agreement, though existing brands can continue the practice, considered grandfathered in.
Recent problems
Over the past thirty years, with the popularity of varietal labeling, semi-generic names have largely fallen out of use. They are typically only used on inexpensive wines sold in jugs or cartons and most of those now use the more popular varietal labeling.
The use of these names is a subject of some disagreement. Through trade agreements, the European Union has protected most of these names in its major export markets. In 1993, Australia agreed not to use European place names and France and Italy agreed to stop using the term Tokay, which is now reserved for Hungarian wines. The use of semi-generic names is beginning to become a problem for US domestic and foreign policy because as many American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) are becoming more popular around the world, they are seeking greater protection for their names inside and outside the U.S. In 2006, the U.S. agreed with the EU in the Wine Trade Agreement to refrain from adding any additional labels to class of semi-generic wines.
Some U.S. states have laws which additionally restrict or prohibit the use of semi-generic names wines produced within their borders.
Definition
In the U.S., semi-generics are defined by law in 27 CFR 4.24. There are two types.
The first type is names that can legally refer to any grape wine whatsoever. In practice, most have become associated with a given style, which is noted.
Burgundy – Generic red wine, for example Gallo's Hearty Burgundy. Named after French Burgundy.
Chablis – Generic white wine, named after Chablis.
Chianti – Generic red, named after Italy's Chianti.
Claret – Also generic red wine, named after Claret, the British term for French red Bordeaux.
Malaga – A sherry, named after Málaga in Spain.
Moselle – Generic sweet white, based on a German style produced in the Moselle River valley.
Rhine Wine (syn. Hock) – Generic sweet white, after Germany's Rhine River. Hock is named after Hochheim.
Sauterne – White or pink, dry or sweet, named after Sauternes but deliberately misspelt.
Haut Sauterne – Same as above.
Tokay – Generic white, named after Hungary's Tokaji.
The second type of semi-generic names have restrictions on what kind of wine they can be. The legal restriction is listed first, followed by the original term.
Angelica – Fortified wine of 18–24% alcohol, named after Los Angeles.
Champagne – Sparkling wine, named after France's Champagne.
Marsala – Wine of 14–24% alcohol, named after Italy's Marsala.
Madeira – Fortified wine of 18–24% alcohol, named after Portugal's Madeira.
Port – Fortified wine, named after Portugal's Porto.
Sherry Fortified wine of 17–24% alcohol, named after Spain's Sherry.
See also
Wine label
Fighting varietals
References
Sources
Label Approval for Wine Labels with a Semi-Generic Name
Robinson, Jancis (Ed.) The Oxford Companion to Wine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, second edition, 1999.
Agreement between the United States and the European Community on Trade in Wine
Appellations
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|
228626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazoa | Parazoa | Parazoa (Parazoa, gr. Παρα-, para, "next to", and ζωα, zoa, "animal") are a taxon with sub-kingdom category that is located at the base of the phylogenetic tree of the animal kingdom in opposition to the sub-kingdom Eumetazoa; groups together the most primitive forms, characterized by not having proper tissues or that, in any case, these tissues are only partially differentiated. They generally group a single phylum, Porifera, which lack muscles, nerves and internal organs, which in many cases resembles a cell colony rather than a multicellular organism itself. All other animals are eumetazoans, which do have differentiated tissues.
On occasion, Parazoa reunites Porifera with Archaeocyatha, a group of extinct sponges sometimes considered a separate phylum. In other cases, Placozoa is included, depending on the authors.
Porifera and Archaeocyatha
Porifera and Archaeocyatha show similarities such as benthic and sessile habitat and the presence of pores, with differences such as the presence of internal walls and septa in Archaeocyatha. They have been considered separate phyla, however, the consensus is growing that Archaeocyatha was in fact a type of sponge that can be classified into Porifera.
Porifera and Placozoa
Some authors include in Parazoa the poriferous or sponge phyla and placozoa—comprising only the Trichoplax adhaerens species - on the basis of shared primitive characteristics: Both are simple, show a lack of true tissues and organs, have both asexual and sexual reproduction, and are invariably aquatic. As animals, they are a group that in various studies are at the base of the phylogenetic tree, albeit in a paraphyletic form. Of this group only surviving sponges, which belong to the phylum Porifera, and Trichoplax in the phylum Placozoa.
Parazoa do not show any body symmetry (they are asymmetric); all other groups of animals show some kind of symmetry. There are currently 5000 species, 150 of which are freshwater. The larvae are planktonic and the adults are sessile. The Parazoa-Eumetazoa division has been estimated to be 940 million years ago.
The Parazoa group is now considered paraphyletic. When referenced, it is sometimes considered an equivalent to the Porifera.
Some authors include the Placozoa, a phylum consisting of a single species, Trichoplax adhaerens, in the division, but sometimes it is also placed in the Agnotozoa subkingdom.
Phylogeny
According to the most up-to-date phylogeny, Porifera should not have a direct relationship with Placozoa. In any case, placozoans have simplified coelenterates without common characteristics with sponges.
References
External links
Parazoa | [
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|
228627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berwyn | Berwyn | Berwyn originally referred to the Berwyn range of mountains in northeast Wales:
Berwyn may also refer to:
Places
United States
Berwyn, Illinois, a city
Berwyn, Nebraska, a village
Berwyn, Oklahoma, the former name of Gene Autry, Oklahoma
Berwyn, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place
Berwyn Township (disambiguation), multiple places
Elsewhere
Berwyn, Alberta, Canada, a village
Berwyn, Denbighshire, Wales, a settlement
People
Berwyn Jones (1940–2007), Welsh sprinter and rugby union and rugby league player
Berwyn Price (born 1951), Welsh former hurdler
Richard Jones Berwyn (1837–1917), early Welsh colonist in Patagonia
Berwyn (musician), London-based rapper, songwriter and producer Berwyn Du Bois
Other uses
Berwyn station (disambiguation), stations of the name
HM Prison Berwyn, Wrexham, Wales
(1918–1919), a United States Navy cargo ship
See also
Cadair Berwyn, a mountain summit in north east Wales
Cadair Berwyn North Top or Cadair Berwyn (Old Top), a top of Cadair Berwyn in north east Wales | [
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|
228628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Jersey | East Jersey | The Province of East Jersey, along with the Province of West Jersey, between 1674 and 1702 in accordance with the Quintipartite Deed, were two distinct political divisions of the Province of New Jersey, which became the U.S. state of New Jersey. The two provinces were amalgamated in 1702. East Jersey's capital was located at Perth Amboy. Determination of an exact location for a border between West Jersey and East Jersey was often a matter of dispute.
The area comprising East Jersey had been part of New Netherland. Early settlement (including today's Bergen and Hudson counties) by the Dutch included Pavonia (1633), Vriessendael (1640) and Achter Kol (1642). These settlements were compromised in Kieft's War (1643–1645) and the Peach Tree War (1655–1660). Settlers again returned to the western shores of the Hudson River in the 1660 formation of Bergen, New Netherland, which would become the first permanent European settlement in the territory of the modern state of New Jersey. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, on August 27, 1664, New Amsterdam surrendered to English forces.
Between 1664 and 1674, most settlement was from other parts of the Americas, especially New England, Long Island, and the West Indies. Elizabethtown and Newark in particular had a strong Puritan character. South of the Raritan River the Monmouth Tract was developed primarily by Quakers from Long Island. In 1675, East Jersey was partitioned into four counties for administrative purposes: Bergen County, Essex County, Middlesex County, and Monmouth County. There were seven established towns: Shrewsbury, Middleton, Piscataway, Woodbridge, Elizabethtown, Newark, and Bergen. In a survey taken in 1684, the population was estimated to be 3,500 individuals in about 700 families (African slaves were not included).
Although a number of the East Jersey proprietors in England were Quakers and the governor through most of the 1680s was the leading Quaker Robert Barclay, the Quaker influence on government was not significant. Even the immigration instigated by Barclay was oriented toward promoting Scottish influence more than Quaker influence. In 1682, Barclay and the other Scottish proprietors began the development of Perth Amboy as the capital of the province. In 1687, James II permitted ships to be cleared at Perth Amboy.
Frequent disputes between the residents and the mostly-absentee proprietors over land ownership and quitrents plagued the province until its surrender to Queen Anne's government in 1702.
Constitution
See: History of the New Jersey State Constitution#East Jersey Constitution
Governors of East Jersey (1674–1702)
See also
Concession and Agreement
List of colonial governors of New Jersey
Scottish colonization of the Americas
Province of New York
Dominion of New England
References
Further reading
Winfield, Charles H. History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey (New York: Kennard & Hay Printing Company, 1874)
Harvey, Cornelius B., ed. Genealogical History of Hudson and Bergen Counties, New Jersey (New York: The New Jersey Genealogical Publishing Co., 1900)
John Fiske. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies of America. Vol. I (New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1903)
Lovero, Joan D. Hudson County: The Left Bank (Sun Valley. CA: American Historical Press, 1999)
External links
Where was the West Jersey/East Jersey line?
Bergen Township, Past and Present
Jersey City's Colonial Background
Overview of Hudson County Heritage
Bergen County Historic Society
Colonial Charters, Grants and Related Documents (at "New Jersey").
The journall of the procedure of the governor and Councill of the province of East New Jersey : from and after the first day of December Anno Dmni 1682
Pre-statehood history of New Jersey
History of the Thirteen Colonies
Dominion of New England
States and territories established in 1674
1702 disestablishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Colonial United States (British)
1674 establishments in New Jersey
Former English colonies
Former regions and territories of the United States | [
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|
228629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Herzberg | Gerhard Herzberg | Gerhard Heinrich Friedrich Otto Julius Herzberg, (; December 25, 1904 – March 3, 1999) was a German-Canadian pioneering physicist and physical chemist, who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1971, "for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals". Herzberg's main work concerned atomic and molecular spectroscopy. He is well known for using these techniques that determine the structures of diatomic and polyatomic molecules, including free radicals which are difficult to investigate in any other way, and for the chemical analysis of astronomical objects. Herzberg served as Chancellor of Carleton University in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada from 1973 to 1980.
Early life and family
Herzberg was born in Hamburg, Germany on December 25, 1904 to Albin H. Herzberg and Ella Biber. He had an older brother, Walter, who was born in January 1904. Herzberg started Vorschule (pre-school) late, after contracting measles. Gerhard and his family were atheists and kept this fact hidden. His father died in 1914, at 43 years of age, after having suffered from dropsy and complications due to an earlier heart condition. Herzberg graduated Vorschule shortly after his father's death. His wife died in 1971.
Education and career
Initially, Herzberg considered a career in astronomy, but his application to the Hamburg Observatory was returned advising him not to pursue a career in the field without private financial support. After completing high school at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums, Herzberg continued his education at Darmstadt University of Technology with the help of a private scholarship. Herzberg completed his Dr.-Ing. degree under Hans Rau in 1928.
1928–30 Post-doctoral work at the University of Göttingen and Bristol University under James Franck, Max Born, John Lennard-Jones
1930 Darmstadt University of Technology: Privatdozent (lecturer) and senior assistant in Physics
1935 Guest professor, University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Canada)
1936–45 Professor of Physics, University of Saskatchewan
1939 Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada
1945–8 Professor of spectroscopy, Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago (Chicago, United States)
1948 Director of the Division of Pure Physics, National Research Council of Canada
1951 Fellow of the Royal Society of London
1957–63 Vice President of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
1956–7 President of the Canadian Association of Physicists
1960 gives Bakerian Lecturer of the Royal Society of London
1966–7 President of the Royal Society of Canada
1968 Companion of the Order of Canada
1968 George Fisher Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University (Ithaca, United States)
1969 Willard Gibbs Award
1969 Distinguished Research Scientist in the recombined Division of Physics, at the National Research Council of Canada
1970 Lecturer of the Chemical Society of London, receives Faraday Medal
1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals"
1971 Royal Medal from Royal Society of London
1973-1980 Chancellor of Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada)
1981 Founding member of the World Cultural Council.
1992 Sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
1999 Died aged 94
Honours and awards
Herzberg's most significant award was the 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which he was awarded "for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals". During the presentation speech, it was noted that at the time of the award, Herzberg was "generally considered to be the world's foremost molecular spectroscopist."
Herzberg was honoured with memberships or fellowships by a very large number of scientific societies, received many awards and honorary degrees in different countries. The NSERC Gerhard Herzberg Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering, Canada's highest research award, was named in his honour in 2000. The Canadian Association of Physicists also has an annual award named in his honour. The Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics is named for him. He was made a member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science. Asteroid 3316 Herzberg is named after him. In 1964 he was awarded the Frederic Ives Medal by the OSA. At Carleton University, there is a building named after him that belongs to the Physics and Mathematics/Statistics Departments, Herzberg Laboratories. Herzberg was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1951.
The main building of John Abbott College in Montreal is named after him. Carleton University named the Herzberg Laboratories building after him. A public park in the College Park neighbourhood of Saskatoon also bears his name.
Books and publications
Herzberg authored some classic works in the field of spectroscopy, including Atomic Spectra and Atomic Structure and the encyclopaedic four volume work: Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure, which is often called the spectroscopist's bible. The three volumes of Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure were re-issued by Krieger in 1989, including extensive new footnotes by Herzberg. Volume IV of the series, "Constants of diatomic molecules" is purely a reference work, a compendium of known spectroscopic constants (and therefore a bibliography of molecular spectroscopy) of diatomic molecules up until 1978.
Atomic Spectra and Atomic Structure. (Dover Books, New York, 2010, )
The spectra and structures of simple free radicals: An introduction to molecular spectroscopy. (Dover Books, New York, 1971, ).
Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure: I. Spectra of Diatomic Molecules. (Krieger, 1989, )
Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure: II. Infrared and Raman Spectra of Polyatomic Molecules. (Krieger, 1989, )
Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure: III. Electronic Spectra and Electronic Structure of Polyatomic Molecules. (Krieger, 1989, )
Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure IV. Constants of Diatomic Molecules, K. P. Huber and G. Herzberg, (Van nostrand Reinhold company, New York, 1979, ).
Archives
There are Gerhard Herzberg fonds at Library and Archives Canada and at National Research Council Canada.
See also
List of German Canadians
References
Further reading
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1971 Spectroscopic Studies of Molecular Structure
Science.ca profile
Canadian Science and Technology Museum Hall of Fame
Encyclopædia Britannica entry
1904 births
1999 deaths
Canadian atheists
Canadian Nobel laureates
20th-century Canadian astronomers
Canadian physical chemists
Chancellors of Carleton University
Companions of the Order of Canada
Cornell University faculty
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Fellows of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Founding members of the World Cultural Council
University of Göttingen faculty
University of Chicago faculty
Canadian people of German-Jewish descent
German atheists
German physical chemists
German emigrants to Canada
German Nobel laureates
Members of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Scientists from Hamburg
Faraday Lecturers
Spectroscopists
Academics of the University of Bristol
Technische Universität Darmstadt alumni
People educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums
Technische Universität Darmstadt faculty | [
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|
228630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudora%20%28email%20client%29 | Eudora (email client) | Eudora is an email client that was used on the classic Mac OS, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows operating systems. It also supported several palmtop computing platforms, including Newton and the Palm OS. In 2018, after being years out of print, the software was open-sourced by the Computer History Museum.
History
Eudora was developed in 1988 by Steve Dorner, who worked at the Computer Services Organization of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. The software was named after American author Eudora Welty, because of her short story "Why I Live at the P.O."; Dorner rearranged the title to form the slogan "Bringing the P.O. to Where You Live" for his software. Although he regretted naming it after the still-living author because he thought doing so was "presumptuous", Welty was reportedly "pleased and amused" by Dorner's tribute.
Eudora was acquired by Qualcomm in 1991. Originally distributed free of charge, Eudora was commercialized and offered as a Light (freeware) and Pro (commercial) product. Between 2003 and 2006 the full-featured Pro version was also available as a "Sponsored mode" (adware) distribution. In 2006 Qualcomm stopped development of the commercial version and sponsored the creation of a new open-source version based on Mozilla Thunderbird, code-named Penelope, later renamed to Eudora OSE. Development of the open-source version stopped in 2010 and was officially deprecated in 2013, with users advised to switch to the current version of Thunderbird.
Eudora (6.0.1) added support for Bayesian filtering of spam with a feature called SpamWatch. Eudora (6.2) added a scam watch feature that flags suspicious links within emails in an attempt to thwart phishing. Eudora (7.0) added ultra-fast search, which finds any emails using single or multiple criteria in seconds.
Eudora has support for "stationery", a standard message or reply prepared ahead of time to a common question. Eudora stores emails in a modified mbox format (*.mbx), which uses plain text files instead of a database as Microsoft Outlook does. This allows the user to back up portions of their email correspondence without backing up the entire database.
Eudora supports the POP3, IMAP and SMTP protocols. Eudora also has support for SSL and, in Windows, S/MIME authentication, allowing users to sign or encrypt email communications for greatest security.
Eudora is noteworthy for its extensive variety of settings to customize its behavior, many of which are not available in the user interface but are accessed using x-eudora-setting URIs that must be pasted into a message and clicked.
At one time, Eudora also offered a webmail service at eudoramail.com. This service was run by Lycos as part of Mailcity, later renamed Lycos Mail. In 2006, Eudoramail addresses for users were still working (and were redirected to Lycos Mail accounts), but new users could no longer sign up for the service.
Eudora for Windows never had any form of support for character encoding and was hardcoded to declare every email sent as encoded iso-8859-1, regardless of the actual content, and displayed every incoming email using the system encoding (one of the Windows encodings, depending on the language version of the system). This created problems for users corresponding in languages other than Western European ones and, later on, for everybody as UTF-8 became more and more popular. At least two third-party plugins exist that can convert characters that also exist in iso-8859-1, and it's also possible to run it with "Mime-proxy", but depending on a specific user's needs and due in part to the internal limitations of Eudora they may only offer a partial solution.
On May 22, 2018, after five years of discussion with Qualcomm, the Computer History Museum acquired full ownership of the source code, the Eudora trademarks, copyrights, and domain names. The transfer agreement from Qualcomm also allowed the Computer History Museum to publish the source code under the BSD open source license. The Eudora source code distributed by the Computer History Museum is the same except for the addition of the new license, sanitization of "bad words" found mostly in comment sections of the code and the removal of third-party software that neither the museum nor Qualcomm had the right to distribute.
See also
Comparison of email clients
Eudora Internet Mail Server
References
External links
Pandora Mail, an e-mail client intended to replicate the functionality of Eudora
Hermes Messenger - open source fork of Eudora
Classic Mac OS email clients
MacOS email clients
Qualcomm software
Windows email clients
Discontinued software
Software using the BSD license | [
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|
228631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phelps | Phelps | Phelps may refer to:
Places in the United States
Phelps, Kentucky
Phelps, New York
Phelps (village), New York
Phelps, Wisconsin, a town
Phelps (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Phelps County, Missouri
Phelps County, Nebraska
Phelps Lake (disambiguation)
Lake Phelps
Other uses
Phelps (surname)
Phelps Phelps, 38th Governor of American Samoa and United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic
USS Phelps (DD-360), a US Navy destroyer
See also
Philps, a surname | [
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|
228632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polo%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Polo at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, a polo tournament was contested. Matches were held on 28 May, 31 May, and 2 June. Five teams competed. Most of the teams were of mixed nationality, with British and French athletes competing on three teams. There was no playoff for third place.
Background
The "Olympic" polo tournament, or the "Grand Prix International d'Exposition", was one of multiple polo tournaments played in Paris in late May and early June 1900. It was the first time that polo was played at the Olympics; the sport would appear again in 1908, 1920, 1924, and 1936. Each time, the tournament was for men only.
Competition format
The competition was a single elimination tournament, with no third place match. Teams did not have to consist of entirely players from a single nation at the time, with most of the teams competing being mixed. Further, players were apparently permitted to play for multiple teams during the same tournament, as Maurice Raoul-Duval played for both Bagatelle and Compiègne.
Participating nations
A total of 20 players from 4 nations competed at the Paris Games:
Results
Rosters
Foxhunters Hurlingham
BLO Polo Club Rugby
Bagatelle Polo Club de Paris
Mexico National Polo Team
Compiègne Polo Club
Medal table
All four medals were won by mixed teams. Great Britain had competitors on the gold, the silver and one of the bronze medal teams, the United States on the gold, the silver medal teams and one of the bronze medal teams. France had players on the silver and one of the bronze medal teams, while Mexico had three players on the other bronze medal team.
Notes
References
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Polo 1900". Accessed 25 February 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 in polo
1900 Summer Olympics events
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|
228633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem%20%28disambiguation%29 | Bethlehem (disambiguation) | Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, identified as the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth.
Bethlehem may also refer to:
Places
Ireland
Bethlehem, County Westmeath, a townland in Kilkenny West civil parish
Israel
Bethlehem of Galilee
Netherlands
Bethlehem, Groningen
New Zealand
Bethlehem, New Zealand, an area within the city of Tauranga
Palestine
Bethlehem Governorate
South Africa
Bethlehem, Free State
Switzerland
Bethlehem, a quarter in the Bümpliz-Oberbottigen district of Berne
United Kingdom
Bethlehem, Carmarthenshire
Bethlehem, Pembrokeshire
United States
Bethlehem, Connecticut
Bethlehem, Florida
Bethlehem, Georgia
Bethlehem, Indiana
Bethlehem, Kentucky
Bethlehem, Louisiana
Bethlehem, Maryland
Bethlehem, Massachusetts, formerly a constituent part of Otis, Massachusetts
Bethlehem, Mississippi
Bethlehem, New Hampshire, a town
Bethlehem (CDP), New Hampshire, a census-designated place within the town
Bethlehem, New York
Bethlehem, Alexander County, North Carolina
Bethlehem, Ohio, an unincorporated community in Richland County
Bethlehem, Marion County, Ohio, a ghost town
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
Episcopal Diocese of Bethlehem
Bethlehem, Tennessee
Bethlehem, West Virginia, in Ohio County
Bethlehem, Harrison County, West Virginia
Music
Bethlehem (band), a German extreme metal band, or their 1992 demo album
Bethlehem (Christian band), a 1970s American band
Bethlehem Records, a defunct American jazz record label
Bethlehem (Brian McKnight album), 1998
Bethlehem (The Original Sins album) or the title song, 1996
Bethlehem, an album by Kari Jobe, 2007
"Bethlehem", a song by Declan McKenna from What Do You Think About the Car?, 2017
"Bethlehem", a song by Duplex! from Ablum by Duplex!, 2005
"Bethlehem", a song from the 1996 musical Martin Guerre by Claude-Michel Schönberg
Other uses
Bethlehem (film), a 2013 Israeli film
Bethlehem, Mountain Ash a demolished Calvinistic Methodist chapel in Mountain Ash, Glamorgan, Wales
Bethlehem Chapel, a chapel in Prague
Bethlehem Fairfield Shipyard, an American shipyard
Bethlehem Steel, an American steel-producer
Bethlehem Sparrows Point Shipyard, an American shipyard
Bethlehem, a meteorite fall of 1859 in Bethlehem, New York, United States
Bethlehem, another name for nativity scene
See also
Belem (disambiguation)
Bethlehem Old Work, U.S. Virgin Islands
Bethlehem Township (disambiguation), various townships in the United States
Bethlem Royal Hospital, a mental institution near London that became the source of the English word bedlam | [
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|
228637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Christoph%20Eucken | Rudolf Christoph Eucken | Rudolf Christoph Eucken (; 5 January 184615 September 1926) was a German philosopher. He received the 1908 Nobel Prize for Literature "in recognition of his earnest search for truth, his penetrating power of thought, his wide range of vision, and the warmth and strength in presentation with which in his numerous works he has vindicated and developed an idealistic philosophy of life", after he had been nominated by a member of the Swedish Academy.
Early life
Eucken was born on 5 January 1846 in Aurich, then in the Kingdom of Hanover (now Lower Saxony). His father, Ammo Becker Eucken (1792–1851) died when he was a child, and he was brought up by his mother, Ida Maria (1814–1872, née Gittermann). He was educated at Aurich, where one of his teachers was the classical philologist and philosopher Ludwig Wilhelm Maximilian Reuter (1803–1881). He studied at Göttingen University (1863–66), where Hermann Lotze was one of his teachers, and Berlin University. In the latter place, Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg was a professor whose ethical tendencies and historical treatment of philosophy greatly attracted him.
Career
Eucken received his Ph.D. in classical philology and ancient history at Göttingen University in 1866 with a dissertation under the title De Aristotelis dicendi ratione. However, the inclination of his mind was definitely towards the philosophical side of theology. In 1871, after five years working as a school teacher at Husum, Berlin und Frankfurt, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy at the University of Basel, Switzerland, succeeding another of his former teachers at Göttingen, Gustav Teichmüller. He stayed there until 1874 when he took up a similar position at the University of Jena. He stayed there until he retired in 1920. In 1912–13, Eucken spent half of the year as an exchange professor at Harvard University, and in 1913 he served as a Deem lecturer at New York University. During World War I, Eucken, like many of his academic colleagues, took a strong line in favour of the causes with which his country had associated itself.
Ethical activism
Eucken's philosophical work is partly historical and partly constructive, the former side being predominant in his earlier, the latter in his later works. Their most striking feature is the close organic relationship between the two parts. The aim of the historical works is to show the necessary connection between philosophical concepts and the age to which they belong; the same idea is at the root of his constructive speculation. All philosophy is philosophy of life, the development of a new culture, not mere intellectualism, but the application of a vital religious inspiration to the practical problems of society. This practical idealism Eucken described by the term "ethical activism." In accordance with this principle, Eucken gave considerable attention to social and educational problems.
He maintained that humans have souls, and that they are therefore at the junction between nature and spirit. He believed that people should overcome their non-spiritual nature by continuous efforts to achieve a spiritual life, another aspect of his ethical activism and meaning of life.
Later life and death
Rudolf Eucken married Irene Passow (1863–1941) in 1882 and had a daughter and two sons. His son Walter Eucken became a famous founder of ordoliberal thought in economics. His son Arnold Eucken was a chemist and physicist.
Rudolf Eucken died on 15 September 1926 in Jena at the age of 80.
Major works
He was a prolific writer; his best-known works are:
Die Lebensanschauungen der großen Denker (1890; 7th ed., 1907; 1918; Eng. trans., W. Hough and Boyce Gibson, The Problem of Human Life, 1909) (The Problem of Human Life as Viewed by the Great Thinkers)
Der Kampf um einen geistigen Lebensinhalt (1896) (The Struggle for a Spiritual Content of Life)
Der Wahrheitsgehalt der Religion (1901) (The Truth of Religion)
Grundlinien einer neuen Lebensanschauung (1907) (Life's Basis and Life's Ideal: The Fundamentals of a New Philosophy of Life)
Der Sinn und Wert des Lebens (1908) (The Meaning and Value of Life)
Geistige Strömungen der Gegenwart (1908; first appeared in 1878 as Die Grundbegriffe der Gegenwart; Eng. trans. by M. Stuart Phelps, New York, 1880) (Main Currents of Modern Thought)
Können wir noch Christen sein? (1911) (Can We Still Be Christians?, 1914)
Present Day Ethics in their Relation to the Spiritual Life (1913) (Deem Lectures given at New York University)
Der Sozialismus und seine Lebensgestaltung (1920) (Socialism: an Analysis (1922))
Other notable works are:
Die Methode der aristotelischen Forschung (1872) (The Aristotelian Method of Research)
Geschichte der philosophische Terminologie (1879) (History of Philosophical Terminology)
Prolegomena zu Forschungen über die Einheit des Geisteslebens (1885) (Prolegomena to Research on the Unity of the Spiritual Life)
Beiträge zur Geschichte der neueren Philosophie (1886, 1905) (Contributions to the History of the Newer Philosophies)
Die Einheit des Geisteslebens (1888) (The Unity of the Spiritual Life)
Thomas von Aquino und Kant (1901) (Thomas Aquinas and Kant)
Gesammelte Aufsätze zu Philosophische und Lebensanschauung (1903) (Collected Essays on Views of Philosophy and Life)
Philosophie der Geschichte (1907) (Philosophy of History)
Einführung in die Philosophie der Geisteslebens (1908; Eng. trans., The Life of the Spirit, F. L. Pogson, 1909, Crown Theological Library) (Introduction to the Philosophy of the Life of the Spirit)
Hauptprobleme der Religionsphilosophie der Gegenwart (1907) (Main Problems of the Current Philosophy of Religion)
Other English translations of his work include:
Liberty in Teaching in the German Universities (1897)
Are the Germans still a Nation of Thinkers? (1898)
Progress of Philosophy in the 19th Century (1899)
The Finnish Question (1899)
The Present Status of Religion in Germany (1901)
The Problem of Human Life as Viewed by the Great Thinkers from Plato to the Present Time, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909.
Back to Religion, 1912.
Main Currents of Modern Thought: A Study of the Spiritual and Intellectual Movements of the Present Day, T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.
The Meaning and Value of Life, A. and C. Black, 1913.
Can we Still be Christians?, The Macmillan Company, 1914.
Collected Essays, T. Fisher Unwin, 1914.
Knowledge and Life (translation), G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1914.
He delivered lectures in England in 1911 and spent six months lecturing at Harvard University and elsewhere in the United States in 1912–1913.
References
Further reading
Beck, Friedrich Alfred. Rudolf Eucken, Deutsche Buch-Gemeinschaft, 1927.
Booth, Meyrick. Rudolf Eucken: His Philosophy and Influence, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913.
Feuling, Daniel. "Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy," The Dublin Review, Vol. CLV, July/October, 1914.
Gibson, W. R. Boyce. Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy of Life, A. & C. Black, 1915.
Jones, Abel J. Rudolf Eucken: A Philosophy of Life, T. C. & E. C. Jack, 1913.
Jones, W. Tudor. Rudolf Eucken: His Life and Philosophy,'' Haldeman-Julius Co., 1920.
MacSwiney, Margaret Mary. Rudolf Eucken and the Spiritual Life, National Capital Press, 1915.
External links
Eucken, Rudolf Christoph at Nobel-winners.com
List of Works
1846 births
1926 deaths
German male writers
German Nobel laureates
German philosophers
German spiritualists
Harvard University staff
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Moral philosophers
Nobel laureates in Literature
People from Aurich
People from the Kingdom of Hanover
University of Göttingen alumni
University of Jena faculty | [
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|
228638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Romano | Ray Romano | Raymond Albert Romano (born December 21, 1957) is an American stand-up comedian, actor and screenwriter. He is best known for his role as Ray Barone on the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond, for which he received an Emmy Award, and as the voice of Manny in the Ice Age film series. He created and starred in the TNT comedy-drama Men of a Certain Age (2009–2011). From 2012 to 2015, Romano had a recurring role as Hank Rizzoli, a love interest of Sarah Braverman in the NBC series Parenthood. More recently, he co-starred in the romantic comedy The Big Sick (2017) and portrayed mob lawyer Bill Bufalino in Martin Scorsese's epic crime film The Irishman (2019). Since 2017, Romano has portrayed Rick Moreweather in the Epix comedy-drama series Get Shorty.
Early life
Romano was born in Queens, New York City, the second son of Luciana "Lucie" (née Fortini), a piano teacher, and Albert Romano (1925 – 2010), a real estate agent and engineer. He is of Italian descent. He grew up in the Forest Hills neighborhood of Queens. He has an older brother, Richard (born 1956), a sergeant with the NYPD, and a younger brother, Robert (born c. 1966), a second grade teacher in New York City.
Romano attended elementary and middle school at Our Lady Queen of Martyrs in Forest Hills. After transferring from Archbishop Molloy High School, Romano graduated from Hillcrest High School in 1975. He was in the same high school class as Fran Drescher. Before getting into show business, Romano briefly attended Queens College, in Flushing, New York, where he studied accounting.
Career
His early comedy career started when he competed in the Johnnie Walker Comedy Search in 1989 directed by Saturday Night Live short film producer Neal Marshad and appeared on The Comedy Channel. His career included many outlets, such as Comedy Central, where he had been a recurring guest voice on the show Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist. He also was a contestant on Star Search in the stand-up comedy category. He originally was cast to play Joe (originally named Rick) on the American television sitcom NewsRadio, but was fired and replaced by Joe Rogan. He then appeared on Late Show with David Letterman doing his stand up routine which formed his ties with CBS. Shortly thereafter, he became the star of his own show, Everybody Loves Raymond on CBS, that featured a cast and format more suitable to Romano's brand of humor. His work on the series earned him six Primetime Emmy Award nominations as Outstanding Lead actor in a Comedy Series, a category he won in 2002. He also shared two Emmy Awards as an executive producer when his show won as Outstanding Comedy Series in 2003 and 2005.
Romano performed the opening monologue at the 1998 White House Correspondents' Association dinner.
Romano and his comedian friend Kevin James starred in the salesman comedy Grilled as two Average Joes of the same profession who are both desperate to land a big sale.
Romano was featured on a 2000 episode of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, on which he won $125,000 for the NYPD's D.A.R.E. unit. The following year, he and one of his brothers appeared on a New York Police Department recruiting poster.
In 2004, Romano became the highest-paid television actor in history for his role of Raymond on CBS's Everybody Loves Raymond. The show broke another record by having the highest revenue, at $3.9 billion.
On December 13, 2003, Romano was a guest star, sending a birthday card to Bob Barker for Barkers 80th birthday on the 27th "Million Dollar Spectacular" special of the CBS game show The Price Is Right.
Romano was the subject of the documentary film 95 Miles to Go. The film documents Romano's road trip for a series of rides across the south of the United States. The film was released in theaters on April 7, 2010, by ThinkFilm. In August 2006 Romano was interviewed in front of a live audience at UCLA by fellow stand-up veteran David Steinberg, for an episode of Sit Down Comedy with David Steinberg. The program first aired on the TV Land network in March 2007.
Romano returned to television with a new dramedy for TNT in 2008, Men of a Certain Age, which he co-created with former Everybody Loves Raymond writer Mike Royce. It co-starred Scott Bakula and Andre Braugher.
Romano made an appearance in the seventh season of NBC series The Office as Merv Bronte, a nervous job applicant interviewing for the job left vacant by Michael Scott.
Romano made an appearance in the third-season premiere of ABC sitcom The Middle as Nicky, a friend of Mike, who ruined his and Frankie's honeymoon. Romano was the second actor from Everybody Loves Raymond to be reunited with Patricia Heaton on The Middle. Doris Roberts guest-starred in three episodes.
He joined the cast of Parenthood beginning with its fourth season premiere. He became a semi-regular, playing photographer Hank Rizzoli, who hired and later had a romantic relationship with Sarah Braverman and developed a friendship with her nephew who has Asperger syndrome. The role was specifically created for him after he expressed his love for the series and met with creator Jason Katims on the set of Friday Night Lights.
In 2002, Romano voiced the woolly mammoth Manfred (Manny) in the film Ice Age, and its sequels Ice Age: The Meltdown in 2006, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009, Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012, and Ice Age: Collision Course in 2016.
Currently, Romano is a leading man on the Epix comedy series Get Shorty.
In 2019, Romano starred in the Netflix comedy film Paddleton and portrayed mob lawyer Bill Bufalino in Martin Scorsese's The Irishman.
Competitions
Romano competed in the World Series of Poker in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2015.
In early 2010, Romano starred in the second season of The Golf Channel's original series The Haney Project in which Tiger Woods' former coach Hank Haney attempts to improve the golf games of different celebrities and athletes. Romano's goal was to finish the show being able to break 80. Romano took time off from the show to be with his father, Albert Romano, who died in March 2010. Romano is also a regular competitor in the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am, where he finished fifth in 2012 with his partner, Australian professional Steven Bowditch. It was the first time Romano had qualified for the final round after failing to do so on 11 successive occasions. He also competes annually in the American Century Championship, a celebrity golf tournament owned by NBC and held at Lake Tahoe each July.
Personal life
Romano married his wife, Anna Scarpulla, in 1987. They met while working at a bank together. Romano's character's daughter on Everybody Loves Raymond was named after his real-life daughter, Alexandra "Ally" Romano. Also, in the series pilot, Ray and Debra's twin boys were named Gregory and Matthew, after Romano's real-life twin sons, but Romano felt it was inconvenient to have all his television children have the same names as his real children, and changed the twins' names to Geoffrey and Michael onscreen. He also said his brother was not pleased with Ray Barone's television brother.
Romano's family has made various appearances in the show. Romano's daughter made several appearances on Everybody Loves Raymond as Molly, the best friend of his on-screen daughter, Ally, and the daughter of Ray Barone's nemesis, Peggy the Cookie Lady. Romano's father, Albert Romano, has made various appearances as Albert, one of Frank Barone's lodge buddies in various episodes such as "Debra at the Lodge", and "Boys' Therapy". Romano's brother, Richard Romano, appeared in the episodes "Golf For It", "Just a Formality" and "The Toaster". Romano's wife, Anna, appeared as one of the moms in the background at Geoffrey and Michael's school in season 6's episode titled "The Angry Family."
In February 2012, Romano revealed that his wife, Anna, had successfully battled stage one breast cancer in 2010. Romano told People magazine that "the reason we're going public is to share our experience, yeah, but to have an effect. Our goal is to help people."
Romano was close friends with Doris Roberts, who played his character's mother on Everybody Loves Raymond. At the time of her death, Romano said he was inspired by her desire to continue learning throughout her life. She also served as a mentor, helping him to feel more comfortable on set.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Writing credits
Everybody Loves Raymond
In addition to his roles as star and producer of Everybody Loves Raymond, Romano also co-wrote the following episodes:
Season one
"Why Are We Here?" (with Tom Paris)
Season two
"Golf" (with Tom Caltabiano and Kevin James)
"The Wedding" (with Philip Rosenthal)
Season three
"Ray Home Alone" (with Tucker Cawley)
"How They Met" (with Philip Rosenthal)
Season four
"Debra's Workout" (with Tom Caltabiano and Mike Royce)
"Bad Moon Rising" (with Philip Rosenthal)
Season five
"Super Bowl" (with Mike Royce)
Season six
"Jealous Robert" (with Tom Caltabiano)
"Talk to Your Daughter" (with Tucker Cawley)
"The First Time" (with Tom Caltabiano and Mike Royce)
Season seven
"She's the One" (with Philip Rosenthal)
"The Bachelor Party" (with Mike Royce and Tom Caltabiano)
Season nine
"Angry Sex" (with Lew Schneider and Mike Scully)
"The Finale" (with Philip Rosenthal, Tucker Cawley, Lew Schneider, Steve Skrovan, Jeremy Stevens, Mike Royce, Aaron Shure, Tom Caltabiano and Leslie Caveny)
Men of a Certain Age
Season one
"Pilot" (with Mike Royce)
"Let It Go" (with Mike Royce)
"Back in the Shit" (teleplay) with Mike Royce
Season two
"If I Could, I Surely Would" (with Mike Royce)
Discography
Live at Carnegie Hall (2001, Columbia) - CD
Bibliography
Everything and a Kite (non-fiction) (1999)
Raymie, Dickie and the Bean (children's) (2005)
Everybody Loves Raymond: Our Family Album (2004)
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1957 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of Italian descent
American stand-up comedians
Archbishop Molloy High School alumni
Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni
Living people
Columbia Records artists
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Forest Hills, Queens
Hillcrest High School alumni (Queens)
Queens College, City University of New York alumni
American poker players
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
American atheists | [
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|
228639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Green | Richard Green | Richard or Rick Green may refer to:
Entertainment
Richard Green (actor) (born 1953), American actor
Richard Green or Grass Green (1939–2002), African American cartoonist
Rick Green (comedian) (born 1953), Canadian comedian
Richard Lancelyn Green (1953–2004), English Sherlock Holmes expert
Richard Greene (1918–1985), British film and television actor
H. Richard Greene, American actor
Politics
Richard Green (politician) (1907–1961), Australian politician and judge
Richard Green (New Zealand)
Rick Green (Texas politician) (born 1971), Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives
Science
Richard Green (astronomer), American
Richard Green (neuropharmacologist) (born 1944), British
Richard Green (sexologist) (1936–2019), American sexologist, physician, lawyer
Richard J. Green (born 1964), American chemist
Sports
Richard Green (cricketer) (born 1976), English cricketer
Richard Green (footballer) (born 1967), English
Richard Green (golfer) (born 1971), Australian golfer
Richard Green (referee) (1937–1983), boxing referee
Richard Green (rower) (1836–1921) sculling champion
Richard Green (soccer) (born 1949), American soccer player
Rick Green (footballer) (born 1952), English
Rick Green (ice hockey) (born 1956), defenceman
Rickey Green (born 1954), American basketball player
Ritchie Green (1925–1999), Australian rules footballer
Other
Richard Green (shipowner) (1803–1863), English philanthropist and shipowner
Richard Green (chancellor) (1936–1989), first black New York City School Chancellor
Richard Green (telecommunication) (born 1936 or 1937), American telecommunications company executive
Richard Green (technologist) (born 1955), Nokia's chief technology officer from 2010 until 2011
Richard Green (soldier) (1980–2002), Canadian soldier killed in 2002 by American friendly fire during a tour in Afghanistan
Richard C. Green (1953–2015), economist
Richard K. Green (born 1959), American economist
Richard Firth Green, Canadian medievalist
Richard G. Green (died 2001), American lawyer who championed civil rights and free speech
Richard Green, interim president, Lincoln University, Pennsylvania
Richard Green (curator), art curator and art historian
See also
Dick Green (disambiguation)
Richard Greene (disambiguation) | [
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|
228642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20form | Final form | In certain languages, the final form is a special character used to represent a letter only when it occurs at the end of a word.
Some languages that use final form characters are: Arabic, Hebrew, Manchu and one letter in Greek ().
The lowercase Latin letter "s" had separate medial (ſ) and final (s) in the orthographies of many European languages from the medieval period to the early 19th century; it survived in the German Fraktur script until the 1940s.
Hebrew
In the Hebrew alphabet the final form is called sofit (, meaning "final" or "ending").
This set of letters is known acronymically as (מ,נ,צ,פ,ך letters).
The now final forms predate their non-final counterparts; They were the default forms used in any position within a word. Their descender eventually bent forwards when preceding another letter to facilitate writing. A final form of these letters is also called pshuta (, meaning extended or plain).
The letter Mem also had a descender , however, its current final form was a variant of used interchangeably in all positions. The standardization is mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud (Megillah 2b-3a and Shabbas 104a). One instance of a medial is preserved in Isaiah 9:6 of the Hebrew Bible, while Nehemiah 2:13 and arguably Genesis 49:19-20 have a final .
Modern Hebrew uses the forms finally, when transcribing a plosive pronunciation, for example (microscope), (Mubarak, ).
References
Writing systems
Orthography
Letters with final form | [
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228648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20J.%20Foyt | A. J. Foyt | Anthony Joseph Foyt Jr. (born January 16, 1935) is an American retired auto racing driver who has raced in numerous genres of motorsports. His open wheel racing includes United States Automobile Club Champ cars, sprint cars, and midget cars. He raced stock cars in NASCAR and USAC. He won several major sports car racing events. He holds the USAC career wins record with 159 victories, and the American championship racing career wins record with 67.
He is the only driver to win the Indianapolis 500 (which he won four times—1961, 1964, 1967 and 1977), the Daytona 500, the 24 Hours of Daytona, and the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Foyt won the International Race of Champions all-star racing series in 1976 and 1977. In the NASCAR stock car circuit, he won the 1964 Firecracker 400 and the 1972 Daytona 500. Foyt survived three major crashes that caused serious injuries, and narrowly escaped a fourth. Foyt's success has led to induction in numerous motorsports halls of fame.
In the mid-1960s, Foyt became a team owner, fielding cars for himself and other drivers. Since retiring from active race driving, he has owned A. J. Foyt Enterprises, which has fielded teams in the CART, IRL, and NASCAR.
Early life
Foyt was born in Houston, Texas, to Anthony (Tony) Foyt Sr. and Emma Evelyn Monk Foyt. His father was an auto mechanic who owned and raced midget race cars as a hobby. Foyt's father built A.J. a toy racer with a lawnmower engine when he was five years old. Tony recalled that when he and his wife left an eleven-year-old A.J. home to attend a race, they returned to find the boy had done considerable damage to the home driving the family's other race car in the yard, and had caused the car's engine to catch on fire. While angry, the older Foyt did accept the likelihood of A.J. having a future as a driver. A.J. attended Pershing and Hamilton middle schools and Lamar, San Jacinto and St. Thomas Catholic high schools, but he dropped out to become a mechanic and spend more time concentrating on racing. When he obtained a driver's license, Foyt purchased a used Oldsmobile and practiced the mechanical skills he had learned working on his father's cars on it. He also began street racing with the car until discovered by his father.
Driving career
Midget car career
Foyt began racing midgets in 1953 at age 18 in a car owned and maintained by his father. He started his USAC career in a midget car at the 1956 Night before the 500 in Anderson, Indiana. His first midget car win was at a 100 lap event at Kansas City in 1957, and finished seventh in the season points standings. He left midget cars after the 1957 season to drive in sprint cars and Championship Car. He did occasionally compete in midget car events. He won the 1960 and 1961 Turkey Night Grand Prix, the first two years that it was held at Ascot Park. He won the 1961 Hut Hundred after starting last, and finished seventh in National Midget points that year. He won the 1970 Astro Grand Prix, an event that he promoted in his hometown of Houston. He ended his career with 20 midget car feature wins. Even after he had reached the pinnacle of his sport, Foyt was known to make occasional appearances in small, local events as a way of thanking promoters who had supported him in his struggle up the ladder.
In 1975 and 1976, Foyt won the Australian Speedcar Grand Prix at the Liverpool International Speedway in Sydney when the speedway had an asphalt surface. (In Australia Midgets are called Speedcars.)
Sprint car career
Foyt began his sprint car career in 1956, at age 21, driving the Les Vaughn Offy with the International Motor Contest Association. On August 24, 1956, Foyt outqualified a field of 42 drivers at the Minnesota State Fair and, the following day, he won his first sprint car race, running away with the IMCA feature at the Red River Fair in Fargo, N.D. On June 16, 1957, on the high banked asphalt track at Salem, Indiana, Foyt came out on top in a race-long battle with Bob Cleberg. That victory put Foyt on the radar for USAC car owners and he switched from the IMCA to USAC later that season. Foyt eventually won 28 USAC National sprint car feature races and the USAC Eastern Championship in 1960. Foyt continued to race sprint cars long after he was firmly established as one of the top drivers at the Indy 500.
Championship car career
In 1958, he made his debut at Indy, but he spun out of the race on lap 148. In 1961, he became the first driver to successfully defend his points championship and win the Indianapolis 500 race. Late in the 500, Foyt made a pit stop for fuel, but a refueling malfunction meant that he returned to the race without enough fuel to finish. Eddie Sachs, unaware that Foyt's now-quicker car was light on fuel, pushed hard to keep up—and Sachs had to pit from the lead with just three laps remaining to replace a shredded right rear tire. Foyt pitted again also but only for enough fuel to finish. He took over the lead and beat Sachs by just 8.28 seconds—the second-closest finish in history at the time. He raced in each season from 1957 to 1992, starting in 374 races and finishing in the top ten 201 times, with 67 victories. In 1958, Foyt raced in Italy in the Trophy of the Two Worlds on the banking at Monza.
Ford-powered entries were widely expected to dominate the 1964 Indianapolis 500. Discussions between Ford officials and Foyt (who had a stock car contract with Ford at the time) took place early in the month of May about the possibility of Foyt taking over the third Team Lotus-Ford, a team reserve vehicle. Foyt wanted the use of the car for the entire month, but Lotus team owner Colin Chapman was reluctant to promise him the reserve car, in case something happened to cars driven by team drivers Jim Clark and Dan Gurney.
So discussions ended and Foyt stayed with his reliable, well-sorted Offenhauser-engined roadster. In the 1964 season, Foyt won a record 10 of 14 races en route to his championship, including the Indy 500. When the two fastest Lotus-Fords, driven by Jim Clark and Bobby Marshman, fell out of the race with mechanical problems, and Parnelli Jones was knocked out when his fuel tank exploded during a pit stop, Foyt was left alone at the front of the field, and cruised home to win his second Indianapolis 500. The race is remembered for the fiery second-lap crash that claimed the lives of Dave MacDonald and Eddie Sachs. Foyt did not learn of the fate of his two friends until he reached victory lane, and was handed a newspaper with a headline announcing the tragedy.
In August 1965, at the Milwaukee Championship Car race, Foyt's rear-engined Lotus pavement car was not at the track. So Foyt unloaded the Offenhauser-engined dirt track car he had won the race with at Springfield the previous day. He sprayed the mud off the car, installed pavement tires and a set-up for the one mile (1.6 km) oval. Foyt received permission to take two extra warm up laps during qualifying, as he had no time for practice. He then qualified the car on the pole, led the race for 18 out of 200 laps but then had to stop for a new rear tire, and finished second to Gordon Johncock, driving a rear-engined Gerhardt-Offy Indy car.
In the 1967 Indianapolis 500, Parnelli Jones' STP-Paxton Turbocar was expected to easily defeat the field of piston engines. Jones lapped the field, but his car expired with three laps remaining, and Foyt inherited the lead. As Foyt moved through turn four on the 200th lap, he had a premonition of trouble and slowed down. A few hundred yards ahead of him, Carl Williams spun out as he exited turn four, triggering a five-car front-stretch accident right in front of Foyt. Traveling at no more than 100 mph, Foyt threaded his way through the wreckage and safely took the checkered flag. The race took two days to complete when rain stopped the race on the 18th lap on the first day.
In the 1977 Indianapolis 500, Foyt ran out of fuel, and had to make a pit stop. He had to make up around 32 seconds on Gordon Johncock. Foyt made up 1.5 to 2 seconds per lap by turning up his turbo boost, which risked destroying the engine. Johncock's own engine expired just as Foyt had closed to within eight seconds after both drivers' final pit stops, and Foyt passed for the win.
In 1981, Foyt was involved in an accident at the Michigan 500 and nearly lost an arm. It took him a while to get back to full fitness; and at the Indy 500 the following year he qualified third.
Foyt won the Indianapolis 500 four times, in 1961, 1964, 1967 and 1977. He is the first driver to have done so. The feat has since been matched by Al Unser (1970, 1971, 1978, 1987); Rick Mears (1979, 1984, 1988, 1991); and, Helio Castroneves (2001, 2002, 2009, and 2021). Of his 67 career Championship Car race victories, twelve were won at Trenton Speedway. Foyt also won the Indycar Series seven times, a record that still stands. Foyt qualified for the Indy 500 an amazing 35 times consecutively.
In the 1982 Indianapolis 500, Foyt started on the front row but on the pace laps he was victimized by a controversial wreck when 2nd-year driver Kevin Cogan suddenly spun out for no apparent reason. Seven cars were involved in the incident including Foyt and Mario Andretti, who was unable to continue. Foyt was livid with Cogan and famously said "That damn Coogan," on live radio, and when asked by Chris Economaki in a TV interview what had happened, Foyt shouted, "I don't know, he just ran right square into my Goddamn left front! (Economaki: "Who are you talking about?") Cogan!" Foyt repaired his car during the red flag and led the first quarter of the race but dropped out due to lingering damage from the crash.
In a 1990 CART race at Road America in Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin Foyt's car left the track and plowed straight through a dirt embankment, severely injuring his legs and feet. After multiple surgeries and months of physiotherapy he returned for the 1991 Indianapolis 500 and qualified second. He had announced his retirement before the race but changed his mind after being caught up in an early incident. He returned for a 35th consecutive start at the 1992 Indianapolis 500 and avoided all of the day's numerous crashes to finish ninth.
Sports car racing
Foyt is famous for winning the prestigious 24 Hours of Le Mans race in his first and only attempt, in 1967; Foyt drove a Ford GT40 Mk IV, partnered with Dan Gurney and entered by Carroll Shelby's team. Prior to the race, he had angered the French fans and press by remarking that the notoriously fast and dangerous tree-lined course was "nothin' but a little old country road." Also, he reportedly only got 10 laps of pre-race practice. But when Gurney overslept and missed a driver change in the middle of the night, Foyt was forced to double-stint and wound up driving nearly 18 hours of the 24-hour race. Foyt also later won the 12 Hours of Sebring and 24 Hours of Daytona in 1985 driving Porsches, making him one of only 12 drivers to complete the "triple crown" of endurance racing.
Stock car career
USAC Stock Car
He was the champion in USAC's stock car in 1968, 1978, and 1979. He finished second in 1963 and 1969, and third in 1970. Among his wins in USAC stock car racing was his 1964 win at the Billy Vukovich Memorial 200 at Hanford Speedway in California. He also was a multiple winner in USAC stockers at Milwaukee, Texas World Speedway, and Michigan International Speedway.
NASCAR
Foyt, a veteran who had been racing professionally for eight seasons before trying his hand at NASCAR racing, only needed ten races to get his first victory. Richard Petty dominated the 1964 Firecracker 400 until he dropped out with engine problems. Foyt swapped the lead with Bobby Isaac for the final 50 laps of the summer event at the Daytona International Speedway. Foyt passed Isaac on the final lap to win the race.
In January 1965, Foyt qualified and ran in the front of the pack most of the day with Dan Gurney and Parnelli Jones in the Motor Trend 500 at Riverside. Parnelli retired with mechanical issues, leaving Gurney and Foyt to contest the lead. Late in the race, dueling with Gurney, Foyt spun. His car refired, and he charged through the field in an attempt to regain lost positions. After running hard to catch leader Gurney, Foyt's brakes failed entering turn nine at the end of Riverside's mile-long, downhill back straight. Foyt turned the car into the infield at more than 100 mph, was launched off an embankment, dropped into a lower area and slammed into a sandy embankment, violently tumbling end-over-end several times. The track doctor at Riverside International Raceway pronounced Foyt dead at the scene of the severe crash, but fellow driver Parnelli Jones revived him after seeing movement. Foyt suffered severe chest injuries, a broken back, and a fractured ankle. Footage of his flipping No. 00 Ford, owned by Holman Moody, is featured in the final scene of the movie Red Line 7000.
Foyt ran out of gas near the end of the 1971 Daytona 500, and Petty passed him for the win. Foyt again had the car to beat in the 1972 Daytona 500, but this time succeeded in a dominant performance. Only three drivers led during the race. In 1979 at the Daytona 500, Foyt was running in fifth place, but when Cale Yarborough and Donnie Allison had their famous tangle on the final lap, Foyt finished in the third spot behind Darrell Waltrip and Richard Petty who again won the race. When Foyt pulled up next to Petty after the checkers to congratulate him, he was called "a true gentleman" during the broadcast.
Foyt won the 1971 and 1972 races at the Ontario Motor Speedway for Wood Brothers Racing. The track was shaped like the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. The 1972 race was his last NASCAR points win; his final win in a NASCAR race was in the first of Daytona's 125-mile qualifying heats in 1978, driving a self-fielded superspeedway Buick.
In 1988 Foyt was banned from NASCAR for six months and fined $5,000 following a series of incidents during the Winston 500 at Talladega Superspeedway. NASCAR’s vice president of competition Les Richter reviewed the incident and lifted the suspension. However, his fine was raised to $7,500.
Foyt's final NASCAR Winston Cup Series race was the 1994 Brickyard 400, the inaugural running of that race. Foyt finished 30th, four laps behind winner Jeff Gordon. Foyt entered the race again in 1995 and 1996, but failed to qualify both times. In 1995, his attempt was stymied when rain washed out second round time trials.
Foyt ended up racing three times in the early days of the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series, with a best finish of 18th coming in the 1995 GM Goodwrench / Delco Battery 200, a race for which he qualified ninth.
Career summary
Foyt drove in the Indianapolis 500 for 35 consecutive years, winning it four times (the first of only four to have done so).
Foyt is the only driver to have won the Indy 500 in both front and rear-engined cars, having won twice with both configurations.
Foyt is the only driver to have won the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Indianapolis 500 the same year (1967).
He is the only person to have recorded victories in the Indianapolis 500, the Daytona 500 stock car race, the 24 Hours of Daytona (1983 and 1985 with co-driver Bob Wollek), the 24 Hours of Le Mans international sports car endurance race in Le Mans, France, as well as the 12 Hours of Sebring (his last major professional win, in 1985, with co-driver Bob Wollek).
He is one of only 12 drivers to have completed the Triple Crown of endurance racing (victories in the 12 Hours of Sebring, 24 Hours of Daytona and 24 Hours of Le Mans).
He also has 41 USAC Stock Car wins and 50 Sprint Car, Midget, and Dirt Champ Car wins.
He won the 1975 and 1976 Australian Speedcar Grand Prix at the Liverpool International Speedway in Sydney (in Australia midgets are called Speedcars).
He has won 12 total major driving championships in various categories.
His USAC wins tally is a record 138 (The late Rich Vogler is second with 132.)
Foyt won the 1976 and 1977 IROC championships.
Foyt won seven NASCAR races.
Foyt and Mario Andretti are the only drivers to have won both the Indianapolis and Daytona 500s.
Foyt is the last living driver, who started in the Races of Two Worlds. In 1958 Event at Autodromo Nazionale Monza, he, then virtually unknown rookie of USAC, replaced Maurice Trintignant in Sclavi & Amos car #55 after heat 1.
Foyt holds the closed course speed record driving the Oldsmobile Aerotech at an average speed of . He set the record on 27 August 1987 at a 7.712-mile (12.411 km) test track near Fort Stockton, Texas.
Despite having won more USAC sanctioned events than any other driver Foyt never won a CART sanctioned event.
Awards
Foyt was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2000.
Foyt was named in NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers list in 1998.
He was named in the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in 1990.
He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America as the only open wheel driver in the first class of 1989.
He was inducted into the National Midget Auto Racing Hall of Fame in 1988.
He was inducted into the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 1978.
Indianapolis 500 records
Foyt has numerous career records at the Indianapolis 500: the first of to date four drivers to have won a record four times, the most consecutive and career starts (35), most races led (13), most times led during the career (39), and most competitive laps and miles during a career (4,909 laps, 12,272.5 miles).
In the 1961 Indianapolis 500 Foyt won over Eddie Sachs with a lead of 8.28 seconds, the second closest finish in Indianapolis history at the time. Shortly thereafter, Foyt and Ray Harroun (who won the first Indianapolis 500 in 1911) appeared together on a segment of the TV program I've Got a Secret—their secret being their respective wins 50 years apart.
As of June 2018, Foyt stands as not only the second-oldest living winner of the Indianapolis 500 (only Parnelli Jones is older), but the oldest with the earliest win (1961).
Car owner
While an active driver, Foyt entered into a longtime partnership with Kalamazoo, Michigan businessman Jim Gilmore, and raced under the Gilmore-Foyt Racing name for many years. The team built its own Coyote chassis from 1966 to 1983.
After retiring as a driver, he continued his involvement in racing as a car owner of A. J. Foyt Enterprises in the CART series, then the Indy Racing League (IRL) and NASCAR.
Scott Sharp took a share of the 1996 Indy Racing League (IRL) title driving for Foyt while Kenny Bräck won the 1998 IRL title, also in a Foyt car. Bräck won the 1999 Indianapolis 500 in Foyt's car, putting Foyt in the winner's circle at Indy for the fifth time. The current drivers for his Indycar team, A. J. Foyt Enterprises, are Sebastian Bourdais and Dalton Kellet.
On June 7, 1997, Foyt (as an owner) was involved in an incident that added to his reputation as a man of little patience. One of his drivers, Billy Boat, had been declared the winner of the inaugural IRL race at Texas Motor Speedway that had been held that night, and his other driver, Davey Hamilton, had come in second. However, Dutch driver Arie Luyendyk disputed Boat's win, claiming that he was in the lead when a scoring error by USAC (who had scored all IRL races up until that time) gave Boat the checkered flag. When Luyendyk entered victory lane after the race to confront TMS general manager Eddie Gossage about the finish uttering obscenities, an irate Foyt approached Luyendyk from behind and slapped and shoved him into a tulip bed (coincidentally given Luyendyk's Dutch nationality). Luyendyk then requested a review of the race; a few days later, USAC reversed its position and declared Luyendyk the winner; Foyt kept the victory lane-awarded trophy. Following the controversy, the IRL relieved USAC of the scoring duties for its events.
Family
Jerry Foyt is the son of A.J. Foyt IV. Foyt is the grandfather of A. J. Foyt IV. Foyt is the grandfather and adoptive father of Larry Foyt. He is also the godfather of driver John Andretti. When not busy with the racing season, A.J. Foyt likes to spend time at the family Ranch, The Foyt Ranches located in Hockley, Texas and Del Rio, Texas.
The Foyts are also, via marriage, part of the ownership group of the Indianapolis Colts. A. J. Foyt IV is married to the daughter of Colts owner Jim Irsay.
Racing record
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)
USAC results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
CART
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
Indianapolis 500 results
Indianapolis 500 qualifying results
24 Hours of Le Mans results
NASCAR
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)
Grand National Series
Winston Cup Series
Daytona 500
Craftsman Truck Series
International Race of Champions
(key) (Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.)
References
The Greatest 33 Profile
External links
Biography
Official team owner website
Biography at official website (archived)
A. J. Foyt photos
A. J. Foyt: King of the Indy 500
International Motorsports Hall of Fame page (archived)
The Greatest 33
Foyt, A.J. and David Goldstein. A.J. Foyt Oral History, Houston Oral History Project, July 22, 2008.
Living people
1935 births
San Jacinto High School alumni
Lamar High School (Houston, Texas) alumni
Racing drivers from Houston
Bonneville 200 MPH Club members
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans winning drivers
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
Indianapolis 500 drivers
Indianapolis 500 polesitters
Indianapolis 500 winners
Champ Car champions
Champ Car drivers
IndyCar Series team owners
NASCAR drivers
NASCAR team owners
USAC Stock Car drivers
International Race of Champions drivers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
National Sprint Car Hall of Fame inductees
American racehorse owners and breeders
World Sportscar Championship drivers
12 Hours of Sebring drivers
People from Hockley, Texas | [
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|
228654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowing%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Rowing at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, four events in rowing were contested, marking the introduction of the sport to the Olympic program. At the inaugural 1896 Games, the rowing competition was cancelled due to strong winds. The 1900 regatta was held on the Seine between the Courbevoie Bridge and the Asnières Bridge on 25 and 26 August. The length of the regatta course was . Two finals were held in the coxed four competition, with both finals being considered Olympic championships. Thus, there were a total of five rowing championships awarded.
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 108 rowers from 8 nations competed at the Paris Games:
Medal table
Coxswain mystery
In the coxed pair event, the names of the coxswains for six of the seven crews entered are not known. Most of these were young French boys weighing about 25 kg, which the French crews employed to their advantage. The winning Dutch crew decided, after losing their heat, that their own coxswain was too heavy, and they recruited a French boy to steer the boat for the finals. The lad, name unknown, is believed likely to be the youngest Olympic gold medalist ever (previously estimated as between 7 and 10 years of age). Some estimate the boy was likely 12 to 14 years old. One researcher has made a case that this unknown cox could have been Giorgi Nikoladze (1888-1931) of Georgia, a future scientist and promulgator of Georgian sport.
References
Further reading
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Rowing 1900". Accessed 26 February 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
1900 in rowing | [
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|
228658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf%20Schock%20Prizes | Rolf Schock Prizes | The Rolf Schock Prizes were established and endowed by bequest of philosopher and artist Rolf Schock (1933–1986). The prizes were first awarded in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1993 and, since 2005, are awarded every three years. Each recipient currently receives SEK 400,000 (approximately US$60,000). A similar prize is the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy, established by the Inamori Foundation. It is considered the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in Philosophy.
The Prizes are awarded in four categories and decided by committees of three of the Swedish Royal Academies:
Logic and Philosophy (decided by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
Mathematics (decided by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
Visual Arts (decided by the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts)
Musical Arts (decided by the Royal Swedish Academy of Music)
Laureates in Logic and Philosophy
Laureates in Mathematics
Laureates in Visual Arts
Laureates in Musical Arts
See also
Fields Medal
Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy
Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award
Nevanlinna Prize
Nobel Prize
Polar Music Prize
Right Livelihood Award
Turing Award
Lists of awards
List of European art awards
List of mathematics awards
References
External links
Rolf Schock Prize
Visual arts awards
Mathematics awards
Philosophy awards
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Swedish music awards
1993 establishments in Sweden
Awards established in 1993 | [
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|
54247868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20Machinegun%20%28album%29 | Sex Machinegun (album) | SEX MACHINEGUN is the 1st studio album by the Japanese heavy metal band Sex Machineguns.
Track listing
Sex Machinegun
Japan
Scorpion Death Rock
Devil Wing
桜島
High Speed Samurai
ファミレスボンバー
犬の生活
Hanabi-La 大回転
Burn ~愛の炎を燃やせ~
External links
Sex Machinegun at Oricon
SEX MACHINEGUN at Metal Archives
Sex Machineguns albums | [
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|
228661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice%20Statement | Practice Statement | The Practice Statement [1966] 3 All ER 77 was a statement made in the House of Lords by Lord Gardiner LC on 26 July 1966 on behalf of himself and the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, that they would depart from precedent in the Lords in order to achieve justice.
Background
Until the year 1966, the House of Lords in the United Kingdom was bound to follow all of its previous decisions under the principle of stare decisis, even if this created "injustice" and "unduly restrict(s) the proper development of the law" (London Tramways Co. v London County Council [1898] AC 375). The Practice Statement 1966 is authority for the House of Lords to depart from their previous decisions. It does not affect the precedential value of cases in lower courts; all other courts that recognise the Supreme Court (formerly the House of Lords) as the court of last resort are still bound by Supreme Court (and House of Lords) decisions. Before this, the only way a binding precedent could be avoided was to create new legislation on the matter.
A germane example is the case of Anderton v Ryan (1985) where the House of Lords interpreted the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 in such a way as to make the Act virtually ineffective. Only one year later in R v Shivpuri (1986) Lord Bridge (a member of the erroneous majority in Anderton) acknowledged the error and said "the Practice Statement is an effective abandonment of our pretension to infallibility. If a serious error embodied in a decision of this House has been distorted by the law, the sooner it is corrected the better".
By contrast, in Knuller v DPP, Lord Reid, who had previously given a strong dissenting judgment in Shaw v DPP, said while he still disagreed with the majority decision in that case, in the interests of certainty he would not overturn Shaw (even though the Practice Statement had given authority to do so).
Suggestions that a rigid adherence to stare decisis be dropped had been made prior to 1966, initially by Lord Wright in an article for the Cambridge Law Journal in 1943, and by Lord Gardiner and others in the 1963 book, Law Reform Now.
Content
This is the text of the Practice Statement:
— Lord Gardiner's statement in the House of Lords, 26 July 1966.
Reception
Louis Blom-Cooper described the change brought about by the Practice Statement as being as if the Lords "dropped a pebble into the judicial pool that produced not merely a few ripples but also a seismic wave in English juridicial thinking ... the story of that legally historic event displays the carapace of traditional English lawyers' disinclination readily to accept radical change and to the cautious application of such change, once it is ultimately conceded".
Following the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom was established in 2009. It follows the precedent of its predecessor. In Austin v Mayor and Burgesses of the London Borough of Southwark Lord Hope, writing for the majority, comments on the Practice Statement's applicability to the new court:
Invocations in case law
Between 1966 and the replacement of the House of Lords by the Supreme Court in 2010, the Practice Statement was explicitly invoked in 21 cases, including:
Conway v Rimmer, overruling Duncan v Cammell Laird Co
Herrington v British Railways Board, overruling Robert Addie & Sons (Colliers) Ltd v Dumbreck
R v Shivpuri, overruling Anderton v Ryan
R v G, overruling R v Caldwell
Murphy v Brentwood DC, overruling Anns v Merton LBC
See also
Re Spectrum Plus Ltd
Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd—sets out when the Court of Appeal may depart from its own precedent
Notes
1966 in law
1966 in the United Kingdom
Statements (law)
House of Lords
1966 documents
1966 speeches | [
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|
228662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf%20Schock | Rolf Schock | Rolf Schock (; 5 April 1933 – 5 December 1986) was a Swedish–American philosopher and artist, born in Cap-d'Ail, France of German parents.
Biography
Schock was born at Cap-d'Ail on the French Riviera. His parents, who had left Germany, would eventually settle in the United States, where Schock would go on to obtain a bachelor's degree in geology at the University of New Mexico. After completing a bachelor of arts in 1955, he pursued studies in philosophy and logic from 1956 to 1960 at the University of California, first in Berkeley and then in Los Angeles (UCLA), and in 1960 moved to Stockholm, Sweden, to specialize in theoretical philosophy at Stockholm University with a particular interest in free logic. He was awarded an intermediate post-graduate degree in 1964 and a Ph.D.
During the period 1964–1969 he also studied at the University College of Arts, Crafts and Design in Stockholm and he dedicated a lot of his time to painting and photography in addition to conducting research. He led a simple life as an independent scholar who was devoted to researching the field of logic and related areas in philosophy, and never held a permanent position, earning a living by temporary teaching assignments at universities and night-schools. For some years he was affiliated with the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, where he taught a series of courses.
In 1986 Schock was killed in an accident in Berlin. To much surprise he left a large estate. Schock bequeathed half of the funds for prizes in the arts and sciences, and beginning in 1993, Schock Prizes () instituted by his will are awarded every two or three years.
In his later life Schock criticized Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
Selected publications
Logics Without Existence Assumptions (1968)
New Foundations for Concept Theory (1969)
The Inconsistency of the Theory of Relativity (1981)
On the Nature of Time (1983)
References
1933 births
1986 deaths
20th-century Swedish philosophers
Relativity critics
Swedish logicians
Swedish philosophers
Stockholm University alumni
University of New Mexico alumni | [
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|
228663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lies | Lies | Lies may refer to:
Lie, an untruthful statement
Lies (evidence), falsehoods in common law
Geography
Lies, Hautes-Pyrénées, a commune in Occitanie region, France
Lies, Friesland, a village on the island of Terschelling, Friesland, the Netherlands.
Lies, North Brabant, a hamlet in Breda, North Brabant, the Netherlands
Books
Lies (Gone series), the third book of Michael Grant's series
Lies, Inc., an expanded version of the 1964 book The Unteleported Man by Philip K. Dick
Film and television
Lies (1999 film), a South Korean film directed by Jang Sun-wu
Lies (1983 film), a film by Ken and Jim Wheat
Lies (2008 film), a Swedish short film directed by Jonas Odell
"Lies" (The Black Donnellys), a 2007 television episode
"Lies" (Roseanne), a 1992 television episode
Music
L.I.E.S., an American electronic music record label
Albums
Lies (Guns N' Roses album) or G N' R Lies, 1988
Lies, by Blodwyn Pig, 1993
Lies, by Bon Voyage, 2008
Lies, by Heartbreak, 2008
Songs
"Lies" (1931 song), written by Harry Barris and George E. Springer
"Lies" (Anette Olzon song), 2014
"Lies" (Big Bang song), 2007
"Lies" (Burns song), 2012
"Lies" (En Vogue song), 1990
"Lies" (g.o.d song), 2000
"Lies" (Jonathan Butler song), 1987
"Lies" (The Knickerbockers song), 1965
"Lies" (Koda Kumi song), 2006
"Lies" (McFly song), 2008
"Lies" (Rolling Stones song), 1978
"Lies" (Status Quo song), 1980
"Lies" (Thompson Twins song), 1982
"Lies", by Alphaville from Forever Young, 1984
"Lies", by Billy Talent from Billy Talent, 2003
"Lies", by the Black Keys from Attack & Release, 2008
"Lies", by Chvrches from The Bones of What You Believe, 2013
"Lies", by the Click Five from Greetings from Imrie House, 2005
"Lies", by Dillon Francis from This Mixtape Is Fire, 2015
"Lies", by Elton John from Made in England, 1995
"Lies", by EMF from Schubert Dip, 1991
"Lies", by Evanescence from Origin, 2000
"Lies", by Fenech-Soler, 2009
"Lies", by Hercules and Love Affair from Omnion, 2017
"Lies", by Hilary Duff from Breathe In. Breathe Out., 2015
"Lies", by J. J. Cale from Really, 1973
"Lies", by James Maslow, 2015
"Lies", by Korn from Korn, 1994
"Lies", by Marina and the Diamonds from Electra Heart, 2012
"Lies", by MC Magic from Magic City, 2006
"Lies", by Pet Shop Boys, a B-side of the single "You Only Tell Me You Love Me When You're Drunk", 2000
"Lies", by Roxette from Crash! Boom! Bang!, 1994
"Lies", by the Saturdays from Chasing Lights, 2008
"Lies", by Schoolboy Q from Crash Talk, 2019
"Lies", by Stabbing Westward from Ungod, 1994
"Lies", by Stan Rogers from Northwest Passage, 1981
"Lies", by Starbreaker from Starbreaker, 2005
"Lies", by the Waifs from Sink or Swim, 2000
"Lies", by Wild Orchid, B-side of the single "Stuttering (Don't Say)", 2001
"Lies (Through the 80s)", by Manfred Mann's Earth Band from Chance, 1980
People
Lies Bonnier (born 1925), Dutch swimmer
Lies Cosijn (1931–2016), Dutch ceramicist
Lies Eykens (born 1989), Belgian volleyball player
Lies Jans (born 1974), Belgian politician
Lies Noor (died 1961), Indonesian actress
Lies Rustenburg (born 1990), Dutch rower
Lies Visschedijk (born 1974), Dutch actress
See also
Lie (disambiguation)
Liar (disambiguation)
Lyse (disambiguation)
White Lies (disambiguation) | [
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228665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codependency | Codependency | In sociology, codependency is a concept that attempts to characterize imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive tendencies (such as addiction, poor mental health, immaturity, irresponsibility, or under-achievement) and/or undermines the other person's relationship. Definitions of codependency vary, but typically include high self-sacrifice, a focus on others' needs, suppression of one's own emotions, and attempts to control or fix other people's problems. People who self-identify as codependents exhibit low self-esteem, but it is unclear whether this is a cause or an effect of characteristics associated with codependency. Codependency is generally defined as a subclinical, situational, and/or episodic behavioral condition similar to that of dependent personality disorder. Codependency is not limited to married, partnered, or romantic relationships as co-workers, friends, and family members can be codependent.
History
The idea of codependency may have its roots in the theories of German psychoanalyst Karen Horney. In 1941, she proposed that some people adopt what she termed a "Moving Toward" personality style to overcome their basic anxiety. Essentially, these people move toward others by gaining their approval and affection, and subconsciously control them through their dependent style. They are unselfish, virtuous, martyr-like, faithful, and turn the other cheek despite personal humiliation. Approval from others is more important than respecting themselves.
The term codependency is most often identified with Alcoholics Anonymous and the realization that the Alcoholism was not solely about the addict but also about the family and friends who constitute a network for the alcoholic." The term “codependent” is used to describe how family members and friends might actually interfere with recovery by overhelping."
The application of this term was very much driven by the self-help community. Janet G. Woititz's Adult Children of Alcoholics had come out in 1983 and sold two million copies while being on the New York Times bestseller list for 48 weeks. Robin Norwood's Women Who Love Too Much, 1985, sold two and a half million copies and spawned Twelve Step groups across the country for women "addicted" to men. Melody Beattie popularized the concept of codependency in 1986 with the book Codependent No More which sold eight million copies. In 1986, Timmen Cermak, M.D. wrote Diagnosing and Treating Co-Dependence: A Guide for Professionals. In the book and an article published in the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (Volume 18, Issue 1, 1986), Cermak argued (unsuccessfully) for the inclusion of codependency as a separate personality disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Cermak's book paved the way for a Twelve-step take-off program, called Co-Dependents Anonymous. The first Co-Dependents Anonymous meeting was held October 22, 1986.
Definition
"Dependency" is well-established in clinical theory, research, and personality and social psychological literature. Early psychoanalytic theory emphasized the oral character and structural basis of dependency, which originates from the observed dependency of the infant on the mother. Social learning theory asserts that “dependency” is either acquired by learning and experience or just an identification for types of learning. Ethological attachment theory posits that attachment or affectional bonding is the basis for positive dependency, which should be distinguished from the negatively-valenced definition posited by codependence theorists.
Codependency
Timmen Cermak, M.D., proposed that co-dependency be listed as a personality disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Cermak reasoned that when specific personality traits become excessive and maladaptive and cause significant impairment in functioning or cause significant distress, it warrants a personality disorder diagnosis. Cermak's definition was published in the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs in 1986.
Cermak proposed the following criteria for this disorder:
Continued investment of self-esteem in the ability to control both oneself and others in the face of serious adverse consequences.
Assumption of responsibility for meeting others' needs to the exclusion of acknowledging one's own.
Anxiety and boundary distortions relative to intimacy and separation.
Enmeshment in relationships with personality disordered, chemically dependent, other co‐dependent, or impulse‐disordered individuals.
Three or more of the following:
Excessive reliance on denial
Constriction of emotions (with or without dramatic outbursts)
Depression
Hypervigilance
Compulsions
Anxiety
Substance use disorder
Has been (or is) the victim of recurrent physical or sexual abuse
Stress-related medical illnesses
Has remained in a primary relationship with a person who continues to recreationally use drugs for at least two years without seeking outside help.
Codependency has not been included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; DSM-III-R or later versions.
Dependent personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder is included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association. The definition and criteria have changed in the different versions of the DSM. In the DSM-I, passive dependency personality was characterized by helplessness, denial, and indecisiveness, and was considered a subtype of passive-aggressive personality. By DSM-IV, there were nine criteria with an essential feature of a pervasive or lifetime pattern of dependent and submissive behavior. The DSM-IV definition emphasized the excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behavior and fear of separation.
Behaviors and characteristics
Individual dynamics
A codependent is someone who cannot function on their own and whose thinking and behavior is instead organized around another person, process, or substance. Many codependents place a lower priority on their own needs, while being excessively preoccupied with the needs of others. Codependency can occur in any type of relationship, including family, work, friendship, and also romantic, peer or community relationships.
Romantic relationship dynamics
Some codependents often find themselves in relationships where their primary role is that of rescuer, supporter, and confidante. These helper types are often dependent on the other person's poor functioning to satisfy their own emotional needs.
Codependent relationships are marked by intimacy problems, dependency, control (including caretaking), denial, dysfunctional communication and boundaries, and high reactivity. Often, there is imbalance, so one person is abusive or in control or supports or enables another person's addiction, poor mental health, immaturity, irresponsibility, or under-achievement.
Commonly observable characteristics of codependency are:
Intense and unstable interpersonal relationships
inability to tolerate being alone, accompanied by frantic efforts to avoid being alone
autophobia
chronic feelings of boredom and emptiness
subordinating one's own needs to those of the person with whom one is involved
overwhelming desire for acceptance and affection
perfectionism
over-controlling
external referencing
dishonesty and denial
manipulation
lack of trust
low self-worth
victim mentality
In a codependent relationship, the codependent person's sense of purpose is based on making extreme sacrifices to satisfy their partner's needs. Codependent relationships signify a degree of unhealthy "clinginess" and needy behavior, where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy. One or both parties depend on their loved one for fulfillment. The mood and emotions of the codependent are often determined by how they think other individuals perceive them (especially loved ones). This perception is self-inflicted and often leads to clingy, needy behavior which can hurt the health of the relationship.
Particularly problematic pairings include:
Personality disorder and codependent pairing
Borderline personality disorder – there is a tendency for loved ones of people with borderline personality disorder (BPD) to slip into "caretaker" roles, giving priority and focus to problems in the life of the person with BPD rather than to issues in their own lives. Further, the codependent may gain a sense of worth by being "the sane one" or "the responsible one".
Narcissistic personality disorder – codependents of narcissists are sometimes called co-narcissists. Narcissists, with their ability to get others to "buy into their vision" and help them make it a reality, seek and attract partners who will put others' needs before their own. Codependents can provide the narcissist with an obedient and attentive audience. Among the reciprocally interlocking interactions of the pair are the narcissist's overpowering need to feel important and special and the codependent person's strong need to help others feel that way.
Codependent or impulse-disordered individuals and codependent pairing
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Bipolar disorder
Substance use disorder (SUD)
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Personality disorder (PD)
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Psychosis
Dementia
Family dynamics
In the dysfunctional family the child learns to become attuned to the parent's needs and feelings instead of the other way around. Parenting is a role that requires a certain amount of self-sacrifice and giving a child's needs a high priority. A parent can, nevertheless, be codependent toward their own children if the caretaking or parental sacrifice reaches unhealthy or destructive levels. Generally, a parent who takes care of their own needs (emotional and physical) in a healthy way will be a better caretaker, whereas a codependent parent may be less effective, or may even do harm to a child. Codependent relationships often manifest through enabling behaviors, especially between parents and their children. Another way to look at it is that the needs of an infant are necessary but temporary, whereas the needs of the codependent are constant. Children of codependent parents who ignore or negate their own feelings may become codependent.
Recovery and prognosis
Not all mental health professionals agree about standard methods of treatment. Caring for an individual with a physical addiction is not necessarily treating a pathology. The caregiver may only require assertiveness skills and the ability to place responsibility for the addiction on the other. There are various recovery paths for individuals who struggle with codependency. For example, some may choose cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy, sometimes accompanied by chemical therapy for accompanying depression. There also exist support groups for codependency, such as Co-Dependents Anonymous (CoDA), Al-Anon/Alateen, Nar-Anon, and Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACoA), which are based on the twelve-step program model of Alcoholics Anonymous and Celebrate Recovery, a Christian, Bible-based group. Many self-help guides have been written on the subject of codependency.
Sometimes an individual can, in attempts to recover from codependency, go from being overly passive or overly giving to being overly aggressive or excessively selfish. Many therapists maintain that finding a balance through healthy assertiveness (which leaves room for being a caring person and also engaging in healthy caring behavior) is true recovery from codependency and that becoming extremely selfish, a bully, or an otherwise conflict-addicted person is not. Developing a permanent stance of being a victim (having a victim mentality) would also not constitute true recovery from codependency and could be another example of going from one extreme to another. A victim mentality could also be seen as a part of one's original state of codependency (lack of empowerment causing one to feel like the "subject" of events rather than being an empowered actor). Someone truly recovered from codependency would feel empowered and like an author of their life and actions rather than being at the mercy of outside forces. A victim mentality may also occur in combination with passive–aggressive control issues. From the perspective of moving beyond victim-hood, the capacity to forgive and let go (with exception of cases of very severe abuse) could also be signs of real recovery from codependency, but the willingness to endure further abuse would not.
Unresolved patterns of codependency can lead to more serious problems like alcoholism, drug addiction, eating disorders, sex addiction, psychosomatic illnesses, and other self-destructive or self-defeating behaviors. People with codependency are also more likely to attract further abuse from aggressive individuals (such as those with BPD or NPD), more likely to stay in stressful jobs or relationships, less likely to seek medical attention when needed and are also less likely to get promotions and tend to earn less money than those without codependency patterns. For some people, the social insecurity caused by codependency can progress into full-blown social anxiety disorders like social phobia, avoidant personality disorder or painful shyness. Other stress-related disorders like panic disorder, depression or PTSD may also be present.
Controversy
While Timmen Cermak, M.D., proposed that co-dependency be listed as a personality disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987), it was not accepted by the committee and, as such, no medical consensus exists on the definition of codependency.
With no definition, the term is easily applicable to many behaviors and has been overused by some self-help authors and support communities.
Some clinicians think that the term codependency has been overused by the general populace and labeling a patient as codependent can be confusing and may even shame them rather than help them focus on how their traumas shape their current relationships.
Codependency is a theory. There is no evidence that codependence is caused by a disease process. Attachment theory may be a more helpful model for understanding and dealing with attachment in adults.
Codependency does not refer to all caring behavior or feelings, but only those that are excessive to an unhealthy degree. Some scholars and treatment providers think that codependency is an overresponsibility and that overresponsibility needs to be understood as a positive impulse gone awry. Responsibility for relationships with others needs to coexist with responsibility to self.
See also
References
Further reading
Cermak M.D, Timmen L., Diagnosing and Treating Co-Dependence: A Guide for Professionals Who Work with Chemical Dependents, Their Spouses, and Children (Professional Series), 1998, Hazelden Publishing, Minnesota,
CoDA, Co-Dependents Anonymous, 1997, CoDA Resource Publishing, Phoenix,
Beattie, Melody Codependent No More: How to Stop Controlling Others and Start Caring for Yourself, 1986, Hazelden, Minnesota,
Whitfield M.D., Charles L.,Healing The Child Within: Discovery and Recovery for Adult Children of Dysfunctional Families, 1987, Health Communications, Inc., Florida,
Lancer, Darlene, Conquering Shame and Codependency: 8 Steps to Freeing the True You, 2014, Hazelden, Minnesota,
External links
Behavioural syndromes associated with physiological disturbances and physical factors
Interpersonal relationships
Narcissism
Borderline personality disorder
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|
228667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20union%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Rugby union at the 1900 Summer Olympics | Rugby union at the 1900 Summer Olympics was played in Paris. Rugby union matches at the 1900 Summer Olympics were held on 14 October and 28 October. Forty-seven athletes competed, most from three nations and including a Haitian and a French-born American.
Summary
France, represented by Union des Sociétés Françaises, Germany, represented mainly by the FC 1880 Frankfurt, and Great Britain, represented by the Moseley Wanderers, all participated in the inaugural rugby event at the Olympics. Only two games were contested, France played both Germany and Great Britain, the French winning both matches.
This saw the gold go to France, and both Germany and Great Britain are credited with silver, with no bronze awarded. For medal purposes, the IOC regards the side from France as a "Mixed Team", as Constantin Henriquez was from Haiti. Further, André Roosevelt, an American born in France, was also on the French team.
Results
Match 1
In the first half, France scored a try by Émile Sarrade and a conversion. Germany scored tries by Heinrich Reitz and August Schmierer, with two conversions as well as a drop goal. Under the custom scoring rules of the Olympic tournament (3 points for tries or penalties, 2 points for conversions, 4 points for drop goals), this gave Germany a lead of 14–5.
The second half was vastly different, as Serrade scored two more tries while André Roosevelt also scored two and Frantz Reichel and A. Albert added one each. Two more conversions were made, bringing France's score to a total of 27. Germany, on the other hand, scored only one try, by one of the Ludwigs. France thus won the match 27–17.
Match 2
The British team failed to score in the first half, while France continued the scoring barrage they had experienced in the second half of the Germany match. Sarrade scored two tries, bringing his tournament total to five. Joseph Olivier, Jean Collas, and Jean-Guy Gauthier each added a try. No conversions were scored, though André Rischmann's two penalties brought France's first-half total to 21.
Britain actually outscored France in the second half, 8–6, but had little chance of catching up. Joseph Wallis scored a try while J. Henry Birtles made a conversion and a penalty for Britain. Reichel scored his second try of the tournament, and Léon Binoche added a try to bring France's victory to a 27–8 margin.
A Reuters report of the match noted that the British squad's loss may have been in part to fatigue, as the players arrived in Paris only on the morning of the match. A crowd of 10,000 fans witnessed the match.
Medal table
Rosters
France (Mixed Team)
Wladimir Aïtoff
A. Albert
Léon Binoche
Jean Collas
Jean-Guy Gauthier
Auguste Giroux
Charles Gondouin
Constantin Henriquez (HAI)
Jean Hervé
Victor Larchandet
Hubert Lefèbvre
Joseph Olivier
Alexandre Pharamond
Frantz Reichel
André Rischmann
André Roosevelt (USA)
Emile Sarrade
Germany
Albert Amrhein
Hugo Betting
Jacob Herrmann
Willy Hofmeister
Hermann Kreuzer
Arnold Landvoigt
Hans Latscha
Erich Ludwig
Richard Ludwig
Fritz Müller
Eduard Poppe
Heinrich Reitz
August Schmierer
Adolf Stockhausen
Georg Wenderoth
Great Britain
Frank Bayliss
Henry Birtles
James Cantion
Arthur Darby
Clement Deykin
L. Hood
M. L. Logan
Herbert Loveitt
Herbert Nicol
V. Smith
M. W. Talbot
Joseph Wallis
Claude Whittindale
Raymond Whittindale
Francis Wilson
Notes
References
International Olympic Committee medal winners database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Rugby 1900". Accessed 2 March 2006. Available electronically at .
External links
Rugby at the Olympics
Rugby union
1900
Rugby union in Paris
International rugby union competitions hosted by France
1900 rugby union tournaments for national teams
1899–1900 in French rugby union
Men's events at the 1900 Summer Olympics | [
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228668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suslin%27s%20problem | Suslin's problem | In mathematics, Suslin's problem is a question about totally ordered sets posed by and published posthumously.
It has been shown to be independent of the standard axiomatic system of set theory known as ZFC: showed that the statement can neither be proven nor disproven from those axioms, assuming ZF is consistent.
(Suslin is also sometimes written with the French transliteration as , from the Cyrillic .)
Formulation
Suslin's problem asks: Given a non-empty totally ordered set R with the four properties
R does not have a least nor a greatest element;
the order on R is dense (between any two distinct elements there is another);
the order on R is complete, in the sense that every non-empty bounded subset has a supremum and an infimum; and
every collection of mutually disjoint non-empty open intervals in R is countable (this is the countable chain condition for the order topology of R),
is R necessarily order-isomorphic to the real line R?
If the requirement for the countable chain condition is replaced with the requirement that R contains a countable dense subset (i.e., R is a separable space), then the answer is indeed yes: any such set R is necessarily order-isomorphic to R (proved by Cantor).
The condition for a topological space that every collection of non-empty disjoint open sets is at most countable is called the Suslin property.
Implications
Any totally ordered set that is not isomorphic to R but satisfies properties 1–4 is known as a Suslin line. The Suslin hypothesis says that there are no Suslin lines: that every countable-chain-condition dense complete linear order without endpoints is isomorphic to the real line. An equivalent statement is that every tree of height ω1 either has a branch of length ω1 or an antichain of cardinality .
The generalized Suslin hypothesis says that for every infinite regular cardinal κ every tree of height κ either has a branch of length κ or an antichain of cardinality κ. The existence of Suslin lines is equivalent to the existence of Suslin trees and to Suslin algebras.
The Suslin hypothesis is independent of ZFC.
and independently used forcing methods to construct models of ZFC in which Suslin lines exist. Jensen later proved that Suslin lines exist if the diamond principle, a consequence of the axiom of constructibility V = L, is assumed. (Jensen's result was a surprise, as it had previously been conjectured that V = L implies that no Suslin lines exist, on the grounds that V = L implies that there are "few" sets.) On the other hand, used forcing to construct a model of ZFC without Suslin lines; more precisely, they showed that Martin's axiom plus the negation of the continuum hypothesis implies the Suslin hypothesis.
The Suslin hypothesis is also independent of both the generalized continuum hypothesis (proved by Ronald Jensen) and of the negation of the continuum hypothesis. It is not known whether the generalized Suslin hypothesis is consistent with the generalized continuum hypothesis; however, since the combination implies the negation of the square principle at a singular strong limit cardinal—in fact, at all singular cardinals and all regular successor cardinals—it implies that the axiom of determinacy holds in L(R) and is believed to imply the existence of an inner model with a superstrong cardinal.
See also
List of statements independent of ZFC
AD+
Cantor's isomorphism theorem
References
K. Devlin and H. Johnsbråten, The Souslin Problem, Lecture Notes in Mathematics (405) Springer 1974.
Independence results
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228669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Garlits | Don Garlits | Donald Glenn Garlits (born January 14, 1932, Tampa, Florida) is an American race car driver and automotive engineer. Considered the father of drag racing, he is known as "Big Daddy" to drag racing fans around the world. A pioneer in the field of drag racing, he perfected the rear-engine Top Fuel dragster, an innovation motivated by the loss of part of his foot in a dragster accident. This design was notably safer since it put most of the fuel processing and rotating parts of the dragster behind the driver. The driver was placed in front of nearly all the mechanical components, thus protecting him and allowing him to activate a variety of safety equipment in the event of catastrophic mechanical failure or a fire. Garlits was an early promoter of the full-body, fire-resistant Nomex driving suit, complete with socks, gloves, and balaclava.
Garlits was the first drag racer to officially surpass the 170, 180, 200, 240, 250, and 270 mile-per-hour marks in the quarter mile; he was also the first to top in the . He has been inducted into several Halls of Fame and has won many awards during his career.
Career
Early days
After World War II, in the central and western United States, many air force bases and landing fields were decommissioned. These abandoned runways were perfect for drag racing. Don Garlits's first drag race car was built under an oak tree at his home in North Tampa in 1954. He used an arc welder and a cutting torch to modify an old 1927 Ford Model T Roadster. To this roadster he added a 1948 Mercury engine block, a 1939 Ford floor shift transmission, and a 1948 Ford differential and axle. That early T-Bucket's quarter mile performance was 13.5 seconds, at a top speed of 93 mph. It was this successful, formative roadster that would become the basis for his first rail-job dragster. He cut off the body panels, moved the engine back, and installed the seat behind the drive axle. (A similar design was built that same year by Mickey Thompson.) This was the legendary slingshot dragster with which Big Daddy would win the first NHRA race he entered, the NHRA Safety Safari in Lake City, Florida (12.1 seconds, 108 mph). Three years later, he became a professional drag racer. The first national drag racing meet, sponsored by the National Hot Rod Association was held on an airfield near Great Bend, KS in 1955. Don Garlits, being from Florida, was something of an outsider. He was sometimes referred to as the Floridian, before permanently adopting the nickname "Swamp Rat," which also became the name for each new generation of his innovative dragster designs.
In 1959, Garlits traveled to Bakersfield, California for the US Fuel and Gas Championships, later to be named the "March Meet", to show that the times he was setting were as legitimate as those set by the west coast racers. Over 30,000 people attended the event, the largest attendance at a drag race at that point. His presence helped to grow the sport of drag racing beyond its California base. In 1964, after winning the U.S. Nationals at Indianapolis, Garlits traveled to England, with TV Tommy Ivo, Tony Nancy, Dante Duce and other racers, to participate in the first International Drag Festival, a six-event series that did much to promote the sport of drag racing in the UK.
Accident leads to innovation
On March 8, 1970, at Lions Drag Strip, Garlits was driving Swamp Rat XIII, also called the Wynnscharger, a front-engined slingshot rail dragster, when the vehicle suffered a catastrophic failure. The two-speed transmission Garlits was developing exploded and took a piece out of his right foot, while the car broke in half in front of the cockpit; he was out for the remainder of the season. In an interview by Florida Trend, Garlits said this of the incident: "In 1970, the transmission exploded in my dragster on the final run, and it cut my foot off and cut the car in two. That’s when I drew up plans for what I thought would be a championship rear-engine car. I would go out to the shop in Seffner on my wheelchair, saw stuff out on the band saw and make the parts."
Garlits's accident was like many in the 1960s, and his new design followed several other pioneer designers of rear-engined dragsters, including Steve Swaja's AA/Gas Wedge I from 1963, Roger Lindwall's 1966 Top Fuel Re-Entry, and Kent Fuller's fueller Sidewinder III from 1969. He was aided in the construction of his new car by T. C. Lemons and Connie Swingle.
The first modern "back-motor digger"
Garlits returned to Pomona in 1971 with Swamp Rat XIV, a brand new mid-engined, front-cockpit rail, also dubbed the "Swamp Rat I-R" by Hot Rod in the article introducing it to their readers. The rodding magazines considered the disadvantages of the new dragster design "obvious," and, indeed, Garlits lost in his first outing with the new car, to Gary Cochran at Lions Drag Strip.
However, Swamp Rat XIV became so successful that in 1971, Garlits won two of his next three Top Fuel Eliminator titles (the Winternats and Bakersfield), and was a runner-up at Lions, all in the new car. A change so momentous had not happened since Mickey Thompson moved the seat behind the rear axle to create the Panorama City Special slingshot rail dragster in 1954. Rear engine dragsters have since become mainstream in drag racing.
In 1977, Ed Donovan persuaded Garlits to switch from the 426 hemi he had been using for the last thirteen years to the Donovan , offering (in Garlits' words) "an engine deal I couldn’t refuse".
Garlits took a brief hiatus, returning to NHRA Top Fuel full-time in 1984.
Further accomplishments
Garlits has won ten American Hot Rod Association championships, four International Hot Rod Association championships, and three National Hot Rod Association championships, a total of 17. He was age 54 when he won the last. He won a total of 144 national events. On October 20, 1987, his dragster Swamp Rat XXX, the sport's only successful streamlined fueler, was enshrined in National Museum of American History, a branch of The Smithsonian museum in Washington, DC. In true Garlits style, during the press conference submission and placement ceremony, the dragster was fired up on the Smithsonian "porch."
Retirement and post-racing career
In 1987, Garlits suffered a blowover at an ADRA event in Spokane, Washington. He received several injuries from the resulting crash. Though none were life-threatening, he temporarily retired from active driving and became a color commentator for NHRA telecasts on TNN and NBC. He announced for four seasons, from 1988 through the end of 1991. In December 1991 Garlits came out of retirement to race in the Snowbird Nationals, but his comeback was to be short-lived. "Big Daddy" retired again before the end of the 1992 season because of a separated retina, a product of the 4g deceleration produced by a Top Fuel Dragster's braking parachutes.
Garlits resumed his career briefly in 1998, and again in 2003. His last qualifying race was in May 2003 at the NHRA POWERade Drag Racing Series, 23rd annual Summit Racing Equipment NHRA Southern Nationals presented by Pontiac in Atlanta, Georgia. At the age of 71 years, 5 months and 19 days he qualified 16th, setting a personal best speed in the quarter mile with a time of 4.788 seconds at 319.98 mph. Garlits had reached 323.04 earlier in the year at the 2003 Gatornationals. Mr. Garlits lost in first-round competition with his Summit Racing-Mono Winged Dragster, clocking in with a 0.064 reaction time, a personal best 4.737 elapsed time, and 307.44 mph, second only to Brandon Bernstein's (son of racing legend Kenny Bernstein) Budweiser/Lucas Oil Dragster 0.079 reaction time, a 4.615 elapsed time, at 321.42 miles per hour. The difference at the finish line was only 122 thousandths of a second.
Garlits operates the Don Garlits Museum of Drag Racing on the grounds of his home in Ocala, Florida. He can also be seen from time to time on ESPN and Speed Vision doing commentary at racing events and performance expositions.
Always at the forefront of driver safety, in the wake of Funny Car driver Scott Kalitta's fatal crash and numerous other engine explosions and resultant fires, occurring in the last 300 feet of the quarter mile, Garlits declared "I am 100 percent in favor of it", regarding NHRA's proposal to trim the race distance for Top Fuel and Funny Car from the traditional quarter-mile to 1,000 feet, also suggesting that he would support a ban on rev limiters and a return to a 70/30 nitromethane to methanol ratio. He has since had second thoughts.
In September 2009, Garlits returned to the quarter mile, racing a specially prepared 2009 Dodge Challenger in the Stock class at the U.S. Nationals at the Indianapolis Raceway Park.
In May 2014 at age 82, Garlits set a speed record with Swamp Rat 37, a 2,000 hp battery-powered EV dragster . In July 2019 at age 87, he set a new quarter-mile record of with Swamp Rat 38, a 1,500 lb dragster with a battery-powered 800 hp electric motor.
Political affiliation
In 1994, Garlits was the Republican Party nominee for Florida's 5th Congressional District. He was defeated by incumbent Democrat Karen Thurman. He supported the Republican candidacy of Ron Paul for President in 2008.
Awards
In 2004 he was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame.
In 1997, he was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame.
He was inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1989 as the sole representative of drag racing.
On the National Hot Rod Association Top 50 Drivers, 1951–2000, Don Garlits was ranked No.1.
In 1987, Garlits' record-setting Swamp Rat XXX was inducted into and enshrined at The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.
In 2008, he was inducted into the inaugural hall of fame class at Gateway International Raceway.
In 2008, ESPN ranked him 23rd on their top drivers of all-time.
References
External links
Garlits Auto Museums
National Hot Rod Association Top 50 Drivers article of Don Garlits
Information on Don Garlits and the Don Garlits Museum of Drag Racing
Listen to a live radio interview with Don Gartlits on Nostalgic Radio and Cars
1932 births
Living people
Dragster drivers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Ocala, Florida
Racing drivers from Tampa, Florida
Bonneville 200 MPH Club members | [
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|
228671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Miescher | Friedrich Miescher | Johannes Friedrich Miescher (13 August 1844 – 26 August 1895) was a Swiss physician and biologist. He was the first scientist to isolate nucleic acid in 1869. He also identified protamine and made a number of other discoveries.
Miescher had isolated various phosphate-rich chemicals, which he called nuclein (now nucleic acids), from the nuclei of white blood cells in Felix Hoppe-Seyler's laboratory at the University of Tübingen, Germany, paving the way for the identification of DNA as the carrier of inheritance. The significance of the discovery, first published in 1871, was not at first apparent, and Albrecht Kossel made the initial inquiries into its chemical structure. Later, Miescher raised the idea that the nucleic acids could be involved in heredity and even posited that there might be something akin to an alphabet that might explain how variation is produced
Early life and education
Friedrich Miescher came from a scientific family; his father and his uncle held the chair of anatomy at the University of Basel. As a boy, he was shy but intelligent. He had an interest in music, and his father performed publicly. Miescher studied medicine at Basel. In the summer of 1865, he worked for the organic chemist Adolf Stecker at the University of Göttingen, but his studies were interrupted for the year when he became ill with typhoid fever, which left him hearing-impaired. He received his MD in 1868.
Career
Miescher felt that his partial deafness would be a disadvantage as a doctor, so he turned to physiological chemistry. He originally wanted to study lymphocytes, but was encouraged by Felix Hoppe-Seyler to study neutrophils. He was interested in studying the chemistry of the nucleus. Lymphocytes were difficult to obtain in sufficient numbers to study, while neutrophils were known to be one of the main and first components in pus and could be obtained from bandages at the nearby hospital. The problem was, however, washing the cells off the bandages without damaging them.
Miescher devised different salt solutions, eventually producing one with sodium sulfate. The cells were filtered. Since centrifuges were not available at the time, the cells were allowed to settle to the bottom of a beaker. He then tried to isolate the nuclei free of cytoplasm. He subjected the purified nuclei to an alkaline extraction followed by acidification, resulting in the formation of a precipitate that Miescher called nuclein (now known as DNA). He found that this contained phosphorus and nitrogen, but not sulfur. The discovery was so unlike anything else at the time that Hoppe-Seyler repeated all Miescher's research himself before publishing it in his journal. Miescher then went on to study physiology at Leipzig in the laboratory of Carl Ludwig for a year before being appointed professor of physiology.
While analyzing the composition of salmon sperm, Miescher also discovered the alkaline substance protamine, which he published in 1874. It later found use, as protamine sulfate, in the stabilization of insulin (NPH insulin) and also as a reversal agent for the anticoagulant medicine heparin.
Miescher and his students researched much nucleic acid chemistry, but its function remained unknown. However, his discovery played an important part in the identification of nucleic acids as the carriers of inheritance. The importance of Miescher's discovery was not apparent until Albrecht Kossel (a German physiologist specializing in the physiological chemistry of the cell and its nucleus and of proteins) carried out research on the chemical structure of nuclein.
Friedrich Miescher is also known for demonstrating that carbon dioxide concentrations in blood regulate breathing.
Personal life
Miescher was married to Maria Anna Rüsch. He died of tuberculosis in 1895 aged 51.
Legacy
As of 2008, two laboratories have been named after Miescher:
The Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society in Tübingen and the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research in Basel, founded in 1970 by Ciba-Geigy .
See also
Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research
Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society
Notes and references
Bibliography
Meyer Friedman and Gerald W. Friedland, Medicine's 10 Greatest Discoveries, , pp. 194–196.
Veigl, Harman, Lamm, "Friedrich Miescher's Discovery in the Historiography of Genetics", Journal of the History of Biology 53:3, 2020
External links
Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
FMI – Friedrich Miescher Institute
The Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society
Lasker Foundation
FMI – DNA Pioneers and Their Legacy by Ulf Lagerkvist
Wolf, George (2003). Friedrich Miescher, the man who discovered DNA. U.C.Berkeley.
Ehud Lamm, Oren Harman, Sophie Juliane Veigl (2020). Before Watson and Crick in 1953 Came Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Genetics, 2020 Jun;215(2):291-296. doi:10.1534/genetics.120.303195.
1844 births
1895 deaths
History of genetics
People from Basel-Stadt
Swiss biologists
Swiss biochemists
Tuberculosis deaths in Switzerland
University of Göttingen alumni
University of Tübingen faculty
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis | [
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228675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee%20Ernie%20Ford | Tennessee Ernie Ford | Ernest Jennings Ford (February 13, 1919 – October 17, 1991), known professionally as Tennessee Ernie Ford, was an American singer and television host who enjoyed success in the country and Western, pop, and gospel musical genres. Noted for his rich bass-baritone voice and down-home humor, he is remembered for his hit recordings of "The Shotgun Boogie" and "Sixteen Tons".
Biography
Early years
Ford was born in Bristol, Tennessee, United States, to Maud (née Long) and Clarence Thomas Ford. He spent a lot of his time in his early years listening to country or western musicians, in person or on the radio.
Ford began wandering around Bristol in his high school years, taking an interest in radio and began his radio career as an announcer at WOPI-AM in 1937, being paid 10 dollars a week. In 1938, the young bass-baritone left the station and went to study classical music at the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music in Ohio. He returned for the announcing job in 1939 and did it from 1939 to 1941 in stations from Atlanta to Knoxville. A First Lieutenant, he served in the United States Army Air Corps in World War II as the bombardier on a B-29 Superfortress flying missions over Japan. He was also a bombing instructor at George Air Force Base, in Victorville, California.
After the war, Ford worked at radio stations in San Bernardino and Pasadena, California. At KFXM, in San Bernardino, Ford was hired as a radio announcer. He was assigned to host an early morning country music disc jockey program, Bar Nothin' Ranch Time. To differentiate himself, he created the personality of "Tennessee Ernie", a wild, madcap, exaggerated hillbilly. He became popular in the area and was soon hired away by Pasadena's KXLA radio. He also did musical tours. The Mayfield Brothers of West Texas, including Smokey Mayfield, Thomas Edd Mayfield, and Herbert Mayfield, were among Ford's warmup bands, having played for him in concerts in Amarillo and Lubbock, during the late 1940s.
At KXLA, Ford continued doing the same show and also joined the cast of Cliffie Stone's popular live KXLA country show Dinner Bell Roundup as a vocalist while still doing the early morning broadcast. Cliffie Stone, a part-time talent scout for Capitol Records, brought him to the attention of the label. In 1949, while still doing his morning show, he signed a contract with Capitol. He became a local TV star as the star of Stone's popular Southern California Hometown Jamboree show. RadiOzark produced 260 15-minute episodes of The Tennessee Ernie Show on transcription disks for national radio syndication.
He released almost 50 country singles through the early 1950s, several of which made the Billboard charts. Many of his early records, including "The Shotgun Boogie" and "Blackberry Boogie", were exciting, driving boogie-woogie records featuring accompaniment by the 'Hometown Jamboree' band, which included Jimmy Bryant on lead guitar and pioneer pedal steel guitarist Speedy West. "I'll Never Be Free", a duet pairing Ford with Capitol Records pop singer Kay Starr, became a huge country and pop crossover hit in 1950. A duet with Ella Mae Morse, "False Hearted Girl" was a top seller for the Capitol Country and Hillbilly division.
Ford eventually ended his KXLA morning show and in the early 1950s, moved on from Hometown Jamboree. He took over from bandleader Kay Kyser as host of the TV version of NBC quiz show College of Musical Knowledge when it returned briefly in 1954 after a four-year hiatus. He became a household name in the U.S., largely as a result of his portrayal in 1954 of the 'country bumpkin', "Cousin Ernie", in three episodes of I Love Lucy. In 1955, Ford recorded "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" (which reached number 4 on the country music chart) with "Farewell to the Mountains" on the B-side.
"Sixteen Tons" cover version success
Ford scored an unexpected hit on the pop chart in 1955 with his rendering of "Sixteen Tons", a sparsely arranged coal-miner's lament. Merle Travis had first recorded it in 1946. It reflected experiences of the Travis family in the mines at Muhlenberg County, Kentucky. The song's fatalistic tone and bleak imagery were in stark contrast to some sugary pop ballads and rock & roll also on the charts in 1955:
With Ford's snapping fingers and a unique clarinet-driven pop arrangement by Ford's music director, Jack Fascinato, "Sixteen Tons" spent ten weeks at number one on the country chart and seven weeks at number one on the pop chart. The record sold over twenty million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. The song made Ford a crossover star, and became his signature song.
The Ford Show
Ford subsequently hosted his own prime-time variety program, The Ford Show, which ran on NBC television from October 4, 1956, to June 29, 1961. Ford's last name allowed the show title to carry a unique double entendre by selling the naming rights to the Ford Motor Company (Ford had no known relation to the Ford family that founded that company). The Ford Theatre, an anthology series also sponsored by the company, had run in the same time slot on NBC in the preceding 1955–1956 season. Ford's program was notable for the inclusion of a religious song at the end of every show, a tradition he recalled during his days as a cast member on Cliffie Stone's Hometown Jamboree live radio and TV show. Ford insisted on ending with a hymn on his own show despite objections from network officials and the ad agency representing Ford, who feared it might provoke controversy. Everyone relented after the hymns receiving overwhelmingly favorable viewer response. The hymn became the most popular segment of his show. He earned the nickname "The Ol' Pea-Picker" due to his catchphrase, "Bless your pea-pickin' heart!" He began using the term during his disc jockey days on KXLA.
Later years
In 1956 he released Hymns, his first gospel music album, which remained on Billboards Top Album charts for 277 consecutive weeks; his album Great Gospel Songs won a Grammy Award in 1964 and was nominated for several others. After the NBC show ended, Ford moved his family to Portola Valley in northern California. He also owned a cabin near Grandjean, Idaho, on the upper South Fork of the Payette River, where he would regularly retreat. In 1961, he recorded two albums of American Civil War songs, one for songs of the Union and another for songs of the Confederacy.
From 1962 to 1965, Ford hosted a daytime talk/variety show, The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show (later known as Hello, Peapickers) from KGO-TV in San Francisco, broadcast over the ABC television network. In 1968, Ford narrated the Rankin/Bass Thanksgiving TV special The Mouse on the Mayflower for NBC. The mouse narrator seen at the beginning of the special, William the Churchmouse, was a caricature of Ford, in keeping with a Rankin/Bass tradition. Ford was the spokesman for the Pontiac Furniture Company in Pontiac, Illinois, in the 1970s. He also became the spokesman for Martha White brand flour in 1972.
Although he left his own TV show, he went on other shows like The Dolly Show and on Barbara Mandrell and the Mandrell Sisters in the early 1980s.
Ford left Capitol Records in 1975. By that time the quality of his country albums had become uneven and none of his releases were selling well. He would never record for a major label again.
Ford's experiences as a navigator and bombardier in World War II led to his involvement with the Confederate Air Force (now the Commemorative Air Force), a war plane preservation group in Texas. He was a featured announcer and celebrity guest at the annual CAF Airshow in Harlingen, Texas, from 1976 to 1988. He donated a once-top-secret Norden bombsight to the CAF's B-29 bomber restoration project. In the late 1970s, as a CAF colonel, Ford recorded the organization's theme song "Ballad of the Ghost Squadron".
Over the years, Ford was awarded three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, for radio, records, and television. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1984, and was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1990.
Out of the public eye, Ford and wife Betty contended with serious alcohol problems; Betty had the problem since the 1950s, as well as emotional issues that complicated both their lives and the lives of their sons. Though his drinking began to worsen in the 1960s, he worked continuously, seemingly unaffected by his heavy intake of whiskey. By the 1970s, however, it had begun to take an increasing toll on his health, appearance and ability to sing, though his problems were not known publicly. After Betty committed suicide in 1989 because of prescription drug abuse, Ernie's liver problems, diagnosed years earlier, became more apparent, but he refused to reduce his drinking despite repeated doctors' warnings. His last interview was taped on September 23, 1991, by his long-time friend Dinah Shore for her TV show, and was later aired on December 4 that year.
Ford received posthumous recognition for his gospel music contributions by being added to the Gospel Music Association's Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 1994.
Personal life
Ford was married to Betty Heminger from September 18, 1942, until her death on February 26, 1989. They had two sons: Jeffrey Buckner "Buck" Ford (born 1950); and Brion Leonard Ford (born 1952, in San Gabriel, California), who died on October 24, 2008, in White House, Tennessee, of lung cancer, aged 56. In 1980 Ford lived in the Smoke Tree neighborhood of Palm Springs, California.
Less than four months after Betty's death in 1989, Ford married again. On September 28, 1991, he suffered severe liver failure at Dulles Airport, shortly after leaving a state dinner at the White House, hosted by then-President George H. W. Bush. Ford died in H. C. A. Reston Hospital Center, in Reston, Virginia, on October 17. Ford was interred at Alta Mesa Memorial Park, Palo Alto, California. His second wife, Beverly Wood Ford (1921–2001), died 10 years after Ernie; her body was interred with his.
Discography
Albums
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2"| Year
! rowspan="2"| Album
! colspan="2"| Chart Positions
! rowspan="2"| RIAA
! rowspan="2"| Label
|-
! width="50"| US Country
! width="50"| US
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1956
| This Lusty Land!
|
| align="center"| 12
|
| rowspan="54"| Capitol Records
|-
| Hymns
|
| align="center"| 2
| align="center"| Platinum
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1957
| Spirituals
|
| align="center"| 5
| align="center"| Gold
|-
| Ford Favorites
|
|
|
|-
| Ol' Rockin' Ern'''
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1958
| Nearer the Cross|
| align="center"| 5
| align="center"| Gold
|-
| The Star Carol|
| align="center"| 4
| align="center"| Platinum
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1959
| Gather 'Round|
|
|
|-
| A Friend We Have|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1960
| Sing a Hymn with Me|
| align="center"| 23
|
|-
| Sixteen Tons|
|
|
|-
| Sing a Spiritual with Me|
|
|
|-
| Come to the Fair|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1961
| Civil War Songs of the North|
|
|
|-
| Civil War Songs of the South|
|
|
|-
| Looks at Love|
|
|
|-
| Hymns at Home|
| align="center"| 67
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1962
| Mississippi Showboat|
| align="center"| 110
|
|-
| I Love to Tell the Story|
| align="center"| 43
|
|-
| Book of Favorite Hymns|
| align="center"| 71
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1963
| Long, Long Ago|
|
|
|-
| We Gather Together|
|
|
|-
| Story of Christmas|
| align="center"| 14
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1964
| Great Gospel Songs|
|
|
|-
| Country Hits Feelin' Blue|
|
|
|-
| World's Best Loved Hymns|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1965
| Let Me Walk with Thee|
|
|
|-
| Sing We Now of Christmas|
| align="center"| 31
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1966
| My Favorite Things|
|
|
|-
| Wonderful Peace|
|
|
|-
| God Lives|
|
|
|-
| Bless Your Pea Pickin' Heart|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1967
| Aloha|
|
|
|-
| Faith of Our Fathers|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1968
| Our Garden of Hymns (w/ Marilyn Horne)
|
|
|
|-
| World of Pop and Country Hits|
|
|
|-
| O Come All Ye Faithful|
|
|
|-
| The Best of Tennessee Ernie Ford Hymns|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1969
| Songs I Like to Sing|
|
|
|-
| New Wave|
|
|
|-
| Holy, Holy, Holy|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1970
| America the Beautiful|
| align="center"| 192
|
|-
| Everything Is Beautiful|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1971
| Abide with Me|
|
|
|-
| C-H-R-I-S-T-M-A-S|
|
|
|-
| Folk Album|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1972
| Mr. Words and Music|
|
|
|-
| Standin' in the Need of Prayer|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1973
| Country Morning| align="center"| 46
|
|
|-
| Ernie Ford Sings About Jesus|
|
|
|-
| 1974
| Make A Joyful Noise| align="center"| 35
|
|
|-
| 1975
| Ernie Sings & Glen Picks (w/ Glen Campbell)
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1976
| Sing His Great Love|
|
|
|-
| For the 83rd Time|
|
|
|-
| 1977
| He Touched Me|
|
|
| rowspan="7"| Word Records
|-
| 1978
| Swing Wide Your Golden Gate|
|
|
|-
| 1979
| Ramblin' Down Country Roads With Tennessee Ernie Ford |
|
|
|-
| 1980
| Tell Me the Old, Old Story|
|
|
|-
| 1982
| There's A Song In My Heart|
|
|
|-
| 1983
| Sunday School Songs For Children of All Ages|
|
|
|-
| 1984
| Keep Looking Up|
|
|
|-
| 2014
| Amazing Grace: 14 Treasured Hymns| align="center"| 19
| align="center"| 159
|
| Gaither Music
|}
Singles
A"Everybody's Got a Girl But Me" peaked at No. 2 on the Capitol Records' "Top Country & Hillbilly" best sellers list in 1952.
B"Sing We Now of Christmas" peaked at No. 2 on the RPM Top Singles chart in Canada.
C"Colorado Country Morning" peaked at No. 85 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.
References
External links
Tennessee Ernie Ford Official Website
Sixteen Tons – The Story Behind the Legend
Jeffrey Buckner Ford, 2008. River of No Return: Tennessee Ernie Ford and the Woman He Loved''. Nashville, TN: Cumberland House Publishing.
1919 births
1991 deaths
American bass-baritones
American country singer-songwriters
American gospel singers
American male singer-songwriters
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American Methodists
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Television personalities from Los Angeles
Capitol Records artists
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Grammy Award winners
Music of East Tennessee
People from Bristol, Tennessee
People from Palm Springs, California
Singer-songwriters from Tennessee
Southern gospel performers
Tennessee Republicans
United States Army Air Forces officers
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
20th-century American male actors
Radio personalities from Los Angeles
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
Deaths from liver failure
Singer-songwriters from California
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|
228678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumphon%20province | Chumphon province | Chumphon ( ) is a southern Province (changwat) of Thailand on the Gulf of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are Prachuap Khiri Khan, Surat Thani, and Ranong. To the west it borders the Burmese province of Tanintharyi.
Geography
Chumphon is on the Isthmus of Kra, the narrow land bridge connecting the Malay Peninsula with the mainland of Thailand. To the west are the hills of the Phuket mountain range and its northern continuation, the Tenasserim Hills. The east is coastal plain abutting the Gulf of Thailand. The main river is the Lang Suan River, which originates in Phato District. With a coastline and 44 islands, the Chumphon Archipelago, Chumphon has waterfalls, peaceful beaches, green forests, mangroves, and rivers. The total forest area is or 21.5 percent of provincial area.
Chumphon is regarded as "Gateway to the South".
History
The southern part of the province was originally a separate province named Lang Suan. It was incorporated into Chumphon in 1932.
In November 1989 Typhoon Gay hit the province hard: 529 people were killed, 160,000 became homeless, of farm land was destroyed. Gay is the only tropical storm on record which reached Thailand with typhoon wind strength.
Chumphon province is one of several clandestine way stations on the trafficking trail of Burmese and Rohingyas from nearby Burma (Myanmar) being moved south. Chumphon borders the Burmese province of Tanintharyi.
Toponymy
There are two different theories on the origin of the name "Chumphon". According to one, it originates from Chumnumporn (lit., 'accumulation of forces') which derives from the fact that Chumphon was a frontier city. Another theory claims the name derives from a local tree named Maduea Chumphon (มะเดื่อชุมพร, Ficus glomerata), abundant in the province.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a fortune-bringing thevada on a lotus-pedestal, flanked by two ficus trees. In the background a fort and two watchtowers are visible, a reference to the former camp where courageous warriors from the province gathered before going into battle against the enemy.
The provincial flower is the Indian shot (Canna indica), and the finger banana is another provincial symbol. Spanner barb (Barbodes lateristriga) is a provincial fish.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
Chumphon is divided into eight districts (amphoes), 70 sub-districts (tambons), 736 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Chumphon Provincial Administration Organisation () and 27 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Chumphon and Lang Suan have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 25 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 51 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Economy
The coffee-growing valley of Ban Panwal in Tha Sae District includes 178,283 rai of robusta coffee plantations. It produces more than 24 million tonnes a year. Chumphon province contributes 60 percent of Thailand's total coffee production. Local brands include Thamsing, ST Chumphon, and Khao Tha-Lu Chumporn.
Besides, Chumphon is considered as the province with the second largest durian growing area in the country, after Chanthaburi. Based on 2017 data, Chumphon has an area of 164,099 rai of durian, with a yield of approximately 128,894 tons, create income for the province of not less than 6,000 million baht per year. There are more farmers grow durian every year.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Transportation
Air
Chumphon Airport is north of Chumphon city in Pathio District. It has direct daily flights to Bangkok's Don Mueang Airport (DMK). Flights from Bangkok are around 60 minutes.
Nok Air and Thai AirAsia operates flights between Bangkok (Don Mueang, DMK) and Chumphon Airport (CJM). The airport has transit agents for onward travel to Chumphon and the islands of the Gulf of Thailand including Ko Tao, Ko Pha Ngan, and Ko Samui.
Rail
Chumphon Railway Station is a main station of Chumphon, it is south of Bangkok Railway Station (Hua Lamphong). Chumphon is also the location of 26 other railway stations and railway halts. Lang Suan Railway Station in area of Lang Suan District is the last stop of the Southern Railway that starts from Thon Buri Railway Station (Bangkok Noi).
Road
Chumphon is south of Bangkok by Petchkasem Road (Thailand Route 4) via Pathom Phon Intersection before enter the Chumphon city, takes about 7 hours to travel. Can travel to here by bus from both Southern Bus (Taling Chan) and Northern Bus Terminals (Mo Chit 2).
Tourism
In the first 11 months of 2015, Chumphon arrivals grew by 17 percent to 1.86 million and tourism revenue by 21 percent to 7.55 billion baht. Average hotel occupancy rose to 65 percent from 53 percent in 2014. Arrivals are expected to grow by 17 percent in 2016.
Beaches
Chumphon has a long coastline.
Hat Thung Wua Laen: a beach northeast of downtown Chumphon. Food and accommodation resorts and food stalls abound in the beach area. Thung Wua Laen is from the train station of Chumphon and from Chumphon airport in Pathiu.
Hat Saphli: about from Hat Thung Wua Laen, it is a crescent-shaped beach with white sand. This beach was ranked as the cleanest beach in the country by the Pollution Control Department in 2017. There is a fishing village named Ban Tha Samet, a large community that is known for making shrimp paste and fish sauce.
Hat Sai Ri: This beach has fine white sand and clear water. It is also the location of shrine of Prince Abhakara Kiartivongse, Prince of Chumphon, who was regarded as the "Father of the Royal Thai Navy". Nearby is the HTMS Chumphon, a torpedo boat. It is and . Hat Sai Ri and Prince of Chumphon Shrine are in Na Cha-ang Subdistrict, Mueang Chumphon District.
Gallery
References
External links
Official homepage (Thai & English)
https://www.vanlifetribe.com/thung-wua-laen-beach-thailand/
Provinces of Thailand
Southern Thailand
Kra Isthmus
Gulf of Thailand | [
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|
228679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction | Instruction | Instruction or instructions may refer to:
Computing
Instruction, one operation of a processor within a computer architecture instruction set
Computer program, a collection of instructions
Music
Instruction (band), a 2002 rock band from New York City, US
"Instruction" (song), a 2017 song by English DJ Jax Jones
Instructions (album), a 2001 album by Jermaine Dupri
Other uses
Instruction, teaching or education performed by a teacher
Sebayt, a work of the ancient Egyptian didactic literature aiming to teach ethical behaviour
Instruction, the pre-trial phase of an investigation led by a judge in an inquisitorial system of justice
Instruction manual, an instructional book or booklet
Instruction manual (gaming), a booklet that instructs the player on how to play the game
See also
Instructor (disambiguation)
Command (disambiguation) | [
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|
228683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donoghue%20v%20Stevenson | Donoghue v Stevenson | was a landmark court decision in Scots delict law and English tort law by the House of Lords. It laid the foundation of the modern law of negligence in Common law jurisdictions worldwide, as well as in Scotland, establishing general principles of the duty of care.
Also known as the "Paisley Snail" or "Snail in the Bottle" case, the case involved Mrs May Donoghue drinking a bottle of ginger beer in a café in Paisley, Renfrewshire. Unknown to her or anybody else, a decomposed snail was in the bottle. She fell ill, and subsequently sued the ginger beer manufacturer, Mr Stevenson. The House of Lords held that the manufacturer owed a duty of care to her, which was breached because it was reasonably foreseeable that failure to ensure the product's safety would lead to harm to consumers. There was also a sufficiently proximate relationship between consumers and product manufacturers.
Prior to Donoghue v Stevenson, liability for personal injury in tort usually depended upon showing physical damage inflicted directly (trespass to the person) or indirectly (trespass on the case). Being made ill by consuming a noxious substance did not qualify as either, so the orthodox view was that Mrs May Donoghue had no sustainable claim in law. However, the decision fundamentally created a new type of liability in law that did not depend upon any previously recognised category of tortious claims. This was an evolutionary step in the common law for tort and delict, moving from strict liability based upon direct physical contact to a fault-based system that only required injury. This evolution was taken further in the later decision of Letang v Cooper [1965] 1 QB 232 when it was held that actions should not be jointly pleaded in trespass and negligence, but in negligence alone.
Background and facts of the matter
On the evening of Sunday 26 August 1928, during the Glasgow Trades Holiday, May Donoghue took a train to Paisley, Renfrewshire. In Paisley, she went to the Wellmeadow Café. A friend, who was with her, ordered a pear and ice for herself. As for Donoghue, she asked for a Scotsman ice cream float, a mix of ice cream and ginger beer. The owner of the café, Francis Minghella, brought over a tumbler of ice cream and poured ginger beer on it from a brown and opaque bottle labelled "D. Stevenson, Glen Lane, Paisley". (Although the bottle was labelled as Stevenson's, McByde suggests it is possible it did not originally belong to him. Bottles were often reused, and in the process occasionally returned to the incorrect manufacturer. Moreover, Stevenson initially claimed he did not issue bottles matching the description provided by Donoghue) Donoghue drank some of the ice cream float. However, when her friend poured the remaining ginger beer into the tumbler, a decomposed snail also floated out of the bottle. Donoghue claimed that she felt ill from this sight, complaining of abdominal pain. According to her later statements of facts, she was required to consult a doctor on 29 August and was admitted to Glasgow Royal Infirmary for "emergency treatment" on 16 September. She was subsequently diagnosed with severe gastroenteritis and shock.
The ginger beer had been manufactured by David Stevenson, who ran a company producing both ginger beer and lemonade at 11 and 12 Glen Lane, Paisley, less than a mile away from the Wellmeadow Café. The contact details for the ginger beer manufacturer were on the bottle label and recorded by Donoghue's friend.
Donoghue subsequently contacted and instructed Walter Leechman, a local solicitor and city councillor whose firm had acted for the claimants in a factually similar case, Mullen v AG Barr & Co Ltd, less than three weeks earlier (see also George v Skivington).
Despite the ruling in Mullen, Leechman issued a writ on Donoghue's behalf against Stevenson on 9 April 1929. The writ claimed £500 in damages, the same amount a claimant in Mullen had recovered at first instance, and £50 in costs. The total amount Donoghue attempted to recover would be equivalent to at least £27,000 .
Condescendences
The full allegations made by Donoghue were presented in five condescendences, which claimed that Stevenson had a duty of care to Donoghue to ensure that snails did not get into his bottles of ginger beer, but that he had breached this duty by failing to provide a system to clean bottles effectively, a system that would usually be used in the business and was necessary given that the ginger beer was intended for human consumption. The ineffectiveness of the cleaning system was alleged to result from the bottles being left in places "to which it was obvious that snails had freedom of access ... and in which, indeed, snails and snail trails were frequently found", an allegation described by lawyer and author Matthew Chapman as "somewhat gratuitous". This breach of duty was alleged to have caused Donoghue's subsequent illness.
Stevenson responded to the condescendences by denying that any of his bottles of ginger beer had contained snails and "that the alleged injuries are grossly exaggerated ... any illness suffered by the [claimant] was due to the bad condition of her own health at the time". In response to the writ, Stevenson pleaded (1) that the claim had no legal basis, (2) that the facts could not be substantiated, (3) that he had not caused Donoghue any injury and (4) that the claimed amount was excessive.
Legal background
Injuries resulting from defective products were normally claimed on the basis of a contract of sale between the seller and the consumer. However, Donoghue had no contractual relationship with Minghella as she had not purchased the ginger beer; while her friend did have a contract through having placed the order, she had not suffered any injury. Moreover, neither had a contract with Stevenson, the manufacturer. Donoghue was therefore required to claim damages for negligence.
Ansell v Waterhouse had established in 1817 that legal liability could arise for an act or omission "contrary to the duty which the law casts on him in the particular case" (i.e. negligence). However, there was no general duty of care and therefore no general liability for negligent behaviour. Only limited exceptions to this rule were made in which duties were found in specific circumstances, most of which had a contractual background.
The most difficult precedent for Donoghue was Mullen v AG Barr & Co Ltd, a recent Court of Session case. In Mullen, two children, John and Francis Mullen, and Jeanie Oribine had separately found dead mice in their bottles of ginger beer, manufactured by AG Barr & Co Ltd, and claimed to have become ill through drinking the tainted liquid. In separate hearings in Glasgow and Greenock Sheriff Court respectively, Orbine was successful in claiming compensation while the Mullens were not. The losing parties of both cases appealed to the Court of Session.
At the Court of Session, the claimants argued that although there was no direct evidence that the manufacturer had been negligent in preparing the ginger beer, negligence could be presumed (res ipsa loquitur) from the mere presence of dead mice in ginger beer bottles. However, the court ruled against the claimants. The majority held that on a factual basis AG Barr & Co Ltd had rebutted a presumption of negligence and that on a legal basis product manufacturers only owed a duty of care to the ultimate consumers if there was a contractual relationship between the parties; if the dangerousness of the product was intentionally withheld from the consumer (in which case there might also be a claim for fraud); or if there was no warning of the intrinsic dangerousness of certain products, such as explosives. Only Lord Hunter dissented, finding that negligence to be inferred and that the fact that the bottle contents could not be examined (because of the dark glass) gave rise to a specific duty of care that would allow consumers to claim for damages.
However, neither of the circumstances in which negligence could be found in product liability cases applied to Donoghue: ginger beer is not intrinsically dangerous, nor did Stevenson intentionally misrepresent the threat it posed. Nevertheless, Donoghue's counsel argued that manufacturers also owed a duty of care to their ultimate consumers if it was not possible to examine the goods before they were used, an exception that would apply to Donoghue.
Judgment
Court of Session, Outer House
The first interlocutory action was heard on the Court of Session on 21 May 1929 in front of Lord Moncrieff. After an adjournment, Minghella was added as a defender on 5 June; however, the claim against him was abandoned on 19 November, likely due to his lack of contractual relationship with Donoghue (Donoghue's friend had purchased the ginger beer) and his inability to examine the contents of the dark glass bottle. On 12 December, Minghella and Stevenson were awarded a combined costs claim of £108 6s 3d against Donoghue for this abandoned strand of litigation. However, it was recorded on 20 December that Donoghue did not pay the costs awarded to Minghella.
The case was heard by Lord Moncrieff in the Outer House on 27 June 1930. In his judgment, delivered on the same day, he held that, as a general principle, there should be liability for negligent preparation of food.
I am unhesitatingly of opinion that those who deal with the production of food or produce fluids for beverage purposes ought not to be heard to plead ignorance of the active danger which will be associated with their products, as a consequence of any imperfect observation of cleanliness at any stage in the course of the process of manufacture ... Tainted food when offered for sale is, in my opinion, amongst the most subtly potent of 'dangerous goods', and to deal in or prepare such food is highly relevant to infer a duty. I fail to see why the fact that the danger has been introduced by an act of negligence and does not advertise itself, should release the negligent manufacturer from a duty, or afford him a supplementary defence.
English case law that required that liability for injuries resulting from goods that were not intrinsically dangerous to have a contractual basis (breach of warranty) was dismissed by Lord Moncrieff (citing John Salmond) for the narrowness of the approach and because there was no decision that incorporated it into Scots law. Finally, Mullen, despite its factual similarity, was discounted by a "very close reading of the precedent opinions".
Court of Session, Inner House
Stevenson appealed the case to the Inner House, where it was heard by the same four judges who had found against Mullen: Lord Alness (the Lord Justice-Clerk), Lord Ormidale, Lord Hunter and Lord Anderson. In their judgment, given on 13 November 1930, they all referred back to and supported their statements in Mullen, Lord Alness observing that "the only difference – and, so far as I can see, it is not a material difference – between that case [Mullen] and this case [Donoghue] is that there we were dealing with a mouse in a ginger-beer bottle, and here we are dealing with a snail in a ginger-beer bottle". Thus, Lord Alness, Lord Ormidale and Lord Anderson all allowed the appeal while Lord Hunter dissented.
House of Lords
Donoghue filed a petition to appeal to the House of Lords on 25 February 1931. She also sought (and subsequently received) permission to pursue the case in forma pauperis (with the status of a pauper) – a status she had not, for unknown reasons, sought at the Court of Session – providing an affidavit declaring that "I am very poor, and am not worth in all the world the sum of five pounds, my wearing apparel and the subject matter of the said appeal only excepted...". This claim was supported by the minister and two elders of her church and meant that Donoghue was not required to provide security for costs in case she lost the appeal. (Her legal team had agreed to work pro bono.)
The petition was granted and the appeal was heard 10 and 11 December 1931 by Lord Buckmaster, Lord Atkin, Lord Tomlin, Lord Thankerton and Lord Macmillan. A supplementary statement from Donoghue's appeal papers indicates that her counsel, George Morton KC and William Milligan (later the Lord Advocate and a Privy Counsellor), argued that "where anyone performs an operation, such as the manufacture of an article, a relationship of duty independent of contract may in certain circumstance arise, the extent of such duty in every case depending on the particular circumstances of the case". Stevenson, they argued, owed a duty to take reasonable care in the manufacture of his ginger beer because the sealed bottles were opaque, and therefore could not be examined, and because the ginger beer was intended for human consumption.
Stevenson's counsel, Wilfrid Normand KC (Solicitor General for Scotland and later a Law Lord) and James Clyde (later the Lord President of the Court of Session and a Privy Counsellor), responded that "it is now firmly established both in English and Scottish law that in the ordinary case (which this is) the supplier or manufacturer of an article is under no duty to anyone with whom he is not in contractual relation". They denied that ginger beer was intrinsically dangerous or that Stevenson knew that the product was dangerous (the two established exceptions for finding a duty of care) and argued that the third exception that Donoghue was attempting to introduce had no basis in precedent.
The House of Lords gave judgment on 26 May 1932 after an unusually long delay of over five months since the hearing. The court held by a majority of 3–2 that Donoghue's case disclosed a cause of action. The majority consisted of Lord Atkin, Lord Thankerton and Lord Macmillan.
Lord Atkin commented that he did "not think a more important problem has occupied your Lordships in your judicial capacity, important both because of its bearing on public health and because of the practical test which it applies to the system under which it arises". He agreed with counsel, based on his own research, that Scots and English law were identical in requiring a duty of care for negligence to be found and explained his general neighbour principle on when that duty of care arises.
He supported this broad test by citing Heaven v Pender and rejected the cases in favour of a narrower interpretation of a duty of care with the example of negligently poisoned food, for which there had been no claim against the manufacturer. "If this were the result of the authorities, I should consider the result a grave defect in the law, and so contrary to principle that I should hesitate long before following any decision to that effect which had not the authority of this House". He went on to suggest that there should be a duty of care owed by all manufacturers of "articles of common household use", listing medicine, soap and cleaning products as examples. "I do not think so ill of our jurisprudence as to suppose that its principles are so remote from the ordinary needs of civilised society and the ordinary claims it makes upon its members as to deny a legal remedy where there is so obviously a social wrong."
Lord Atkin then rejected cases that did not support his approach and cited Benjamin N. Cardozo in MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. in favour of his view.
He concluded:
Lord Thankerton ruled that Donoghue had no contract with Stevenson, nor that her case was covered by one of the scenarios in which a duty of care had previously been found. However, he held that where goods could not be examined or interfered with, the manufacturer had "of his own accord, brought himself into direct relationship with the consumer, with the result that the consumer [was] entitled to rely upon the exercise of diligence by the manufacturer to secure that the article shall not be harmful to the consumer", an exception to the general nonexistence of a duty of care that applied to Donoghue.
Lord Thankerton further argued that it was impossible "to catalogue finally, amid the ever-varying types of human relationships, those relationships in which a duty to exercise care arises apart from contract" and commented that he "should be sorry to think that the meticulous care of the manufacturer to exclude interference or inspection by the [seller] should relieve the [seller] of any responsibility to the consumer without any corresponding assumption of duty by the manufacturer".
Lord Macmillan examined previous cases and held that "the law takes no cognisance of carelessness in the abstract. It concerns itself with carelessness only where there is a duty to take care and where failure in that duty has caused damage". Whether there was a duty and breach would be examined by the standard of the reasonable person. These circumstances "must adjust and adapt itself to the changing circumstances of life. The categories of negligence are never closed". Lord Macmillan held that, according to this standard, Stevenson had demonstrated carelessness by leaving bottles where snails could access them; that he owed Donoghue a duty of care as commercial manufacturer of food and drink; and that Donoghue's injury was reasonably foreseeable. He therefore found that Donoghue had a cause of action and commented that he was "happy to think that in ... relation to the practical problem of everyday life which this appeal presents ... the principles of [English and Scots law] are sufficiently consonant with justice and common sense to admit of the claim which the appellant seeks to establish."
The minority consisted of Lord Buckmaster and Lord Tomlin. Lord Buckmaster focused on precedent, and commenced by warning that "although [common law] principles are capable of application to meet new conditions not contemplated when the law was laid down, these principles cannot be changed nor can additions be made to them because any particular meritorious case seems outside their ambit". He held that there were only the two recognised exceptions to the finding of a duty of care and supported Baron Alderson's judgment in Winterbottom v Wright that "the only safe rule is to confine the right to recover to those who enter into the contract; if we go one step beyond that, there is no reason why we should not go fifty".
Lord Buckmaster dismissed George v Skivington, opining that "few cases can have lived so dangerously and lived so long", and rejected Heaven as a tabula in naufragio (Latin: literally "plank in a shipwreck") that was unrelated to Donoghue's case; both "should be buried so securely that their perturbed spirits shall no longer vex the law". He concluded that there was no common law support for Donoghue's claim and supported Lord Anderson's judgment in Mullen.
"In a case like the present, where the goods of the defenders are widely distributed throughout Scotland, it would seem little short of outrageous to make them responsible to members of the public for the condition of the contents of every bottle which issues from their works. It is obvious that, if such responsibility attached to the defenders, they might be called on to meet claims of damages which they could not possibly investigate or insure."
Lord Tomlin concurred with Lord Buckmaster. While he agreed with Lord Atkin that the duty of care a manufacturer owed to its consumers was the same regardless of the product they produced, he held that no general duty of care existed and that the fact the product was in a sealed container made no difference to the finding of a such duty. He further endorsed concerns that Lord Atkin's broader test of liability would have allowed everyone injured in the Versailles rail accident to be able to claim compensation from the manufacturer of the axle that broke and caused the crash.
The suggested ratio decidendi (Latin: the reason for the decision) of the case has varied from the narrowest, jokingly suggested by Julius Stone, that there was merely a duty "not to sell opaque bottles of beverage containing dead snails to Scots widows", to the widest, suggested by Lord Normand, who had been one of Stevenson's counsel, that Lord Atkin's neighbour principle was the ratio.
Although the neighbour principle was a critical part of Lord Atkin's reasoning, and was therefore part of the ratio of his judgment, neither of the other judges in the majority expressly endorsed the principle. Robert Heuston therefore suggests that case only supports the claims there can be duties in tort even if there is no contract; that manufacturers owe a duty of care to the ultimate consumers of their goods; and possibly that negligence is a separate tort. "No amount of posthumous citation can of itself transfer with retrospective effect a proposition from the status of obiter dictum [passing comments] to that of ratio decidendi."
Subsequent events
The legal basis for the claim now settled, the case was returned to the Court of Session for a hearing scheduled for January 1933. In the hearing, Donoghue would have to prove the factual elements of the case that she had claimed, including that there had been a snail in the ginger beer as a result of Stevenson's negligence and that this snail had caused her illness. However, Stevenson died on 12 November 1932, aged 69. One year later, Stevenson's executors were listed as third-party defenders to the case. However, the claim was settled out of court in December 1934 for, according to Leechman's son, £200 of the £500 originally claimed.
Donoghue had moved to 101 Maitland Street with her son, Henry, around February 1931; he moved out when he married in 1937, after which she moved to 156 Jamieson Street. She continued to work as a shop assistant. In February 1945, Donoghue divorced her husband, from whom she had separated in 1928 and who now had two sons by another woman, and reverted to using her maiden name. She died of a heart attack on 19 March 1958, at the age of 59, in Gartloch Mental Hospital, where she had probably been staying for a short period of time as a result of mental illness. Although she is listed on her death certificate as May McAllister, she was by then commonly known as Mabel Hannah, having adopted her mother's maiden name and the first name of her daughter, who had died when she was eleven days old.
Stevenson's business was taken over by his widow, Mary, and his son, the third David Stevenson in the family. It became a limited company (David Stevenson (Beers and Minerals) Limited) on 1 July 1950; the family sold their shares in 1956. The Glen Lane manufacturing plant was demolished in the 1960s.
The Wellmeadow Café, where the snail had been found, closed around 1931; the building was demolished in 1959. Minghella, its owner, subsequently became a labourer; he died on 20 March 1970.
Significance
Lord Atkin's neighbour principle, that people must take reasonable care not to injure others who could foreseeably be affected by their action or inaction, was a response to a question a lawyer posed.
The neighbour principle itself was first mentioned in relation to law by Francis Buller in An Introduction to the Law relative to Trials at Nisi Prius, which was printed in 1768.
"Of Injuries arising from Negligence or Folly. Every man ought to take reasonable care that he does not injure his neighbour; therefore, wherever a man receives any hurt through the default of another, though the same were not wilful, yet if it be occasioned by negligence or folly, the law gives him an action to recover damages for the injury so sustained."
In precedent, there was an obiter suggestion by Lord Esher in Heaven v Pender that "whenever one person is by circumstances placed in such a position with regard to another that every one of ordinary sense ... would at once recognise that if he did not use ordinary care and skill in his own conduct ... he would cause danger of injury to the person or property of the other, a duty arises to use ordinary care and skill to avoid such danger". However, this approach had been rejected by the two other judges in the Court of Appeal. Lord Esher's attempt to reintroduce the principle in further obiter remarks in Le Lievre v Gould, in which he stated that Heaven only established that there may be a duty even if there is no contract and that this duty arose if there was proximity between the parties, was also unsuccessful.
Two cases from the New York Court of Appeals, Thomas v. Winchester and MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., were also influential in the formation of the neighbour principle. In Thomas, Thomas had purchased and administered belladonna to his wife after it was mislabelled by Winchester, the dealer, although not the seller, of the treatment as extract of dandelion. Thomas' wife became seriously ill as a consequence and Thomas successfully claimed in negligence; Winchester's behaviour had created an imminent danger which justified a finding of a duty of care.
This principle was relied on in MacPherson, in which a car wheel collapsed, injuring MacPherson. The manufacturer was sued in negligence and the court held that manufacturers could owe their ultimate consumers a duty of care in limited circumstances.
"If the nature of a thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of danger. Its nature gives warning of the consequences to be expected. If to the element of danger there is added knowledge that the thing will be used by persons other than the purchaser, and used without new tests, then, irrespective of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully ... If he is negligent, where danger is to be foreseen, a liability will follow."
Lord Atkin used the concept of legal neighbours in an address to the University of Birmingham's Holdsworth Club on 9 May 1930, in which he commented that "the man who swears unto his neighbour and disappointeth him not is a person commended by the law of morality, and the Law enforces that by an action for breach of contract". On 28 October 1931, just over one month before he heard Donoghue, Lord Atkin also used the principle in relation to defamation, perjury, fraud and negligence in a lecture at King's College London.
"[A man] is not to injure his neighbour by acts of negligence; and that certainly covers a very large field of the law. I doubt whether the whole law of tort could not be comprised in the golden maxim to do unto your neighbour as you would that he should do unto you."
Precedent
The case was reviewed by Frederick Pollock in a 1933 edition of Law Quarterly Review, in which he commented that there was no doubt as to the importance of the decision and that "a notable step has been made in enlarging and clarifying our conception of a citizen's duty before the law ... not to turn dangerous or noxious things loose on the world". However, Donoghue otherwise attracted little attention; it was understood only as precedent that manufacturers were liable for injuries their goods cause their ultimate consumers rather than that there was a general principle of liability in negligence. The majority of the Court of Appeal (Lord Justice Cohen and Lord Justice Asquith) therefore held in Candler v Crane, Christmas & Co that Donoghue had not affected tortious liability for negligent misstatement. This narrow understanding of Donoghue changed with the cases of Hedley Byrne v Heller in 1963 and Home Office v Dorset Yacht Co in 1970.
Hedley Byrne v Heller
In Hedley Byrne, Hedley Byrne, advertising agents, had been indirectly informed by Heller & Partners Ltd, the bankers of Easipower, a company wishing to place a large order, that Easipower was a "respectably constituted company, considered good for its ordinary business engagements". Hedley Byrne relied on this information and subsequently lost over £17,000 when Easipower went into liquidation. The House of Lords held that Heller owed Hedley Byrne a duty of care as they used a special skill for Hedley Byrne and because this skill was relied upon by the company (although the negligence claim was unsuccessful due to a disclaimer of responsibility included in Heller's letter).
The application of Donoghue was discussed and, while all the judges agreed that it would be taking Donoghue too far to immediately apply it to Hedley Byrne, Lord Devlin suggested that "what Lord Atkin did was to use his general conception [the neighbour principle] to open up a category of cases giving rise to a special duty" and that the case could incrementally expand the duty of care.
Home Office v Dorset Yacht Co
Home Office was the culmination of a movement from duties of care being found in specific circumstances to using the neighbour principle as a general duty of care. In Home Office, the Home Office had in 1962 taken a group of boys from a borstal to Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, where seven had escaped overnight and collided one yacht with another belonging to Dorset Yacht Company. The company sued the Home Office for negligence and a preliminary issue, whether the Home Office owed a duty of care to Dorset Yacht Company, was found in the company's favour by both the High Court and the Court of Appeal. The case was appealed to the House of Lords, who held by a majority that the Home Office did owe a duty of care.
Lord Reid, giving the leading judgment, rejected the argument that there was no precedent for the claim, instead acknowledging "a steady trend towards regarding the law of negligence as depending on principle so that, when a new point emerges, one should ask not whether it is covered by authority but whether recognised principles [from Donoghue] apply to it". Donoghue, he argued, should therefore be applied in almost all circumstances.
"[Donoghue] may be regarded as a milestone, and the well-known passage in Lord Atkin's speech should I think be regarded as a statement of principle. It is not to be treated as if it were a statutory definition. It will require qualification in new circumstances. But I think that the time has come when we can and should say that it ought to apply unless there is some justification or valid explanation for its exclusion."
In the sole dissenting judgment, Viscount Dilhorne held that the neighbour principle could not have been intended to be applied in all circumstances and that it could only be used to determine to whom a duty of care is owed rather than if one exists. Judges, he opined, "are concerned not with what the law should be but with what it is. The absence of authority shows that no such duty [to Dorset Yacht Company] now exists. If there should be one, that is, in my view, a matter for the legislature and not for the courts". Chapman comments "that this conclusion appeared ... distinctly quaint, old-fashioned and even untenable in the light of [Donoghue] shows how far the law had moved in the four decades which separated the two House of Lords decisions".
Caparo Industries plc v Dickman
In 1990, the House of Lords revised Lord Atkin's "neighbour" principle to encompass public policy concerns articulated in Caparo Industries plc v Dickman. The three-stage Caparo test for establishing a duty of care requires (i) foreseeability of damage, (ii) a relationship characterised by the law as one of proximity or neighbourhood and (iii) that the situation should be one in which the court considers it would be fair, just and reasonable that the law should impose a duty of given scope on one party for the benefit of the other. In other jurisdictions, such as New Zealand, there is now a two-part test for novel fact situations, where the establishment of a duty must be balanced against applicable policy matters.
Comparative law
The judgment and reasoning of Lord Atkin in Donoghue v Stevenson is very similar to the judgment and reasoning applied by Cardozo CJ in the American case of Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad Co., four years earlier. Although the similarity in approach has been noted by commentators, the decision is Palsgraf was not cited in either argument or in the judgments in Donoghue, although Lord Atkin did refer to an earlier decision of Cardozo J: MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co..
As a metaphor
Today the far reaching changes of the decision for the law of torts is sufficiently well recognised that the case's name is used as a metaphor. For example, Barclays Bank v W J Simms [1980] 1 QB 677 has been described as "the Donoghue v Stevenson of restitution for mistake." It has also been stated that Slade's Case "could be said to be the Donoghue v. Stevenson of contract." Similarly, Jarvis v Swans Tours Ltd has been called "the Donoghue v Stevenson of Tourism Law".
Commemoration
In 1990, a pilgrimage to Paisley was organised by the Canadian Bar Association, the Faculty of Advocates and the Law Society of Scotland. This included a conference in Paisley Town Hall entitled "The Pilgrimage to Paisley: a Salute to Donoghue v Stevenson". A memorial commemorating the case was unveiled at the conference on the site of the former Wellmeadow Café and a bench was added in 1992; both were replaced in 2012.
In 1996, retired Canadian judge Martin Taylor together with David Hay and Michael Doherty produced a documentary on the case: The Paisley Snail.
Existence of the snail
In a speech scheduled to be delivered in May 1942 (although delayed by the Second World War), Lord Justice MacKinnon jokingly suggested that it had been proven that Donoghue did not find a snail in the bottle.
"To be quite candid, I detest that snail ... I think that [Lord Normand] did not reveal to you that when the law had been settled by the House of Lords, the case went back to Edinburgh to be tried on the facts. And at that trial it was found that there never was a snail in the bottle at all. That intruding gastropod was as much a legal fiction as the Casual Ejector."
This allegation, suggests Chapman, established itself as a legal myth; it was repeated by Lord Justice Jenkins in a 1954 Court of Appeal practice note. However, both MacKinnon and Jenkins were unaware that the trial had not gone ahead because of Stevenson's death, and the events following the case were only published in response to the practice note. As Donoghue's factual claims were therefore never tested in court, it is generally held that what happened in the Wellmeadow Café is not proven and will not be known for certain.
Notes
References
External links
Donoghue v Stevenson Digital Resources
Donoghue v Stevenson Court of Session and House of Lords case report
Mrs. Donoghue's Journey
The Snail and the Ginger Beer
Donoghue v. Stevenson in Retrospect
The Paisley Papers (proceedings of a conference held in Paisley, Scotland to commemorate the 80th anniversary of the decision)
1932 in case law
1932 in Scotland
Court of Session cases
Delict
Ginger beer
History of Renfrewshire
House of Lords cases
Negligence case law
Paisley, Renfrewshire
Product liability case law
Scottish case law
United Kingdom tort case law
1932 in British law
Food safety scandals
Food safety in the United Kingdom | [
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|
228689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haughton%20v%20Smith | Haughton v Smith | Haughton v Smith was a judicial case in which the House of Lords ruled that it was impossible to commit the crime of handling stolen goods where they were not stolen; nor could an offence of attempting to handle them be committed in the same circumstances. The latter part was partially overturned by the Criminal Attempts Act 1981.
Judgement
Viscount Dilhorne's statement about the impossibility of crimes still often quoted after a 1981 as regards barring the full-offence charge for completed alleged offences (for which full mens rea can be shown) but where the subject matter did not in the event amount to something prohibited:
A man taking his own umbrella from a club, thinking it the property of someone else, does not steal. His belief does not convert his conduct into an offence. In my view, it matters not that the crime cannot be committed as a result of physical impossibility, e.g. the absence of the property he wants to steal, or of legal impossibility. In either case he cannot be convicted of an attempt when he could not be convicted of the full offence if he had succeeded in doing all that he attempted to do. Conduct which is not criminal is not converted into criminal conduct by the accused believing that a state of affairs exists which does not.
This case was partially overturned as to inchoate (incomplete) offences which can be prosecuted by the Criminal Attempts Act 1981. There is an in-depth discussion of the law of attempted crimes, in particular the debate about criminal liability in issues of impossible crimes.
References
Decision
English criminal case law
House of Lords cases
1975 in England
1975 in case law
1975 in British law | [
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|
228690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Believers | Old Believers | Old Believers or Old Ritualists are Eastern Orthodox Christians who maintain the liturgical and ritual practices of the Russian Orthodox Church as they were before the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow between 1652 and 1666. Resisting the accommodation of Russian piety to the contemporary forms of Greek Orthodox worship, these Christians were anathematized, together with their ritual, in a Synod of 1666–67, producing a division in Eastern Europe between the Old Believers and those who followed the state church in its condemnation of the Old Rite. Russian speakers refer to the schism itself as raskol (), etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart".
Introduction
In 1652, Patriarch Nikon (1605–1681; patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between the practices of the Russian and Greek Orthodox churches. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. In doing so, according to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church anathematized and suppressed—with the support of Muscovite state power—the prior liturgical rite itself, as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite.
Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as "Schismatics" (, raskol'niki). They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced under the empress Catherine the Great who reigned from 1762 to 1796. They continued to call themselves simply "Orthodox Christians".
Prior to Nikon
The installation of a Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia, but resident in Moscow, by a council of Russian bishops in 1448 without consent from the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople initiated the effective independence of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Moscow. By then, apart from Muslim and Jewish minorities and pagan subject peoples, the Russian people were Christianised, observing church festivals and marking births, marriages, and deaths with Orthodox rituals. However, many popular religious practices were of pagan origin or marked by superstition, disorder, or drunkenness.
The main objectives of reformers in the 16th century, many from the secular clergy, were to outlaw pagan rituals and beliefs and to standardise the liturgy throughout the Muscovite realm. This resulted in the holding of the Stoglavy Synod, a Russian church council in 1551, whose decrees formed the basis of Orthodox ritual and liturgy in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. This synod condemned many popular religious practices, such as forbidding the practice of polyphony. In addition, while stressing the need for accurate copying of sacred documents, it also approved of traditional Russian liturgical practices that differed from contemporary Greek ones.
Origins of reform
During the reign of Aleksei Mikhailovich (r. 1645–1676), the young tsar and his confessor, Stefan Vonifatiev, sponsored a group, mainly composed of non-monastic clergy and known as the Zealots of Piety. These included the archpriest Avvakum as a founder-member, as well as the future patriarch Nikon, who joined in 1649. Their original aim was to revitalise the parishes through effective preaching, the orderly celebration of the liturgy, and enforcement of the church's moral teachings. To ensure that the liturgy was celebrated correctly, its original and authentic form had to be established, but the way that Nikon did this caused disputes between him and other reformers.
In 1646, Nikon first met Tsar Aleksei who immediately appointed him archimandrite of the Novospassky monastery in Moscow. In 1649, Nikon was consecrated as the Metropolitan of Novgorod and, in 1652, he became Patriarch of Moscow. During his time in Novgorod, Nikon began to develop his view that the responsibility for the spiritual health of Russia lay with senior church leaders, not the tsar. When he became patriarch, he started to reorganise the church's administration so it was wholly under his own control.
In 1649, a Greek delegation, headed by Patriarch Paisios of Jerusalem, arrived in Moscow and tried to convince the tsar and Nikon that current Greek liturgical practices were authentically Orthodox and that Russian usages that differed from them were local innovations. This led to a heated debate between the visiting Greeks and many Russian clerics who believed that, by accepting the decrees of the Council of Florence, the Greek patriarchate had compromised its authority and forfeited any right to dictate to Russia on liturgical matters.
Tsar Aleksei, Nikon and some of the Zealots of Piety decided that best way to revitalise the Russian church was to conform with the usages of the Greek church and accept the authority of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
Reforms of Nikon
By the middle of the 17th century, Greek and Russian Church officials, including Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and liturgical books of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant with the other Orthodox churches.
The unrevised Muscovite service-books derived from a different, and older, Greek recension than that which was used in the current Greek books, which had been revised over the centuries, and contained innovations. Nikon wanted to have the same rite in the Russian tsardom as those ethnically Slavic lands, now the territories of Ukraine and Belarus, that were then part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, to attract local Orthodox rebels. Their rite was closer to the Greek than that in the Muscovite realm. Nikon did not accept the existence of two different rites in the same church.
Supported by Tsar Aleksei, Nikon carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a synod and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian Typikon, Euchologion, and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and the lack of textual historiographic techniques at the time.
Without waiting for the completion of any comparative analysis, Nikon overrode the decrees of the Stoglavy Synod and ordered the printing of new editions of the Russian psalter, missal, and a pamphlet justifying his liturgical changes. The new psalter and missal altered the most frequently used words and visible gestures in the liturgy, including the pronunciation of Christ's name and making the sign of the cross. In addition, the overbearing manner in which he forced the changes through turned Avvakum and others of the Zealots of Piety against him. Their protests led to their excommunication and exile and, in some cases, imprisonment or execution.
It was not disputed by the reformers that the Russian texts should be corrected by reference to the most ancient Greek, but also Slavonic, manuscripts, although they also considered that many traditional Russian ceremonial practices were acceptable. In addition, the hastily published new editions of the service books contained internal inconsistencies, and had to be reprinted several times in quick succession. Rather than being revised according to ancient Slavonic and Greek manuscripts, the new liturgical editions had actually been translated from modern Greek editions printed in Catholic Venice.
The locum tenens for Patriarch Pitirim of Moscow convened the 1666 Great Moscow Synod, which brought Patriarch Macarius III Ibn al-Za'im of Antioch, Patriarch Paisios of Alexandria, and many bishops to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 rubles in gold and furs for their participation. This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the innovations appeared to weaken the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the Third Rome. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Moscow seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.
It is argued that changing the wording of the eighth article of the Nicaean Creed was one of the very few alterations that could be seen as a genuine correction, rather than aligning the texts of Russian liturgical books and practices, customs and even vestments with the Greek versions that Nikon considered were universally applicable norms. Nikon also attacked Russian Church rituals as erroneous, and even in some cases heretical, in comparison with their contemporary Greek equivalents. This went beyond the recommendation of Patriarch Paisios of Jerusalem, who suggested that differences in ritual did not of themselves indicate error, accepting the possibility that differences have developed over time. He urged Nikon to use discretion in attempting to enforce complete uniformity with Greek practice.
Nevertheless, both patriarch and tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavors may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Aleksei, encouraged by his military success in the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) to conquer West Russian provinces and Ukraine, developed ambitions of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the Ottoman Empire. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians and who suggested that Patriarch Nikon might become the new Patriarch of Constantinople.
Main alterations
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:
Today's readers might perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the beginning represented and symbolized doctrinal truth. The authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the subject people. Those who reacted against the Nikonite reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the alterations. Changes were also often made arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' [Christ], Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' [meaning the Son], and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' [meaning Church], Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' [meaning Temple] and vice versa.
According to a source sympathetic to the Old Believers:
Schism
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers (see Raskol). However, after the deposition of Patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical among them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the Antichrist. The Old Believers, under the leadership of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682.
After the schism
After 1685, a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether, particularly for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where the community exists to this day. Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including the Pomors of the Russian Far North, in the Kursk region, in the Ural Mountains, in Siberia, and the Russian Far East. The 40,000-strong community of Lipovans still lives in Kiliya Raion (Vylkove) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. In the Imperial Russian census of 1897, 2,204,596 people, about 1.75% of the population of the Russian Empire self-declared as Old Believers or other denominations split from the Russian Orthodox Church. By the 1910s, in the last Imperial Russian census just before the October Revolution, approximately ten percent of the population of the Russian Empire said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches (census data).
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under Peter the Great (reigned 1682–1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard)—to intense, as under Tsar Nicholas I (reigned 1825–1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.
In 1762, Catherine the Great passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practise their faith openly without interference. In 1905, Tsar Nicholas II signed an act of religious freedom that ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under Catherine the Great—reigned 1762–1796) to refer to Old Believers as raskolniki (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless, some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they were forbidden from joining the civil service.
Old Believer denominations
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonite reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. Despite the emphasis on invariable adherence to the pre-Nikonite traditions, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other (some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst).
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who was put to death for this), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the Popovtsy (поповцы, "with priests") and the Bezpopovtsy ("priestless").
Priested (Popovtsy)
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonite reforms. In 1846, they convinced Ambrose of Belaya Krinitsa (1791–1863), a Greek Orthodox bishop whom Turkish pressure had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old Believer bishops in Russia reached ten and they established their own episcopate, the Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy.
Not all popovtsy Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as beglopopovtsy obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. Popovtsy have priests, bishops and all sacraments, including the Eucharist.
Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy—The largest popovtsy denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the Belokrinitskoe Soglasie (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church. The Old Rite community founded at Rogozhskoye Cemetery played a major role in the creation of the denomination and remains as the seat of the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia.
Neokruzhniki (extinct)
Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or Russian Old-Orthodox Church
Nekrasov Cossacks, Nekrasovtsy
Beglopopovtsy (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)
Luzhkane, also known as Luzhkovskoe soglasie; in some places, they had no priests and so belonged to the Bezpopovtsy (extinct)
There have also been Old Believer members of the Russian Catholic Church united with Rome, who would also be classed as popovtsy
Priestless (Bezpopovtsy)
The Bezpopovtsy rejected "the World" where they believed the Antichrist reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, asceticism, adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. More radical movements which already existed prior to the reforms of Nikon and where eschatological and anti-clerical sentiments were predominant, would join the bezpopovtsy Old Believers. The Bezpopovtsy claimed that any priest or ordinary who has ever used the Nikonite Rites have forfeited apostolic succession. Therefore, the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except baptism.
The Bezpopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. Bezpopovtsy have no priests and no Eucharist. Priestless churches, however, may elect a mentor () or church leader () to lead the community and its services.
Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North Russia (East Karelia, Arkhangelsk Oblast). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar.
Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy": accept marriage
Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy": reject marriage
Fedoseevtsy: "Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession" (1690s until present); deny marriage and practice cloister-style asceticism.
Filippians: Named after their founder, Filipp. They were repressed by the Russian Government and so, the Fillipovtsy started practicing self-immolation as a means for the "preservation of the faith".
Chasovennye (from chasovnya i.e. chapel), a Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priest-less practice. Also known as Semeyskie (in the lands east of Lake Baikal).
Minor groups
Apart from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and became extinct at various times since the end of the 17th century:
Aristovtsy (beginning of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th centuries; extinct): from the name of the merchant Aristov;
Titlovtsy (extinct in the twentieth century): emerged from Fedoseevtsy, supported the use of the inscription "INRI" (titlo) upon the Orthodox cross, which other groups rejected;
Troparion confession (troparschiki): a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns (troparia);
Daniel's confession of the "partially married" (danilovtsy polubrachnye);
Adamant confession (adamantovy): refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of Antichrist);
Aaron's confession (aaronovtsy): second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.
"Grandmother's confession" or the Self-baptized: practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (babushki), since a valid priesthood—in their opinion—had ceased to exist;
"Hole-worshippers" (dyrniki): relinquished the use of icons and prayed to the East through a hole in the wall;
Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in Bashkortostan): practised a peculiar lay "quasi-Eucharistic" rite;
"Runaways" (beguny) or "Wanderers" (stranniki);
"Netovtsy" or Saviour's Confession: denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian net "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests, etc.
Edinovertsy
Edinovertsy (, i.e. "people of the same faith"; collective, единоверчество; often referred to as Orthodox Old Ritualists, православные старообрядцы): Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the omophorion of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate – Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, abbreviated as ROCOR – have come into communion under different circumstances and retain being old believers in the traditional context and retain the use of the pre-Nikonite rituals. Alexander Dugin, sociologist and a former strategic adviser to Vladimir Putin, is a proponent of edinoverie, since it combies Apostolic succession of the ROC, while preserving pre-Nikonite liturgical tradition.
Validity of the reformist theory
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of the 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (Феодосий Киево-Печерский, d. 1074) introduced the so-called Studite Typicon to Russia. This typicon (essentially, a guide-book for liturgical and monastic life) reflected the traditions of the urban Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople. The Studite typicon predominated throughout the western part of the Byzantine Empire and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. At the end of the 14th century, through the work of Cyprian, metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the so-called Jerusalem Typicon or the Typicon of St. Sabbas—originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of typica would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance—unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of the 15th—17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of Jerusalem Typicon. This explains the differences between the modern version of the Typicon, used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonite Russian recension of Jerusalem Typicon, called Oko Tserkovnoe (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonite version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official Russian Orthodox Church often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-raskol treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by Dimitry of Rostov.
The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of the church reforms began only in the 1850s, with the groundbreaking work of several church historians, Byzantinists, and theologians, including S. A. Belokurov, A. P. Shchapov, A. K. Borozdin, N. Gibbenet and, later, E. E. Golubinsky, A. V. Kartashev, A. A. Dmitriyevsky, and Nikolai F. Kapterev (the last four were members of the Imperial Academy of Sciences). Research was continued later mainly by Serge A. Zenkovsky, a specialist on Russian ecclesiastical culture. Golubinsky, Dmitriyevsky, Kartashov and Kapterev, amongst others, demonstrated that the rites, rejected and condemned by the church reforms, were genuine traditions of Orthodox Christianity, altered in Greek usage during the 15th–16th centuries but remaining unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonite liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon Oko Tserkovnoe, were demonstrated to have preserved earlier Byzantine practices, being closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs.
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church themselves held membership in the official church (A. V. Kapterev, for instance, was a professor at the Slavic Greek Latin Academy) but nevertheless took up serious study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed that the official explanation regarding the old Russian books and rites was unsustainable.
Background
As Serge A. Zenkovsky points out in his standard work Russia's Old Believers, the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term "Old Believers" groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666–67. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural background of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon's church reforms even unto death.
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Believers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of Christ, but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms.
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents a priori prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, aesthetic and historic dimensions.
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers culturally conservative. Some Old Believers consider any pre-Nikonite Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon.
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.
Main differences
Old Believers use two fingers while making the Sign of the Cross (the pointer finger straight, middle finger slightly bent) while new-style Orthodoxy uses two fingers and the thumb for the sign of cross (the thumb and two fingers are held together at point, two fingers folded). Old Ritualists generally say the Jesus Prayer with the Sign of the Cross, while New Ritualists use the Sign of the Cross as a Trinitarian symbol. This makes for a significant difference between the two branches of Russian Orthodoxy, and one of the most noticeable (see the picture of Boyarynya Feodosia Morozova above). A prayer rug known as the Podruchnik is used to keep one's face and hands clean during prostrations, as these parts of the body are used to make the sign of the cross on oneself.
Old Believers reject any changes and emendations of liturgical texts and rituals introduced by the reforms of Patriarch Nikon. Thus they continue to use the previous Church Slavonic translation of the Greek texts, including the Psalter, striving to preserve intact the "pre-Nikonite" practices of the Russian Church.
Old Believers only recognize performing baptism through three full immersions, in agreement with the Greek practice, but reject the validity of any baptismal rite performed otherwise (for example through pouring or sprinkling, as the Russian Orthodox Church has occasionally accepted since the 18th century). (See Oblivantsy)
Old Believers perform the Liturgy with seven prosphora, instead of five as in new-rite Russian Orthodoxy or a single large prosphoron, as sometimes done by the Greeks and Arabs.
Old Believers chant the alleluia verse after the psalmody twice rather than the three times mandated by the Nikonite reforms.
Old Believers do not use polyphonic singing as the new-style Russian practice, but only the monodic, unison singing of Znamenny chant. In this respect it represents a tradition that parallels the use of Byzantine chant and neumatic notation.
Present situation
In 1971, the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas imposed on the Old Believers in the 17th century. In 1974, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia issued an ukase revoking the anathemas, asking forgiveness from the Old Believers. Under their auspices, the first efforts to make the prayer and service books of the Old Believers available in English were made. Nevertheless, most Old Believer communities have not returned to full communion with the majority of Orthodox Christianity worldwide.
some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One Old Believer parish in the United States, in Erie, Pennsylvania, has entered into communion with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, after a split in the congregation. The remainder have continued as Old Believers.
Old Believer churches in Russia have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: Rogozhskaya Zastava (Popovtsy of the Belokrinitskaya hierarchy official center), a cathedral for the Novozybkovskaya hierarchy in Zamoskvorech'ye and Preobrazhenskaya Zastava where Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy coexist.
Within the Old Believer world, only Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of inter-branch ecumenism, but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.
Modern-day Old Believers live all over the world, having fled Russia under tsarist persecution and after the Russian Revolution of 1917. Some Old Believers are still transient throughout various parts of the world today. Significant established Old Believer communities exist in the United States and Canada in Plamondon, Alberta; Hines Creek, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer in the Fox River area villages of Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo, Nikolaevsk, Beryozovka, Delta Junction, and Kodiak, Alaska (Larsen Bay area, and on Raspberry Island). Two communities also exist in Sydney, Australia and in the South Island of New Zealand. A large community existed in Yarwun, Australia, for many years until many families left the area in the early 2000s. Communities also have been established in many parts of South America, including Brazil, Uruguay, Bolivia and Argentina, where they moved after having found refuge in China between the 1920s and the 1950s.
Old Believer communities are also found in Georgia and Kazakhstan.
Small hidden communities have been found in the Russian Far North (specifically remote areas of Arkhangelsk Oblast and the Komi Republic) and various regions of Siberia, especially concentrated in the areas between the Altai Mountains and Tuva Republic. Perhaps the highest concentration of older established Old Believer communities, with foundations dating back hundreds of years, can be found concentrated in Eastern Siberia, specifically the Transbaikal region in desolate areas of Buryatia and Zabaykalsky Krai. Others, like the Lykov family, fled later into the wild to avoid Communist persecution.
The Lipovans, who live in Romania's Danube Delta, are descendants of the Old Believers who left Russia in around 1740 to avoid religious persecutions.
A conservative estimate for the Old Believer population in Bolivia stands at some 3,000, while that in Alaska is estimated at 2,500. Old Believers arrived in Alaska, US, in the second half of the 20th century, helping to revive a shrinking Orthodox population.
Old Believers from Russia fled to Swedish Estonia and Livonia in the end of the 17th century. Currently, there are 2,605 Old Believers in Estonia according to the 2011 Census. They live mostly in villages from Mustvee to Omedu and from Nina to Varnja on the western coast of Lake Peipus, and on Piirissaar Island. Their proximity to Lake Peipus gives them their name peipsivenelased ("Peipus Russians") in Estonian.
Two Old Believer missions have been established in Pakistan and Uganda.
Old Believer churches
Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church (Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy, Lipovans)
(Fedoseevtsy)
Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church (Pomortsy)
Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church of Lithuania
Union of Old Believer Parishes in Estonia
Russian Old-Orthodox Church (Novozybkovskaya Hierarchy)
Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy)
See also
Ancient Church of the East — an East Syriac Church, founded in 1968 over similar reasons to split off from Assyrian Church of the East
Confessing Movement
Continuing Anglican movement
Independent Catholic
Khovanshchina
Lykov family
Old Believers (Latvia)
Sedevacantism
Traditionalist Catholic
True Orthodoxy — a denominational movement within Eastern Orthodox Church over differences such as ecumenism and Calendar reforms since the early 20th century
References
Sources
In English
Cherniavsky, M.: "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow", Church History XXIV (1955), 147–57.
Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", Church History XXIV (1955), 291–323.
Crummey, Robert O.: The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State, Wisconsin U.P., 1970
Crummey, Robert O.: Eastern Orthodoxy in Russia and Ukraine in the age of the Counter-Reformation in The Cambridge History of Christianity Vol.5, Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University Press, 2008
De Simone, Peter T.: The Old Believers in Imperial Russia: Oppression, Opportunism and Religious Identity in Tsarist Moscow, I. B. Tauris, 2018 ISBN 978-1784538927
Gill, T.: The Council of Florence, Cambridge, 1959
MacCulloch, Diarmaid, A History of Christianity, 2009, Penguin 2010 , chapter 15
.
Pokrovsii. N.N. “Western Siberian Scriptoria and Binderies: Ancient Traditions Among the Old Believers.” The Book Collector 20 (Spring 1971): 19-32.
Rock, S., Russian piety and Orthodox culture 1380–1589 in The Cambridge History of Christianity Vol.5, Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University University Press, 2008
Smith, Abby, and Vladimir Budaragin. Living Traditions of Russian Faith: Books & Manuscripts of the Old Believers : an Exhibition at the Library of Congress, May 31-June 29, 1990. Washington: Library of Congress, 1990.
Zenkovsky, Serge A.: "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", Harvard Slavic Studies, 1957. III, 49–66
.
.
.
Stefanie Scherr, 2013 : "'As soon as we got here we lost everything': the migration memories and religious lives of the old believers in Australia | 'As soon as we got here we lost everything': the migration memories and religious lives of the old believers in Australia
Further reading
Old Orthodox Prayer Book. Trans. and ed. by Pimen Simon, Theodore Jurewics, [and] German Ciuba. Erie, Penn.: Russian Orthodox Church of the Nativity of Christ (Old Rite), 1986. N.B.: Consists of the liturgy of the Old Believers (a.k.a. Old Ritualists), as also now authorized for use in parishes of the canonical Russian Orthodox Church; texts in Russian and English on facing pages. Without ISBN
In Russian
Голубинский ЕЕ: История русской церкви, Москва, 1900 / Golubinskij EE: "History of the Russian Church", Moscow, 1900
/ "Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers", ČOIDR, 1905
/ Dmitrievskij A.A.: The correction of books under Patriarch Nikon and Patriarchs after him. Moscow, "Jazyki slavjanskoj kul'tury", 2004
Зеньковский С.А.: Русское старообрядчество, том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A.: "Russia's Old Believers", volumes I and II, Moscow 2006
Каптерев Н.Ф.: Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов, Москва, 1913 / Kapterv N.F.: "Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals", Moscow, 1913
/ Kapterev N.F.: "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the 16th and 17th centuries", Moscow, 1914
Карташов А.В.: Очерки по истории русской церкви, Париж, 1959 / Kartašov A.V.: "Outlines of the history of the Russian church", Paris, 1959
Ключевский И.П.: Сочинения, I–VIII, Москва, 1956–1959 / Ključevskij I.P.: "Works", I–VIII, Moscow, 1956–1959
Мельников Ф.И.: Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви. Барнаул, 1999 / Melnikov F.I.: "Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church", Barnaul, 1999
Урушев Д.А. Возьми крест свой: история старообрядчества в событиях и лицах. Барнаул, 2009. / Urushev D.A. Take up your Cross: most influential persons and events in the history of Old Belief, Barnaul, 2009
N.B.: All these works come from scholars and scientists, none of them Old Believers, except for Melnikov (an Old-Believer apologist) and Urushev (a religious historian).
External links
Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (in Russian)
Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church of Lithuania (in Russian)
Old Believers in North America — a bibliography
17th-century establishments in Russia
Christian denominations established in the 17th century
History of the Russian Orthodox Church
17th-century Eastern Orthodoxy | [
0.39187681674957275,
0.688599705696106,
0.20385965704917908,
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|
228699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Lindblad | Otto Lindblad | Otto Jonas Lindblad (31 March 1809 – 26 January 1864), was a Swedish composer. He is most famous for the musical score of Kungssången, the Swedish royal anthem.
Otto Lindblad was the son of a clergyman. He was born in Karlstorp and attended gymnasium in Växjö. In 1829 he began academic studies at the University of Lund. In Lund, he formed a group with A. E. Christernin and J. Meurling, together with whom he played and sang a type of three part music pieces. The group became known as the "musical trefoil band". In 1836 he ended his studies and fully devoted his time to music. Two years later he formed the Lund Student Singers Association. On 5 December 1844 he presented the Royal Anthem for the first time, at a celebration for King Oscar I.
In 1846 Lindblad undertook a national tour with the noted Lund Quartet. The tour's revenue was to have been used for student housing in Lund, but the profit was too small and they only managed to bring home 1500 Riksdaler. In the spring of 1847 he took up the position of parish clerk and organist in Mellby. He married Emma Andersson in 1855. Their only child, a daughter, died as an infant. Otto Lindblad died in North Mellby parish at the age of 55 years, following a long period of illness.
Compositions
"Trollhättan"
"Längtan till landet" (better known as "Vintern rasat ut...")
"Liten fågel"
"Minnets temple"
"Sångfåglarne"
"Till konung Oscar I"
"Ur Shakespeares Henrik III"
"Ångbåtssång"
"Kungssången" - The Royal Anthem
References
1809 births
1864 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male musicians
People from Växjö
Romantic composers
Swedish classical composers
Swedish male classical composers | [
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228708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation%20of%20Iraq%20%282003%E2%80%932011%29 | Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011) | The occupation of Iraq is characterized by a large United States military deployment on Iraqi territory, beginning with the U.S.-led invasion of the country in March 2003 which overthrew the Ba'ath Party government of Saddam Hussein and ending with the departure of US troops from the country in 2011. Troops for the invasion came primarily from the United States, the United Kingdom and Poland, but 29 other nations also provided some troops, and there were varying levels of assistance from Japan and other countries.
It was a period of violence and political turmoil with strong foreign influence exerted on Iraqi politics. In April 2003, a military occupation was established and run by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), which later appointed and granted limited powers to an Iraq Interim Governing Council. In June 2004, a caretaker government was established – the Iraqi Interim Government. Following parliamentary elections in January 2005, this administration was replaced in May by the Iraqi Transitional Government. A year later, the Al Maliki I Government took office.
During this period, tens of thousands of private military company personnel—many from abroad—were employed in the protection of infrastructure, facilities and personnel. Efforts toward the reconstruction of Iraq after the damage of the invasion were slowed when coalition and allied Iraqi forces fought a stronger-than-expected militant Iraqi insurgency, leading to difficult living conditions for the population of Iraq throughout the period.
Military occupation
A military occupation was established and run by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), which later appointed and granted limited powers to an Iraq Interim Governing Council. Troops for the invasion came primarily from the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, but 29 other nations also provided some troops, and there were varying levels of assistance from Japan and other allied countries. Tens of thousands of private security personnel provided protection of infrastructure, facilities and personnel.
Coalition and allied Iraqi forces fought a stronger-than-expected militant Iraqi insurgency, and so the reconstruction of Iraq was slow. In mid-2004, the direct rule of the CPA was ended and a new "sovereign and independent" Interim Government of Iraq assumed the full responsibility and authority of the state. The CPA and the Governing Council were disbanded on 28 June 2004, and a new transitional constitution came into effect.
Sovereignty was transferred to a Governing Council Iraqi interim government led by Iyad Allawi as Iraq's first post-Saddam prime minister; this government was not allowed to make new laws without the approval of the CPA. The Iraqi Interim Government was replaced as a result of the elections which took place in January 2005. A period of negotiations by the elected Iraqi National Assembly followed, which culminated on 6 April 2005 with the selection of, among others, Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari and President Jalal Talabani. Prime Minister al-Jaafari led the majority party of the United Iraqi Alliance (UIA), a coalition of the al-Dawa and SCIRI (Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq) parties. Both parties are backed by Tehran, and were banned by Saddam Hussein.
Legal status of the coalition presence
From 2003 to 2011, the US-dominated multinational force in Iraq exercised considerable power in the country and, with the Iraqi Armed Forces, conducted military operations against the Iraqi insurgency. The role of Iraqi government forces in providing security increased from 2009 to 2011.
According to Article 42 of the Hague Convention, "territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army." The International Humanitarian Law Research Initiative states: "the wording of Security Council resolution 1546 . . . indicates that, regardless of how the situation is characterized, international humanitarian law will apply to it."
There may be situations where the former occupier will maintain a military presence in the country, with the agreement of the legitimate government under a security arrangement (e.g., U.S. military presence in Japan and Germany). The legality of such agreement and the legitimacy of the national authorities signing it are subject to international recognition, whereby members of the international community re-establish diplomatic and political relations with the national government.
The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 in 2004 looked forward to the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq. Afterwards, the UN and individual nations established diplomatic relations with the Interim Government, which began planning for elections and the writing of a new constitution.
In January 2005, John Negroponte, US ambassador to Iraq, indicated the US government would comply with a United Nations resolution declaring that coalition forces would have to leave if requested by the Iraqi government. "If that's the wish of the government of Iraq, we will comply with those wishes. But no, we haven't been approached on this issue – although obviously we stand prepared to engage the future government on any issue concerning our presence here."
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal. On 3 June 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq. The UN mandate under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790 expired on 31 December 2008.
2003
Fall of Saddam Hussein's government
Schools, police, courts, government, and military were shut down, which meant that most Iraqis were unemployed. Cities, especially Baghdad, suffered through reductions in electricity, clean water and telephone service from pre-war levels, with shortages that continued through at least the next year.
On 1 May 2003, President Bush declared the "end of major combat operations" in Iraq, while aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln with a large "Mission Accomplished" banner displayed behind him. The weeks following the removal of Ba'ath Party rule were portrayed by American media as generally a euphoric time among the Iraqi populace. New York Post correspondent Jonathan Foreman wrote from Baghdad in May 2003 that "the intensity of the population's pro-American enthusiasm is astonishing".
There were widespread reports of looting, though much of the looting was directed at former government buildings and other remnants of the former government, and reports of losses of up to 170,000 items of Iraq's archaeological treasures worth billions of U.S. dollars, mostly from the National Museum of Iraq, were later revealed to be vastly exaggerated.
Insurgency begins
In the summer of 2003, the U.S. military focused on hunting down the remaining leaders of the ousted government, culminating in the killing of Saddam's sons Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein on 22 July. In all, over 200 top leaders of the former regime were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel.
After the initial invasion, most of the Iraqi military's former soldiers and officers offered little resistance to Coalition forces in the early days of the occupation. Many soldiers had simply gone home rather than openly fight the invading forces. This seeming acceptance of Coalition authority stemmed from the US military continuing to pay the salaries of Saddam's former soldiers, while promising senior Iraqi officers that they would have a major role to play "in building a new Iraq."
However, on 11 May 2003, the Bush Administration established the "Coalition Provisional Authority" (CPA) to take control of Iraq's domestic affairs away from the US military. Twelve days later, Paul Bremer, head of the CPA, issued an order dissolving the entire Iraqi military, as well as most civilian employees of the old government, and pledged to build a new military and government from scratch. One "untainted by any ties to Saddam's regime," according to the CPA. The Iraqi army's abrupt end, against the protests of many US field commanders, sparked immediate rioting among former Iraqi soldiers. In addition to broader civil unrest as unemployment skyrocketed to 70% and practically every government service, from the police to trash collectors, ended without warning. Soon, large numbers of former Iraqi military personnel allied with the surviving Ba'ath loyalists and formed guerrilla units, igniting an eight-year insurgency against Coalition forces. Besides scattered attacks in Baghdad, these insurgents began to focus on taking and holding ground in and around Mosul, Tikrit and Fallujah. In the fall of 2003, these largely secular units were joined by religiously motivated "Jihadists" insurgents, both foreign and domestic. With the growing influence of religious fanatics, the insurgency's mostly traditional tactics of sniping, small unit ambushes and planting roadside improvised explosive devices against foreign military personnel began transforming into frequent suicide bombings and death squads targeting civilians that were perceived as "loyal" to coalition forces.
They favored attacking the unarmored Humvee vehicles, and in November they successfully attacked U.S. rotary aircraft with SA-7 missiles bought on the global black market. On 19 August, the UN Headquarters in Baghdad was destroyed in the Canal Hotel Bombing, killing at least 22 people, among them Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Special Representative of the UN Secretary General.
Saddam captured and elections urged
In December 2003, Saddam himself was captured. The provisional government began training a security force intended to defend critical infrastructure, and the U.S. promised over $20 billion in reconstruction aid in the form of credits against Iraq's future oil revenues. At the same time, elements left out of the Iraqi Patriotic Alliance (IPA) began to agitate for elections. Most prominent among these was Ali al-Sistani, Grand Ayatollah in the Shia sect of Islam.
The United States and the Coalition Provisional Authority, run by Jay Garner and three deputies, including Tim Cross, opposed allowing democratic elections at this time, preferring instead to eventually hand over power to an unelected group of Iraqis. More insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad to Basra in the south.
2004
Spring uprisings
In the spring, the United States and the Coalition Provisional Authority decided to confront the rebels with a pair of assaults: one on Fallujah, the center of the "Mohammed's Army of Al-Ansar", and another on Najaf, home of an important mosque, which had become the focal point for the Mahdi Army and its activities. In Fallujah four private security contractors, working for Blackwater USA, were ambushed and killed, and their corpses desecrated. In retaliation a U.S. offensive was begun, but it was soon halted because of the protests by the Iraqi Governing Council and negative media coverage.
A truce was negotiated that put a former Ba'athist general in complete charge of the town. The 1st Armored Division along with the 2nd ACR were then shifted south, because Spanish, Salvadoran, Ukrainian, and Polish forces were having increasing difficulties retaining control over Al Kut, and Najaf. The 1st Armored Division and 2nd ACR relieved the Spaniards, Salvadoran, Poles, and put down the overt rebellion.
At the same time, British forces in Basra were faced with increasing restiveness, and became more selective in the areas they patrolled. In all, April, May and early June represented the bloodiest months of fighting since the end of hostilities. The Iraqi troops who were left in charge of Fallujah after the truce began to disperse and the city fell back under insurgent control.
In the April battle for Fallujah, U.S. troops killed about 200 resistance fighters, while 40 Americans died and hundreds were wounded in a fierce battle. U.S. forces then turned their attention to the al Mahdi Army in Najaf. A large convoy of US Army supply trucks manned by civilian contractors was ambushed and suffered significant damage and casualties.
Transfer of sovereignty
In June 2004, under the auspices of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 the Coalition transferred limited sovereignty to a caretaker government, whose first act was to begin the trial of Saddam Hussein. The government began the process of moving towards elections, though the insurgency, and the lack of cohesion within the government itself, led to repeated delays.
Militia leader Muqtada al-Sadr used his grass-roots organization and Mahdi Militia of over a thousand armed men to take control of the streets of Baghdad. The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) soon realized it had lost control and closed down his popular newspaper. This resulted in mass anti-American demonstrations. The CPA then attempted to arrest al-Sadr on murder charges. He defied the American military by taking refuge in the Holy City of Najaf.
Through the months of July and August, a series of skirmishes in and around Najaf culminated with the Imman Ali Mosque itself under siege, only to have a peace deal brokered by al-Sistani in late August. Al-Sadr then declared a national cease fire, and opened negotiations with the American and government forces. His militia was incorporated into the Iraqi security forces and al-Sadr is now a special envoy. This incident was the turning point in the failed American efforts to install Ahmed Chalabi as leader of the interim government. The CPA then put Iyad Allawi in power; ultimately he was only marginally more popular than Chalabi.
The Allawi government, with significant numbers of holdovers from the Coalition Provisional Authority, began to engage in attempts to secure control of the oil infrastructure, the source of Iraq's foreign currency, and control of the major cities of Iraq. The continuing insurgencies, poor state of the Iraqi Army, disorganized condition of police and security forces, as well as the lack of revenue hampered their efforts to assert control. In addition, both former Ba'athist elements and militant Shia groups engaged in sabotage, terrorism, open rebellion, and establishing their own security zones in all or part of a dozen cities. The Allawi government vowed to crush resistance, using U.S. troops, but at the same time negotiated with Muqtada al-Sadr.
Offensives and counteroffensives
Beginning 8 November, American and Iraqi forces invaded the militant stronghold of Fallujah in Operation Phantom Fury, killing and capturing many insurgents. Many rebels were thought to have fled the city before the invasion. U.S.-backed figures put insurgency losses at over 2,000. It was the bloodiest single battle for the U.S. in the war, with 92 Americans dead and several hundred wounded. A video showing the killing of at least one unarmed and wounded man by an American serviceman surfaced, throwing renewed doubt and outrage at the efficiency of the U.S. occupation. The Marine was later cleared of any wrongdoing because the Marines had been warned that the enemy would sometimes feign death and booby-trap bodies as a tactic to lure Marines to their deaths. November was the deadliest month of the occupation for coalition troops, surpassing April.
Another offensive was launched by insurgents during the month of November in Mosul. U.S. forces backed by peshmerga fighters launched a counteroffensive which resulted in the Battle of Mosul (2004). The fighting in Mosul occurred concurrently with the fighting in Fallujah and attributed to the high number of American casualties taken that month.
In December, 14 American soldiers were killed and over a hundred injured when an explosion struck an open-tent mess hall in Mosul, where President Bush had spent Thanksgiving with troops the year before. The explosion is believed to have come from a suicide bomber.
After a review of the military strategy in the end of 2004, then commanding general of the MNF-I, General George W. Casey, Jr. directed the Coalition forces to shift their focus from fighting insurgents to training Iraqis. At the time, the Iraqi insurgency was mainly directed against the occupation and it was believed that if the Coalition would reduce its presence then the insurgency would diminish. Military planners hoped that national elections would change the perception of being under occupation, stabilize the situation and allow the Coalition to reduce its presence.
2005
Iraqi elections and aftermath
On 30 January, an election for a government to draft a permanent constitution took place. Although some violence and lack of widespread Sunni Arab participation marred the event, most of the eligible Kurd and Shia populace participated. On 4 February, Paul Wolfowitz announced that 15,000 U.S. troops whose tours of duty had been extended in order to provide election security would be pulled out of Iraq by the next month. February, March and April proved to be relatively peaceful months compared to the carnage of November and January, with insurgent attacks averaging 30 a day from the average 70.
Hopes for a quick end to an insurgency and a withdrawal of U.S. troops were dashed at the advent of May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion of U.S. forces in March and April 2003. Suicide bombers, believed to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gatherings or civilian concentrations mainly of Shias. As a result, over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79 U.S. soldiers.
During early and mid-May, the U.S. also launched Operation Matador, an assault by around 1,000 Marines in the ungoverned region of western Iraq. Its goal was the closing of suspected insurgent supply routes of volunteers and material from Syria, and with the fight they received their assumption proved correct. Fighters armed with flak jackets (unseen in the insurgency by this time) and sporting sophisticated tactics met the Marines, eventually inflicting 30 U.S. casualties by the operation's end, and suffering 125 casualties themselves.
The Marines succeeded, recapturing the whole region and even fighting insurgents all the way to the Syrian border, where they were forced to stop (Syrian residents living near the border heard the American bombs very clearly during the operation). The vast majority of these armed and trained insurgents quickly dispersed before the U.S. could bring the full force of its firepower on them, as it did in Fallujah.
Announcements and renewed fighting
On 14 August 2005 the Washington Post quoted one anonymous U.S. senior official expressing that "the United States no longer expects to see a model new democracy, a self-supporting oil industry or a society in which the majority of people are free from serious security or economic challenges... 'What we expected to achieve was never realistic given the timetable or what unfolded on the ground.
On 22 September 2005, Prince Saud al-Faisal, the Saudi foreign minister, said he had warned the Bush administration that Iraq was hurtling toward disintegration, and that the election planned for December was unlikely to make any difference. U.S. officials immediately made statements rejecting this view.
Constitutional ratification and elections
The National Assembly elected in January had drafted a new constitution to be ratified in a national referendum on 15 October 2005. For ratification, the constitution required a majority of national vote, and could be blocked by a two-thirds "no" vote in each of at least three of the 18 governorates. In the actual vote, 79% of the voters voted in favor, and there was a two-thirds "no" vote in only two governorates, both predominantly Sunni. The new Constitution of Iraq was ratified and took effect. Sunni turnout was substantially heavier than for the January elections, but insufficient to block ratification.
Elections for a new Iraqi National Assembly were held under the new constitution on 15 December 2005. This election used a proportional system, with approximately 25% of the seats required to be filled by women. After the election, a coalition government was formed under the leadership of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, with Jalal Talabani as president.
2006
The beginning of that year was marked by government creation talks and continuous anti-coalition and attacks on mainly Shia civilians.
Al-Askari shrine bombing and Sunni-Shia fighting
See Al Askari Mosque bombing and Iraqi Civil War (2006–2008)
On 22 February 2006. bombs exploded at the Al Askari Mosque causing substantial damage.
On 2 March the director of the Baghdad morgue fled Iraq explaining,
"7,000 people have been killed by death squads in recent months." The Boston Globe reported that around eight times the number of Iraqis killed by terrorist bombings during March 2006 were killed by sectarian death squads during the same period. A total of 1,313 were killed by sectarian militias while 173 were killed by suicide bombings. The LA Times later reported that about 3,800 Iraqis were killed by sectarian violence in Baghdad alone during the first three months of 2006. During April 2006, morgue numbers show that 1,091 Baghdad residents were killed by sectarian executions.
Insurgencies, frequent terrorist attacks and sectarian violence in Iraq lead to harsh criticism of US policy and fears of a failing state and civil war. The concerns were expressed by several US think tanks as well as the US ambassador to Iraq, Zalmay Khalilzad.
In early 2006, a handful of high-ranking retired generals began to demand Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld's resignation due in part to the aforementioned chaos that apparently resulted from his management of the war.
British hand Muthanna province to Iraqis
On 12 July 2006, Iraq took full control of the Muthanna province, marking the first time since the invasion that a province had been handed from foreign troops to the Iraqi government. In a joint statement, the U.S. ambassador Zalmay Khalilzad and the U.S. commander in Iraq, General George Casey, hailed it as a milestone in Iraq's capability to govern and protect itself as a "sovereign nation" and said handovers in other provinces will take place as conditions are achieved. "With this first transition of security responsibility, Muthanna demonstrates the progress Iraq is making toward self- governance", the statement said, adding that "Multi-National Forces will stand ready to provide assistance if needed." At the ceremony marking the event, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki stated, "It is a great national day that will be registered in the history of Iraq. This step forward will bring happiness to all Iraqis."
Forward Operating Base Courage handed over to Nineveh province government
A former presidential compound of Saddam Hussein, dubbed Forward Operating Base Courage by Coalition forces, was handed over by Charlie Company 4-11FA to the Nineveh province government on 20 July 2006. The main palace had been home to the 101st Airborne Division Main Command Post, Task Force Olympia CP, 4-11FA of the 172nd SBCT, and the Task Force Freedom CP. The palace served as the last command post for the Multinational Force-Iraq–Northwest. U.S. soldiers had spent the summer restoring the palace for the eventual handover.
Maj. Gen. Thomas R. Turner II, commanding general, Task Force Band of Brothers stated at a ceremony marking the occasion "The turnover of Forward Operating Base Courage is one of the larger efforts towards empowering the Iraqi people and represents an important step in achieving Iraqi self-reliance ... The gains made during the past three years demonstrate that the provincial government, the Iraqi Army and the Iraqi Police are increasing their capabilities to take the lead for their nation's security." Duraid Mohammed Da'ud Abbodi Kashmoula, the Nineveh province governor, stated after being handed the key to the palace "Now this palace will be used to benefit the Iraqi government and its people."
British troops leave Camp Abu Naji
On 24 August 2006, Maj. Charlie Burbridge, a British military spokesman, said the last of 1,200 British troops left Camp Abu Naji, just outside Amarah in Iraq's southern Maysan province. Burbridge told Reuters that British troops leaving the base were preparing to head deep into the marshlands along the Iranian border, stating "We are repositioning our forces to focus on border areas and deal with reports of smuggling of weapons and improvised explosive devices from across the border."
The base had been a target for frequent mortar and rocket barrages since being set up in 2003, but Burbridge dismissed suggestions the British had been forced out of Amara while acknowledging the attacks had been one reason for the decision to withdraw, the second being that a static base did not fit with the new operation. "Abu Naji was a bulls-eye in the middle of a dartboard. The attacks were a nuisance and were a contributing factor in our planning", to quit the base, he said, adding "By no longer presenting a static target, we reduce the ability of the militias to strike us ... We understand the militias in Maysan province are using this as an example that we have been pushed out of Abu Naji, but that is not true. It was very rare for us to take casualties." Burbridge stated that Iraqi security forces would now be responsible for day-to-day security in Maysan but stressed that the British had not yet handed over complete control to them.
Muqtada al-Sadr called the departure the first expulsion of U.S.-led coalition forces from an Iraqi urban center. A message from al-Sadr's office that played on car-mounted speakers throughout Amarah exclaimed "This is the first Iraqi city that has kicked out the occupier ... We have to celebrate this occasion!" A crowd of as many as 5,000 people, including hundreds armed with AK-47 assault rifles, ransacked Camp Abu Naji immediately after the last British soldier had departed despite the presence of a 450-member Iraqi army brigade meant to guard the base. The looting, which lasted from about 10 am to early evening, turned violent at about noon when individuals in the mob shot at the base.
The Iraqi troops asked the province's governor for permission to return fire, a decision the British military highlighted as evidence of the security force's training. "It demonstrated that they understand the importance of civilian primacy, that the government – and not the military – is in charge", Burbridge said in a phone interview with the Washington Post. Injuries were reported on both sides, but no one was killed. Burbridge attributed the looting to economic factors rather than malice, stating "The people of Amarah – many of whom are extremely poor – saw what they believed to be a bit of an Aladdin's cave inside." Residents of Amarah, however, told the Post that antipathy toward the British was strong. "The looters stole everything – even the bricks ... They almost leveled the whole base to the ground", said Ahmed Mohammed Abdul Latief, 20, a student at Maysan University.
Situation in and around Baghdad
A US general said on 28 August 2006 violence has fallen in Baghdad by nearly a half since July, although he acknowledged a spike in bombings in the past 48 hours. "Insurgents and terrorists are hitting back in an attempt to offset the success of the Iraqi government and its security forces", Maj Gen William Caldwell told reporters. After meeting Iraqi Defence Minister Abdul-Qader Mohammed Jassim al-Mifarji, UK Defence Minister Des Browne said Iraq was moving forward. "Each time I come, I see more progress", he said.
The American military command acknowledged in the week of 16 October 2006 that it was considering an overhaul of its latest security plan for Baghdad, where three months of intensive American-led sweeps had failed to curb violence by Sunni Arab-led insurgents and Shiite and Sunni militias.
Numerous car and roadside bombs rocked the capital 9 November 2006 morning: In the Karrada district, a car bomb killed six and wounded 28 others. Another car bomb killed seven and wounded another 27 in the northern Qahira neighborhood. In South Baghdad, a mortar then a suicide car bomber killed seven and wounded 27 others near the Mishin bazaar. Near the college of Fine Arts in north-central Baghdad, a car bomb targeting an Iraqi patrol killed three and wounded six others. Two policemen were injured when they tried to dismantle a car bomb in the Zayouna district. A car bomb on Palestine Street in northeastern Baghdad meant for an Iraqi patrol killed one soldier but also wounded four civilians. Yet another car bomb in southern Baghdad wounded three people. And another car bomb near a passport services building in a northern neighborhood killed 2 people and wounded 7 others.
A roadside bomb in central Baghdad killed two and wounded 26 others. A police patrol was blasted by a roadside bomb near a petrol station; four were killed in the explosion. Another four people were wounded in the New Baghdad neighborhood by yet another roadside bomb. A bomb hidden in a sack exploded in Tayern square killing three and wounding 19. Another bomb in the Doura neighborhood killed one and wounded three. Mortars fell in Kadmiyah killing one woman and injuring eight people, and in Bayaladat where four were wounded.
Also in the capital, a group of laborers were kidnapped 9 November 2006 morning; five bodies were recovered later in the Doura neighborhood, but at least one other body was found in Baghdad 9 November 2006. Gunmen killed a police colonel and his driver in eastern Baghdad. And just outside town, police arrested two people in a raid and discovered one corpse.
10 November 2006, Iraqi police recovered 18 bullet-riddled bodies in various neighborhoods around the capital. Police were unable to identify the bodies.
11 November 2006, two bombs planted in an outdoor market in central Baghdad exploded around noon, killing six and wounded 32 people. A car bomb and a roadside bomb were detonated five minutes apart in the market, which is in an area close to Baghdad's main commercial center. The U.S. military said it has put up a $50,000 reward for anyone who helps find an American soldier kidnapped in Baghdad. The 42-year-old Army Reserve specialist, Ahmed K. Altaie, was abducted on 23 October when he left the Green Zone, the heavily fortified section where the United States maintains its headquarters, to visit his Iraqi wife and family.
A suicide bomber killed 40 Iraqis and wounded 70 on 12 November 2006 morning outside the national police headquarters' recruitment center in western Baghdad, an emergency police official said. They were among dozens of men waiting to join the police force in the Qadessiya district when a suicide bomber detonated an explosives belt. In central Baghdad, a car bomb and roadside bomb killed four Iraqi civilians and wounded 10 near the Interior Ministry complex. And in the Karrada district of central Baghdad, one Iraqi was killed and five were wounded when a car bomb exploded near an outdoor market 12 November 2006 morning. Gunmen shot dead an Iraqi officer with the new Iraqi intelligence system as he was walking towards his parked car in the southwestern Baghdad neighborhood of Bayaa. Two civilians were killed and four more were wounded when a roadside bomb hit a car in the eastern Baghdad neighborhood of Zayuna.
Violent incidents in other cities
9 November 2006.
Suwayrah: Four bodies were recovered from the Tigris River. Three of them were in police uniforms.
Amarah: A roadside bomb killed one and wounded three others in Amarah. Gunmen also shot dead a suspected former member of the Fedayeen paramilitary.
Muqdadiyah: Gunmen stormed a primary school and killed three: a guard, a policeman and a student.
Tal Afar: A roadside bomb in Tal Afar killed four, including a policeman, and wounded eight other people. Two policemen were killed and four civilians were injured when a rocket landed in a residential neighborhood.
Mosul: Six people were shot dead, including one policeman.
Latifiya: Four bodies, bound and gagged, were discovered.
Baqubah: Eight people were killed in different incidents.
11 November 2006.
Latifiya: Gunmen killed a truck driver and kidnapped 11 Iraqis after stopping four vehicles at a fake checkpoint south of the capital. At the fake checkpoint in Latifiya, about south of Baghdad, gunmen took the four vehicles—three minibuses and a truck—along with the kidnapped Iraqis. The Iraqis—11 men and three women—were driving from Diwaniya to Baghdad for shopping when they were stopped. The gunmen left the three women and kidnapped the 11 men, the official said.
Baqubah: North of the capital near Baquba, a suicide car bomb explosion killed two people at the main gate of a police station in Zaghanya town.
Al-Qaeda
Although Saddam Hussein was accused of having links to Al-Qaeda members, only a few Al-Qaeda members were found hiding in Iraq before the invasion, and all were of lower standings.
On 3 September 2006, Iraq says it has arrested the country's second most senior figure in Al-Qaeda, "severely wounding" an organization the US military says is spreading sectarian violence that could bring civil war. The National Security Adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie summoned reporters to a hastily arranged news conference to announce that al Qaeda leader Hamid Juma Faris al-Suaidi had been seized some days ago. Hitherto little heard of, and also known as Abu Humam or Abu Rana, Suaidi was captured hiding in a building with a group of followers. "Al-Qaeda in Iraq is severely wounded", Rubaie said. He said Suaidi had been involved in ordering the bombing of the Shi'ite shrine in Samarra in February 2006 that unleashed the wave of tit-for-tat killings now threatening civil war. Iraqi officials blame Al-Qaeda for the attack. The group denies it. Rubaie did not give Suaidi's nationality. He said he had been tracked to the same area north of Baghdad where US forces killed Al-Qaeda's leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi in June 2006. "He was hiding in a building used by families. He wanted to use children and women as human shields", Rubaie said. Little is publicly known about Suaidi. Rubaie called him the deputy of Abu Ayyub al-Masri, a shadowy figure, probably Egyptian, who took over the Sunni Islamist group from Zarqawi.
The US military says Al-Qaeda is a "prime instigator" of the violence between Iraq's Sunni minority and Shi'ite majority but that U.S. and Iraqi operations have "severely disrupted" it.
A handover ceremony on 2 September 2006 was postponed at the last minute, first to 3 September 2006, then indefinitely, after a dispute emerged between the government and Washington over the wording of a document outlining their armies' new working relationship. "There are some disputes", an Iraqi government source said. "We want thorough control and the freedom to make decisions independently." US spokesman Lieutenant Colonel Barry Johnson played down any arguments and expected a signing soon: "It is embarrassing but it was decided it was better not to sign the document." Practically, US troops remain the dominant force. Their tanks entered the southern, Shi'ite city of Diwaniya on 3 September 2006. The show of force came a week after Shi'ite militiamen killed 20 Iraqi troops in a battle that highlighted violent power struggles between rival Shi'ite factions in the oil-rich south.
Abu Ghraib
On 2 September 2006, the Abu Ghraib prison was formally handed over to Iraq's government. The formal transfer was conducted between Major General Jack Gardner, Commander of Task Force 134, and representatives of the Iraqi Ministry of Justice and the Iraqi army.
Iraqi government takes control of the 8th Iraqi Army Division
On 7 September 2006, Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki signed a document taking control of Iraq's small naval and air forces and the 8th Iraqi Army Division, based in the south. At a ceremony marking the occasion, Gen. George Casey, the top U.S. commander in Iraq stated "From today forward, the Iraqi military responsibilities will be increasingly conceived and led by Iraqis." Previously, the U.S.-led Multi-National Force – Iraq, commanded by Casey, gave orders to the Iraqi armed forces through a joint American-Iraqi headquarters and chain of command. After the handover, the chain of command flows directly from the prime minister in his role as Iraqi commander in chief, through his Defense Ministry to the Iraqi Joint Forces Command. From there, the orders go to Iraqi units on the ground. The other nine Iraqi division remained under U.S. command, with authority gradually being transferred. U.S. military officials said there was no specific timetable for the transition.
Anbar province reported as politically "lost" to U.S. and Iraqi government
On 11 September 2006, it transpired that Colonel Peter Devlin, chief of intelligence for the Marine Corps in Iraq, had filed a secret report, described by those who have seen it as saying that the U.S. and the Iraqi government have been defeated politically in Anbar province. According to The Washington Post, an unnamed Defense Department source described Devlin as saying "there are no functioning Iraqi government institutions in Anbar, leaving a vacuum that has been filled by the insurgent group al-Qaeda in Iraq, which has become the province's most significant political force." The Post said that Devlin is a very experienced intelligence officer whose report was being taken seriously.
The next day, Major General Richard Zilmer, commander of the Marines in Iraq, stated: "We are winning this war... I have never heard any discussion about the war being lost before this weekend."
In the fall of 2006 several Iraqi tribes near Ramadi led by Sheikh Abdul Sattar Abu Risha revolted against various insurgent groups with Al Qaeda in Iraq. They formed the Anbar Awakening and helped turn the tide in favor of the US military.
Two more provinces were transferred to Provincial Iraqi Control in late 2006.
On 21 September 2006, Italian troops handed security control of the Dhi Qar province to Iraqi forces, making Dhi Qar the second of the country's 18 provinces to come under complete local control. A transfer ceremony was carried out in Nasiriyah.
On 20 December 2006, U.S. forces handed over control of the southern province of Najaf to Iraqi security forces.
2007
In January 2007 U.S. President George W. Bush announced a "Surge" in the number of U.S. troops deployed to the country. Also in early 2007, US and Iraqi tribal forces secured Ramadi, as well as other cities such as Hit, Haditha, Rutbah, and Al Qaim.
In May 2007, Iraq's Parliament called on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal and U.S. coalition partners such as the UK and Denmark began withdrawing their forces from the country.
During the summer the US turned its attention to eastern Anbar and secured the cities of Fallujah and Al-Karmah.
Celebrating victory, President George W. Bush flew to Anbar in August 2007 to congratulate Sheik Sattar and other leading tribal figures.
2008
Iraqi forces begin process of arming with advanced US weapon systems
Iraq became one of the top current purchasers of U.S. military equipment with their army trading its AK-47 assault rifles for the more accurate U.S. M16 and M4 rifles, among other equipment.
Iraq sought 36 F-16's, the most sophisticated weapons system Iraq has attempted to purchase. The Pentagon notified Congress that it had approved the sale of 24 American attack helicopters to Iraq, valued at as much as $2.4 billion. Including the helicopters, Iraq announced plans to purchase at least $10 billion in U.S. tanks and armored vehicles, transport planes and other battlefield equipment and services. Over the summer, the Defense Department announced that the Iraqi government wanted to order more than 400 armored vehicles and other equipment worth up to $3 billion, and six C-130J transport planes, worth up to $1.5 billion.
In 2008 Iraq accounted for more than $12.5 billion of the $34 billion US weapon sales to foreign countries (not including the potential F-16 fighter planes).
2009
U.S. Vice President Joe Biden made his second visit to Baghdad in as many months in September 2009, and met with Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki even as insurgents fired mortars and rockets at the Green Zone to protest his presence. Although said to be in "listening mode", Biden addressed issues of security, political reconciliation, and foreign investment in Iraq's oil-rich but weakened economy with various leaders in the capital and Iraq's Kurdish region. "We will also move ahead on other aspects of our security agreement by removing all US combat brigades from Iraq by the end of August 2010 and all remaining US troops by the end of 2011," Biden said.
2010
Final departure of U.S. combat troops
On 18 August 2010 the final U.S. combat troops were reported to have crossed the border into Kuwait, when a last convoy of the Army's 4th Stryker Brigade Combat Team departed Iraq. A spokesman for the U.S. State Department, P. J. Crowley, was quoted by news media as saying the departure was "a historic moment," but noted that the U.S. presence in Iraq would continue. The pullout of combat forces was nearly two weeks ahead of the announced deadline of 31 August.
In a released statement, U.S. President Obama said of the withdrawn soldiers, "I hope you'll join me in thanking them, and all of our troops and military families, for their service." He noted that the event was a "milestone in the Iraq war."
The closure of Operation Iraqi Freedom was announced on 31 August. "It is time to turn the page," Obama said in a national address. The operations in Iraq were renamed "New Dawn".
Participating nations
As of May 2011, the United States was the only country with military forces stationed in Iraq. Other nations also present but under the United Nations banner.
As of September 2006, there were an estimated 145,000 U.S. troops in Iraq. There are also approximately 20,000 private security contractors of different nationalities under various employers.
Casualties
Iraqi councils and authorities
On 11 October 2002, President Bush's senior adviser on the Middle East, Zalmay Khalilzad, released U.S. government plans to establish an American-led military administration in Iraq, as in post-war Germany and Japan, which could last for several years after the fall of Saddam. In the run-up to the invasion, the U.S. promised a speedy transition to a democratic government, as well as the creation of an Iraqi constitution, and the active role of Iraqis in the establishment of an interim authority and new government. U.S. officials continue to emphasize that the invasion was not about long-term occupation, but about liberation.
In November 2003, Paul Bremer announced the plan to hand over limited sovereignty to the Iraqi governing council by 30 June 2004. A draft constitution was written and approved by the Iraqi Governing Council in March 2004. The United States has stated its plans to enter into what it calls a security agreement with the new Iraqi government and maintain military authority until a new Iraqi army is established. The Bush administration remained committed to this date despite the unstable security situation. The interim Iraqi government was named in May 2004, at which point the Iraqi Governing Council was dissolved, though there was heavy overlap between the two governing bodies.
The U.S.-led Coalition Provisional Authority, for administrative purposes, divided Iraq into four security zones (see map): a North zone in the Mosul – Kirkuk region, a Central zone in the Baghdad – Tikrit region, a Southern Central zone in the Karbala region and a South zone in the Basra region. The northern and central zones are garrisoned by U.S. troops, while the Southern Central zone is a garrisoned by a Multi-National Division under Polish command and the South zone is garrisoned by a Multi-National Division under British command.
In the early months of the occupation, looting and vandalism slowed the restoration of basic services such as water, electricity, and sanitation. By Spring 2004, these services were mostly restored to pre-war levels. Ongoing work is continuing to provide sufficient sanitation. Uneven power distribution remained a problem through 2004, with the Baghdad area continuing to have periodic blackouts. On 28 July 2005, Iraq's Electricity Minister announced that Iraq's electricity supply had risen to above pre-war levels.
Allegations of human rights violations by the occupying forces have been embarrassing to the Bush administration and the British government. Some of the allegations have been investigated. Several U.S. and British officers have been charged with the abuse of prisoners, and as of the beginning of February 2005, seven American soldiers have been convicted in connection with abuse at the Abu Ghraib prison.
Former Ba'ath Party members and military officers who have no criminal past or human rights abuses have been allowed to return to government positions.
Reconstruction
For the reconstruction, contracts were awarded to private companies. Initially companies from countries that had opposed the war were excluded from these contracts, but this decision was reversed due to protests. Political activists and commentators allege that The Pentagon favoured companies like Halliburton, former employer of Vice President Dick Cheney, because they had connections to high-ranking members of the Bush administration. This suspicion had already been a concern during the global protests against the war on Iraq. An audit found that Halliburton subsidiary Kellogg, Brown and Root (KBR) may have overcharged the U.S. government $61 million, on contracts worth billions, for bringing oil products for the U.S. army into Iraq via a Kuwaiti subcontractor, Altanmia Commercial Marketing Co.
Some also argue that foreign contractors are doing work which could be done by unemployed Iraqis, which might be a factor fueling resentment of the occupation. Further resentment could be inflamed with the news that almost US$9 billion dollars of Iraqi oil revenue is missing from a fund set up to reconstruct Iraq.
On 14 August 2005, a Washington Post story on the administration's effort to lower expectations, quoted Wayne White, former head of the State Department's Iraq intelligence team, as saying "The most thoroughly dashed expectation was the ability to build a robust self-sustaining economy. We're nowhere near that. State industries, electricity are all below what they were before we got there."
A report of the United States Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction found widespread "fraud, incompetence and confusion" in the American occupation's handling of billions of dollars of Iraqi government money and American funds given for reconstruction. Inspector-general Stuart Bowen, Jr. noted that only 49 of 136 planned water- and sanitation-related projects will be completed.
In April 2007, the New York Times reported that U.S. federal oversight inspectors found that "in a sampling of eight projects that the United States had declared successes, seven were no longer operating as designed because of plumbing and electrical failures, lack of proper maintenance, apparent looting, and expensive equipment that lay idle. The United States has sometimes admitted ... that some of its reconstruction projects have been abandoned, delayed, or poorly constructed. But this is the first time inspectors have found that projects officially declared as successes—in some cases, as little as six months before the latest inspections—were no longer working properly."
In 2012, Iraq bought electricity from the UAE, as Iraqis continued to endure electricity cuts of up to twenty hours a day during peak periods of demand, while the country's university system was one of the worst in the Middle East.
In June 2012 Prince Abdul Ilah Al Qasim said that Iraqi oil production was at its highest in twenty years. Abdul Ilah by telephone from Baghdad said that the "oil production has exceeded 3.07 million barrels this month, compared with 2.92 million barrels for the month of May which was announced in the monthly report of OPEC".
Civilian government
The establishment of a new civilian government of Iraq was complicated by religious and political divisions between the majority Shi'ite population and the formerly ruling Sunni Arabs. Moreover, many of the people in Saddam's ruling Ba'ath Party were perceived as tainted by the association by some parties. In northern Iraq, Kurds had already had effectively autonomous rule for 12 years under the protection of the no-fly zone.
On 16 May 2003, U.S. officials abandoned the plan to cede authority to a democratically chosen interim civilian Iraqi government (similar to what had happened in Afghanistan following the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan) and presented a resolution to the UN to give the United States and the United Kingdom broad power and to lift economic sanctions on Iraq, allowing the occupying countries authority to use oil resources to pay for rebuilding the country. Passage of the resolution allowed them to appoint an interim government by themselves.
On 13 July 2003, an Iraqi Governing Council was appointed by Coalition Provisional Authority Administrator L. Paul Bremer.
United Nations resolutions
On 22 May 2003, the UN Security Council voted 14–0 to give the United States and Britain the power to govern Iraq and use its oil resources to rebuild the country. Resolution 1483 removed nearly 13 years of economic sanctions originally imposed after Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. The resolution allows UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to appoint a special representative to work with U.S. and British administrators on reconstruction, humanitarian aid, and the creation of a new government.
The resolution also created the Development Fund for Iraq, which collected funds from oil sales. The fund was initially run by the United States and Britain to rebuild the country, and is overseen by a new advisory body composed of the United Nations and international financial institutions. In June 2004, the New York Times reported that American authorities spent $2.5 billion from Iraqi oil revenue despite agreements that the oil revenues should be set aside for use after the restoration of Iraq's sovereignty.
On 14 August 2003, the Security Council voted 14–0 to "welcome" the creation of the Iraqi Governing Council. Resolution 1500 stopped short of formally recognizing the governing council as Iraq's legitimate governing body but called it an "important step" towards creating a sovereign government.
Elections
For several months the United States maintained that it intended to convene a constitutional convention, composed of influential Iraqis. However, European demands for an early election and Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani's insistence eventually forced the United States to let the appointed Governing Council serve this function.
In the early months of the occupation, new officials were appointed to several local and regional positions (e.g., mayors, governors, local councils). The officials were chosen from a select group of individuals (including ex-Ba'ath party officials) in an attempt to speed the return to normality and to avoid the election of people opposed to the American and British presence. Certain religious clerics and other officials were considered to be overly radical or dangerous. On occasion the appointed officials were found to behave less than admirably. On 30 June 2003, the appointed mayor of Najaf was arrested on charges of corruption.
By February 2004, democratic elections, under the supervision of the CPA, had already been held at the municipal and city level in some of the southern and northern provinces.
On 15 November, the Iraqi Governing Council announced that a transitional government would take over in June from the U.S.-led powers, and that an elected government would follow by the end of 2005 once a constitution had been drafted and ratified. The transitional government would be selected in June 2004 by a transitional council formed in May 2004.
The Governing Council revealed the timetable after the United States government, in reaction to terrorist and militant activity against occupying troops and aid organisations, abandoned its earlier plan that a sovereign government would take charge only after creating a constitution and elections held. Jalal Talabani, who was chairman of the council, said the transition would involve "the creation of a permanent constitution by an elected council, directly elected by the people, and also the election of a new government according to the articles of this new constitution before the end of 2005."
In March 2004, an interim constitution was created, called the Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period. The document called for the creation of an elected National Assembly to take place no later than January 2005. The question of the election calendar became a matter of importance for Iraq and the U.S.: while a quick election would legitimise the Iraqi government and shed a favourable light on the U.S.-led occupation of the country, the prospect of violence delayed it. It was finally set for 30 January 2005. Though then-President Ghazi Al-Yaouar asked the United Nations to reconsider the electoral schedule several weeks before the election, the legislative election was held on time, creating the Iraqi National Assembly.
The elected assembly drafted a new constitution for Iraq, submitting it to the Iraqi people for review on 28 August. On 15 October, Iraqis voted to approve the new constitution. On 15 December, the first legislative election under the new constitution was held.
Sovereignty for Iraq
In a 1 June 2004, press conference, President Bush said that he was working with various world leaders to create a U.N. Security Council resolution endorsing the transition from the U.S.-dominated occupation to complete autonomy for Iraq. Under this resolution, Coalition forces would remain in Iraq until the new government could establish security and stabilization: "There is a deep desire by the Iraqis – don't get me wrong – to run their own affairs and to be in a position where they can handle their own security measures." On 8 June, Security Council resolution 1546 was adopted unanimously, calling for "the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq by 30 June 2004."
On 28 June 2004, the occupation was nominally ended by the CPA, which transferred limited power to a new Iraqi government led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. The multinational military alliance continued to assist the Allawi government in governing the Iraqis. The purpose of the Occupation of Iraq was, according to U.S. President George W. Bush, purely to bring about a transition from post-war anarchy to full Iraqi sovereignty.
A further milestone in sovereignty was achieved with the creation of a democratically elected administration on 6 April 2005 including Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari and President Jalal Talabani following the Iraqi elections of January 2005.
Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790, the mandate of the multinational force in Iraq was extended until 31 December 2008, after which there is no justification for foreign militaries to remain in the country. On 6 June 2008, the Independent reported that the United States was applying pressure to the government of Iraq to sign a "strategic alliance" (not a "treaty", which would require approval of the US senate), giving US forces broad freedom in continuing to operate in Iraq.
Provincial Iraqi control
The objective of the Iraqi Government and Multi-National Forces in Iraq is to achieve the transition of responsibility for each of the 18 provinces in Iraq from the Coalition to the Iraqi civil authorities, both national and local. Most attention on the issue is understandably focused on progress towards security within the provinces, both in terms of the threat from insurgents and the capability of the Iraqi Security Forces, but other factors, such as the competence and capacity of local governance is also important.
Provinces are subject to regular assessment by the Iraqi government and the Coalition; when a province appears to be ready, a recommendation is made to the Iraqi Ministerial Committee for National Security, with the Prime Minister making the final decision.
Provinces under Iraqi Control
As of October 2008, thirteen provinces had successfully completed transition to provincial Iraqi control: Muthanna, Dhi Qar, Najaf, Maysan, Dahuk, Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, Karbala, Basra, Al-Qadisiyah, Al Anbar, Babil and Wasit.
Muthanna was the first, on 13 July 2006, when Australian, Japanese and British forces from Multi-National Division-South East transferred responsibility to the Governor and local authorities. With a small and homogeneous Shia population, there had been very little militia violence and few attacks on Coalition forces in the preceding months, encouraging good progress in developing the capacity of the Iraqi armed forces and Ministry of the Interior forces there. Equally, the Governor of Muthanna enjoyed a good local mandate, having been re-elected in local elections in January 2005.
Dhi Qar, also within the area of responsibility of the British-led MND-SE and the responsibility of the Italian and Romanian brigade, was handed over on 21 September 2006.
. Australian troops in MND-SE remained available to provide security support to the Iraqis in both Muthanna and Dhi Qar, should they request it.
Najaf, which had been garrisoned by first Polish, then US forces, was handed over on 20 December 2006.
In April 2007, Maysan Governorate became the fourth to transition to provincial Iraqi control.
On 30 May 2007, the three provinces making up the Kurdistan Regional Government transitioned to provincial Iraqi control, bringing the total count to 7.
In October 2007, Karbala became the eighth province to transfer to provincial Iraqi control. The transfer of Basra in December 2007 marked the half-way point in transferring all provincial security over to Iraqi security forces.
In July 2008 the tenth province, Al-Qadisiyah, also transferred to Iraqi control.
On 1 September 2008, in the wake of the decreasing levels of violence, the U.S. Army transferred control of the expansive Al-Anbar province over to Provincial Iraqi Control. A limited U.S. presence will be maintained to ensure security. Al-Anbar is the 11th province to be transferred to Iraqi security.
In October 2008, Babil province became the twelfth province to return to Iraqi control, whilst Wasit was transferred later in the month, making it the thirteenth province to be transferred.
Transition after Security Agreement signed
As of 31 December 2008, 13 of Iraq's 18 provinces had successfully transitioned to Provincial Iraqi Control (PIC). On 1 January 2009, the SA (see also U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement) between the U.S. and Iraq went
into effect, transferring security responsibility to the GoI, even though not all of the provinces had completed the PIC transition process. At the request of the GoI, however, a new Joint Sub-Committee for Provincial Security was formed under the auspices of the SA to assess conditions in the remaining five Iraqi provinces that did not transition to PIC before 1 January 2009. This sub-committee met for the first time in January 2009.
Iraqi insurgency
Despite the defeat of the old Iraqi army, irregular forces, both Iraqi and external, have conducted attacks against the Coalition and, more recently, the new Iraqi government. In the early months following the "end of major combat operations", insurgents conducted sniper attacks, suicide bombings at road checkpoints, and ambushes, resulting in about 112 multinational force personnel deaths per month.
Sometimes the attackers would say that they were motivated by revenge (e.g., an anti-coalition group claimed the four Iraqis that were allegedly shot at by British soldiers during a demonstration were unarmed and acting peacefully; six British soldiers were later killed by Iraqis). Several Iraqis, reportedly unarmed, were shot in anti-Alliance demonstrations, mostly in the nation's Sunni Arab areas. While Shi'a Muslim areas were mostly peaceful, Ayatollah Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, who returned to Iraq after decades in exile shortly after the occupation began, said: "We are not afraid of the British or American troops. This country wants to keep its sovereignty and the forces of the coalition must leave it." Coalition forces denied the accusations of targeting unarmed civilians. They said they were fired upon and were returning fire.
The violent insurgency began shortly after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq and increased during the occupation. Originally, the insurgents targeted the coalition force (a majority of whom are from the United States and the United Kingdom) and the interim government (e.g., the Coalition Provisional Authority) formed under the occupation. The insurgency grew during the period between the invasion of Iraq and the establishment of a new Iraqi government.
Guerrilla war
In late June 2003 there was some public debate in the U.S. as to whether the insurgency could be characterized as a guerrilla war. On 17 June, Army Gen. John P. Abizaid said that forces in Iraq were "conducting what I would describe as a classical guerrilla-type campaign against us. It's low-intensity conflict in our doctrinal terms, but it's war however you describe it." In a statement to Congress on 18 June, Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said "There's a guerrilla war there but we can win it."
Sabotage
Sabotage of crude oil pipelines and refineries have been a key tactic of the Iraqi insurgency. The United States had intended to quickly rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for production back to pre-war levels, but widespread sabotage slowed down the pace of reconstruction. The administration has set an oil-production goal of , but the president's numbers show that production decreased slightly in 2005 over 2004 from per day to per day. The administration claims that oil production, however, is up from 2003, when oil was produced at .
Iraqi analysts have argued that the administration's measures are misleading because the war began in 2003, which pushed production numbers lower than they normally would have been.
"They are way off of their original projections" for where oil production would be now, said Rick Barton, an expert on Iraqi reconstruction at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington. "It's basically gone nowhere in the entire time we've been there. Of course, they haven't been able to protect the pipelines. You just can't be rebuilding a country during an active war."
Fallujah
The Fallujah offensive Operation Vigilant Resolve was launched on 5 April 2004 in response to 31 March murder and mutilation of four of Blackwater's employees. Roads leading into and out of the city were closed. When the U.S. Soldiers and Marines tried to enter, fierce fighting erupted. Members of the Iraqi insurgency opened fire with heavy machine guns, rockets, and rocket-propelled grenades. The Soldiers and Marines answered by bringing in tanks and helicopters.
The ensuing firefight resulted in a large number of casualties. Dozens of Marines were killed and injured. Two hundred and seventy-one members of the non-coalition forces were killed and 793 injured, according to official counts for the period of 5 April through 22 April. Conflicting reports leave it unclear how many of the dead and injured were rebel fighters or women and children. There were also reports of ambulances and aid convoys being used by the insurgents to smuggle weapons and fighters into the city. Coalition officials said that the insurgents used mosques and schools as command posts and weapon-storage facilities. A suicide-bomb-vest factory was discovered by Marines.
After several failed attempts at ceasefires, the U.S. backed out of the city. A Marine commander stated "We don't want to turn Fallujah into Dresden". The U.S. handed authority of the city over to a former Iraqi general who had served under Saddam Hussein, and whose fighters the U.S. acknowledges may include former members of insurgency.
Afterwards, the city was referred to as "free rebel town"; banners in the city streets proclaimed victory over the United States, and some of its mosques praised the Iraqi insurgency. The general, Muhammed Latif, told Reuters, "I want the American soldier to return to his camp. What I want more is that he returns to the United States."
U.S. marines encircled Fallujah with an earth wall, trying to control access to the city, allowing only women and children to leave the city. On 19 June 2004, twenty two Iraqis, among them women and children, were killed in a U.S. air strike on a residential neighborhood. Allawi condemned the rebellion and called upon the city to surrender Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of the Tawhid-e-Jihad group who is alleged to be hiding in Fallujah, or face aerial bombing by the United States.
Muqtada al-Sadr
On 4 April 2004, coalition forces closed Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr's newspaper al-Hawza, claiming it contained incitements to violence. One example provided was that on 26 February, an article claimed that a suicide bombing in Iskandariya that killed 53 people was a rocket fired by the Americans, and not a car bomb. In response, al-Sadr launched a day of protests. During these protests, members of the Iraqi insurgency (who may or may not have been tied to al-Sadr) ambushed a Coalition patrol guarding a trash collecting unit in Sadr-City resulting in the deaths of 8 soldiers. Several dozen of al-Sadr's followers were killed during these protests.
The coalition responded by arresting one of al-Sadr's closest aides, leading to al-Sadr calling on his followers to rise up. The next days fighting erupted in many cities in southern Iraq, including Karbala, Kut, Nasiriya and Basra. The CPA announced the existence of a three-month-old arrest warrant, issued by an Iraqi judge, on al-Sadr, claiming that he was responsible for the killing of Coalition-aligned cleric Abdul Majid al-Khoei. The warrant itself inspired further opposition, as Khoei's own followers blamed Ba'athists for the murder, the Coalition-appointed Iraqi Minister of Justice stated that he had no knowledge of the warrant, and the Iraqi Jurists Association declared the warrant "illegal". Al-Sadr, who had previously created his own parallel government and a militia called the al-Mahdi Army, instructed his followers to no longer follow along with the occupation, and suggested that they attack Coalition soldiers, and his followers took control of several southern cities, often with the support of local authorities and police.
During the first few days of the uprising al-Sadr stayed in Kufa, where he traditionally had a large following. On 7 April he moved to Najaf, into a building close to the shrine of the Imam Ali, the holiest shrine in the Shia faith. After fierce fighting during the first days of the uprising, his followers took control over many cities in southern Iraq. In Kut the Ukrainian occupational contingent was forced out of the city by a rain of mortar fire. The Italians were contained inside their base in Nassiriya, and in Basra the governor's palace was occupied. In Karbala, Polish and Bulgarian forces were able to hold their own after a battle lasting the whole night. The Alliance reacted by dispensing a reactionary force on 8 April to Kut, forcing al-Sadr followers to melt away into the city's population. The same happened in most of the other cities and control was nominally ceded. Only Najaf and Kufa, which the Americans did not enter, remained effectively under the control of al-Sadr followers. The Coalition sent 2,500 U.S. Marines to Najaf to try to 'arrest or kill' al-Sadr.
Initially hopeful that al-Sistani would force al-Sadr to capitulate, the coalition was disappointed when, while he called for all sides to show restraint, he focused instead on condemning coalition activities in Fallujah. In mid-May 2004, a U.S. lead force began pushing into Najaf. In the process, they invaded several mosques to seize weaponry, and there were reports of damage to some of Shia Islam's holiest shrines. U.S. forces, using their superior firepower and air support, inflicted a steady stream of al-Mahdi army casualties; al-Sadr and hospital officials disputed the numbers, and both claimed that many of them were civilians. The al-Mahdi were only able to inflict few American casualties, but on 17 May, it was reported that the Al-Madhi army drove Italian troops from their base in Nasiriyah. Ten Italians were wounded, along with 20 al-Mahdi army fighters wounded and two killed, in the assault. The base was peacefully retaken the next day in a negotiated settlement with local clan leaders.
While the Alliance continually insisted that he had little support, and there were limited clashes with the smaller SCIRI, he was seldom condemned by his more senior clerics. Islamic courts expanded their influence in areas he controlled. The Imam Ali mosque ended its call for prayers with a request for divine protection for him, and his followers were clearly large in number. Many believed that al-Sistani did not speak out against al-Sadr for fear of turning Shiite against Shiite. A poll found that, in mid-May 2004, 32% of Iraqis strongly supported al-Sadr, and another 36% somewhat supported him.
In August 2004, al-Sadr attempted a second rebellion, and his al-Mahdi army again incited violence, especially in the Sadr city slum area of Baghdad, and in Najaf. U.S. forces responded by pushing into the areas of Najaf controlled by al-Mahdi, sending the militia reeling. Supported by helicopter gunships, the U.S. military managed to kill several hundred al-Mahdi fighters, and further close in on the Iman Ali mosque, where al-Sadr had made his base. Brutal fighting raged between U.S. troops and al-Madhi militiamen in a cemetery outside the mosque. To avoid damaging the sacred mosque in a direct raid, a political solution was sought, and a deal was struck between al-Sistani and al-Sadr ended his rebellion. In September 2004, a program encouraged al-Madhi members in Sadr city to exchange their guns into authorities for a financial compensation, and the slum was almost fully pacified.
By August 2005, al-Sadr had adopted a more conciliatory tone, along with a much lower profile, saying "I call upon all the believers to save the blood of the Muslims and to return to their homes" after an outbreak of violence between some of his followers and those of Abdul Aziz al-Hakim.
Hostages
After the fall of the Ba'ath-regime, people with varying agendas have taken foreign and Iraqi hostages, including citizens of both countries that supported and opposed the invasion. This includes citizens of Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Czech Republic, France, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Germany, Japan, Jordan, Nepal, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, South Korea, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.
The hostage-taking appears to be uncoordinated, with different groups making various demands. Some hostages are released whilst others are killed, sometimes by beheading. Several kidnappings have been claimed by the Tawhid and Jihad (The Unity of God and Holy War) Islamist group, which changed its name to "Al-Qaeda in Iraq" in October 2004. The group was run by the Jordanian-born Palestinian Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. The hostages who have been beheaded by Zarqawi's group, and possibly by Zarqawi himself, include Americans Nick Berg, Eugene Armstrong and Jack Hensley, South Korean Kim Sun-il, Shosei Koda from Japan, and Kenneth Bigley from the UK. Italian Fabrizio Quattrocchi was shot in the head, possibly by another group, as was British aid worker Margaret Hassan. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, at least 25 journalists have been kidnapped by armed groups in Iraq since April 2004, when insurgents began targeting foreigners for abduction.
While some hostagetaking seems to be politically motivated, a large number of hostages are taken by criminals as a means of obtaining cash. Iraqis presumed to have high incomes have especially been targeted.
On the evening of 4 March 2005, the car leading Giuliana Sgrena, freshly liberated, along with two agents of the Sismi, the Italian Military Intelligence service, was fired upon by U.S. troops. Nicola Calipari, who had negotiated the liberation of the other eight Italian hostages, was killed, while Sgrena and the other agent were wounded; see Rescue of Giuliana Sgrena.
Fall-out
As a result of the uprisings U.S. General John Abizaid in April 2004 requested an additional 10,000 troops be sent to Iraq after admitting that a number of Iraqi security personnel had abandoned their posts or joined the Iraqi insurgency. On 16 April 2004, U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld announced that he had approved General Abizaid's request and had extended the tour of roughly 20,000 soldiers, who were scheduled to be rotated out of Iraq, by three months. A fresh mass grave was found near Ramadi, containing the bodies of over 350 Iraqis. It is unclear whether this mass grave contained dead civilians and/or militants.
Iraq Study Group Report
At a news conference with the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in Washington on 6 December 2006, President George W. Bush commented the Iraq Study Group's bipartisan report assessing the current situation of the US-led Iraq War and making policy recommendations. President Bush admitted for the first time that a "new approach" is needed in Iraq, that the situation in Iraq is "bad there" and that the task ahead was "daunting". President Bush said he would not accept every recommendation by the ISG panel but promised that he would take the report seriously.
Iraq Coalition members departures
All foreign troops have withdrawn from Iraq.
American withdrawal
On 18 August 2010 the 4th Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, the last U.S. combat brigade withdrew from Iraq, ending the U.S. combat mission in Iraq. 52,600 U.S. military personnel remained in Iraq to take on an advisory role.
On 19 August 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that all U.S. combat operations would end on 31 August. 50,000 troops would stay in an advise-and-assist role. The full withdrawal was in December 2011. Between 15 and 18 December, the last troops left.
U.S. military patrolling
During the "post-war" Iraq occupation, occupying forces have turned their attention to enforcing order through patrolling. These patrols faced insurgents who conduct ambushes using assault rifles, rocket propelled grenades, and carefully placed and timed explosives. The patrols require armored vehicles capable of stopping at least small arms fire of 7.62 mm machine gun rounds along with mandatory external weapons platforms and tracking equipment. Experience is also key in detecting any potentially threatening, out of place car, box or person while following the rules of engagement that dictate a passive-but-ready posture. Patrolling soldiers spend nearly eight hours a day in sector and accrue nearly 30 patrols per month.
U.S. permanent facilities
In October 2004, Iraq's interim government transferred to U.S. ownership of land beside the Tigris River in Baghdad for construction of a new U.S. embassy. The new facility will be the largest of its kind in the world, the size of Vatican City, with the population of a small town, its own defense force, self-contained power and water. A few details of the embassy complex are available from a U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee report, though many of the details remain secret. Its construction is budgeted at $592 million.
Besides the embassy complex, four "super bases" are being built for permanent deployment. One would be adjacent to Baghdad, two would be close to the southern and northern oil fields and the fourth would be in the west towards Syria.
The U.S. is in the process of building 14 bases known as enduring bases. Four are unknown as to name and location. The other ten are: Green Zone in Baghdad, Camp Anaconda at Balad Airbase, Camp Taji in Taji, Camp Falcon-Al-Sarq in Baghdad, Post Freedom in Mosul, Camp Victory-Al Nasr at Baghdad Airfield, Camp Marez at Mosul Airfield, Camp Renegade in Kirkuk, Camp Speicher in Tikrit and Camp Fallujuh.
Cultural dimensions
As cultural scientist Roland Benedikter poses in his book on Sustainable Democratization of Iraq and in a series of essays, one main cause of the ongoing problems of pacification seems to consist in the fact that the socio-cultural dimensions of sustainability, including questions of ethnicity, religion and minority issues, have not been included appropriately in the overall democratization strategies so far.
See also
Archaeological looting in Iraq: Since the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime, looters have descended upon many archaeological sites, and have begun destroying them and looting artifacts to an alarming degree.
Criticism of the Iraq War: A list of common criticisms of the 2003 invasion and subsequent military occupation of Iraq.
Hillbilly armor: a US military slang term coined during the occupation to refer to the improvised vehicle armor being used by some US troops.
Human rights in post-invasion Iraq: Various parties expressed concern about the state of human rights in Iraq after the 2003 occupation of Iraq.
Iraq and weapons of mass destruction: The Iraqi government's use, possession, and alleged intention of acquiring more types of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) during the reign of Saddam Hussein.
United Nations Security Council and the Iraq War: Actions associated with the Gulf War in 1991 and UN Security Council Resolution 1441 in late 2002–2003 with at least 14 other resolutions and 30 statements between those two events.
Iraq War order of battle: Current list of U.S. and allied military formations and units involved in Iraq.
Ibn Sina Hospital
Iraq disarmament crisis: Issue of Iraq's disarmament reached a crisis in 2002–2003, after demands of the complete end to Iraqi production and use of weapons of mass destruction and that Iraq comply with UN Resolutions requiring UN inspectors unfettered access to areas those inspectors thought might have weapons production facilities.
Iraq Survey Group: A fact-finding mission sent by the coalition after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq to find weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs developed by Iraq under the regime of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group: Japanese government's deployment of troops to Iraq.
Dover test: Informal test and a journalistic phrase to describe whether the general population is supporting a military action by the public reaction to returning war casualties.
Timeline of the Iraq War: Timeline of events during Multinational force's occupation of Iraq, following 2003 invasion of Iraq, and relevant quotations about nature of occupation from officials
Iraq War order of battle 2009: Overview of coalition forces in Iraq.
War on Terror (in U.S. foreign policy circles, the global war on terrorism or GWOT) is a campaign by the United States and some of its allies to rid the world of terrorist groups and to end state sponsorship of terrorism.
256th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)
Post World War II occupations:
Occupied Japan: The post World War II U.S. occupation of Japan 1945–1952
United States Army Military Government in Korea: U.S. military administered southern Korea from 1945 to 1948
Morgenthau Plan: The post World War II U.S. occupation of part of Germany 1945–1955 (Germany was not fully sovereign until 1991)
History of Germany since 1945
GARIOA Government And Relief in Occupied Areas of Europe
Marshall Plan
References
Further reading
The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq by Ray Salvatore Jennings May 2003 Peceworks No. 49 United States Institute of Peace
Lyal S. Sunga, "Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq", in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell, Cambridge University Press 2007.
Legal status
Lyal S. Sunga, "Can International Humanitarian Law Play an Effective Role in Occupied Iraq?", 3 Indian Society of International Law Yearbook of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law (2003) 1–21.
Management of the Iraq Reconstruction Program
"U.N. Criticizes Iraq Occupation Oil Sales". New York Times, Cash Flow, 14 December 2004.
External links
Information on the US efforts to rebuild Iraq, with focus on the PRT program
Back from Iraq: The Veterans' Stories Project
Searchable timeline of Iraq occupation
The end of Saddam Hussein Warning: Graphic Execution video
The end of Saddam Hussein (video 2 January 8/07)- Warning: Mature content.
About.com's An American Palace in Iraq and Four Permanent US Bases
www.iraqanalysis.org – Information source listings and analysis on post-invasion Iraq
Iraq Body Count – Independent database listing civilians killed in the Iraq war and occupation
FSB Iraq FrogStyleBiscuit's Iraq News and Analysis
Iraq News Archive The White House
Senator Byrd, Robert A Call for an Exit Door from Iraq 7 April 2004, Common Dreams News Center
Is Iraq Another 'Vietnam'? Monthly Review, volume 56, issue 2, June 2004
U.S./Iraq News Mission and Justice
Jason Vest, "Willful Ignorance", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July/August 2005. Discusses U.S. approach to counterinsurgency in Iraq.
Sheehan-Miles, Charles Iraq in Transition: An Examination of Iraqi resistance, terrorism, insurgency and organized crime 2005
Americans are Losing the Victory in Europe, and Grim Europe Faces Winter of Misery Life, 7 January 1946
Oral History Interview with General William H. Draper Jr. Chief, Economics Division, Control Council for Germany, 1945–46
Oral History Interview with General Lucius D. Clay Deputy military governor, Germany (U.S.) 1946; commander in chief, U.S. Forces in Europe and military governor, U.S. Zone, Germany, 1947–49
MarchofWar.com – Up-to-date Iraq war clock, war quotes and slogans, plus poll
Interview with an American Contractor in Iraq
A Policy for Germany
Daoud al-Qaissi, Saddam's singer executed
The World Monuments Fund's Iraq Cultural Heritage Conservation Initiative
Did the United States Create Democracy in Germany? James L. Payne The Independent Review, Volume 11 Number 2, Fall 2006, Analysis of the axiom that democracy can be imposed
Bibliography: Iraq Wars: Post 2003 by Edwin Moise
Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Inside Iraq's Green Zone by Rajiv Chandrasekaran
Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2003–2005 by Thomas E. Ricks
2000s in Iraq
2010s in Iraq
Al-Qaeda
George W. Bush administration controversies
History of Iraq (1958–present)
Iraq–United States relations
Iraq War
Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)
Occupation of Iraq
Politics of Iraq
Islamic terrorism in Iraq
cs:Okupace Iráku
et:2003. aasta Iraagi okupatsioon
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|
228711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Herbert | George Herbert | George Herbert (3 April 1593 – 1 March 1633) was a poet, orator, and priest of the Church of England. His poetry is associated with the writings of the metaphysical poets, and he is recognised as "one of the foremost British devotional lyricists." He was born into an artistic and wealthy family and largely raised in England. He received a good education that led to his admission to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1609. He went there with the intention of becoming a priest, but he became the University's Public Orator and attracted the attention of King James I. He served in the Parliament of England in 1624 and briefly in 1625.
After the death of King James, Herbert renewed his interest in ordination. He gave up his secular ambitions in his mid-thirties and took holy orders in the Church of England, spending the rest of his life as the rector of the rural parish of Fugglestone St Peter, just outside Salisbury. He was noted for unfailing care for his parishioners, bringing the sacraments to them when they were ill and providing food and clothing for those in need. Henry Vaughan called him "a most glorious saint and seer". He was never a healthy man and died of consumption at age 39.
Biography
Early life and education
George Herbert was born 3 April 1593 in Montgomery, Montgomeryshire, Wales, the son of Richard Herbert (died 1596) and his wife Magdalen née Newport, the daughter of Sir Richard Newport (1511–1570). He was one of 10 children. The Herbert family was wealthy and powerful in both national and local government, and George was descended from the same stock as the Earls of Pembroke. His father was a member of parliament, a justice of the peace, and later served for several years as custos rotulorum (keeper of the rolls) of Montgomeryshire. His mother was a patron and friend of clergyman and poet John Donne and other poets, writers and artists. As George's godfather, Donne stood in after Richard Herbert died when George was three years old. Herbert and his siblings were then raised by his mother, who pressed for a good education for her children.
Herbert's eldest brother Edward (who inherited his late father's estates and was ultimately created Baron Herbert of Cherbury) became a soldier, diplomat, historian, poet, and philosopher whose religious writings led to his reputation as the "father of English deism". Herbert's younger brother was Sir Henry Herbert, Master of the Revels to Kings Charles I and II.
Herbert entered Westminster School at or around the age of 12 as a day pupil, although later he became a residential scholar. He was admitted on a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1609, and graduated first with a Bachelor's and then with a Master's degree in 1616 at the age of 23. Subsequently, Herbert was elected a major fellow of his college and then appointed Reader in Rhetoric. In 1620 he stressed his fluency in Greek and Latin and attained election to the post of the University's Public Orator, a position he held until 1627.
In 1624, supported by his kinsman the 3rd Earl of Pembroke, Herbert became a member of parliament, representing Montgomery. While these positions normally presaged a career at court, and King James I had shown him favour, circumstances worked against Herbert: the King died in 1625, and two influential patrons also died at about the same time. However, his parliamentary career may have ended already because, although a Mr Herbert is mentioned as a committee member, the Commons Journal for 1625 never mentions Mr. George Herbert, despite the preceding parliament's careful distinction. In short, Herbert made a shift in his path away from the political future he had been pursuing, and turned more fully toward a future in the church.
Herbert was presented with the prebend of Leighton Bromswold in the Diocese of Lincoln in 1626, whilst he was still a don at Trinity College, Cambridge, but not yet ordained. He was not present at his institution as prebend, and it is recorded that Peter Walker, his clerk, stood in as his proxy. In the same year his close Cambridge friend Nicholas Ferrar was ordained Deacon in Westminster Abbey by Bishop Laud on Trinity Sunday 1626 and went to Little Gidding, two miles down the road from Leighton Bromswold, to found a small community. Herbert raised money (and contributed his own) to restore the neglected church building at Leighton.
Priesthood
In 1629, Herbert decided to enter the priesthood and the next year was appointed rector of the rural parish of Fugglestone St Peter with Bemerton, near Salisbury in Wiltshire, about 75 miles southwest of London. He was responsible for two small churches: the 13th-century parish church of St Peter at Fugglestone, near Wilton, and the 14th-century chapel of St Andrew at Bemerton, closer to Salisbury at the other end of the parish. Here he lived, preached and wrote poetry; he also helped to rebuild the Bemerton church and adjacent rectory out of his own funds. His appointment may have again been assisted by the Earl of Pembroke, whose family seat at Wilton House lay close to Fugglestone church.
While at Bemerton, Herbert revised and added to his collection of poems entitled The Temple. He also wrote a guide to rural ministry entitled A Priest to the Temple or, The County Parson His Character and Rule of Holy Life, which he himself described as "a Mark to aim at", and which has remained influential to this day. Having married shortly before taking up his post, he and his wife gave a home to three orphaned nieces. Together with their servants, they crossed the lane for services in the small St Andrew's church twice every day. Twice a week Herbert made the short journey into Salisbury to attend services at the cathedral, and afterwards would make music with the cathedral musicians.
However, his time at Bemerton was short. Having suffered for most of his life from poor health, in 1633 Herbert died of consumption only three years after taking holy orders.
Poetry
Herbert wrote poetry in English, Latin and Greek. Shortly before his death, he sent a literary manuscript to his friend Nicholas Ferrar, reportedly telling him to publish the poems if he thought they might "turn to the advantage of any dejected poor soul", otherwise to burn them. In 1633 all of his English poems were published in The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations, with a preface by Ferrar. The book went through eight editions by 1690. According to Izaak Walton, when Herbert sent the manuscript to Ferrar, he said that "he shall find in it a picture of the many spiritual conflicts that have passed between God and my soul, before I could subject mine to the will of Jesus, my Master". In this Herbert used the format of the poems to reinforce the theme he was trying to portray. Beginning with "The Church Porch", they proceed via "The Altar" to "The Sacrifice", and so onwards through the collection.
All of Herbert's surviving English poems are on religious themes and are characterised by directness of expression enlivened by original but apt conceits in which, in the Metaphysical manner, the likeness is of function rather than visual. In The Windows, for example, he compares a righteous preacher to glass through which God's light shines more effectively than in his words. Commenting on his religious poetry later in the 17th century, Richard Baxter said, "Herbert speaks to God like one that really believeth in God, and whose business in the world is most with God. Heart-work and heaven-work make up his books". Helen Gardner later added "head-work" to this characterisation in acknowledgement of his "intellectual vivacity". It has also been pointed out how Herbert uses puns and wordplay to "convey the relationships between the world of daily reality and the world of transcendent reality that gives it meaning. The kind of word that functions on two or more planes is his device for making his poem an expression of that relationship."
Visually too the poems are varied in such a way as to enhance their meaning, with intricate rhyme schemes, stanzas combining different line lengths and other ingenious formal devices. The most obvious examples are pattern poems like The Altar, in which the shorter and longer lines are arranged on the page in the shape of an altar. The visual appeal is reinforced by the conceit of its construction from a broken, stony heart, representing the personal offering of himself as a sacrifice upon it. Built into this is an allusion to Psalm 51:17: "The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit; a broken and a contrite heart." In the case of "Easter Wings" (illustrated here), the words were printed sideways on two facing pages so that the lines there suggest outspread wings. The words of the poem are paralleled between stanzas and mimic the opening and closing of the wings. In Herbert's poems formal ingenuity is not an end in itself but is employed only as an auxiliary to its meaning.
The formal devices employed to convey that meaning are wide in range. In his meditation on the passage "Our life is hid with Christ in God", the capitalised words 'My life is hid in him that is my treasure' move across successive lines and demonstrate what is spoken of in the text. Opposites are brought together in "Bitter-Sweet" for the same purpose. Echo and variation are also common. The exclamations at the head and foot of each stanza in "Sighs and Grones" are one example. The diminishing truncated rhymes in "Paradise" are another. There is also an echo-dialogue after each line in "Heaven", other examples of which are found in the poetry of his brother Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Alternative rhymes are offered at the end of the stanzas in "The Water-Course", while the "Mary/Army Anagram" is represented in its title. In "The Collar", Joseph Summers argues, Herbert goes so far as to use apparent formlessness as a formal and thematic device: "the poem contains all the elements of order in violent disorder" until the end, when the final four lines' regularity restores the reader's sense of "the necessity of order".
Once the taste for this display of Baroque wit had passed, the satirist John Dryden was to dismiss it as so many means to "torture one poor word ten thousand ways." Though Herbert remained esteemed for his piety, the poetic skill with which he expressed his thought had to wait centuries to be admired again.
Prose
Herbert's only prose work, A Priest to the Temple (usually known as The Country Parson), offers practical advice to rural clergy. In it, he advises that "things of ordinary use" such as ploughs, leaven, or dances, could be made to "serve for lights even of Heavenly Truths". It was first published in 1652 as part of Herbert's Remains, or Sundry Pieces of That Sweet Singer, Mr. George Herbert, edited by Barnabas Oley. The first edition was prefixed with unsigned preface by Oley, which was used as one of the sources for Izaak Walton's biography of Herbert, first published in 1670. The second edition appeared in 1671 as A Priest to the Temple or the Country Parson, with a new preface, this time signed by Oley.
Like many of his literary contemporaries, Herbert was a collector of proverbs. His Outlandish Proverbs was published in 1640, listing over 1000 aphorisms in English, but gathered from many countries (in Herbert's day, 'outlandish' meant foreign). The collection included many sayings repeated to this day, for example, "His bark is worse than his bite" and "Who is so deaf, as he that will not hear?" These and an additional 150 proverbs were included in a later collection entitled Jacula Prudentum (sometimes seen as Jacula Prudentium), dated 1651 and published in 1652 as part of Oley's Herbert's Remains.
Musical settings
Herbert was a skilled lutenist who "sett his own lyricks or sacred poems". Musical pursuits interested him all through his life and his biographer, Izaak Walton, records that he rose to play the lute during his final illness. Walton also gave it as his opinion that he composed "such hymns and anthems as he and the angels now sing in heaven", while Walton's friend Charles Cotton described him as a "soul composed of harmonies".
In view of such tributes, it is no surprise to find that more than ninety of Herbert's poems have been set for singing over the centuries, some of them multiple times. Beginning in his own century, there were settings of "Longing" by Henry Purcell and "And art thou grieved" by John Blow. Some forty were adapted for the Methodist hymnal by the Wesley brothers, among them "Teach me my God and King", which found its place in one version or another in 223 hymnals. Another poem, "Let all the world in every corner sing", was published in 103 hymnals, of which one is a French version. Other languages into which his work has been translated for musical settings include Spanish, Catalan and German.
In the 20th century, "Vertue" alone achieved ten settings, one of them in French. Among leading modern composers who set his work were Edmund Rubbra, who set "Easter" as the first of his Two songs for voice and string trio (op.2, 1921); Ralph Vaughan Williams, who used four by Herbert in Five Mystical Songs, of which "Easter" was the first and "Antiphon II" the last; Robin Milford, who used the original Fitzwilliam manuscript's setting of the second part of "Easter" for his cantata Easter Morning (1932), set in two parts for soprano soloist and choir of children’s or women's voices;Benjamin Britten and William Walton, both of whom set "Antiphon" too; Ned Rorem who included one in his "10 poems for voice, oboe and strings" (1982); and Judith Weir, whose 2005 choral work Vertue includes three poems by Herbert.
Legacy
The earliest portrait of George Herbert was engraved long after his death by Robert White for Walton's biography of the poet in 1674 (see above). Now in London's National Portrait Gallery, it served as basis for later engravings, such as those by White's apprentice John Sturt and by Henry Hoppner Meyer in 1829.
Among later artistic commemorations is William Dyce's oil painting of "George Herbert at Bemerton" (1860) in the Guildhall Art Gallery, London. The poet is pictured in his riverside garden, prayerbook in hand. Over the meadows is Salisbury Cathedral, where he used to join in the musical evensong; his lute leans against a stone bench and against a tree a fishing rod is propped, a reminder of his first biographer, Isaac Walton. There is also a musical reference in Charles West Cope's "George Herbert and his mother" (1872), which is in Gallery Oldham: the mother points a poem out to him in a room that has a virginal in the background.
Most representations of Herbert, however, are in stained glass windows, of which there are several in churches and cathedrals. They include Westminster Abbey, Salisbury Cathedral and All Saints Church, Cambridge. His own St Andrew's Church in Bemerton installed in 1934 a memorial window, which he shares with Nicholas Ferrar. In addition, there is a statue of Herbert in his canonical robes, based in part on the Robert White portrait, in a niche on the West Front of Salisbury Cathedral.
In the liturgy too, Herbert is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 27 February; also on 1 March in, for example, the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, being the day of his death. There are various collects for the day, of which one is based on his poem "The Elixir":
Our God and King, who called your servant George Herbert from the pursuit of worldly honors to be a pastor of souls, a poet, and a priest in your temple: Give us grace, we pray, joyfully to perform the tasks you give us to do, knowing that nothing is menial or common that is done for your sake ... Amen.
The quote "All may have, if they dare try, a glorious life, or a grave" from Herbert's "The Church Porch" is inscribed on the outer wall of St. John's Church, Waterloo.
Works
1623: Oratio Qua auspicatissimum Serenissimi Principis Caroli.
1627: Memoriae Matris Sacrum, printed with A Sermon of commemoracion of the ladye Danvers by John Donne... with other Commemoracions of her by George Herbert (London: Philemon Stephens and Christopher Meredith).
1633: The Temple, Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations. (Cambridge: Printed by Thomas Buck and Roger Daniel).
1652: Herbert's Remains, Or, Sundry Pieces Of that sweet Singer of the Temple consisting of his collected writings from A Priest to the Temple, Jacula Prudentum, Sentences, & c., as well as a letter, several prayers, and three Latin poems.(London: Printed for Timothy Garthwait)
References
Citations
Sources
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Further reading
Editions
1941: The Works of George Herbert, ed. F. E. Hutchinson.
2007: The English Poems of George Herbert, ed. Helen Wilcox. Cambridge University Press
Studies
Clarke, Elizabeth, Theory and Theology in George Herbert's Poetry: "Divinitie, and Poesie, Met", Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Drury, John, Music at Midnight: The Life and Poetry of George Herbert, Allen Lane, 2013.
Falloon, Jane Heart in Pilgrimage: a study of George Herbert, Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse, 2007.
Lewis-Anthony, Justin "If You Meet George Herbert on the Road, Kill Him": Radically re-thinking priestly ministry, an exploration of the life of George Herbert as a take-off for a re-evaluation of the ministry within the Church of England. Mowbray, August 2009.
Sullivan, Ceri. The Rhetoric of the Conscience in Donne, Herbert, and Vaughan. Oxford University Press, 2008.
Orrick, Jim, A Year with George Herbert: a guide to fifty-two of his best loved poems. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011.
Sheldrake, Philip (2009) Heaven in Ordinary: George Herbert and his writings. Canterbury Press
Oakley, Mark "My Sour-Sweet Days: George Herbert and the Journey of the Soul". SPCK, 2019.
External links
The Works of George Herbert
George Herbert and Bemerton about Herbert's priesthood and parish
The Life of Mr. George Herbert by Izaak Walton (1593–1683)
George Herbert at the Cambridge Authors Project
George Herbert Bio and Poems
Selected Poetry of George Herbert at Representative Poetry Online
Lives of John Donne, Henry Wotton, Richard Hooker, George Herbert, &c, Vol. 2, Project Gutenberg
A Short introduction to George Herbert's verse
″The Call″ by George Herbert in Ralph Vaughan Williams' arrangement from Five Mystical Songs. YouTube Video (2:24 min.)
Easterwings (poem by George Herbert) with commentary upon and pics of its modern and 1633 arrangements
George Herbert poem My Elixir as hymn 'Teach me, My God and King', ccel.org
The Remains of That Sweet Singer of The temple, ed. Barnabas Oley
Outlandish Proverbs Selected by Mr. G.H.
1593 births
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George Herbert
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|
228721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burano | Burano | Burano is an island in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy, near Torcello at the northern end of the lagoon, known for its lace work and brightly coloured homes. The primary economy is tourism.
Geography
Burano is from Venice, a 45-minute trip from St. Mark's Square by vaporetto, a Venetian water bus.
The island is linked to Mazzorbo by a bridge. The current population of Burano is about 2,400. Originally, there were five islands and a fourth canal that was filled to become via e piazza Baldassare Galuppi, joining the former islands of San Martino Destra and San Martino Sinistra.
Burano has historically been subdivided into five sestieri, much like Venice. They correspond to the five original islands. The sixth sestiere is neighboring Mazzorbo:
Burano has a high population density, calculated at more than 13,000 per square kilometer, or more than twenty times the density of neighboring Mazzorbo. It is almost entirely covered by residential buildings, with few small green areas.
History
The island was probably settled by the Romans, and in the 6th century was occupied by people from Altino, who named it for one of the gates of their former city. Two stories are attributed to how the city obtained its name. One is that it was initially founded by the Buriana family, and another is that the first settlers of Burano came from the small island of Buranello, about to the south.
Although the island soon became a thriving settlement, it was administered from Torcello and had none of the privileges of that island or of Murano. It rose in importance only in the 16th century, when women on the island began making lace with needles, being introduced to such a trade via Venetian-ruled Cyprus. When Leonardo da Vinci visited in 1481, he visited the small town of Pano Lefkara and purchased a cloth for the main altar of the Duomo di Milano. The lace was soon exported across Europe, but trade began to decline in the 18th century and the industry did not revive until 1872, when a school of lacemaking was opened. Lacemaking on the island boomed again, but few now make lace in the traditional manner as it is extremely time-consuming and therefore expensive.
Main sights
Burano is also known for its small, brightly painted houses, which are popular with artists. The colours of the houses follow a specific system, originating from the golden age of its development. If someone wishes to paint their home, one must send a request to the government, who will respond by making notice of the certain colours permitted for that lot.
Other attractions include the church of San Martino, with a leaning campanile and a painting by Giambattista Tiepolo (Crufixion, 1727), the Oratorio di Santa Barbara and the Museum and School of Lacemaking.
Gallery
See also
List of islands of Italy
References
External links
Islands of the Venetian Lagoon
Frazioni of the Metropolitan City of Venice
Geography of Venice
20th-century establishments in Venice
Former municipalities of Veneto | [
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|
228722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian%20Lagoon | Venetian Lagoon | The Venetian Lagoon (; ) is an enclosed bay of the Adriatic Sea, in northern Italy, in which the city of Venice is situated. Its name in the Italian and Venetian languages, —cognate of Latin , "lake"—has provided the English name for an enclosed, shallow embayment of salt water, a lagoon.
Location
The Venetian Lagoon stretches from the River Sile in the north to the Brenta in the south, with a surface area of around . It is around 8% land, including Venice itself and many smaller islands. About 11% is permanently covered by open water, or canal, as the network of dredged channels are called, while around 80% consists of mud flats, tidal shallows and salt marshes. The lagoon is the largest wetland in the Mediterranean Basin.
It is connected to the Adriatic Sea by three inlets: Lido, Malamocco and Chioggia. Sited at the end of a largely enclosed sea, the lagoon is subject to high variations in water level, the most extreme being the spring tides known as the (Italian for "high water"), which regularly flood much of Venice.
The nearby Marano-Grado Lagoon, with a surface area of around , is the northernmost lagoon in the Adriatic Sea and is called sometimes the "twin sister of the Venice lagoon".
Development
The Lagoon of Venice is the most important survivor of a system of estuarine lagoons that in Roman times extended from Ravenna north to Trieste. In the sixth century, the Lagoon gave security to Romanised people fleeing invaders (mostly the Huns). Later, it provided naturally protected conditions for the growth of the Venetian Republic and its maritime empire. It still provides a base for a seaport, the Venetian Arsenal, and for fishing, as well as a limited amount of hunting and the newer industry of fish farming.
The Lagoon was formed about six to seven thousand years ago, when the marine transgression following the Ice Age flooded the upper Adriatic coastal plain. Deposition of river sediments compensated for the sinking coastal plain, and coastwise drift from the mouth of the Po tended to close tidal inlets with sand bars.
The present aspect of the Lagoon is due to human intervention. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Venetian hydraulic projects to prevent the lagoon from turning into a marsh reversed the natural evolution of the Lagoon. Pumping of aquifers since the nineteenth century has increased subsidence. Originally many of the Lagoon's islands were marshy, but a gradual programme of drainage rendered them habitable. Many of the smaller islands are entirely artificial, while some areas around the seaport of the Mestre are also reclaimed islands. The remaining islands are essentially dunes, including those of the coastal strip (Lido, Pellestrina and Treporti).
Venice Lagoon was inhabited from the most ancient times, but it was only during and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire that many people, coming from the Venetian mainland, settled in a number large enough to found the city of Venice. Today, the main cities inside the lagoon are Venice (at the centre of it) and Chioggia (at the southern inlet); Lido di Venezia and Pellestrina are inhabited as well, but they are part of Venice. However, the most part of the inhabitants of Venice, as well as its economic core, its airport and its harbor, stand on the western border of the lagoon, around the former towns of Mestre and Marghera. At the northern end of the lagoon, there is the town of Jesolo, a famous sea resort; and the town of Cavallino-Treporti.
Ecosystem
Occasionally, bottlenose dolphins enter the lagoon, possibly for feeding.
The level of pollution in the lagoon has long been a concern The large phytoplankton and macroalgae blooms of the late 1980s proved particularly devastating. Researchers have identified the lagoon as one of the primary areas where non-indigenous species are introduced into the Mediterranean Sea.
Negative effects to the environment such as air pollution, loss of landscape, surface water pollution, erosion, and decreasing water quality have occurred due to the emission and impacts of cruise ships transiting into the Venetian Lagoon.
From 1987 to 2003, the Venice Lagoon was interested by a relevant reduction of the nutrient inputs and of the macroalgal biomasses due to climate change; of the concentrations distributions of total nitrogen, organic phosphorus and organic carbon in the upper sediments. Meanwhile, the seagrasses started a natural process of recolonization, restoration the pristine conditions of the marine ecosystem.
Islands
The Venice Lagoon is mostly included in the Metropolitan City of Venice, but the south-western area is part of the Province of Padua.
The largest islands or archipelagos by area, excluding coastal reclaimed land and the coastal barrier beaches:
Venice 5.17 km
Sant'Erasmo 3.26 km
Murano 1.17 km
Chioggia 0.67 km
Giudecca 0.59 km
Mazzorbo 0.52 km
Torcello 0.44 km
Sant'Elena 0.34 km
La Certosa 0.24 km
Burano 0.21 km
Tronchetto 0.18 km
Sacca Fisola 0.18 km
San Michele 0.16 km
Sacca Sessola 0.16 km
Santa Cristina 0.13 km
Other inhabited islands include:
Cavallino
Lazzaretto Nuovo
Lazzaretto Vecchio
Lido
Pellestrina
Poveglia
San Clemente
San Francesco del Deserto
San Giorgio in Alga
San Giorgio Maggiore
San Lazzaro degli Armeni
Santa Maria della Grazia
San Pietro di Castello
San Servolo
Santo Spirito
Sottomarina
Vignole
See also
List of islands of Italy
Magistrato alle Acque
MOSE Project
Notes
References
Further reading
Additional editions printed in 1900, 1904, & 1909; paperback in 2008.
External links
Atlas of the Lagoon - 103 thematic maps and associated explanations grouped in five sections: Geosphere, Biosphere, Anthroposphere, Protected Environments and Integrated Analysis
SIL – Sistema Informativo della Laguna di Venezia
Lagoon of Venice information
Satellite image from Google Maps
MILVa – Interactive Map of Venice Lagoon
Comune di Venezia, Servizio Mobilità Acquea, Thematic cartography of Venice Lagoon
Photo gallery by Enrico Martino about Venice's lagoon small islands, night life
Geography of Venice
Chioggia
World Heritage Sites in Italy
Bays of Italy
Bays of the Adriatic Sea
Ramsar sites in Italy
Lagoons of Italy
7 Most Endangered Programme | [
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|
228724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commune%20%28disambiguation%29 | Commune (disambiguation) | A commune is an alternative term for intentional community. Commune or comună or comune or other derivations may also refer to:
Administrative-territorial entities
Comune, in Italy
Communes of Angola
Communes of Belgium
Communes of Benin
Communes of Burundi
Communes of Chile
Communes of France
Communes of Luxembourg
Communes of Moldova, called comună
Communes of Romania, called comună
Communes of Switzerland
Commune (Vietnam)
Government and military/defense
Commune (model of government), a model of socialist government
Medieval commune, a form of mutual defense alliance
Paris Commune (1789–1795), the government of Paris from 1792 until 1795
Paris Commune (1871), a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871
Lyon Commune (1870-1871)
Besançon Commune (1871)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
La Commune (Paris, 1871), a 2000 French film
Commune (film), a 2005 documentary about Black Bear Ranch narrated by Peter Coyote
The Commune, a 2016 Danish film
Music
Commune (album) by Goat 2014
Commune, a 2003 album by Japanese singer Yuki Isoya
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Commune (card game), a poker-based bluffing game
Comunes Collective, a non-profit organization
Commune FC, a football club in Burkina Faso
The Commune, anarchist newspaper published by Guy Aldred
The commune, a book by Margaret Buckley (published in 1992 by Chrysalis Press in the UK, )
See also
Communis (disambiguation)
Kommune (disambiguation) | [
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|
228727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isola%20di%20San%20Michele | Isola di San Michele | The Island of San Michele (, ; ) is an island in the Venetian Lagoon, Veneto, northern Italy. It is associated with the sestiere of Cannaregio, from which it lies a short distance northeast.
History
Along with neighbouring San Cristoforo della Pace, the island was a popular place for local travellers and fishermen to land. Mauro Codussi's Chiesa di San Michele in Isola of 1469, the first Renaissance church in Venice, and a monastery lie on the island, which also served for a time as a prison.
San Cristoforo was selected to become a cemetery in 1807, designed by Gian Antonio Selva, when under French occupation it was decreed that burial on the mainland (or on the main Venetian islands) was unsanitary. The canal that separated the two islands was filled in during 1836, and subsequently the larger island became known as San Michele. Bodies were carried to the island on special funeral gondolas. Among those buried there are Igor Stravinsky, Joseph Brodsky, Jean Schlumberger, Christian Doppler, Frederick Rolfe, Horatio Brown, Sergei Diaghilev, Ezra Pound, Luigi Nono, Catherine Bagration, Franco Basaglia, Paolo Cadorin, Zoran Mušič, Helenio Herrera, Emilio Vedova, and Salvador de Iturbide y Marzán. The cemetery is still in use today.
Today
The cemetery contains 7 war graves from World War I of officers and seamen of the British merchant and Royal Navy.
Princess Aspasia Manos, the wife of King Alexander of Greece, was initially interred at the cemetery of Isola di San Michele. Her remains were later transferred to the Royal Cemetery Plot in the park of Tatoi Palace near Athens.
Other attractions include the Cappella Emiliana chapel.
Gallery
See also
List of islands of Italy
References
Geography of Venice
Cemeteries in Italy
San Michele | [
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|
228732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torcello | Torcello | Torcello (; ) is a sparsely populated island at the northern end of the Venetian Lagoon, in north-eastern Italy. It was first settled in the year 452 and has been referred to as the parent island from which Venice was populated. It was a town with a cathedral and bishops before St Mark's Basilica was built.
History
After the downfall of the Western Roman Empire, Torcello was one of the first lagoon islands to be successively populated by those Veneti who fled the terra ferma (mainland) to take shelter from the recurring barbarian invasions, especially after Attila the Hun had destroyed the city of Altinum and all of the surrounding settlements in 452. Although the hard-fought Veneto region formally belonged to the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna since the end of the Gothic War, it remained unsafe on account of frequent Gothic (Sarmatian) invasions and wars: during the following 200 years the Lombards and the Franks fuelled a permanent influx of sophisticated urban refugees to the island’s relative safety, including the Bishop of Altino himself. In 638, Torcello became the bishop’s official seat for more than a thousand years and the people of Altinum brought with them the relics of Saint Heliodorus, now the patron saint of the island.
Torcello benefited from and maintained close cultural and trading ties with Constantinople: however, being a rather distant outpost of the Eastern Roman Empire, it could establish de facto autonomy from the eastern capital.
Torcello rapidly grew in importance as a political and trading centre: in the 10th century it had a population often estimated at 10,000-35,000 people, with 20,000 the most commonly cited estimate. However, some recent estimates by archeologists place it at closer to a maximum of 3,000. In pre-Medieval times, Torcello was a much more powerful trading center than Venice. Thanks to the lagoon’s salt marshes, the salines became Torcello’s economic backbone and its harbour developed quickly into an important re-export market in the profitable east-west-trade, which was largely controlled by Byzantium during that period.
The Black Death devastated the Venice Republic in 1348 and again between 1575 and 1577. In three years, the plague killed some 50,000 people. In 1630, the Italian plague of 1629–31 killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens. A further serious issue for Torcello specifically was that the swamp area of the lagoon around the island increased by the 14th century, partly because of the lowering of the land level. Navigation in the laguna morta (dead lagoon) was impossible before long and traders ceased calling at the island. The growing swamps also seriously aggravated malaria.
As a result, by the late 14th century, a substantial number of people left the island for Murano, Burano or Venice. In 1689, the bishopric transferred to Murano, and by 1797, the population had dropped to about 300. It now has a full-time population of just 10 people, including the parish priest, according to some sources and only 12 in 2018.
Sights
Torcello's numerous palazzi, its twelve parishes and its sixteen cloisters have almost disappeared since the Venetians recycled the useful building material. One small palazzo is the only remaining medieval structure, consisting of a cathedral, a church, the town's former council chamber and archives (which house the museum), and the nearby basilica and campanile; the latter two were rebuilt in the year 1008.
Today's main attraction is the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, founded in 639. It is of basilica-form with side aisles but no crossing, and has much 11th and 12th century Byzantine work, including mosaics (e.g. a vivid version of the Last Judgement). Other attractions include the 11th and 12th century church of Santa Fosca, in the form of a Greek cross, which is surrounded by a semi-octagonal porticus, and the Museo Provinciale di Torcello housed in two fourteenth century palaces, the Palazzo dell'Archivio and the Palazzo del Consiglio, which was once the seat of the communal government.
Another noteworthy sight for tourists is an ancient stone chair, known as Attila's Throne. It has, however, nothing to do with the king of the Huns, but may have been the podestà's or the bishop's chair, or the seat where chief magistrates were inaugurated.
Torcello is also home to a Devil's Bridge, known as the Ponte del Diavolo or alternatively the Ponticello del Diavolo (devil's little bridge).
Famous residents
Ernest Hemingway spent some time there in 1948, writing parts of Across the River and Into the Trees. The novel contains representations of Torcello and its environs. In addition, numerous famous artists, musicians, and movie stars have spent time on the island, a quiet refuge. Torcello is the background for Daphne du Maurier's short story Don't Look Now.
Gallery
See also
List of islands of Italy
Notes and references
External links
Frazioni of the Metropolitan City of Venice
Geography of Venice
Islands of the Venetian Lagoon | [
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228735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murano | Murano | Murano is a series of islands linked by bridges in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy. It lies about north of Venice and measures about across with a population of just over 5,000 (2004 figures). It is famous for its glass making. It was once an independent comune, but is now a frazione of the comune of Venice.
History
Murano was initially settled by the Romans and from the sixth century by people from Altinum and Oderzo. At first, the island prospered as a fishing port and through its production of salt. It was also a centre for trade through the port it controlled on Sant'Erasmo. From the eleventh century, it began to decline as islanders moved to Dorsoduro. It had a Grand Council, like that of Venice, but from the thirteenth century, Murano was ultimately governed by a podestà from Venice. Unlike the other islands in the Lagoon, Murano minted its own coins.
Early in the second millennium hermits of the Camaldolese Order occupied one of the islands, seeking a place of solitude for their way of life. There they founded the Monastery of St. Michael (). This monastery became a great center of learning and printing. The famous cartographer, Fra Mauro, whose maps were crucial to the European exploration of the world, was a monk of this community. The monastery was suppressed in 1810 by French forces under Napoleon, in the course of their conquest of the Italian peninsula, and the monks were expelled in 1814. The grounds then became Venice's major cemetery.
In 1291, all the glassmakers in Venice were required to move to Murano. In the following century, exports began, and the island became famous, initially for glass beads and mirrors. Aventurine glass was invented on the island, and for a while Murano was the main producer of glass in Europe. The island later became known for chandeliers. Although decline set in during the eighteenth century, glassmaking is still the island's main industry.
In the fifteenth century, the island became popular as a resort for Venetians, and palaces were built, but this later declined. The countryside of the island was known for its orchards and vegetable gardens until the nineteenth century, when more housing was built.
Attractions on the island include the Church of Santa Maria e San Donato (known for its twelfth-century Byzantine mosaic pavement and said to house the bones of the dragon slain by Saint Donatus in the 4th century), the church of San Pietro Martire with the chapel of the Ballarin family built in 1506 and artworks by Giovanni Bellini, and the Palazzo da Mula. Glass-related attractions include the many glassworks, some Mediaeval and most open to the public, and the Murano Glass Museum, housed in the large Palazzo Giustinian.
Murano glassmaking
Murano's reputation as a center for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing fire and the destruction of the city's mostly wooden buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their furnaces to Murano in 1291. Murano glass is still associated with Venetian glass.
Murano's glassmakers were soon numbered among the island's most prominent citizens. By the fourteenth century, glassmakers were allowed to wear swords, enjoyed immunity from prosecution by the Venetian state and found their daughters married into Venice's most affluent families. While benefiting from certain statutory privileges, glassmakers were forbidden to leave the Republic. However, many of them took the risks associated with migration and established glass furnaces in surrounding cities and farther afield — sometimes in England and the Netherlands.
Murano's glassmakers held a monopoly on high-quality glassmaking for centuries, developing or refining many technologies including optically clear glass, enamelled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (aventurine), multicolored glass (millefiori), milk glass (lattimo), and imitation gemstones made of glass. Today, the artisans of Murano still employ these centuries-old techniques, crafting everything from contemporary art glass and glass jewellery to Murano glass chandeliers and wine stoppers.
Venice kept protecting the secret of the production of glass and of crystal but, notwithstanding it, the Republic partially lost its monopoly at the end of the sixteenth century, because of some glass makers who let the secret be known in many European countries.
Today, Murano is home to the Museo del Vetro or Murano Glass Museum in the Palazzo Giustinian, which holds displays on the history of glassmaking as well as glass samples ranging from Egyptian times through the present day.
Some of the companies that own historical glass factories in Murano are among the most important brands of glass in the world. These companies include Venini, Alessandro Mandruzzato Ferro Murano, Barovier & Toso, Simone Cenedese and Seguso. To protect the original Murano Glass art from foreign markets, the most famous Glass Factories of this island have a trademark that certifies glass made products on the island of Murano.
The oldest Murano glass factory that is still active today is that of Pauly & C. – Compagnia Venezia Murano, founded in 1866.
Government protection
As part of a broader view of protection and enhancement of typical and traditional Veneto product manufacturing and marketing, the Veneto Region protects and promotes the designation of origin of artistic glassworks created on the island of Murano, since glasswork is an inherent part of Venetian historical and cultural heritage.
The "Vetro Artistico Murano" trademark, filed and registered at the European Office for Harmonisation in Alicante, no. 00481812, has been established and is regulated by Regional Law no. 70, 1994.
Link to Warsaw
In the seventeenth century, the Murano-born Simone Giuseppe Belotti (in Polish, Szymon Józef Bellotti) became Royal Architect to the King of Poland and took part in designing some of Warsaw's most important landmarks (:pl:Józef Szymon Bellotti). The palace he built for himself was named after his native island, "Muranów" — a Polish pronunciation of "Murano". This palace eventually gave its name to the entire surrounding district. Muranów was and remains one of Warsaw's most well known areas, especially associated with the city's Jewish history.
Geography
Murano is composed of seven islands in the Venetian Lagoon, linked by bridges over eight channels.
Economy
Weakness in the economy has affected Murano but some 260 companies remain in operation, employing 1,100 staff members (2016 data) and the island receives numerous tourists.
See also
List of islands of Italy
Murano Lighthouse
Murano Beads
Murano glass
Venetian glass
Stazione Sperimentale del Vetro (Experimental Station for Glass)
Muranów
Nissan Murano
Murano Wine //https://www.muranowine.com/
Notes
On 8 July 1797 was published the first comprehensive history book "Notizie Istorico-geografiche Murano", 1797. about the history of Murano.
External links
Promovetro consortium
Regione del Veneto — Official owner of "Marchio Vetro Artistico di Murano"
Murano description from lifeinitaly.com
Islands of the Venetian Lagoon
Geography of Venice
Frazioni of the Metropolitan City of Venice
20th-century establishments in Venice
Former municipalities of Veneto | [
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228736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorna%20Doone | Lorna Doone | Lorna Doone: A Romance of Exmoor is a novel by English author Richard Doddridge Blackmore, published in 1869. It is a romance based on a group of historical characters and set in the late 17th century in Devon and Somerset, particularly around the East Lyn Valley area of Exmoor. In 2003, the novel was listed on the BBC's survey The Big Read.
Publication history
Blackmore experienced difficulty in finding a publisher, and the novel was first published anonymously in 1869, in a limited three-volume edition of just 500 copies, of which only 300 sold. The following year it was republished in an inexpensive one-volume edition and became a huge critical and financial success. It has never been out of print.
Reception
It received acclaim from Blackmore's contemporary, Margaret Oliphant, and as well from later Victorian writers including Robert Louis Stevenson, Gerard Manley Hopkins, and Thomas Hardy. George Gissing wrote in a letter to his brother Algernon that the novel was 'quite admirable, approaching Scott as closely as anything since the latter'. A favourite among females, it was also popular among male readers, and was chosen by male students at Yale in 1906 as their favourite novel.
Development of the novel
By his own account, Blackmore relied on a "phonologic" style for his characters' speech, emphasising their accents and word formation. He expended great effort, in all of his novels, on his characters' dialogues and dialects, striving to recount realistically not only the ways, but also the tones and accents, in which thoughts and utterances were formed by the various sorts of people who lived on Exmoor in the 17th century.
Blackmore incorporated real events and places into the novel. The Great Winter described in chapters 41–45 was a real event.
He himself attended Blundell's School in Tiverton which serves as the setting for the opening chapters. One of the inspirations behind the plot is said to be the shooting of a young woman at a church in Chagford, Devon, in the 17th century. Unlike the heroine of the novel, she did not survive, but is commemorated in the church. Apparently, Blackmore invented the name "Lorna", possibly drawing on a Scottish source.
According to the preface, the work is a romance and not a historical novel, because the author neither "dares, nor desires, to claim for it the dignity or cumber it with the difficulty of an historical novel." As such, it combines elements of traditional romance, of Sir Walter Scott's historical novel tradition, of the pastoral tradition, of traditional Victorian values, and of the contemporary sensation novel trend. The basis for Blackmore's historical understanding is Macaulay's History of England and its analysis of the Monmouth rebellion. Along with the historical aspects are folk traditions, such as the many legends based around both the Doones and Tom Faggus. The composer Puccini once considered using the story as the plot for an opera, but abandoned the idea.
Plot summary
John Ridd is the son of a respectable farmer in 17th century Exmoor, a region in North Devon and Somerset, England. The notorious Doone clan, once nobles and now outlaws, murdered John’s father. Battling his desire for revenge, John (in West Country dialect, pronounced "Jan") too grows into a respectable farmer who cares well for his mother and sisters. He meets Lorna by accident and falls hopelessly in love. She turns out (apparently) to be the granddaughter of Sir Ensor, lord of the Doones. Sir Ensor’s impetuous and now jealous heir Carver will let nothing thwart his plan to marry Lorna once he comes into his inheritance.
Sir Ensor dies, and Carver becomes lord of the Doones. John helps Lorna escape to his family's farm. Since Lorna is a Doone the Ridds have mixed feelings toward her but defend her against Carver's retaliatory attack. During a visit from the Counsellor, Carver's father and the wisest Doone, Lorna's necklace is stolen. Sir Ensor had told Lorna the necklace was her mother’s. A family friend soon discovers the necklace belonged to a Lady Dugal, who was robbed and murdered by outlaws. Only her daughter survived. Lorna is not a Doone after all, but heiress to a huge fortune. By law, but against her will, she must return to London as a ward in Chancery. Despite John and Lorna's love, their marriage is out of the question.
King Charles II dies, and the Duke of Monmouth, the late king's illegitimate son, challenges Charles's brother James for the throne. Hoping to reclaim their ancestral lands, the Doones abandon their plan to marry Lorna to Carver and claim her wealth, and side with Monmouth. Monmouth is defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor, and his associates are sought for treason. Although innocent, John Ridd is captured during the rebellion. An old friend takes John to London to clear John’s name. Reunited with Lorna, John thwarts an attack on her guardian, Earl Brandir. The king then pardons John and grants him a title.
The communities around Exmoor have tired of the Doones’ depredations. Knowing the Doones better than any other man, John leads the attack. All the Doone men are killed except the Counsellor and Carver, who escapes vowing revenge. When Earl Brandir dies, Lorna’s new guardian allows her to return to Exmoor and marry John. Carver bursts into their wedding, shoots Lorna and flees. In a blind rage, John pursues Carver. A struggle leaves Carver sinking in a mire and John so exhausted that he can only watch as Carver dies. John discovers that Lorna has survived, and after a period of anxious uncertainty they live happily ever after.
Chronological key
The narrator, John Ridd, says he was born on 29 November 1661; in Chapter 24, he mentions Queen Anne as the current monarch, so the time of narration is 1702–1714 making him 40–52 years old. Although he celebrates New Year's Day on 1 January, at that time in England the year in terms of A.D. "begins" Annunciation Style on 25 March, so 14 February 1676 would still be 1675 according to the old reckoning. Most of the dates below are given explicitly in the book.
Other versions and cultural references
Lorna Doone is also a shortbread cookie made by Mondelez.
Title character Lorna Doone, a B-movie actress in a Thomas Tryon novella was christened in honor of Blackmore's character.
Lorna Doone was said to be the favourite book of Australian bushranger and outlaw Ned Kelly, who may have thought of the idea of his armour by reading of the outlaw Doones "with iron plates on breast and head."
The phrase "Lorna Doone" is used in Cockney rhyming slang for spoon.
Lorna Doone is a character portrayed by Christine McIntyre in The Three Stooges shorts The Hot Scots and Scotched in Scotland.
The book inspired the song "Pangs of Lorna" by Kraus.
There is reference to R.D. Blackmore's Lorna Doone in John Galsworthy's play Justice (1910).
Atholl Oakeley, British wrestling promoter, was fascinated by the book, and billed Exmoor-born wrestler Jack Baltus as Carver Doone in the 1930s.
Cartoonist H. M. Brock produced a comic book adaptation of Lorna Doone for the British girls' comic Princess (1960).
"Lornadoon" (or "Lalornadoon") is the name for the forest of Lothlórien in the Lord of the Rings parody Bored of the Rings.
Lornado is the 1908 official 32-room residence of the United States Ambassador to Canada in Ottawa, Canada, that was built by Warren Y. Soper, an Ottawa industrialist, who named it in homage to one of his favorite novels, Lorna Doone.
In Lethal Weapon 3 when Roger Murtaugh and Martin Riggs are being introduced to Head of Intelligence Herman Walters and Internal Affairs Sgt Lorna Cole, Riggs derisively calls her "Lorna Doone", Murtaugh then says "Lorna COLE", apparently not recognizing the reference.
References
Further reading
Blackmore, R. D. (1908) Lorna Doone: a romance of Exmoor; Doone-land edition; with introduction and notes by H. Snowden Ward and illustrations by Mrs. Catharine Weed Ward. lii, 553 pp., plates. London: Sampson Low, Marston and Company (includes "Slain by the Doones", pp. 529–53)
Delderfield, Eric (1965?) The Exmoor Country: [a] brief guide & gazetteer; 6th ed. Exmouth: The Raleigh Press
Elliott-Cannon, A. (1969) The Lorna Doone Story''. Minehead: The Cider Press
External links
– a lavishly illustrated edition (Burrows Brothers Company, 1889)
IMDb Listing of movies based on Lorna Doone
HTML online text of Lorna Doone
Lorna Doone at Silver Sirens
1869 British novels
Novels by R. D. Blackmore
Exmoor
Novels adapted into comics
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels set in the 1680s
Novels set in Devon
Novels set in Somerset
Novels set in Early Modern England | [
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|
228744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottle | Bottle | A bottle is a narrow-necked container made of an impermeable material (such as glass, plastic or aluminium) in various shapes and sizes that stores and transports liquids. Its mouth, at the bottling line, can be sealed with an internal stopper, an external bottle cap, a closure, or induction sealing.
Etymology
First attested in 14th century. From the English word bottle derives from an Old French word boteille, from vulgar Latin butticula, from late Latin buttis ("cask"), a latinisation of the Greek βοῦττις (bouttis) ("vessel").
Types
Glass
Wine
The glass bottle represented an important development in the history of wine, because, when combined with a high-quality stopper such as a cork, it allowed long-term aging of wine. Glass has all the qualities required for long-term storage. It eventually gave rise to "château bottling", the practice where an estate's wine is put in a bottle at the source, rather than by a merchant. Prior to this, wine used to be sold by the barrel (and before that, the amphora) and put into bottles only at the merchant's shop, if at all. This left large and often abused opportunities for fraud and adulteration, as consumers had to trust the merchant as to the contents. It is thought that most wine consumed outside of wine-producing regions had been tampered with in some way. Also, not all merchants were careful to avoid oxidation or contamination while bottling, leading to large bottle variation. Particularly in the case of port, certain conscientious merchants' bottling of old ports fetch higher prices even today. To avoid these problems, most fine wine is bottled at the place of production (including all port, since 1974).
There are many sizes and shapes of bottles used for wine. Some of the known shapes:
"Bordeaux": This bottle is roughly straight sided with a curved "shoulder" that is useful for catching sediment and is also the easiest to stack. Traditionally used in Bordeaux but now worldwide, this is probably the most common type.
"Burgundy": Traditionally used in Burgundy, this has sides that taper down about 2/3 of the height to a short cylindrical section, and does not have a shoulder.
"Champagne": Traditionally used for Champagne, it is similar to a Burgundy bottle, but with a wider base and heavier construction to withstand the pressure from the carbonation of the sparkling wine.
Codd-neck
In 1872, British soft drink makers Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented a bottle designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle was designed and manufactured to enclose a marble and a rubber washer/gasket in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape, as can be seen in the photo to the left, to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.
Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries, mainly in Europe, Asia and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle. One etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology.
The bottles were regularly produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, they are relatively scarce and have become collector items; particularly in the UK. A cobalt-coloured Codd bottle today fetches hundreds of British pounds at auction. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune and in the Indian drink called Banta.
Plastic
The plastic is strain oriented in the stretch blow molding manufacturing process. Plastic bottles are typically used to store liquids such as water, soft drinks, motor oil, cooking oil, medicine, shampoo, milk, and ink. The size ranges from very small sample bottles to very large carboys. The main advantages of plastic bottles over glass are their superior resistance to breakage, in both production and transportation, as well as their light weight and low cost of production. Disadvantages include widespread plastic pollution.
Aluminium
An aluminium bottle is a bottle made of aluminium (or aluminum, outside of British English). In some countries, it is also called a "bottlecan". It usually holds beer, soft drinks or wine.
Hot water
A hot water bottle is a bottle filled with hot water used to provide warmth. It can be made from various materials, most commonly rubber, but has historically been made from harder materials such as metal, glass, earthenware, or wood.
Gallery
Miscellany
Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material.
See also
Beer bottle
Bottle sling
Bottle wall
Bottling company
Bottling (concert abuse)
Butylka - The largest building in the world in the shape of a bottle
Carinate
Glass production
Helmholtz resonance
Klein bottle
List of bottle types, brands and companies
List of bottling companies
Reuse of bottles
Speyer wine bottle
Notes
References
Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002,
Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
Food storage containers
Liquid containers
Packaging
Food packaging | [
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|
228748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True | True | True most commonly refers to truth, the state of being in congruence with fact or reality.
True may also refer to:
Places
True, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
True, Wisconsin, a town in the United States
True, a townland in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
People
True (singer) (stylized as TRUE), the stage name of Japanese singer Miho Karasawa
True (surname)
True O'Brien (born 1994), an American model and actress
True, a fictional character from the Netflix series True and the Rainbow Kingdom
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Albums
True (Avicii album), 2013
True (EP), a 2012 EP by Solange Knowles
True (L'Arc-en-Ciel album), 1996
True (Roy Montgomery and Chris Heaphy album), 1999
True (Mika Nakashima album), 2002
True (Spandau Ballet album), 1983
True (TrinityRoots album), 2001
True (TRU album), 1995
Songs
"True" (Brandy song), by Brandy Norwood from Human (2008)
"True" (Concrete Blonde song), 1987
"True" (Ryan Cabrera song), 2004
"True" (Jaimeson song), 2003
"True" (Spandau Ballet song), 1983
"True" (George Strait song), 1998
"True", a song by Cindy Walker, recorded on The International Jim Reeves 1963
"True", by Lasgo from Far Away
"True", by Zion I from True & Livin'
"True...", a 2001 song by Riyu Kosaka
"True Song", a 2002 song by Do As Infinity
"You Don't Love Me (True)", a song by Louis Cottrell Jr. with Don Albert and Lloyd Glenn
Periodicals
True (magazine), an American men's magazine
Trace (magazine), formerly True, a British hip-hop magazine
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
True (film), a short film directed by Tom Tykwer, starring Natalie Portman
True, a 2013 Elixir novel by Hilary Duff with Elise Allen, a sequel to Devoted
GE True, an anthology TV series based on stories from True magazine
Computing
true (Unix), a Unix utility
true, a boolean value
TRUE (Temporal Reasoning Universal Elaboration), a discrete and continuous time simulation software program for 2D, 3D and 4D modeling
Brands and enterprises
True (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Lorillard Tobacco Company
True (dating service), an online dating service
True Corporation, a Thai communications group
TrueMove H, a Thai mobile operator
TrueVisions, a Thai television platform
Other uses
True self
True value, a concept in statistics
Trust for Urban Ecology, a British ecological organisation
See also
TRU (band), an American hip hop group
True north (disambiguation)
Truth value, in logic and mathematics, a logical value
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|
228750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME%20Display%20Manager | GNOME Display Manager | GNOME Display Manager (GDM) is a display manager (a graphical login manager) for the windowing systems X11 and Wayland.
The X Window System by default uses the XDM display manager. However, resolving XDM configuration issues typically involves editing a configuration file. GDM allows users to customize or troubleshoot settings without having to resort to a command line. Users can pick their session type on a per-login basis. GDM 2.38.0 is the last version that features customization with themes; subsequent releases do not support themes.
Software architecture
GDM is a display manager that implements all significant features required for managing attached and remote displays. GDM was written from scratch and does not contain any XDM or X Consortium code.
Components
GDM comprises the following components:
Chooser – a program used to select a remote host for managing a display remotely on the attached display (gdm-host-chooser)
Greeter – the graphical login window (provided by GNOME Shell)
Pluggable authentication module (PAM)
X Display Manager Control Protocol (XDMCP)
Hidden features
Until version 2.22, GDM had a few Easter eggs, in the form of strings to be entered in the username box. These can be found in the source file "gui/guilogin.c", in a function named "evil".
Dancing login – type "Start Dancing" to start, and "Stop Dancing" to stop.
(This requires the standard greeter ("GTK+ Greeter"), rather than the graphical one ("Themed Greeter")).
"Gimme Random Cursor" – can be used repeatedly.
This changes the mouse cursor to a randomly selected 1 of 77 different "cursor fonts" as defined in the X11 specification.
"Require Quarter" (or "Require Quater", for backward compatibility with a typo in the original), then log in normally – a dialog box that reads "Please insert 25 cents to log in." appears after entering the password. Clicking "OK" allows the login process to proceed as normal.
Queen of England
Some of the copyright notices of GDM refer to the "Queen of England", whom release announcements from version 2.2.1 also named as a maintainer. Subsequently, developers realised that the title "Queen of England" has not existed since the Acts of Union of 1707.
See also
getty – a non-graphical login program
LightDM
SDDM (KDE Plasma 5)
KDE Display Manager (KDE Plasma 4)
References
External links
GNOME
X display managers | [
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|
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