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228108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s%20modulus | Young's modulus | Young's modulus , the Young modulus, or the modulus of elasticity in tension or compression (i.e., negative tension), is a mechanical property that measures the tensile or compressive stiffness of a solid material when the force is applied lengthwise. It quantifies the relationship between tensile/compressive stress (force per unit area) and axial strain (proportional deformation) in the linear elastic region of a material and is determined using the formula:
Young's moduli are typically so large that they are expressed not in pascals but in gigapascals (GPa).
Although Young's modulus is named after the 19th-century British scientist Thomas Young, the concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler. The first experiments that used the concept of Young's modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, pre-dating Young's work by 25 years. The term modulus is derived from the Latin root term modus which means measure.
Definition
Linear elasticity
A solid material will undergo elastic deformation when a small load is applied to it in compression or extension. Elastic deformation is reversible, meaning that the material returns to its original shape after the load is removed.
At near-zero stress and strain, the stress–strain curve is linear, and the relationship between stress and strain is described by Hooke's law that states stress is proportional to strain. The coefficient of proportionality is Young's modulus. The higher the modulus, the more stress is needed to create the same amount of strain; an idealized rigid body would have an infinite Young's modulus. Conversely, a very soft material (such as a fluid) would deform without force, and would have zero Young's modulus.
Not many materials are linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation.
Note
Material stiffness should not be confused with these properties:
Strength: maximum amount of stress that material can withstand while staying in the elastic (reversible) deformation regime;
Geometric stiffness: a global characteristic of the body that depends on its shape, and not only on the local properties of the material; for instance, an I-beam has a higher bending stiffness than a rod of the same material for a given mass per length;
Hardness: relative resistance of the material's surface to penetration by a harder body;
Toughness: amount of energy that a material can absorb before fracture.
Usage
Young's modulus enables the calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. The Young's modulus directly applies to cases of uniaxial stress; that is, tensile or compressive stress in one direction and no stress in the other directions. Young's modulus is also used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a statically determinate beam when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's supports.
Other elastic calculations usually require the use of one additional elastic property, such as the shear modulus , bulk modulus , and Poisson's ratio . Any two of these parameters are sufficient to fully describe elasticity in an isotropic material. For homogeneous isotropic materials simple relations exist between elastic constants that allow calculating them all as long as two are known:
Linear versus non-linear
Young's modulus represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law, which relates the stress and the strain. However, Hooke's law is only valid under the assumption of an elastic and linear response. Any real material will eventually fail and break when stretched over a very large distance or with a very large force; however all solid materials exhibit nearly Hookean behavior for small enough strains or stresses. If the range over which Hooke's law is valid is large enough compared to the typical stress that one expects to apply to the material, the material is said to be linear. Otherwise (if the typical stress one would apply is outside the linear range) the material is said to be non-linear.
Steel, carbon fiber and glass among others are usually considered linear materials, while other materials such as rubber and soils are non-linear. However, this is not an absolute classification: if very small stresses or strains are applied to a non-linear material, the response will be linear, but if very high stress or strain is applied to a linear material, the linear theory will not be enough. For example, as the linear theory implies reversibility, it would be absurd to use the linear theory to describe the failure of a steel bridge under a high load; although steel is a linear material for most applications, it is not in such a case of catastrophic failure.
In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress–strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress–strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material.
Directional materials
Young's modulus is not always the same in all orientations of a material. Most metals and ceramics, along with many other materials, are isotropic, and their mechanical properties are the same in all orientations. However, metals and ceramics can be treated with certain impurities, and metals can be mechanically worked to make their grain structures directional. These materials then become anisotropic, and Young's modulus will change depending on the direction of the force vector. Anisotropy can be seen in many composites as well. For example, carbon fiber has a much higher Young's modulus (is much stiffer) when force is loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. Engineers can use this directional phenomenon to their advantage in creating structures.
Temperature dependence
The Young's modulus of metals varies with the temperature and can be realized through the change in the interatomic bonding of the atoms and hence its change is found to be dependent on the change in the work function of the metal. Although classically, this change is predicted through fitting and without a clear underlying mechanism (for example, the Watchman's formula), the Rahemi-Li model demonstrates how the change in the electron work function leads to change in the Young's modulus of metals and predicts this variation with calculable parameters, using the generalization of the Lennard-Jones potential to solids. In general, as the temperature increases, the Young's modulus decreases via where the electron work function varies with the temperature as and is a calculable material property which is dependent on the crystal structure (for example, BCC, FCC). is the electron work function at T=0 and is constant throughout the change.
Calculation
Young's modulus E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress, , by the engineering extensional strain, , in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the physical stress–strain curve:
where
is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
is the force exerted on an object under tension;
is the actual cross-sectional area, which equals the area of the cross-section perpendicular to the applied force;
is the amount by which the length of the object changes ( is positive if the material is stretched, and negative when the material is compressed);
is the original length of the object.
Force exerted by stretched or contracted material
The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.
where is the force exerted by the material when contracted or stretched by .
Hooke's law for a stretched wire can be derived from this formula:
where it comes in saturation
and
But note that the elasticity of coiled springs comes from shear modulus, not Young's modulus.
Elastic potential energy
The elastic potential energy stored in a linear elastic material is given by the integral of the Hooke's law:
now by explicating the intensive variables:
This means that the elastic potential energy density (that is, per unit volume) is given by:
or, in simple notation, for a linear elastic material: , since the strain is defined .
In a nonlinear elastic material the Young's modulus is a function of the strain, so the second equivalence no longer holds and the elastic energy is not a quadratic function of the strain:
Approximate values
Young's modulus can vary somewhat due to differences in sample composition and test method. The rate of deformation has the greatest impact on the data collected, especially in polymers. The values here are approximate and only meant for relative comparison.
See also
Bending stiffness
Deflection
Deformation
Flexural modulus
Hooke's law
Impulse excitation technique
List of materials properties
Yield (engineering)
References
Further reading
ASTM E 111, "Standard Test Method for Young's Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and Chord Modulus"
The ASM Handbook (various volumes) contains Young's Modulus for various materials and information on calculations. Online version
External links
Matweb: free database of engineering properties for over 115,000 materials
Young's Modulus for groups of materials, and their cost
Elasticity (physics)
Physical quantities
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228111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Jos%C3%A9%20de%20Sucre | Antonio José de Sucre | Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá (; 3 February 1795 – 4 June 1830), known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" (), was a Venezuelan independence leader who served as President of Peru and as the 2nd President of Bolivia. Sucre was one of Simón Bolívar's closest friends, generals and statesmen.
Due to his influence on geopolitical affairs of Latin America, a number of notable localities on the continent now bear Sucre's name. These include the eponymous capital of Bolivia, the Venezuelan state, the department of Colombia and both the old and new airports of Ecuador's capital Quito. Additionally, many schools, streets and districts across the region bear his name as well.
Family
The aristocratic Sucre family traces its roots back to origins in Flanders. It arrived in Venezuela through Charles de Sucre y Franco Perez, a Flemish nobleman, son of Charles Adrian de Sucre, Marquess of Peru and Buenaventura Carolina Isabel Garrido y Pardo, a Spanish noblewoman. Charles de Sucre y Pardo served as a soldier in Catalonia in 1698 and was later named Governor of Cartagena de Indias and Captain General of Cuba. On 22 December 1779, Charles de Sucre y Pardo arrived in Cumaná, Venezuela, having been named Governor of New Andalucia, which includes present-day Sucre State.
Military career
In 1814, Antonio José de Sucre joined the fight for South American independence from Spain. The Battle of Pichincha took place on 24 May 1822, on the slopes of the Pichincha volcano, near Quito in what is now Ecuador. The encounter, fought in the context of the Spanish American wars of independence, pitted a Patriot army under Sucre against a Royalist army commanded by Field Marshal Melchor Aymerich. The defeat of the Royalist forces brought about the liberation of Quito and secured the independence of the provinces belonging to the Real Audiencia de Quito, or Presidencia de Quito, the Spanish colonial administrative jurisdiction from which the Republic of Ecuador would eventually emerge.
As of late 1824, Royalists still had control of most of southern Peru as well as Real Felipe Fort in the port of Callao. On 9 December 1824, the Battle of Ayacucho took place at Pampa de La Quinua, near the town of Quinua, between Royalist and Patriot forces. Sucre, as Simón Bolívar's lieutenant, led the Patriot forces to victory over the Viceroy José de la Serna, who was wounded. After the battle, second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist army on his behalf. As a result, he was promoted, at the request of the Peruvian Congress, to Marshal and as General in Chief by the Colombian legislature.
After the victory at Ayacucho, following precise orders from Bolívar, Sucre, nominated as Ayacucho's Grand Marshal, entered Upper Peru (known today as Bolivia) territory on 25 February 1825. Besides having orders of installing an immediately independent administration, his role was limited to giving an appearance of legality to the process that Upper Peruvians themselves had begun already.
Royalist general Pedro Antonio Olañeta stayed in Potosí, where he received by January the "Union" Infantry Battalion coming from Puno under the command of colonel José María Valdez. Olañeta then summoned a War Council, which agreed to continue the resistance in the name of Ferdinand VII. Next, Olañeta distributed his troops between Cotagaita fortress with the "Chichas" Battalion. in charge of colonel Medinacelli, while Valdez was sent to Chuquisaca with the "Union" Infantry Battalion and loyalist militias, and Olañeta himself marched toward Vitichi, with 60,000 pieces of gold from the Coin House in Potosí. But for the Spanish military personnel in Upper Peru, it was too little too late, as since 1821 all out guerilla warfare had raged in this part of the continent.
However, in Cochabamba the First Battalion of the Infantry Regiment "Ferdinand VII", led by colonel José Martínez, rebelled and sided with the independence movement, only to be followed later by the Second Battalion, "Ferdinand VII" Infantry Regiment in Vallegrande, resulting in the forced resignation of Brigadier Francisco Aguilera on 12 February. Royalist colonel José Manuel Mercado occupied Santa Cruz de la Sierra on 14 February, as Chayanta stayed in the hands of lieutenant colonel Pedro Arraya, with the cavalry squadrons "Santa Victoria" (Holy Victory) and "Dragones Americanos" (American Dragoons), and in Chuquisaca the cavalry squadron "Dragones de la Frontera"(Frontier Dragoons) under colonel Francisco López claimed victory for the independence forces on 22 February. At this point, the majority of royalist troops of Upper Peru refused to continue fighting against the powerful army of Sucre and switched allegiances. Colonel Medinacelli with 300 soldiers also revolted against Olañeta, and on 2 April 1825 they faced each other in the Battle of Tumusla, which ended with the death of Olañeta. A few days later, on 7 April, general José Mario Valdez surrendered in Chequelte to general Urdininea, putting an end to the war in Upper Peru and signalling victory to the local independence movement which had been active since 1811.
Role in the foundation of Bolivia
After the Constituent Assembly in Chuquisaca was reconvened by Marshal Sucre on 8 July 1825 and later concluded, it was determined the complete independence of Upper Peru under the republican form. Finally, the Assembly president José Mariano Serrano, together with a commission, wrote down the "Independence Act of the Upper Peruvian Departments" which carries the date of 6 August 1825, in honor of the Battle of Junín won by Bolivar. Independence was declared by 7 representatives from Charcas, 14 from Potosí, 12 from La Paz, 13 from Cochabamba and 2 from Santa Cruz. The act of Independence, wrote by the president of the Congress, Serrano, states in its expositive part:
Through a decree it was determined that the new state in Upper Peru would carry the name of "República Bolívar", in honor of the liberator, who was designated as "Father of the Republic and Supreme Chief of State". Bolívar thanked them for these honors, but declined the presidency of the Republic, a duty he gave instead to the victor of Ayacucho, Grand Marshal Sucre, who would later be sworn in the same day as the first President of Bolivia. After some time, the subject of the name of the Young nation arose again, and a Potosian deputy named Manuel Martín Cruz offered a solution, suggesting that in the same manner which from Romulus comes Rome, from Bolívar ought to come the new nation of Bolivia.
When Bolívar got the news of the decision, he felt flattered by the young nation, but until then he had not willingly accepted Upper Peru's independence because he was worried about its future, due to Bolivia's location in the center of South America. According to Bolivar, this would create a nation that would face many future wars. Bolivar wished that Bolivia would become part of another nation, preferably Peru (given the fact that it had been part of Viceroyalty of Peru for centuries), or Argentina (since during the last decades of colonial domain it had been part of Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata), but what deeply convinced him otherwise was the attitude of the people. On 18 August, upon his arrival to La Paz, there was a demonstration of popular rejoicing. The same scene repeated when the Liberator arrived to Oruro, then to Potosí and finally to Chuquisaca. Such a fervent demonstration by the people touched Bolívar, who called the new nation his "Predilect Daughter" and was called by the peoples of the new republic their "Favorite Son."
After the foundation of Bolivia, he became also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of Bolivia, which he created the following day on the basis of the guerrilla forces and active Patriot armies stationed at the time of the declaration. He gave the young republic its first Constitution in 1828.
Battle of Tarqui
In the Battle of Tarqui, fought on 27 February 1829, heavily outnumbered two to one, Sucre defeated a Peruvian invasion force led by third President and General of Peru José de La Mar, whose intentions had been to annex Guayaquil and the rest of Ecuador to Peru.
Post-independence
When a strong movement arose against Bolívar, his followers, and the Bolivian constitution in 1828, Sucre resigned.
Assassination
Sucre was killed on 4 June 1830. General Juan José Flores wanted to separate the southern departments (Quito, Guayaquil, and Azuay), called the District of Ecuador, from the Gran Colombia so as to form an independent country and become its first President. General Flores foresaw that if Antonio José de Sucre arrived in Quito from Bogota, he could thwart his plans, since Sucre was very popular due to his reputation as hero and leader in the Battles of Pichincha, Tarqui and Ayacucho. General Juan José Flores put himself in contact with the anti-Bolívar and anti-Sucre leader Brigadier-General and the Commanding General of Cauca, José María Obando, who was not present at Sucre's death but who delegated this criminal act to the Venezuelan Colonel Apolinar Morillo. Commander Juan Gregorio Sarria (who later confessed he had been paid by Obando), José Erazo (a highway bandit and guerrilla fighter), and three peons as accomplices. The plan was to ambush José Antonio de Sucre on the morning of June 4, 1830, in the cold and bleak forested district of Berruecos, along a narrow path that was perennially covered with fog.
The five assassins were hiding behind trees along the part of the trail known as La Jacoba waiting for Sucre's party, which would be passing the area single file. Sucre's retinue comprised seven persons: two muleteers with the baggage, two sergeants, one being the Marshal's orderly, a representative to the Congress from Cuenca, and his servant, and finally Sucre himself. When Sucre approached La Jacoba, he was struck by three bullets, two inflicting superficial wounds to his head and one piercing his heart. He fell from his horse, which had been shot in the neck, and died almost instantly. His body remained there for twenty-four hours, as his companions, fearful of a similar fate, had fled in panic.
Later, Juan Gregorio Sarria and Colonel Apolinar Morillo confessed that it was Obando who had convinced them to assassinate Sucre. Commander Juan Gregorio Sarria also confessed that Obando had paid him to kill Sucre, since there were anti-Bolivar politicians and officers in Bogota that wanted to see both Bolívar and Sucre eliminated. The ringleader of the anti-Bolívar faction in Bogota was Santander, who was Obando's friend and who had failed in his attempt to assassinate Bolivar . The three peons who were part of the Sucre assassination party were poisoned by Apolinar Morillo to prevent them from testifying about Sucre's murder. In the end, Colonel Apolinar Morillo was convicted and shot in the main square of Bogota for the murder of Sucre on 30 November 1842, and José Erazo died in prison that same year. José Maria Obando was granted immunity due to the fact that he was too powerful in the Cauca Department. Francisco de Paula Santander, although indirectly involved with Sucre's death, was directly involved with Bolívar's attempted assassination and was exiled .
Burial and aftermath
The following day Sucre's orderly, a sergeant named Lorenzo Caicedo, with some help from others, buried the body and marked the makeshift grave with a cross formed of branches. When the widow received news of the assassination, she promptly brought Sucre's remains from Berruecos to Quito, where they were interred in secret in the oratory of the chapel of "El Dean" on one of her haciendas. Subsequently, she had the remains transferred, also in secret, to the Carmen Bajo Convent in Quito, where they were placed facing the main altar of the church. Seventy years later, in April 1900, Sucre's remains were discovered and, their authenticity scrupulously verified, transferred to the Quito Cathedral on 4 June 1900, in a sumptuous parade led by the Executive and his Ministers, the high dignitaries of the Church, and the diplomatic corps. At the time, the government ordered the building of a crypt, but it was not inaugurated until thirty-two years later, on 4 August 1932. This mausoleum consisted of a nine-ton monolith of granite from the quarries of the Pichincha volcano. Its cover, on which a cross is carved in high relief, was so heavy that thirty persons were required to move it into place.
According to the 19 December 1830 Gaceta de Colombia, Issue No. 495, a power-hungry, ambitious General Obando paid an assassin to kill Sucre by falsely informing the assassin that Sucre was a traitor and had to be stopped because Sucre's intentions were to go to Quito and separate the Department of Cauca and the three southern departments of Colombia and unite them with Peru. In reality, Sucre, a protégé of Bolívar, was going to Quito to stop the separation of the District of Ecuador from the Gran Colombia and to retire as soon as possible in Quito to live a quiet life with his wife. Some have argued that Sucre was ordered assassinated by General Obando so as to leave no clear successor to Bolívar in the Gran Colombia. Before his death, Bolívar believed Sucre to be the only man who could have reunited the Gran Colombia; however, Bolívar's generals and the majority of the politicians running the separate departments of the Gran Colombia had other selfish and ambitious plans. Sucre represented, according to historian Tomás Polanco Alcántara, "the indispensable complement to Simón Bolívar". Upon hearing the news of Sucre's death, Bolívar said, "Se ha derramado, Dios excelso, la sangre del inocente Abel..." ("The blood of the innocent Abel has been spilled, oh, Most High God..."). Bolívar later wrote (Gaceta de Colombia, 4 July 1830):
Sucre is buried in the Cathedral of Quito, Ecuador, as he had said, "I want my bones to be forever in Quito", where his wife, Mariana de Carcelén y Larrea, Marquise of Solanda, was from.
Legacy
Quito's airport was named after him.
The Venezuelan Remote Sensing Satellite 2 (VRSS-2), launched in 2017, was named after him.
Further reading
Biography, 236pp., online.
Higgins, James (editor). The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts, 2014. Online.
Salamé Ruiz, Gil Ricardo (Autor). Sucre: algo más que un guerrero, 2009 Caracas, Venezuela. Fundación Editorial el Perro y la Rana, 2009 - Generals - 519 pages
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Historic document: Memoria a la asamblea del Alto Perú en el día de su instalación.
1795 births
1830 deaths
People from Cumaná
Assassinated Venezuelan politicians
Deaths by firearm in Colombia
People of the Peruvian War of Independence
Presidents of Bolivia
Presidents of Peru
Venezuelan generals
Venezuelan soldiers
Venezuelan people of French descent
Venezuelan people of German descent
Viceroyalty of New Granada people
Venezuelan people murdered abroad
Venezuelan revolutionaries
People murdered in Colombia
Marshals of Peru
Venezuelan independence activists
Burials in Ecuador | [
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228115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neckerchief | Neckerchief | A neckerchief (from neck (n.) + kerchief), sometimes called a necker, kerchief or scarf, is a type of neckwear associated with those working or living outdoors, including farm labourers, cowboys and sailors. It is most commonly still seen today in the Scouts, Girl Guides and other similar youth movements. A neckerchief consists of a triangular piece of cloth or a rectangular piece folded into a triangle. The long edge is rolled towards the point, leaving a portion unrolled. The neckerchief is then fastened around the neck with the ends either tied or clasped with a slide or woggle.
Naval
Neckerchiefs worn by sailors are shaped like a square, and are folded in half diagonally before rolling, with rolling occurring from the tip of the resulting triangle to its hypotenuse. Either neckerchief is then placed on the wearer's back, under or over the shirt collar with the ends at the front of the wearer. The rolled ends then pass around the neck until they meet in front of it, where they are secured together, either with a knot, such as a reef knot or a slip knot, or with a rubber band or other fastener (called a woggle or neckerchief slide) and allowed to hang. A slip knot (vs. a simple reef or square knot) will give way if the neckerchief gets caught and is thus less likely to choke the wearer.
Sailors in the United States Navy have worn a rolled black neckerchief since the American Civil War. It is currently part of the men's service dress uniform for junior enlisted sailors as well as the women's summer dress uniform.
Scouting
The Scouting movement makes the neckerchief part of its uniform. A generally ceremonial item, the neckerchief is taught to be a practical wilderness item in the Scouting tradition. The neckerchief, unrolled, is designed to be the perfect size for use as a triangular bandage for first aid.
The origin of the Scouting neckerchief seems to be in Robert Baden-Powell's participation in the Second Matabele War in 1896; where he worked with Frederick Russell Burnham, an American-born scout employed by the British Army. Baden-Powell copied Burnham's practical style of dress, including "a grey-coloured handkerchief, loosely tied around the neck to prevent sunburn". When Baden-Powell launched the Scout Movement with the book Scouting for Boys in 1908, he prescribed a neckerchief or scarf as part of the Scout uniform, which he stated was "very like the uniform worn by my men when I commanded the South African Constabulary". He continued; "Every Troop has its own scarf colour, since the honour of your Troop is bound up in the scarf, you must be very careful to keep it tidy and clean." Initially, Scout neckerchiefs were tied with a variety of knots, but the use of a "woggle" or slide, originated in the United States in the early 1920s and quickly spread around the Scouting world.
Each Scout group would have a neckerchief of different design and colours. In most countries each Scout Troop uses its own colour neckerchief. The colours are usually the "Troop Colours" which may have a particular historical significance to the troop or to the local community.
At Scouting camps and jamborees these neckerchiefs represent units, subcamps or the camp as a whole. Fun scarves are also used as memorabilia at Scout events and country scarves are often traded at international gatherings
In Canada, while most groups use colour neckerchiefs, there is also an optional alternate universal pattern tartan neckerchief: white plaid on red for Scouts, gold plaid on dark green for Cubs. Alternating thick and thin lines of the plaid spell out "CANADA" in Morse code.
In Australia, Queensland uses a single maroon necker for the whole state, while the other states allow groups, Venturer Units and Rover Crews to choose their own necker. Region and Branch Teams also have their own neckers.
In Hungary, as well as the Hungarian diaspora communities in countries such as the US, the necktie color is national rather than distinctive for each troop, being light blue for ages 10 and younger and grass green for ages 11 and up.
In other countries individual patrols are identifiable by their neckerchiefs and so troops may have many different neckerchiefs all at once. In both of these cases the neckerchief and its colours are an issue of identity, and become emblematic of a troop or a patrol.
Neckerchiefs can also have important ceremonial functions in Scouting, for example, the 1st Gilwell Scout Group present a special neckerchief on completion of the Wood Badge.
Some Traditional Scouting Associations use a square neckerchief folded over, as Scouts originally wore.
Political youth movements
In Nazi Germany, the Hitler Jugend, Deutsches Jungvolk and Bund Deutscher Mädel all wore a black neckerchief as part of their uniform, usually folded under the shirt collar. It has been suggested that it was copied from Scouting, which was banned in Germany in 1935.
In many Communist states, members of the Pioneer movement wore a red neckerchief which was sometimes worn without the rest of the uniform. This continues at present in China and Vietnam.
See also
Ascot
Bandanna
Cravat
Fichu
Friendship knot
Kerchief
Neal Manufacturing Company
Red scarf
Scout Scarf Day
References
Scarves
Scouting uniform
Maritime culture | [
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228125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Human%20Zoo%20%28radio%29 | The Human Zoo (radio) | The Human Zoo was a radio programme on talkSPORT, presented by Tommy Boyd, with his engineer Asher Gould effectively acting as co-presenter. It was broadcast from May 2000 until Boyd's dismissal in March 2002, and took its name from a 1969 book of the same name by Desmond Morris.
Format
The programme had a straightforward 'phone in' format, except that callers were unscreened, went straight to air, and could say whatever they wanted, broadcasting regulations permitting. This unique radio experiment attained cult status, and quickly became the most popular programme on AM radio in Britain. At the peak of its popularity in the summer of 2001 up to a million calls were received over the course of a four-hour programme.
While not the most original format for radio, the Human Zoo was wildly successful. This has been attributed to the particular style of its presenter, who encouraged a very wide variety of callers to contribute, including some who called in to give short performances, play pieces of prepared audio or just shout out catchphrases. "Can I pleasure your wife?" was an oft-repeated slogan. Therefore, the mainstay of the programme for its listeners was the unpredictable nature of where the discussion would lead next. Very weighty issues not often discussed by mainstream phone in radio (which Boyd derided as all about "points missed in the debate so far") could be juxtaposed with frivolous, light-hearted or comedic items. Boyd divided opinion between devoted fans, many of whom considered him to be an extremely wise man, and critics who viewed him as arrogant or mad, often taking the opportunity to phone up to launch personal attacks or deride his ideas with the aim of starting heated and vitriolic arguments.
Boyd attributed the popularity of the show to the ability of its anarchic nature to strike a chord with people on a Sunday night, and elaborated on this theory many times, proposing that Sunday evenings induced a widespread and overwhelming mood of either resignation or defiance, and that the programme provided an outlet to those who felt trapped by the prospect of school, college or work the following morning.
Demise
In its latter stages the Human Zoo became increasingly repetitive and at times descended into farce. Despite Boyd's efforts to reinvigorate the format it became dominated by a small coterie of callers.
An important part of the production of the programme was the need to prevent the broadcast of offensive or illegal material by callers who knew that they were being granted an open platform for whatever they had to say before a national audience. This was achieved by a facility known as the dump button, often employed in phone in radio for this purpose. The station's output was actually broadcast several seconds after it was produced in the studio, allowing a small amount of time for the station to be silenced after unwanted comments had been made.
Revival
The Human Zoo would be revived to a lesser extent when Boyd began presenting a late Saturday night show on BBC Southern Counties Radio from September 2004. Regular callers included a Johnny Vegas soundalike, someone reading the results of the day's games in the Premier League or the FA Cup, someone doing an impression of Darth Vader breathing, "The Duck", and "Quarter-to-One Mick", a Northern accented gentleman who each week would recite the lyrics of well-known songs towards the end of each show.
In 2007, Tommy Boyd joined Play Radio UK to co-host a Sunday night phone-in show with Duncan Barkes. Calls went unscreened, and as the station is internet-only and not regulated by Ofcom, there was no need for a dump button and callers were allowed to say things not usually permitted on most UK radio stations that broadcast on regulated media. Having left the station towards the end of 2007 for a brief spell, Boyd returned to the station in mid-2008 with a similar format.
Similar formats
Similar straight-to-air formats have been used in British radio. Nick Abbot took calls straight to air in a segment calls the "Lightning Round". Iain Lee began a segment on his afternoon show known as "Triple M" which was given its own 3 hour slot in the LBC Sunday night schedule until the format fell out of favour with new station management. "Triple M" was part of Iain Lee's show on Absolute Radio which is also on a Sunday Night. The format has continued occasionally on Lee's Talkradio show. LBC's late-night host Clive Bull also had a straight-to-air section at the end of his show, which was also ended under LBC's new management, with an aim to move the station to more serious news topics. James Whale used similar tactics which he called "Fast & Furious" toward the end of his 10pm till 2am show on Radio Aire in the mid 1980s.
British talk radio programmes
2000 radio programme debuts | [
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228139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Naked%20Eye%20%281956%20film%29 | The Naked Eye (1956 film) | The Naked Eye is a 1956 American documentary film about the history of photography directed by Louis Clyde Stoumen. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.
Cast
Raymond Massey as Narrator
Edward Weston
References
External links
1956 films
American films
English-language films
American documentary films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by Louis Clyde Stoumen
1956 documentary films
Documentary films about photographers
Works about the history of photography | [
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] |
228145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20newspapers%20in%20Brazil | List of newspapers in Brazil | This is a list of newspapers in Brazil, both national and regional. Newspapers in other languages and themes newspapers are also included.
In 2012, Brazil's newspaper circulation increased by 1.8 percent, compared to the previous year. The average daily circulation of newspapers in Brazil is 4.52 million copies.
National
Regional
Acre
Amapá
Amazonas
Bahia
Ceará
Distrito Federal
Espírito Santo
Goiás
Maranhão
Mato Grosso
Mato Grosso do Sul
Minas Gerais
Pará
Paraná
Paraíba
Pernambuco
Piauí
Rio de Janeiro
Rio Grande do Norte
Rio Grande do Sul
Rondônia
Roraima
Santa Catarina
São Paulo
Sergipe
Tocantins
Finance newspapers
Sports newspapers
Religion-themed
Other languages
Defunct
(São Paulo)
A Notícia (Rio de Janeiro)
Correio da Manhã
(Cachoeiro de Itapemirim)
(São Paulo)
(São Paulo)
Folha da Manhã (São Paulo)
(São Paulo)
(Rio de Janeiro)
(São Paulo)
Jornal da Tarde (São Paulo)
Jornal do Commercio (Rio de Janeiro)
Notícias Populares (São Paulo)
O Jornal
O Pasquim
(Fortaleza)
Última Hora
ValeParaibano
See also
List of magazines in Brazil
Television in Brazil
Radio in Brazil
References
Further reading
External links
Brazil
List
Newspapers | [
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228148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote%20sensing | Remote sensing | Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about the Earth and other planets. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geography, land surveying and most Earth science disciplines (for example, hydrology, ecology, meteorology, oceanography, glaciology, geology); it also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian applications, among others.
In current usage, the term "remote sensing" generally refers to the use of satellite or aircraft-based sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth. It includes the surface and the atmosphere and oceans, based on propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation). It may be split into "active" remote sensing (when a signal is emitted by a satellite or aircraft to the object and its reflection detected by the sensor) and "passive" remote sensing (when the reflection of sunlight is detected by the sensor).
Overview
Remote sensing can be divided into two types of methods: Passive remote sensing and Active remote sensing. Passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object.
Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during the Cold War made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring in the process that areas or objects are not disturbed.
Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides researchers with enough information to monitor trends such as El Niño and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, agricultural fields such as land usage and conservation, greenhouse gas monitoring, oil spill detection and monitoring, and national security and overhead, ground-based and stand-off collection on border areas.
Types of data acquisition techniques
The basis for multispectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas. For a summary of major remote sensing satellite systems see the overview table.
Applications of remote sensing
Conventional radar is mostly associated with aerial traffic control, early warning, and certain large-scale meteorological data. Doppler radar is used by local law enforcements' monitoring of speed limits and in enhanced meteorological collection such as wind speed and direction within weather systems in addition to precipitation location and intensity. Other types of active collection includes plasmas in the ionosphere. Interferometric synthetic aperture radar is used to produce precise digital elevation models of large scale terrain (See RADARSAT, TerraSAR-X, Magellan).
Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a wide range of data. By measuring the bulges of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a mile or so. By measuring the height and wavelength of ocean waves, the altimeters measure wind speeds and direction, and surface ocean currents and directions.
Ultrasound (acoustic) and radar tide gauges measure sea level, tides and wave direction in coastal and offshore tide gauges.
Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is well known in examples of weapon ranging, laser illuminated homing of projectiles. LIDAR is used to detect and measure the concentration of various chemicals in the atmosphere, while airborne LIDAR can be used to measure the heights of objects and features on the ground more accurately than with radar technology. Vegetation remote sensing is a principal application of LIDAR.
Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation in a wide range of frequencies. The most common are visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma-ray, and rarely, ultraviolet. They may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.
Radiometers are also used at night, because artificial light emissions are a key signature of human activity. Applications include remote sensing of population, GDP, and damage to infrastructure from war or disasters.
Radiometers and radar onboard of satellites can be used to monitor volcanic eruptions
Spectropolarimetric Imaging has been reported to be useful for target tracking purposes by researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. They determined that manmade items possess polarimetric signatures that are not found in natural objects. These conclusions were drawn from the imaging of military trucks, like the Humvee, and trailers with their acousto-optic tunable filter dual hyperspectral and spectropolarimetric VNIR Spectropolarimetric Imager.
Stereographic pairs of aerial photographs have often been used to make topographic maps by imagery and terrain analysts in trafficability and highway departments for potential routes, in addition to modelling terrestrial habitat features.
Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Landsat have been in use since the 1970s. These thematic mappers take images in multiple wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (multi-spectral) and are usually found on Earth observation satellites, including (for example) the Landsat program or the IKONOS satellite. Maps of land cover and land use from thematic mapping can be used to prospect for minerals, detect or monitor land usage, detect invasive vegetation, deforestation, and examine the health of indigenous plants and crops (satellite crop monitoring), including entire farming regions or forests. Prominent scientists using remote sensing for this purpose include Janet Franklin and Ruth DeFries. Landsat images are used by regulatory agencies such as KYDOW to indicate water quality parameters including Secchi depth, chlorophyll density, and total phosphorus content. Weather satellites are used in meteorology and climatology.
Hyperspectral imaging produces an image where each pixel has full spectral information with imaging narrow spectral bands over a contiguous spectral range. Hyperspectral imagers are used in various applications including mineralogy, biology, defence, and environmental measurements.
Within the scope of the combat against desertification, remote sensing allows researchers to follow up and monitor risk areas in the long term, to determine desertification factors, to support decision-makers in defining relevant measures of environmental management, and to assess their impacts.
Geodetic
Geodetic remote sensing can be gravimetric or geometric. Overhead gravity data collection was first used in aerial submarine detection. This data revealed minute perturbations in the Earth's gravitational field that may be used to determine changes in the mass distribution of the Earth, which in turn may be used for geophysical studies, as in GRACE. Geometric remote sensing includes position and deformation imaging using InSAR, LIDAR, etc.
Acoustic and near-acoustic
Sonar: passive sonar, listening for the sound made by another object (a vessel, a whale etc.); active sonar, emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes, used for detecting, ranging and measurements of underwater objects and terrain.
Seismograms taken at different locations can locate and measure earthquakes (after they occur) by comparing the relative intensity and precise timings.
Ultrasound: Ultrasound sensors, that emit high-frequency pulses and listening for echoes, used for detecting water waves and water level, as in tide gauges or for towing tanks.
To coordinate a series of large-scale observations, most sensing systems depend on the following: platform location and the orientation of the sensor. High-end instruments now often use positional information from satellite navigation systems. The rotation and orientation are often provided within a degree or two with electronic compasses. Compasses can measure not just azimuth (i. e. degrees to magnetic north), but also altitude (degrees above the horizon), since the magnetic field curves into the Earth at different angles at different latitudes. More exact orientations require gyroscopic-aided orientation, periodically realigned by different methods including navigation from stars or known benchmarks.
Data characteristics
The quality of remote sensing data consists of its spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolutions.
Spatial resolution The size of a pixel that is recorded in a raster image – typically pixels may correspond to square areas ranging in side length from .
Spectral resolution The wavelength of the different frequency bands recorded – usually, this is related to the number of frequency bands recorded by the platform. Current Landsat collection is that of seven bands, including several in the infrared spectrum, ranging from a spectral resolution of 0.7 to 2.1 μm. The Hyperion sensor on Earth Observing-1 resolves 220 bands from 0.4 to 2.5 μm, with a spectral resolution of 0.10 to 0.11 μm per band.
Radiometric resolution The number of different intensities of radiation the sensor is able to distinguish. Typically, this ranges from 8 to 14 bits, corresponding to 256 levels of the gray scale and up to 16,384 intensities or "shades" of colour, in each band. It also depends on the instrument noise.
Temporal resolution The frequency of flyovers by the satellite or plane, and is only relevant in time-series studies or those requiring an averaged or mosaic image as in deforesting monitoring. This was first used by the intelligence community where repeated coverage revealed changes in infrastructure, the deployment of units or the modification/introduction of equipment. Cloud cover over a given area or object makes it necessary to repeat the collection of said location.
Data processing
In order to create sensor-based maps, most remote sensing systems expect to extrapolate sensor data in relation to a reference point including distances between known points on the ground. This depends on the type of sensor used. For example, in conventional photographs, distances are accurate in the center of the image, with the distortion of measurements increasing the farther you get from the center. Another factor is that of the platen against which the film is pressed can cause severe errors when photographs are used to measure ground distances. The step in which this problem is resolved is called georeferencing and involves computer-aided matching of points in the image (typically 30 or more points per image) which is extrapolated with the use of an established benchmark, "warping" the image to produce accurate spatial data. As of the early 1990s, most satellite images are sold fully georeferenced.
In addition, images may need to be radiometrically and atmospherically corrected.
Radiometric correction Allows avoidance of radiometric errors and distortions. The illumination of objects on the Earth's surface is uneven because of different properties of the relief. This factor is taken into account in the method of radiometric distortion correction. Radiometric correction gives a scale to the pixel values, e. g. the monochromatic scale of 0 to 255 will be converted to actual radiance values.
Topographic correction (also called terrain correction) In rugged mountains, as a result of terrain, the effective illumination of pixels varies considerably. In a remote sensing image, the pixel on the shady slope receives weak illumination and has a low radiance value, in contrast, the pixel on the sunny slope receives strong illumination and has a high radiance value. For the same object, the pixel radiance value on the shady slope will be different from that on the sunny slope. Additionally, different objects may have similar radiance values. These ambiguities seriously affected remote sensing image information extraction accuracy in mountainous areas. It became the main obstacle to the further application of remote sensing images. The purpose of topographic correction is to eliminate this effect, recovering the true reflectivity or radiance of objects in horizontal conditions. It is the premise of quantitative remote sensing application.
Atmospheric correction Elimination of atmospheric haze by rescaling each frequency band so that its minimum value (usually realised in water bodies) corresponds to a pixel value of 0. The digitizing of data also makes it possible to manipulate the data by changing gray-scale values.
Interpretation is the critical process of making sense of the data. The first application was that of aerial photographic collection which used the following process; spatial measurement through the use of a light table in both conventional single or stereographic coverage, added skills such as the use of photogrammetry, the use of photomosaics, repeat coverage, Making use of objects' known dimensions in order to detect modifications. Image Analysis is the recently developed automated computer-aided application that is in increasing use.
Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) is a sub-discipline of GIScience devoted to partitioning remote sensing (RS) imagery into meaningful image-objects, and assessing their characteristics through spatial, spectral and temporal scale.
Old data from remote sensing is often valuable because it may provide the only long-term data for a large extent of geography. At the same time, the data is often complex to interpret, and bulky to store. Modern systems tend to store the data digitally, often with lossless compression. The difficulty with this approach is that the data is fragile, the format may be archaic, and the data may be easy to falsify. One of the best systems for archiving data series is as computer-generated machine-readable ultrafiche, usually in typefonts such as OCR-B, or as digitized half-tone images. Ultrafiches survive well in standard libraries, with lifetimes of several centuries. They can be created, copied, filed and retrieved by automated systems. They are about as compact as archival magnetic media, and yet can be read by human beings with minimal, standardized equipment.
Generally speaking, remote sensing works on the principle of the inverse problem: while the object or phenomenon of interest (the state) may not be directly measured, there exists some other variable that can be detected and measured (the observation) which may be related to the object of interest through a calculation. The common analogy given to describe this is trying to determine the type of animal from its footprints. For example, while it is impossible to directly measure temperatures in the upper atmosphere, it is possible to measure the spectral emissions from a known chemical species (such as carbon dioxide) in that region. The frequency of the emissions may then be related via thermodynamics to the temperature in that region.
Data processing levels
To facilitate the discussion of data processing in practice, several processing "levels" were first defined in 1986 by NASA as part of its Earth Observing System and steadily adopted since then, both internally at NASA (e. g.,) and elsewhere (e. g.,); these definitions are:
A Level 1 data record is the most fundamental (i. e., highest reversible level) data record that has significant scientific utility, and is the foundation upon which all subsequent data sets are produced. Level 2 is the first level that is directly usable for
most scientific applications; its value is much greater than the lower levels. Level 2 data sets tend to be less voluminous than Level 1 data because they have been reduced temporally, spatially, or spectrally. Level 3 data sets are generally smaller than lower level data sets and thus can be dealt with without incurring a great deal of data handling overhead. These data tend to be generally more useful for many applications. The regular spatial and temporal organization of Level 3 datasets makes it feasible to readily combine data from different sources.
While these processing levels are particularly suitable for typical satellite data processing pipelines, other data level vocabularies have been defined and may be appropriate for more heterogeneous workflows.
History
The modern discipline of remote sensing arose with the development of flight. The balloonist G. Tournachon (alias Nadar) made photographs of Paris from his balloon in 1858. Messenger pigeons, kites, rockets and unmanned balloons were also used for early images. With the exception of balloons, these first, individual images were not particularly useful for map making or for scientific purposes.
Systematic aerial photography was developed for military surveillance and reconnaissance purposes beginning in World War I and reaching a climax during the Cold War with the use of modified combat aircraft such as the P-51, P-38, RB-66 and the F-4C, or specifically designed collection platforms such as the U2/TR-1, SR-71, A-5 and the OV-1 series both in overhead and stand-off collection. A more recent development is that of increasingly smaller sensor pods such as those used by law enforcement and the military, in both manned and unmanned platforms. The advantage of this approach is that this requires minimal modification to a given airframe. Later imaging technologies would include infrared, conventional, Doppler and synthetic aperture radar.
The development of artificial satellites in the latter half of the 20th century allowed remote sensing to progress to a global scale as of the end of the Cold War. Instrumentation aboard various Earth observing and weather satellites such as Landsat, the Nimbus and more recent missions such as RADARSAT and UARS provided global measurements of various data for civil, research, and military purposes. Space probes to other planets have also provided the opportunity to conduct remote sensing studies in extraterrestrial environments, synthetic aperture radar aboard the Magellan spacecraft provided detailed topographic maps of Venus, while instruments aboard SOHO allowed studies to be performed on the Sun and the solar wind, just to name a few examples.
Recent developments include, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s with the development of image processing of satellite imagery. Several research groups in Silicon Valley including NASA Ames Research Center, GTE, and ESL Inc. developed Fourier transform techniques leading to the first notable enhancement of imagery data. In 1999 the first commercial satellite (IKONOS) collecting very high resolution imagery was launched.
Training and education
Remote Sensing has a growing relevance in the modern information society. It represents a key technology as part of the aerospace industry and bears increasing economic relevance – new sensors e.g. TerraSAR-X and RapidEye are developed constantly and the demand for skilled labour is increasing steadily. Furthermore, remote sensing exceedingly influences everyday life, ranging from weather forecasts to reports on climate change or natural disasters. As an example, 80% of the German students use the services of Google Earth; in 2006 alone the software was downloaded 100 million times. But studies have shown that only a fraction of them know more about the data they are working with. There exists a huge knowledge gap between the application and the understanding of satellite images.
Remote sensing only plays a tangential role in schools, regardless of the political claims to strengthen the support for teaching on the subject. A lot of the computer software explicitly developed for school lessons has not yet been implemented due to its complexity. Thereby, the subject is either not at all integrated into the curriculum or does not pass the step of an interpretation of analogue images. In fact, the subject of remote sensing requires a consolidation of physics and mathematics as well as competences in the fields of media and methods apart from the mere visual interpretation of satellite images.
Many teachers have great interest in the subject "remote sensing", being motivated to integrate this topic into teaching, provided that the curriculum is considered. In many cases, this encouragement fails because of confusing information. In order to integrate remote sensing in a sustainable manner organizations like the EGU or Digital Earth encourage the development of learning modules and learning portals. Examples include: FIS – Remote Sensing in School Lessons, Geospektiv, Ychange, or Spatial Discovery, to promote media and method qualifications as well as independent learning.
Software
Remote sensing data are processed and analyzed with computer software, known as a remote sensing application. A large number of proprietary and open source applications exist to process remote sensing data. Remote sensing software packages include:
ERDAS IMAGINE from Hexagon Geospatial (Separated from Intergraph SG&I),
ENVI from Harris GeospatialSolutions,
PCI Geomatica
TNTmips from MicroImages,
IDRISI from Clark Labs,
eCognition from Trimble,
and RemoteView made by Overwatch Textron Systems.
Dragon/ips is one of the oldest remote sensing packages still available, and is in some cases free.
Open source remote sensing software includes:
Opticks (software),
Orfeo toolbox
Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) from the European Space Agency (ESA)
Others mixing remote sensing and GIS capabilities are: GRASS GIS, ILWIS, QGIS, and TerraLook.
According to an NOAA Sponsored Research by Global Marketing Insights, Inc. the most used applications among Asian academic groups involved in remote sensing are as follows: ERDAS 36% (ERDAS IMAGINE 25% & ERMapper 11%); ESRI 30%; ITT Visual Information Solutions ENVI 17%; MapInfo 17%.
Among Western Academic respondents as follows: ESRI 39%, ERDAS IMAGINE 27%, MapInfo 9%, and AutoDesk 7%.
In education, those that want to go beyond simply looking at satellite images print-outs either use general remote sensing software (e.g. QGIS), Google Earth, StoryMaps or a software/ web-app developed specifically for education (e.g. desktop: LeoWorks, online: BLIF).
Satellites
See also
Aerial photography
Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Archaeological imagery
Cartography
CLidar
Coastal management
Crateology
First images of Earth from space
Full spectral imaging
Geography
Geographic information system (GIS)
GIS and hydrology
Geoinformatics
Geophysical survey
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Ground truth
Hyperspectral
IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
Imagery analysis
Imaging science
International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Land change science
Land cover
Liquid crystal tunable filter
List of Earth observation satellites
Mobile mapping
Multispectral pattern recognition
National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law
National LIDAR Dataset
Normalized difference water index
Orthophoto
Pictometry
Radiometry
Remote monitoring and control
Remote sensing (archaeology)
Satellite imagery
Sonar
Space probe
TopoFlight
Vector Map
References
Further reading
US Army FM series.
US Army military intelligence museum, FT Huachuca, AZ
Begni G., Escadafal R., Fontannaz D. and Hong-Nga Nguyen A.-T. (2005). Remote sensing: a tool to monitor and assess desertification. Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD. Issue 2. 44 pp.
KUENZER, C. ZHANG, J., TETZLAFF, A., and S. DECH, 2013: Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing of Surface and underground Coal Fires. In (eds.) Kuenzer, C. and S. Dech 2013: Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing – Sensors, Methods, Applications. Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Series, Volume 17, 572 pp., , pp. 429–451
Kuenzer, C. and S. Dech 2013: Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing – Sensors, Methods, Applications. Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Series, Volume 17, 572 pp.,
Lasaponara, R. and Masini N. 2012: Satellite Remote Sensing - A new tool for Archaeology. Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Series, Volume 16, 364 pp., .
Dupuis, C.; Lejeune, P.; Michez, A.; Fayolle, A. How Can Remote Sensing Help Monitor Tropical Moist Forest Degradation?—A Systematic Review. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1087. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/12/7/1087
External links
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228149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanier%20Cup | Vanier Cup | The Vanier Cup () is the championship of Canadian university football. It is organized by U Sports football and is currently played between the winners of the Uteck Bowl and the Mitchell Bowl. It is named after Georges Vanier, the former governor general of Canada and was first awarded in 1965 to the winner of an invitational event contested between two teams that were selected by a panel. In 1967, the trophy was declared the official "CIAU National Football Championship" and a playoff system was instituted. From its creation until 1982, it was known as the Canadian College Bowl. The game typically occurs in late November, although it is occasionally played in December.
The Laval Rouge et Or have won the most Vanier Cups (10), while the Western Mustangs have the most appearances (15). Eighteen teams have won the Vanier Cup, while three others have played for the championship but never won. There are six active teams that have never appeared in the championship game. The most recent game, the 56th Vanier Cup, was played on December 4, 2021, at Stade Telus in Quebec City. In this game, the Western Mustangs defeated the Saskatchewan Huskies 27–21 to win their eighth championship.
History
The Vanier Cup was created in 1965 as the championship trophy of the Canadian College Bowl. For the first two years of competition, the Canadian College Bowl was an invitational event, with a national panel selecting two teams to play, similar to other U.S. collegiate bowl games. In 1967, the Canadian College Bowl was declared the national football championship of the Canadian Intercollegiate Athletic Union, later Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) and now U Sports, with a playoff system determining the two participants.
The Vanier Cup was played in Toronto, Ontario, from its inception in 1965 through 2003. However, after the CIS opened the game to host conference bids in 2001, the possibility arose to have games held outside Toronto. As of 2016, 41 of the 52 Vanier Cups have been played in Toronto, five in Quebec City, four in Hamilton, one in Saskatoon, one in Vancouver and one in Montreal. No games have been staged in the Atlantic region. Four times, the game has been played in the same city and during the same weekend as the Grey Cup: 1973, 2007 and 2012 in Toronto and in 2011 in Vancouver at BC Place Stadium.
The Vanier Cup is played between the winners of the Uteck Bowl (formerly Atlantic Bowl) and the Mitchell Bowl (formerly the Churchill Bowl). The Uteck and Mitchell Bowls, in turn, are contested by the Loney Bowl (AUS), Hardy Cup (Canada West), Dunsmore Cup (RSEQ), and Yates Cup (OUA) champions.
On June 8, 2020, U Sports announced that all fall athletics championships for the 2020–21 season had been cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Awards
The Vanier Cup's most valuable player is awarded the Ted Morris Memorial Trophy. It was first awarded at the first championship in 1965 and named in honour of Teddy Morris, who died the same year. Morris, a Hall of Fame former Toronto Argonauts player and coach, was an organizer of the first bowl and champion for developing Canadian players.
The Bruce Coulter Award was first awarded in 1992 and is dependent on what position the winner of the Ted Morris Trophy played. If the winner is from the offence, then the Bruce Coulter Award winner will be the most outstanding defensive player or vice versa. It was named after Bruce Coulter, long-time Head Coach of the Bishop's Gaiters and former offensive and defensive player with the Montreal Alouettes in the 1950s. Coulter was inducted as a builder in the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1997.
Broadcasting
The Vanier Cup final game is regularly broadcast nationally. From 1965 though 1976 it was broadcast on CBC Television, from 1977 through 1988 it was broadcast on the CTV Television Network. In 1989, TSN acquired rights to the game, lasting through to 2012 (besides a one-year stint on The Score in 2008).
In November 2010, the rights to the Vanier Cup were purchased by sports marketing company MRX. The 2011 game was held in Vancouver, on the same weekend as the 99th Grey Cup and for the first time it was fully integrated into the Grey Cup Festival as a festival event.
In 2012, the 48th Vanier Cup, played between Laval and McMaster at Rogers Centre in Toronto became both the most attended and most watched Vanier Cup ever. Held the same weekend and in the same city as the 100th Grey Cup, the game was attended by 37,098. The previous record was set in 1989 at the 25th Vanier Cup, when 32,847 watched the game between Western and Saskatchewan that was also played at SkyDome (now Rogers Centre). The game, broadcast on TSN and RDS was watched by 910,000.
In February 2013, the CIS terminated the option years on their agreement with MRX opting for an open bid process for the hosting of the game. Laval University, in Quebec City, was the only bidder for the game and won the right to host the 49th Vanier Cup. In May, CIS terminated its agreement with TSN, and entered into a six-year deal with Sportsnet to broadcast its championships, including the Vanier Cup.
The switch in venues, the decoupling of the Vanier Cup from Grey Cup week, and the change in broadcaster, led to a precipitous drop in attendance and viewership. A total of 301,000 viewers watched Laval defeat the Calgary Dinos 25-14 Saturday, November 23, 2013, which was a decline of 64 per cent from the previous year. A standing room crowd of 18,543 were on hand at the Telus Stadium which was a decline of 50 per cent from the previous year in Toronto (although a sellout in that venue). In 2019, after several more years of declines, the Vanier Cup returned to CBC.
Championships
Key
Number of times that team has won the Vanier Cup.
Note: All Ted Morris Trophy and Bruce Coulter Award winners played for the winning team, unless otherwise noted.
A. Bob McGregor, Ted Morris Trophy winner in 1971, played for the runner-up team.
B. In the 1972 game, the Vanier Cup Committee and Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union officials decided to crown co-winners from the same school.
C. Rob Schrauth, Bruce Coulter Award winner in 1993, played for the runner-up team.
D. Brent Schneider, Ted Morris Trophy winner in 1994, played for the runner-up team.
Vanier Cup appearances
E. The Wilfrid Laurier record includes three games played as Waterloo Lutheran.
Six active teams have never played for the Vanier Cup: Bishop's Gaiters (AUS/RSEQ/OQIFC), Carleton Ravens (OUA), Sherbrooke Vert-et-Or (RSEQ), Waterloo Warriors (OUA), Windsor Lancers (OUA), and York Lions/Yeomen (OUA).
See also
List of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada
List of awards named after Governors General of Canada
References
General
Specific
External links
Official Vanier Cup website
2009 Vanier Cup Media Kit
Recurring sporting events established in 1965
1965 establishments in Canada
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228150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Actuarial%20Association | International Actuarial Association | The International Actuarial Association (IAA) is a worldwide association of local professional actuarial associations.
History
The IAA is the continuation of the Comité Permanent des Congrès d’Actuaires, established in 1895, as an association of individuals. It was renamed the IAA in 1968. At the 26th International Congress of Actuaries, held in Birmingham on 7–12 June 1998, the General Assembly of the International Actuarial Association restructured itself.
The restructure created a single unified framework to ensure unity of direction and efficient coordination with respect to issues of a worldwide nature. The major responsibilities of the IAA are now in the hands of the actuarial associations, which bring together the actuaries in their respective countries and is the link between the actuaries and the actuarial associations worldwide. The IAA is the unique international organization dedicated to the research, education and development of the profession and of actuarial associations.
Sections
The IAA has seven sections, AFIR-ERM, ASTIN, IAAHS, IAALS, IACA, PBSS, AWB.
Actuarial Approach for Financial Risks
The Actuarial Approach for Financial Risks (AFIR-ERM) section and was founded in 1988. It has as its objective the promotion of actuarial research in financial risks and enterprise risk management, and its most important function is the organizing of annual colloquia.
Actuarial Studies In Non-Life Insurance
The Actuarial Studies In Non-life insurance (ASTIN) section was founded in 1957. ASTIN organises annual colloquia and jointly publishes with the other sections, the ASTIN Bulletin, an internationally renowned referenced scientific journal.
International Actuarial Association Health Section
The International Actuarial Association Health Section (IAAHS) was founded in 2003 to provide an international perspective on health actuarial practice, public and private health insurance, and health policy matters.
International Actuarial Association Life Section
The International Actuarial Association Life Section (IAALS) has as its objectives to promote and facilitate an international exchange of views, advice, research and practical information among actuaries involved with life insurance issues.
International Association of Consulting Actuaries
The International Association of Consulting Actuaries (IACA) is the consulting section of the IAA.
The IACA first met in 1960, and was formally constituted in 1968. It held international meetings every other year to consider issues of concern to consulting actuaries. Much of the impetus for early meetings was stimulated by Max Lander and Geoffrey Heywood, who continued to play a prominent role in the Association for many years and were elected Emeritus Members of its Committee in 1976.
In 1999, following a restructuring of the IAA, the IACA was admitted as the consulting section of the IAA.
Pensions, Benefits and Social Security
The Pensions, Benefits, Social Security Section (PBSS) was founded in 2003 to serve actuaries around the world who have personal, professional, educational or research interests in social protection and the commercial, social and public policy issues concerning the provision of pensions and other benefits.
Actuaries Without Borders
The Actuaries Without Borders Section (AWB) was also founded in 2003 to link situations in need of actuarial skills with financial resources and with actuarial volunteers to meet those needs.
Governance
The IAA Council comprises the President whose term of office is one year, the officers and one delegate per full member association and one delegate per section. The committees and the council normally meet twice a year in different countries.
The Officers for the period January 1, 2019 to December 31, 2019 are:
Tonya B. Manning, President
Jan Kars, President-Elect
Gábor Hanák, Immediate Past President
The Council elects an Executive Committee to coordinate activities and operations, and propose strategies, budgets, membership fees and Council meeting venues. The President chairs the Executive Committee, which comprises the Officers and the chairpersons of the Committees and Sections.
Member associations
Currently, the IAA has 74 full member associations, 28 associate member associations, five partners organisations, one observer organisations and 5 patrons. All individual actuaries can elect to join any section of the IAA, which currently are ASTIN, AFIR, IACA, IAAHS, PBSS, AWB and LIFE by paying the required contribution.
Full members
Caribbean Actuarial Association
Central American Actuaries Association
Professional Council of Economic Sciences of the City of Buenos Aires
Actuaries Institute Australia
Austrian Actuarial Society
Institute of Actuaries in Belgium
Actuarial Association in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brazilian Institute of Actuaries
Bulgarian Actuarial Society
Canadian Institute of Actuaries
China Association of Actuaries
Colombian Association of Actuaries
Croatian Actuarial Association
Cyprus Association of Actuaries
Czech Society of Actuaries
Danish Society of Actuaries
Egyptian Society of Actuaries
Estonian Actuarial Society
Actuarial Society of Finland
Institute of Actuaries of France
German Actuarial Society
Actuarial Society of Ghana
Hellenic Actuarial Society (Greece)
Actuarial Society of Hong Kong
Hungarian Actuarial Society
Society of Icelandic Actuaries
Institute of Actuaries of India
Society of Actuaries of Indonesia
Society of Actuaries in Ireland
Israel Association of Actuaries
Italian Institute of Actuaries
Institute of Actuaries of Ivory Coast
Institute of Actuaries of Japan
Japanese Society of Certified Pension Actuaries
Actuarial Society of Kazakhstan
Actuarial Society of Kenya
Latvian Actuarial Association
Lebanese Association of Actuaries
Lithuanian Actuarial Society
Macedonian Actuarial Association
Actuarial Society of Malaysia
National Association of Actuaries (Mexico)
Moroccan Association of Actuaries
Actuarial Society of the Netherlands
New Zealand Society of Actuaries
Nigerian Actuarial Society
Norwegian Society of Actuaries
Pakistan Society of Actuaries
Actuarial Society of the Philippines
Polish Society of Actuaries
Portuguese Institute of Actuaries
Romanian Actuarial Association
Russian Guild of Actuaries
Serbian Association of Actuaries
Singapore Actuarial Society
Slovak Society of Actuaries
Slovenian Association of Actuaries
Actuarial Society of South Africa
Institute of Actuaries of Korea (South Korea)
Spanish Institute of Actuaries
Catalan Actuarial Association (Spain)
Actuarial Association of Sri Lanka
Swedish Society of Actuaries
Swiss Association of Actuaries
Actuarial Institute of Chinese Taipei
Society of Actuaries of Thailand
Actuarial Society of Turkey
Association of Consulting Actuaries (United Kingdom)
Institute and Faculty of Actuaries (United Kingdom)
American Society of Pension Professionals and Actuaries
Casualty Actuarial Society (United States)
Conference of Consulting Actuaries (United States)
Society of Actuaries (United States)
Associate members
Albanian Actuarial Association
Institute of Actuaries of Argentina
Actuarial Society of Armenia
Actuarial Association of Azerbaijan
Actuarial Society of Bangladesh
Association of Actuaries of Benin
Actuarial Association of the Republic of Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Channel Islands Actuarial Society
Institute of Actuaries of Chile
Ecuadorian Actuarial Association
Association of Actuaries and Financial Analysts (Georgia)
Actuarial Society of Iran
Luxembourg Actuarial Association
Mexican Association of Actuaries
Moldovan Actuarial Association
Society of Actuaries of Mongolia
Society of Actuaries of Namibia
Association of Actuaries of Panama
Association of Professional Actuaries (Russia)
Institut National des Actuaires au Sénégal (Senegal)
Actuarial Society of Tanzania
Association Actuarielle au Togo
The Actuarial Association of Uganda
Society of Actuaries of Ukraine
Actuarial Society of Zambia
Actuarial Society of Zimbabwe
Partners
International Accounting Standards Board
International Association of Insurance Supervisors
International Organisation of Pension Supervisors
International Social Security Association
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Observers
Asian Development Bank
Patrons
Allianz
The Buffin Foundation
Reinsurance Group of America
Milliman
Istituto Nazionale per l'Assicurazione contro gli Infortuni sul Lavoro e le malattie professionali
Publications
ASTIN Bulletin - The Journal of the International Actuarial Association ()
Stochastic Modeling – Theory and Reality from an Actuarial Perspective ()
Discount Rates in Financial Reporting A Practical Guide ()
Risk Adjustments for Insurance Contracts Under IFRS 17 ()
Past presidents
1895-1896 - Léon Mahillon
1896-1909 - Omer Lepreux
1909-1946 - Amédée Bégault
1946-1950 - Léon François
1950-1964 - Albert Théate
1964-1984 - Edouard Franckx
1987-1988 - Henri Rijkers
1988-1998 - André Lamens
1995-1996 - Paul McCrossan†
1996-1997 - Christopher Daykin†
1997-1998 - Walter S. Rugland†
1998-1999 - Jean Berthon
2000 - Catherine M. Prime
2001 - Morris W. Chambers
2002 - Edward J. Levay
2003 - W. James MacGinnitie
2004 - Luis Huerta
2005 - Alf Guldberg
2006 - Jean-Louis Massé
2007 - Hillevi Mannonen
2008 - David G. Hartman
2009 - Katsumi Hikasa
2010 - Paul N. Thornton
2011 - Cecil D. Bykerk
2012 - Desmond K. Smith
2013 - Kurt Wolfsdorf
2014 - Robert L. Brown
2015 - Frederick Rowley
2016 - Malcolm Campbell
2017 - Thomas S. Terry
2018 - Masaaki Yoshimura
†Chairmen of the International Forum of Actuarial Associations
Medallists of the IAA
2001 - Hans Bühlmann
2001 - Max Lacroix
2008 - Paul McCrossan
2010 - Yves Guérard
2014 - Christopher Daykin
References
External links
International Actuarial Association official website
Actuarial associations | [
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228152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes%20of%20Might%20and%20Magic | Heroes of Might and Magic | Heroes of Might and Magic, known as Might & Magic Heroes since 2011, is a series of video games originally created and developed by Jon Van Caneghem through New World Computing.
As part of the Might and Magic franchise, the series changed ownership when NWC was acquired by 3DO and again when 3DO closed down and sold the rights to Ubisoft. The games feature turn-based, fantasy-themed conflicts in which players control armies of mythical creatures. The series began in 1995 with the release of the first title. A seventh installment, Might & Magic Heroes VII, was released on September 29, 2015.
New World Computing closed after the production of Heroes of Might and Magic IV, and since then the rights to the franchise have been owned by Ubisoft. Nival Interactive developed the first game in the series since the changeover, Heroes of Might and Magic V. Black Hole Entertainment developed its sequel Might & Magic Heroes VI, but Limbic Entertainment developed later patches and the DLC, as well as Might & Magic Heroes VII. Virtuos developed the Shades of Darkness standalone expansion for Heroes VI.
The series is directed primarily at the DOS and Windows platforms, with sporadic support for macOS over the years. In addition to Windows and Mac platforms, Heroes II was ported to RISC OS and Heroes III was ported to Linux. GameTap carried the first four games in the series beginning in 2006. Remakes have also appeared on the Game Boy Color.
Games
King's Bounty (1990), an earlier game from New World Computing, largely anticipated the design of Heroes and is included in some Heroes anthologies. It was later remade and branded as a Heroes title for the PlayStation 2 game, Quest for the Dragon Bone Staff. A sequel to King's Bounty was released in 2008 as King's Bounty: The Legend.
Main series
Heroes of Might and Magic
Heroes of Might and Magic: A Strategic Quest (9/1995)
Heroes of Might and Magic II (10/1996)
The Price of Loyalty (5/1997)
Heroes of Might and Magic III (The Restoration of Erathia) (3/1999)
Armageddon's Blade (9/1999)
The Shadow of Death (3/2000)
Heroes of Might and Magic IV (3/2002)
The Gathering Storm (9/2002)
Winds of War (2/2003)
Heroes of Might and Magic V (5/2006)
Hammers of Fate (11/2006)
Tribes of the East (11/2007)
Might & Magic Heroes VI (10/2011)
Pirates of the Savage Sea Adventure (7/2012)
Danse Macabre (9/2012)
Shades of Darkness (5/2013)
Might & Magic Heroes VII (9/2015)Lost Tales of Axeoth 1 - DLC (2/2016)Lost Tales of Axeoth 2 - DLC (4/2016)Trial by Fire (4/2016)
King's Bounty
King's Bounty (1990)
King's Bounty: The Legend (2008)
King's Bounty: Armored Princess (2009)
King's Bounty: Crossworlds (2010)
King's Bounty: Warriors of the North (2012)
King's Bounty: Dark Side (2014)
King's Bounty II (2021)
Spin-offsHeroes of Might and Magic (Game Boy Color, 2000)Heroes of Might and Magic II (Game Boy Color, 2000)Heroes Chronicles (2000)Heroes of Might and Magic: Quest for the Dragon Bone Staff (PlayStation 2, 2001)Heroes of Might and Magic Online (2008)Might and Magic: Heroes Kingdoms (MMO, 2009)Might & Magic: Clash of Heroes (Nintendo DS, 2009; Xbox Live Arcade, 2011; PlayStation Network, 2011; PC, 2011)Might & Magic Clash of Heroes: DLC I Am the Boss (2011)
Might & Magic Heroes: Era of Chaos (2017)
Might & Magic: Chess Royale (2020)
Anthologies and special editionsHeroes of Might and Magic Compendium (1997), known as Heroes of Might and Magic Full Fantasy Funpack in Germany, includes King's Bounty and first two Heroes games including the Price of Loyalty expansion pack. Released by 3DO/Ubisoft.Heroes of Might and Magic II Gold (1998), includes Heroes II, its expansion, and 31 additional single-map scenarios by various authors. Released by 3DO.Heroes of Might and Magic Millennium (1999), includes King's Bounty, Heroes I, Heroes II Gold and Heroes III, but no expansions to Heroes III. Released by 3DO, in a 3 CD-ROM disc set.Heroes of Might and Magic III: Complete (2000), a special edition that includes Heroes III and its expansions packs (all updated to latest versions) and a custom title screen. Released by 3DO.Heroes of Might and Magic Trilogy (2000), Heroes I, Heroes II and Heroes III, but no expansions to Heroes II nor Heroes III. Released in a joint venture by 3DO and Ubisoft, in a 3 CD-ROM disc set.Heroes of Might and Magic: Platinum Edition (2002), includes Heroes I, Heroes II Gold and Heroes III Complete. Released by 3DO, in a 4 CD-ROM disc set.Heroes of Might and Magic III+IV Complete (2002), includes Heroes III Complete and Heroes IV Complete. Released by Ubisoft, in a 1 DVD-ROM disc set.Heroes of Might and Magic IV Complete (2004), includes Heroes IV and all of its expansions. Released by Ubisoft.Heroes of Might and Magic V: Silver Edition (2006), includes Heroes V and the expansion pack Hammers of Fate.Heroes of Might and Magic V: Collector's Edition (2007), includes Heroes V and all of its expansion packs. It also includes three bonus DVDs including Storyline Trailers for the main game and its expansions, Developer Diaries, Heroes V Universe Album, Exclusive Monsters Test Videos, Fan-Made Heroes Game Encyclopedia and more. Released by Ubisoft.Heroes of Might and Magic: Complete Edition (2007), includes the first five Heroes games and their expansions. The included games are accompanied by extras and goodies, such as soundtracks DVDs, a faction booklet, a Heroes of Might and Magic V T-shirt or The Art of Might and Magic artbook. Released by Ubisoft.Might and Magic Heroes V: Epic Collection (2009), includes Heroes V and both of its expansion packs. Released by Encore Games.Heroes Pack (2009), includes Dark Messiah and Heroes V and its expansion packs. Available on Steam.Might & Magic Heroes Collection (2011), includes all five Heroes games and their expansions - like the 2007 Complete Edition, without the extras. It was released in most parts of the world by Ubisoft, as a 3 disc set, and in the UK, by Mastertronic Games in a 4 disc set.Might & Magic Heroes VI: Limited Edition (2011), includes Heroes VI and Heroes III along with one extra item (Staff of Asha) and hero (Kraal) for Heroes VI. Released by Ubisoft.Might & Magic Heroes VI: Deluxe Digital Edition (2011), includes a digital copy of Heroes VI, two .pdf documents (164-page concept art book and an A2 format double sided poster), the game's soundtrack and one month subscription on Heroes Kingdoms. Released by Ubisoft.Might and Magic Franchise Pack, (2012), includes Dark Messiah, Heroes V and its expansion packs, Clash of Heroes and its DLC, Heroes VI and its two adventure packs. Available on Steam.Might & Magic Heroes VI: Gold Edition (2012), includes Heroes VI and its two adventure packs. Released by Ubisoft.
Might & Magic: Heroes VI: Complete Edition (2013), includes Heroes VI (version 1.5.1) and its standalone expansion pack and two adventure packs.
Gameplay
The Heroes series is within the genre of turn-based strategy. The titular heroes are player characters who can recruit armies, move around the map, capture resources, and engage in combat. The heroes also incorporate some role-playing game elements; they possess a set of statistics that confer bonuses to an army, artifacts that enhance their powers, and knowledge of magical spells that can be used to attack enemies or produce strategic benefits. Also, heroes gain experience levels from battle, such that veteran heroes are significantly more powerful than inexperienced ones. Experienced heroes may persist through a campaign, but generally do not carry over between scenarios.
On a typical map, players begin a game with one town of a chosen alignment. The number of different alignments varies throughout the series, with the lowest count of four appearing initially in Heroes I and peaking at nine in the Heroes III expansion Armageddon's Blade. Each town alignment hosts a unique selection of creatures from which the player can build an army. Town alignment also determines other unique traits such as native hero classes, special bonuses or abilities, and leanings toward certain skills or kinds of magic.
Towns play a central role in the games since they are the primary source of income and new recruits. A typical objective in each game is to capture all enemy towns. Maps may also start with neutral towns, which do not send out heroes but may still be captured by any player. It is therefore possible, and common, to have more towns than players on a map. When captured, a town retains its alignment type, allowing the new owner to create a mixed army, although Heroes VI introduces the ability to change a town's alignment to the capturing player's. A player or team is eliminated when no towns or heroes are left under their control, or they do not control a town for seven consecutive days. Barring any special conditions, the last player or team remaining is the victor.
A side objective commonly appearing in the series is the acquisition of a powerful object called the "ultimate artifact" (Heroes I and II), grail (III and IV), or Tear of Asha (V, VI, and VII), buried somewhere on the map. In all games except Heroes VI, heroes visit special locations (called obelisks, or oracles in Heroes IV) to gradually reveal a map of the location of the artifact; in Heroes VI, a hero must instead collect four Fragments of the Moon Disc, which then causes the Tear of Asha to appear somewhere on the map. The ultimate artifact provides immense bonuses to the hero that carries it; the grail or Tear of Asha allows the hero to construct a special building in one of their towns that confers immense bonuses to the player.
Time and resource model
Each turn (consisting of all players' moves) is represented as a single day, and days are organized into cycles of weeks and months (measured as four weeks). The primary resource is gold, which is generated by towns on a daily basis. Gold alone is sufficient for obtaining basic buildings and most creatures. As construction progresses, increasing amounts of secondary resources such as wood, ore, gems, crystals, sulfur, and mercury are required. These resources, as well as gold, are produced at mines and other secondary structures, which are located on the map and require heroes to capture them. As with towns, mines can also be captured by enemy heroes, presenting an additional avenue for conflict.
At the start of each week (each day in Heroes IV), creature dwellings produce new recruits, and in most cases neutral armies will increase in size (by default; can be turned off if desired). In some of the games, the start of a new month causes neutral armies to spawn all over the map, providing fresh challenges and opportunities.
Combat
Whenever a player engages in battle, the game changes from the adventure map display to a combat screen, which is based on either a hexagonal or square grid. In this mode, the game mimics the turn-based tactics genre, as the engaged armies must carry through the battle without the opportunity to reinforce or gracefully retreat. With few exceptions, combat must end with the losing army deserting, being destroyed, or paying a heavy price in gold to surrender. Surrendering allows the player to keep the remaining units intact.
Creatures in an army are represented by unit stacks, each of which consists of a single type of creature, in any quantity. A limited number of stacks are available to each army, varying by game. Players generally maneuver their stacks attempting to achieve the most favorable rate of attrition for themselves. The games also have an automatic combat option that allows the computer to make tactical choices for a player. Heroes participate in battle as well: passively by granting bonuses to their army, and actively by engaging in combat and casting spells. In most of the games, heroes do not act as units, and cannot be harmed. However, in Heroes IV they do act as regular units and can be "killed"; these dead heroes are transferred to the nearest town's dungeon where they can be freed if their team captures the town.
Combat is affected by several random factors. In addition to simulating dice rolls to determine damage, a variety of influences including hero abilities and special bonuses determine a unit's luck and morale ratings, which affect the likelihood of those units triggering a bonus during combat. A unit that triggers good luck deals more (or receives less) damage, and a unit that triggers high morale receives an extra turn. In some other games, luck and morale can also be negative, with opposite corresponding effects. Luck and morale can be improved by hero abilities, artifacts, and spells. Morale may suffer with overwhelming odds in combat or by mixing incompatible unit types (e.g. Chaos with Order.)
History of changes
Knowledge allows heroes to cast more spells, either through a spell memorization (HoMM I) or spell point (II-V) system.
Heroes II introduced secondary skills. Heroes can learn a limited variety of secondary skills with several levels of proficiency. Secondary skills give specific, miscellaneous bonuses to heroes and their armies. For example, skill in logistics increases the distance a hero's army can travel, while skill in leadership gives their army a morale bonus.
Beginning with Heroes II, some creatures were able to be upgraded. By Heroes III, every creature (excluding those not found in any castle) was able to be upgraded.
Heroes III also introduced a new artifact platform; rather than having 14 spaces for any artifact, the player instead has a much larger backpack, but can only use a limited number. For example, only one headpiece can be used at a time, as well as only one pair of boots, etc.
Replay value
Games in the series often include a map editor and/or random map generator. Several fansites collect and rate user-generated maps.
Storyline
Old world
Up until Heroes of Might and Magic V, the Heroes series took place in the same fictional universe as the Might and Magic series, and later Might and Magic installments heavily referenced the games, with some taking place in the same world.
Heroes I and II take place on the planet of Enroth, on a northerly continent of the same name, and chronicle the adventures of the Ironfist dynasty. The protagonist of Heroes I is Lord Morglin Ironfist, a knight who discovers a portal to the realm of Enroth while fleeing from his throne's usurpers, and goes on to conquer and dominate the continent, establishing a unified kingdom and a new rule.
Heroes II featured a two-sided conflict between Morglin's sons, Roland and Archibald, both vying for their deceased father's throne. Canonically, Roland defeats Archibald, though the player can choose to align themself with either side. It was the first game in the series to feature playable heroes as campaign characters—the main characters of Heroes I were represented by the player's presence rather than as commanders on the battlefield.
The storylines of Heroes III and the Heroes Chronicles shift focus to the Gryphonheart dynasty on the southern continent of Antagarich, and introduces the Kreegan as playable characters and enemies. In Heroes III, Queen Catherine Gryphonheart, King Roland Ironfist's wife, is called home to attend her father's funeral, to discover Antagarich being torn apart by various factions. Heroes IIIs expansions build on the setting with more prominent character development, featuring new and old heroes from the series in differing roles.
The events preceding Heroes IV precipitated the destruction of the planet Enroth due to a clash between Armageddon's Blade and the Sword of Frost. The ensuing destruction brings about portals leading to another world, Axeoth, through which many characters escape. Heroes IVs campaigns focus on the scattered survivors from Enroth and Antagarich as they form new kingdoms and alliances in the new world.
New world
Heroes of Might and Magic V was the first Might and Magic title to take place on the previously unheard of world of Ashan, as part of Ubisoft's franchise-wide continuity reboot. Its six campaigns are each centered around a faction leader, tied together by the character of Isabel Greyhound, Queen of the Griffin Empire. The Heroes V expansion packs both continued this storyline, leading into the events of Dark Messiah of Might and Magic. Heroes VI acts as a prequel, occurring 400 years prior.
Reception
Critical reception for the series has been generally positive, with GameRankings scores averaging from the high 70s to high 90s.
By October 1997, overall sales of the Heroes of Might and Magic series had surpassed 500,000 copies. This number had risen to 1.5 million copies by December 1999. The Might and Magic franchise as a whole, including the Heroes series, surpassed 4.5 million copies in sales by May 2001.
In 1999, Next Generation listed the Heroes of Might and Magic series as number 31 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "With beautiful 2D characters and maps and absolutely brilliant strategy, Heroes managed to be a completely engrossing game that never once replaced quality design with new-fangled flash."
References
External links
Might and Magic official franchise website
Ubisoft franchises
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1995
Video games set on fictional planets | [
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228154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Ellendun | Battle of Ellendun | The Battle of Ellendun or Battle of Wroughton was fought between Ecgberht of Wessex and Beornwulf of Mercia in September 825. Sir Frank Stenton described it as "one of the most decisive battles of English history". It effectively ended Mercian Supremacy over the southern kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England and established West Saxon dominance in southern England.
Background
During the 8th century and early 9th centuries, the kings of Mercia exercised a fluctuating hegemony over the kingdoms of south-eastern England, imposing their overlordship and at times exercising direct rule. While Wessex had at times been obliged to recognise the overlordship of Æthelbald of Mercia, it appears to have escaped the dominance of the Mercians thereafter and was certainly not subject to the more intrusive forms of Mercian control imposed on other kingdoms.
Ecgberht's father Ealhmund had been king of Kent in the 780s, which had brought his family into conflict with the ambitions of Offa of Mercia, who sought to impose direct rule on Kent. After his father's death, Ecgberht was driven from England into exile by Offa, with the co-operation of Beorhtric of Wessex and his accession to the throne of Wessex on Beorhtric's death in 802 was immediately followed by a violent clash with Mercia. However, the available sources reveal no further conflict between the two kingdoms before 825.
Beornwulf seized the Mercian throne from Ceolwulf, who had in 821 succeeded on the death of his brother, the long-reigning and powerful Coenwulf. His attack on Wessex two years later may have been part of an effort to consolidate his own authority and reassert that of Mercia after this upheaval.
Beornwulf may also have been seeking to take advantage of Ecgberht's preoccupation with warfare against the Britons of Cornwall. Ecgberht had devastated Cornish territory in 815 and in the autumn of 825 he was again campaigning against the Britons, at Gafulford.
Location
The Battle of Ellendun is thought to have taken place south of Swindon, in Wiltshire, but the exact site has not been determined. William Camden, in his 1610 gazetteer A Chronological description of the most flourishing Kingdomes, England, Scotland, and Ireland, suggests that the battle took place close to Wilton, just to the west of Salisbury. Charles Oman used geographical information and contemporary boundaries as evidence to suggest the battle occurred at Wroughton, which is south of Swindon. T. Spicer has suggested the battle took place on the grounds of what is now Lydiard Park, in Swindon.
Consequences
Ecgberht's victory permanently transformed the political situation in south-eastern England. The king at once sent his son Æthelwulf with an army into the south-east. The West Saxons succeeded in conquering Sussex (hitherto under direct Mercian rule), Kent, and Essex, which had been governed by sub-kings under Mercian overlordship. All of these territories were annexed to Wessex, roughly doubling the kingdom's size.
Meanwhile, Beornwulf's defeat emboldened the East Angles to revolt against Mercian rule and reassert their independence, in alliance with Wessex. Beornwulf fought the East Angles, but was defeated and killed. His successor Ludeca met the same fate the following year and East Anglian independence was successfully re-established.
Ecgberht's power peaked in 829, when he occupied Mercia and secured recognition of his supremacy by the Northumbrians, making him temporarily the overlord of all England. Mercian independence was restored in the following year by Wiglaf, who achieved a significant recovery of Mercian prestige and was even able to extend his power over Berkshire. The independence of East Anglia and the West Saxon conquest of the south-east proved irreversible and Mercia never regained the primacy it had enjoyed in the century before Ellendun.
Footnotes
References
Battles involving Mercia
Battles involving Wessex
Military history of Wiltshire
820s conflicts
825
9th century in England | [
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228156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Jersey | West Jersey | West Jersey and East Jersey were two distinct parts of the Province of New Jersey. The political division existed for 28 years, between 1674 and 1702. Determination of an exact location for a border between West Jersey and East Jersey was often a matter of dispute.
Background
The Delaware Valley had been inhabited by the Lenape (or Delaware) Indians prior to European exploration and settlement starting around 1609, undertaken by the Dutch, Swedish and English. The Dutch West India Company had established one or two Delaware River settlements, but by the late 1620s, it had moved most of its inhabitants to the island of Manhattan. This became the center of New Netherland. West Jersey and East Jersey were two sections of New Jersey.
The development of the colony of New Sweden in the lower Delaware Valley began in 1638. Most of the Swedish population was on the west side of the Delaware. After the English re-established New Netherland's Fort Nassau to challenge the Swedes, the latter constructed Fort Nya Elfsborg in present-day Salem County. Fort Nya Elfsborg was located between present day Salem and Alloway Creek. The New Sweden colony established two primary settlements in New Jersey: Sveaborg, now Swedesboro, and Nya Stockholm, now Bridgeport. Trinity Church, located in Swedesboro, was the site of the Church of Sweden for the area.
The Dutch defeated New Sweden in 1655. Settlement of the West Jersey area by Europeans was thin until the English conquest in 1664. Beginning in the late 1670s, Quakers settled in great numbers in this area, first in present-day Salem County and then in Burlington. The latter became the capital of West Jersey.
Before 1674, land surveyors for New Jersey considered it as a hundred and partitioned it into tenths. West Jersey comprised five of the tenths. But demarcation of the boundaries awaited settlement, the quit-rents the settlers would pay, and the land surveying which the money would purchase. Thus it took years and multiple surveys to settle boundary disputes. Burlington County was formed on 17 May 1694 by combining the first and second tenths. At least three surveys were conducted of West Jersey. Richard Tindall was surveyor-general of Fenwick's Colony, the fifth tenth.
Constitution
See: History of the New Jersey State Constitution#West Jersey Constitution
See also
Colonial history of New Jersey
Concession and Agreement
Lords Proprietor (1665–1703)
List of colonial governors of New Jersey#Governors under the Proprietors (1665–1674)
Newton Colony
Province of New York
Dominion of New England
West Jersey and Seashore Railroad
References
Further reading
Weslager, C. A. Dutch Explorers, Traders, and Settlers in the Delaware Valley, 1609–1644. (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961).
Johnson, Amandus The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware Volume I: Their History and Relation to the Indians, Dutch and English, 1638–1664 (Philadelphia: Swedish Colonial Society. 1911)
External links
West Jersey History Project
Quaker West New Jersey: Democracy in 1677
1677 Charter
1681 Regulations
Where was the West Jersey/East Jersey line?
Colonial Charters, Grants and Related Documents (at "New Jersey").
Pre-statehood history of New Jersey
History of the Thirteen Colonies
Dominion of New England
Former regions and territories of the United States
States and territories established in 1674
Colonial United States (British)
1674 establishments in New Jersey
Former English colonies | [
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228161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%20polynomials | Bernoulli polynomials | In mathematics, the Bernoulli polynomials, named after Jacob Bernoulli, combine the Bernoulli numbers and binomial coefficients. They are used for series expansion of functions, and with the Euler–MacLaurin formula.
These polynomials occur in the study of many special functions and, in particular, the Riemann zeta function and the Hurwitz zeta function. They are an Appell sequence (i.e. a Sheffer sequence for the ordinary derivative operator). For the Bernoulli polynomials, the number of crossings of the x-axis in the unit interval does not go up with the degree. In the limit of large degree, they approach, when appropriately scaled, the sine and cosine functions.
A similar set of polynomials, based on a generating function, is the family of Euler polynomials.
Representations
The Bernoulli polynomials Bn can be defined by a generating function. They also admit a variety of derived representations.
Generating functions
The generating function for the Bernoulli polynomials is
The generating function for the Euler polynomials is
Explicit formula
for n ≥ 0, where Bk are the Bernoulli numbers, and Ek are the Euler numbers.
Representation by a differential operator
The Bernoulli polynomials are also given by
where D = d/dx is differentiation with respect to x and the fraction is expanded as a formal power series. It follows that
cf. integrals below. By the same token, the Euler polynomials are given by
Representation by an integral operator
The Bernoulli polynomials are also the unique polynomials determined by
The integral transform
on polynomials f, simply amounts to
This can be used to produce the inversion formulae below.
Another explicit formula
An explicit formula for the Bernoulli polynomials is given by
That is similar to the series expression for the Hurwitz zeta function in the complex plane. Indeed, there is the relationship
where ζ(s, q) is the Hurwitz zeta function. The latter generalizes the Bernoulli polynomials, allowing for non-integer values of n.
The inner sum may be understood to be the nth forward difference of xm; that is,
where Δ is the forward difference operator. Thus, one may write
This formula may be derived from an identity appearing above as follows. Since the forward difference operator Δ equals
where D is differentiation with respect to x, we have, from the Mercator series,
As long as this operates on an mth-degree polynomial such as xm, one may let n go from 0 only up to m.
An integral representation for the Bernoulli polynomials is given by the Nörlund–Rice integral, which follows from the expression as a finite difference.
An explicit formula for the Euler polynomials is given by
The above follows analogously, using the fact that
Sums of pth powers
Using either the above integral representation of or the identity , we have
(assuming 00 = 1).
The Bernoulli and Euler numbers
The Bernoulli numbers are given by
This definition gives for .
An alternate convention defines the Bernoulli numbers as
The two conventions differ only for since .
The Euler numbers are given by
Explicit expressions for low degrees
The first few Bernoulli polynomials are:
The first few Euler polynomials are:
Maximum and minimum
At higher n, the amount of variation in Bn(x) between x = 0 and x = 1 gets large. For instance,
which shows that the value at x = 0 (and at x = 1) is −3617/510 ≈ −7.09, while at x = 1/2, the value is 118518239/3342336 ≈ +7.09. D.H. Lehmer showed that the maximum value of Bn(x) between 0 and 1 obeys
unless n is 2 modulo 4, in which case
(where is the Riemann zeta function), while the minimum obeys
unless n is 0 modulo 4, in which case
These limits are quite close to the actual maximum and minimum, and Lehmer gives more accurate limits as well.
Differences and derivatives
The Bernoulli and Euler polynomials obey many relations from umbral calculus:
(Δ is the forward difference operator). Also,
These polynomial sequences are Appell sequences:
Translations
These identities are also equivalent to saying that these polynomial sequences are Appell sequences. (Hermite polynomials are another example.)
Symmetries
Zhi-Wei Sun and Hao Pan established the following surprising symmetry relation: If and , then
where
Fourier series
The Fourier series of the Bernoulli polynomials is also a Dirichlet series, given by the expansion
Note the simple large n limit to suitably scaled trigonometric functions.
This is a special case of the analogous form for the Hurwitz zeta function
This expansion is valid only for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 when n ≥ 2 and is valid for 0 < x < 1 when n = 1.
The Fourier series of the Euler polynomials may also be calculated. Defining the functions
and
for , the Euler polynomial has the Fourier series
and
Note that the and are odd and even, respectively:
and
They are related to the Legendre chi function as
and
Inversion
The Bernoulli and Euler polynomials may be inverted to express the monomial in terms of the polynomials.
Specifically, evidently from the above section on integral operators, it follows that
and
Relation to falling factorial
The Bernoulli polynomials may be expanded in terms of the falling factorial as
where and
denotes the Stirling number of the second kind. The above may be inverted to express the falling factorial in terms of the Bernoulli polynomials:
where
denotes the Stirling number of the first kind.
Multiplication theorems
The multiplication theorems were given by Joseph Ludwig Raabe in 1851:
For a natural number ,
Integrals
Two definite integrals relating the Bernoulli and Euler polynomials to the Bernoulli and Euler numbers are:
Another integral formula states
with the special case for
Periodic Bernoulli polynomials
A periodic Bernoulli polynomial is a Bernoulli polynomial evaluated at the fractional part of the argument . These functions are used to provide the remainder term in the Euler–Maclaurin formula relating sums to integrals. The first polynomial is a sawtooth function.
Strictly these functions are not polynomials at all and more properly should be termed the periodic Bernoulli functions, and is not even a function, being the derivative of a sawtooth and so a Dirac comb.
The following properties are of interest, valid for all :
See also
Bernoulli numbers
Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind
Stirling polynomial
References
Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, (1972) Dover, New York. (See Chapter 23)
(See chapter 12.11)
(Reviews relationship to the Hurwitz zeta function and Lerch transcendent.)
External links
A list of integral identities involving Bernoulli polynomials from NIST
Special functions
Number theory
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228165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advancement%20and%20recognition%20in%20the%20Boy%20Scouts%20of%20America | Advancement and recognition in the Boy Scouts of America | Advancement and recognition in the Boy Scouts of America is a tradition dating from the inception of the Scouting movement. A fundamental purpose of advancement is the self-confidence a young man or woman acquires from his participation in Scouting. Advancement is one of the methods used in the "Aims of Scouting"– character development, citizenship training and personal fitness.
There are separate advancement and recognition programs for the main program divisions: Cub Scouting (ages six through 10), Scouts BSA (formerly Boy Scouting) (11-17), Venturing (14-20), and Sea Scouting (14-20) (and, formerly, through the now discontinued Varsity Scouting (14-18)). Each program is designed for its age group and goals.
Cub Scouting
Advancement is one of the methods used to promote the aims of character development, citizenship training, and personal fitness. Everything a Cub Scout does in the advancement program is intended to achieve these aims and aid in personal growth. For advancement, the program has a rank system of Lion, Bobcat, Tiger Cub, Wolf, Bear, Webelos and the Arrow of Light, which are age/grade-based ranks.
Scouts BSA
Scouts BSA Advancement
The advancement program for Scouts BSA (formerly known as Boy Scouting) has two phases. The first phase of Scout to First Class is designed to teach the Scoutcraft skills, how to participate in a group and to learn self-reliance. Scout is the joining rank, and is awarded when the Scout demonstrates a rudimentary knowledge of the Scouting ideals. Tenderfoot, Second Class and First Class have progressively harder requirements in the areas of Scoutcraft, physical fitness, citizenship, personal growth and Scout Spirit.
Focus turns toward individual achievement, leadership and community service once First Class is earned. The ranks of Star, Life and Eagle require a set number of merit badges (minimum of 21 for Eagle Scout, with 13 from a compulsory list), as well as a minimum of time spent in a troop leadership position, and community service requirements, among other things. The rank of Eagle Scout requires the Scout plan, develop and lead their own service project that benefits their community or an organization other than Scouting. In 2010, the Life Scout rank added a specific teaching requirement, where a Star-rank Scout must teach a younger Scout certain requirements for one of the early ranks.
Several religious emblems programs are administered by various religious institutions and recognized by the BSA. These are generally recognized by a medal and an embroidered square knot. Many other advancement and recognitions—such as the 50-Miler Award, BSA Aquatics Awards, Outdoor Ethics Awards, Crime Prevention Award, Emergency Preparedness Award and World Conservation Award —are available to Scouts who show performance in special areas.
Scouts may earn the Den Chief Service Award for their service as a Cub Scout Den Chief.
There are also several positions of responsibility within each troop, which is usually divided into patrols, with patrol leaders and assistant patrol leaders. The troop itself has a senior patrol leader as its youth leader, along with an assistant senior patrol leader, and several other positions of responsibility, such as scribe, quartermaster, librarian, instructor, historian and chaplain's aide. Holding some sort of responsibility in the troop is a requirement for higher advancement ranks.
Order of the Arrow
The Order of the Arrow (OA) is a program of the Boy Scout division of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA). It is the BSA's national honor society for experienced campers, based on American Indian traditions, and dedicated to the ideal of cheerful service.
Awards are separate and distinct from the membership levels of Ordeal and Brotherhood. Awards available through the Order of the Arrow include: Vigil Honor, Founder's Award, Distinguished Service Award, Lifetime Achievement Award, Red Arrow Award, E. Urner Goodman Camping Award, E. Urner Goodman, Scholarship Fund, National Service Award. Scholastic awards are also available to Arrowmen to aid in education expenses.
Varsity Scouting
Advancement was a key part of the Varsity program. Varsity Scouts could earn any award or recognition that were available to Boy Scouts, including merit badges, ranks advancements, and other awards. There were also several awards that were only available to Varsity Scouts, and sometimes their leaders. Due to the decision by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints to cease participation in the Varsity Scouting program, the Boy Scouts of America decided to end the Varsity Scouting program, effective January 1, 2018.
Venturing
Youth advancement
A Bronze Award may be earned for each category of arts and hobbies, outdoor, community and religious life, sea Scouting and sports. After earning at least one Bronze Award and meeting tenure, leadership, personal growth and other requirements the Venturer may earn the Gold Award. To earn the Silver Award, the Venturer must earn the Gold Award, earn first aid and CPR certifications, show leadership and participate in ethics training.
Venturers may also earn expert awards that build on some areas of the Bronze Awards.
These include the Venturing Ranger Award (Outdoors);
the TRUST Award (Community and Religious Life);
the Quest Award (Sports);
and the Quartermaster Award (Sea Scouting).
Male members under the age of 18 may also earn Merit Badges and the Star, Life, and Eagle Scout ranks from the Boy Scouting program if they have earned at least First Class rank in a Boy Scout troop or Varsity Scout team.
Venturing Leadership Award
Both youth and adults are eligible for the Venturing Leadership Award. There are three levels of these awards: council (for those at the crew, district, and/or council levels), region (for those at the area or region levels) and National. A limited number of these awards are presented on an annual basis to involved in Venturing who have made exceptional contributions to Venturing at their particular level and who exemplify the Venturing Code. These awards are similar in scope to the Silver Beaver Award, Silver Antelope Award, and Silver Buffalo Award.
Sea Scouting
In Sea Scouts, the traditional advancement program consists of the 4 ranks in the following order Apprentice, Ordinary, Able, and finally Quartermaster. Quartermaster is the highest Sea Scout Rank and is equivalent to Eagle Scout or Venturing Silver Award.
SEAL Training, (Sea Scout Experience Advanced Leadership Training ), is the highest level of Leadership Training. The program originated in 1996 and at the time was under the name of Sea Exploring, however in 1998 when Venturing was formed the organization was known as Sea Scouts. The name SEAL training did not change. There are about 4-6 course per year held around the country. Participants age over 14.5 to less than 18 years old. Participants must have earned the rank of Ordinary before attending the course. Approximately 80% of participants pass the course. The course is similar to NAYLE or what was previously known as NJLIC. Upon successful graduation from the course the student may wear the SEAL Pin on their uniform. This is the only youth earned pin that an Adult may wear.
Sea Scouts may choose to earn any Venturing awards, advancement, and training if they wish to. A male Sea Scout who has earned the rank of 1st Class in a Boy Scout Troop may complete further Boy Scout ranks and training from within his Sea Scout Ship.
Religious awards
Youth Religious Emblem
Adult Religious Award
Lifesaving and meritorious action awards
BSA's National Court of Honor is responsible for lifesaving and meritorious awards. All Courts of Honor for Eagle Scout rank are convened as National Courts of Honor also.
Honor Medal With Crossed Palms
A lifesaving award presented to a registered BSA member (youth or adult leader) who has demonstrated both unusual heroism and extraordinary skill or resourcefulness in saving or attempting to save a life at extreme risk to self; may be awarded posthumously.
Honor Medal
A lifesaving award presented to a registered BSA member (youth or adult leader) who has demonstrated unusual heroism in saving or attempting to save a life at considerable risk to self.
Heroism Award
A lifesaving award presented to a registered BSA member (youth or adult leader) who has demonstrated heroism and skill in saving or attempting to save life at minimal personal risk.
Medal of Merit
Awarded to BSA members (youth or adult leaders) who have performed an outstanding act of service and exceptional character by putting into practice Scouting skills and ideals. It does not need to involve risk to self.
National Certificate of Merit
This award may be presented by the National Court of Honor to a registered BSA member (youth or adult leader) who has performed a significant act of service that is deserving of special national recognition. Such action need not involve attempts of rescue or risk to self, but puts into practice Scouting skills or ideals.
Local Council Certificate of Merit (No. 606760)
This may be awarded by local BSA councils for individual meritorious actions by a registered BSA member (youth or adult leader) that do not merit national recognition.
Nova and Supernova Awards
These STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) awards are for all three levels of youth scouting. Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts and Venturers may all earn up to four Nova awards, each based on one of the four STEM principles. The Supernova award is a culmination of the youth's work on the Nova award and there are a number of various Supernova awards that the scout may earn.
Adult leader awards
Cub Scout leader recognition
Cub Scout leaders who complete training, tenure, and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards. The Cub Scout Den Leader Training Award is available for Den Leaders, the Scouter's Training Award is for any registered Cub Scout leader, and the Scouter's Key is for Cubmasters. These awards are recognized by a certificate and an embroidered square knot insignia with the appropriate square knot device pin (indicates program or rank for which the award was earned).
Boy Scout leader recognition
Boy Scout adult leaders who complete training, tenure, and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards. The Boy Scout Leader's Training Award is available to any leader, while the Scoutmaster's Key and the Scoutmaster Award of Merit are only available to the Scoutmaster.
Varsity Scout leader recognition
The Boy Scouts of America ended the Varsity Scouting program, effective January 1, 2018.
Adult Varsity leaders were able to earn the Varsity Letter and activity pins. They met the same requirements as the youth and also had to complete Fast Start and Basic Leader Training (New Leader Essentials and Varsity Coach Leader Specific Training), attend six Varsity Roundtables, and complete a minimum of six months tenure.
Varsity Scout leaders who completed tenure, training and performance requirements were able to earn the Varsity Scout Leader Training Award. Varsity Coaches were able to earn the Varsity Coach's Key and the National President's Varsity Scout Coach Award of Merit.
Venturing leader recognition
Venturing adult leaders who complete training, tenure, and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards. The Venturing Leader's Training Award is available to any leader, while the Venturing Advisor's Key and Venturing Advisor Award of Merit are only available to the Advisor.
Sea Scout leader recognition
Sea Scout adult leaders who complete training, tenure, and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards. The Sea Scout Leader's Training Award (part of the Scouter's Training Award series) is available to any leader, while the Skipper's Key is only available to Skippers. Seabadge is an advanced leadership program for all Sea Scout leaders. Seabadge can be worn as a pin or a knot with a single trident. Unofficial knots with multiple tridents are sometimes worn to represent a staff member or course director.
Sea Scout adult leaders may also wear the SEAL pin if they, earned it as a youth, served as course director, or served as a course director's mate.
Sea Scout adult leaders may also receive the Venturing Leadership Award
Commissioner recognition
Commissioners who complete training, tenure, and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards. The Arrowhead Honor is for commissioners who exhibit quality performance and leadership. The Roundtable Staff Training Award (part of the Scouter's Training Award series) is available to Cub Scout, Boy Scout, Varsity Scout and Venturing roundtable staff. The Commissioner's Key (part of the Scouter's Key series) is available for roundtable commissioners, district commissioner, assistant district commissioners, unit commissioners, council commissioners and assistant council commissioners. The Distinguished Commissioner Service Award recognizes commissioners who provide quality service over a period of at least five years.
Scouter's Training Award
The Scouter's Training Award is a set of recognitions for leaders who complete tenure, training and performance requirements.
Cub Scout Leader's Training Award for the Cubmaster, Den Leaders, pack committee chairman and pack committee members
Boy Scout Leader's Training Award for the Scoutmaster, assistant Scoutmasters, troop committee chairman and troop committee members
Venturing Leader's Training Award for the Advisor, associate Advisors, crew committee chairman and crew committee members
Sea Scout Leader's Training Award for the Skipper, mates, ship committee chairman and ship committee members
Roundtable Staff Training Award for the Cub Scout, Boy Scout, Varsity Scout and Venturing roundtable staff
Professional Scouter Training Award
Scouter's Key
The Scouter's Key is a set of recognitions for primary unit leaders who complete advanced tenure, training and performance requirements.
Cubmaster's Key
Scoutmaster's Key
Venturing Advisor's Key
Commissioner's Key for roundtable commissioners, district commissioner, assistant district commissioners, unit commissioners, council commissioners and assistant council commissioner
District Committee's Key for the district committee chairman and members
Unit Leader Award of Merit
The Unit Leader Award of Merit is for Cubmasters, Scoutmasters, Venturing Crew Advisors, and Sea Scout Skippers who meet 7 requirements for tenure, personal training, unit quality and youth training.
Cubmaster Award of Merit
Scoutmaster Award of Merit
Venturing Crew Advisor Award of Merit
Sea Scout Skipper Award of Merit
Leadership and training awards
Powderhorn
Wood Badge
Distinguished service awards
Distinguished service awards are presented at various levels to recognize noteworthy and extraordinary service to youth.
District Award of Merit - district level
Silver Beaver Award - council level
Silver Antelope Award - regional level
Silver Buffalo Award - national level
Silver World Award - international level
National Eagle Scout Association Outstanding Eagle Scout Award - council to regional level
Distinguished Eagle Scout Award - national level
Service awards
International Scouter's Award
Community Organization Award
AFL-CIO George Meany Award (is also part of this category, but retains the use of its original square knot)
Alpha Phi Omega Herbert G. Horton Service to Youth Award
American Legion Scouting Square Knot Award
Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (BPOE) Marvin M. Lewis Award
International Fellowship of Scouting Rotarians (IFSR) Cliff Dochterman Award, (Rotary)
Masonic Daniel Carter Beard Scouter Award, (Masons)
National Society of the Sons of the American Revolution Robert E. Burt Boy Scout Volunteer Award,
Ruritan National Service Clubs Scout Leader Community Service Award,
United States Power Squadrons Raymond A. Finley, Jr. Sea Scout Service Award,
VFW Scouter's Achievement Award,
United States Military Outstanding Volunteer Service Medal, U.S. DoD
National service awards
Whitney Young Service Award
Named after Whitney M Young Jr., and recognizes outstanding services by an adult individual or an organization for demonstrated involvement in the development and implementation of Scouting opportunities for youth from rural or low-income urban backgrounds.
¡Scouting ... Vale la pena! Service Award
Recognizes outstanding services by an adult individual or an organization for demonstrated involvement in the development and implementation of Scouting opportunities for Hispanic American/Latino youth.
Asian American Spirit of Scouting Service Award
Recognizes outstanding services by an adult individual or an organization for demonstrated involvement in the development and implementation of Scouting opportunities for Asian American youth.
Dr. Frank 'Tick' Coleman National Service Award
A National Service Award for full-time paraprofessional Scouters working in Scoutreach given every other year, named in honor of Dr. Frank "Tick" Coleman. Dr. Coleman was highly involved in ScoutReach.
Support of Scouting awards
James E West Fellowship Award
1910 Society
Ernest Thompson Seton, Daniel Carter Beard, Theodore Roosevelt and Waite Phillips levels
Founder's Circle
Bronze, Silver, Gold and Platinum levels
William D. Boyce New-Unit Organizer Award
Square knot system
Adult leaders display their awards on their uniform through a system of square knots above the left uniform pocket, much as a member of the military would with their ribbons. The knots are as follows:
Alumni Award (red, yellow and blue knot with gold border)
Arrow of Light Award (red and green knot with yellow border)
Asian American Spirit of Scouting Service Award (white and black knot with purple border)
Community Organization Award (yellow knot on dark blue background)
Cub Scout Den Leader Award (yellow knot on blue background)
Cub Scouter Award (blue knot on yellow background)
Distinguished Commissioner Service Award (silver knot on red background)
District Award of Merit (silver overhand knot on blue background)
Doctorate of Commissioner Science Award (silver knot on red background with blue border)
Eagle Scout (red, white and blue knot)
George Meany Award (blue knot on red and white background)
Heroism Award (red knot on white background)
Honor Medal (red knot)
International Scouter’s Award (purple and white knot)
James E. West Fellowship Award (yellow and green knot with red border)
Medal of Merit (yellow and blue knot)
NESA life membership (red, white and blue Eagle Scout knot with silver border)
Order of the Arrow Distinguished Service Award: (silver knot on red background)
Philmont Training Center Masters Track Award (red knot on yellow background)
Professional Training Award (black knot on white background)
Religious emblems of faith
Adult (purple knot on silver background)
Youth (purple knot on silver background)
Scouter’s Key (green and white knot)
Scouter’s Training Award (green knot)
¡Scouting…Vale la Pena! Service Award (laurel green and white knot on red background)
Scoutmaster or Venturing Advisor Award of Merit (white knot)
Sea Scout Quartermaster Award (navy blue knot on white background)
Seabadge (trident)
Silver Antelope Award (white and yellow knot)
Silver Beaver Award (white and blue knot)
Silver Buffalo Award (white and red knot)
Silver World Award (blue and silver globe on red-and-white striped background)
Speakers Bank Award (red knot on yellow background)
Venturing Summit Award (previously silver award, silver knot on green and white background)
Venturing Leadership Award (silver knot on green, red and blue background)
Webelos Den Leader Award (yellow knot on yellow background)
Whitney M. Young Jr. Award (white and black knot with red border)
William D. Boyce New-Unit Organizer Award (silver knot on yellow, green and red background)
Tiger Cub Den Leader Award (orange and black knot on yellow background)
https://scoutingmagazine.org/2008/01/know-your-knots/
Memorials
Spirit of the Eagle Award
Unit awards
National Den Award
National Summertime Pack Award
Journey To Excellence (JTE) Award (formerly National Quality Unit Award)
Veteran Unit Award
BSA Ready & Prepared Award
Scholarships
American Legion Eagle Scout of the Year Scholarship
Eastern Orthodox Committee on Scouting scholarships
Emmett J. Doerr Memorial Scout Scholarship for Catholic Scouts
National Eagle Scout Association (NESA) scholarships
Mervyn Sluizer Jr. Scholarship for Philadelphia-area Scouts
National Jewish Committee on Scouting Eagle Scout Scholarship Programs
Sons of the American Revolution (SAR) Arthur M. & Berdena King Eagle Scout Scholarship
Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) Scout of the Year Scholarship
William M. Minto Memorial Scholarship For Sea Scouts
The E. Urner Goodman Scholarship program has been suspended and is no longer available.
Wood Badge Scholarships for Scouters
AFL-CIO Wood Badge Scholarship Program
VFW Wood Badge Scholarship Program
some American Legion Departments (e.g., North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Illinois, etc.) offer Wood Badge Scholarships
Special opportunities
Aquatics
Boardsailing BSA
Kayaking BSA
Mile Swim BSA
Scuba BSA
Snorkeling BSA
Stand Up Paddleboarding BSA
Whitewater Rafting BSA
BSA Lifeguard
Sea Scout Specific Awards
Long Cruise
Qualified Seaman
Small Boat Handler
Conservation
The Conservation Good Turn Award for Cub Scout Packs, Scout Troops and Venturing Crews
Cub Scout World Conservation Award
Boy Scout World Conservation Award
Venturing World Conservation Award
Outdoor Ethics Awareness Award
Outdoor Ethics Action Award
William T. Hornaday Awards
William T. Hornaday Unit Award
William T. Hornaday Badge - Scouts
William T. Hornaday Gold Medal - Scouters
William T. Hornaday Bronze Medal - Scouts
William T. Hornaday Silver Medal - Scouts
William T. Hornaday Gold Badge - Scouters
William T. Hornaday Gold Certificate - organizations or individuals
Disabilities
Torch of Gold Certificate - To recognize youth and adult members who have provided outstanding service in the area of Scouts with special needs
Woods Services Award - A national-level recognition for volunteer adults who provide outstanding service to Scouts with special needs
Emergency Preparedness
Crime Prevention Awards
Emergency Preparedness Award
Outdoors
Cub Scout Outdoor Activity Award
50-Miler Award
Historic Trails Award
National Medal for Outdoor Achievement
National Outdoor Challenge Unit Award
Scoutcraft
Firem'n Chit
Paul Bunyan Woodsman
Totin' Chip
Whittlin' Chip
Tenure
Service stars
Veteran Scouter Pin
Other
BSA Family Award - Cub Scouts
BSA Donor Awareness Patch
BSA Hometown U.S.A. Award
International Activity Patch
Interpreter's Strips (17 languages including ASL and Morse Code)
Recruiter Strip - all Scouts
Awards from other organizations
Alpha Phi Omega offers the Scouting Recognition Certificate
The American Legion offers the Eagle Scout of the Year Award
The United States Department of Defense offers the Youth Certificate of Recognition
Obsolete awards
These awards are no longer awarded, but may be worn by those who earned them:
BSA Physical Fitness Award
BSA Ready and Prepared Award
BSA Young American Award
Cub Scout Leave No Trace Awareness Award
Den Mother's Training Award- awarded from 1956, renamed to Den Leader’s Training Award in 1967
Den Leader Coach Training Award- awarded from 1967 to 2006, replaced by the Pack Trainer Award
Explorer Silver- awarded from 1949 to 1964
Explorer Achievement Award- awarded from 1981 to 1995, replaced by the Explorer G.O.L.D. Award
Explorer G.O.L.D. Award- awarded from 1995 to 1998
Explorer Ranger Award- awarded from 1944 to 1949
Explorer Ace Award- awarded from 1942 to 1954
Heroism Award- a lifesaving award presented to a registered youth member or adult leader who has demonstrated heroism in saving or attempting to save a life at minimum risk to self
National Camping Award- replaced by the National Outdoor Challenge Unit Award in 2010
Silver Fawn Award- equivalent of the Silver Beaver Award for female leaders issued from 1971 to 1974
Tiger Cub Coach Award— renamed to Tiger Cub Den Leader Award
Varsity Scout Leader's Training Award for the Coach, assistant Coaches, team committee chairman, team committee member
Varsity Scout Coach's Key
William H. Spurgeon III Award- moved to Exploring (Learning for Life)
Sources
scouting.org - The official BSA Website for Scouting in the US.
MeritBadge.Org - is a Wikipedia that provides resources to Scouts and leaders in the US.
USScouts.Org - another volunteer site that provides resources to Scouts and leaders in the US.
Footnotes | [
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228169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penis%20Envy%20%28album%29 | Penis Envy (album) | Penis Envy, released in 1981, was the third LP by the anarchist punk band Crass. The album was included at #36 on Rolling Stone's "40 Greatest Punk Albums of All Time" list in 2016.
The Crassical Collection version of this release, including new artwork by Gee Vaucher, remastered sound, liner notes by Eve Libertine and Penny Rimbaud and bonus material, was released in November 2010.
Background and release
Named as a reference to some of Freud's ideas concerning sexuality, this release marked something of a departure from the somewhat 'macho', 'hardcore punk' image that The Feeding of the 5000 and its follow up, Stations of the Crass, had to some extent given the group, for it featured more obviously complex musical arrangements, as well as exclusively female vocals by Eve Libertine and Joy De Vivre (although Steve Ignorant remained a group member and is credited on the record sleeve as "not on this recording"). The album addressed feminist issues and once again attacked the institutions of 'the system' such as marriage and sexual repression.
One track, not actually listed on the album cover, was a deliberately saccharine (described in fact by the band themselves as "'pure, unadulterated shit") parody of a "middle of the road" love song entitled "Our Wedding". This was given away as a flexi disc with a teenage girl's romance magazine called Loving after having been offered it by an organisation calling itself Creative Recording And Sound Services (a backronym of Crass). A minor tabloid furore erupted once the hoax was revealed, with the News of the World going so far as to state that the album's title was "too obscene to print". (A leaflet giving the background to this Situationist-style prank was subsequently issued by the band). Now considered a rarity, the original flexi-disc fetches high prices on the collectors' market.
The album was banned by the retailer HMV. During the mid-1980s, Greater Manchester Police under the direction of James Anderton seized copies along with other records by Crass and the Dead Kennedys, from Eastern Bloc record shop. Frank Schofield was charged with displaying "obscene articles for publication for gain". The band Flux of Pink Indians, its two record labels and its publishing company were also charged under the Obscene Publications Act. The judge ruled against Crass in the ensuing court case, although this decision was overturned by the Court of Appeal, apart from the lyrics to one song, "Bata Motel". The heavy costs incurred by this episode were a contributing factor in Crass deciding to disband.
Track listing
Personnel
Eve Libertine - vocals
Joy De Vivre - vocals on "Health Surface"
Phil Free - lead guitar
B.A.Nana (N.A.Palmer) - rhythm guitar
Pete Wright - bass guitar
Penny Rimbaud - drums
G - harmonium on "What the Fuck?"
CRASS Member not on this recording - Steve Ignorant
Engineered by John Loder
Paintings by G
Design by Crass at Exitstencil Press
References
External links
Crass Discography (Penis Envy)
Crass - Penis Envy lyrics
1981 albums
Crass Records albums
Crass albums | [
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228178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vip%C4%81ka | Vipāka | Vipāka (Sanskrit and Pāli) is a Buddhist term for the ripening or maturation of karma (Pāli kamma), or intentional actions. The theory of karmic action and result (kamma-vipāka) is a central belief within the Buddhist tradition.
Alternate translations
The term vipaka is translated as:
effect (Ven. D. Mahinda Thera)
maturation (Keown, 2000, loc 810–813)
ripening (Harvey, 1990, p. 39)
result
Within the discourses
The Samyutta Nikaya states:
See also
Karma in Buddhism
Phala
Rebirth
References
Sources
External links
Anguttara Nikaya, Chakka Nipata, Mahavagga, Nibbedhika Sutta, p. 359, 6th Syn. Edn.
Samyutta Nikaya. Nidana-samyutta, Bhumija Sutta, p. 275, 6th Syn. Edn
Buddhist philosophical concepts
Karma in Buddhism | [
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228180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideo%20Nomo | Hideo Nomo | is a Japanese retired baseball pitcher who played in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) and Major League Baseball (MLB). He achieved early success in his native country, where he played with the Kintetsu Buffaloes from to . He then exploited a loophole to free himself from his contract, and became the first Japanese major leaguer to permanently relocate to MLB in the United States, debuting with the Los Angeles Dodgers in . Although he was not the first Japanese player in American professional baseball, Nomo is often credited with opening the door for Japanese players in MLB, due to his star status.
Nomo pitched over a span of 13 seasons in the American major leagues with 8 different teams, before retiring in . In 1995, he won the National League (NL) Rookie of the Year Award and was named an MLB All-Star. He twice led MLB in strikeouts and also threw two no-hitters. He was the only Japanese pitcher in MLB to throw a no-hitter until the Seattle Mariners' Hisashi Iwakuma did so on August 12, 2015, against the Baltimore Orioles.
Nomo was well known for his distinctive "tornado" pitching windup and delivery. In 2014, Nomo was inducted into the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame. He currently resides in Los Angeles, California.
Early life
Nomo was born in Minato-ku, Osaka, Japan, into the working-class family of Shizuo, a fisherman and postal worker, and Kayoko, a part-time supermarket employee. As a youth, Nomo was shy and withdrawn, although passionate about baseball. He developed his corkscrew-style pitching motion in order to impress his father while playing catch. He believed that rotating from having his back turned to his target would help him add speed to his pitches.
Nomo graduated from Seijo Industrial High School in Osaka where he grew to and . However, he was not selected in the Nippon Professional Baseball draft due to issues with his control. Instead, in 1988, Nomo joined Shin-Nittetsu Sakai, an Industrial League team representing Nippon Steel's branch in Sakai, Osaka. During this time, Nomo slept with a tennis ball taped between his fingers in order to perfect his forkball grip.
Success in Nippon Professional Baseball
Nomo honed his forkball and his control while pitching in the Industrial League. At the 1988 Summer Olympics, Nomo played for the silver medal-winning Japanese baseball team and the Kintetsu Buffaloes drafted him in . Nomo debuted with them in 1990 and was an immediate success, going 18–8 but more impressively striking out 287 hitters in just 235 innings. The strikeout numbers were attributed to his unorthodox wind-up, where he turned his back to the hitter, raised his pivot leg, and paused for a second before throwing. The delivery increased his pitch speed and made it more difficult for batters to spot the ball coming out of his hand. The windup gave him the nickname "Tornado." Nomo won the Triple Crown that year.
In his first four seasons, Nomo was as consistent, and consistently good, as any pitcher in Japanese baseball, winning 17 or 18 games each year. His fifth season in 1994 was marred by a shoulder injury and netted him only eight wins. Nomo's forkball became famous for being unpredictable for hitters and catchers alike.
Moving to the United States
Nomo had become one of the most popular baseball players in Japan but after the 1994 season, Nomo got into a contract dispute with team management. The Buffaloes rebuffed Nomo's demands to have a contract agent and multi-year contract. Because he was drafted by Kintetsu, the Buffaloes retained exclusive rights to Nomo; however, Nomo's agent, Don Nomura, found a loophole in the Japanese Uniform Players Contract to enable him to become a free agent. The "voluntary retirement clause" allowed a player who retired to play for whomever he wished after returning to active status. This led to him heading to the U.S., where in February 1995, the Los Angeles Dodgers signed him.
Nomo made his U.S. pro baseball debut with the Bakersfield Blaze on April 27, 1995, against the Rancho Cucamonga Quakes. Placed on a 90-pitch limit, and throwing mainly fastballs, Nomo pitched innings, taking the 2–1 loss against the Quakes. On May 2, after a month in the minors necessitated by a player's strike, he became the first Japanese-born Major Leaguer to appear in a major league game since Masanori Murakami in . He was also the first Japanese-born player to relocate permanently to the American major leagues, as Murakami played only two seasons with the San Francisco Giants and then returned to the Japanese major leagues for the remainder of his career. The pressure on Nomo would be tremendous, and Japanese media and fans appeared in large numbers in games he started. Nomo's games were regularly broadcast live to Japan, despite the fact most people would be waking up when he started games.
Career in Major League Baseball
1995–1997
The tornado delivery that baffled batters in Japan had the same effect on major league hitters, and he led the league in strikeouts in 1995 (while finishing second in walks) and was second with a 2.54 ERA. He struck out 11.101 batters per 9 innings to break Sandy Koufax's single-season franchise record of 10.546 in . He also started that year's All-Star Game, striking out three of the six batters he faced. He topped out at 93 mph in that game. But he only barely won NL Rookie of the Year honors that year over future MVP Chipper Jones, as many voters felt that his Japanese success made him anything but a rookie, although he qualified by Major League rules. Nomo had another fine season in which was capped by a no-hitter thrown on September 17 in the unlikeliest of places, Denver's Coors Field, a park notoriously known as being a hitters' park because of its high elevation, semi-arid climate, and lack of foul territory. Nomo's no-hitter remains as the only one in Coors Field, and was the last Dodger to throw a no-hitter until Josh Beckett completed one on May 25, 2014.
Nomo also found commercial success in America. Nomo had a signature sneaker, called the Air Max Nomo, produced by Nike in 1996. Also, he appeared on a Segata Sanshiro commercial for the Sega Saturn in 1997.
As batters caught on to his delivery, his effectiveness waned a bit in , although he still went 14–12, joining Dwight Gooden as the only other pitcher to strike out at least 200 batters in each of his first three seasons.
1998–2000
Nomo pitched poorly in , starting the season 2–7 and was dealt to the New York Mets. His performance did not improve and was released that season. In , he signed with the Chicago Cubs and made three starts for their Triple-A minor league team before refusing to make further starts in the minors, and received a contract with the Milwaukee Brewers, where he went 12–8 with a 4.54 ERA. He reached the 1,000 strikeout mark in 1999, the third fastest in major league history. The Brewers waived him after contract issues and the Philadelphia Phillies claimed him, then granted him free agency only 24 hours later after more contract issues. Finally signed by the Detroit Tigers in , he went 8–12 with a 4.74 ERA and was again released.
2001–2003
Nomo signed with the Boston Red Sox in and started the season in spectacular fashion, throwing his second no-hitter in his Sox debut, on April 4, against the Baltimore Orioles, walking three and striking out 11. This no-hitter was the first in the 10-year history of Oriole Park at Camden Yards and made Nomo the first Red Sox to pitch a no-hitter since Dave Morehead in . Nomo also became just the fourth player in baseball history to have thrown a no-hitter in both leagues (joining Cy Young, Jim Bunning and Nolan Ryan. Randy Johnson would later join them, becoming the fifth player after throwing a perfect game in 2004). It is the earliest, calendar-wise, that a Major League Baseball no-hitter has been pitched. Nomo also led the league in strikeouts for the first time since his first season in MLB.
A free agent after the end of the year, Nomo returned to the Dodgers, in . He ended up having his best season since 1996, posting a 16–6 record, 193 strikeouts, and 3.39 ERA. The following year, he had another strong season, going 16–13 with 177 K and a 3.09 ERA. During September , however, he began to exhibit signs of injury and fatigue.
2004–2008
Nomo began to struggle again in . After undergoing shoulder surgery in October 2003, he was benched after going 4–11 with an 8.25 ERA for the Dodgers (the worst ERA in the history of baseball for a player with at least 15 decisions in a season).
Before the start of spring training for , he signed a $800,000 contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. The contract also included a $700,000 incentive that kicked in if Nomo started 20 games. The stipulation was allegedly included because Devil Rays upper management was unsure if Nomo had fully recovered from his injury. After a poor start in which he posted a 7.24 ERA, he was released on July 25. Coincidentally or not, this was two days before he was slated to make his twentieth major league start. On July 27, Nomo was picked up off waivers by the New York Yankees, who signed him to a minor league contract, but never recalled him. Nomo was signed to a minor league contract by the Chicago White Sox during spring training in to play for the Triple-A Charlotte Knights of the International League, but the White Sox released him on June 7 of that year.
In , Nomo signed on with the Leones del Caracas of the Venezuelan Winter League, managed by his former catcher, Carlos Hernández. His participation in the Venezuelan league was viewed as a first step toward an eventual Major League comeback. He made his debut on October 20, 2007, against Tiburones de La Guaira. Nomo pitched one inning, allowing one hit and no runs.
On January 4, , Nomo signed a minor league contract for 2008 with the Kansas City Royals. If added to the roster Nomo would have received a $600,000 one-year contract and the chance to earn $100,000 in performance bonuses. On April 5, his contract was bought by the Royals and was added to the 25-man roster. On April 10, Nomo made his first major league appearance since 2005. He faced the New York Yankees in relief. He was brought in to start the seventh inning of a game while the Yankees were leading 4–1. Nomo loaded the bases, but was able to retire his native countryman, Hideki Matsui, to strand all three runners. However, he later surrendered back-to-back homers to Alex Rodriguez and Jorge Posada in the ninth inning. On April 20, Nomo was designated for assignment. The Royals released him on April 29, 2008. On July 17, 2008, Nomo officially announced his retirement from Major League Baseball.
Post playing career
Prior to the 2016 season, the San Diego Padres hired Nomo as Advisor for Baseball Operations, to assist the club with player development and expand their international profile. David Bednar has stated that he learned his split-finger from Nomo.
Playing style
With an overhand delivery, Nomo threw a fastball topping out at 95 mph and a forkball as his primary pitches.
Nomo was known for his signature windup, known as "The Tornado". He began by slowly raising his arms high above his head before lifting his front leg and twisting his torso until his back faced home plate. Then, he hurtled toward the plate with an explosive delivery that featured the same arm speed for all his pitches.
Accomplishments
Nomo earned 123 wins in the Major Leagues and 78 in Japan, winning his 200th overall game on June 15, 2005. Nomo's success helped inspire other stars from Japan such as Ichiro Suzuki, Hideki Matsui, and Daisuke Matsuzaka to come over to the States as well.
In addition, Nomo is one of only five players that have ever pitched at least one no-hitter game in both the National League and American League in Major League Baseball history. He has, to date, thrown the only no-hitter at Oriole Park at Camden Yards and at Coors Field.
He won the 1996 ESPY Award for Breakthrough Athlete.
Nomo was elected to the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame in 2014, only the third ever to be selected in their first year of eligibility. At the time, he was also the youngest player ever elected to that Hall of Fame, although his record was broken in 2018 by Hideki Matsui.
In popular culture
A song about Nomo, "There's No One Like Nomo" performed by Jack Sheldon, written by Marvin Hamlisch and Alan and Marilyn Bergman, was released by GNP Crescendo Records (GNPD 1406) in 1996.
Nomo has been referenced in hip-hop lyrics by rappers such as Pusha T and Wale.
Pro wrestler Mitsuhide Hirasawa adopted the ring name Hideo Saito, partially in homage to Nomo.
See also
Eiji Sawamura Award
List of Boston Red Sox no-hitters
List of Los Angeles Dodgers no-hitters
List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders
List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball no-hitters
List of Major League Baseball players from Japan
Los Angeles Dodgers award winners and league leaders
References
Further reading
Fagen, Herb. Nomo: The Inside Story on Baseball's Hottest Sensation. Friday Harbor, Washington: Turtleback Books, 1996. , .
Rodman, Edmon J. Nomo: The Tornado Who Took America by Storm. Los Angeles: Lowell House, 1996. .
Whiting, Robert, "Nomo blazed trail, helped mend fences with move", Japan Times, 3 October 2010, p. 22.
Whiting, Robert, "Contract loophole opened door for Nomo's jump", Japan Times, 10 October 2010, p. 18.
Whiting, Robert, "Tireless work ethic earned Nomo respect in majors", Japan Times, 17 October 2010, p. 18.
Whiting, Robert, "Nomo's legacy should land him in Hall of Fame", Japan Times, 24 October 2010, p. 22.
External links
, or Retrosheet
Nomo Baseball club
1968 births
American League strikeout champions
Bakersfield Blaze players
Baseball players at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Boston Red Sox players
Charlotte Knights players
Columbus Clippers players
Detroit Tigers players
Huntsville Stars players
Iowa Cubs players
Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Japanese expatriate baseball players in the United States
Kansas City Royals players
Kintetsu Buffaloes players
Las Vegas 51s players
Leones del Caracas players
Japanese expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Living people
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball players from Japan
Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
Milwaukee Brewers players
National League All-Stars
National League strikeout champions
New York Mets players
Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners
Nippon Professional Baseball pitchers
Nippon Professional Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
Olympic baseball players of Japan
Olympic silver medalists for Japan
Baseball people from Osaka
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Olympic medalists in baseball | [
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228184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Coulson | Charles Coulson | Charles Alfred Coulson (13 December 1910 – 7 January 1974) was a British applied mathematician and theoretical chemist.
Coulson's major scientific work was as a pioneer of the application of the quantum theory of valency to problems of molecular structure, dynamics and reactivity. He was also a Methodist lay preacher, served on the World Council of Churches from 1962 to 1968, and was chairman of Oxfam from 1965 to 1971.
Early life
The parents of Charles Coulson and his younger twin brother John Metcalfe Coulson were educators who hailed from the Midlands. The twins were born when their father, Alfred, was principal of Dudley Technical College and superintendent of the Methodist Sunday School, and their mother Annie Sincere Hancock was Headmistress of Tipton Elementary School, close by. Coulson's parents maintained a religious Methodist home.
When the Coulson brothers were 10, their father was appointed Superintendent of Technical Colleges for the South-West of England, and the family moved to Bristol. When Charles was 13 he was awarded a scholarship to Clifton College in Bristol, which placed a strong emphasis on science and mathematics.
Coulson's academic success at Clifton earned him an Entrance Scholarship in Mathematics to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1928.
His brother John also excelled at school, and went on to become Professor of Chemical Engineering at Newcastle University, and author of a major series of texts on chemical engineering.
The Cambridge years
At Cambridge, Coulson first studied the Mathematics Tripos. He was awarded a College Senior Scholarship during his studies, and received a First Class in the university examinations in 1931. He continued to take the Physics Part II examination a year later, receiving another First. He was awarded several College and University prizes during his undergraduate days. Lord Rutherford, J. J. Thomson, A.S. Besicovitch, Sir Arthur Eddington, G.H. Hardy, J.E. Littlewood, F.P. Ramsey and Ebenezer Cunningham were amongst his teachers.
In 1932, Coulson started graduate work with R. H. Fowler but switched to Sir John Lennard-Jones, and was awarded a Ph.D. in 1936 for work on the electronic structure of methane. By this time, he had published 11 papers. He continued as a research Fellow at Cambridge for another two years.
Coulson was accredited as a lay preacher in 1929, but he said his religion was perfunctory until a particular event in 1930, which he described in a documented sermon that he gave the following year. His religious beliefs were influenced by the physicist Sir Arthur Eddington, the theologian Charles Raven and, in particular, by Alex(ander) Wood, Fellow of Emmanuel College, authority on acoustics and pacifist., and Labour parliamentary candidate.
On the social side, Eileen Florence Burrett was studying in Cambridge to become a school teacher when Charles was an undergraduate. They came together in meetings of the University Methodists. They married in 1938, and had three children: Christopher, Janet and Wendy.
St. Andrews and Oxford before King's
In 1939, Coulson was appointed as senior lecturer in mathematics at University College, Dundee. Administratively, this was still part of the University of St. Andrews. Coulson was a conscientious objector during World War II. He carried a very heavy work load, teaching mathematics, physics and chemistry. E. T. Copson was head of department, on the main St. Andrews campus. Coulson collaborated with C. E. Duncanson at University College, London, brought George Stanley Rushbrooke from Cambridge and acted technically as his Ph.D. supervisor, and wrote the first edition of Waves.
In 1941 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1950 as a Fellow of the Royal Society of London.
In 1945, Coulson became a lecturer in physical chemistry, attached to University College and, concurrently, held a Fellowship awarded by Imperial Chemical Industries. Coulson's students at Oxford included:
H. Christopher Longuet-Higgins, later a professor at Cambridge, then Edinburgh.
John Maddox, who went with Coulson to King's College, London, turned to publishing and was knighted.
Roy McWeeny, later, a professor at Sheffield and then Pisa.
William E. (Bill) Moffitt, later on the Chemistry faculty at Harvard.
King's College, London
In 1947, Coulson accepted a university chair in theoretical physics at King's College, London. A news item in Nature described him as "among the foremost workers in Great Britain on the wave-mechanical side of quantum theory". It extolled his breadth of interests that took in the action of radiation on bacteria and the theory of liquids and solutions, besides the molecular orbital treatment of small molecules and ions, the approximation methods needed for large organic molecules for studies of bond lengths in coronene and conductivity of graphite, chemical reactivity, the treatment of momentum distribution functions and Compton-line profiles and his "well deserved reputation for his kindly and helpful encouragement of younger research workers."
Initially, Coulson's group were assigned offices on the top floor of a building (reached by a rickety wooden staircase) that overlooked the Strand, with considerable benefit when cavalcades paraded by on Lord Mayor's Day and Royal occasions. In 1952, the group moved down to offices in the new Physics Department, interspersed with Biophysics and other experimental groups. With developments in computing opening new vistas for the theoreticians, along with the developments in laboratory methods, the entire department enjoyed the intellectual ferment of the 1950s.
In his account of the official opening of the new Physics Department, Maurice Wilkins wrote: "the theoretical group deals with applications of wave mechanics and statistical mechanics ... the theory of the chemical bond ... questions of chemical reactivity ... stability of crystal structures, biological properties of cancer-producing compounds and other molecules, electrical and magnetic properties of metals, ... properties of electrolytes and colloidal solutions, including ... electrophoresis ... more than one hundred papers have been published during the past five years."
Coulson's group consisted of (1) graduate students who conducted research on electronic structure and valence theory, for a Ph.D. degree directly under Coulson's supervision, (2) students working for a Ph.D. in statistical thermodynamics under the supervision of Fred Booth and, later, in nuclear physics supervised by Louis Elton and then Dr. Percy, (3) students working for an M.Sc. on topics in applied mathematics to be followed by a Ph.D. with another supervisor in the Mathematics Department, and (4) visitors, some of whom held senior academic and industrial appointments. The valence theory Ph.D. students included Simon J. Altmann, Michael P Barnett, Aagje Bozeman, Peter J. Davies, Harry H. Greenwood, Peter Higgs, Julianne Jacobs, Roland Lefebvre, George Lester, John Maddox, Norman H. March, and Robert Taylor. Statistical mechanics was pursued by Geoffrey V. Chester, John Enderby, Alec Gaines and Alan B. Lidiard. The students who went on to the Mathematics Department included Godfrey Lance, Eric Milner and Geoffrey Sewell. Collectively, these wrote nearly 30 books in later years. Visitors who stayed for months included Professor Inga Fischer-Hjalmars of the University of Stockholm, Dr. John van der Waals of Shell Oil, and Dr. Joop der Heer from the University of Amsterdam.
Oxford after King's
In 1952, Coulson was appointed Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics and Fellow of Wadham College at the University of Oxford. The chair was held previously by E. A. Milne, the mathematician and astrophysicist, and Roger Penrose succeeded Coulson. His inaugural lecture expressed the following view of applied mathematics: "an intellectual adventure in which are combined creative imagination and authentic canons of beauty and fitness; they combine to give us insight into the nature of that world of which we ourselves, and our minds, are part."
Coulson was active in the formation of the Mathematical Institute, and soon became its director. On the institute website Coulson is described as "a man who packed into his life twice as much as any normal academic person ... he had a gift for lucid exposition and was ... indefatigable in his work, not only for science and mathematics, but also on behalf of people, whether black or white, young or old."
In 1972, Coulson was appointed to the newly created chair of theoretical chemistry.
Books and journals
Coulson wrote several books. Valence, first published in 1952, and also reissued posthumously, was the most influential. Coulson also wrote popular works on atomic and molecular structure:
Waves (1941)
Electricity (1948)
The Place of Science as a Cohesive Force in Modern Society (1951)
Christianity in an Age of science (1953)
Coulson was a founder member of the board of the journal Molecular Physics and its first editor.
Religious and social activities
Beside his scientific works, Coulson wrote Science, Technology and the Christian (1953) and Science and Christian Belief (1955), integrating his scientific and religious views. Coulson apparently coined the phrase God of the gaps. Coulson believed religious faith was essential for the responsible use of science. He was a pacifist and conscientious objector, but championed the development of nuclear energy. He encouraged scientists to help improve Third World food production. He was chairman of Oxfam from 1965 to 1971. Charles' widest religious impact on the general public was in his BBC broadcasts. In these, and in general interaction with people, he conveyed his religiosity in a gentle and sometimes humorous manner, for example, when he claimed in his inaugural lecture at King's College, that he had received mail addressed to him as Professor of Theological Physics.
See also
Bent's rule
Valence bond theory
Molecular orbital
List of science and religion scholars
List of chemists
References
Further reading
External links
Video of a talk by Ana Simões titled "Textbooks as Manifestos: C. A. Coulson after Linus Pauling and Robert S. Mulliken"
1910 births
1974 deaths
People from Dudley
People educated at Clifton College
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Academics of King's College London
Academics of the University of Dundee
Academics of the University of St Andrews
English chemists
Theoretical chemists
English Methodists
English Christian pacifists
Fellows of University College, Oxford
Fellows of Wadham College, Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science
British conscientious objectors
Faraday Lecturers
Rouse Ball Professors of Mathematics (University of Oxford)
Methodist pacifists | [
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228187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20Guard%20%28Warhammer%2040%2C000%29 | Imperial Guard (Warhammer 40,000) | In the fictional universe of Warhammer 40,000, the Imperial Guard is the army of the Imperium in the Warhammer 40,000 tabletop miniature wargame.
The Imperial Guard, now known as the "Astra Militarum", are a specific army or faction in the Warhammer 40,000 and Epic tabletop games and universe. The army itself is characterised by being capable of fielding a multitude of lightly armoured infantry in combination with some of the toughest and most powerful tanks in the game. In the game universe, the Imperial Guard is a colossal military organisation consisting of roughly 500 trillion men and women supported by at least a few hundred billion Armoured vehicles each from thousands of different systems within the Imperium of Man.
The Imperial Guard was first introduced to the game in White Dwarf 109, January 1989. In April 2014 a new codex was released for the 6th Edition of the game, along with a number of new plastic kits. Such models included plastic versions of Ogryns and Militarum Tempestus Scions (previously named Stormtroopers) which had been metal. A plastic kit of the Hydra (previously a Forge World model) also became available. In addition to the new kits and models, the Imperial Guard had a name change to the Astra Militarum in line with Games Workshop's shift away from generic naming of their intellectual property.
Overview
The Astra Militarum (previously the Imperial Guard and the Imperial Army) is a fictional colossal military organisation, consisting of many hundreds of thousands of armies throughout the Imperium, and forming the vast bulk of the Imperium's military machine. Unlike the Space Marines, an elite unit that rely upon precision strikes against the enemy's critical assets to carry the day, the Astra Militarum has the reputation of relying on massed assaults made up of nearly endless waves of infantry and armour to achieve victory. "If a Space Marine assault is likened to a surgeon`s scalpel, the Astra Militarum assault is likened to a sledgehammer blow" It is this battlefield strategy that has earned the organisation the moniker "The Hammer of the Emperor". It also earns the Guard the reputation as a meatgrinder, whose most infamous or desperate commanders are more than willing to waste their soldiers' lives for the smallest of gains or in the most suicidal defensive actions. In truth, most Imperial commanders are highly trained and skilled career soldiers who have learned how to leverage the vast resources of the Imperium for maximum effect.
Origins
The origins of the Astra Militarum are shrouded in history, all the way to the Great Crusade. This crusade was Driven by the Space Marines, the Adeptus Astartes, each the equivalent of a dozen normal soldiers. Despite this, the Legions of the Astartes were finite and the scale of the crusade demanded more manpower, and hence the Imperial Army was created. The Imperial Army became a vital part of the Great Crusade, forming the vast majority of the troops involved, numbering in the billions, but still subordinate to the Adeptus Astartes and their Legions. First used as garrison troops, or given clean up duties behind the advance of the Legions, they were considered 'second line'. When the Crusade reached the Eastern Fringe, the Imperial Army was beginning to be utilized in the front line alongside their Astartes brothers. An organizational structure change was forced by the defection of Warmaster Horus, triggering a civil war in the Imperium, now dubbed the Horus Heresy. In the time following to prevent the possibility of large-scale rebellion occurring again, the titanic armies of the Imperial forces were divided. The Imperial Army ceased to exist, and the Imperial Guard was formed in its place. The Imperial Guard was reorganized into smaller units known as regiments, and centrally trained Commissars were universally introduced to watch out for disloyalty. Given the nature of Imperial Guard regiments, and their basis of single world dependence, should a regiment rebel, the treachery should be contained locally.
Each Imperial Guard regiment is usually raised from a single world and can number anywhere from several thousand upwards, and vary enormously, and are supported by a huge array of light and heavy armoured vehicles. Each regiment also has its own entourage, consisting of support staff, camp followers, suppliers, tech-priests, psykers, doctors, religious leaders, and the like. When multiple regiments are grouped up into large fighting forces, they are issued far larger and more powerful assets such as planetary-scale artillery and super-heavy tank regiments from thousands of Munitorum armouries, fortresses, and staging worlds, with larger scale deployments taking decades if not centuries of preparation. Although a player may field a mixed force of these armour, artillery, and infantry units on the tabletop, in the game universe, the composition of any one regiment is fairly uniform; that is, an infantry regiment will contain thousands of foot soldiers and are entirely restricted from having any form of heavy armour or artillery, an armoured regiment will consist of little else save its armoured vehicles and support crews with no form of integrated air or artillery support, and an artillery regiment will be focused wholly on the task of providing fire support to front line regiments. This policy was put in place by the Imperium to prevent, or at least minimise, the damage from large scale mutinies in the wake of the Horus Heresy, as no one regiment constitutes a complete self-sufficient fighting force in its own right. However, all guardsmen, from the highest Lord General, to the lowest cook, has the secondary job of being a frontline guardsmen and are expected to know the basics of infantry warfare and the use of the most basic of standard kit. A special handbook, referred to as The Imperial Infantryman's Uplifting Primer, is given to all members of the Guard as a means of informing them on things they may miss out on through training. Should a Primer be vandilised, lost or stolen, its owner faces death.
Regiments are drawn from all types of planets in the Imperium; from Fortress worlds such as Cadia, where the entire populace is raised under arms from birth, to Feral and Medieval worlds, and the contributions of some planets over the ten thousand years of the Imperium run into the billions of regiments, if not more. Every planet in the Imperium, and their associated Planetary Lord or Imperial Governor, is charged with defence of their own world. To accomplish this they raise a train a fighting force, which may take the form of an official military, garrison force, or militia amongst others. These forces are solely for planetary defence and are unlikely to be used in off-world situations. Imperial Guard Regiments are sourced from the annual tithe required from each Imperial Governor; no less than one tenth of their overall planetary fighting force, but as much as the Departmento Munitorum require, to join the Emperor's fight in the Galaxy as a whole.
The Imperial Guard are constantly at war, freeing worlds from Chaotic or alien influence, or defending them from the same, or most often putting down rebellions or other human based enemies of the Imperium.
The Imperial Guard rely upon the Imperial Navy for transport to and from war zones, orbital bombardment, and most kinds of air support. The Imperium's naval and ground forces are kept strictly separate such that a mutinous general will not have access to an integrated military machine. That was not the case with the pre-Horus Heresy Imperial Army, which had no such strict distinction, resulted in Horus acquiring a powerful fleet in addition to his vast ground forces and numerous worlds being taken over by ambitious commanders who could hold entire systems for ransom knowing that the people there were powerless to stop them
Famous and specialised Imperial Guard regiments
Many regiments of the Imperial Guard do not adhere to the standard Cadian style of warfare displayed on the tabletop. Although Cadian-style regiments are the most common due to Cadians being the poster boys of the Imperial Guard, some regiments from other worlds specialise in other forms of war, a facet they often inherit from the conditions of their home planet. The Catachans hail from a jungle covered 'death world', and so use lighter, more mobile transports rather than heavy, cumbersome ones, specialising in jungle warfare and hostile environments. The Death Korps of Krieg (chiefly inspired from the armies of World War I) have a propensity for sieges and trench warfare, where their suicidal stubbornness and tenacity are most valuable, as well as their unusually large store of biochemical weapons. Some, most notably the Elysian Drop Troopers and the Harakoni Warhawks, rely on aerial deployment and are experts in vertical envelopment. Others, such as the Tallarn Desert Raiders train their men to fight best in certain climates, and adapt their style of warfare around their chosen speciality. While each regiment has strengths and weaknesses, Imperial Planners often are forced to deploy regiments where they are their most ill-suited, Tallarn Desert Raiders on an ice world, Elysian Drop Troopers on an ocean world, Death Korp of Krieg in garrison duty, etc. Oftentimes Imperial planners cannot even be sure which regiments will arrive to a hotzone, as the fickle nature of the warp means one can arrive tomorrow, or a hundred years later.
Equipment
The vast majority of basic Imperial Guard guardsmen are armed with a laser rifle known as a "lasgun" or "lasrifle" which serves as their standard weapon and is the only guaranteed piece of equipment all guardsmen will possess, but even then some will go into battle without one. The Lasgun is cheap, easy to mass-produce, and reliable. While it's a powerful anti-infantry weapon (able to cleanly sever human limbs and blast holes through solid concrete) it's considered a relatively weak weapon against the many inhuman and superhuman enemies the Imperium faces, but in numbers it's capable of damaging just about anything. A lasgun's ammunition comes in the form of a power pack which on a lasgun's standard settings can provide up to 80-120 shots before needing to be recharged, but this is not an issue as the pack can easily be recharged by virtually any heat source whether it be from sunlight, solar panels or even throwing it into a campfire, though the latter most option risks damaging the pack, shortening it's lifespan. It can also be overcharged in last-ditch situations turning it into a makeshift grenade, a tactic favored by veterans, but results in the destruction of the weapon. Most lasguns also come with a bayonet lug allowing for a bayonet or other close combat weapon to be attached, useful when assaulting entrenched enemy positions. Combat knives are also standard issue, these can range from basic knives made out of plasteel to mono knives whose edge always stay at their sharpest and never dulls. For protection a guardsman will typically be outfitted in a flak vest, armour similar in principle and design to 21st-century Bulletproof vests, but made from more advanced and durable materials. While the flak vest is seen as a very basic form of combat armour, it is extremely easy to mass-produce and requires little knowledge to repair. Many guardsmen (usually veterans) may also be found carrying an additional sidearm as a backup weapon, usually laspistols (like the Death Korps of Krieg) or autopistols (such as Cadians). Guardsmen can also be issued with a small pack of 2-4 grenades, typically fragmentation, krak, Smoke, and/or photon flash grenades. Although even more specialised or exotic types of grenades can be issued in rare instances, they are normally handed over to more elite soldiers such as scions or specialists such as breachers (Guardsmen specially trained in demolition tactics) instead of the standard rank-and-file guardsman. Scions have access to superior wargear and are specially trained to be able to undertake a variety of advanced missions. They are outfitted in carapace armour which offers superior protection compared to a flak vest, but at the cost of reduced movement speed. However most, if not all scions are given minor genetic enhancements which allows them to bear the extra weight without any problems, nullifying the drawback. They are also armed with a more advanced and powerful version of the lasgun known as a hotshot lasgun and/or hellgun which is much favoured for its superior armour-penetration ability, able to pierce even the mighty power armour of the superhuman Space Marines. Scions are also privileged to request more exotic equipment to be able to fulfill certain missions or to defeat certain targets. The Imperial Guard also makes wide use of autoguns, an improved version of modern assault rifles, bolter-type weapons (heavy bolters in particular), directed-energy weapons, grenade launchers, flamethrowers, a huge arsenal of ordnance weapons such as artillery and tank cannons, and various close combat weapons such as and .
The Imperial Guard can also field a wide range of vehicles, from the amphibious Chimera IFV to the awe-inspiring and terror-inducing Baneblade tank, most of which are usually maintained by members of the Adeptus Mechanicus assigned to their subsequent regiments. Usually not as sophisticated as the vehicles used by Space Marines but effective in their own right, they can be as numerous as the infantry themselves and are shown to be as reliable. Two examples of this would be the mobile artillery piece known as the basilisk, which is known to field both anti-armour and incendiary rounds, not to mention the devastating Earthshaker round. The second example is the Leman Russ main battle tank, a highly versatile armoured unit that has multiple variants that have different main cannons for a variety of situations, from the versatile battle cannon to the deadly, but temperamental plasma destroyer. While they are versatile, it is well known that other forces such as the Orks and the forces of Chaos claim these units for themselves and can be seen fighting against the Imperium. Some units, such as the Baneblade, are even classified by the Imperial Guard as essential for their campaigns due to their incredible prowess in battle, the vehicle in question being a super-heavy tank akin to a mobile fortress 3-4 stories high. When these vehicles are about to fall into enemy hands, Imperial commanders usually scuttle or rescue them at the expense of many of their men. After all, if there is one resource in the Imperium that can be considered "infinite" it's manpower.
Gameplay
History of the Imperial Guard as an army
The first edition of Warhammer 40,000 included rules for a force known as the "Army". Later their name was changed to "Imperial Guard" and then as of 7th edition "Astra Militarum".
The Imperial Guard make up the backbone of the Imperium's armed forces.
The Imperial Guard was initially bound by a series of rules, published in the Warhammer 40,000 Compendium, relating to its command structure. Squads of units formed platoons under a command squad. Units that were separated from the command squad were more limited in action. The initial Imperial Guard army could include, besides the basic squads, Rough Riders (a form of Cavalry), penal units, human bombs, abhumans and robots. Several vehicles were available, including; motorcycles with an optional side-car, Jet cycles (a form of jet propelled motorbike), grav attack vehicles (armoured fighting vehicles utilising anti gravity for propulsion) and Sentinels (a two-legged walker, similar to an AT-ST),.
The first incarnation of the Imperial Guard as a fully supported army was in 1995, with the release of the Codex: Imperial Guard sourcebook for the second edition of Warhammer 40,000. This was the first time that the army itself had specific army rules collected in their own sourcebook. With the release of the third edition of the game, almost all the Warhammer 40,000 armies eventually had new codices compatible with the new edition. In line with this, Codex: Imperial Guard was released in 1999, followed by Codex: Catachans in 2001. This was a smaller sourcebook (or mini-dex/mini-codex) that was meant to be used in conjunction with the "parent" Codex: Imperial Guard. The mini-dex itself provided even more specific rules for fielding one of the more popular Imperial Guard sub-armies, the Catachan Jungle Fighters, for which plastic models were available. In 2003, Games Workshop conducted the Eye of Terror worldwide campaign and released a corresponding sourcebook, Codex: Eye of Terror. This campaign sourcebook contained various rules, including a specific army list for another one of the Imperial Guard's notable sub-armies, the Cadian Shock Troops. Soon after the campaign ended, the changes in the Cadian Shock Troops army list were integrated into the Imperial Guard rules, and Games Workshop released a second, revamped version of Codex: Imperial Guard.
In the actual in-universe background, the predecessors to the Imperial Guard was the Imperial Army alongside innumerable Imperial Cults and Militias present throughout the Great Crusade, but also more elite forces, such as the Solar Auxilia. However, after the Horus Heresy, the Imperial Army was split into the Imperial Guard and Navy to prevent either force from either having the ability to their gain quick access to transportation or field occupational troops quickly if any of their divisional units turned traitor.
Overview
Please note that this text was written during the 7th edition of the game and is therefore out of date.
Individual guardsmen are weak and have low point-costs of 5, for comparison A Space Marine costs 14, thus Imperial Guard armies are usually rather large (a full guard platoon can boast up to 138 models, not counting independent characters, per troops choice. When adding dedicated transports, this number rises to 144 the total point cost of such a listing could be up to a 1,000 points and hundreds of dollars). In addition, they have access to various vehicles, such as the Leman Russ main battle tank, Basilisk mobile artillery, Manticore rocket artillery, Chimera armoured troop transport and the Sentinel walker. Because they require so many units, an Imperial Guard army can be expensive and time-consuming to assemble and paint. In regards to their weak infantry, when they don't vastly outnumber the enemy, the guardsmen rely on their unique tanks and fire support.
In a later Codex, the Imperial Guard "doctrines" were removed, replaced by the "orders" system. Units designated by the "order" must be in a specific distance radius from either a Platoon Officer or a HQ Officer. Benefits are given if both the officer's unit and the squad receiving the order have "vox-casters" (in-universe term for "radio").
In addition to baseline humans, the Imperial Guard also contains several types of abhumans — humans evolved from radically different planetary environment over tens of thousands of years that differ markedly from the norm. The two species most commonly found are the Ogryns (the counterpart of the Warhammer Fantasy setting ogres) whose superhuman strength and incredibly tough resilience makes them excellent close combat fighters and the Ratlings (resembling halflings/hobbits) who function as expert snipers and trackers.
One of the more distinctive aspects of the Imperial Guard army is its Commissars. They are represented as akin to the ruthless, political commissars of the former Soviet Union. The Imperial Commissar', as described by many Warhammer novelists, is given complete jurisdiction to judge the actions of any trooper or officer and to act accordingly. This includes up to summary execution of units who display disobedience or cowardice (in gameplay, this is an often useful function that boosts the morale of wavering units and prevents possessed psykers from harming their comrades) This is useful for the Imperium who must keep an ever-watchful eye in case their subjects turn to chaos. Understandably, they are much hated by the guardsmen they serve with. Many novels hint that a good portion of the Commissars slain in battle are "accidentally" hit by friendly fire; the 4th-Edition Codex for the notoriously anti-authoritarian Catachan regiments of the Imperial Guard includes the "Oops, Sorry Sir" rule that gives Commissar models included in a Catachan army a 1-in-6 chance of having been killed – or more appropriately, fragged – before the game begins. The Death Korps of Krieg are famous for killing Commissars/CO's should ever they commit cowardice themselves and attempt to flee. There are also hints that most if not all Commissars primarily inspire troops by heroic or suicidal example, hoping to emulate figures like the "heroic" Commissar Ciaphas Cain or Colonel-Commissar Ibram Gaunt.
Another unique aspect of the Imperial Guard is that the models for the regiments of different worlds are physically distinct, rather than the same models with different paint schemes like the other armies (save the Space Marines where the Blood Angels, Dark Angels, Space Wolves, and Grey Knights Chapters all have models specific to them which other Chapters may not field and as such are considered separate armies). For example, the models for the Cadian Shock Troops resemble the soldiers of the Mobile Infantry as seen in the movie Starship Troopers and the Catachan Jungle Fighters appear in the stripped down uniforms as worn by American and Australian soldiers during the Vietnam War, and as seen in movies such as Rambo – a look befitting the inhabitants of a jungle world where everything is trying to kill them.
As a single platoon contains several squads, and each squad has options for taking special and heavy weapons, a single troops choice can take a staggering amount of said weapons: a fully loaded platoon may take up to 11 special weapons and 20 heavy weapons in a single troops choice, while most other armies can only take one of each. This, combined with the heavy firepower of Guard vehicles, produces an army that is primarily geared toward firepower. To offset this and create a proper balance to the game, the designers made the average Imperial Guardsman both physically weaker and less skilled with their weapons. This means that should an enemy withstand the blistering hail of weapons fire and close the distance to assault the Guardsman in melee, the Guardsmen will more than likely be torn apart.
Some of the major strengths of the Imperial Guard army are their vehicles. From the fragile, but mobile Scout Sentinel to the devastatingly destructive Leman Russ Demolisher firing small nuclear weapons to the long ranged Basilisk self-propelled howitzer, the vehicles of the Imperial Guard can significantly add to their effectiveness as an army. Although individual tanks from other armies (such as the Necrons) may sport more firepower, speed, and/or armour than those of the Imperial Guard, the Guard has, overall, the most powerful and varied armoured force, with many devastatingly powerful units like the Baneblade Super heavy Tank and it's many variants, or the DeathStrike ICBM Launcher platform (armed with plasma nukes by standard) being added to the possibilities.
Video games
The Imperial Guard make several appearances in many of the video games that occur in the Warhammer 40,000 universe.
The Imperial Guard make a guest appearance in the single player campaign of Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War led by Colonel Carus Brom as NPCs and playable units in some missions. They have since been expanded into a playable faction in the game's expansion packs:
The Imperial Guard were part of the Imperium's force in Final Liberation: Warhammer Epic 40,000, the other two parts consisting of the Space Marines and the Adeptus Mechanicus Titan legions.
The Imperial Guard also make appearances as opposition in the Warhammer 40,000: Fire Warrior first-person shooter. Among the possible opponents, there are guardsman equipped with lasguns, autogun-wielding stormtroopers, officers with chainswords and a Valkyrie Gunship as a boss.
The Imperial Guard has also made an appearance in the computer game Warhammer 40,000: Rites of War, usually used alongside Space Marine forces (much like in the Final Liberation).
Much like in the original Dawn of War the Imperial Guard (more specifically stormtroopers and regular guardsmen squads) make a supporting appearance as NPCs in Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II during several campaign battles, including the ending mission against the Tyranids. They also appeared in its expansion, Chaos Rising, with some guardsmen becoming traitorous and pledging their loyalties to Chaos in the early missions on Aurelia.
In Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II – Retribution, the Imperial Guard have become a fully playable race and are most dangerous when they field a large number of tanks or a huge horde of infantry.
In Warhammer 40,000: Space Marine'', the Cadian 203rd regiment (so battered up it is under the command of a second lieutenant) is trying to survive on Graia, an adeptus mechanicus forgeworld, as the player's Ultramarines squad drops in. Guardsmen serve as NPCs throughout the game, and both the Guard and the player provide mutual support in terms of combat, navigation and air transport.
Bibliography
Imperial Guard Homepage from the UK Games Workshop website. URL accessed on 9 January 2006.
References
Fictional military organizations
Imperium (Warhammer 40,000)
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228190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanillin | Vanillin | Vanillin is an organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a phenolic aldehyde. Its functional groups include aldehyde, hydroxyl, and ether. It is the primary component of the extract of the vanilla bean. Synthetic vanillin is now used more often than natural vanilla extract as a flavoring agent in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals.
Vanillin and ethylvanillin are used by the food industry; ethylvanillin is more expensive, but has a stronger note. It differs from vanillin by having an ethoxy group (−O−CH2CH3) instead of a methoxy group (−O−CH3).
Natural vanilla extract is a mixture of several hundred different compounds in addition to vanillin. Artificial vanilla flavoring is often a solution of pure vanillin, usually of synthetic origin. Because of the scarcity and expense of natural vanilla extract, synthetic preparation of its predominant component has long been of interest. The first commercial synthesis of vanillin began with the more readily available natural compound eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol). Today, artificial vanillin is made either from guaiacol or lignin.
Lignin-based artificial vanilla flavoring is alleged to have a richer flavor profile than oil-based flavoring; the difference is due to the presence of acetovanillone, a minor component in the lignin-derived product that is not found in vanillin synthesized from guaiacol.
History
Vanilla was cultivated as a flavoring by pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people; at the time of their conquest by Hernán Cortés, the Aztecs used it as a flavoring for chocolate.
Vanillin was first isolated as a relatively pure substance in 1858 by Nicolas-Theodore Gobley, who obtained it by evaporating a vanilla extract to dryness and recrystallizing the resulting solids from hot water. In 1874, the German scientists Ferdinand Tiemann and Wilhelm Haarmann deduced its chemical structure, at the same time finding a synthesis for vanillin from coniferin, a glucoside of isoeugenol found in pine bark. Tiemann and Haarmann founded a company Haarmann and Reimer (now part of Symrise) and started the first industrial production of vanillin using their process in Holzminden, Germany. In 1876, Karl Reimer synthesized vanillin (2) from guaiacol (1).
By the late 19th century, semisynthetic vanillin derived from the eugenol found in clove oil was commercially available.
Synthetic vanillin became significantly more available in the 1930s, when production from clove oil was supplanted by production from the lignin-containing waste produced by the sulfite pulping process for preparing wood pulp for the paper industry. By 1981, a single pulp and paper mill in Thorold, Ontario supplied 60% of the world market for synthetic vanillin. However, subsequent developments in the wood pulp industry have made its lignin wastes less attractive as a raw material for vanillin synthesis. Today, approximately 15% of the world's production of vanillin is still made from lignin wastes, while approximately 85% synthesized in a two-step process from the petrochemical precursors guaiacol and glyoxylic acid.
Beginning in 2000, Rhodia began marketing biosynthetic vanillin prepared by the action of microorganisms on ferulic acid extracted from rice bran. At USD$700/kg, this product, sold under the trademarked name Rhovanil Natural, is not cost-competitive with petrochemical vanillin, which sells for around USD$15/kg. However, unlike vanillin synthesized from lignin or guaiacol, it can be labeled as a natural flavoring.
Occurrence
Vanillin is most prominent as the principal flavor and aroma compound in vanilla. Cured vanilla pods contain about 2% by dry weight vanillin; on cured pods of high quality, relatively pure vanillin may be visible as a white dust or "frost" on the exterior of the pod.
It is also found in Leptotes bicolor, a species of orchid native to Paraguay and southern Brazil, and the Southern Chinese red pine.
At lower concentrations, vanillin contributes to the flavor and aroma profiles of foodstuffs as diverse as olive oil, butter, raspberry, and lychee fruits.
Aging in oak barrels imparts vanillin to some wines, vinegar, and spirits.
In other foods, heat treatment generates vanillin from other compounds. In this way, vanillin contributes to the flavor and aroma of coffee, maple syrup, and whole-grain products, including corn tortillas and oatmeal.
Chemistry
Natural production
Natural vanillin is extracted from the seed pods of Vanilla planifolia, a vining orchid native to Mexico, but now grown in tropical areas around the globe. Madagascar is presently the largest producer of natural vanillin.
As harvested, the green seed pods contain vanillin in the form of its β--glucoside; the green pods do not have the flavor or odor of vanilla.
After being harvested, their flavor is developed by a months-long curing process, the details of which vary among vanilla-producing regions, but in broad terms it proceeds as follows:
First, the seed pods are blanched in hot water, to arrest the processes of the living plant tissues. Then, for 1–2 weeks, the pods are alternately sunned and sweated: during the day they are laid out in the sun, and each night wrapped in cloth and packed in airtight boxes to sweat. During this process, the pods become dark brown, and enzymes in the pod release vanillin as the free molecule. Finally, the pods are dried and further aged for several months, during which time their flavors further develop. Several methods have been described for curing vanilla in days rather than months, although they have not been widely developed in the natural vanilla industry, with its focus on producing a premium product by established methods, rather than on innovations that might alter the product's flavor profile.
Biosynthesis
Although the exact route of vanillin biosynthesis in V. planifolia is currently unknown, several pathways are proposed for its biosynthesis. Vanillin biosynthesis is generally agreed to be part of the phenylpropanoid pathway starting with -phenylalanine, which is deaminated by phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) to form t-cinnamic acid. The para position of the ring is then hydroxylated by the cytochrome P450 enzyme cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H/P450) to create p-coumaric acid. Then, in the proposed ferulate pathway, 4-hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA ligase (4CL) attaches p-coumaric acid to coenzyme A (CoA) to create p-coumaroyl CoA. Hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HCT) then converts p-coumaroyl CoA to 4-coumaroyl shikimate/quinate. This subsequently undergoes oxidation by the P450 enzyme coumaroyl ester 3’-hydroxylase (C3’H/P450) to give caffeoyl shikimate/quinate. HCT then exchanges the shikimate/quinate for CoA to create caffeoyl CoA, and 4CL removes CoA to afford caffeic acid. Caffeic acid then undergoes methylation by caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) to give ferulic acid. Finally, vanillin synthase hydratase/lyase (vp/VAN) catalyzes hydration of the double bond in ferulic acid followed by a retro-aldol elimination to afford vanillin. Vanillin can also be produced from vanilla glycoside with the additional final step of deglycosylation. In the past p-hydroxybenzaldehyde was speculated to be a precursor for vanillin biosynthesis. However, a 2014 study using radiolabelled precursor indicated that p-hydroxybenzaldehyde do not synthesise vanillin or vanillin glucoside in the vanilla orchids.
Chemical synthesis
The demand for vanilla flavoring has long exceeded the supply of vanilla beans. , the annual demand for vanillin was 12,000 tons, but only 1,800 tons of natural vanillin were produced. The remainder was produced by chemical synthesis. Vanillin was first synthesized from eugenol (found in oil of clove) in 1874–75, less than 20 years after it was first identified and isolated. Vanillin was commercially produced from eugenol until the 1920s. Later it was synthesized from lignin-containing "brown liquor", a byproduct of the sulfite process for making wood pulp. Counterintuitively, though it uses waste materials, the lignin process is no longer popular because of environmental concerns, and today most vanillin is produced from the petrochemical raw material guaiacol. Several routes exist for synthesizing vanillin from guaiacol.
At present, the most significant of these is the two-step process practiced by Rhodia since the 1970s, in which guaiacol (1) reacts with glyoxylic acid by electrophilic aromatic substitution. The resulting vanillylmandelic acid (2) is then converted by 4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylglyoxylic acid (3) to vanillin (4) by oxidative decarboxylation.
Wood-based vanillin
15% of the world's production of vanillin is produced from lignosulfonates, a byproduct from the manufacture of cellulose via the sulfite process. The sole producer of wood-based vanillin is the company Borregaard located in Sarpsborg, Norway.
Wood-based vanillin is produced by copper-catalyzed oxidation of the lignin structures in lignosulfonates under alkaline conditions and is claimed by the manufacturing company to be preferred by their customers due to, among other reasons, its much lower carbon footprint than petrochemically synthesized vanillin.
Fermentation
The company Evolva has developed a genetically modified microorganism which can produce vanillin. Because the microbe is a processing aid, the resulting vanillin would not fall under U.S. GMO labeling requirements, and because the production is nonpetrochemical, food using the ingredient can claim to contain "no artificial ingredients".
Using ferulic acid as an input and a specific non GMO species of Amycolatopsis bacteria, natural vanillin can be produced.
Biochemistry
Several studies have suggested that vanillin can affect the performance of antibiotics in laboratory conditions.
Uses
The largest use of vanillin is as a flavoring, usually in sweet foods. The ice cream and chocolate industries together comprise 75% of the market for vanillin as a flavoring, with smaller amounts being used in confections and baked goods.
Vanillin is also used in the fragrance industry, in perfumes, and to mask unpleasant odors or tastes in medicines, livestock fodder, and cleaning products. It is also used in the flavor industry, as a very important key note for many different flavors, especially creamy profiles such as cream soda.
Additionally, vanillin can be used as a general-purpose stain for visualizing spots on thin-layer chromatography plates. This stain yields a range of colors for these different components.
Vanillin–HCl staining can be used to visualize the localisation of tannins in cells.
Manufacturing
Vanillin has been used as a chemical intermediate in the production of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and other fine chemicals. In 1970, more than half the world's vanillin production was used in the synthesis of other chemicals. As of 2016, vanillin uses have expanded to include perfumes, flavoring and aromatic masking in medicines, various consumer and cleaning products, and livestock foods.
Adverse effects
Vanillin can trigger migraine headaches in a small fraction of the people who experience migraines.
Some people have allergic reactions to vanilla. They may be allergic to synthetically produced vanilla but not to natural vanilla, or the other way around, or to both.
Vanilla orchid plants can trigger contact dermatitis, especially among people working in the vanilla trade if they come into contact with the plants sap. An allergic contact dermatitis called vanillism produces swelling and redness, and sometimes other symptoms. The sap of most species of vanilla orchid which exudes from cut stems or where beans are harvested can cause moderate to severe dermatitis if it comes in contact with bare skin. The sap of vanilla orchids contains calcium oxalate crystals, which are thought to be the main causative agent of contact dermatitis in vanilla plantation workers.
A pseudophytodermatitis called vanilla lichen can be caused by tiny mites.
Ecology
Scolytus multistriatus, one of the vectors of the Dutch elm disease, uses vanillin as a signal to find a host tree during oviposition.
See also
Phenolic compounds in wine
Other positional isomers:
Isovanillin
ortho-Vanillin
2-Hydroxy-5-methoxybenzaldehyde
2-Hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde
Benzaldehyde
Protocatechuic aldehyde
Syringaldehyde
References
]
Notes
Flavors
Perfume ingredients
Hydroxybenzaldehydes
Vanilloids
O-methylated natural phenols
Vanilla
Total synthesis | [
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228192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banyan | Banyan | A banyan, also spelled "banian", is a fig that begins its life as an epiphyte, i.e. a plant that grows on another plant, when its seed germinates in a crack or crevice of a host tree or edifice. "Banyan" often specifically denotes Ficus benghalensis (the "Indian banyan"), which is the national tree of India, though the name has also been generalized to denominate all figs that share a common life cycle and used systematically in taxonomy to denominate the subgenus Urostigma.
Characteristics
Like other fig species, banyans bear their fruit in the form of a structure called a "syconium". The syconium of Ficus species supply shelter and food for fig wasps and the trees depend on the fig wasps for pollination.
Frugivore birds disperse the seeds of banyans. The seeds are small, and because most banyans grow in woodlands, a seedling that germinates on the ground is unlikely to survive. However, many seeds fall on the branches and stems of other trees or on human edifices, and when they germinate they grow roots down toward the ground and consequently may envelop part of the host tree or edifice. For this reason banyans bear the colloquial name "strangler fig". A number of tropical banyan species that compete for sunlight, especially of the genus Ficus, exhibit this strangling habit.
The leaves of the banyan tree are large, leathery, glossy, green, and elliptical. Like most figs, the leaf bud is covered by two large scales. As the leaf develops the scales abscise. Young leaves have an attractive reddish tinge.
Older banyan trees are characterized by aerial prop roots that mature into thick, woody trunks, which can become indistinguishable from the primary trunk with age. Old trees can spread laterally by using these prop roots to grow over a wide area. In some species, the prop roots develop over a considerable area that resembles a grove of trees, with every trunk connected directly or indirectly to the primary trunk. The topology of this massive root system inspired the name of the hierarchical computer network operating system "Banyan VINES".
In a banyan that envelops its host tree, the mesh of roots growing around the latter eventually applies considerable pressure to and commonly kills it. Such an enveloped, dead tree eventually decomposes, so that the banyan becomes a "columnar tree" with a hollow, central core. In jungles, such hollows are very desirable shelters to many animals.
Etymology
The name was originally given to F. benghalensis and comes from India, where early European travelers observed that the shade of the tree was frequented by Banyans (a corruption of Baniyas, a community of Indian traders).
Classification
The original banyan, F. benghalensis, can grow into a giant tree covering several hectares. Over time, the name became generalized to all strangler figs of the Urostigma subgenus. The many banyan species also include:
Ficus microcarpa, which is native to Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, China, Taiwan, the Malay Archipelago, Mainland Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Australia, Ryukyu Islands and New Caledonia, is a significant invasive species elsewhere.
The Central American banyan (Ficus pertusa) is native to Central America and northern South America, from southern Mexico south to Paraguay.
The shortleaf fig (Ficus citrifolia) is native to South Florida, the Caribbean islands, Central America, and South America south to Paraguay. One theory is that the Portuguese name for F. citrofolia, os barbados, gave Barbados its name.
The Florida strangler fig (Ficus aurea) is also native to South Florida and the Caribbean islands, and distinguished from the above by its coarser leaf venation.
The Moreton Bay fig (Ficus macrophylla) and Port Jackson fig (Ficus rubiginosa) are other related species.
In horticulture
Due to the complex structure of the roots and extensive branching, the banyan is used as a subject specimen in penjing and bonsai. The oldest living bonsai in Taiwan is a 240-year-old banyan tree housed in Tainan.
In culture
Religion and mythology
Banyan trees figure prominently in several Asian and Pacific religions and myths, including:
In Hinduism, the leaf of the banyan tree is said to be the resting place for the god Krishna.
In the Bhagavat Gita, Krishna said, "There is a banyan tree which has its roots upward and its branches down, and the Vedic hymns are its leaves. One who knows this tree is the knower of the Vedas." (Bg 15.1) Here the material world is described as a tree whose roots are upwards and branches are below. We have experience of a tree whose roots are upward: if one stands on the bank of a river or any reservoir of water, he can see that the trees reflected in the water are upside down. The branches go downward and the roots upward. Similarly, this material world is a reflection of the spiritual world. The material world is but a shadow of reality. In the shadow there is no reality or substantiality, but from the shadow we can understand that there is substance and reality.
Vat Purnima is a Hindu festival related to the banyan tree. Vat Purnima is observed by married women in North India and in the Western Indian states of Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat. During the three days of the month of Jyeshtha in the Hindu calendar (which falls in May–June in the Gregorian calendar) married women observe a fast and tie threads around a banyan tree and pray for the well-being of their husbands.
In Buddhism's Pali canon, the banyan (Pali: nigrodha) is referenced numerous times. Typical metaphors allude to the banyan's epiphytic nature, likening the banyan's supplanting of a host tree as comparable to the way sensual desire (kāma) overcomes humans.
In Guam, the Chamorro people believe in tales of taotaomona, duendes, and other spirits. Taotaomona are spirits of the ancient Chamorro that act as guardians to banyan trees.
In Vietnamese mythology of the Mid-Autumn Festival, the dark markings on the Moon are a banyan, a magical tree originally planted by a man named Cuội on Earth. When his wife watered it with unclean water, the tree uprooted itself with the man hanging on it and flew to the Moon, where he eternally accompanied the Moon Lady and the Jade Rabbit.
In the Philippines, they are usually referred to as balete trees, which are home to certain deities and spirits.
In Bangladesh Banyan trees are called বট গাছ(bot gach) and places that have such tree are considered haunted. They are rumoured to have Jinns and dangerous spirits living inside them. It is said that you'll get a curse if you cut one down.
List of historical banyan trees
Thimmamma Marrimanu is a banyan tree in Anantapur, located circa 35 km from the town of Kadiri in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is present in the Indian Botanical Gardens and is more than 550 years old & its canopy covers
One of the largest trees, the Great Banyan is found in Kolkata, India. It is said to be more than 250 years old and covers 4.67 acres.
Another such tree, Dodda Aalada Mara as in "Big Banyan Tree", is found in the village of Ramohalli, on the outskirts of Bangalore, India; it has a spread of circa 2.5 acres.
The Iolani Palace banyans in Honolulu, Hawaii. In the 1880s Queen Kapiolani planted two banyan trees within the Iolani Palace grounds. These trees have since grown into large groupings of trees on the old historic palace grounds.
Maui, Hawaii has the Banyan Tree in Lahaina planted by William Owen Smith in 1873 in Lahaina's Courthouse Square. It has grown to cover two-thirds of an acre.
One large banyan tree, Kalpabata, is inside the premises of Jagannath Temple in Puri. It is considered sacred by the devotees and is supposed to be more than 500 years old.
A large banyan tree lives in Cypress Gardens, at the Legoland theme park located in Winter Haven, Florida. It was planted in 1939 in a 5-gallon bucket.
Other
The banyan tree is depicted in the coat of arms of Indonesia as a manifestation of the third principle of Pancasila (the unity of all of Indonesia). It is also used in the emblem of Golkar.
The Economist magazine features an opinion column covering topics pertaining to Asia named "Banyan".
In southern Vanuatu, the clearings under banyan trees are used as traditional meeting places. The quarterly newsletter of the British Friends of Vanuatu Society is named Nabanga, after the local word for banyan.
The Banyan Tree is a notoriously difficult room in the 1984 ZX Spectrum platform game Jet Set Willy.
Vadodara, a city in Gujarat, India, is literally named after Banyan trees. Banyan, locally known as Vad were found in abundance here.
The Foggy Swamp in Avatar: The Last Airbender consists of a single banyan grove tree.
On 13 December 2021, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) general secretary Xi Jinping personally intervened to punish and demote 10 CCP officials in Guangzhou after they cut down or uprooted thousands of banyan trees.
Gallery
See also
Bodhi Tree
Midh Ranjha tree
The Great Banyan
References
External links
Stranglers and Banyans, palomar.edu
Plant Cultures: Banyan tree history and botany, plantcultures.org.uk
Sacred trees in Hinduism
Trees in Buddhism
Epiphytes
National symbols of India
Plant common names | [
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228195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus%20benghalensis | Ficus benghalensis | Ficus benghalensis, commonly known as the banyan, banyan fig and Indian banyan, is a tree native to the Indian Subcontinent. Specimens in India are among the largest trees in the world by canopy coverage. It also known as the "strangler fig" because it starts out as epiphyte, that is, leaning on another tree that it ends up suffocating.
Description
Ficus benghalensis is an evergreen , fast-growing tree found mainly in monsoon and rainforests, that can reach a height of 20 meters. It is resistant to drought and mild frost. It produces propagating roots which grow downwards as aerial roots on the branches that grow downward like lianas. Once these roots reach the ground, they take root and become woody trunks and supportive.
The figs produced by the tree are eaten by birds such as the Indian myna. Fig seeds that pass through the digestive system of birds are more likely to germinate and sprout earlier.
Reproduction
Banyan trees reproduce easily by seed or by stake, and they often spread from the original place by means of aerial roots that anchor in the ground and begin to grow and thicken to the point that they "become independent" from the original trunk, thus managing to "emigrate" sometimes at great distances. The figs are eaten by all kinds of frugivorous birds such as the coppersmith barbet and the common myna. Seeds that have passed through the digestive system of birds are more likely to germinate and grow faster.
Banyan seeds can fall and grow near a tree, sometimes from the very tree from which they come, and they also usually bear fruit in a hollow in a trunk or in a wall or rock. Gradually they begin to grow as they have plenty of support as epiphytes on any object they can use to climb in search of sunlight. Under normal conditions, the tree grows until it reaches a level where it gets the most sunlight, so its height can vary considerably. For this reason, where this tree predominates in a place, rather than growing in height, they spread on the surface, looking for the gaps that are left without vegetation. In general, the crown of this tree extends over a diameter well above its height.
Cultural significance
Ficus benghalensis is the national tree of India.
The tree is considered sacred in India, and temples are often built nearby. Due to the large size of the tree's canopy, it provides useful shade in hot climates.
In Theravada Buddhism, this tree is said to have been used as the tree for achieved enlightenment, or Bodhi by the twenty fourth buddha called "Kassapa - කස්සප". The sacred plant is known as "Nuga - නුග" or "Maha nuga - මහ නුග" in Sri Lanka.
It is the tree under which Lord Adhinath the first Jain Tirthankara attained Kewal Gyan or spiritual enlightenment.
Notable specimens
The giant banyans of India are the largest trees in the world by area of canopy coverage. Notable trees include:
Thimmamma Marrimanu
Kabirvad
The Great Banyan
The largest, known specimen of tree in the world in terms of the two dimensional area covered by its canopy is Thimmamma Marrimanu in Andhra Pradesh, India, which covers . This tree is also the largest, known specimen of tree in the world in terms of the length of its perimeter, which measures .
Nearchus, an admiral of Alexander the Great, described a large specimen on the banks of the Narmada River in contemporary Bharuch, Gujarat, India; he may have described the specimen presently named "Kabirvad". The canopy of the specimen which Nearchus described was so extensive that it sheltered 7,000 men. James Forbes later described it in his Oriental Memoirs (1813-5) as almost in circumference and having more than 3,000 trunks. Currently the area of its canopy is with a perimeter of .
Other notable Indian specimens include The Great Banyan in the Jagadish Chandra Bose Botanic Garden in Shibpur, Howrah, which has a canopy area of and is about 250 years old, and Dodda Aladha Mara in Kettohalli, Karnataka, which has a canopy area of and is about 400 years old.
Gallery
References
External links
Bar or Bargad Ficus benghalensis L., Horticulture, Purdue University
Ficus benghalensis in Himalayas, Nepal. Himalayas (Himalaya): photos, images, pictures
http://www.phytopharmajournal.com/V1issue2.6.pdf
http://rjpponline.org/HTMLPaper.aspx?Journal=Research%20Journal%20of%20Pharmacognosy%20and%20Phytochemistry;PID=2014-6-3-9
benghalensis
National symbols of India
Symbols of Madhya Pradesh
Trees in Buddhism
Sacred trees in Hinduism
Plants described in 1753
Flora of the Indian subcontinent
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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228204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town%20Musicians%20of%20Bremen | Town Musicians of Bremen | The "Town Musicians of Bremen" () is a popular German fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm and published in Grimms' Fairy Tales in 1819 (KHM 27).
It tells the story of four aging domestic animals, who after a lifetime of hard work are neglected and mistreated by their former masters. Eventually, they decide to run away and become town musicians in the city of Bremen. Contrary to the story's title the characters never arrive in Bremen, as they succeed in tricking and scaring off a band of robbers, capturing their spoils, and moving into their house. It is a story of Aarne–Thompson Type 130 ("Outcast animals find a new home").
Origin
The Brothers Grimm first published this tale in the second edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen in 1819, based on the account of the German storyteller Dorothea Viehmann (1755–1815).
Synopsis
In the story, a donkey, a dog, a cat, and a rooster, all past their prime years in life and usefulness on their respective farms, were soon to be discarded or mistreated by their masters. One by one, they leave their homes and set out together. They decide to go to Bremen, known for its freedom, to live without owners and become musicians there ("Something better than death we can find anywhere").
On the way to Bremen, they see a lighted cottage; they look inside and see three robbers enjoying their ill-gotten gains. Standing on each other's backs, they decide to scare the robbers away by making a din; the men run for their lives, not knowing what the strange sound is. The animals take possession of the house, eat a good meal, and settle in for the evening.
Later that night, the robbers return and send one of their members in to investigate. He sees the cat's eyes shining in the darkness and thinks he is seeing the coals of the fire. The robber reaches over to light his candle. Things happen in quick succession; the cat scratches his face with her claws, the dog bites him on the leg, the donkey kicks him with his hooves, and the rooster crows and chases him out the door. The terrified robber tells his companions that he was beset by a horrible witch who had scratched him with her long fingernails (the cat), a dwarf who has a knife (the dog), a black monster who had hit him with a club (the donkey), and worst of all, a bat who had screamed from the rooftop (the rooster). The robbers abandon the cottage to the strange creatures who have taken it, where the animals live happily for the rest of their days.
In the original version of this story, which dates from the twelfth century, the robbers are a bear, a lion, and a wolf, all animals featured in heraldic devices. When the donkey and his friends arrive in Bremen, the townsfolk applaud them for having rid the district of the terrible beasts. An alternate version involves the animals' master(s) being deprived of his livelihood (because the thieves stole his money and/or destroyed his farm or mill) and having to send his or their animals away, unable to take care of them any further. After the animals dispatch the thieves, they take the ill-gotten gains back to their master so he can rebuild. Other versions involve at least one wild, non-livestock animal, such as a lizard, helping the domestic animals out in dispatching the thieves.
Variants
The story is similar to other AT-130 tales like the German/Swiss "The Robber and the Farm Animals", the Norwegian "The Sheep and the Pig Who Set Up House", the Finnish "The Animals and the Devil", the Flemish "The Choristers of St. Gudule", the Scottish "The Story of the White Pet", the English "The Bull, the Tup, the Cock, and the Steg", the Irish "Jack and His Comrades", the Spanish "Benibaire", the American "How Jack Went to Seek His Fortune" and "The Dog, the Cat, the Ass, and the Cock", and the South African "The World's Reward".
Joseph Jacobs also cited this as a parallel version of the Irish "Jack and His Comrades", and the English "How Jack went to seek his fortune". The tale also appears in American folktale collections.
Variants also appear in tale compilations from Indian, Malay and Japanese sources. Folklorist Antti Aarne proposed an Asian origin for the tale type ATU 130, "Die Tiere auf der Wanderschaft" ("Wandering Animals and Objects").
French folklorist Paul Delarue identified two forms of the tale type, a Western one, wherein the animals in exile are always domestic animals (represented by Grimm's tale ), and an Eastern one, wherein the characters are "inferior animals". This second form is popular in Japan, China, Korea, Melanesia and Indonesia.
Cultural legacy
The tale has been retold through animated pictures, motion pictures (often musicals), theatre plays and operas.
Screen and stage adaptations
In 1935, Ub Iwerks created The Brementown Musicians which was an adaptation made for Iwerk’s series of ComiColor Cartoons.
German-U.S. composer Richard Mohaupt created the opera Die Bremer Stadtmusikanten, which premiered in Bremen 1949.
The tale was adapted in humorous fashion for the British children's series Wolves, Witches and Giants narrated by Spike Milligan, but with the action taking place in 'Brum' (short for Birmingham) rather than Bremen.
In the Soviet Union, the story was loosely adapted into an animated musical in 1969 by Yuri Entin and Vasily Livanov at the studio Soyuzmultfilm, The Bremen Town Musicians. It was followed by a sequel called On the Trail of the Bremen Town Musicians. In 2000, a second sequel was made, called The New Bremen Town Musicians.
In 1972, Jim Henson produced a version with his Muppets called The Muppet Musicians of Bremen, set in Louisiana instead of Bremen.
In 1976, in Italy, Sergio Bardotti and Luis Enríquez Bacalov adapted the story into a musical play called I Musicanti, which two years later was translated into Portuguese by the Brazilian composer Chico Buarque. The musical play was called Os Saltimbancos, was later released as an album, and became one of the greatest classics for children in Brazil. This version was also made into a movie.
In Spain, the story inspired the animated feature film titled, Los 4 músicos de Bremen in 1989, directed by Cruz Delgado, a cartoonist and animation filmmaker, this being his last film. After gaining fame and recognition by winning the Goya Award for Best Animated Film, the animated television series "Los Trotamúsicos", was aired with a total of 26 episodes. The synopsis follows the story of four animal friends: Koki the rooster, Lupo the dog, Burlón the cat and Tonto the donkey; who form a band in the playing respectively guitar, drums, trumpet and saxophone with the aim of winning a contest in the city of Bremen.
In Japan, Tezuka Productions made a loose science fiction themed animated television film adaptation titled , which premiered in 1981. It revolves around an alien visiting Earth during a military invasion of a fictional Bremen and giving four animals based on the ones from the original tale a device that can transform them into humans. Despite being aimed at children, the film has a substantial amount of gun violence and depictions of war crimes, but its core theme is anti-war.
In Germany and the United States, the story was adapted into an animated feature in 1997 under the title The Fearless Four (Die furchtlosen Vier), though it varied considerably from the source material; while the general plot is the same, the four arrive in Bremen and help to free it from the grasp of the corrupt corporation Mix Max, along with rescuing animals that the company plans to turn into sausage. It starred R&B singer James Ingram as Buster the dog, guitarist B.B. King as Fred the donkey, singer and pianist Oleta Adams as Gwendolyn the cat and Italian musician Zucchero Fornaciari as Tortellini the Rooster in the English dub.
On Cartoon Network in between cartoon breaks during the Out of Tune Toons marathon and on Cartoonetwork Video, there are cartoon shorts (called "Wedgies") of an animal garage band based on the tale called The Bremen Avenue Experience featuring a cat (Jessica), dog (Simon), donkey (Barret) and rooster (Tanner). They are either a modern adaptation of Town Musicians of Bremen or descendants of the old musicians of Bremen.
The HBO Family animated series, Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child, adapted this story in Season 3 and did a country/African-American twist on it featuring Jenifer Lewis as Hazel (the dog), Gladys Knight as Chocolate (the donkey), Dionne Warwick as Miss Kitty (the cat), and George Clinton as Scratchmo (the rooster).
The 2020 Japanese tokusatsu series Kamen Rider Saber adopts the story as a "Wonder Ride Book" called , which is utilized by one of the protagonists, Kamen Rider Slash.
Literature
Richard Scarry wrote an adaptation of the story in his book Richard Scarry's Animal Nursery Tales in 1975. In it, the donkey, dog, cat and rooster set out since they are bored with farming.
In the Japanese adventure game Morenatsu, the dog character Kōya is part of a rock band with three other performers, who are a cat, a bird, and a horse. The protagonist makes note of the resemblance to the Town Musicians of Bremen, with a brief monologue explaining the fairy tale.
In the comic Blacksad'''s fourth album, "A Silent Hell", a mystery unfolds in New Orleans around the remaining members of a defunct musical group formerly composed of a dog, a cat, a rooster, and a donkey, all of whom had migrated to the city from their home on a Southern island.
In Black Clover, Nacht Faust is a host to four devils; Gimodelo, Plumede, Slotos and Walgner, a dog, a cat, a horse and rooster respectively.
Music
In the early 20th century, the American folk/swing/children's musician Frank Luther popularized the musical tale as the Raggletaggletown Singers, presented in children's school music books and performed in children's plays.
The Musicians of Bremen (1972), based on the Brothers Grimm fairy tale, the "Town Musicians of Bremen", for male voices: two countertenors, tenor, two baritones and bass; composed by Malcolm Williamson, and premiered by The King's Singers in Sydney on 15 May 1972. A recording may be heard here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C57Y7HtiUIE
In 2012, American artists PigPen Theatre Co. released their debut album titled Bremen, with the fifth track "Bremen"'s lyrics telling the story of the Town Musicians of Bremen.
In 2015, Japanese rock musician Kenshi Yonezu released his third album titled Bremen, with the sixth track "Will-O-Wisp"'s lyrics being centred on the Town Musicians of Bremen.
Art and sculpture
Statues modeled after the Town Musicians of Bremen statue now reside in front of each of the five German veterinary schools.
Another replica of the statue can be found in the Lynden Sculpture Garden, located in Milwaukee.
A persiflage of this tale can be found on the wall in the Fort Napoleon, Ostend, Belgium. Heinrich-Otto Pieper, a German soldier during World War I, painted the German and the Austro-Hungarian eagles throned on a rock, under the light of a Turkish crescent. They look with contempt on the futile efforts of the Town Musicians of Bremen to chase them away. These animals are symbols for the Allied Forces: on top the French cock, standing on the Japanese jackal, standing on the English bulldog, standing on the Russian bear. Italy is depicted as a twisting snake and Belgium a tricolored beetle.
A sculpture in Riga shows the animals breaking through a wall (symbolising the Iron Curtain).
A junction in Pune City of India has been named after Bremen as 'Bremen Chowk' and has sculpture of instrument that four musicians had used.
The city of Fujikawaguchiko in Japan has its own statue of the Town Musicians of Bremen.
The City of Kawasaki in Japan has a Bremen Street that features a replica statue.
Video games
In Super Tempo, the second stage is set in Bremen, and the player's goal is to find and reunite the ghosts of the four deceased Town Musicians—referred to as "The Bremens," akin to a band name—to perform a song.
In The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask, there is a musician playing a hurdy-gurdy who tells his story about how he was in a musical troupe run by animals. For listening to his tale, the player receives an item called the Bremen Mask (which allows the player to play a musical march on their ocarina, thus allowing the player to lead animals), which is a reference to the Town Musicians of Bremen.
In Agatha Knife, there is an in-game quiz where you are asked about the animals that make up the Town Musicians of Bremen, allowing you to go to the zoo for free.
In Super Robot Taisen OG Saga: Endless Frontier, the four members of the Orchestral Army are named Ezel, Katze, Henne, and Kyon—the German words for donkey, cat, and hen and the Greek word for dog, respectively. Their organization being called the Orchestral Army is a further reference to the story.
In The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, the Town Musicians of Bremen appear as NPCs in the "Blood and Wine" DLC.
In Library of Ruina, there is a syndicate based on the Musicians of Bremen, with each of its original members representing a different animal from the story's cast.
See also
Jack and His Comrades (Irish fairy tale collected by Joseph Jacobs)
Ub Iwerks' ComiColor Cartoon The Bremen Town Musicians (1935 film)
The Bremen Town Musicians 1969 (Soviet musical cartoon)
The Four harmonious animals is a figure in Jātaka tales and other Buddhist mythology
Citations
General bibliography
Boggs, Ralph Steele. Index of Spanish folktales, classified according to Antti Aarne's "Types of the folktale". Chicago: University of Chicago. 1930. p. 33.
Bolte, Johannes; Polívka, Jiri. Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- u. hausmärchen der brüder Grimm''. Erster Band (NR. 1-60). Germany, Leipzig: Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1913. pp. 237–259.
"Children's Stories in Sculpture: Bremen Town Musicians in Bremen." The Elementary School Journal 64, no. 5 (1964): pp. 246-47. www.jstor.org/stable/999783.
External links
Golden Books 1954 version
Folktales of ATU type 130 by D. L. Ashliman
Some of the best known adaptations are:
Disney 1922 animated version
Russian animated version
Brazilian musical free adaptation of the tale
1989 Spanish animated movie version
1997 German edition, also released in English under the title "The Fearless Four"
The Muppet Musicians of Bremen
The Disney version of The Four Musicians of Bremen at The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts
Skulptures of the Musicians of Bremen, limited edition (German)
1819 short stories
Animal tales
Culture in Bremen (city)
Fictional cats
Fictional chickens
Fictional dogs
Fictional donkeys
German fairy tales
German folklore
Germany in fiction
Grimms' Fairy Tales | [
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228209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interbrew | Interbrew | Interbrew is subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV is based in Breda, Netherlands. It has one subsidiary, Ambev S.A. of São Paulo, Brazil.
Brands
Interbrew brands have historically included Budweiser, Stella Artois, Boddingtons, Beck's, Staropramen, Bass and Leffe, although many have spun off to their own companies including Bass, which is now owned by Molson Coors.
History
Having its roots in Leuven, Interbrew was formed in 1987 when Brouwerij Artois, the Flemish brewers of Stella Artois (established before 1366) merged with Walloon-based brewer Piedboeuf. International expansion began when Interbrew acquired the notable Canadian brand Labatt. The transaction also included Labatt's assets, which included the Toronto Blue Jays baseball club, the Toronto Argonauts football club, and The Sports Network (the latter being immediately resold to NetStar Communications due to Canadian media ownership regulations).
In 2000, Interbrew acquired Bass and Whitbread in the UK. In December 2000, the company issued an IPO.
In 2001, the company entered Germany with the acquisition of Diebels and also acquired Beck's & Co. that year.
In 2004, Interbrew merged with Brazilian brewer AmBev to form InBev, becoming the largest brewer in the world by volume, with approximately 14% global market share. Before the merger with AmBev, Interbrew was the third largest in the world by volume, and AmBev was the fifth largest. In 2008, InBev further merged with American brewer Anheuser-Busch to form Anheuser-Busch InBev (abbreviated AB InBev). Interbrew became a division of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV after the latter acquired SABMiller in October 2016.
See also
Paul De Keersmaeker
References
External links
Main page of the company
Interbrew buys AmBev and becomes world number one
AB InBev
Breweries of Flanders
Companies based in Leuven
Defunct breweries of Belgium | [
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228211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama | Futurama | Futurama is an American animated science fiction sitcom created by Matt Groening that premiered on Fox on March 28, 1999. The series follows the adventures of the professional slacker Philip J. Fry, who is cryogenically preserved for 1000 years and is revived in the 31st century. Fry finds work at an interplanetary delivery company, working alongside the one-eyed Leela and robot Bender. The series was envisioned by Groening in the mid-1990s while working on The Simpsons; he brought David X. Cohen aboard to develop storylines and characters to pitch the show to Fox.
Following its initial cancelation by Fox, Futurama began airing reruns on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim programming block, which lasted from 2003 to 2007 and again since 2021. It was revived in 2007 as four direct-to-video films, the last of which was released in early 2009. Comedy Central entered into an agreement with 20th Century Fox Television to syndicate the existing episodes and air the films as 16 new, half-hour episodes, constituting a fifth season.
In June 2009, Comedy Central picked up the show for 26 new half-hour episodes, which began airing in 2010 and 2011. The show was renewed for a seventh season, with the first half airing in 2012 and the second in 2013. An audio-only episode featuring the original cast members was released in 2017 as an episode of The Nerdist Podcast. On February 9, 2022, Hulu revived the series with a 20-episode order set to premiere in 2023.
Futurama received critical acclaim throughout its run and was nominated for 17 Annie Awards, winning seven, and 12 Emmy Awards, winning six. It was nominated four times for a Writers Guild of America Award, winning for the episodes "Godfellas" and "The Prisoner of Benda". It was nominated for a Nebula Award and received Environmental Media Awards for the episodes "The Problem with Popplers" and "The Futurama Holiday Spectacular". Merchandise includes a tie-in comic book series, video games, calendars, clothes and figurines. In 2013, TV Guide ranked Futurama one of the top 60 Greatest TV Cartoons of All Time.
Premise
Characters
Futurama is essentially a workplace sitcom, the plot of which revolves around the Planet Express interplanetary delivery company and its employees, a small group that largely fails to conform to future society. Episodes usually feature the central trio of Fry, Leela, and Bender, though occasional storylines center on the other main characters.
Philip J. Fry (Billy West) – Fry is an immature, slovenly, yet good-hearted and sensitive pizza delivery boy who falls into a cryogenic pod, causing it to activate and freeze him just after midnight on January 1, 2000. He reawakens on New Year's Eve of 2999, and gets a job as a cargo delivery boy at Planet Express, a company owned by his only living relative, Professor Hubert J. Farnsworth. Fry's love for Leela is a recurring theme throughout the series.
Turanga Leela (Katey Sagal) – Leela is the competent, one-eyed captain of the Planet Express Ship. Abandoned as a baby, she grows up in the Cookieville Minimum Security Orphanarium believing herself to be an alien from another planet, but learns that she is actually a mutant from the sewers in the episode "Leela's Homeworld". Prior to becoming the ship's captain, Leela works as a career assignment officer at the cryogenics lab where she first meets Fry. She is Fry's primary love interest and eventually becomes his wife. Her name is a reference to the Turangalîla-Symphonie by Olivier Messiaen.
Bender Bending Rodriguez (John DiMaggio) – Bender is a foul-mouthed, heavy-drinking, cigar-smoking, kleptomaniacal, misanthropic, egocentric, ill-tempered robot manufactured by Mom's Friendly Robot Company. He is originally programmed to bend girders for suicide booths, and is later designated as assistant sales manager and cook, despite lacking a sense of taste. He is Fry's best friend and roommate. He must drink heavily to power his fuel cells and becomes the robot equivalent of drunk when low on alcohol.
Professor Hubert J. Farnsworth (Billy West) – Professor Farnsworth, also known simply as "the Professor", is Fry's distant nephew. Farnsworth founds Planet Express Inc. to fund his work as a mad scientist. Although he is depicted as a brilliant scientist and inventor, at more than one-hundred and sixty years old he is extremely prone to age-related forgetfulness and fits of temper. In the episode "A Clone of My Own", the Professor clones himself to produce a successor, Cubert Farnsworth (Voiced by Kath Soucie), whom he treats like a son.
Amy Wong (Lauren Tom) – Amy is an incredibly rich, blunt, spoiled, ditzy, and accident-prone long-term intern at Planet Express. She is an astrophysics student at Mars University and heiress to the western hemisphere of Mars. In the second episode of season one, the Professor states that he likes having Amy around because she has the same bloodtype as him. Born on Mars, she is ethnically Chinese and is prone to cursing in Cantonese and using 31st-century slang. Her parents are the wealthy ranchers Leo and Inez Wong. She is promiscuous in the beginning of the series, but eventually enters a monogamous relationship with Kif Kroker. In the show's sixth season, she acquires her doctorate.
Hermes Conrad (Phil LaMarr) – Hermes is the Jamaican accountant of Planet Express. A 36th-level bureaucrat (demoted to level 37 during the series) and proud of it, he is a stickler for regulation and enamored of the tedium of paperwork and bureaucracy. Hermes is also a former champion in Olympic Limbo, a sport derived from the popular party activity. He gave up limbo after the 2980 Olympics when a young fan, imitating him, broke his back and died. Hermes has a wife, LaBarbara, and a 12-year-old son, Dwight.
Dr. John A. Zoidberg (Billy West) – Zoidberg is a Decapodian, a lobster-like alien from the planet Decapod 10, and the neurotic staff physician of Planet Express. Although he claims to be an expert on humans, his knowledge of human anatomy and physiology is woefully inaccurate (at one point, he states that his doctorate is actually in art history). Zoidberg's expertise seems to be with extra-terrestrial creatures. Homeless and penniless, he lives in the dumpster behind Planet Express. Although Zoidberg is depicted as being Professor Farnsworth's long-time friend, he is held in contempt by everyone on the crew.
Zapp Brannigan (Billy West) – Zapp Brannigan is the incompetent, extraordinarily vain captain of the DOOP starship Nimbus. Although Leela thoroughly detests him, Brannigan—a self-deluded ladies' man—pursues her relentlessly, often at great personal risk. He was originally going to be voiced by Phil Hartman, but Hartman died before production could begin.
Kif Kroker (Maurice LaMarche) – Zapp Brannigan's 4th Lieutenant and long-suffering personal assistant, Kif is a member of the amphibious species that inhabits the planet Amphibios 9. Although extremely timid, he eventually works up the courage to date Amy. Kif is often shown sighing in disgust at the nonsensical rantings of his commanding officer.
Carol "Mom" (Tress MacNeille) – Mom is the malevolent, foul-mouthed, cruel, and narcissistic owner of MomCorp, the thirty-first century's largest shipping and manufacturing company, with a monopoly on robots. In public, she maintains the image of a sweet, kindly old woman by speaking in stereotypically antiquated statements and wearing a mechanical fat suit. She occasionally launches insidious plans for world domination and corporate takeover. She had a romantic history with the Professor which left her bitter and resentful. She has three bumbling sons, Walt, Larry, and Igner (modeled after The Three Stooges), who do her bidding despite frequent abuse, and often infuriate her with their incompetence. In Bender's Game, it is revealed that Igner's father is Professor Farnsworth. Zoidberg in the episode "The Tip of the Zoidberg" refers to Mom as Carol, which is assumed to be her first name.
Nibbler (Frank Welker) – Nibbler is Leela's pet Nibblonian, whom she rescues from an imploding planet and adopts in the episode "Love's Labours Lost in Space". Despite his deceptively cute exterior, Nibbler is actually a highly intelligent super-being whose race is responsible for maintaining order in the universe. He is revealed in "The Why of Fry" to have been directly responsible for Fry's cryogenics freezing. While the size of an average house cat, his race is capable of devouring much larger animals. He defecates dark matter, which until Bender's Game is used as fuel for space cruisers in the series.
Setting
Futurama is set in New New York at the turn of the 31st century, in a time filled with technological wonders. The city of New New York has been built over the ruins of present-day New York City, which has become a catacomb-like space that acts as New New York's sewer, referred to as "Old New York". Various devices and architecture are similar to the Populuxe style. Global warming, inflexible bureaucracy, and substance abuse are a few of the subjects given a 31st-century exaggeration in a world where the problems have become both more extreme and more common. Just as New York has become a more extreme version of itself in the future, other Earth locations are given the same treatment; Los Angeles, for example, is depicted as a smog-filled apocalyptic wasteland.
Numerous technological advances have been made between the present day and the 31st century. The Head Museum, which keeps a collection of heads alive in jars and was invented by Ron Popeil (who has a guest cameo in "A Big Piece of Garbage"), has resulted in many historical figures and current celebrities being present, including Groening himself; this became the writers' device to feature and poke fun at contemporary celebrities in the show. Several of the preserved heads shown are those of people who were already dead well before the advent of this technology; one of the most prominent examples of this anomaly is Earth president Richard Nixon, who died in 1994 and appears in numerous episodes. The Internet, while being fully immersive and encompassing all senses—even featuring its own digital world (similar to Tron or The Matrix)—is slow and largely consists of pornography, pop-up ads, and "filthy" (or Filthy Filthy) chat rooms. Some of it is edited to include educational material ostensibly for youth. Television is still a primary form of entertainment. Self-aware robots are a common sight, and are the main cause of global warming due to the exhaust from their alcohol-powered systems. The wheel is obsolete (no one but Fry even seems to recognize the design), having been forgotten and replaced by hover cars and a network of large, clear pneumatic transportation tubes.
Environmentally, common animals still remain, alongside mutated, cross-bred (sometimes with humans) and extraterrestrial animals. Ironically, spotted owls are often shown to have replaced rats as common household pests. Although rats still exist, sometimes rats act like pigeons, though pigeons still exist, as well. Anchovies have been extinct for 800 years. Earth still suffers the effects of greenhouse gases, although in one episode Leela states that its effects have been counteracted by nuclear winter. In another episode, the effects of global warming have been somewhat mitigated by the dropping of a giant ice cube into the ocean, and later by pushing Earth farther away from the sun, which also extended the year by one week.
Religion is a prominent part of society, although the dominant religions have evolved. A merging of the major religious groups of the 20th century has resulted in the First Amalgamated Church, while Voodoo is now mainstream. New religions include Oprahism, Robotology, and the banned religion of Star Trek fandom. Religious figures include Father Changstein-El-Gamal, the Robot Devil, Reverend Lionel Preacherbot, and passing references to the Space Pope, who appears to be a large crocodile-like creature. Several major holidays have robots associated with them, including the murderous Robot Santa and Kwanzaa-bot. While very few episodes focus exclusively on religion within the Futurama universe, they do cover a wide variety of subjects including predestination, prayer, the nature of salvation, and religious conversion.
Futuramas setting is a backdrop, and the writers are not above committing continuity errors if they serve to further the gags. For example, while the pilot episode implies that the previous Planet Express crew was killed by a space wasp, the later episode "The Sting" is based on the crew having been killed by space bees instead. The "world of tomorrow" setting is used to highlight and lampoon issues of today and to parody the science fiction genre.
Production
Development
The television network Fox expressed a strong desire in the mid-1990s for Matt Groening to create a new series, and he began conceiving Futurama during this period. In 1996, he enlisted David X. Cohen, then a writer and producer for The Simpsons, to assist in developing the show. The two spent time researching science fiction books, television shows, and films. When they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998, Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and story lines; Groening claimed they had gone "overboard" in their discussions. Groening described trying to get the show on the air as "by far the worst experience of my grown-up life".
Fox ordered thirteen episodes. Immediately after, however, Fox feared the themes of the show were not suitable for the network and Groening and Fox executives argued over whether the network would have any creative input into the show. With The Simpsons, the network has no input. Fox was particularly disturbed by the concept of suicide booths, Doctor Zoidberg, and Bender's anti-social behavior. Groening explains, "When they tried to give me notes on Futurama, I just said: 'No, we're going to do this just the way we did Simpsons.' And they said, 'Well, we don't do business that way anymore.' And I said, 'Oh, well, that's the only way I do business.'" The episode "I, Roommate" was produced to address Fox's concerns, with the script written to their specifications. Fox strongly disliked the episode, but after negotiations, Groening received the same independence with Futurama.
The name Futurama comes from a pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Designed by Norman Bel Geddes, the Futurama pavilion depicted how he imagined the world would look in 1959. Many other titles were considered for the series, including Aloha, Mars! and Doomsville, which Groening notes were "resoundly rejected, by everyone concerned with it". It takes approximately six to nine months to produce an episode of Futurama. The long production time results in several episodes being worked on simultaneously.
Executive producers
Groening and Cohen served as executive producers and showrunners during the show's entire run, and also functioned as creative consultants. Ken Keeler became an executive producer for Season 4 and subsequent seasons.
Writing
The planning for each episode began with a table meeting of writers, who discussed the plot ideas as a group. The writers are given index cards with plot points that they are required to use as the center of activity in each episode. A single staff writer wrote an outline and then produced a script. Once the first draft of a script was finished, the writers and executive producers called in the actors for a table read. After this script reading, the writers collaborated to rewrite the script as a group before sending it to the animation team. At this point the voice recording was also started and the script was out of the writers' hands.
The writing staff held three Ph.D.s, seven master's degrees, and cumulatively had more than 50 years at Harvard University. Series writer Patric M. Verrone stated, "we were easily the most overeducated cartoon writers in history".
Voice actors
Futurama had eight main cast members. Billy West performed the voices of Philip J. Fry, Professor Farnsworth, Doctor Zoidberg, Zapp Brannigan, and many other incidental characters. West auditioned for "just about every part", landing the roles of the Professor and Doctor Zoidberg. Although West read for Fry, his friend Charlie Schlatter was initially given the role of Fry. Due to a casting change, West was called back to audition again and was given the role. West claims that the voice of Fry is deliberately modeled on his own, so as to make it difficult for another person to replicate the voice. Doctor Zoidberg's voice was based on Lou Jacobi and George Jessel. The character of Zapp Brannigan was originally created and intended to be performed by Phil Hartman. Hartman insisted on auditioning for the role, and "just nailed it" according to Groening. Due to Hartman's death, West was given the role. West states that his version of Zapp Brannigan was an imitation of Hartman and also "modeled after a couple of big dumb announcers I knew".
Katey Sagal voiced Leela, and is the only member of the main cast to voice only one character. The role of Leela was originally assigned to Nicole Sullivan. In an interview in June 2010, Sagal remarked that she did not know that another person was to originally voice Leela until many years after the show first began.
John DiMaggio performed the voice of the robot Bender Bending Rodríguez and other, more minor, characters. Bender was the most difficult character to cast, as the show's creators had not decided what a robot should sound like. DiMaggio originally auditioned for the role of Professor Farnsworth, using the voice he uses to perform Bender, and also auditioned for Bender using a different voice. DiMaggio described Bender's voice as a combination of a sloppy drunk, Slim Pickens and a character his college friend created named "Charlie the sausage-lover".
Phil LaMarr voices Hermes Conrad, his son Dwight, Ethan Bubblegum Tate, and Reverend Preacherbot. Lauren Tom voices Amy Wong, and Tress MacNeille voices Mom and various other characters. Maurice LaMarche voices Kif Kroker and several supporting characters. LaMarche won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance in 2011 for his performances as Lrrr and Orson Welles in the episode "Lrrreconcilable Ndndifferences". David Herman voiced Scruffy and various supporting characters. During seasons 1–4, LaMarche is billed as supporting cast and Tom, LaMarr and Herman billed as guest stars, despite appearing in most episodes. LaMarche was promoted to main cast and Tom, LaMarr and Herman to supporting cast in Season 5, and promoted again to main cast in Season 6.
In addition to the main cast, Frank Welker voiced Nibbler and Kath Soucie voiced Cubert and several supporting and minor characters. Like The Simpsons, many episodes of Futurama feature guest voices from a wide range of professions, including actors, entertainers, bands, musicians, and scientists. Many guest-stars voiced supporting characters, although many voiced themselves, usually as their own head preserved in a jar. Recurring guest stars included Dawnn Lewis (as Hermes' wife LaBarbara), Tom Kenny, Dan Castellaneta (as the Robot Devil), Al Gore, and George Takei, among others.
Animation
Rough Draft Studios animated Futurama. The studio would receive the completed script of an episode and create a storyboard consisting of more than 100 drawings. It would then produce a pencil-drawn animatic with 1,000 frames. Rough Draft's sister studio in South Korea would render the 30,000-frame finished episode.
In addition to traditional cartoon drawing, Rough Draft Studios often used CGI for fast or complex shots, such as the movement of spaceships, explosions, nebulae, large crowds, and snow scenes. The opening sequence was entirely rendered in CGI. The CGI was rendered at 24 frames per second (as opposed to hand-drawn often done at 12 frames per second) and the lack of artifacts made the animation appear very smooth and fluid. CGI characters looked slightly different due to spatially "cheating" hand-drawn characters by drawing slightly out of proportion or off-perspective features to emphasize traits of the face or body, improving legibility of an expression. PowerAnimator and Maya were used to draw the comic-like CGI whilst Toonz was used for Digital ink and paint and compositing.
The series began high-definition production in season 5, with Bender's Big Score. The opening sequence was re-rendered and scaled to adapt to the show's transition to 16:9 widescreen format.
For the final episode of season 6, Futurama was completely reanimated in three different styles: the first segment of the episode features black-and-white Fleischer- and Walter Lantz-style animation, the second was drawn in the style of a low-resolution video game, and the final segment was in the style of Japanese anime.
Hallmarks
Opening sequence
Much like the opening sequence in The Simpsons with its chalkboard gags, Lisa’s sax solo, and couch gags, Futurama has a distinctive opening sequence featuring minor gags. As the show begins, blue lights fill the screen and the Planet Express Ship flies across the screen with the title of the show being spelled out in its wake. Underneath the title is a joke caption such as "Painstakingly drawn before a live audience" or "When you see the robot: DRINK!" After flying through downtown New New York and past various recurring characters, the Planet Express ship crashes into a large screen showing a short clip from a classic cartoon. These have included clips from Quasi at the Quackadero, Looney Tunes shorts, cartoons produced by Fleischer Studios and Famous Studios, a short of The Simpsons from a Tracey Ullman episode, the show's own opening sequence in "The Devil's Hands Are Idle Playthings" or a scene from the episode. Most episodes in Season 6 use an abridged opening sequence, omitting the brief clip of a classic cartoon. "That Darn Katz!", "Benderama" and "Yo Leela Leela" have been the only episodes since "Spanish Fry" to feature a classic cartoon clip. Several episodes begin with a cold opening before the opening sequence, although these scenes do not always correspond with the episode's plot. The opening sequence has been lampooned several times within the show, in episodes including "That's Lobstertainment!", "The Problem with Popplers", as "Future-roma" in "The Duh-Vinci Code" and as "Futurella" in "Lrrreconcilable Ndndifferences".
Series director Scott Vanzo has remarked on the difficulty of animating the sequence. It took four to five weeks to fully animate the sequence, and it consists of over 80 levels of 3D animation composited together. It takes approximately one hour to render a single frame, and each second of the sequence consists of around 30 frames.
Bender's Big Score has an extended opening sequence, introducing each of the main characters. In The Beast with a Billion Backs and Bender's Game the ship passes through the screen's glass and temporarily becomes part of the environment depicted therein—a pastiche of Disney's Steamboat Willie and Yellow Submarine respectively—before crashing through the screen glass on the way out. In Into the Wild Green Yonder, a completely different opening sequence involves a trip through a futuristic version of Las Vegas located on Mars. The theme tune is sung by Seth MacFarlane and is different from the standard theme tune. The end of the film incorporates a unique variation of the opening sequence; as the Planet Express Ship enters a wormhole, it converts into a pattern of lights similar to the lights that appear in the opening sequence.
The Futurama theme was created by Christopher Tyng. The theme is played on the tubular bells but is occasionally remixed for use in specific episodes, including a version by the Beastie Boys used for the episode "Hell Is Other Robots", in which they guest starred. The theme also samples a drum break originating from "Amen, Brother" by American soul group The Winstons; however, the drum break is replaced in Season 6. A remixed rendition of the theme is used in Season 5, which features altered instruments and a lower pitch. Season 6 also uses this remix, but it has been reduced again in pitch and tempo. The theme has been noted for its similarities to Pierre Henry's 1967 Psyché Rock.
It was originally intended for the Futurama theme to be remixed in every episode. This was first trialled in the opening sequence for "Mars University", however it was realized upon broadcast that the sound did not transmit well through most television sets and the idea was subsequently abandoned. Despite this, beatbox renditions of the theme performed by Billy West and John DiMaggio are used for the episodes "Bender Should Not Be Allowed on TV" and "Spanish Fry".
Language
There are three alternative alphabets that appear often in the background of episodes, usually in the forms of graffiti, advertisements, or warning labels. Nearly all messages using alternative scripts transliterate directly into English. The first alphabet consists of abstract characters and is referred to as Alienese, a simple substitution cipher from the Latin alphabet. The second alphabet uses a more complex modular addition code, where the "next letter is given by the summation of all previous letters plus the current letter". The codes often provide additional jokes for fans dedicated enough to decode the messages. The third language sometimes used is Hebrew. Aside from these alphabets, most of the displayed wording on the show uses the Latin alphabet.
The show predicts that several English expressions will have evolved by the year 3000. For example, in the show the word Christmas has been replaced with Xmas (pronounced "ex-mas"), and the word ask with aks (pronounced axe). According to David X. Cohen, it is a running joke that the French language is extinct in the Futurama universe (though the culture remains alive), much like Latin is in the present. In the French dubbing of the show, German is used as the extinct language instead.
30th Century Fox
At the close of each episode, the 30th Century Fox Television logo is displayed. While it is the same logo as that of 20th Century Fox, it is modified to fit the show's futuristic vibe. Syndicated episodes use the 30th Television closing logo instead of the 20th Television one. Initially, Fox did not want this logo to be used on the show, but when creator Matt Groening purchased the rights to the logo, the network had a change of heart and allowed the altered version to be aired.
Humor
Although the series uses a wide range of styles of humor, including self-deprecation, black comedy, off-color humor, slapstick, and surreal humor, its primary source of comedy is its satirical depiction of everyday life in the future and its parodical comparisons to the present. Groening notes that, from the show's conception, his goal was to make what was, on the surface, a goofy comedy that would have underlying "legitimate literary science fiction concepts". The series contrasted "low culture" and "high culture" comedy; for example, Bender's catchphrase is the insult "Bite my shiny metal ass" while his most terrifying nightmare is a vision of the number 2, a joke referring to the binary numeral system (Fry assures him, "there's no such thing as two").
The series developed a cult following partially due to the large number of in-jokes it contains, most of which are aimed at "nerds". In commentary on the DVD releases, David X. Cohen points out and sometimes explains his "nerdiest joke[s]". These included mathematical jokes such as "Loew's -plex" (aleph-null-plex) movie theater as well as various forms of science humor for example, Professor Farnsworth, at a racetrack, complains about the use of a quantum finish to decide the winner, exclaiming "No fair! You changed the outcome by measuring it", a reference to the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics. In the season six episode "Law and Oracle", Fry and the robot peace officer URL track down a traffic violator who turns out to be Erwin Schrödinger, the 20th-century quantum physicist. On the front seat of the car is a box, and when questioned about the contents, Schrödinger replies "A cat, some poison, and a cesium atom". Fry asks if the cat is alive or dead, and Schrödinger answers "It's a superposition of both states until you open the box and collapse the wave function." When Fry opens the box, the cat jumps out and attacks him. The run is a reference to the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment of quantum mechanics. The series makes passing references to quantum chromodynamics (the appearance of Strong Force-brand glue), computer science (two separate books in a closet labeled P and NP respectively, referring to the possibility that P and NP-complete problem classes are distinct), electronics (an X-ray or more accurately, an "F-ray" of Bender's head reveals a 6502 microprocessor), and genetics (a mention of Bender's "robo- or R-NA"). The show often features subtle references to classic science fiction. These are most often to Star Trek many soundbites are used in homage but also include the reference to the origin of the word robot made in the name of the robot-dominated planet Chapek 9, and the black rectangular monolith labeled "Out of Order" in orbit around Jupiter (a reference to Arthur C. Clarke's Space Odyssey series). Bender and Fry sometimes watch a television show called The Scary Door, a humorous parody of The Twilight Zone.
Journalist/critic Frank Lovece in Newsday contrasted the humor tradition of Groening's two series, finding that Animation maven Jerry Beck concurred:
In an interview with Diego Molano, creator of Victor & Valentino, in April 2019, he said that he found Futurama "incredibly influential", calling the humor smart but "not alienating". He added that it makes him "feel smart" and adding that Groening's "sense of comedic timing is masterful".
Broadcast history
Episodes
Ratings
Cancellations, syndications and revivals
Fox cancellation
Groening and Cohen wanted Futurama to be shown at 8:30 pm on Sunday, following The Simpsons. The Fox network disagreed, opting instead to show two episodes in the Sunday night lineup before moving the show to a regular time slot on Tuesday. Beginning with its second broadcast season, Futurama was again placed in the 8:30 pm Sunday spot, but by mid-season the show was moved again, this time to 7:00 pm on Sunday, its third position in less than a year. Even by the fourth season, Futurama was being aired erratically. Because the show was regularly pre-empted by sporting events, it became difficult to predict when new episodes would air. The erratic schedule resulted in Fox not airing several episodes that had been produced for seasons three and four, instead holding them for a fifth broadcast season. According to Groening, Fox executives were not supporters of the show. Although Futurama was never officially cancelled, midway through the production of the fourth season, Fox decided to stop buying episodes of Futurama, letting it go out of production before the fall 2003 lineup.
Adult Swim reruns
In 2003, Cartoon Network acquired syndication rights to Futurama and Family Guy, another animated show Fox had cancelled, for its Adult Swim block. Both shows proved to be successful immediately, leading to sister network TBS picking up the show later in 2003. The run on Adult Swim revived interest in both series, and when Family Guy found success in direct-to-DVD productions, Futuramas producers decided to try the same. In 2005, Comedy Central entered negotiations to take over the syndication rights, during which they discussed the possibility of producing new episodes. In 2006, it was announced that four straight-to-DVD films would be produced, and later split into 16 episodes comprising a fifth season of the show. Since no new Futurama projects were in production at the time of release, the final movie release Into the Wild Green Yonder was designed to stand as the Futurama series finale. However, Groening had expressed a desire to continue the franchise in some form, including a theatrical film. In an interview with CNN, Groening said that "we have a great relationship with Comedy Central and we would love to do more episodes for them, but I don't know... We're having discussions and there is some enthusiasm but I can't tell if it's just me." Futurama left Adult Swim's lineup on December 31, 2007, following a week-long marathon of the entire series. Comedy Central began airing the show the next day, with season 5 making its broadcast debut on March 23, 2008.
Comedy Central revival
In June 2009, 20th Century Fox Television announced that Comedy Central had picked up the show for 26 new half-hour episodes that began airing on June 24, 2010. The returning writing crew was smaller than the original crew. It was originally announced that main voice actors West, DiMaggio, and Sagal would return as well, but on July 17, 2009, it was announced that a casting notice was posted to replace the entire cast when 20th Century Fox Television would not meet their salary demands. The situation was later resolved, and the entire original voice-cast returned for the new episodes.
Near the end of a message from Maurice LaMarche sent to members of the "Save the Voices of Futurama" group on Facebook, LaMarche announced that the original cast would be returning for the new episodes. The Toronto Star confirmed, announcing on their website that the original cast of Futurama signed contracts with Fox to return for 26 more episodes. Similarly, an email sent to fans from Cohen and Groening reported that West, Sagal, DiMaggio, LaMarche, MacNeille, Tom, LaMarr, and Herman would all be returning for the revival.
Cohen told Newsday in August 2009 that the reported 26-episode order means "[i]t will be up to 26. I can't guarantee it will be 26. But I think there's a pretty good chance it'll be exactly 26. Fox has been a little bit cagey about it, even internally. But nobody's too concerned. We're plunging ahead". Two episodes were in the process of being voice-recorded at that time, with an additional "six scripts ... in the works, ranging in scale from 'it's a crazy idea that someone's grandmother thought of' to 'it's all on paper'.
When Futurama aired June 24, 2010 on Comedy Central, it helped the network to its highest-rated night in 2010 and its highest-rated Thursday primetime in the network's history. In March 2011, it was announced that Futurama had been renewed for a seventh season, consisting of at least 26 episodes, scheduled to air in 2012 and 2013. The first episode of season 7 premiered June 20, 2012, on Comedy Central.
In July 2011, it was reported that the show had been picked up for syndication by both local affiliates and WGN America. Broadcast of old episodes began in September 2011. On September 19, 2011, WGN America began re-running Futurama, carrying it until 2014. Futurama doubled its viewership in syndication in 2012. As of 2022, the show is not currently seen in broadcast syndication.
Due to the uncertain future of the series, there have been four designated series finales. "The Devil's Hands Are Idle Playthings", Into the Wild Green Yonder, "Overclockwise", and "Meanwhile" have all been written to serve as a final episode for the show.
Comedy Central cancellation
Comedy Central announced in April 2013 that they would be airing the final episode "Meanwhile" on September 4, 2013. The producers said that they are exploring options for the future of the series as "[they] have many more stories to tell", but would gauge fan reaction to the news. Groening and Cohen have previously expressed a desire to produce a theatrical film or another direct-to-video film upon conclusion of the series.
In an August 2013 interview with Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Katey Sagal said regarding the series finale, "So I don't believe it... I just hold out hope for it because it has such a huge fan base, it's such a smart show, and why wouldn't somebody want to keep making that show; so that's my thought, I'm just in denial that it's over". Sagal also mentioned during the same interview that Groening told her at Comic-Con that "we'll find a place" and "don't worry, it's not going to end".
Simpsorama
The Simpsons episode "Simpsorama" is an official crossover with Futurama. It originally aired during the twenty-sixth season of The Simpsons on Fox on November 9, 2014, over a year after the Futurama series finale aired on Comedy Central.
Further syndication
In October 2017, Syfy announced that they had acquired syndication rights to all 140 episodes of Futurama, adding it to its lineup on November 11, 2017 with a weekend long marathon. Futurama was Syfy's first ever American animated series (the network had an anime programming block in the past), and eventually became paired with Syfy's TZGZ block of animated original series on Saturday nights. Comedy Central continued to air the series concurrently with Syfy, usually in the mornings and early afternoon. Syfy aired episodes from the first four seasons cropped to 16:9 instead of airing them in their original 4:3 aspect ratio; Comedy Central (since 2017) and FXX would do the same.
In September 2021, FXX, which already carries The Simpsons and other Fox animated programming, announced that it would begin airing Futurama that November. Syfy stopped airing the show on November 10, 2021, and FXX began airing the show on November 15, 2021. Comedy Central stopped airing the show on December 23, 2021, although the show remains on their website. Adult Swim then picked the show back up on December 27, 2021. Unlike FXX, Adult Swim airs the first four seasons in their original 4:3 aspect ratio, pillarboxed. However, season 5, which was produced in 16:9, airs cropped to 4:3.
Hulu revival
In February 2022, Hulu revived the series with a 20-episode order expected to premiere in 2023. As of February 11, 2022, the majority of the main voice cast is set to return; John DiMaggio has not yet joined, and is still in negotiations. DiMaggio stated that he had not accepted the role as of mid-February 2022 as he believed the entire cast of Futurama should be paid more. He stated "Bender is part of my soul and nothing about this is meant to be disrespectful to the fans or my 'Futurama' family. It’s about self-respect. And honestly, [it's about] being tired of an industry that's become far too corporate and takes advantage of artists' time and talent... I wish I could give you every detail so you would understand, but it’s not my place."
Reception, legacy, and achievements
Critical reception
The show received critical acclaim. The first season holds an 89% approval rating at review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 18 reviews, an average rating of 8.75/10. The critical consensus reads, "Good news, everyone! Futurama is an inventive, funny, and sometimes affecting look at the world of tomorrow." Season 5 holds a rating of 100%, based on seven reviews, and an average score of 8.67/10. Season 6 has an approval rating of 100%, based on 16 reviews, and the average rating is 8.31/10. The website's critical consensus states, "Good news everyone! Futurama is as funny and endearing as ever in its sixth season." The last season received a rating of 92%, and an 8.24/10 average score based on 12 reviews.
Success
Futurama'''s 7:00 p.m. Sunday timeslot caused the show to often be pre-empted by sports and usually have a later than average season premiere. It also allowed the writers and animators to get ahead of the broadcast schedule so that episodes intended for one season were not aired until the following season. By the beginning of the fourth broadcast season, all the episodes to be aired that season had already been completed and writers were working at least a year in advance.
When Futurama debuted in the Fox Sunday night lineup at 8:30 p.m. between The Simpsons and The X-Files on March 28, 1999, it managed 19 million viewers, tying for 11th overall in that week's Nielsen ratings. The following week, airing at the same time, Futurama drew 14.2 million viewers. The third episode, the first airing on Tuesday, drew 8.85 million viewers. Though its ratings were well below The Simpsons, the first season of Futurama rated higher than competing animated series: King of the Hill, Family Guy, Dilbert, South Park, and The PJs.
When Futurama was effectively canceled in 2003, it had averaged 6.4 million viewers for the first half of its fourth broadcast season.
In late 2002, Cartoon Network acquired exclusive cable syndication rights to Futurama for a reported $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ). In January 2003, the network began airing Futurama episodes as the centerpiece to the expansion of their Adult Swim cartoon block. In October 2005, Comedy Central picked up the cable syndication rights to air Futuramas 72-episode run at the start of 2008, following the expiration of Cartoon Network's contract. A Comedy Central teaser trailer announced the return of Futurama March 23, 2008, which was Bender's Big Score divided into four episodes followed by the other three movies.
On June 24, 2010, the season 6 premiere, "Rebirth", drew 2.92 million viewers in the 10:00 p.m. timeslot on Comedy Central. The second episode of the sixth season, "In-A-Gadda-Da-Leela", aired at 10:30 p.m., immediately following the season premiere. "In-A-Gadda-Da-Leela" drew 2.78 million viewers. This was the series' premiere on the network, with original episodes—the fifth season had previously aired on the network, but it had originally been released in the form of the four direct-to-video films.
Accolades
Other honors
In January 2009, IGN named Futurama as the eighth best in the "Top 100 Animated TV Series".
At the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, Guinness World Records presented Futurama with the record for "Current Most Critically Acclaimed Animated Series".
In 2020, Rolling Stone ranked it as the thirty-ninth best science fiction television show ever.
Other media
Comic books
First started in November 2000, Futurama Comics is a comic book series published by Bongo Comics based in the Futurama universe. While originally published only in the US, a UK, German and Australian version of the series is also available. In addition, three issues were published in Norway. Other than a different running order and presentation, the stories are the same in all versions. While the comics focus on the same characters in the Futurama fictional universe, the comics may not be canonical as the events portrayed within them do not necessarily have any effect upon the continuity of the show.
Like the TV series, each comic (except US comic #20) has a caption at the top of the cover. For example: "Made In The USA! (Printed in Canada)." Some of the UK and Australian comics have different captions on the top of their comics (for example, the Australian version of #20 says "A 21st Century Comic Book" across the cover, while the US version does not have a caption on that issue). All series contain a letters page, artwork from readers, and previews of other upcoming Bongo comics.
Films
When Comedy Central began negotiating for the rights to air Futurama reruns, Fox suggested that there was a possibility of also creating new episodes. Negotiations were already underway with the possibility of creating two or three straight-to-DVD films. When Comedy Central committed to sixteen new episodes, it was decided that four films would be produced. On April 26, 2006, Groening noted in an interview that co-creator David X. Cohen and numerous writers from the original series would be returning to work on the movies. All the original voice actors participated. In February 2007, Groening explained the format of the new stories: "[The crew is] writing them as movies and then we're going to chop them up, reconfigure them, write new material and try to make them work as separate episodes."
The first film, Bender's Big Score, was written by Ken Keeler and Cohen, and includes return appearances by the Nibblonians, Seymour, Barbados Slim, Robot Santa, the "God" space entity, Al Gore, and Zapp Brannigan. It was animated in widescreen and was released on standard DVD on November 27, 2007, with a possible Blu-ray Disc release to follow. A release on HD DVD was rumored but later officially denied. Futurama: Bender's Big Score was the first DVD release for which 20th Century Fox implemented measures intended to reduce the total carbon footprint of the production, manufacturing, and distribution processes. Where it was not possible to completely eliminate carbon, output carbon offsets were used, thus making the complete process carbon neutral.
The second movie, The Beast with a Billion Backs, was released on June 24, 2008. The third movie, Bender's Game, was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on November 3, 2008, in the UK, November 4, 2008, in the USA, and December 10, 2008, in Australia. The fourth movie, Into the Wild Green Yonder, was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on February 24, 2009.
Video games
On September 15, 2000, Unique Development Studios acquired the license to develop a Futurama video game for consoles and handheld systems. Fox Interactive signed on to publish the game. Sierra Entertainment later became the game's publisher, and it was released on August 14, 2003. Versions are available for PlayStation 2 and Xbox, both of which use cel-shading technology. However, the game was subsequently canceled on the GameCube and Game Boy Advance in North America and Europe.
In 2012, an app inspired by the head in a jar gag was launched by Matt Groening.
Licensing for mobile games were done in 2016 with Futurama: Game of Drones and in 2017 with Futurama: Worlds of Tomorrow'', which was released for Android and iOS in 2017.
Notes
References
External links
1999 American television series debuts
2003 American television series endings
2008 American television series debuts
2013 American television series endings
1990s American adult animated television series
1990s American comedy-drama television series
1990s American comic science fiction television series
1990s American satirical television series
1990s American sitcoms
1990s American workplace comedy television series
2000s American adult animated television series
2000s American comedy-drama television series
2000s American comic science fiction television series
2000s American satirical television series
2000s American sitcoms
2000s American workplace comedy television series
2010s American adult animated television series
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2010s American satirical television series
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228213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apogee%20Entertainment | Apogee Entertainment | Apogee Entertainment, formerly Apogee Software, LLC, is an American video game publisher based in Rowlett, Texas. The company was founded by Terry Nagy in 2008 after he acquired the rights to the name and logo from Scott Miller and his company, 3D Realms, which had used both previously. After reorganizing as Apogee Entertainment in 2021, it hired Miller for its publishing operations.
History
Originally, 3D Realms, a video game company founded by Scott Miller in 1987, bore the Apogee Software name and logo until adopting the trade name "3D Realms" in 1996. In 2008, Terry Nagy, a college friend of Miller, acquired the rights to the "Apogee Software" name and logo, as well as the rights to several games developed under that name, and established a company to publish further titles using the moniker. The publisher's opening was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo on July 14, 2008.
The company immediately announced the Duke Nukem Trilogy, three new games in the Duke Nukem series—Critical Mass, Chain Reaction, and Proving Grounds—to be released on Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable. A co-publishing deal was reached with Deep Silver to ensure wide distribution of the titles. Critical Mass was released for Nintendo DS in May 2011, however, its PlayStation Portable version, as well as Chain Reaction and Proving Grounds, ultimately stayed unreleased. Apogee Software, LLC released Interceptor Entertainment's Rise of the Triad and the Apogee Throwback Pack in July 2013, as well as Radical Heroes: Crimson City Crisis from Mad Unicorn Games in 2016.
During 3D Realms' "Realms Deep 2020" event in September 2020, Apogee Software, LLC announced remastered editions of the original Rise of the Triad (co-published by 3D Realms) and Crystal Caves.
The company announced it was rebranding itself to Apogee Entertainment in April 2021 and focusing solely on indie game publishing. Alongside this announcement, the company announced that they brought on Miller to help assist in publishing efforts.
Games published
References
External links
2008 establishments in Texas
American companies established in 2008
Companies based in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex
Video game companies based in Texas
Privately held companies based in Texas
Rowlett, Texas
Video game companies established in 2008
Video game companies of the United States
Video game publishers | [
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228214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthorexia%20nervosa | Orthorexia nervosa | Orthorexia nervosa (also known as orthorexia) (ON) is a proposed eating disorder characterized by an excessive preoccupation with eating healthy food. The term was introduced in 1997 by American physician Steven Bratman, M.D. He suggested that some people's dietary restrictions intended to promote health may paradoxically lead to unhealthy consequences, such as social isolation, anxiety, loss of ability to eat in a natural, intuitive manner, reduced interest in the full range of other healthy human activities, and, in rare cases, severe malnutrition or even death.
In 2009, Ursula Philpot, chair of the British Dietetic Association and senior lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan University, described people with orthorexia nervosa as being "solely concerned with the quality of the food they put in their bodies, refining and restricting their diets according to their personal understanding of which foods are truly 'pure'." This differs from other eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, where those affected focus on the quantity of food eaten.
Orthorexia nervosa also differs from anorexia nervosa in that it does not disproportionally affect one gender. Studies have found that orthorexia nervosa is equally found in both men and women with no significant gender differences at all. Furthermore, research has found significant positive correlations between ON and both narcissism and perfectionism, but no significant correlation between ON and self esteem. This shows that high-ON individuals likely take pride over their healthy eating habits over others and that is the driving force behind their orthorexia as opposed to body image like anorexia.
Orthorexia nervosa is not recognized as an eating disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, and so is not mentioned as an official diagnosis in the widely used Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of orthorexia nervosa include "obsessive focus on food choice, planning, purchase, preparation, and consumption; food regarded primarily as source of health rather than pleasure; distress or disgust when in proximity to prohibited foods; exaggerated faith that inclusion or elimination of particular kinds of food can prevent or cure disease or affect daily well-being; periodic shifts in dietary beliefs while other processes persist unchanged; moral judgment of others based on dietary choices; body image distortion around sense of physical "impurity" rather than weight; persistent belief that dietary practices are health-promoting despite evidence of malnutrition."
Cause
There has been no investigation into whether there may be a biological cause specific to orthorexia nervosa. It may be a food-centered manifestation of obsessive-compulsive disorder, which has a lot to do with control.
Diagnosis
In 2016, formal criteria for orthorexia were proposed in the peer-reviewed journal Eating Behaviors by Thom Dunn and Steven Bratman. These criteria are as follows:
Criterion A. Obsessive focus on "healthy" eating, as defined by a dietary theory or set of beliefs whose specific details may vary; marked by exaggerated emotional distress in relationship to food choices perceived as unhealthy; weight loss may ensue, but this is conceptualized as an aspect of ideal health rather than as the primary goal. As evidenced by the following:
Compulsive behavior and/or mental preoccupation regarding affirmative and restrictive dietary practices believed by the individual to promote optimum health. (Footnotes to this criteria add: Dietary practices may include use of concentrated "food supplements." Exercise performance and/or fit body image may be regarded as an aspect or indicator of health.)
Violation of self-imposed dietary rules causes exaggerated fear of disease, sense of personal impurity and/or negative physical sensations, accompanied by anxiety and shame.
Dietary restrictions escalate over time, and may come to include elimination of entire food groups and involve progressively more frequent and/or severe "cleanses" (partial fasts) regarded as purifying or detoxifying. This escalation commonly leads to weight loss, but the desire to lose weight is absent, hidden or subordinated to ideation about healthy food.
Criterion B. The compulsive behavior and mental preoccupation becomes clinically impairing by any of the following:
Malnutrition, severe weight loss or other medical complications from restricted diet
Intrapersonal distress or impairment of social, academic or vocational functioning secondary to beliefs or behaviors about healthy diet
Positive body image, self-worth, identity and/or satisfaction excessively dependent on compliance with self-defined "healthy" eating behavior.
A diagnostic questionnaire has been developed for orthorexia sufferers, similar to questionnaires for other eating disorders, named the ORTO-15. However, Dunn and Bratman critique this survey tool as lacking appropriate internal and external validation.
Epidemiology
Results across scientific findings have yet to find a definitive conclusion to support whether nutrition students and professionals are at higher risk than other population subgroups, due to differing results in the research literature. There are only a few notable scientific works that, in an attempt to explore the breadth and depth of the still vaguely-understood illness, have tried to identify which groups in society are most vulnerable to its onset. This includes a 2008 German study, which based its research on the widespread suspicion that the most nutritionally-informed, such as university nutrition students, are a potential high-risk group for eating disorders, due to a substantial accumulation of knowledge on food and its relationship to health; the idea being that the more one knows about health, the more likely an unhealthy fixation about being healthy can develop. This study also inferred that orthorexic tendencies may even fuel a desire to study the science, indicating that many within this field might suffer from the disorder before commencing the course. However the results found that the students in the study, upon initial embarkation of their degree, did not have higher orthorexic values than other non-nutrition university students, and thus the report concluded that further research is needed to clarify the relationship between food-education and the onset of ON.
Similarly, in a Portuguese study on nutrition tertiary students, the participants' orthorexic scores (according to the ORTO-15 diagnostic questionnaire) actually decreased as they progressed through their course, as well as the overall risk of developing an eating disorder being an insignificant 4.2 percent. The participants also answered questionnaires to provide insight into their eating behaviours and attitudes, and despite this study finding that nutrition and health-science students tend to have more restrictive eating behaviours, these studies however found no evidence to support that these students have "more disturbed or disordered eating patterns than other students" These two aforementioned studies conclude that the more understanding of food one has is not necessarily a risk factor for ON, explaining that the data gathered suggests dietetics professionals are not at significant risk of it.
However, these epidemiologic studies have been critiqued as using a fundamentally flawed survey tool that inflates prevalence rates. Scholars have questioned both the reliability and validity of the ORTO-15.
Most scientific findings tend to agree, however, young adults and adolescents are extremely susceptible to developing eating disorders. One study found that there was no relationship between BOT score and college major, which may indicate the prevalence of mental health issues and eating disorders on college campuses and that health and science majors are no longer the only ones affected More studies have also been conducted on the link between increased Instagram use and Orthorexia nervosa. The social media based healthy community has recently grown in popularity especially on platforms such as Instagram. The hashtag #food is one of the top 25 most popular hashtags on Instagram. A study that investigated this relationship found that increased use of Instagram correlated between symptoms of ON with no other social media platform having the same effect. With young adults and adolescents making up the majority of social media users, exposure to this type of content can lead to developing unhealthy behavior.
History
In a 1997 article in the magazine Yoga Journal, the American physician Steven Bratman coined the term "orthorexia nervosa" from the Greek ορθο- (ortho, "right" or "correct"), and όρεξις (orexis, "appetite"), literally meaning 'correct appetite', but in practice meaning 'correct diet'. The term is modeled on anorexia, literally meaning "without appetite", as used in the definition of the condition anorexia nervosa. (In both terms, "nervosa" indicates an unhealthy psychological state.) Bratman described orthorexia as an unhealthy fixation with what the individual considers to be healthy eating. Beliefs about what constitutes healthy eating commonly originate in one or another dietary theory such as raw foods veganism or macrobiotics, but are then taken to extremes, leading to disordered eating patterns and psychological and/or physical impairment. Bratman based this proposed condition on his personal experiences in the 1970s, as well as behaviors he observed among his patients in the 1990s. In 2000, Bratman, with David Knight, authored the book Health Food Junkies, which further expanded on the subject.
Following the publication of the book, in 2004 a team of Italian researchers from La Sapienza University of Rome, published the first empirical study attempting to develop a tool to measure the prevalence of orthorexia, known as the ORTO-15.
In 2015, responding to news articles in which the term orthorexia is applied to people who merely follow a non-mainstream theory of healthy eating, Bratman specified the following: "A theory may be conventional or unconventional, extreme or lax, sensible or totally wacky, but, regardless of the details, followers of the theory do not necessarily have orthorexia. They are simply adherents of a dietary theory. The term 'orthorexia' only applies when an eating disorder develops around that theory." Bratman elsewhere clarifies that with a few exceptions, most common theories of healthy eating are followed safely by the majority of their adherents; however, "for some people, going down the path of a restrictive diet in search of health may escalate into dietary perfectionism." Karin Kratina, PhD, writing for the National Eating Disorders Association, summarizes this process as follows: "Eventually food choices become so restrictive, in both variety and calories, that health suffers – an ironic twist for a person so completely dedicated to healthy eating."
Although orthorexia is not recognized as a mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, and it is not listed in the DSM-5, as of January 2016, four case reports and more than 40 other articles on the subject have been published in a variety of peer-reviewed journals internationally. According to a study published in 2011, two-thirds of a sample of 111 Dutch-speaking eating disorder specialists felt they had observed the syndrome in their clinical practice.
According to the Macmillan English Dictionary, the word is entering the English lexicon. The concept of orthorexia as a newly developing eating disorder has attracted significant media attention in the 21st century.
Orthorexia and other disorders
Orthorexia differs from anorexia and bulimia in its relationship to food. Instead of focusing on food intake in an attempt to lose weight and eat less, orthorexia is an "obsession about the quality of food intake" and is fueled by a feeling of achieving perfection and purity by only consuming "healthy" foods.
Orthorexic behaviors can often lead to malnutrition and weight loss, and it is often associated with anorexia nervosa. Studies have also shown that obsessive-compulsive tendencies are linked to the development of orthorexia, and some researchers suggest that orthorexia should be diagnosed as OCD because it is driven by an obsession for attaining a perfect diet.
See also
Chemophobia
Clean eating
Comfort food
Coping (psychology)
Diet
Emotional eating
Food guide pyramid
Notes
Medical manuals that do not recognise orthorexia nervosa include; ICD-10, DSM-IV, and DSM-5.
References
Culture-bound syndromes
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228215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck%27s%20Brewery | Beck's Brewery | Beck's Brewery, also known as Brauerei Beck & Co., is a brewery in the northern German city of Bremen. In 2001, Interbrew agreed to buy Brauerei Beck for 1.8 billion euros; at that time it was the fourth largest brewer in Germany. US manufacture of Beck's Brew has been based in St. Louis, Missouri, since early 2012 but some customers have rebelled against the US market version.
Since 2008, it has been owned by the Interbrew subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV.
Beck's Art Label Campaign
The campaign has offered artists the opportunity to provide designs to replace the brand's label. It started in London in 1987 with Gilbert and George. The artists created an art label, because Beck's sponsored their retrospective at the Hayward Gallery. The labels of the 2000 limited edition Beck's bottles were matching their exhibition poster. Other participants of the Art Label Campaign are members of the loose group "Young British Artists" and nominees or winners of the Turner Prize. Damien Hirst for example, designed a label for Beck's in 1995, showing his famous spots. In 2000, Tracey Emin created a label, which shows herself, posing in a bathtub.
Rachel Whiteread designed a label in 1993, presenting her artwork "house", which was also financed by Beck's. The Art Label Campaign has also been parodied by Matthew Higgs, who is a member of the British art collective "Bank". In the Bank exhibition "The Charge of the Light Brigade" in 1995, he brewed a beer, called "Kunstlerbrau". In 2012, Beck's started giving young and independent musicians the opportunity to design a label for the Beck's bottle. Beck's summer 2009 limited-edition labels were designed by the musical groups Hard-Fi and Ladyhawke.
Beck's logo with the key is based upon the city of Bremen's coat of arms, which contains a key that is attributed to the patron saint of the city, Saint Peter.
See also
References
External links
Official international site
Heinrich Brugsch 1876 trip to the city of Philadelphia: Beck's Bier wins top prize
Vintage Beck's Beer Advertisement from 1921
AB InBev brands
Breweries in Germany
Beer brands of Germany
Companies based in Bremen
Manufacturing companies based in Bremen (state)
German companies established in 1873 | [
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228217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duwamish%20River | Duwamish River | The Duwamish River is the name of the lower of Washington state's Green River. Its industrialized estuary is known as the Duwamish Waterway.
Name
The native Lushootseed name of the Duwamish River (and of the Cedar River) was Dxwdəw. The Lushootseed name of the Duwamish tribe was Dxw'Dəw?Abš or Dkhw'Duw'Absh, meaning 'People of the Inside'. Both of these have been anglicized as Duwamish.
History
Until 1906, the White and Green Rivers combined at Auburn, and joined the Black River at Tukwila to form the Duwamish. In 1906, however, the White River changed course following a major flood and emptied into the Puyallup River as it does today. The lower portion of the historic White River—from the historic confluence of the White and Green Rivers to the conjunction with the Black River—is now considered part of the Green River. Later, in 1911 the Cedar River was diverted to empty into Lake Washington instead of into the Black River; at that time, the lake itself still emptied into the Black River. Then, with the opening of the Lake Washington Ship Canal in 1916, the lake's level dropped nearly nine feet and the Black River dried up. From that time forward, the point of the name change from Green to Duwamish is no longer the confluence of the Green and Black Rivers, though it has not changed location.
The Duwamish Waterway empties into Elliott Bay in Seattle. After the completion of the man-made Harbor Island in 1909, the mouth of the river was divided into two channels, the East and West Waterways.
When the first European-Americans arrived in the area in 1851, they found the Dkhw’Duw’Absh people living in more than 90 longhouses, in at least 17 villages, in modern-day Seattle and environs. Radiocarbon-dating of artifacts indicates that indigenous tribes have lived along the Duwamish since at least the Sixth Century AD. The Dkhw’Duw’Absh traditionally used the river to hunt ducks and geese, fish for salmon, cod, and halibut, harvest clams, and gather berries, camas, and other plants for food and medicinal purposes.
Native villages on the Duwamish were eventually supplanted by white settlement and commercial use, and there was evidence of deliberate burning of Indian longhouses in 1893. Duwamish people continued to work and fish in the area, using man-made "Ballast Island" on the Seattle waterfront as a canoe haul-out and informal market, but by the early 20th Century, most remnants of traditional life along the river had disappeared. The last year-round native residents on the river - an old man named Seetoowathl, and his wife - died of starvation in their float-house on Kellogg Island in the winter of 1920.
In 1895, Eugene Semple, who had earlier served as Governor of Washington Territory, outlined a plan for a series of major public works projects in the Seattle area, including the straightening and dredging of the Duwamish River, both to open up the area to commercial use and to alleviate flooding. In 1909 the City of Seattle formed the Duwamish Waterway Commission in order to sell bonds and oversee the re-channelling of the river. Work began in October, 1913, and the oxbows gradually disappeared, with a few recesses in the channel left to accommodate high water flows and turning ships. Parts of the Georgetown and South Park neighborhoods once on quiet riverbank found themselves inland; the Georgetown Steam Plant was now almost a mile from the river, and special water pumping facilities had to be installed. By 1920, 4½ miles of the Duwamish Waterway had been dredged to a depth of 50 feet, with 20 million cubic feet of mud and sand going into the expansion of Harbor Island. The shallow, meandering, nine-mile-long river became a five-mile engineered waterway capable of handling ocean-going vessels.
The Duwamish basin soon became Seattle's industrial and commercial core area. Activities included cargo handling and storage, marine construction, ship and boat manufacturing, concrete manufacturing, paper and metals fabrication, food processing, and countless other industrial operations. Boeing Plant 1 was established on the Lower Duwamish in 1916, and Boeing Plant 2, further upriver, in 1936.
The lower waterway is spanned by four major, public bridges: the First Avenue South Bridge, the South Park Bridge, the Spokane Street Bridge, and, directly above the latter, the West Seattle Bridge.
With the spread of ecological concerns in the 1970s, various environmental, tribal, and community organizations became interested in the severely polluted Duwamish. Kellogg Island, the last remnant of the original river, was declared a wildlife preserve, and nearby terminal T-107 was converted into a park, creating a substantial natural area near the mouth of the river. Cleanup and restoration efforts are ongoing.
In 2009, the Duwamish Longhouse and Cultural Center was opened on the west bank of the river as part of the tribe's reassertion of its historic rights in the area and its continuing struggle for federal recognition of tribal status.
Pollution
Due to 20th century industrial contamination, the lower of the Duwamish was declared a Superfund site by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The contaminants include PCBs, PAHs, mercury, and phthalates. The cleanup of the river has been controversial: one plan for an "early action" or hotspot cleanup proposed to dredge contaminated sediment and dump the resulting sludge in Tacoma's Commencement Bay, to the southwest. Opposition to this plan in both Seattle and Tacoma forced the sludge to be shipped to Klickitat County in south central Washington instead of disposal in Puget Sound.
The Duwamish River faces many types of pollution, in addition to the contaminants named above. One major form of pollution is fecal coliform caused by sewage overflow. Even if these overflows were to be cleaned up, the overall quality of the water would not improve much. The Duwamish River's most common pollutant is petroleum. Other contamination would still occur from farms, surface runoff, or failing septic tanks.
Wildlife
Despite the industrialization of the Duwamish river, it remains an important habitat for the thousands of salmon and trout that visit the marshes and estuaries each year to spawn. The Duwamish supports chinook, coho,
chum and steelhead, as well as the more rare sockeye, sea-run cutthroat trout and bull trout. Pink salmon run in the millions every odd-numbered years in recent history.
Many of the animal species found in or around the river contain an unhealthy amount of contaminants. For example, other than salmon, any type of fish or shellfish found in the river is unfit for human consumption. It was found that PCB levels in fish and crab that live in the waterway most of their lives are 35 to 110 times higher than in Puget Sound salmon. The Ecological Risk Assessment also found that river otters from the Lower Duwamish River might be exposed to such high levels of PCBs that the growth or survival of their offspring may be reduced.
Recreation
The Port of Seattle owns several properties along the Duwamish River and industrial channels. In 2020, a set of six parks were renamed to use indigenous Lushootseed names following consultation with local tribes.
See also
List of rivers of Washington
References
External links
Rivers of Washington (state)
Ports and harbors of Washington (state)
Rivers of King County, Washington
Superfund sites in Washington (state) | [
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228222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurtz%20%28Heart%20of%20Darkness%29 | Kurtz (Heart of Darkness) | Kurtz is a central fictional character in Joseph Conrad's 1899 novella Heart of Darkness. A trader of ivory in Africa and commander of a trading post, he monopolises his position as a demigod among native Africans. Kurtz meets with the novella's protagonist, Charles Marlow, who returns him to the coast via steamboat. Kurtz, whose reputation precedes him, impresses Marlow strongly, and during the return journey, Marlow is witness to Kurtz's final moments.
In the novella
Kurtz is an ivory trader, sent by a shadowy Belgian company into the heart of an unnamed place in Africa (generally regarded as the Congo Free State). With the help of his superior technology, Kurtz has turned himself into a charismatic demigod of all the tribes surrounding his station and gathered vast quantities of ivory in this way. As a result, his name is known throughout the region. Kurtz's general manager is envious of Kurtz and plots his downfall.
Kurtz's mother was half English, his father was half French and thus "All Europe contributed to the making of Kurtz." As the reader finds out at the end, Kurtz is a multitalented man—painter, musician, writer, promising politician. He starts out, years before the novel begins, as an imperialist in the best tradition of the "white man's burden". The reader is introduced to a painting of Kurtz's, depicting a blindfolded woman bearing a torch against a nearly black background, and clearly symbolic of his former views. Kurtz is also the author of a pamphlet regarding the civilization of the natives.
The presence of his admirer, the Russian "Harlequin", and what he reveals about Kurtz in his adulatory descriptions of him raises questions about Kurtz's actual beliefs and the sincerity of his progressive views.
However, over the course of his stay in Africa, Kurtz becomes corrupted. He takes his pamphlet and scribbles in, at the very end, the words "Exterminate all the brutes!" He induces the natives to worship him, setting up rituals and venerations worthy of a tyrant. By the time Marlow, the protagonist, sees Kurtz, he is ill with jungle fever and almost dead. Marlow seizes Kurtz and endeavors to take him back down the river in his steamboat. Kurtz dies on the boat with the last words, "The horror! The horror!" Kurtz ultimately was changed by the jungle. At first he wanted to bring civilization to the natives, as his painting shows, but by the end he wants to "exterminate all the brutes!"
Basis
Kurtz's persona is generally understood to derive from the notoriously brutal history of the so-called "Congo Free State", a territory that existed as the private property of King Leopold II from 1885 to 1908 until it was taken over by Belgium and became a Belgian colony. In his history book King Leopold's Ghost, Adam Hochschild suggests that Léon Rom, an administrator in King Leopold's Congo, i.e. in the Congo Free State, was the principal inspiration for the Kurtz character, citing references as the heads on the stakes outside of the station and other similarities between the two. Hochschild and other authors have also suggested that the fate of the disastrous "rear column" of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition (1886–8) on the Congo may have also been an influence. Column leader Edmund Musgrave Barttelot, "went mad, began hitting, whipping, and killing people, and was finally murdered". Bloom notes that Kurtz's sophisticated brutality is closer to that of Barttelot's associate slave trader Tippu Tip. The expedition's overall leader, Henry Morton Stanley, the principal figure involved in preparing the Congo for Leopold's rule, may also have been an influence. Conrad's biographer Norman Sherry judged that Arthur Hodister (1847–1892), a Belgian solitary but successful trader, who spoke three Congolese languages and was venerated by Congolese to the point of deification, served as the main model, while later scholars have refuted this hypothesis. Peter Firchow mentions the possibility that Kurtz is a composite, modelled on various figures present in the Congo Free State at the time as well as on Conrad's imagining of what they might have had in common.
A personal acquaintance of Conrad's, Georges Antoine Klein, may also have been a real-life basis for the character. Klein was an employee of the Brussels-based trading company Société Anonyme Belge pour le Commerce du Haut-Congo, and died shortly after being picked up on the steamboat Conrad was piloting. Further, "Klein" means "little" in German, and as Marlow muses in the novella, "Kurz" means "short" in the same language.
Conrad also expressed admiration of Robert Louis Stevenson's Pacific Ocean writings, in particular, the stories "The Beach of Falesá" and The Ebb-Tide, as well as the non-fiction account of Tembinok' of the Gilbert Islands that appeared in In the South Seas. All three texts contain megalomaniacs who manipulate their circumstances and remote settings to assert power over others. It is widely believed that Conrad drew influence from these characters, as well as Stevenson's plot lines when writing Heart of Darkness.
In other works
Film
In the 1958 loose adaptation for the CBS television anthology series Playhouse 90 Kurtz was played by Boris Karloff. This version uses the encounter between Marlow and Kurtz as its final act, and adds a backstory in which Marlow had been Kurtz's adopted son.
Francis Ford Coppola's acclaimed Vietnam War film Apocalypse Now (1979) centers on the protagonist's mission to find and kill the renegade Colonel Kurtz (played by Marlon Brando), based on Conrad's character, who has gone rogue far up a river, deep in the Southeast Asian jungle. The script acknowledges Heart of Darkness as a source of inspiration, and the last words of Colonel Kurtz, "The horror! The horror!", echo those of his namesake in the novel.
In the mostly poorly received 1994 TNT version of the story directed by Nicolas Roeg, Kurtz, who has gone insane and is now doing the most horrible and blasphemous deeds, was portrayed by John Malkovich.
The 2020 documentary African Apocalypse follows the parallels between the fictional Kurtz and the brutal Paul Voulet, who led a murderous expedition into Niger in the year that Heart of Darkness was published.
Games
The video game Fallout: New Vegas (2010) features a character in many ways similar to Kurtz, a man who refers to himself as Caesar. Caesar was initially a diplomat who went out into the post-apocalyptic world in an attempt to both increase the knowledge of the now tribal inhabitants and learn from their cultures to facilitate understanding in the wasteland. Caesar eventually went mad with power after becoming the de facto leader of one such tribe and led them in dismantling other tribes who then assimilated into his group. Now, he is the ruler of Caesar's Legion, a vast army of tribals modeled after the Roman Empire. Like Kurtz, Caesar is an educated, charismatic figure who is worshipped as a god by his underlings; in Caesar's case, his followers believe him to be the reincarnation of Mars, the Roman god of war.
The video game Spec Ops: The Line (2012), another modernized loose adaptation of Heart of Darkness (set in a ruined Dubai), has a similar Kurtz figure named Colonel John Konrad.
Literature
Timothy Findley's novel Headhunter (1993) features Kurtz's escape from Heart of Darkness and subsequent reign of terror over the city of Toronto as the psychiatrist-in-chief at the Parkin Institute.
The poem "The Hollow Men" by T.S. Eliot starts off with the line "Mistah Kurtz – He Dead."
In Josef Škvorecký's novel The Engineer of Human Souls Kurtz is seen as the epitome of exterminatory colonialism.
James Reich's novel Mistah Kurtz! (Anti-Oedipus Press 2016) is a prelude to Heart of Darkness that presents meticulous and controversial solutions to the origins, mystery and messianic deterioration of Kurtz.
References
Sources
External links
Kurtz in Heart of Darkness
Joseph Conrad characters
Fictional businesspeople
Literary characters introduced in 1899
Fictional cult leaders
Fictional dictators
Fictional mass murderers
Male literary villains | [
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228234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galliano%20%28liqueur%29 | Galliano (liqueur) | Liquore Galliano L'Autentico, known more commonly as Galliano (), is a sweet herbal liqueur, created in 1896 by Italian distiller and brandy producer Arturo Vaccari of Livorno, Tuscany and named after Giuseppe Galliano, an Italian officer of the Royal Italian Army of the First Italo-Ethiopian War.
Galliano is sweet with vanilla-anise flavour and subtle citrus and woodsy herbal undernotes. The vanilla top note differentiates Galliano from other anise-flavoured liqueurs such as anisette, ouzo, sambuca, and Pernod.
Galliano is used both as a digestif and as an ingredient for cocktails, notably the Harvey Wallbanger, Yellow Bird, Golden Cadillac, and Golden Dream.
Ingredients
Galliano has numerous natural ingredients including star anise, Mediterranean anise, juniper berry, musk yarrow, lavender, peppermint, cinnamon, and Galliano's hallmark vanilla flavour. Galliano uses vanillin for flavouring and sugar and glucose syrup for sweetening. Caramel and tartrazine are used to achieve Galliano's bright yellow colour.
Neutral alcohol is infused with the pressings from the herbs except for the vanilla. The liquid is distilled and then infused with separately pressed vanilla. In the final stage, distilled water, refined sugar and pure neutral alcohol are blended with the base. The original blend is formulated at 84.6 proof (42.3% by volume), while a blend with a more prominent taste of vanilla is produced at 60 proof (30% by volume). There was also a period where 80 proof (40% alcohol by volume) was produced.
Brand ownership
The Galliano brand is currently owned by Dutch distiller Lucas Bols, and marketed through its worldwide distribution joint venture, Maxxium. Galliano is packaged in a distinctively shaped bottle, reminiscent of a classical Roman column.
Several other liqueurs are also produced under the Galliano brand name, including a black Sambuca, a white Sambuca and an amaretto, which are predominantly distributed in Australasia, where the products are popular as shots.
Galliano also makes Galliano Ristretto coffee-flavored liqueur and Galliano Balsamico, a balsamic vinegar-infused liqueur.
Awards
Galliano has earned bronze and silver medals from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition. Another spirit ratings organization, Wine Enthusiast Magazine, gave Galliano L'autentico a score of "90–95" in 2011.
Notes
External links
Products introduced in 1896
Anise liqueurs and spirits
Herbal liqueurs
Italian liqueurs
Italian companies established in 1896 | [
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228236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biceps | Biceps | The biceps or biceps brachii (, "two-headed muscle of the arm") is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps screws in the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).
Structure
The biceps is one of three muscles in the anterior compartment of the upper arm, along with the brachialis muscle and the coracobrachialis muscle, with which the biceps shares a nerve supply. The biceps muscle has two heads, the short head and the long head, distinguished according to their origin at the coracoid process and supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, respectively. From its origin on the glenoid, the long head remains tendinous as it passes through the shoulder joint and through the intertubercular groove of the humerus. Extending from its origin on the coracoid, the tendon of the short head runs adjacent to the tendon of the coracobrachialis as the conjoint tendon. Unlike the other muscles in the anterior compartment of the arm, the biceps muscle crosses two joints, the shoulder joint and the elbow joint.
Both heads of the biceps join in the middle upper arm to form a single muscle mass usually near the insertion of the deltoid to form a common muscle belly, although several anatomic studies have demonstrated that the muscle bellies remain distinct structures without confluent fibers. As the muscle extends distally, the two heads rotate 90 degrees externally before inserting onto the radial tuberosity. The short head inserts distally on the tuberosity while the long head inserts proximally closer to the apex of the tuberosity. The bicipital aponeurosis, also called the lacertus fibrosus, is a thick fascial band that organizes close to the musculotendinous junction of the biceps and radiates over and inserts onto the ulnar part of the antebrachial fascia.
The tendon that attaches to the radial tuberosity is partially or completely surrounded by a bursa, the bicipitoradial bursa, which ensures frictionless motion between the biceps tendon and the proximal radius during pronation and supination of the forearm.
Two muscles lie underneath the biceps brachii. These are the coracobrachialis muscle, which like the biceps attaches to the coracoid process of the scapula, and the brachialis muscle which connects to the ulna and along the mid-shaft of the humerus. Besides those, the brachioradialis muscle is adjacent to the biceps and also inserts on the radius bone, though more distally.
Variation
Traditionally described as a two-headed muscle, biceps brachii is one of the most variable muscles of the human body and has a third head arising from the humerus in 10% of cases (normal variation)—most commonly originating near the insertion of the coracobrachialis and joining the short head—but four, five, and even seven supernumerary heads have been reported in rare cases.
One study found a higher than expected number of female cadavers with a third head of biceps brachii, equal incidence between sides of the body, and uniform innervation by musculocutaneous nerve.
The distal biceps tendons are completely separated in 40% and bifurcated in 25% of cases.
Nerve supply
The biceps shares its nerve supply with the other two muscles of the anterior compartment. The muscles are supplied by the musculocutaneous nerve. Fibers of the fifth, sixth and seventh cervical nerves make up the components of the musculocutaneous nerve which supply the biceps.
Blood supply
The blood supply of the biceps is the brachial artery. The distal tendon of the biceps can be useful for palpating the brachial pulse, as the artery runs medial to the tendon in the cubital fossa.
Function
The biceps works across three joints. The most important of these functions is to supinate the forearm and flex the elbow. Besides, the long head of biceps prevents the upward displacement of the head of the humerus. In more detail, the actions are, by joint:
Proximal radioulnar joint of the elbow – The biceps brachii functions as a powerful supinator of the forearm, i.e. it turns the palm upwards. This action, which is aided by the supinator muscle, requires the humeroulnar joint of the elbow to be at least partially flexed. If the humeroulnar joint, is fully extended, supination is then primarily carried out by the supinator muscle. The biceps is a particularly powerful supinator of the forearm due to the distal attachment of the muscle at the radial tuberosity, on the opposite side of the bone from the supinator muscle. When flexed, the biceps effectively pulls the radius back into its neutral supinated position in concert with the supinator muscle.
Humeroulnar joint of the elbow – The biceps brachii also functions as an important flexor of the forearm, particularly when the forearm is supinated. Functionally, this action is performed when lifting an object, such as a bag of groceries or when performing a biceps curl. When the forearm is in pronation (the palm faces the ground), the brachialis, brachioradialis, and supinator function to flex the forearm, with minimal contribution from the biceps brachii. It is also important to note that regardless of forearm position, (supinated, pronated, or neutral) the force exerted by the biceps brachii remains the same; however, the brachioradialis has a much greater change in exertion depending on position than the biceps during concentric contractions. That is, the biceps can only exert so much force, and as forearm position changes, other muscles must compensate.
Glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) – Several weaker functions occur at the glenohumeral joint. The biceps brachii weakly assists in forward flexion of the shoulder joint (bringing the arm forward and upwards). It may also contribute to abduction (bringing the arm out to the side) when the arm is externally (or laterally) rotated. The short head of the biceps brachii also assists with horizontal adduction (bringing the arm across the body) when the arm is internally (or medially) rotated. Finally, the short head of the biceps brachii, due to its attachment to the scapula (or shoulder blade), assists with stabilization of the shoulder joint when a heavy weight is carried in the arm. The tendon of the long head of the biceps also assists in holding the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity.
Motor units in the lateral portion of the long head of the biceps are preferentially activated during elbow flexion, while motor units in the medial portion are preferentially activated during forearm supination.
The biceps are usually attributed as representative of strength within a variety of worldwide cultures.
Clinical significance
The proximal tendons of the biceps brachii are commonly involved in pathological processes and are a frequent cause of anterior shoulder pain. Disorders of the distal biceps brachii tendon include insertional tendonitis and partial or complete tears of the tendon. Partial tears are usually characterized by pain and enlargement and abnormal contour of the tendon. Complete tears occur as avulsion of the tendinous portion of the biceps away from its insertion on the tuberosity of the radius, and is often accompanied by a palpable, audible "pop" and immediate pain and soft tissue swelling.
A soft-tissue mass is sometimes encountered in the anterior aspect of the arm, the so-called Reverse Popeye deformity, which paradoxically leads to a decreased strength during flexion of the elbow and supination of the forearm.
Tendon rupture
Tears of the biceps brachii may occur during athletic activities, however avulsion injuries of the distal biceps tendon are frequently occupational in nature and sustained during forceful, eccentric contraction of the biceps muscle while lifting.
Treatment of a biceps tear depends on the severity of the injury. In most cases, the muscle will heal over time with no corrective surgery. Applying cold pressure and using anti-inflammatory medications will ease pain and reduce swelling. More severe injuries require surgery and post-op physical therapy to regain strength and functionality in the muscle. Corrective surgeries of this nature are typically reserved for elite athletes who rely on a complete recovery.
Training
The biceps can be strengthened using weight and resistance training. Examples of well known biceps exercises are the chin-up and biceps curl.
Etymology and grammar
The biceps brachii muscle is the one that gave all muscles their name: it comes from the Latin musculus, "little mouse", because the appearance of the flexed biceps resembles the back of a mouse. The same phenomenon occurred in Greek, in which μῦς, mȳs, means both "mouse" and "muscle".
The term biceps brachii is a Latin phrase meaning "two-headed [muscle] of the arm", in reference to the fact that the muscle consists of two bundles of muscle, each with its own origin, sharing a common insertion point near the elbow joint. The proper plural form of the Latin adjective biceps is bicipites, a form not in general English use. Instead, biceps is used in both singular and plural (i.e., when referring to both arms).
The English form , attested from 1939, is a back formation derived from misinterpreting the s of biceps as the English plural marker -s.
History
Leonardo da Vinci expressed the original idea of the biceps acting as a supinator in a series of annotated drawings made between 1505 and 1510; in which the principle of the biceps as a supinator, as well as its role as a flexor to the elbow were devised. However, this function remained undiscovered by the medical community as da Vinci was not regarded as a teacher of anatomy, nor were his results publicly released. It was not until 1713 that this movement was re-discovered by William Cheselden and subsequently recorded for the medical community. It was rewritten several times by different authors wishing to present information to different audiences. The most notable recent expansion upon Cheselden's recordings was written by Guillaume Duchenne in 1867, in a journal named Physiology of Motion. To this day it remains one of the major references on supination action of the biceps brachii.
Other species
Neanderthals
In Neanderthals, the radial bicipital tuberosities were larger than in modern humans, which suggests they were probably able to use their biceps for supination over a wider range of pronation-supination. It is possible that they relied more on their biceps for forceful supination without the assistance of the supinator muscle like in modern humans, and thus that they used a different movement when throwing.
Horses
In the horse, the biceps' function is to extend the shoulder and flex the elbow. It is composed of two short-fibred heads separated longitudinally by a thick internal tendon which stretches from the origin on the supraglenoid tubercle to the insertion on the medial radial tuberosity. This tendon can withstand very large forces when the biceps is stretched. From this internal tendon a strip of tendon, the lacertus fibrosus, connects the muscle with the extensor carpi radialis -- an important feature in the horse's stay apparatus (through which the horse can rest and sleep whilst standing.)
References
External links
Elbow flexors
Forearm supinators
Muscles of the upper limb
Shoulder flexors | [
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228240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula%20Radcliffe | Paula Radcliffe | Paula Jane Radcliffe MBE (born 17 December 1973) is a former British long-distance runner. She is a three-time winner of the London Marathon (2002, 2003, 2005), three-time New York Marathon champion (2004, 2007, 2008), and 2002 Chicago Marathon winner. She was previously the fastest female marathoner of all time, and held the Women's World Marathon Record with a time of 2:15:25 for 16 years from 2003 to 2019 when it was broken by Brigid Kosgei.
Radcliffe is a former world champion in the marathon, half marathon and cross country. She has also been European champion over 10,000 metres and in cross country. On the track, Radcliffe won the 10,000 metres silver medal at the 1999 World Championships and was the 2002 Commonwealth champion at 5000 metres. She represented Great Britain at the Olympics in four consecutive games (1996 to 2008), although she never won an Olympic medal.
Her running has earned her a number of accolades including the BBC Sports Personality of the Year, Laureus World Comeback of the Year, IAAF World Athlete of the Year, AIMS World Athlete of the Year (three times) and a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). She has also been nominated for World Sportswoman of the year on several occasions. In 2010, she was inducted into the England Athletics Hall of Fame. She was inducted into the Loughborough University Hall of Fame in 2015.
She ended her competitive running career at the 2015 London Marathon.
Early life
Radcliffe was born on 17 December 1973 in Davenham near Northwich, Cheshire. Her family then moved to nearby Barnton where she attended Little Leigh Primary School. Despite suffering from asthma and anaemia, she took up running at the age of seven, influenced by her father who was a keen amateur marathon runner and joined Frodsham Athletic Club. Her family later moved to Kingsley.
When Radcliffe was aged 12, the family moved to Oakley, Bedfordshire and she became a member of Bedford & County Athletics Club. Her joining the club coincided with a talented and dedicated coach, Alex Stanton, building the women's and girls' sections into one of the strongest in the country, in spite of Bedford's relatively small size.
Radcliffe's father became club vice-chairman and her mother, a fun-runner, managed the women's cross-country team. Her first race at a national level came as a 12-year-old in 1986 when she placed 299th out of around 600 in the girls' race of the English Schools Cross Country Championships. She finished fourth in the same race one year later.
Radcliffe attended Sharnbrook Upper School and Community College. She went on to study French, German and economics at Loughborough University, gaining a first-class honours degree in Modern European Studies.
Running career
Radcliffe's father was a keen marathon runner as a young man. He took up the hobby again in an attempt to lose weight after giving up smoking. Despite suffering from asthma Radcliffe took up running at the age of seven. In 1992 Radcliffe discovered that she suffers from anaemia. Radcliffe was diagnosed with exercise induced asthma at the age of 14 after blacking out whilst training. During her father's training jogs in the woods Radcliffe and her brother would often run with him for a mile or two. Radcliffe attended Frodsham Athletic Club until the age of nine, Radcliffe became a member of Bedford & County Athletics Club, when they moved to Oakley. There she was coached by Alex Stanton, who still fulfilled that role in her professional career. Stanton started to coach Radcliffe at the age of 12 after his wife Rosemary spotted her talent. At the age of 10 Radcliffe, accompanied by her father, watched Ingrid Kristiansen run in the London Marathon, inspiring her to become an athlete. Her first race at a national level came as a 12-year-old in 1986, when she placed 299th in the English Schools Cross Country Championships. In 1991 Radcliffe won the English Schools 1500 metres title.
1992–1996
At the 1992 IAAF World Cross Country Championships, Radcliffe, took the Junior title, beating Wang Junxia and Gete Wami in Boston, after recovering from a bad asthma attack in the weeks beforehand. Radcliffe then went to the Junior track World championships and finished fourth in the 3,000 metres. In her first senior race, in Durham at the start of 1993, Radcliffe finished second to Olympic Champion Derartu Tulu. At the age of 19 Radcliffe finished in seventh place at the 1993 World Championships. Radcliffe claimed back to back World Cross Challenge wins at Durham and Mallusk to start the 1994 season. Radcliffe missed the World Cross Country Championships with a foot injury. Radcliffe was initially misdiagnosed with the injury which forced her to miss all of 1994 and thought about quitting as the injury would not get better. At the Fanny Blankers-Koen Games in Hengelo in 1995 Radcliffe outkicked Tulu to run the third fastest time by a British woman for the 5,000 metres. At the World championships, Radcliffe qualified comfortably for the final of the 5,000 metres, where she finished fifth. At the 1996 Securicor Games Radcliffe ran the 5,000 metres finishing second. The Olympic Games saw Radcliffe finish fifth in the 5,000 metres. Radcliffe rounded off 1996 by finishing third in a cross country race in Durham.
1997–2000
1997 saw Radcliffe split Wami and Tulu, and win the silver medal at the 1997 IAAF World Cross Country Championships. Radcliffe became the first woman to defend the Fifth Avenue Mile title. In the 1997 World Championships, Radcliffe finished in 4th place over the 5,000 metres. Wami again outsprinted Radcliffe in her final race of 1997, in the Brussels cross country event. Radcliffe had dropped out of Durham's cross country race with flu at the start of 1998, but bounced back to finish third in Dublin. At the 1998 edition of the World Cross Country, Radcliffe again won the silver medal. Radcliffe set a new world best for on the road around Balmoral Castle. At the European Cup Radcliffe, captaining the team, won the 5,000 metres and finished second in the 1500 metres. Radcliffe set the pace in the 10,000 metres at the European Championships, but finished fifth. Radcliffe, who was suffering from a virus, took some time off, before returning to the cross country discipline, where she won her first senior title by taking the European Long course race. 1998 finished with a fourth-place finish in Brussels.
Radcliffe started 1999 by finishing fourth in Durham. At the World Cross Country championships, Radcliffe finished with the bronze medal. Radcliffe then ran the seventh fastest 10,000 metres ever at the European 10,000 metres challenge. At the London Grand Prix, Radcliffe took two seconds off her own British record in the 5,000 metres. Radcliffe took the silver at the World Championships behind finishing behind Wami in the 10,000 metres. Radcliffe and Loruope found themselves at the front and tried to get rid of Wami but failed as the Ethiopian took the title. At the Berlin Golden league meeting, Radcliffe finished eighth in the 5,000 metres. Radcliffe then ran the second fastest half marathon by a British woman, finishing third on her debut at the distance at the Great North Run, despite getting into a tangle with a spectator.
Starting 2000, Radcliffe won the Stormont Cross Country race for a third time. Radcliffe then finished fourth in Durham. Radcliffe then sustained a knee injury. For the European Cup, Radcliffe joined a host of other British athletes by pulled out injured. However, Radcliffe soon returned to the track for the first time since March after a virus, a knee operation and a calf muscle tear had kept her out; to race over 1,500 metres in Barcelona. In her first race since the World Cross Country, Radcliffe finished 11th. At the London Grand Prix, Radcliffe finished second, one second outside of her British record, in only her second track race of the season. At the Weltklasse Zürich IAAF Golden League meeting Radcliffe competed in the 3,000 metres and finished in fourth place. At the UK trials won the 5,000 metres title. The British Grand Prix saw Radcliffe race over 3000 metres, where once again she finished third. At the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Radcliffe finished sixth in her 10,000 metres heat to qualify for the final. In the final Radcliffe set a new British record, but crossed the line in fourth and was highly disappointed to miss out on a medal. Radcliffe returned to action by winning the BUPA Ireland five-mile race. At the Great North Run, Radcliffe ran a new European record for the half marathon, as she won the race in a time of 67 minutes and 7 seconds. Radcliffe was then selected for the 2000 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships in Mexico. Radcliffe won her first World title, despite suffering a panic attack when her nose tape, designed to help her breathe, fell off halfway round. The good run of form came to an end, when she turned her attention to the Cross Country events and finished third in Brussels. Radcliffe confirmed that her last race of the year would be the Great North Cross Country. There Radcliffe defeated Tulu by seventy-five seconds, in eight inches of snow.
She won back-to-back titles in the 2000 and 2001 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships, winning a third title in 2003.
Cross country champion
On 24 March, Radcliffe won the Ostend, Belgium-held World Cross Country Championships 2001 title in a time of 27:49.
Held in March in Dublin, Radcliffe defended her title in the Women's Long Race when she won the 2002 IAAF World Cross Country Championships title for a second year. She won in 26:46.
Marathon world record
In 2002, Radcliffe made the move up to the marathon, a decision that immediately paid off with victory at her debut in that year's London Marathon on 14 April 2002 in a world's best time for a women's only race (2:18:55). Her time was the second quickest in women's marathon history behind the world record of 2:18:47 set by Catherine Ndereba, of Kenya, in Chicago.
Later that year, Radcliffe set a world record time of 2:17:18 in the Chicago Marathon on 13 October 2002, breaking the previous record by a minute and a half.
She was awarded an MBE in June 2002. She said: "It means a great deal to me, it's a great honour and it really tops off an amazing year. To come here and receive this and to meet the Queen at the end of it just finishes it off perfectly."
Later the same year, she became the BBC Sports Personality of the Year, making her the first woman in over a decade to be honoured with the accolade. Paula thanked her husband Gary Lough, her coach Alex Stanton and her physio, Gerard Hartmann.
Further world records
Radcliffe set her last women's marathon world record during the 2003 London Marathon in April, with a time of 2:15:25. The performance is one of the highest of score's values in terms of the IAAF World ranking points.
Radcliffe is the former world record holder for the women's road 10k in a time of 30 minutes and 21 seconds, which she set on 23 February 2003 in the World's Best 10K in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Radcliffe won the 2004 New York City Marathon in a time of 2:23:10, beating Kenya's Susan Chepkemei.
2004 Athens Olympics
Radcliffe did not compete in the London Marathon in 2004, but was the favourite to win a gold medal in the marathon at the Olympic Games in Athens. However, she suffered an injury to her leg just two weeks prior to the event and had to use a high dose of anti-inflammatory drugs. This had an adverse effect on her stomach, hindering food absorption. She ended up withdrawing from the race after . Five days later she started in the 10,000 metres but, still suffering from the effects of the marathon, retired with eight laps remaining. Radcliffe said "You go through bad stages in a marathon, but never as bad as that", "I've never before not been able to finish and I'm desperately trying to find a reason for what happened", "I just feel numb – this is something I worked so hard for."
Regarded as Great Britain's best gold medal hope in athletics, her withdrawal made headlines in the UK, with editorial stances ranging from support to negativity, with some newspapers deriding Radcliffe for 'quitting', rather than going on to finish the race. Television pictures showed Radcliffe in a clearly distressed state after dropping out of the marathon, being comforted by two friends from her early running days.
2005: Marathon World Champion
At the 2005 London Marathon, Radcliffe won with a time of 2:17:42, a world's best time for a women's only race by over a minute. The race is remembered for a notorious moment towards the end when Radcliffe, hindered by runner's diarrhea and in need for a toilet break, stopped and defecated on the side of the road in view of the crowd and TV cameras which broadcast the incident live. After the race, she apologised to viewers and explained what happened, "I was losing time because I was having stomach cramps and I thought 'I just need to go and I'll be fine'. ... I didn't really want to resort to that in front of hundreds of thousands of people. Basically I needed to go. I started feeling it between 15 and and probably carried on too long before stopping. I must have eaten too much beforehand". In November 2006, the incident was voted top running moment in history in the UK from a choice of ten "unforgettable moments".
On 14 August 2005 at the World Championships held in Helsinki she won Britain's only gold medal when she took the marathon title, dominating the race and setting a championship record time of 2:20:57. Catherine Ndereba of Kenya finished in second place, more than a minute behind. Radcliffe said: "It pretty much went according to plan. If somebody had been with me at the end I think I could have pushed it up a bit more." She and three other British runners were also awarded third place in the team competition.
Family and autobiography
Radcliffe took a break through the 2006 season owing to injuries and in July announced that she was expecting her first child. Her comeback was further delayed in 2007 as a result of a stress fracture in her lower back.
Radcliffe chose not to defend her world marathon crown in 2007, in order to undertake further rehabilitation, but insisted she wanted to compete in the next two Olympics. She made her return to competitive running on 30 September 2007, taking part in the BUPA Great North Run in the UK on Tyneside. This was her first race in almost two years. Radcliffe finished second behind US runner Kara Goucher.
Radcliffe made her marathon return at the New York City Marathon on 4 November 2007 which she won with an official time of 2:23:09.
Radcliffe released an autobiography in 2004, Paula: My Story So Far.
2008–09: Beijing Olympics and fitness problems
Radcliffe withdrew from the 2008 London Marathon due to a foot injury. Shortly after the London Marathon, it was also revealed that Radcliffe was suffering from an injury to her hip, preventing her from running. Originally thought to be a muscular problem, scans later revealed it was a stress fracture to her femur. Radcliffe won the 2008 Great South Run in 51 minutes 11 seconds, 11 seconds off of Sonia O' Sullivan's course record. In May, Radcliffe broke her left leg.
Radcliffe managed to get to fitness level for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but cramped during the marathon to the point where she had to stop running and stretch. She resumed the race and finished in 23rd place overall.
Radcliffe won the 2008 New York City Marathon, making it her third victory at the competition with a time of 2:23:56. Russian Lyudmila Petrova came in second, and American Kara Goucher took third.
Following the New York Marathon, Radcliffe suffered more injury setbacks: she had to withdraw from the 2009 London Marathon due to a fractured toe. In March that year, she had a bunion removed which doctors believed was the root cause of her other injuries at that time. She did not run competitively for almost 10 months, but made herself available for inclusion in the 2009 British team for the World Championships in Athletics. She announced that the New York City Half Marathon would be a testing ground for her fitness before the competition.
Radcliffe went on to win the New York City Half Marathon in 1:09:45, two seconds off the course record. However, after this she pulled out of the World Championships as she felt unfit, and she missed the 2009 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships in Birmingham due to a bout of tonsillitis. She returned to action at the 2009 New York City Marathon but failed to notch her third consecutive victory, instead fading to fourth place with knee problems.
2011 onwards
Following a 19-month layoff that included the birth of her second child, she returned to action at the Bupa London , where she finished 3rd, 55 seconds behind the winner, Jo Pavey. Radcliffe called the performance "a bit of a disaster", and indicated she was suffering from a tear in one of the discs of her back.
She set the 2011 Berlin Marathon as her comeback venue to try for an Olympic qualifying time. She came third in the race with a time of 2:23:46 hours – getting the Olympic standard and the fourth fastest time by a European that year. She was dissatisfied, however, saying: "I'm not particularly happy, either with my time or my place. I came here wanting to win". She used the 2012 Vienna Half Marathon to gauge her fitness and the race was set up as a battle between her and Haile Gebrselassie, with Radcliffe receiving a head start of 7:52 minutes (the difference between the two athletes' personal bests). She did not perform well and was comfortably beaten by the Ethiopian, while she crossed the line after 72:03 minutes.
Radcliffe pulled out of London 2012 Olympics because of a foot injury.
In January 2015, Radcliffe announced that she had decided to end her marathon career on 26 April 2015 by competing in the 2015 London Marathon. She finished in 2:36:55.
Other achievements and awards
Awarded the BBC London Sports Awards 2003 for 'Sporting Moment of the Year'.
Radcliffe has set numerous records, official and unofficial, on the track and the roads. As of November 2009, she holds the official world record for on roads. She has twice won the World Half-Marathon championships, twice the World Cross-Country championships (in 2001 and 2002), and in December 2003 became European Cross-Country champion for the second time, the only woman to have achieved this feat in the event's ten-year history.
In 2004 Radcliffe joined with Jonathan Edwards on an Olympic Special Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. The pair raised £64,000 for charity, half of that sum going to the British Olympic Association and a quarter of the sum going to Asthma UK.
Nominated for the Sports Personality Award in 2007.
Won the Laureus World Comeback of the Year award in early 2008 for her performances in 2007.
Radcliffe won the Londoner of the Year award at the 2016 London Press Club awards despite being from Bedford.
Anti-doping activity
Radcliffe has frequently made high-profile condemnations of the use of performance-enhancing drugs in athletics. Radcliffe and teammate Hayley Tullett caused controversy when, in the heats of the 5,000 metres at the 2001 World Athletics Championships in Edmonton, they held up a sign protesting against the reinstatement of Russian athlete Olga Yegorova after Yegorova had tested positive for the banned substance EPO. The sign was made by Radcliffe's husband and read 'EPO Cheats Out'. It was eventually taken off them by the stadium officials, but not before it was streamed around the world. After Radcliffe and Tullett's initial protest, teammates Kathy Butler and Hayley Yelling – who both missed out on a place in the final – protested alongside coaches Mark Rowland and Alan Storey, wearing Radcliffe masks and holding up banners with mocking slogans including one which read 'Free Paula'. Radcliffe vowed to continue her fight against drugs in sport after her high-profile actions in Edmonton. Since the 1999 European Cup, Radcliffe wears a red ribbon when competing to show her support for blood testing as a method of catching drug cheats.
Radcliffe has advocated a system where first time offenders are banned for four years and any future offence for life. However, she felt that in cases like that of Christine Ohuruogu, who missed three out-of-competition drugs tests, that she should be allowed to compete in the Olympics, as the BOA does not allow anyone who has served a doping ban to compete. However, when Ohuruogu admitted to not trying to get to the tests, Radcliffe expressed her disappointment and hoped that it was a lesson learned. When Marion Jones admitted to steroid use, Radcliffe stated that it was good for the sport that Jones was caught and that they had to keep testing and that people being caught is a big deterrent to would-be cheats.
Doping allegations
Reflecting upon the scepticism created by incidents of doping, she said "You have to accept the situation...it would be great if we could win the battle against doping and have testing that was 100 per-cent reliable, but I don't think that will happen in my competitive career." She has previously asked for the results of a blood test taken at the London Marathon to be made public, saying that she had "absolutely no objection to my test being released".
In 2015, in the wake of revelations of widespread doping in athletics, Radcliffe said that, unlike some other prominent British athletes, she would not be releasing her blood-test history, and discouraged other athletes from doing so. She was later indirectly identified as a suspected doper by MP Jesse Norman during a parliamentary inquiry into blood doping. In response, Radcliffe issued a statement in which she "categorically denied" cheating in any form and said she has "nothing to hide". Shortly afterwards, her three suspect test results were leaked, though Radcliffe still refused to release her complete blood-test history. In late November 2015, the IAAF declared that the accusations were "based on the gross misinterpretation of incomplete data". The UK Anti Doping Agency, having received Radcliffe's blood test history via the IAAF, stated that "UKAD has come to the same conclusion as the IAAF review that there is no case to answer". It is likely that the first suspicious off-score was caused by faulty equipment. The third suspicious off-score was the direct result of an altitude training trip in Kenya with Mo Farah and other British athletes.
Personal life
Radcliffe was born to Peter and Pat Radcliffe and is the grandniece of 1920 Olympic silver medallist Charlotte Radcliffe. Radcliffe met her husband Gary Lough, a former Northern Irish 1,500 m runner, when he was her lodger at Loughborough University. The pair married in 2001. She gave birth to her first child, daughter Isla, in 2007. Her second child, a son, Raphael, was born in 2010. The family resides in Monte Carlo.
Major career achievements
Championships record
Road races
Personal bests
Honours
Commonwealth honours
Commonwealth honours
Scholastic
University degrees
Honorary Degrees
Freedom of the City
28 June 2004: Charnwood.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Paula Radcliffe 'bionic' kit, (14 August 2005)
Paula Radcliffe: One Track Mind, (16 April 2005)
Paula Radcliffe: Long Road Back, (31 October 2004)
Paula Radcliffe: Failing to finish at the 2004 Olympic Games, (22 August 2004)
Paula Radcliffe: Journey from Disappointing Fourth to Dominant First, (June, 2004)
Paula Radcliffe: Escorting Paula, (April, 2003)
Paula Radcliffe: A Guardian interview about drug use in sport, (20 August 2001)
External links
SPIKES Hero profile on www.spikesmag.com
"Paula Radcliffe", n°31 on Time's list of "100 Olympic Athletes To Watch"
1973 births
Living people
Alumni of Loughborough University
Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2002 Commonwealth Games
BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners
British female long-distance runners
British female marathon runners
Chicago Marathon female winners
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for England
English expatriates in Monaco
European Athletics Championships medalists
London Marathon female winners
Members of the Order of the British Empire
New York City Marathon female winners
Olympic athletes of Great Britain
People educated at Sharnbrook Academy
People from the Borough of Bedford
People from Davenham
World Athletics Championships athletes for Great Britain
World Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics record holders
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
World Athletics Cross Country Championships winners
World Athletics Half Marathon Championships winners
Sportspeople from Cheshire
People from Monte Carlo
English female marathon runners
European Cross Country Championships winners
World Athletics Championships winners | [
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228244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herta%20D%C3%A4ubler-Gmelin | Herta Däubler-Gmelin | Herta Däubler-Gmelin (; born 12 August 1943) is a German lawyer, academic and politician of the Social Democratic Party. She served as Federal Minister of Justice from 1998 to 2002, and as a Member of the Bundestag from 1972 to 2009. She currently teaches as an honorary professor of political science at the Free University of Berlin, particularly on international relations and human rights, and was the Hemmerle Professor at RWTH Aachen University in 2011. She is married to the legal scholar Wolfgang Däubler.
History
She was born in Bratislava, in the war-time Slovak Republic, as the daughter of Hans Gmelin (d. 1991), who was mayor of Tübingen from 1954 to 1974. She studied history, economy, law and political science in Tübingen and Berlin. Since 1974, she has been admitted as a lawyer, first in Stuttgart, then in Berlin. Since 1992, she has lectured law at the Freie Universität Berlin, which made her an honorary professor in 1995.
Political career
Däubler-Gmelin joined the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) in 1965 and became a member of the Bundestag in 1972, subsequently representing Tübingen from 1998 to 2002. She held several party offices in the 1980s and 1990s, serving as deputy party chairman from 1988-1997. From 1994–98, she was chairwoman of the working group on legal affairs and legal adviser to the SPD parliamentary group.
In 1993, the SPD nominated Däubler-Gmelin to fill the vacancy of vice-president of the Federal Constitutional Court, but after conservative parliamentary groups blocked the nomination for nine months as being "too political" she abandoned this career step in favor of Jutta Limbach. Ahead of the 1994 elections, SPD chairman Rudolf Scharping included her in his shadow cabinet for the party’s campaign to unseat incumbent Helmut Kohl as Chancellor. During the campaign, Däubler-Gmelin served as shadow minister of justice.
Federal Minister of Justice, 1998–2002
From 1998 to 2002, Däubler-Gmelin served as Justice Minister in Gerhard Schröder's first cabinet, where she oversaw a number of controversial reform projects such as the reform of German citizenship legislation, the introduction of same-sex civil unions, and the overhaul of the German Civil Code, the most invasive since its inception in 1900.
In 1999, both Däubler-Gmelin and Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer appealed for clemency for the LaGrand brothers, two German citizens sentenced to death in Arizona. According to the German government, the LaGrands had been denied their rights as German citizens because prosecutors did not inform the German consulate of the brothers' arrest in 1982 until a decade later. However, both were put to death in a cloud of cyanide gas.
Amid the Enron scandal in 2002, Däubler-Gmelin launched a voluntary 12-page corporate governance code that calls on company audit committees to be aware of other business links between the company and its auditors, including consulting work.
On 18 September 2002, four days before Schröder's re-election, she attended a meeting at a restaurant in Derendingen (near Tübingen) with about 30 trade unionists from two local factories (the topic was "Globalization and Labor"). Däubler-Gmelin, who has long been known for her outspokenness, later said she had been unaware that a reporter from local newspaper Schwäbisches Tagblatt was present, insisting that she regarded the event as an internal meeting. After discussion had turned to the Iraq crisis, she remarked that U.S. president Bush was preparing a war to detract from domestic problems such as the economic crisis at the time, and that this was a popular political strategy which had already been used by Adolf Hitler. When some participants showed disagreement, she added immediately that this was not meant to liken Bush to Hitler as a person, but rather to compare their methods, and that British prime minister Margaret Thatcher had also used the 1982 Falklands War to improve election prospects. She also described the U.S. legal system as "lousy".
This was the version published by Schwäbisches Tagblatt (a paper widely regarded as liberal to leftist and respected for its journalistic quality), which later stated that Däubler-Gmelin herself had confirmed the wording of the report, as well as several present at the meeting. Another account of the meeting states that the Hitler comparison originated from a participant and that Däubler-Gmelin had merely agreed that Hitler had used such tactics, too.
Immediately after the article had been published, Däubler-Gmelin strongly denied it, claiming to have been misquoted. She also announced that she would sue the Schwäbische Tagblatt, but later chose not to do so. She encountered heavy criticism for expressing anti-americanism by many both in Germany and abroad, including members of the U.S. government such as Ari Fleischer and Condoleezza Rice. On September 20, Däubler-Gmelin called U.S. Ambassador Dan Coats to state that the reports had no basis and Schröder wrote an apology letter to Bush, stating "there is no place at my cabinet table for anyone who makes a connection between the American president and such a criminal." He did not force her to resign immediately, claiming to trust her denial of the quotation, but she was dropped from his new cabinet when it was formed a few weeks after his narrow re-election.
Later work
From 2002 to 2005 Däubler-Gmelin served as chairwoman of the Bundestag's Committee on Consumer Protection and Agriculture, and from 2005 she chaired the Committee for Human Rights and Humanitarian Aid.
Life after politics
Since 2004, Däubler-Gmelin has been practicing as Of counsel with the Berlin office of law firm Schwegler.
In 2009, Germany’s national railway company Deutsche Bahn commissioned Däubler-Gmelin and former Interior Minister Gerhart Baum with investigating allegations according to which the company had, in violation of privacy laws and corporate guidelines repeatedly and on a large scale compared personal data of its employees with those of suppliers, in a bid to uncover possible corruption.
Between 2012 and 2013, Däubler-Gmelin served as member of the European Commission’s High Level Group on Media Freedom and Pluralism, an advisory panel set up by European Commissioner Neelie Kroes and chaired by Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga.
She has voiced her support for the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which campaigns for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.
From 2012 to 2014, Däubler-Gmelin represented political group “Mehr Demokratie e.V.” (More Democracy) in its unsuccessful constitutional complaint before the Federal Constitutional Court against Germany’s participation in the European Stability Mechanism (ESM) and the European Fiscal Compact.
In 2019, Däubler-Gmelin was appointed to a task force investigating allegations of fraud and embezzlement at Workers' Welfare Association (AWO), a charity and one of Germany’s largest employers.
Other activities
Däubler-Gmelin is a member of several charitable and non-profit organizations, including the following:
European Law Students' Association (ELSA) – Germany Chapter, Member of the Advisory Board
Friedrich Ebert Foundation (FES), Member
German-Polish Lawyers’ Association (DPJV), Member of the Board of Trustees
Hirschfeld Eddy Foundation, Member of the Board of Trustees
Deutsche Hospiz- und PalliativStiftung, Member of the Board of Trustees
Schneller Foundation, Member of the Board of Trustees
Transparency Germany, Member of the Advisory Board
Personal life
Däubler-Gmelin is married to Wolfgang Däubler, one of the most prominent experts on German labor law. They were married in 1969 and have two children.
References
External links
Personal website
1943 births
Living people
Justice ministers of Germany
Members of the Bundestag for Baden-Württemberg
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Female members of the Bundestag
Politicians from Bratislava
Women federal government ministers of Germany
21st-century German women politicians
Members of the Bundestag 2005–2009
Members of the Bundestag 2002–2005
Members of the Bundestag 1998–2002
Members of the Bundestag 1994–1998
Members of the Bundestag for the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Female justice ministers
Slovak emigrants to Germany
Recipients of the Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg
20th-century German women | [
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228245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Ollivant | Charles Ollivant | Sir Edward Charles Kayll Ollivant (1846–1915) was a senior member of the Indian Civil Service. He had notable interactions with both Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammed Ali Jinnah.
Ollivant arrived in India in 1881. In 1892, he had a disagreement in Rajkot with Gandhi, who was then a young barrister. The incident resulted in Gandhi being pushed out of a room, and ill feelings about this dispute were apparently a factor in Gandhi's departure for South Africa in 1893.
Ollivant also offered to hire Muhammed Ali Jinnah at 1,500 rupees per month, and was notably turned down.
Ollivant was a judicial member of the Council of the Governor of Bombay until April 1902, and a director of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway. He was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE) in 1892.
See also
Henry Northcote, 1st Baron Northcote, Governor of Bombay (1900–1903)
Notes
Indian Civil Service (British India) officers
Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
1846 births
Year of death missing
Members of the Bombay Legislative Council | [
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228246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupee | Rupee | Rupee is the common name for the currencies of India, Indonesia, the Maldives, Mauritius, Nepal, Pakistan, Seychelles, and Sri Lanka, and of former currencies of Afghanistan, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE (as the Gulf rupee), British East Africa, Burma, German East Africa (as Rupie/Rupien), and Tibet. In Indonesia and the Maldives the unit of currency is known as rupiah and rufiyaa respectively.
The Indian rupees () and Pakistani rupees () are subdivided into one hundred paise (singular paisa) or pice. The Mauritian, Seychellois, and Sri Lankan rupees subdivide into 100 cents. The Nepalese rupee subdivides into one hundred paisa (singular and plural) or four sukaas.
Etymology
The Hindustani word rupyā is derived from the Sanskrit word rūpya (), which means "wrought silver, a coin of silver", in origin an adjective meaning "shapely", with a more specific meaning of "stamped, impressed", whence "coin". It is derived from the noun rūpa () "shape, likeness, image". The word rūpa is further identified as related to the Dravidian root uruppu (), which means "a member of the body". Also, the word rūpam is rooted in Tamil as uru (shape) derived from ur (form) which itself is rooted in ul meaning "appear".
History
The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC. Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages and the Chinese wen.
The term is from rūpya, a Sanskrit term for silver coin, from Sanskrit rūpa, beautiful form.
Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as rūpyarūpa, other types including gold coins (rūpya-suvarṇa), copper coins (tāmrarūpa) and lead coins (sīsarūpa) are mentioned. Rūpa means form or shape, example, rūpyarūpa, rūpya – wrought silver, rūpa – form. This coinage system continued more or less across the Indian subcontinent well till 20th century.
In the intermediate times there was no fixed monetary system as reported by the Da Tang Xi Yu Ji.
During his rule from 1537 to 1545, Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri of the Sur Empire set up a new civic and military administration and issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, which was also termed the Rupiya. Suri also introduced copper coins called dam and gold coins called mohur that weighed 169 grains (10.95 g). The use of the rupee coin continued under the Mughals with the same standard and weight, though some rulers after Akbar occasionally issued heavier rupees.
The European powers started minting coinage as early as mid-17th century, under patronage of Mughal Empire. The British gold coins were termed Carolina, the silver coins Anglina, the copper coins Cupperoon and tin coins Tinny. The coins of Bengal were developed in the Mughal style and those of Madras mostly in a South Indian style. The English coins of Western India developed along Mughal as well as English patterns. It was only in AD 1717 that the British obtained permission from the Emperor Farrukh Siyar to coin Mughal money at the Bombay mint. By early 1830, the British had become the dominant power in India and started minting coinage independently. The Coinage Act of 1835 provided for uniform coinage throughout India. The new coins had the effigy of William IV on the obverse and the value on the reverse in English and Persian. The coins issued after 1840 bore the portrait of Queen Victoria. The first coinage under the crown was issued in 1862 and in 1877 Queen Victoria assumed the title the Empress of India. The gold silver ratio expanded during 1870–1910. Unlike India, her colonial master Britain was on the gold standard.
The 1911 accession to the throne of the King-Emperor George V led to the famous "pig rupee". On the coin, the King appeared wearing the chain of the Order of the Indian Elephant. Through poor engraving, the elephant looked very much like a pig. The Muslim population was enraged and the image had to be quickly redesigned. Acute shortage of silver during the First World War, led to the introduction of paper currency of One Rupee and Two and a half Rupees. The silver coins of smaller denominations were issued in cupro-nickel. The compulsion of the Second World War led to experiments in coinage where the standard rupee was replaced by the "Quaternary Silver Alloy". The Quaternary Silver coins were issued from 1940. In 1947 these were replaced by pure Nickel coins. Even after independence, the British coinage was continued in India. The Monetary System remained unchanged at One Rupee consisting of 64 pice, or 192 pies.
In India, the "Anna Series" was introduced on 15 August 1950. This was the first coinage of the Republic of India. The King's Portrait was replaced by the Ashoka's Lion Capital. A corn sheaf replaced the Tiger on the one Rupee coin. The monetary system was retained with one Rupee consisting of 16 Annas. The 1955 Indian Coinage (Amendment) Act, that came into force with effect from 1 April 1957, introduced a "Decimal series". The rupee was now divided into 100 'Paisa' instead of 16 Annas or 64 Pice. The "Naye Paise" coins were minted in the denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 Naye Paise. Both the Anna series and the Naye Paise coins were valid for some time. From 1968 onward, the new coins were called just Paise instead of Naye Paise because they were no more naye(new).
With high inflation in the sixties, small denomination coins which were made of bronze, nickel-brass, cupro-nickel, and aluminium-bronze were gradually minted in Aluminium. This change commenced with the introduction of the new hexagonal 3 paise coin. A twenty paise coin was introduced in 1968 but did not gain much popularity. Over a period, cost-benefit considerations led to the gradual discontinuance of 1, 2 and 3 paise coins in the 1970s. Stainless steel coinage of 10, 25 and 50 paise, was introduced in 1988 and of one rupee in 1992. The very considerable costs of managing note issues of Rs 1, Rs 2, and Rs 5 led to the gradual coinisation of these denominations in the 1990s.
East Africa, Arabia, and Mesopotamia
In East Africa, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, the rupee and its subsidiary coinage was current at various times. The usage of the rupee in East Africa extended from Somaliland in the north to as far south as Natal. In Mozambique, the British India rupees were overstamped, and in Kenya, the British East Africa Company minted the rupee and its fractions, as well as pice.
The rise in the price of silver immediately after the First World War caused the rupee to rise in value to two shillings sterling. In 1920 in British East Africa, the opportunity was then taken to introduce a new florin coin, hence bringing the currency into line with sterling. Shortly after that, the florin was split into two East African shillings. This assimilation to sterling did not, however, happen in British India itself. In Somalia, the Italian colonial authority minted 'rupia' to exactly the same standard and called the pice 'besa'.
The Indian rupee was the official currency of Dubai and Qatar until 1959, when India created a new Gulf rupee (also known as the "external rupee") to hinder the smuggling of gold. The Gulf rupee was legal tender until 1966, when India significantly devalued the Indian rupee and a new Qatar-Dubai riyal was established to provide economic stability.
Straits Settlements
The Straits Settlements were originally an outlier of the British East India Company. The Spanish dollar had already taken hold in the Straits Settlements by the time the British arrived in the 19th century. The East India Company tried to introduce the rupee in its place. These attempts were resisted by the locals, and by 1867 when the British government took over direct control of the Straits Settlements from the East India Company, attempts to introduce the rupee were finally abandoned.
Tibet
Until the middle of the 20th century, Tibet's official currency was also known as the Tibetan rupee.
Denominations
The original silver rupee, .917 fine silver, , was divided into 16 annas, 64 paise, or 192 pies. Each circulating coin of British India, until the rupee was decimalised, had a different name in practice. A paisa was equal to two dhelas, three pies, or six damaris. Other coins for half anna (adhanni, or two paisas), two annas (duanni), four annas (a chawanni, or a quarter of a rupee), and eight annas (an athanni, or half a rupee) were widely in use until decimalization in 1961. (The numbers adha, do, chār, ātha mean respectively half, two, four, eight in Hindi and Urdu.) Two paisa was also called a taka, see below.
Decimalisation occurred in India in 1957, in Pakistan in 1961, and in Sri Lanka in 1969. Since 1957 an Indian rupee is divided into 100 paise. The decimalized paisa was originally officially named naya paisa meaning the "new paisa" to distinguish it from the erstwhile paisa which had a higher value of rupee. The word naya was dropped in 1964 and since then it is simply known as paisa (plural paise). The issuance of the Indian currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India, whereas in Pakistan it is controlled by State Bank of Pakistan. The most commonly used symbol for the rupee is "₨". India adopted a new symbol () for the Indian rupee on 15 July 2010.
In most parts of India, the rupee is known as rupaya, rupaye, or one of several other terms derived from the Sanskrit rūpya, meaning silver.
Ṭaṅka is an ancient Sanskrit word for money. While the two-paise coin was called a taka in West Pakistan, the word taka was commonly used in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), alternatively for rupee. In the Bengali and Assamese languages, spoken in Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal, the rupee is known as a taka, and is written as such on Indian banknotes. In Odisha it is known as tanka. After its independence, Bangladesh started to officially call its currency "taka" (BDT) in 1971.
In India presently (from 2010 onwards), the 50 paise coin (half a rupee) is the lowest valued legal tender. Coins of 1, 2, 5, and 10 rupees and banknotes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, and 2000 rupees are commonly in use for cash transaction.
Large denominations of rupees are traditionally counted in lakhs, crores, arabs, kharabs, nils, padmas, shankhs, udpadhas, and anks. Terms beyond crore are not generally used in the context of money; for example, an amount would be called ₨ 1 lakh crore (equivalent to 1 trillion) instead of ₨ 10 kharab.
Symbol
The rupee sign ₨ is a currency sign used to represent the monetary unit of account in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mauritius, Seychelles, and formerly in India. It resembles, and is often written as, the Latin character sequence "Rs" or "Rs.". Currency signs exist for other countries that use the rupee but not this sign: their usage is also described at the main article.
Abbreviation
In Latin script, "rupee" (singular) is abbreviated as Re. and "rupees" (plural) as ₨. The Indonesian rupiah is abbreviated Rp. In 19th century typography, abbreviations were often superscripted: or . In Brahmic scripts, rupee is often abbreviated with the grapheme for the first syllable, optionally followed by a circular abbreviation mark or a latin abbreviation point: रु૰ (Devanagari ru.), રૂ૰ (Gujarati ru.), රු (Sinhala ru), రూ (Telugu rū).
Value
The history of the rupees can be traced back to Ancient India around the 6th century BC. Ancient India had some of the earliest coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters.
The rupee coin has been used since then, even during British India, when it contained 11.66 g (1 tola) of 91.7% silver with an ASW of 0.3437 of a troy ounce (that is, silver worth about US$10 at modern prices). Valuation of the rupee based on its silver content had severe consequences in the 19th century, when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of vast quantities of silver in the United States and various European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of silver relative to gold.
At the end of the 19th century, the Indian silver rupee went onto a gold exchange standard at a fixed rate of one rupee to one shilling and fourpence in British currency, i.e. 15 rupees to 1 pound sterling.
See also
Rupee (The Legend of Zelda), a fictional currency
The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money
References
Sources and external links
Coins of India
Coins of the Maldives
Currency symbols
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228247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadabhai%20Naoroji | Dadabhai Naoroji | Dadabhai Naoroji, (4 September 1825 – 30 June 1917) also known as the "Grand Old Man of India" and "Unofficial Ambassador of India", was an Indian political leader, merchant, scholar and writer who was a Liberal Party Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom House of Commons between 1892 and 1895 and the first Asian to be a British MP other than the Anglo-Indian MP David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, who was disenfranchised for corruption after nine months in office. Naoroji is renowned for his work in the Indian National Congress, of which he was one of the founding members and thrice president - 1886, 1893, 1906.
His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India brought attention to his theory of the Indian "wealth drain" into Britain. He was also a member of the Second International along with Kautsky and Plekhanov. In 2014, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg inaugurated the Dadabhai Naoroji Awards for services to UK-India relations. India Post depicted Naoroji on stamps in 1963, 1997 and 2017.
Biography
Naoroji was born in Navsari into a Gujarati-speaking Parsi Zoroastrian family, and educated at the Elphinstone Institute School. He was patronised by the Maharaja of Baroda, Sayajirao Gaekwad III, and started his career life as Dewan (Minister) to the Maharaja in 1874. Being an Athornan (ordained priest), Naoroji founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha (Guides on the Mazdayasne Path) on 1 August 1851 to restore the Zoroastrian religion to its original purity and simplicity. In 1854, he also founded a Gujarati fortnightly publication, the Rast Goftar (or The Truth Teller), to clarify Zoroastrian concepts and promote Parsi social reforms. In this time he also published another newspaper called "The Voice of India." In December 1855, he was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Elphinstone College in Bombay, becoming the first Indian to hold such an academic position. He travelled to London in 1855 to become a partner in Cama & Co, opening a Liverpool location for the first Indian company to be established in Britain. Within three years, he had resigned on ethical grounds. In 1859, he established his own cotton trading company, Dadabhai Naoroji & Co. Later, he became Professor of Gujarati in University College London.
In 1865, Naoroji directed and launched the London Indian Society, the purpose of which was to discuss Indian political, social and literary subjects. In 1861 Naoroji founded The Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe alongside Muncherjee Hormusji Cama. In 1867 he also helped to establish the East India Association, one of the predecessor organisations of the Indian National Congress with the aim of putting across the Indian point of view before the British public. The Association was instrumental in counter-acting the propaganda by the Ethnological Society of London which, in its session in 1866, had tried to prove the inferiority of the Asians to the Europeans. This Association soon won the support of eminent Englishmen and was able to exercise considerable influence in the British parliament. The organization soon had branches in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. In 1874, he became Prime Minister of Baroda and was a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay (1885–88). He was also a member of the Indian National Association founded by Sir Surendranath Banerjea from Calcutta a few years before the founding of the Indian National Congress in Bombay, with the same objectives and practices. The two groups later merged into the INC, and Naoroji was elected President of the Congress in 1886. Naoroji published Poverty and un-British Rule in India in 1901.
Naoroji moved to Britain once again and continued his political involvement. Elected for the Liberal Party in Finsbury Central at the 1892 general election, he was the first British Indian MP. He refused to take the oath on the Bible as he was Zoroastrian, so was allowed to take the oath of office in the name of God on his copy of the Khordeh Avesta. During his time he put his efforts towards improving the situation in India. He had a very clear vision and was an effective communicator. He set forth his views about the situation in India over the course of the history of the governance of the country and the way in which the colonial rulers rule. In Parliament, he spoke on Irish Home Rule and the condition of the Indian people. He was also a notable Freemason. In his political campaign and duties as an MP, he was assisted by Muhammed Ali Jinnah, the future Muslim nationalist and founder of the State of Pakistan.
In 1906, Naoroji was again elected president of the Indian National Congress. Naoroji was a staunch moderate within the Congress, during the phase when opinion in the party was split between the moderates and extremists. Such was the respect commanded by him that assertive nationalists could not oppose his candidature and the rift was avoided for the time being. Naoroji was a mentor to Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
He was married to Gulbai at the age of eleven. He died in Bombay on 30 June 1917, at the age of 91. Today the Dadabhai Naoroji Road, a heritage road of Mumbai, is named after him. Also, the Dadabhai Naoroji Road in Karachi, Pakistan is also named after him as well, as Naoroji Street in the Finsbury area of London. A prominent residential colony for central government servants in the south of Delhi is also named Naoroji Nagar. His granddaughters Perin and Khurshedben were also involved in the independence movement. In 1930, Khurshedben was arrested along with other revolutionaries for attempting to hoist the Indian flag in a Government College in Ahmedabad.
Naoroji's famous drain theory and poverty
Dadabhai Naoroji's work focused on the drain of wealth from India to Britain during the period rule of British rule in India. One of the reasons that the Drain theory is attributed to Naoroji is his decision to estimate the net national profit of India, and by extension, the effect that colonial rule had on the country. Through his work with economics, Naoroji sought to prove that Britain was draining money out of India. Naoroji described six factors which resulted in the external drain. Firstly, India was governed by a foreign government. Secondly, India did not attract immigrants which brought labour and capital for economic growth. Thirdly, India paid for Britain's civil administrations in India and her Indian army. Fourthly, India bore the burden of empire building in and out of its borders. Fifthly, opening the country to free trade allowed for foreigners to take highly paid jobs over those of equally qualified Indians. Lastly, the principal income-earners would spend their money outside of India or leave with the money as they were mostly foreign personnel. In Naoroji's book 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India' he estimated a 200–300 million pounds drain of India's revenue to Britain that was not recirculated into India.
When referring to the drain, Naoroji stated that he believed some tribute was necessary as payment for the services that Britain brought to India such as the newly-constructed railways. However the money from these services were being drained out of India; for instance the money being earned by the railways did not belong to India, which supported his assessment that India was sending too much to Britain. According to Naoroji, India was paying tribute for something that was not bringing profit to the country directly. Instead of paying off foreign investment which other countries did, India was paying for services rendered despite the operation of the railway being already profitable for Britain. This type of drain was experienced in different ways as well, for instance, British workers earning wages that were not equal with the work that they have done in India, or trade that undervalued India's goods and overvalued outside goods. British workers in India were encouraged to take on high paying jobs in India, and the British government allowed them to take a portion of their income back to Britain. Furthermore, the East India Company was purchasing Indian goods with money drained from India to export to Britain, which was a way that the opening up of free trade allowed India to be exploited.
When elected to Parliament by a narrow margin of five votes, his first speech was devoted to the issue of questioning Britain's role in India. Naoroji explained that Indians would either be British subjects or their slaves, depending on how willing Britain was to give India control over the institutions that Britain presently operated. By giving these institutions to India it would allow India to govern itself and as a result all revenue would stay in India. It is because Naoroji identified himself as an fellow subject of the Empire that he was able to address the economic hardships facing India to a British audience. By presenting himself as an imperial subject he was able to use rhetoric to show the benefit to Britain that an ease of financial burden on India would have. He argued that by allowing the money earned in India to stay in India, tributes would be willingly and easily paid without fear of poverty; he argued that this could be done by giving equal employment opportunities to Indian professionals who were consistently forced to take jobs that they were over-qualified for. Indian labour would be more likely to spend their income within India preventing one aspect of the drain.
Naoroji also found it important to examine Anglo-Indian trade to prevent the premature dissolution of budding industries to unfair valuing of goods and services. By allowing industry to grow and develop in India, tribute could be paid to Britain in the form of taxation and the increase in Indian interest for British goods. Over time, Naoroji became more inflammatory in his comments as he began to lose patience with Britain over the seemingly lack of progress regarding reforms. Naoroji once rhetorically questioned whether or not the British government would be willing to award French youths all the high ranking posts in the British economy. He also pointed to historical examples of Britain being opposed to the "wealth drain" concept, including the English objection to the wealth drain to the papacy during the 1500s. Naoroji's work on the drain theory was the main reason behind the creation of the Royal Commission on Indian Expenditure in 1896 in which he was also a member. This commission reviewed financial burdens on India and in some cases came to the conclusion that those burdens were misplaced.
Views and legacy
Dadabhai Naoroji is regarded as one of the most important Indians during the birth of the nascent independence movement. In his writings, he came to the conclusion that the exertion of foreign rule over India was not favourable for the nation, and that independence (or at the very least, responsible government) would be the better path for India.
Naoroji is often remembered as the "Grand Old Man of Indian Nationalism."
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wrote to Naoroji in 1894, saying that "The Indians look up to you as children to the father. Such is really the feeling here."
Bal Gangadhar Tilak admired him; he said:
Here are the significant extracts taken from his speech delivered before the East India Association on 2 May 1867 regarding what educated Indians expect from their British rulers.
"In this Memorandum I desire to submit for the kind and generous consideration of His Lordship the Secretary of State for India, that from the same cause of the deplorable drain [of economic wealth from India to Britain], besides the material exhaustion of India, the moral loss to her is no less sad and lamentable . . . All [the Europeans] effectually do is to eat the substance of India, material and moral, while living there, and when they go, they carry away all they have acquired . . . The thousands [of Indians] that are being sent out by the universities every year find themselves in a most anomalous position. There is no place for them in their motherland . . . What must be the inevitable consequence? . . . despotism and destruction . . . or destroying hand and power. "
A plaque referring to Dadabhai Naoroji is located outside the Finsbury Town Hall on Rosebery Avenue, London.
Works
Started the Rast Goftar Anglo-Gujarati Newspaper in 1854.
The manners and customs of the Parsees (Bombay, 1864)
The European and Asiatic races (London, 1866)
Admission of educated natives into the Indian Civil Service (London, 1868)
The wants and means of India (London, 1876)
Condition of India (Madras, 1882)
Poverty of India
A Paper Read Before the Bombay Branch of the East India Association, Bombay, Ranima Union Press, (1876)
C. L. Parekh, ed., Essays, Speeches, Addresses and Writings of the Honourable Dadabhai Naoroji, Bombay, Caxton Printing Works (1887). An excerpt, "The Benefits of British Rule", in a modernised text by J. S. Arkenberg, ed., on line at Paul Halsall, ed., Internet Modern History Sourcebook.
Lord Salisbury's Blackman (Lucknow, 1889)
; Commonwealth Publishers, 1988.
See also
Electoral firsts in the United Kingdom.
References
Further reading
Rustom P. Masani, Dadabhai Naoroji (1939).
Munni Rawal, Dadabhai Naoroji, Prophet of Indian Nationalism, 1855–1900, New Delhi, Anmol Publications (1989).
S. R. Bakshi, Dadabhai Naoroji: The Grand Old Man, Anmol Publications (1991).
Verinder Grover, ‘'Dadabhai Naoroji: A Biography of His Vision and Ideas’’ New Delhi, Deep & Deep Publishers (1998)
Debendra Kumar Das, ed., ‘'Great Indian Economists : Their Creative Vision for Socio-Economic Development.’’ Vol. I: ‘Dadabhai Naoroji (1825–1917) : Life Sketch and Contribution to Indian Economy.’’ New Delhi, Deep and Deep (2004).
P. D. Hajela, ‘'Economic Thoughts of Dadabhai Naoroji,’’ New Delhi, Deep & Deep (2001).
Pash Nandhra, entry Dadabhai Naoroji in Brack et al. (eds).Dictionary of Liberal History; Politico's, 1998
Zerbanoo Gifford, Dadabhai Naoroji: Britain's First Asian MP; Mantra Books, 1992
Codell, J. "Decentering & Doubling Imperial Discourse in the British Press: D. Naoroji & M. M. Bhownaggree," Media History 15 (Fall 2009), 371–84.
Metcalf and Metcalf, Concise History of India
Vikram Visana, "Vernacular Liberalism, Capitalism, and Anti-Imperialism in the Political Thought of Dadabhai Naoroji," The Historical Journal 59, 3 (2016), 775-797.
External links
"Dr Dadabhai Naoroji, 'The Grand Old Man of India'", Vohuman.org – Presents a complete chronology of Naoroji's life.
B. Shantanu, "Drain of Wealth during British Raj", iVarta.com,'' 6 February 2006
India House
1825 births
1917 deaths
Parsi people
Parsi people from Mumbai
British Zoroastrians
Businesspeople from Mumbai
British politicians of Indian descent
British people of Parsi descent
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1892–1895
Presidents of the Indian National Congress
Indian emigrants to England
English people of Parsi descent
Elphinstone College alumni
Academics of University College London
Politicians from Mumbai
19th-century Indian politicians
Indian National Congress politicians from Maharashtra
Zoroastrian studies scholars | [
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228250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic%20studies | Islamic studies | Islamic studies refers to the academic study of Islam, and generally to academic multidisciplinary "studies" programs—programs similar to others that focus on the history, texts and theologies of other religious traditions, such as Eastern Christian Studies or Jewish Studies but also fields such as (environmental studies, Middle East studies, race studies, urban studies, etc.)—where scholars from diverse disciplines (history, culture, literature, art) participate and exchange ideas pertaining to the particular field of study.
Carole Hillenbrand describes Islamic studies as "a discipline that seeks to explain what the Islamic world has achieved in the past and what the future holds for it."
Many academic Islamic Studies programs include the historical study of Islam: Islamic civilization, Islamic history and historiography, Islamic law, Islamic theology and Islamic philosophy. Specialists in Islamic Studies concentrate on the detailed, academic study of texts written in Arabic within the fields of Islamic Theology, Islamic Law, and the Qur'an and Hadith and ancillary disciplines such as Tafsir or Qur'an Exegesis. However, they also often apply the methods adapted from several ancillary fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history, legal history and sociology.
Overview
Scholars in the field of Islamic studies are often referred to as "Islamicists" and the discipline traditionally made up the bulk of what used to be called Oriental studies. In fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of "Oriental studies". This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford, where Classical Arabic and Islamic studies have been taught since as early as the 16th century, originally as a sub-division of Divinity. This latter context gave early academic Islamic studies its Biblical studies character and was also a consequence of the fact that throughout early-Modern Western Europe the discipline was developed by churchmen whose primary aim had actually been to refute the tenets of Islam. Today, academic Islamic Studies is usually taught and studied alongside or after an extensive study of the Arabic language, with named undergraduate and graduate degrees in Arabic and Islamic Studies existing at universities such as Georgetown University, the University of Exeter, University of Oxford, University of Leeds, SOAS at the University of London, Yale University and several universities in Holland and Germany, notably Leiden University and Tübingen University.
A recent HEFCE report emphasises the increasing, strategic importance for Western governments since 9/11 of Islamic studies in higher education and also provides an international overview of the state of the field.
History
The first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship (as opposed to a Christological heresy) was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies.
In the years 1821 to 1850, the Royal Asiatic Society in England, the Société Asiatique in France, the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft in Germany, and the American Oriental Society in the United States were founded.
In the second half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant. Leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke 's study on the history of the Quran, or Ignaz Goldziher 's work on the prophetic tradition.
Orientalists and Islamic scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way. They did not question the traditional account of the early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written.
In the 1970s, the Revisionist School of Islamic Studies questioned the uncritical adherence to traditional Islamic sources and started to develop a new picture of the earliest times of Islam by applying the historical-critical method.
Themes
History of Islam
To understand the history of Islam provides the indispensable basis to understand all aspects of Islam and its culture. Themes of special interest are:
Historiography of early Islam
History of the Quran
Historicity of Muhammad
Early Muslim conquests
Theology
Kalam (Islamic studies of theology often include study of the traditional science of Kalâm.
Islamic eschatology
Mysticism
Sufism ( taṣawwuf) is a mystic tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi (one who practices Sufism).
It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism. While other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love. Sufism embodies a number of cultures, philosophies, central teachings and bodies of esoteric knowledge.
Law
Islamic jurisprudence relates to everyday and social issues in the life of Muslims. It is divided in fields like:
the study of sharia
Islamic economics
Qur'an and Hadith studies
Key distinctions include those between fiqh, hadith and ijtihad.
Philosophy
Islamic studies scholars also deal with the long and rich tradition of philosophy as developed by Muslim philosophers.
It is divided in fields like:
Early Islamic philosophy
Avicennism
Averroism
Islamic philosophy
Modern Islamic philosophy
Sufi philosophy
Transcendent theosophy
List of Muslim philosophers
Illuminationist philosophy
Islamic ethics
Sufi metaphysics
Sciences
Islamic studies scholars are also active in the history and philosophy of science. Significant progress in science was made in the Muslim world during the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, which is considered a major period in the history of science.
Timeline of Islamic science and engineering
Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
Astronomy in medieval Islam
Islamic astrology
Inventions in medieval Islam
Mathematics in medieval Islam
Medicine in medieval Islam
Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
Physics in medieval Islam
Psychology in medieval Islam
Scholars also study the relationship between Islam and science, for example in the application of Islamic ethics to scientific practice.
Qur'an and science
Islamic creationism
Literature
Arabic literature
Arabic epic literature
Islamic poetry
Arabic poetry
Persian literature
Urdu Literature
This field includes the study of modern and classical Arabic and the literature written in those languages. It also often includes other modern, classic or ancient languages of the Middle East and other areas that are or have been part of, or influenced by, Islamic culture, such as Hebrew, Turkish, Persian, Urdu, Azerbaijanian and Uzbek.
Architecture
Islamic architecture is the entire range of architecture that has evolved within Muslim culture in the course of the history of Islam. Hence the term encompasses religious buildings as well as secular ones, historic as well as modern expressions and the production of all places that have come under the varying levels of Islamic influence.
Art
Islamic calligraphy
Islamic pottery
Muslim music
Islamic visual art has, throughout history, been mainly abstract and decorative, portraying geometric, floral, Arabesque, and calligraphic designs. Unlike the strong tradition of portraying the human figure in Christian art, Islamic art is typically distinguished as not including depictions of human beings. The lack of portraiture is due to the fact that early Islam forbade the painting of human beings, especially the Prophet, as Muslims believe this tempts followers of the Prophet to idolatry. This prohibition against human beings or icons is called aniconism. Despite such a prohibition, depictions of human beings do occur Islamic art, such as that of the Mughals, demonstrating a strong diversity in popular interpretation over the pre-modern period. Increased contact with the Western civilization may also have contributed to human depictions in Islamic art in modern times.
Comparative religion
Islamic comparative religion is the study of the relationship between Islam and other religions.
Islam and Christianity
Islam and Jainism
Islam and Judaism
Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)
Economics
Islamic economics studies how economics may be brought in accordance with Islamic law.
Islamic banking
Islamic economics in the world
Psychology
Psychology in medieval Islam
Sufi psychology
Islam and Modernity
One field of study deals with how Islam reacts on the contact with Western modernity.
Al-Nahda
Islam and modernity
Liberal and Progressive Muslim movements
Journals
Die Welt des Islams (Brill)
Islamic Law and Society (Brill)
Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations (Routledge)
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (The Max Schloessinger Memorial Foundation, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem)
Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies open access (Lancaster University)
Journal of Islamic Studies (Oxford University Press)
Hakeem Al Hind (Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit Kerala, India)
Al Mahara (Maharajas College, Kochin, India)
The Muslim World (Blackwell Publishing)
Studia Islamica (Maisonneuve & Larose)
Pax Islamica (Mardjani Publishing House)
Journal of Islam in Asia (International Islamic University Malaysia)
Al-Qantara (Spanish National Research Council)
Journal of Shi'a Islamic Studies (The Islamic College)
See also
Arabist
Glossary of Islam
List of non-Muslim authors on Islam
Notes
References
Bibliography
Asian studies
Medieval studies by field | [
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228255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano%20Concerto%20No.%202%20%28Brahms%29 | Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms) | The Piano Concerto No. 2 in B major, Op. 83, by Johannes Brahms is separated by a gap of 22 years from his first piano concerto. Brahms began work on the piece in 1878 and completed it in 1881 while in Pressbaum near Vienna. It took him three years to work on this concerto which indicates that he was always self-critical. He wrote to Clara Schumann: "I want to tell you that I have written a very small piano concerto with a very small and pretty scherzo." Ironically, he was describing a huge piece. This concerto is dedicated to his teacher, Eduard Marxsen. The public premiere of the concerto was given in Budapest on 9 November 1881, with Brahms as soloist and the Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra, and was an immediate success. He proceeded to perform the piece in many cities across Europe.
Composition
The piece is scored for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (B), 2 bassoons, 4 horns (initially 2 in B bass, 2 in F), 2 trumpets (B), timpani (B and F, A and D in second movement) and strings. (The trumpets and timpani are used only in the first two movements, which is unusual.)
The piece is in four movements, rather than the three typical of concertos in the Classical and Romantic periods:
The additional movement results in a concerto considerably longer than most other concertos written up to that time, with typical performances lasting around 50 minutes. Upon its completion, Brahms sent its score to his friend, the surgeon and violinist Theodor Billroth to whom Brahms had dedicated his first two string quartets, describing the work as "some little piano pieces." Brahms even described the stormy scherzo as a "little wisp of a scherzo."
Description
The work opens with the following horn call, which provides much of the thematic material for the first movement:
Allegro non troppo
The first movement is in the concerto variant of sonata form. The main theme is introduced by the horn solo, with the piano interceding. The woodwind instruments proceed to introduce a small motif (borrowed, perhaps unconsciously, from the opening of the first movement of his Serenade No. 2) before an unusually placed cadenza appears. The full orchestra repeats the theme and introduces more motifs in the orchestral exposition. The piano and orchestra work together to develop these themes in the piano exposition before the key changes to F minor (from F major, the dominant) and the piano plays a powerful and difficult section before the next orchestral tutti appears. The development, like many such sections in the Classical period, works its way from the dominant key back to the tonic while heavily developing themes. At the beginning of the recapitulation, the theme is replayed before a differing transition is heard, returning to the music heard in the piano exposition (this time in B major/minor). A coda appears after the minor key section, finishing off this movement.
One motif repeated in the development has been noted by musicologists as bearing similarity to Battle Hymn of the Republic and Say, Brothers, but it is unlikely Brahms knew of either hymn.
Allegro appassionato
This scherzo is in the key of D minor and is in sonata form with a trio inserted in the development. Contrary to Brahms' "tiny wisp of a scherzo" remark, it is a tumultuous movement. The piano and orchestra introduce the theme and develop it before a quiet section intervenes. Soon afterwards the piano and orchestra launch into a stormy development of the theme before coming to the central episode (in D major). The central episode is brisk and begins with the full orchestra before yet another quiet section intervenes; then the piano is integrated into the orchestral effect to repeat the theme of the central episode. The beginning section returns but is highly varied.
Andante
The slow movement is in the tonic key of B major and is unusual in utilizing an extensive cello solo within a piano concerto (the source of this idea may be Clara Schumann's Piano Concerto, which features a slow movement scored only for cello and piano). Brahms subsequently rewrote the cello's theme and changed it into a song, Immer leiser wird mein Schlummer ("My Slumber Grows Ever More Peaceful") with lyrics by Hermann Lingg. (Op. 105, No. 2). Within the concerto, the cello plays the theme for the first three minutes, before the piano comes in. However, the gentler melodic piece that the piano plays soon gives way to a stormy theme in B minor. When the storm subsides, still in the minor key, the piano plays a transitional motif that leads to the key of F major, before the cello comes in to reprise, in the wrong key, and knowing that it has to get back to B major, the piano and the orchestra make a transition to finish off the theme in its original home key of B major. After the piano plays the transitional motifs, the piano quickly reprises the middle section before the final coda is established.
Allegretto grazioso—Un poco più presto
The last movement consists of five clearly distinguishable sections, which introduce and develop five different themes.
The first section (bars 1 to 64) presents themes 1 and 2. The first theme (also the "main theme") (1–8) is first played by the piano and then repeated by the orchestra. The second theme (16–20) is likewise presented by the piano and repeated – and expanded – by the orchestra. Finally, a kind of development of the first theme leads on to the next section.
The second section (65–164) contains the next three themes. Theme 3 (65–73) is very different from the previous ones, due largely to its minor setting and its distinctive, Hungarian rhythm. Theme 4 (81–88) is still in a minor and theme 5 (97–104) is in F major. These three themes are each repeated back and forth several times, which gives the section the character of a development.
The third section (165–308) can be seen as a reprise of the first; it is built on the first two themes, but a striking new element is given in 201–205 and repeated in 238–241.
The fourth section (309–376) reprises themes 3, 5 and 4, in that order.
The final section, the coda, is built on the main theme, but even here (398) Brahms presents a new element, restating the main theme in triple rhythm (a device he used earlier to end his violin concerto) over a little march, first played by the piano, then answered by the orchestra, which trades themes with the soloist before the final chords.
References
External links
Arranged for 2 pianos; annotated in composer's hand at The Juilliard Manuscript Collection
played by Arthur Rubinstein, Charles Munch, Boston Symphony Orchestra
Piano Concerto No. 2 played by Claudio Arrau, Carlo Maria Giulini, Philharmonia Orchestra
played by Sviatoslav Richter, Charles Munch, Boston Symphony Orchestra
Concertos by Johannes Brahms
Brahms 02
1881 compositions
Stefan Zweig Collection
Compositions in B-flat major
Music dedicated to students or teachers | [
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228264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shavuot | Shavuot | Shavuot (), or Shavuos () in some Ashkenazi usage (, Šāvūʿōṯ, "Weeks"), commonly known in English as the Feast of Weeks, is a Jewish holiday that occurs on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of Sivan (it may fall between May 15 and June 14 on the Gregorian calendar). In the Bible, Shavuot marked the wheat harvest in the Land of Israel (). In addition, Orthodox rabbinic traditions teach that the date also marks the revelation of the Torah to Moses and the Israelites at Mount Sinai, which, according to the tradition of Orthodox Judaism, occurred at this date in 1314 BCE.
The word Shavuot means "weeks", and it marks the conclusion of the Counting of the Omer. Its date is directly linked to that of Passover; the Torah mandates the seven-week Counting of the Omer, beginning on the second day of Passover, to be immediately followed by Shavuot. This counting of days and weeks is understood to express anticipation and desire for the giving of the Torah. On Passover, the people of Israel were freed from their enslavement to Pharaoh; on Shavuot, they were given the Torah and became a nation committed to serving God.
While it is sometimes referred to as Pentecost (in ) due to its timing after Passover, "pentecost" meaning "fifty" in Greek, since Shavuot occurs fifty days after the first day of Passover, it is not the same as the Christian Pentecost.
One of the biblically ordained Three Pilgrimage Festivals, Shavuot is traditionally celebrated in Israel for one day, where it is a public holiday, and for two days in the diaspora.
Significance
Agricultural (wheat harvest)
Shavuot is not explicitly named in the Bible as the day on which the Torah was revealed by God to the Israelite nation at Mount Sinai, although this is commonly considered to be its main significance.
What is textually connected in the Bible to the Feast of Shavuot is the season of the grain harvest, specifically of the wheat, in the Land of Israel. In ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks and was a season of gladness (, , ). It began with the harvesting of the barley during Passover and ended with the harvesting of the wheat at Shavuot. Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of Sukkot (Tabernacles) was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, an offering of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot.
The one but last Qumran Scroll to be published has been discovered to contain two festival dates observed by the Qumran sect as part of their formally perfect 364-day calendar, and dedicated to "New Wine" and "New Oil", neither of which are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, but were known from another Qumran manuscript, the Temple Scroll. These festivals "constituted an extension of the festival of Shavuot..., which celebrates the New Wheat". All three festivals are calculated starting from the first Sabbath following Passover, by repeatedly adding exactly 50 days each time: first came New Wheat (Shavuot), then New Wine, and then New Oil. (See also below, at "The Book of Jubilees and the Essenes".)
Scriptural
Names in the Torah
In the Bible, Shavuot is called the "Festival of Weeks" (, Chag HaShavuot, , ); "Festival of Reaping" (, Chag HaKatzir, ), and "Day of the First Fruits" (, Yom HaBikkurim, ).
Shavuot, the plural of a word meaning "week" or "seven," alludes to the fact that this festival happens exactly seven weeks (i.e. "a week of weeks") after Passover.
In the Talmud
The Talmud refers to Shavuot as ʻAṣeret (, "refraining" or "holding back", referring to the prohibition against work on this holiday and to the conclusion of the holiday and season of Passover. Since Shavuot occurs 50 days after Passover, Hellenistic Jews gave it the name "Pentecost" (, "fiftieth day").
Ancient observances
Ceremony of First Fruits, Bikkurim
Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring the Bikkurim (first fruits) to the Temple in Jerusalem (Mishnah Bikkurim 1:3). The Bikkurim were brought from the Seven Species for which the Land of Israel is praised: wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates ().
In the largely agrarian society of ancient Israel, Jewish farmers would tie a reed around the first ripening fruits from each of these species in their fields. At the time of harvest, the fruits identified by the reed would be cut and placed in baskets woven of gold and silver. The baskets would then be loaded on oxen whose horns were gilded and laced with garlands of flowers, and who were led in a grand procession to Jerusalem. As the farmer and his entourage passed through cities and towns, they would be accompanied by music and parades.
Temple in Jerusalem
At the Temple in Jerusalem, each farmer would present his Bikkurim to a Kohen in a ceremony that followed the text of .
This text begins by stating: "An Aramean tried to destroy my father," referring to Laban's efforts to weaken Jacob and rob him of his progeny (Rashi on Deut. 26:5)—or by an alternate translation, the text states "My father was a wandering Aramean," referring to the fact that Jacob was a penniless wanderer in the land of Aram for 20 years (Abraham ibn Ezra on Deut. 26:5).
The text proceeds to retell the history of the Jewish people as they went into exile in Ancient Egypt and were enslaved and oppressed; following which God redeemed them and brought them to the land of Israel.
The ceremony of Bikkurim conveys gratitude to God both for the first fruits of the field and for His guidance throughout Jewish history (Scherman, p. 1068).
Modern religious observances
Nowadays in the post-Temple era, Shavuot is the only biblically ordained holiday that has no specific laws attached to it other than usual festival requirements of abstaining from creative work. The rabbinic observances for the holiday include reciting additional prayers, making kiddush, partaking of meals and being in a state of joy. There are however many customs which are observed on Shavuot. A mnemonic for the customs largely observed in Ashkenazi communities spells the Hebrew word aḥarit (, "last"):
– Aqdamut, the reading of a piyyut (liturgical poem) during Shavuot morning synagogue services
– ḥalav (milk), the consumption of dairy products like milk and cheese
– Rut, the reading of the Book of Ruth at morning services (outside Israel: on the second day)
– Yereq (greening), the decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery
– Torah, engaging in all-night Torah study.
The yahrzeit of King David is traditionally observed on Shavuot. Hasidic Jews also observe the yahrzeit of the Baal Shem Tov.
Liturgical poems
Aqdamut
The Aqdamut () is a liturgical poem recited by Ashkenazi Jews extolling the greatness of God, the Torah, and Israel that is read publicly in the synagogue right before the morning reading of the Torah on the first day of Shavuot. It was composed by Rabbi Meir of Worms, whose son was murdered during the First Crusade in 1096. Rabbi Meir was forced to defend the Torah and his Jewish faith in a debate with local priests and successfully conveyed his certainty of God's power, His love for the Jewish people, and the excellence of Torah. Afterwards he wrote the Aqdamut, a 90-line poem in Aramaic that stresses these themes. The poem is written in a double acrostic pattern according to the order of the Hebrew alphabet. In addition, each line ends with the syllable ta (), the last and first letters of the Hebrew alphabet, alluding to the endlessness of Torah. The traditional melody that accompanies this poem also conveys a sense of grandeur and triumph.
Azharot
Sephardi Jews do not read Akdamut, but before the evening service they sing a poem called Azharot, which sets out the 613 commandments. The positive commandments are recited on the first day and the negative commandments on the second day.
Yatziv Pitgam
The liturgical poem Yatziv Pitgam () is recited by some synagogues in the Diaspora on the second day of Shavuot. The author and his father's name appear in an acrostic at the beginning of the poem's 15 lines.
Dairy foods
Dairy foods such as cheesecake, cheese blintzes, and cheese kreplach among Ashkenazi Jews; cheese sambusak, kelsonnes (cheese ravioli), and atayef (a cheese-filled pancake) among Syrian Jews; kahee (a dough that is buttered and sugared) among Iraqi Jews; and a seven-layer cake called siete cielos (seven heavens) among Tunisian and Moroccan Jews are traditionally consumed on the Shavuot holiday. Yemenite Jews do not eat dairy foods on Shavuot.
In keeping with the observance of other Jewish holidays, there is both a night meal and a day meal on Shavuot. Meat is usually served at night and dairy is served either for the day meal or for a morning kiddush.
Among the explanations given in rabbinic literature for the consumption of dairy foods on this holiday are:
Before they received the Torah, the Israelites were not obligated to follow its laws, which include shechita (ritual slaughter of animals) and kashrut. Since all their meat pots and dishes now had to be made kosher before use, they opted to eat dairy foods.
The Torah is compared to milk by King Solomon, who wrote: "Like honey and milk, it lies under your tongue" (Song of Songs 4:11).
The gematria of the Hebrew word ḥalav () is 40, corresponding to the 40 days and 40 nights that Moses spent on Mount Sinai before bringing down the Torah.
According to the Zohar, each day of the year correlates to one of the Torah's 365 negative commandments. Shavuot corresponds to the commandment "Bring the first fruits of your land to the house of God your Lord; do not cook a kid in its mother's milk" (Exodus 34:26). Since the first day to bring Bikkurim (the first fruits) is Shavuot, the second half of the verse refers to the custom to eat two separate meals – one milk, one meat – on Shavuot.
The Psalms call Mount Sinai Har Gavnunim (, mountain of majestic peaks, Psalm 68:16–17/15–16 ), which is etymologically similar to gevinah (, cheese).
Book of Ruth
There are five books in Tanakh that are known as Megillot (Hebrew: , "scrolls") and are publicly read in the synagogues of some Jewish communities on different Jewish holidays. The Book of Ruth (, Megillat Ruth) is read on Shavuot because:
King David, Ruth's descendant, was born and died on Shavuot (Jerusalem Talmud Hagigah 2:3);
Shavuot is harvest time [Exodus 23:16], and the events of Book of Ruth occur at harvest time;
The gematria (numerical value) of Ruth is 606, the number of commandments given at Sinai in addition to the Seven Laws of Noah already given, for a total of 613;
Because Shavuot is traditionally cited as the day of the giving of the Torah, the entry of the entire Jewish people into the covenant of the Torah is a major theme of the day. Ruth's conversion to Judaism, and consequent entry into that covenant, is described in the book. This theme accordingly resonates with other themes of the day;
Another central theme of the book is ḥesed (loving-kindness), a major theme of the Torah.
Greenery
According to the Midrash, Mount Sinai suddenly blossomed with flowers in anticipation of the giving of the Torah on its summit. Greenery also figures in the story of the baby Moses being found among the bulrushes in a watertight cradle () when he was three months old (Moses was born on 7 Adar and placed in the Nile River on 6 Sivan, the same day he later brought the Jewish nation to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah).
For these reasons, many Jewish families traditionally decorate their homes and synagogues with plants, flowers and leafy branches in honor of Shavuot. Some synagogues decorate the bimah with a canopy of flowers and plants so that it resembles a chuppah, as Shavuot is mystically referred to as the day the matchmaker (Moses) brought the bride (the nation of Israel) to the chuppah (Mount Sinai) to marry the bridegroom (God); the ketubah (marriage contract) was the Torah. Some Eastern Sephardi communities read out a ketubah between God and Israel, composed by Rabbi Israel ben Moses Najara as part of the service. This custom was also adopted by some Hasidic communities, particularly from Hungary.
The Vilna Gaon cancelled the tradition of decorating with trees because it too closely resembles the Christian decorations for their holidays.
All-night Torah study
The practice of staying up all Shavuot night to study Torah – known as Tiqun Leyl Shavuot () ("Rectification for Shavuot Night") – is linked to a Midrash which relates that the night before the Torah was given, the Israelites retired early to be well-rested for the momentous day ahead. They overslept and Moses had to wake them up because God was already waiting on the mountaintop. To rectify this perceived flaw in the national character, many religious Jews stay up all night to learn Torah.
The custom of all-night Torah study goes back to 1533 when Rabbi Joseph Caro, author of the Shulchan Aruch, then living in Ottoman Salonika, invited Rabbi Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz and other Kabbalistic colleagues to hold Shavuot-night study vigils for which they prepared for three days in advance, just as the Israelites had prepared for three days before the giving of the Torah. During one of those study sessions, an angel appeared and taught them Jewish law. It has been suggested that the introduction of coffee throughout the Ottoman empire may have attributed to the "feasibility and popularity" of the practice of all-night Torah study.
Any subject may be studied on Shavuot night, although Talmud, Mishnah, and Torah typically top the list. People may learn alone or with a chavruta (study partner), or attend late-night shiurim (lectures) and study groups. In keeping with the custom of engaging in all-night Torah study, leading 16th century kabbalist Isaac Luria arranged a recital consisting of excerpts from the beginning and end of each of the 24 books of Tanakh (including the reading in full of several key sections such as the account of the days of creation, the Exodus, the giving of the Ten Commandments and the Shema) and the 63 tractates of Mishnah, followed by the reading of Sefer Yetzirah, the 613 commandments as enumerated by Maimonides, and excerpts from the Zohar, with opening and concluding prayers. The whole reading is divided into thirteen parts, after each of which a Kaddish d-Rabbanan is recited when the Tiqun is studied with a minyan. Today, this service is held in many communities, with the notable exception of Spanish and Portuguese Jews. The service is printed in a book called Tiqun Leyl Shavuot. There exist similar books for the vigils before the seventh day of Pesach and Hosha'ana Rabbah.
In Jerusalem, at the conclusion of the night time study session, tens of thousands of people walk to the Western Wall to pray with sunrise. A week after Israel captured the Old City during the Six-Day War, over 200,000 Jews streamed to the site on Shavuot, it having been made accessible to Jews for the first time since 1948.
Modern secular observance
In secular agricultural communities in Israel, such as most kibbutzim and moshavim, Shavuot is celebrated as a harvest and first-fruit festival including a wider, symbolic meaning of joy over the accomplishments of the year. As such, not just agricultural produce and machinery is presented to the community, but also the babies born during the preceding twelve months.
Confirmation ceremonies
In the 19th century, several Orthodox synagogues in Britain and Australia held confirmation ceremonies for 12-year-old girls on Shavuot, a precursor to the modern Bat Mitzvah. The early Reform movement made Shavuot into a religious school graduation day. Today, Reform synagogues in North America typically hold confirmation ceremonies on Shavuot for students aged 16 to 18 who are completing their religious studies. The graduating class stands in front of an open ark, recalling the standing of the Israelites at Mount Sinai for the giving of the Torah.
Dates in dispute
Since the Torah does not specify the actual day on which Shavuot falls, differing interpretations of this date have arisen both in traditional and non-traditional Jewish circles. These discussions center around two ways of looking at Shavuot: the day it actually occurs (i.e., the day the Torah was given on Mount Sinai), and the day it occurs in relation to the Counting of the Omer (being the 50th day from the first day of the Counting).
Giving of the Torah
While most of the Talmudic Sages concur that the Torah was given on the sixth of Sivan in the Hebrew calendar, Rabbi Jose holds that it was given on the seventh of that month. According to the classical timeline, the Israelites arrived at the wilderness of Sinai on the new moon () and the Ten Commandments were given on the following Shabbat (i.e., Saturday). The question of whether the new moon fell on Sunday or Monday is undecided (Talmud, tractate Shabbat 86b). In practice, Shavuot is observed on the sixth day of Sivan in Israel and a second day is added in the Jewish diaspora (in keeping with a separate rabbinical ruling that applies to all biblical holidays, called Yom tov sheni shel galuyot, Second-Day Yom Tov in the Diaspora).
Counting of the Omer
The Torah states that the Omer offering (i.e., the first day of counting the Omer) is the first day of the barley harvest (). It should begin "on the morrow after the Shabbat", and continue to be counted for seven Sabbaths. ().
The Talmudic Sages determined that "Shabbat" here means a day of rest and refers to the first day of Passover. Thus, the counting of the Omer begins on the second day of Passover and continues for the next 49 days, or seven complete weeks, ending on the day before Shavuot. According to this calculation, Shavuot will fall on the day of the week after that of the first day of Passover (e.g., if Passover starts on a Thursday, Shavuot will begin on a Friday).
The Book of Jubilees and the Essenes
This literal interpretation of 'Shabbat' as the weekly Shabbat was shared by the second-century BCE author of the Book of Jubilees who was motivated by the priestly sabbatical solar calendar of the third and second centuries BCE, which was designed to have festivals and Sabbaths fall on the same day of the week every year. On this calendar (best known from the Book of Luminaries in the Book of Enoch), Shavuot fell on the 15th of Sivan, a Sunday. The date was reckoned fifty days from the first Shabbat after Passover (i.e. from the 25th of Nisan). Thus, Jub. 1:1 claims that Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the Torah "on the sixteenth day of the third month in the first year of the Exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt".
In Jub. 6:15–22 and 44:1–5, the holiday is traced to the appearance of the first rainbow on the 15th of Sivan, the day on which God made his covenant with Noah.
The Qumran community, commonly associated with the Essenes, held in its library several texts mentioning Shavuot, most notably a Hebrew original of the Book of Jubilees, which sought to fix the celebration of this Feast of Weeks on 15 of Sivan, following their interpretation of Exodus 19:1. (See also above, at "Agricultural (wheat harvest)".)
Explanatory notes
Citations
General sources
External links
Shavuot at Chabad.org
Jewish Holidays: Shavuot at the Orthodox Union
Jewish Confirmation at My Jewish Learning
Hallel
Hebrew names of Jewish holy days
Sivan observances
Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem | [
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228274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Last%20Samurai | The Last Samurai | The Last Samurai is a 2003 American epic period action drama film directed and co-produced by Edward Zwick, who also co-wrote the screenplay with John Logan and Marshall Herskovitz from a story devised by Logan. The film stars Tom Cruise, who also co-produced, with Timothy Spall, Ken Watanabe, Billy Connolly, Tony Goldwyn, Hiroyuki Sanada, Koyuki, and Shin Koyamada in supporting roles.
Tom Cruise portrays a United States Captain of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, whose personal and emotional conflicts bring him into contact with samurai warriors in the wake of the Meiji Restoration in 19th century Japan. The film's plot was inspired by the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion led by Saigō Takamori, and the westernization of Japan by foreign powers, though in the film the United States is portrayed as the primary force behind the push for westernization. It is also influenced by the stories of Jules Brunet, a French army captain who fought alongside Enomoto Takeaki in the earlier Boshin War and to a lesser extent by Frederick Townsend Ward, an American mercenary who helped Westernize the Chinese army by forming the Ever Victorious Army.
The Last Samurai grossed a total of $456 million at the box office and was well-received upon its release, receiving praise for the acting (particularly from Cruise and Watanabe), writing, directing, score, visuals, costumes, and messages, but criticized in Japan for a romanticized "storybook" portrayal of the samurai, who are regarded as having been more corrupt. It was nominated for several awards, including four Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and two National Board of Review Awards.
Plot
In 1876, Former U.S. Army Captain Nathan Algren, a bitter alcoholic traumatized by the atrocities he committed during the American Indian Wars, is approached by his former commanding officer Colonel Bagley to train the newly created Imperial Japanese Army for a forward-thinking Japanese businessman Omura, who intends to use the army to suppress a Samurai-headed rebellion against Japan's new emperor. Despite his hatred of Bagley for his role in the Indian Wars, an impoverished Algren takes the job for the money, and is accompanied to Japan by his old friend, Sergeant Zebulon Gant. Upon arriving, Algren meets Simon Graham, a British translator knowledgeable about the samurai.
Algren finds the Imperial soldiers are actually conscripted peasants that have no knowledge of firearms or battle. Early in their training, Algren is informed that the samurai are attacking one of Omura's railroads; Omura sends the army there, despite Algren's protests that they are not ready. The battle is a disaster; the undisciplined conscripts are routed and Gant is killed. Algren fights to the last before he is surrounded; expecting to die, he is taken prisoner when samurai leader Katsumoto decides to spare him. Algren is taken to Katsumoto's village to live among his family. While he is poorly treated at first, he eventually gains the samurai's respect and actually becomes friends with Katsumoto. Algren overcomes his alcoholism and guilt, and learns the Japanese language and culture. He develops sympathy for the samurai, who are upset that the pace of modern technology has eroded the traditions of their society. Algren and Taka, Katsumoto's sister and the widow of a samurai killed by Algren, develop an unspoken affection for each other.
One night, a group of ninja infiltrate the village and attempt to assassinate Katsumoto. Algren saves Katsumoto's life, and then helps defend the village, concluding Omura hired the ninjas. Katsumoto requests a meeting with Emperor Meiji and is given safe passage to Tokyo. He brings Algren, intending to release him. Upon arriving in Tokyo, Algren finds the Imperial Army is now a well-trained and fully equipped fighting force. Katsumoto, to his dismay, discovers that the young and inexperienced Emperor has essentially become a puppet of Omura. At a government meeting, Omura orders Katsumoto's arrest for carrying a sword in public and asks him to perform seppuku to redeem his honor. Algren refuses Omura's offer to lead the new army to crush the rebels, due to his sympathy. Omura sends assassins to kill Algren, but Algren kills them. Algren assists the samurai in freeing Katsumoto; in the process, Katsumoto's son Nobutada is mortally wounded, sacrificing himself to allow the others to escape.
As the Imperial Army marches to crush the rebellion, a grieving Katsumoto contemplates Seppuku, but Algren convinces him to fight until the end, and joins the samurai in battle. The samurai use the Imperial Army's overconfidence to lure them into a trap and deprive them of artillery support. The ensuing battle inflicts massive casualties on both sides and forces the Imperial soldiers to retreat. Knowing that Imperial reinforcements are coming and defeat is inevitable, Katsumoto orders a suicidal cavalry charge on horseback. During the charge, the samurai break through Bagley's line. Bagley is killed by Algren, but the samurai are quickly mowed down by Gatling guns. The Imperial captain, previously trained by Algren and horrified by the sight of the dying samurai, orders all of the guns to cease fire, disregarding Omura's orders. A mortally wounded Katsumoto commits Seppuku with Algren's help as the soldiers at the scene kneel in respect.
Days later, as trade negotiations conclude, Algren, though injured, arrives and interrupts the proceedings. He presents the Emperor with Katsumoto's sword and asks him to remember the traditions for which Katsumoto and his fellow Samurai died. The Emperor realizes that while Japan should modernize, it cannot forget its own culture and history; he promptly rejects the trade offer. When Omura attempts to protest, the Emperor silences him by threatening to seize the Omura family assets and distribute them among the populace.
While various rumours regarding Algren's fate circulate, Graham concludes that Algren had returned to the village to reunite with Taka.
Cast
Tom Cruise as Captain Nathan Algren, a Civil War and Indian War veteran haunted by his role in the massacre of Native Americans at the Washita River. Following a dismissal from his job, he agrees to help the new Meiji Restoration government train its first Western-style conscript army for a significant sum of money. During the army's first battle he is captured by the samurai Katsumoto and taken to the village of Katsumoto's son, where he soon becomes intrigued with the way of the samurai and decides to join them in their cause. His journal entries reveal his impressions about traditional Japanese culture, which almost immediately evolve into unrestrained admiration.
Ken Watanabe as Lord Moritsugu Katsumoto, a former daimyo who was once Emperor Meiji's most trusted teacher. His displeasure with the influence of Omura and other Western reformers on the Emperor lead him to organize his fellow samurai in a revolt, which he hopes will convince the government not to destroy the samurai's place in Japanese society. Katsumoto is based on real-life samurai Saigō Takamori, who led the Satsuma Rebellion.
Koyuki Kato as Taka, widow of a samurai slain by Nathan Algren and younger sister of Lord Katsumoto. She and Algren develop feelings for each other, and she gives him her husband's armor to wear in the final battle of the rebellion.
Shin Koyamada as Nobutada Katsumoto, Katsumoto's son who is responsible for the village where Algren is sent. Nobutada befriends Algren when Katsumoto assigns him to teach Algren Japanese culture and the Japanese language. He dies when he willingly chooses to distract Imperial troops so his father can escape their custody.
Tony Goldwyn as Colonel Bagley, Nathan Algren's former commanding officer in the 7th Cavalry Regiment, who hires him to serve as a training instructor for the Imperial Army despite Algren's hatred of Bagley for his role in the Washita River massacre. In contrast to Algren, Bagley is arrogant and dismissive of the samurai, at one point referring to them nothing more than "savages with bows and arrows". He is killed by Algren who throws a sword into his chest when Bagley tries to shoot Katsumoto in the final battle.
Masato Harada as Matsue Omura, an industrialist and pro-reform politician. He quickly imports westernization and modernization while making money for himself through his ownership of Japan's railroads. Coming from a merchant family, a social class repressed during the days of Shogun rule, Omura openly expresses his contempt for the samurai and takes advantage of Emperor Meiji's youth to become his chief advisor, persuading him to form a Western-style army for the sole purpose of wiping out Katsumoto and his rebels while ignoring their grievances. His appearance is designed to evoke the image of Okubo Toshimichi, a leading reformer during the Meiji Restoration. Harada noted that he was deeply interested in joining the film after witnessing the construction of Emperor Meiji's conference room on sound stage 19 (where Humphrey Bogart had once acted) at Warner Brothers studios.
Shichinosuke Nakamura as Emperor Meiji. Credited with the implementation of the Meiji reforms to Japanese society, the Emperor is eager to import Western ideas and practices to modernize and empower Japan to become a strong nation. However, his inexperience causes him to rely heavily on the advice of men like Omura, who have their own agendas. His appearance bears a strong resemblance to Emperor Meiji during the 1860s (when his authority as Emperor was not yet firmly established) rather than during the 1870s, when the film takes place.
Hiroyuki Sanada as Ujio, a master swordsman and one of Katsumoto's most trusted followers. He teaches Algren the art of sword fighting, coming to respect him as an equal. He is one of the last samurai to die in the final battle, being gunned down during Katsumoto's charge.
Timothy Spall as Simon Graham, a British photographer and scholar hired as an interpreter for Captain Algren and his non-English speaking soldiers. Initially portrayed as a friendly yet mission-oriented and practical-minded companion, he later comes to sympathize with the samurai cause and helps Algren rescue Katsumoto from Imperial soldiers.
Seizo Fukumoto as Silent Samurai, an elderly samurai tasked with monitoring Algren during his time in the village, who calls the samurai "Bob". "Bob" ultimately saves Algren's life (and speaking for the first and only time, "Algren-san!") by taking a bullet meant for him in the final battle.
Billy Connolly as Sergeant Zebulon Gant, an Irish-American Civil War veteran who served with and is loyal to Algren, persuading him to come to Japan and working with him to train the Imperial Army. During the first battle, he is killed by Hirotaro (Taka's husband) after the same wounds him with a spear.
Shun Sugata as Nakao, a tall samurai who wields a naginata and is skilled in jujutsu. He assists Algren in rescuing Katsumoto, and dies along with the other samurai in the final battle.
Production
Filming took place in New Zealand, mostly in the Taranaki region, with Japanese cast members and an American production crew. This location was chosen due to the fact that Egmont/Mount Taranaki resembles Mount Fuji, and also because there is a lot of forest and farmland in the Taranaki region. American Location Manager Charlie Harrington saw the mountain in a travel book and encouraged the producers to send him to Taranaki to scout the locations. This acted as a backdrop for many scenes, as opposed to the built up cities of Japan. Several of the village scenes were shot on the Warner Bros. Studios backlot in Burbank, California. Some scenes were shot in Kyoto and Himeji, Japan. There were 13 filming locations altogether. Tom Cruise did his own stunts for the film.
The film is based on an original screenplay entitled "The Last Samurai", from a story by John Logan. The project itself was inspired by writer and director Vincent Ward. Ward became executive producer on the film – working in development on it for nearly four years and after approaching several directors (Francis Ford Coppola, Peter Weir), until he became interested with Edward Zwick. The film production went ahead with Zwick and was shot in Ward's native New Zealand.
The film was based on the stories of Jules Brunet, a French army captain who fought alongside Enomoto Takeaki in the earlier Boshin War and Frederick Townsend Ward, an American mercenary who helped westernize the Qing army by forming the Ever Victorious Army. The historical roles of other European nations who were involved in the westernization of Japan are largely attributed to the United States in the film, although the film references European involvement as well.
Music
The Last Samurai: Original Motion Picture Score was released on November 25, 2003, by Warner Sunset Records. All music on the soundtrack was composed, arranged, and produced by Hans Zimmer, performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony, and conducted by Blake Neely. It peaked at number 24 on the US Top Soundtracks chart.
Reception
Critical response
The film achieved higher box office receipts in Japan than in the United States. Critical reception in Japan was generally positive. Tomomi Katsuta of The Mainichi Shinbun thought that the film was "a vast improvement over previous American attempts to portray Japan", noting that director Edward Zwick "had researched Japanese history, cast well-known Japanese actors and consulted dialogue coaches to make sure he didn't confuse the casual and formal categories of Japanese speech." Katsuta still found fault with the film's idealistic, "storybook" portrayal of the samurai, stating: "Our image of samurai is that they were more corrupt." As such, he said, the noble samurai leader Katsumoto "set my teeth on edge."
In the United States, critic Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "beautifully designed, intelligently written, acted with conviction, it's an uncommonly thoughtful epic." Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 66% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 223 reviews, with an average score of 6.40/10. The site's consensus states: "With high production values and thrilling battle scenes, The Last Samurai is a satisfying epic". At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 55, based on reviews from 43 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
One on-line analyst compares the movie favorably to Dances with Wolves in that each protagonist meets and combats a "technologically backward people". Both Costner's and Cruise's characters have suffered through a series of traumatic and brutal battles. Each ultimately uses his experiences to later assist his new friends. Each comes to respect his newly adopted culture. Each even fights with his new community against the people and traditions from which he came.
Box office
As of January 1, 2016, the film had grossed $456.8 million against a production budget of $140 million. It grossed $111,127,263 in the United States and Canada, and $345,631,718 in other countries. It was one of the most successful box office hits in Japan, where it grossed ().
Accolades
Criticism and debate
Motoko Rich of The New York Times observed that the film has opened up a debate, "particularly among Asian-Americans and Japanese," about whether the film and others like it were "racist, naïve, well-intentioned, accurate – or all of the above."
Todd McCarthy, a film critic for the Variety magazine, wrote: "Clearly enamored of the culture it examines while resolutely remaining an outsider's romanticization of it, yarn is disappointingly content to recycle familiar attitudes about the nobility of ancient cultures, Western despoilment of them, liberal historical guilt, the unrestrainable greed of capitalists and the irreducible primacy of Hollywood movie stars."
According to the history professor Cathy Schultz, "Many samurai fought Meiji modernization not for altruistic reasons but because it challenged their status as the privileged warrior caste. Meiji reformers proposed the radical idea that all men essentially being equal.... The film also misses the historical reality that many Meiji policy advisors were former samurai, who had voluntarily given up their traditional privileges to follow a course they believed would strengthen Japan."
The fictional character of Katsumoto bears a striking resemblance to the historical figure of Saigō Takamori, a hero of the Meiji Restoration and the leader of the ineffective Satsuma Rebellion, who appears in the histories and legends of modern Japan as a hero against the corruption, extravagance, and unprincipled politics of his contemporaries. "Though he had agreed to become a member of the new government," wrote the translator and historian Ivan Morris, "it was clear from his writings and statements that he believed the ideals of the civil war were being vitiated. He was opposed to the excessively rapid changes in Japanese society and was particularly disturbed by the shabby treatment of the warrior class." Suspicious of the new bureaucracy, he wanted power to remain in the hands of the samurai class and the Emperor, and for those reasons, he had joined the central government. "Edicts like the interdiction against carrying swords and wearing the traditional topknot seemed like a series of gratuitous provocations; and, though Saigō realized that Japan needed an effective standing army to resist pressure from the West, he could not countenance the social implications of the military reforms. For this reason Saigō, although participating in the Okinoerabu government, continued to exercise a powerful appeal among disgruntled ex-samurai in Satsuma and elsewhere." Saigō fought for a moral revolution, not a material one, and he described his revolt as a check on the declining morality of a new, Westernizing materialism.
In 2014, the movie was one of several discussed by Keli Goff in The Daily Beast in an article on white savior narratives in film, a cinematic trope studied in sociology, for which The Last Samurai has been analyzed. David Sirota at Salon saw the film as "yet another film presenting the white Union army official as personally embodying the North's Civil War effort to liberate people of color" and criticizing the release poster as "a not-so-subtle message encouraging audiences to (wrongly) perceive the white guy -- and not a Japanese person -- as the last great leader of the ancient Japanese culture."
See also
Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan
Ōmura Masujirō
French Military Mission to Japan (1867)
Mark Rappaport (creature effects artist)
References
Further reading
- Bachelor of Education () thesis - Written in English with an abstract in Indonesian
External links
Does The Last Samurai have the saddest movie death? at AMCTV.com
2003 films
2000s action drama films
2000s adventure drama films
American action drama films
American adventure drama films
American epic films
American historical action films
Adventure films based on actual events
American films
Cruise/Wagner Productions films
English-language films
Films scored by Hans Zimmer
Films directed by Edward Zwick
Films produced by Tom Cruise
Films set in California
Films set in Japan
Films set in Kyoto
Films set in 1877
Films shot in New Zealand
Films shot in Kyoto
Films shot in Himeji
Japanese-language films
Japan in non-Japanese culture
Ninja films
Samurai films
Films with screenplays by John Logan
Films à clef
2003 drama films
Meiji period in fiction
Films set in the Meiji period
Films produced by Scott Kroopf
Warner Bros. films | [
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228275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimmermann%20Telegram | Zimmermann Telegram | The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note or Zimmerman Cable) was a secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in January 1917 that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered World War I against Germany. Mexico would recover Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The telegram was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence.
Revelation of the contents enraged Americans, especially after German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann publicly admitted on March 3 that the telegram was genuine. It helped to generate support for the American declaration of war on Germany in April.
The decryption was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signal intelligence influenced world events.
Content
The message came in the form of a coded telegram dispatched by Arthur Zimmermann, a Staatssekretär (a top-level civil servant) in the Foreign Office of the German Empire on January 17, 1917. The message was sent to the German ambassador to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt. Zimmermann sent the telegram in anticipation of the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany on February 1, which the German government presumed would almost certainly lead to war with the United States. The telegram instructed Eckardt that if the United States appeared certain to enter the war, he was to approach the Mexican government with a proposal for military alliance with funding from Germany. The decoded telegram was as follows:
Background
Previous German efforts to promote war
Germany had long sought to incite a war between Mexico and the United States, which would have tied down American forces and slowed the export of American arms to the Allies. The Germans had aided in arming Mexico, as shown by the 1914 Ypiranga Incident. German Naval Intelligence officer Franz von Rintelen had attempted to incite a war between Mexico and the United States in 1915, giving Victoriano Huerta $12 million for that purpose. The German saboteur Lothar Witzke, responsible for the March 1917 munitions explosion at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in the San Francisco Bay Area, and possibly responsible for the July 1916 Black Tom explosion in New Jersey, was based in Mexico City. The failure of United States troops to capture Pancho Villa in 1916 and the movement of President Carranza in favor of Germany emboldened the Germans to send the Zimmermann note.
The German provocations were partially successful. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the military invasion of Veracruz in 1914 in the context of the Ypiranga Incident and against the advice of the British government. War was prevented thanks to the Niagara Falls peace conference organized by the ABC nations, but the occupation was a decisive factor in Mexican neutrality in World War I. Mexico refused to participate in the embargo against Germany and granted full guarantees to the German companies for keeping their operations open, specifically in Mexico City. These guarantees lasted for 25 years; coincidentally, it was on May 22, 1942, that Mexico declared war on the Axis Powers after the loss of two Mexican-flagged tankers that month to Kriegsmarine U-boats.
German motivations
The Zimmerman Telegram was part of an effort carried out by the Germans to postpone the transportation of supplies and other war materials from the United States to the Allies, which were at war against Germany. The main purpose of the telegram was to make the Mexican government declare war on the United States in hopes of tying down American forces and slowing the export of American arms. The German High Command believed that it could defeat the British and French on the Western Front and strangle Britain with unrestricted submarine warfare before American forces could be trained and shipped to Europe in sufficient numbers to aid the Allies. The Germans were encouraged by their successes on the Eastern Front to believe that they could divert large numbers of troops to the Western Front in support of their goals.
Mexican response
Mexican President Venustiano Carranza assigned a military commission to assess the feasibility of the Mexican takeover of their former territories contemplated by Germany. The generals concluded that it would not be possible or even desirable to attempt such an enterprise for the following reasons:
Mexico was in the midst of a civil war, and Carranza's position was far from secure. A declaration of war by his regime would have provided an opportunity for the opposing factions to align with the United States and Allies in exchange for diplomatic recognition.
The United States was far stronger militarily than Mexico was. Even if Mexico's military forces had been completely united and loyal to a single regime, no serious scenario existed under which it could have invaded and won a war against the United States.
The German government's promises of "generous financial support" were very unreliable. It had already informed Carranza in June 1916 that it could not provide the necessary gold needed to stock a completely-independent Mexican national bank. Even if Mexico received financial support, it would still need to purchase arms, ammunition, and other needed war supplies from the ABC nations (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile), which would strain relations with them, as explained below.
Even if by some chance Mexico had the military means to win a conflict against the United States and to reclaim the territories in question, it would have had severe difficulty conquering and pacifying a large English-speaking population which had long enjoyed self-government and was better supplied with arms than were most other civilian populations.
Other foreign relations were at stake. The ABC nations had organized the Niagara Falls peace conference in 1914 to avoid a full-scale war between the United States and Mexico over the United States occupation of Veracruz. Mexico entering a war against the United States would strain relations with those nations.
The Carranza government was recognized de jure by the United States on August 31, 1917, as a direct consequence of the Zimmermann Telegram to ensure Mexican neutrality during World War I. After the military invasion of Veracruz in 1914, Mexico did not participate in any military excursion with the United States in World War I. That ensured that Mexican neutrality was the best outcome that the United States could hope for even if it allowed German companies to keep their operations in Mexico open.
British interception
Zimmermann's office sent the telegram to the German embassy in the United States for retransmission to Eckardt in Mexico. It has traditionally been understood that the telegram was sent over three routes. It went by radio, and passed via telegraph cable inside messages sent by diplomats of two neutral countries (the United States and Sweden).
Direct telegraph transmission of the telegram was impossible because the British had cut the German international cables at the outbreak of war. However, Germany could communicate wirelessly through the Telefunken plant, operating under Atlantic Communication Company in West Sayville, New York, where the telegram was relayed to the Mexican Consulate. Ironically, the station was under the control of the US Navy, which operated it for Atlantic Communication Company, the American subsidiary of the German entity.
Also, the United States allowed limited use of its diplomatic cables with Germany to communicate with its ambassador in Washington. This privilege was supposed to be used for messages connected with Wilson's peace proposals. The Swedish diplomatic message holding the Zimmerman Telegram went from Stockholm to Buenos Aires over British submarine telegraph cables, and then moved from Buenos Aires to Mexico over the cable network of a United States company.
All traffic passing through British hands came to British intelligence, particularly to the codebreakers and analysts in Room 40 at the Admiralty.
After the Germans' telegraph cables had been cut, the German Foreign Office appealed to the United States for use of their diplomatic telegraphic messages for peace messages. President Wilson agreed in the belief both that such co-operation would sustain continued good relations with Germany and that more efficient German-American diplomacy could assist Wilson's goal of a negotiated end to the war. The Germans handed in messages to the American embassy in Berlin, which were relayed to the embassy in Denmark and then to the United States by American telegraph operators. The United States placed conditions on German usage, most notably that all messages had to be in cleartext (uncoded). However, Wilson later reversed the order and relaxed the wireless rules to allow coded messages to be sent. The Germans assumed that this route was secure and so used it extensively.
However, that put German diplomats in a precarious situation since they relied on the United States to transmit Zimmermann's note to its final destination, but the message's unencrypted contents would be deeply alarming to the Americans. The Germans persuaded US Ambassador James W. Gerard to accept it in coded form, and it was transmitted on January 16, 1917.
In Room 40, Nigel de Grey had partially decoded the telegram by the next day. By 1917, the diplomatic code 13040 had been in use for many years. Since there had been ample time for Room 40 to reconstruct the code cryptanalytically, it was readable to a fair degree. Room 40 had obtained German cryptographic documents, including the diplomatic code 3512 (captured during the Mesopotamian campaign), which was a later updated code that was similar to but not really related to code 13040, and naval code SKM (Signalbuch der Kaiserlichen Marine), which was useless for decoding the Zimmermann Telegram but valuable to decode naval traffic, which had been retrieved from the wrecked cruiser SMS Magdeburg by the Russians, who passed it to the British.
Disclosure of the telegram would sway American public opinion against Germany if the British could convince the Americans that the text was genuine, but the Room 40 chief William Reginald Hall was reluctant to let it out because the disclosure would expose the German codes broken in Room 40 and British eavesdropping on United States diplomatic traffic. Hall waited three weeks during which de Grey and cryptographer William Montgomery completed the decryption. On February 1, Germany announced resumption of "unrestricted" submarine warfare, an act that led the United States to break off diplomatic relations with Germany on February 3.
Hall passed the telegram to the British Foreign Office on February 5 but still warned against releasing it. Meanwhile, the British discussed possible cover stories to explain to the Americans how they obtained the coded text of the telegram without admitting to their ability to read intercepted American diplomatic communications, which they would continue to do for another 25 years, and to explain how they obtained the cleartext of the telegram without letting anyone know that the codes had been broken. Furthermore, the British needed to find a way to convince the Americans the message was not a forgery.
For the first story, the British obtained the coded text of the telegram from the Mexican commercial telegraph office. The British knew that since the German embassy in Washington would relay the message by commercial telegraph, the Mexican telegraph office would have the coded text. "Mr. H", a British agent in Mexico, bribed an employee of the commercial telegraph company for a copy of the message. Sir Thomas Hohler, the British ambassador in Mexico, later claimed to have been "Mr. H" or at least to have been involved with the interception in his autobiography. The coded text could then be shown to the Americans without embarrassment.
Moreover, the retransmission was encoded with the older code 13040 and so by mid-February, the British had the complete text and the ability to release the telegram without revealing the extent to which the latest German codes had been broken. (At worst, the Germans might have realized that the 13040 code had been compromised, but that was a risk worth taking against the possibility of United States entry into the war.) Finally, since copies of the 13040 codetext would also have been deposited in the records of the American commercial telegraph company, the British had the ability to prove the authenticity of the message to the American government.
As a cover story, the British could publicly claim that their agents had stolen the telegram's decoded text in Mexico. Privately, the British needed to give the Americans the 13040 code so that the American government could verify the authenticity of the message independently with their own commercial telegraphic records, but the Americans agreed to back the official cover story. The German Foreign Office refused to consider that their codes could have been broken but sent Eckardt on a witch hunt for a traitor in the embassy in Mexico. Eckardt indignantly rejected those accusations, and the Foreign Office eventually declared the embassy exonerated.
Use
On February 19, Hall showed the telegram to Edward Bell, the secretary of the American Embassy in Britain. Bell was at first incredulous and thought that it was a forgery. Once Bell was convinced the message was genuine, he became enraged. On February 20, Hall informally sent a copy to US Ambassador Walter Hines Page. On February 23, Page met with British Foreign Minister Arthur Balfour and was given the codetext, the message in German, and the English translation. The British had obtained a further copy in Mexico City, and Balfour could obscure the real source with the half-truth that it had been "bought in Mexico". Page then reported the story to Wilson on February 24, 1917, including details to be verified from telegraph-company files in the United States. Wilson felt "much indignation" toward the Germans and wanted to publish the Zimmermann Telegraph immediately after he had received it from the British, but he delayed until March 1, 1917.
U.S. response
Many Americans then held anti-Mexican as well as anti-German views. Mexicans had a considerable amount of anti-American sentiment in return, some of which was caused by the American occupation of Veracruz. General John J. Pershing had long been chasing the revolutionary Pancho Villa for raiding into American territory and carried out several cross-border expeditions. News of the telegram further inflamed tensions between the United States and Mexico.
However, many Americans, particularly those with German or Irish ancestry, wished to avoid the conflict in Europe. Since the public had been told falsely that the telegram had been stolen in a decoded form in Mexico, the message was at first widely believed to be an elaborate forgery created by British intelligence. That belief, which was not restricted to pacifist and pro-German lobbies, was promoted by German and Mexican diplomats alongside some antiwar American newspapers, especially those by the Hearst press empire.
The Wilson administration was thus presented with a dilemma. With the evidence the United States had been provided confidentially by the British, Wilson realized the message was genuine, but he could not make the evidence public without compromising the British codebreaking operation.
Any doubts as to the authenticity of the telegram were removed by Zimmermann himself. At a press conference on March 3, 1917, he told an American journalist, "I cannot deny it. It is true." Then, on March 29, 1917, Zimmermann gave a speech in the Reichstag in which he admitted that the telegram was genuine. Zimmermann hoped that Americans would understand that the idea was that Germany would not fund Mexico's war with the United States unless the Americans joined World War I.
On February 1, 1917, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare against all ships in the Atlantic bearing the American flag, both passenger and merchant ships. Two ships were sunk in February, and most American shipping companies held their ships in port. Besides the highly-provocative war proposal to Mexico, the telegram also mentioned "ruthless employment of our submarines". Public opinion demanded action. Wilson had refused to assign US Navy crews and guns to the merchant ships, but once the Zimmermann note was public, Wilson called for arming the merchant ships although antiwar members of the US Senate blocked his proposal.
On April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany. Wilson had asked Congress for "a war to end all wars" that would "make the world safe for democracy".
Wilson considered another military invasion of Veracruz and Tampico in 1917–1918, to pacify the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and Tampico oil fields and to ensure their continued production during the civil war, but this time, Mexican President Venustiano Carranza, recently installed, threatened to destroy the oil fields if the US Marines landed there.
Japanese response
The Japanese government, another nation mentioned in the Zimmerman Telegram, was already involved in World War I, on the side of the Allies against Germany. The government later released a statement that Japan was not interested in changing sides and in attacking America.
Autograph discovery
In October 2005, it was reported that an original typescript of the decoded Zimmermann Telegram had recently been discovered by an unnamed historian who was researching and preparing an official history of the United Kingdom's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ). The document is believed to be the actual telegram shown to the American ambassador in London in 1917. Marked in Admiral Hall's handwriting at the top of the document are the words: "This is the one handed to Dr Page and exposed by the President." Since many of the secret documents in this incident had been destroyed, it had previously been assumed that the original typed "decrypt" was gone forever. However, after the discovery of this document, the GCHQ official historian said: "I believe that this is indeed the same document that Balfour handed to Page."
See also
American entry into World War I
Imperial German plans for the invasion of the United States
Mexico in World War I
Zinoviev letter
References
Sources
; 35pp
Alt URL
Further reading
Tuchman, Barbara W. The Zimmermann Telegram (1958) online best-seller for the lay reader by the noted historian
External links
Failed Diplomacy: the Zimmermann Telegram
Our Documents – Zimmermann Telegram (1917)
GermanNavalWarfare.info, Some Original Documents from the British Admiralty, Room 40, regarding the Zimmermann-/Mexico Telegram: Photocopies from The National Archives, Kew, Richmond, UK.
Moving out of German Embassy after breaking relations, 1917
Zimmermann Telegram: The Original Document, accessed 21 Feb 2015
United States documents
History of cryptography
Telegrams
World War I
World War I documents
Signals intelligence of World War I
History of Mexico
Germany–Mexico relations
Germany–United States relations
1917 in Mexico
1917 in Germany
1917 in the United States
1917 in international relations
Diplomatic incidents
1916 documents | [
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228280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seishin-Yamate%20Line | Seishin-Yamate Line | The , also known by its nickname of "Midori no U-Line" (みどりのUライン - "The green "U" line"), is one of the two lines of the Kobe Municipal Subway. It links the central districts to the east and western suburbs of Kobe. The line color is green.
Service pattern
The line has a reciprocal through service with the Hokushin Line (formerly the Hokushin Kyukuo Electric Railway); all trains run between either or and , stopping at every station. During rush hours, additional trains run between Shin-Kobe and .
History
On 15 October 1971, a railway license was issued to the Kobe Municipal Transportation Bureau to build a subway line linking the Myōdani district to the Shin-Kobe Shinkansen station; construction on the first segment of that line began on 25 November of that year. The first segment of the subway (between Shin-Nagata and Myodani, known as the Seishin Line) opened on 13 March 1977; a second segment of the line (between Shin-Nagata and Okurayama, known as the Yamate Line) opened on 17 February 1982. The line was extended to Shin-Kobe on 18 June 1985; a western extension to Gakuen-toshi (from Myodani) opened that same day. On 18 March 1987, the final segment of the subway line opened between Gakuen-toshi and Seishin-chūō.
The Hokushin Kyuko Electric Railway opened on 2 April 1988, providing service between Tanigami and Shin-Kobe. An infill station () opened in between Seishin-chūō and Ikawadani stations on 20 March 1993, expanding the line to a total of 16 stations. On 17 January 1995, the subway line was shut down due to damage caused by the Great Hanshin earthquake; the line resumed operation with limited service between Seishin-chūō and Itayado the following day, along with the entirety of the Hokushin Kyuko line. Limited service was resumed across the entire line on 16 February, and full service was restored in March 1995 after repairs were completed, albeit with speed restrictions remaining in place until 21 July of that year.
The subway began to accept the Surotto Kansai smart card in October 1999; it would start accepting PiTaPa in October 2006.
Women-only cars began to be used on the subway line from 16 December 2002. Currently, one car heading in the direction of Seishin-chūō (car number 4) is reserved for women only; the restriction applies throughout the entire day.
Stations
Rolling stock
1000 series (since 1977) (18 sets)
2000 series (since 1988) (4 sets)
3000 series (since 1992 to 2021) (6 sets)
6000 series (2018 debut)
Hokushin Kyuko Railway 7000 series (since 1988) (5 sets)
All trains are based at Tanigami and Myōdani Depots.
A fleet of new trains (known as the 6000 series) is to be introduced on the line between fiscal 2018 and 2022; these trains will replace all existing trains on the line. Built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, the design of the new trains will be overseen by Ken Okuyama Design.
See also
List of railway lines in Japan
References
External links
Seishin-Yamate Line
Kobe Municipal Subway
Transport in Kobe
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228282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachioradialis | Brachioradialis | The brachioradialis is a muscle of the forearm that flexes the forearm at the elbow. It is also capable of both pronation and supination, depending on the position of the forearm. It is attached to the distal styloid process of the radius by way of the brachioradialis tendon, and to the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus.
Structure
The brachioradialis is a superficial, fusiform muscle on the lateral side of the forearm. It originates proximally on the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus. It inserts distally on the radius, at the base of its styloid process. Near the elbow, it forms the lateral limit of the cubital fossa, or elbow pit.
Nerve supply
Despite the bulk of the muscle body being visible from the anterior aspect of the forearm, the brachioradialis is a posterior compartment muscle and consequently is innervated by the radial nerve. Of the muscles that receive innervation from the radial nerve, it is one of only four that receive input directly from the radial nerve. The other three are the triceps, anconeus, and extensor carpi radialis longus. (All other posterior compartment muscles that receive radial innervation are supplied by the deep branch of the radial nerve.)
Function
The brachioradialis flexes the forearm at the elbow. When the forearm is pronated, the brachioradialis tends to supinate as it flexes. In a supinated position, it tends to pronate as it flexes. This also assists the biceps brachii.
The brachioradialis is a stronger elbow flexor when the forearm is in a midposition between supination and pronation at the radioulnar joint. When pronated, the brachioradialis is more active during elbow flexion since the biceps brachii is in a mechanical disadvantage.
With the insertion of the muscle so far from the fulcrum of the elbow, the brachioradialis does not generate as much joint torque as the brachialis or the biceps. It is effective mainly when those muscles have already partially flexed at the elbow. The brachioradialis flexes the forearm at the elbow, especially when quick movement is required and when a weight is lifted during slow flexion of the forearm.
The muscle is used to stabilize the elbow during rapid flexion and extension while in a midposition, such as in hammering. The brachioradialis is synergistic with the brachialis and biceps brachii; the triceps brachii and anconeus are antagonistic.
Additional images
References
External links
- "Transverse section through the left arm just proximal to the elbow."
- "Superficial muscles of the anterior (flexor) compartment of the left forearm."
- "Superficial muscles of the posterior (extensor) compartment of the left forearm."
Elbow flexors
Forearm pronators
Forearm supinators
Muscles of the upper limb | [
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228283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dbe%20Rapid%20Transit%20Railway | Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway | Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway Company, Limited (神戸高速鉄道株式会社 Kōbe kōsoku-tetsudō) is a railway company in central Kobe, Japan.
Lines
Kobe Rapid Railway owns two lines.
Tozai Line (east-west)
Namboku Line (north-south)
The Tozai and Namboku lines have been operated since the founding of the railway company while the Hokushin Line is a recent addition to its business. The company is a under the 1986 Railway Business Act of Japan in respect to all three lines.
Tozai Line and Namboku Line
The company does not run its own services on these lines, but provides the necessary infrastructure for four private railway lines (Hankyu Kobe Line (Hankyu), Hanshin Main Line (Hanshin), Shintetsu Arima Line (Shintetsu) and Sanyo Electric Railway Main Line (Sanyo) to be able to run trains through Kobe.
The company operated and administered the stations on the Tozai Line and the Namboku Line (except for Sannomiya Station operated by Hankyu, Motomachi Station operated by Hanshin, Nishidai Station operated by Sanyo and Minatogawa Station operated by Shintetsu) until September 2010, when the operation of the stations on the Tozai Line were transferred to Hanshin and Hankyu, and Shinkaichi Station on the Namboku Line to Shintetsu.
Hokushin Line
The Hokushin Line was formerly owned by the operator Hokushin Kyuko Electric Railway. When Hokushin Kyuko suffered financial difficulties in 2002, Kobe Rapid Railway purchased the assets of the railway trackage from Hokushin Kyuko.
Unlike the Tozai Line and the Namboku Line stations, the stations of the Hokushin Line are operated and administrated by Hokushin Kyuko (Tanigami Station) and Kobe Municipal Subway (Shin-Kobe Station). On 1 June 2020, the operation of the line was transferred to Kobe Municipal Subway.
References
External links
Official site
Transport in Kobe
Railway companies of Japan
Underground rapid transit in Japan | [
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228284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial%20nerve | Radial nerve | The radial nerve is a nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin.
It originates from the brachial plexus, carrying fibers from the ventral roots of spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8 & T1.
The radial nerve and its branches provide motor innervation to the dorsal arm muscles (the triceps brachii and the anconeus) and the extrinsic extensors of the wrists and hands; it also provides cutaneous sensory innervation to most of the back of the hand, except for the back of the little finger and adjacent half of the ring finger (which are innervated by the ulnar nerve).
The radial nerve divides into a deep branch, which becomes the posterior interosseous nerve, and a superficial branch, which goes on to innervate the dorsum (back) of the hand.
Structure
The radial nerve originates as a terminal branch of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. It goes through the arm, first in the posterior compartment of the arm, and later in the anterior compartment of the arm, and continues in the posterior compartment of the forearm.
Arm
The radial nerve originates from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus with root values of C5 to C8 and T1. From the brachial plexus, it travels behind the third part of the axillary artery (part of the axillary artery distal to the pectoralis minor). In the arm, it runs behind the brachial artery and then enters the lower triangular space to reach the radial sulcus of back of the humerus. It travel downwards together with profunda brachii artery, between the lateral and medial heads of triceps brachii until it reaches the lateral side the arm at 5 cm below the deltoid tuberosity where it pierces the lateral intermuscular septum to reach the anterior compartment of the arm. Then, it descends down to cross the lateral epicondyle of the humerus where the nerve terminates by branching itself into superficial and deep branch which continues into cubital fossa and then into the forearm.
Radial nerve gives out muscular branches to supply the long head, medial head, and lateral head of triceps brachii muscles before and during its course in the radial sulcus. After it emerges out from the radial sulcus, it supplies the brachialis, brachioradialis and extensor carpi radialis longus.
Above the radial sulcus, the radial nerve gives off posterior cutaneous nerve of the arm which supplies the skin at the back of the arm. In the radial sulcus, it gives off lower lateral cutaneous nerve of the arm and posterior cutaneous nerve of the forearm. The radial nerve also gives articular branches to supply the elbow joint.
Forearm and hand
In the forearm, it is divided into a superficial branch (primarily sensory) and a deep branch (primarily motor).
The superficial branch of the radial nerve is widely separated from the radial artery in the upper one third of the forearm, closely related to radial artery in the middle third of the forearm, and in the lower third, it descends in the forearm under the tendon of brachioradialis. It crosses brachioradialis to enter posterior of forearm near the back of the wrist and supply dorsum of hand. It gives sensory supply to dorsal aspect of hand, dorsal aspect of thumb, index finger, middle finger and lateral side of ring finger except the nail beds, which are supplied by proper digital branches of median nerve.
The deep branch of the radial nerve (also known as posterior interosseous nerve by some authors)) pierces the supinator muscle, winds around the radius under the cover of supinator to reach posterior of forearm where it again pierces supinator and after which it is known as the posterior interosseous nerve. It pierces the posterior extensor muscles and comes to lie between superficial and deep muscles of the back of the forearm. At the lower border of extensor pollicis brevis, it passes deep to the extensor pollicis longus and then run on the posterior interosseous membrane. It continues to move along with posterior interosseous artery(a deep branch of common interosseous artery which is a branch of ulnar artery), and ends as a pseudoganglion below extensor retinaculum by supplying the wrist and intercarpal joints.
Variation
It is commonly believed that the radial nerve also provided motor innervation to the long head of the triceps. However, a study conducted in 2004 found out that axillary nerve innervates the long head of triceps in 20 cadavers without any supply from radial nerve.
Function
The following are branches of the radial nerve (including the superficial branch of the radial nerve and the deep branch of the radial nerve/posterior interosseous nerve).
Cutaneous
Cutaneous innervation by the radial nerve is provided by the following nerve branches:
Posterior cutaneous nerve of arm (originates in axilla)
Inferior lateral cutaneous nerve of arm (originates in arm)
Posterior cutaneous nerve of forearm (originates in arm)
The superficial branch of the radial nerve provides sensory innervation to much of the back of the hand, including the web of skin between the thumb and index finger.
Motor
Muscular branches of the radial nerve:
Triceps brachii
Anconeus
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longus
Deep branch of the radial nerve:
Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Supinator
Posterior interosseous nerve (a continuation of the deep branch after the supinator):
Extensor digitorum
Extensor digiti minimi
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Abductor pollicis longus
Extensor pollicis brevis
Extensor pollicis longus
Extensor indicis
The radial nerve (and its deep branch) provides motor innervation to the muscles in the posterior compartment of the arm and forearm, which are mostly extensors.
Clinical significance
Injury
Injury to the radial nerve at different levels causes different syndromes with varying motor and sensory deficits.
At the axilla
Common mechanisms of injury: Saturday night palsy, crutch palsy, lesions
Motor deficit:
Loss of extension of forearm, weakness of supination, and loss of extension of hand and fingers.
Presence of wrist drop, due to inability to extend the hand and fingers.
Sensory deficit: Loss of sensation in lateral arm, posterior forearm, the radial half of dorsum of hand, and dorsal aspect of radial digits, excluding their nail beds.
At mid-arm
Common mechanism of injury: Mid-shaft humeral fracture
Motor deficit:
Weakness of supination, and loss of extension of hand and fingers.
Presence of wrist drop, due to inability to extend the hand and fingers.
Sensory deficit: Loss of sensation in posterior forearm, the radial half of dorsum of hand, and dorsal aspect of radial digits, excluding their nail beds.
Just below the elbow
Common mechanism of injury: Neck of radius fracture, elbow dislocation or fracture, tight cast, rheumatoid nodules, injections due to tennis elbow, injuring the deep branch of the radial nerve that pierces the radial head, causing posterior interosseous nerve syndrome
Motor deficit:
Weakness in extension of hand and loss of extension of fingers.
Presence of finger drop, and partial wrist drop, since the extensor carpi radialis longus and brachioradialis muscles are working.
Sensory deficit: None, as sensation is supplied by the superficial radial nerve
Within the distal forearm:
Common mechanism of injury: Wartenberg's syndrome, (not to be confused with Wartenberg's sign), due to nerve entrapment beneath the tendinous insertion of brachioradialis, tight jewellery, and watch bands.
Motor deficit: None
Sensory deficit: Numbness and tingling in radial half of dorsum of hand, and dorsal aspect of radial digits, excluding their nail beds.
In Wartenberg's syndrome, there is significant radial wrist pain, and close resemblance to symptoms in de Quervain's tenosynovitis. Finkelstein's test may be positive.
History
Additional images
See also
Muscular branches of the radial nerve
Posterior brachial cutaneous nerve
Dorsal antibrachial cutaneous nerve
Superficial branch of the radial nerve
Deep branch of the radial nerve
Radial neuropathy
Radial tunnel syndrome
References
External links
- "Axilla, dissection, anterior view"
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228288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic%20of%201819 | Panic of 1819 | The Panic of 1819 was the first widespread and durable financial crisis in the United States that slowed westward expansion in the Cotton Belt and was followed by a general collapse of the American economy that persisted through 1821. The Panic heralded the transition of the nation from its colonial commercial status with Europe toward an independent economy.
Though the downturn was driven by global market adjustments in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, its severity was compounded by excessive speculation in public lands, fueled by the unrestrained issue of paper money from banks and business concerns.
The Second Bank of the United States (SBUS), itself deeply enmeshed in these inflationary practices, sought to compensate for its laxness in regulating the state bank credit market by initiating a sharp curtailment in loans by its western branches, beginning in 1818. Failing to provide gold specie from their reserves when presented with their own banknotes for redemption by the SBUS, the state-chartered banks began foreclosing on the heavily mortgaged farms and business properties they had financed. The ensuing financial panic, in conjunction with a sudden recovery in European agricultural production in 1817, led to widespread bankruptcies and mass unemployment. The financial disaster and recession provoked popular resentment against banking and business enterprise, along with a general belief that federal government economic policy was fundamentally flawed. Americans, many for the first time, became politically engaged so as to defend their local economic interests.
The New Republicans and their American System—tariff protection, internal improvements, and the SBUS—were exposed to sharp criticism, eliciting a vigorous defense.
Post-war European readjustments and the American economy: 1815–1818
The United States and the United Kingdom signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, ending the War of 1812. The British government effectively relinquished its effort to impose mercantilist policies on the United States, preparing the way for the development of free trade and the opening of America's vast western frontier.
Europe was undergoing a period of disorganization as it readjusted to peacetime production and commerce in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. The general effect was a decline in prices throughout the Western world, due to a scarcity of gold and silver specie. Britain had advanced its industrial capacity to fully meet its wartime demands, but post-war continental Europe was temporarily too devastated to absorb Britain's surplus manufactured goods. Moreover, European agriculture production, exhausted by years of warfare, was unable to feed its own population. The economy of the United States was not immune to the chaos that afflicted Europe, and therein lay the roots of the Panic of 1819.
American manufacturers faced U.S. markets swamped with British products, produced by low-paid workers and priced well below competitive rates and forcing many factories out of business. Continental Europe, its agrarian output crippled by the recent war, offered new markets for American staple crops, particularly cotton, wheat, corn and tobacco. As prices soared for agricultural goods, a speculative agrarian land boom ensued in the South and West United States, encouraged by liberal terms for government public land sales. "The entire postwar American economy" observed historian George Dangerfield was "based on a land boom". The inflationary bubble grew from 1815 to 1818, obscuring the general deflationary trends in world prices.
Unregulated banking and the imperatives of Republican enterprise
With the failure to recharter the First Bank of the United States in 1811, regulatory influence over state banks ceased. Credit-friendly Republicans—entrepreneurs, bankers, farmers—adapted laissez-faire financial principles to the precepts of Jeffersonian political libertarianism—equating land speculation with "rugged individualism" and the frontier spirit. Private banking interests and their allies sought to evade or resist any threat to the profitability of their local enterprises, including the regulatory influence of a government bank limiting easy credit. There followed an enormous expansion in state-chartered banking, with chartered institutions increasing from 88 in 1811 to 208 in 1815, mostly in the mid-Atlantic states.
During the War of 1812 (1812–1815) with the United Kingdom, the American government turned to these new banks for loans, encouraging a proliferation of paper money. This practice tended to shift specie into the more conservatively lending New England banking apparatus, depleting the newer banks of their hard money reserves. In response, the U.S. government acquiesced in a suspension of specie payments from state banks in order to prolong the liberal wartime lending. The arrangement persisted in the war's aftermath, allowing old and new banks to profitably lend without regard to their hard money currency reserves. A speculative bubble formed as a result of these inflationary practices, threatening the health of the economy.
By 1814, calls for a new central bank and a resumption of regulatory controls were heard from powerful capitalists and economic nationalists in the Republican party leadership.
Resurrection of the Bank of the United States
The "American System"
The Democratic-Republican party found itself in control of the national government with the collapse of the Federalist party at the end of the War of 1812. Some of the traditional Jeffersonian agrarian precepts—especially strict construction of the Constitution—had softened due to difficulties during the war arising from a lack of infrastructure, unregulated banking and a shortage of manufactured material, as well as the prospect of developing the vast natural resources with westward expansion. A mild nationalist outlook took hold among the "New Republicans", neofederalists led by Speaker of the House Henry Clay and Congressman John C. Calhoun. A three-part program dubbed the American System, incorporating some of the Hamiltonian projects championed by the Federalists, proposed "to create a stable economy through a centralized banking system, stimulated by an ever widening web of transportation and communication, through which domestic manufactures could eventually reach all parts of the Union".
Advocates of the American System called for a protective tariff to encourage manufacturing, a federally funded program for internal improvements and a revival of the First Bank of the United States to regulate finance.
Astor, Girard, Parish
In the crucible of the War of 1812, the Treasury of the United States had been compelled to offer $16 million in government war bonds in order to stave off bankruptcy due to military costs and wartime loss of revenue.
Financier Stephen Girard, business magnate John Jacob Astor and merchant David Parish bought up these government securities and rescued the nation's credit. Through their influence, and in alliance with Republican Congressmen John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay, they sought to augment their investment by proposing that the securities be exchangeable for stock in a new central bank, the Second Bank of the United States (SBUS).
Secretary of State James Monroe supported the new bank initiative, wishing to bind these highly regarded and pro-Republican business figures to government financial operations. Republicans in the South and West joined with monied interests in the mid-Atlantic states. Pro-SBUS Congressman John C. Calhoun argued forcefully that the federal government had a constitutional obligation to regulate bank credit as part of the national money supply. In January 1816, he introduced a bill of incorporation in the House of Representatives for a government bank (which would become the Second Bank of the United States). The measure was passed by Congress and signed by President James Madison in April 1816.
Opposition to the Bank came from two fronts: the orthodox Tertium quids (or "Old Republicans") who reflexively regarded an enlargement of the central government as an assault on personal liberty and a violation of Jeffersonian agrarianism, and state-chartered private banking interests, who favored paper money but considered federal regulation of local banking operations to be anti-Republican. These ideologies and interests would be arrayed against the central bank during the Andrew Jackson administration (1829–1837), erupting in a Bank War that would destroy the institution by 1833.
The Second Bank of the United States began operations in January 1817 under a twenty-year charter.
Neofederalist expectations for the central bank
The revival of the Bank of the United States had two primary objectives: first, to reverse the post-war inflationary practices of state-chartered banks by inducing resumption of convertibility, and second, to expand the opportunities for the common man to acquire bank credit, promoting enterprise and an orderly and profitable westward expansion.
The regulatory mechanism of the SBUS resided in its fiscal duties as depository for the U.S. Department of the Treasury. As such, the bank accepted circulating state bank paper money from individuals, businesses and importers when they paid taxes or custom duty fees. The central bank immediately credited these payments to the U.S. Treasury with its own metallic reserves. The SBUS, in turn, anticipated that the state banks which had issued the paper money would, upon demand, redeem their currency with gold and silver—"convertibility"—reimbursing the government bank.
In order to remain solvent, the state banks would, ideally, constrain their lending of paper money—however profitable—so as not to allow the SBUS to become a significant creditor and deplete their specie reserves. Failing this, the Second Bank of the United States would, in theory, cease to honor the banknotes of those financial institutions that refused to promptly settle their government accounts with hard money—a recipe for bankruptcy.
The central bank's direct influence on inflationary lending was limited to those chartered banks whose paper currency was extensively used to remit funds to the government (i.e. tax and duty payments).
The SBUS and its branches had little or no direct control over commercial paper emitted by unchartered lending outfits: "All that was necessary to start a bank…was plates, presses and paper; 'a church, a tavern, a blacksmith shop' would be a suitable site." These unregulated credit operations would "to some extent interpenetrate" the regulated banking system, especially in the regions of wildcat banking.
Prelude to panic: 1816–1818
President of the United States James Madison and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Dallas fully approved the elevation of William Jones—one of the federally appointed Bank directors—to SBUS President in October 1816. Jones, formerly a member of Madison's cabinet, owed his promotion more to his political acumen than his skills as a banker. Financier and co-director Stephen Girard was troubled at Jones' promotion, concerned that he could never provide disinterested leadership for the bank, and businessman John Jacob Astor doubted Jones' ability to wield the bank's regulatory powers effectively.
Jones extended the institution's resources liberally in accordance with the post-war "national exuberance", generating large dividends for its stockholders. His administration of the bank resonated with Secretary Crawford's lenient policy with regard to public land receipts in the form of chartered-bank script when specie was scarce nationally.
Setbacks and compromises for the SBUS
The Second Bank of the United States began operations in January 1817 as fiscal agent of the United States Treasury. After February 20, 1817, the SBUS was scheduled to begin to receive all government revenue in legal tender as required by its charter.
Hard money shortages prevailed because U.S. exports exceeded imports and Peruvian and Mexican gold and silver sources failed to replenish specie reserves. Due to this scarcity, the terms of the bank's incorporation provided for private subscribers to invest with a combination of metallic currency and government stock. Further, they were granted an indulgence by Bank directors that effectively waived the specie requirement: ultimately, investors were allowed to purchase Bank shares on the security of the stock itself. Under its charter guidelines, the SBUS was expected to acquire specie totaling $28 million by the time it opened for business; but with only $2 million secured when it commenced operations, the bank was compelled to purchase specie at usurious rates from the London financial markets in 1817 and 1818, overburdening SBUS credit.
As the February 20 deadline approached to resume convertibility, the private (i.e. state-chartered) banks withheld cooperation from SBUS officials, loath to submit to the regulatory influence of the central bank—and diminish the large profits derived from the issue of unredeemable paper. On February 1, 1817, an association of bankers from Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland and Virginia met with the new Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford and SBUS President William Jones, arranging a compromise which undermined the ability of the central bank to assert its role as creditor to the private banks.
The directors of the SBUS, with Secretary Crawford's imprimatur, promised to refrain from collecting public deposits held in state banks until July 1, 1817. Moreover, they agreed to greatly expand the bank's credit—at a discount of $6 million—before proceeding to collect public debt from the state institutions. In effect, the central bank transformed the private banks into its creditors, inviting them to draw specie from SBUS reserves months before the Bank of the United States assumed its regulatory functions. Under these "ominous terms" the bank was launched—its operational success already at risk.
SBUS branch office lending and the frontier land boom
The eighteen branch offices of the SBUS in 1817 operated with little oversight from the Philadelphia headquarters, nor from the U.S. Treasury. This policy stemmed in part from a social philosophy that prevailed among Republicans during the Era of Good Feelings, which wished to Republicanize credit practices and encourage westward migration.
The United States government encouraged settlement of these lands by offering public land at $2 per acre (160-acre minimum), though auctioneering tended to retard sales and raised prices slightly. The terms required a down payment of one-fourth of the total cost and the balance in four annual payments. Failure to pay in full in five years meant forfeiture. Public land debt ballooned from $3 million in 1815 to $17 million in 1818.
The U.S. Treasury accepted land payments in the form of banknotes issued by western and southern state banks. These institutions often lacked sufficient specie reserves to back up their vastly over-extended credit. As long as the land boom continued, the Treasury Department was compelled to accept depreciated banknotes for its public land sales, undermining government efforts to pay down the war debt, but serving to stave off private bank failures.
As the branch offices in the West and Southwest over-issued their SBUS notes to land boom farmers and speculators, they sought to restock their specie reserves by redeeming their own notes for hard money at the SBUS branch offices in the North and East, to fuel another cycle of excessive lending.
The SBUS branch banks, emulating their wildcat counterparts, injected so much of their own paper money into circulation that they negated their regulatory capacity: they could not with impunity demand specie payments from state banks that held public deposits without being presented with their own script for convertibility in return.
Prior to the Panic, these precarious economic conditions—a manifestation of "rapid expansion, speculation and wildcat banking"—prevailed in the South and West, where the economic collapse would be most severe.
By July 1818, the Second Bank of the United States had demand liabilities exceeding $22.4 million, whereas its specie fund stood at $2.4 million—a 10:1 ratio and double the 5:1 ratio considered sustainable.
Panic "precipitated"
The onset of the financial panic has been variously described as "triggered", "pricked", or "precipitated" by the Second Bank of the United States when it initiated a sharp credit contraction beginning in the summer of 1818.
The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815 had created the Year Without a Summer, causing European agriculture to fail that year. The link between the frontier land boom and overseas markets for staple goods was dramatically revealed in 1817, when Europe finally recovered from its post-war harvest shortages and began producing bumper crops. American planters and farmers, who had expanded production to exploit the European demand, discovered agricultural prices declining by half, even as production increased. Southwestern plantations were devastated when Britain began to increase its imports of East India cotton as a means to avoid purchasing the high-priced U.S. cotton. India enjoyed not only a longer growing season and lower cost of freight to Britain, but also more cotton-devoted land than the entire Louisiana Purchase. Tench Coxe, a Pennsylvanian political economist and delegate to the Continental Congress, warned of the "substantial evil" exhibited in the rivalry created by foreign competition. Coxe has been dubbed by many as the "father of the American cotton industry". Cotton value began to waver in 1818, threatening to burst the speculative bubble. A general contraction in lending was indicated in response to these developments in Europe.
In August 1818, with credit dangerously overextended, BUS branch offices began to reject all state-chartered banknotes under the direction of William Jones. Exceptions were made for notes used as revenue payments to the U.S. Treasury. In October 1818, the U.S. Treasury demanded a transfer of $2 million in specie from the BUS to redeem bonds on the Louisiana Purchase.
State banks in the West and South, unable to provide the required specie, began to call in their loans on the heavily mortgaged lands they had financed. Cash-poor farmers and speculators found their land values dropping 50% to 75%. Banks began foreclosing on the properties and transferring them to their creditor: the Second Bank of the United States.
When news arrived in January 1819 that the value of cotton had broken—dropping 25% in a single day—the ensuing panic drove the country into recession. Williams Jones resigned from his position as BUS president and was replaced by South Carolinian Langdon Cheves.
BUS reaction to the Panic
The limited curtailment policy initiated by William Jones was rigorously applied by his successor, former Congressman from South Carolina, Langdon Cheves. Among his promoters were U.S. President James Monroe, BUS directors Stephen Girard and Nicholas Biddle and those stockholders who wanted Bank leadership that was fiscally conservative and immune to political influence.
The tight money policy Cheves implemented—a principled effort to cope with the financial disaster—had the effect of deepening the depression, undermining the recovery that was already underway. Through public land debt relief legislation, Cheves managed to reduce the bank's land debt by $6 million within a year of assuming his position as BUS President. Specie was also replenished to a great extent, increasing from $2.5 million in 1819 to $3.4 million by 1820 and further rising to $8 million by 1821.<ref>name="Rothbard_Panic" Murray N. Rothbard. [The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies (New York: Columbia, 1962),13</ref> As an added consequence, banknotes in circulation were reduced by about $23 million within a span of four years from 1816 to 1820.
Employing these "stern procedures", Cheves placed the bank on sound footing in early 1819.Dangerfield, 1965, p. 84 A leading critic of the Second Bank of the United States during the Bank War would observe: "The bank was saved, and the people were ruined."
Culpability of the BUS in the Panic
Despite the Second Bank of the United States' inept management under the Jones-Cheves administrations, it was not the causative agent in the Panic of 1819 or its aftermath. The historical processes contributing to the panic and depression, which were beyond the bank's control, included the European market fluctuations, obstruction from the numerous private banks to federal regulationsHammond, 1947, p. 153 and the widespread ignorance among lenders and borrowers as to the new financial mechanisms that made possible the credit expansion and land boom.
The bank's role was properly one of restraint, so as to automatically suppress the volatility in financial markets—but not to prevent these boom-bust episodes.Hammond, 1957, p. 276 "If the [Second Bank of the United States] had been wisely managed from the beginning" writes historian George Dangerfield, "it could not have prevented the panic; it could only have modified its effects."
Responses to the crisis
President Monroe, interpreting the economic crisis in the narrow monetary terms then current, limited governmental action to economizing and ensuring fiscal stability. He acquiesced in suspending specie payments to bank depositors, setting a precedent for the Panics of 1837 & 1857. Although Monroe agreed that improved transportation facilities were needed, he refused to approve appropriations for internal improvements without constitutional amendments.
In 1821, Congress passed the Relief for Public Land Debtors Act. The bill allowed debtors who owed money on land purchased from the government to keep the part of land they had already paid for and relinquish the remaining amount. It further extended the schedule of payments by several years, with a discount for quick payment. With the exception of New England states, most of the country strongly supported the measure. Many state legislatures, particularly in rural western states, passed extra relief measures for debtors.
Another response to the panic was monetary expansion, primarily at the state level. In Tennessee, Kentucky and Illinois, state banks suspended specie payments and issued large amounts of inconvertible notes. However, most other states avoided inflationist policies and enforced the payment of specie. Every state witnessed vigorous debate on the merits of each policy. Treasury Secretary Crawford advocated restricting bank credit as a measure to prevent a future crisis. Banking regulation was seen as primarily a state responsibility, and several states passed regulations in the years following the panic that required banks to maintain certain fixed ratios of capital to ensure their ability to convert to specie.
A further effect of the Panic of 1819 was increased support for protective tariffs for American industry. Vocal protectionists, such as Philadelphia printer Mathew Carey, blamed free trade for the depression and argued that tariffs would protect American prosperity. In general, support for tariffs was strongest in the mid-Atlantic states and was opposed by export-heavy southern states.
Long-term impacts
The Panic brought attention, for the first time, to issues regarding debt-relief policy, as well as poor relief. City and state governments began to more effectively approach the public policy reform issues surrounding the poor; a classification system was also created (able-bodied vs. disabled, temporary vs. long-term, etc.). Public attention to solving poverty issues consequently led to public education systems.
Public support was great once again for protective tariffs. However, when the "Tariff of Abominations" was implemented in 1828, regional discontent led to the outbreak of the Nullification Crisis. The Crisis is seen as a "critical precedent for democratic action".
On a more contemporary note, many economic historians today agree that the Panic of 1819 marked the United States' entrance into the modern business cycle.
The Panic of 1819 has also been credited with spurring American citizens to emigrate to the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas, which would later become the Republic of Texas, and later still the State of Texas within the United States. By 1830, over twelve thousand Americans had emigrated to what is now the State of Texas.
Economic interpretations
Different economic schools of thought have offered explanations for the Panic of 1819.
Austrian School economists view the nationwide recession resulting from the Panic of 1819 as the first failure of expansionary monetary policy. This theory was first expounded by Murray N. Rothbard, in his doctoral dissertation, The Panic of 1819, published in 1962. For many years, this was the only book on the subject. This explanation was based on the Austrian theory of the business cycle. The U.S. Government borrowed heavily to finance the War of 1812, causing tremendous strain on the banks' reserves of specie, which led to a suspension of specie payments in 1814, and then again during the recession of 1819–1821, violating contractual rights of depositors. The suspension of the obligation to redeem greatly spurred the establishment of new banks and the expansion of banknote issues, and this inflation of money encouraged unsustainable investments to take place. It soon became clear that the monetary situation was threatening, and the Second Bank of the United States was forced to call a halt to its expansion and launch a painful process of contraction. There was a wave of bankruptcies, bank failures, and bank runs; prices dropped and wide-scale urban unemployment began. By 1819, land measures in the U.S. had also reached and many Americans did not have enough money to pay off their loans.
Economists who adhere to Keynesian economic theory suggest that the Panic of 1819 was the early Republic's first experience with the boom-bust cycles common to all modern economies. Clyde Haulman, Professor of Economics at the College of William and Mary, argues that the Panic was partly caused by a decision to call in loans of the Second Bank of the US. Combined with the issue of the depression and overspeculation, the Panic marked the beginning of a new phase of American economic history, in which mature market institutions would continue to move cyclically from boom to bust.
Notes
See also
List of recessions in the United States
Panic of 1857
Business cycle
Keynesian economics
Monetary policy
Austrian business cycle theory
Post-Napoleonic depression
References
Cited in footnotes
Ammon, Harry. 1971. James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity. New York: McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ammon, Harry. 2002. Presidents: A Reference History The Gale Group, Inc. Farmington Hills, Michigan
Dangerfield, George. 1965. The Awakening of American Nationalism: 1815-1828. Harper & Row. New York.
Hammond, Bray. 1947. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States" Journal of Economic History, VIII (May 1947), I-23.
Hammond, Bray. 1956. "Jackson's Fight with the Money Power". American Heritage, June 1956, Volume VII, Number 4. American Heritage Publishing Company.
Hammond, Bray. 1957. Banks and Politics in America, from the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, Princeton University Press
Hofstadter, Richard. 1948. The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It. New York: A. A. Knopf.
Malone, Dumas and Rauch, Basil. 1960. Empire for Liberty: The Genesis and Growth of the United States of America. Appleton-Century Crofts, Inc. New York.
Meyers, Marvin. 1953. "The Jacksonian Persuasion". American Quarterly Vol. 5 No. 1 (Spring, 1953) in Essays on Jacksonian America, Ed. Frank Otto Gatell. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. New York.
Miller, John C. 1960. The Federalists: 1789-1801. Harper & Row, New York.
Parsons, Lynn Hudson. 2009. The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams and the Election of 1828. Oxford University Press, New York.
Remini, Robert V. 1981. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832. Harper & Row, New York.
Remini, Robert V. 1984. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1833-1845. Harper & Row, New York.
Remini, Robert. V. 1993. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.
Rothbard, Murray. 1962. The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies. Columbia University Press, New York.
Schlesinger, Arthur M. 1945. The Age of Jackson. Little, Brown and Company (1953). Boston, Massachusetts.
Wilentz, Sean. 2008. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln.'' W.W. Horton and Company. New York.
Further reading
online review
External links
Murray N. Rothbard. Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies
1810s economic history
1819 in the United States
Economic crises in the United States
Financial crises
History of banking in the United States
1819
19th-century economic history | [
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228293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Dawson | Richard Dawson | Richard Dawson (born Colin Lionel Emm; 20 November 1932 – 2 June 2012) was an English-American actor, comedian, and game-show host and panelist in the United States. Dawson was well known for playing Corporal Peter Newkirk in Hogan's Heroes, as a regular panelist on Match Game (1973–1978), and as the original and third host of Family Feud (1976–1985 and 1994–1995).
Early life
Colin Lionel Emm was born in Gosport, Hampshire, England, on 20 November 1932 to Arthur Emm (born 1897) and Josephine Lucy Emm ( Lindsay; born 1903). His father drove a moving van and his mother worked in a munitions factory. His brother, John Leslie Emm, who was five years older, and he were evacuated as children during World War II to escape the bombing of England's major port cities in the south. In a radio interview with Hogan's Heroes co-star Bob Crane, Dawson recounted how this experience severely limited his school attendance, stating that he attended school regularly for only two years.
At age 14, he ran away from home to join the British Merchant Navy, where he pursued a career in boxing, earning almost $5,000 in shipboard matches. During 1950 and 1951, he made several passages on the RMS Mauretania from Southampton to ports of call, including Nassau, the Bahamas; Havana; and New York. Following his discharge from the merchant service, he began pursuing a comedy career using the stage name Dickie Dawson; then, he revised his alias to Richard Dawson, the name which he later legally adopted.
Career
Comedy and variety artist in the UK
Dawson began his career in England as a stand-up comedian known as Dickie Dawson. Possibly his first television appearance occurred on 21 June 1954, when he was 21 and was featured on the Benny Hill Showcase, an early BBC Television program focused on "introducing artists and acts new to television." He also had at least four BBC Radio program appearances during 1954, including two bookings on the Midday Music Hall on BBC Home Service and two spots on How Do You Do, a BBC Light Entertainment broadcast billed as "a friendly get-together of Commonwealth artists." In 1958, he appeared alongside his future wife, Diana Dors, on BBC TV's A to Z: D, a program featuring entertainers with names beginning with the letter D. In 1959, he made four appearances on BBC TV's Juke Box Jury, three of them alongside Dors, to whom he was by then married.
Actor and comedian in the US
In September 1961, Dawson began hosting a late-night talk show, the Mike Stokey Show, on Los Angeles channel 13, KCOP.
On 8 January 1963, Dawson appeared on The Jack Benny Program, season 13, episode 15, as an audience member seated next to Jack, barely recognizable in glasses and false moustache. In the same year Dawson made a guest appearance on The Dick Van Dyke Show (season 2, episode 27) playing "Racy" Tracy Rattigan, a lecherous flirt who was the summer replacement host on the Alan Brady Show. He was credited as Dick Dawson.
In 1965, Dawson had a small role at the end of the film King Rat, starring George Segal, playing 1st Recon paratrooper Captain Weaver, sent to liberate allied POWs in a Japanese prison. Dawson had by then moved to Los Angeles. He gained fame in the television show Hogan's Heroes as Cpl. Peter Newkirk from 1965 to 1971. He had a minor role in Universal's Munster, Go Home!. A year later, Dawson released a psychedelic 45-rpm single including the songs "His Children's Parade" and "Apples & Oranges" on Carnation Records. In 1968, Dawson was in the film The Devil's Brigade as Private Hugh McDonald.
Following the cancellation of Hogan's Heroes, Dawson was a regular joke-telling panelist on the short-lived syndicated revival of the game show Can You Top This? in 1970 and joined the cast of Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In that same year.
After Laugh-In was cancelled in 1973, game-show pioneer Mark Goodson signed Dawson to appear as a regular on Match Game '73, alongside Brett Somers, Charles Nelson Reilly, and host Gene Rayburn. Dawson, who had already served a year as panelist for Goodson's revival of I've Got a Secret, proved to be a solid and funny player, and was the frequent choice of contestants to participate in the Head-To-Head Match portion of the "Super-Match" bonus round, in which the contestant and a panelist of the contestant's choice had to match exactly the fill-in-the-blank. During Dawson's time on Match Game, he most often occupied the bottom center seat (he played one week of shows in the top center seat early in the show's run).
Family Feud host and TV stardom
Due to his popularity on Match Game, Dawson expressed to Goodson his desire to host a show of his own. In 1975, during Dawson's tenure as one of Match Game regular panelists, Goodson began development on a spin-off game show, Family Feud. Dawson's agent practically demanded that Dawson be considered as host, even threatening that he would instruct Dawson not to display his characteristic wit on Match Game if he were overlooked. Goodson capitulated, and once seeing Dawson's talents as a host, hired Dawson to host Feud, which debuted on 12 July 1976, on ABC's daytime schedule. Family Feud was a break-out hit, eventually surpassing the ratings of Match Game in late 1977. In 1978, Dawson left Match Game due to a combination of the recent introduction of the "Star Wheel", which affected his being selected for the "Head-To-Head Match" portion of the show's "Super Match" bonus round, and of burnout from appearing on both Match Game and Family Feud regularly, and he won a Daytime Emmy Award for Best Game Show Host for his work on Family Feud. After he left Match Game, his spot on the panel was filled with many other stars, most notably his best friend Bob Barker, who was then the host of The Price is Right.
One of Dawson's trademarks on Family Feud, kissing the female contestants, earned him the nickname "The Kissing Bandit". Television executives repeatedly tried to get him to stop the kissing. After receiving criticism for the practice (which also included a great deal of physical contact such as holding hands and touching), he asked viewers to write in and vote on the matter. The mail response resulted in about 200,000 responses, the wide majority of whom were in favor of the kissing. On the 1985 finale, Dawson explained that he kissed contestants for love and luck, something his mother did with Dawson himself as a child.
Dawson was a frequent guest host for Tonight Show host Johnny Carson, hosting 14 times during 1979 and 1980. Before it was known how much longer Carson's tenure would last (Carson would host the show until 1992), Dawson was a contender for the role of Tonight Show host in the event that Carson left the show, a move that he was seriously considering during 1979–80. Of the few Tonight Show episodes during Carson's time as host that did not air on the night they were intended, Dawson was a guest host of two. During one, actress Della Reese suffered a near-fatal aneurysm mid-interview during taping, and the remainder of the episode was cancelled (Reese later recovered). The other featured an untimely monologue regarding the danger of flying on airplanes; it was replaced with a rerun because it would have aired the same night as the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 in Chicago, which killed all 273 people aboard. (The episode aired several weeks later.)
Later years
Dawson parodied his TV persona in 1987's The Running Man opposite Arnold Schwarzenegger, portraying the evil, egotistical game-show host Damon Killian. He received rave reviews for his performance. Film critic Roger Ebert (who gave the film a thumbs down) wrote, "Playing a character who always seems three-quarters drunk, he chain-smokes his way through backstage planning sessions and then pops up in front of the cameras as a cauldron of false jollity. Working the audience, milking the laughs and the tears, he is not really much different [from] most genuine game-show hosts—and that's the film's private joke."
Dawson hosted an unsold pilot for a revival of the classic game show You Bet Your Life that was to air on NBC in 1988, but the network declined to pick up the show. In 1990, he auditioned to host the syndicated game show Trump Card, but that role went to Jimmy Cefalo.
On 12 September 1994, Dawson returned to the syndicated edition of Family Feud, replacing Ray Combs, who had been fired because the show's ratings were spiraling downward. Dawson finished out what became the final season of the show's official second run (1988–95). Ratings for the show were not in good standing, and Family Feud was out of production for the next four years. During the revival, he did not kiss the female contestants because of a promise he had made to his young daughter to kiss only her mother. The final episode aired on 26 May 1995, and then Dawson officially retired. In 1999, he was asked by Louie Anderson to make a special appearance on the first episode of that version of Family Feud to give the new host his blessings, but Dawson turned down the offer and had no further involvement with the show.
In 2000, Dawson narrated TV's Funniest Game Shows on the Fox network.
Personal life and family
With his first wife, actress Diana Dors, Dawson had two sons, Mark (born in London, 4 February 1960) and Gary (born in Los Angeles, 27 June 1962) The marriage ended with a divorce granted in Los Angeles in April 1967, and Dawson gained custody of both sons. He had four grandchildren.
Upon retiring, Dawson remained in Beverly Hills, California, where he had lived since 1964. He met his second wife, Gretchen Johnson (born 22 September 1955), when she was a contestant on Family Feud in May 1981; they married in 1991. A daughter, Shannon Nicole Dawson, was born in 1990. Dawson announced the birth and showed a picture of his daughter during the inaugural episode of his second stint as host of Feud in 1994 as he was greeting a contestant who had been a contestant on Match Game when he was a panelist. The episode was featured on the 25th anniversary of Family Feud as number two on the Game Show Network's top 25 Feud moments.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Dawson participated in various liberal movements, including the Selma to Montgomery marches and in a campaign for George McGovern before the 1972 presidential election.
Death
Dawson died at 79 from complications of esophageal cancer in Los Angeles on 2 June 2012 at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. He is interred in Westwood Memorial Park, Los Angeles. His death came exactly 16 years after the suicide of Family Feud successor and predecessor, Ray Combs in 1996.
Dawson used to smoke almost four packs of cigarettes per day, and he was seen smoking on some episodes of Match Game, Family Feud, and Hogan's Heroes. His daughter Shannon convinced him to stop smoking by 1994, when he was 61.
On 7 June 2012, GSN aired a four-hour marathon of Dawson's greatest moments on Match Game and Family Feud, including the first episode of Dawson's 1994 season.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Dawson meets his future wife
1932 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century English male actors
People from Gosport
American male comedians
American male film actors
American game show hosts
American male television actors
English male comedians
English male film actors
English game show hosts
English male television actors
English emigrants to the United States
Deaths from cancer in California
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show Host winners
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Family Feud
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
British male comedy actors
20th-century American comedians | [
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228309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20Basic%20Law%20Article%2023 | Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 | Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 () is an article in the Basic Law of Hong Kong. It states that Hong Kong "shall enact laws on its own to prohibit any act of treason, secession, sedition, subversion against the Central People's Government, or theft of state secrets, to prohibit foreign political organizations or bodies from conducting political activities in the Region, and to prohibit political organizations or bodies of the Region from establishing ties with foreign political organizations or bodies."
Attempts to implement the article and create the Hong Kong national security law have seen protests, particularly in 2003 and 2019. In 2020, the mainland National People's Congress imposed a security law on Hong Kong under Article 18 of the Basic Law.
Content
Article 23 of the Basic Law (BL 23) states:
Background
Article 23 had undergone significant revisions before the promulgation of its current form on 4 April 1990. The 1987 version of art.23 (Article 22 in 1987) was much shorter and only required that the
The 1989 February version of art.23 only contained the first half of the enacted version, with identical wording with the promulgated version up to the phrase “or theft of state secrets”. The consultative committee noted views that art.23 might affect the freedom of Hong Kong people. It also noted the view that the provision was against the Sino-British Joint Declaration since “it is generally held that the capitalist system is anti-communist and will undermine national unity and subvert the Central People's Government”.
Similar laws had been in force during the British colonial period, but they had not been strictly enforced since 1945. The Emergency Regulations Ordinance (ERO) from the colonial period remains in force, but in 2019 the Court of First Instance ruled that it was "not compatible with the constitutional order laid down by the Basic Law" due to its unchecked and wide scope. The Court of Appeal later varied this by permitting the Prohibition on Face Covering Regulation as reasonable and valid, but stated ERO regulations were "subject to judicial scrutiny."
Before 1997, the British colonial government introduced the Crimes (Amendment)(No.2) Bill 1996 in an attempt to concretise the concepts of "subversion" and "secession" by confining them to actual violent conduct but of no avail. The bill was voted down in the elected Legislative Council of Hong Kong amid opposition from Beijing and thus left a vacuum in the present legislation.
2003 National Security Bill
Mainland national security laws do not apply in Hong Kong, by virtue of Article 18 of the Basic Law. As a result, there has been steady pressure from CPG on the HKSAR government to meet its obligations under art.23. Laws for the purposes of this Article were introduced by the Tung administration in late 2002. In February 2003, the HKSAR government proposed the National Security (Legislative Provisions) Bill 2003 to the Legislative Council which aimed to amend the Crimes Ordinance, the Official Secrets Ordinance and the Societies Ordinance pursuant to the obligation imposed by Article 23 of the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China and to provide for related, incidental and consequential amendments. The proposed bill caused considerable controversy in Hong Kong and a massive demonstration on 1 July 2003. In the aftermath, Liberal Party chairman James Tien resigned from the Executive Council and the bill was withdrawn after it became clear that it would not get the necessary support from the Legislative Council for it to be passed. The bill was then shelved indefinitely.
After 2003
There were calls for reintroducing the national security bill after the 2003 setbacks from the pro-Beijing camp occasionally. After the Beijing interpretation of the Basic Law in November 2016 over the Legislative Council oath-taking controversy to eject two pro-independence legislators from the legislature on the basis that "[Beijing] will absolutely neither permit anyone advocating secession in Hong Kong nor allow any pro-independence activists to enter a government institution," Chief executive Leung Chun-ying said Hong Kong would enact Article 23 targeting the pro-independence movement in Hong Kong.
The Director of the Liaison Office of the Central People's Government in Hong Kong Wang Zhimin accused pro-independence activists of "engaging in activities that sought to separate the motherland and subvert the national regime" and urged the Hong Kong government to enact national security legislation as he said "Hong Kong is the only place in the world without a national security legislation – it’s a major weakness in the nation’s overall security, and it has a direct impact on residents." Wang said without a national security law, "Hong Kong independence radicals have been challenging national sovereignty and security in recent years".
Protests in 2019 and imposition of security law in 2020
The 2019–20 Hong Kong protests led to an increasing desire within some pro-Beijing lawmakers for Hong Kong to legislate Article 23 of the Basic Law. On 21 May 2020, the Chinese Government proposed a new law on national security regulations that may be enacted in Hong Kong under the provisions of Annex III of its Basic law. It may set up the legal framework to prevent and punish subversion, terrorism, separatism and foreign interference. The following day, a dozen pan-democrat lawmakers marched to the Chinese Liaison Office to show their disapproval.
On 30 June 2020, the mainland 13th National People's Congress and Standing Committee of the National People's Congress imposed the Hong Kong national security law covering secession and subversion under Article 18 of the Basic Law. The areas of treason, sedition and theft of state secrets are not covered by the new Article 18 law, and remain to be implemented under Article 23 by the Hong Kong SAR. On 12 January 2022, Chief Executive Carrie Lam announced at the first session of the new legislature that new "local legislation" would be created to meet the requirements of Article 23.
See also
Hong Kong national security law
Internet Article 23
Macau security law
Hong Kong 1 July marches
Hong Kong independence
Turkey's Article 301
References
External links
Hong Kong Government website on Article 23
July - documentary film on the 2003 Hong Kong July 1 march, by Tammy Cheung
Macau Government website on Article 23 of the Macau Basic Law
Hong Kong Basic Law
Human rights in Hong Kong | [
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228312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive%20inverse | Additive inverse | In mathematics, the additive inverse of a number is the number that, when added to , yields zero. This number is also known as the opposite (number), sign change, and negation. For a real number, it reverses its sign: the additive inverse (opposite number) of a positive number is negative, and the additive inverse of a negative number is positive. Zero is the additive inverse of itself.
The additive inverse of is denoted by unary minus: (see also below). For example, the additive inverse of 7 is −7, because , and the additive inverse of −0.3 is 0.3, because .
Similarly, the additive inverse of is which can be simplified to . The additive inverse of is , because .
The additive inverse is defined as its inverse element under the binary operation of addition (see also below), which allows a broad generalization to mathematical objects other than numbers. As for any inverse operation, double additive inverse has no net effect: .
Common examples
For a number (and more generally in any ring), the additive inverse can be calculated using multiplication by −1; that is, . Examples of rings of numbers are integers, rational numbers, real numbers, and complex numbers.
Relation to subtraction
Additive inverse is closely related to subtraction, which can be viewed as an addition of the opposite:
.
Conversely, additive inverse can be thought of as subtraction from zero:
.
Hence, unary minus sign notation can be seen as a shorthand for subtraction (with the "0" symbol omitted), although in a correct typography, there should be no space after unary "−".
Other properties
In addition to the identities listed above, negation has the following algebraic properties:
, it is an Involution operation
notably,
Formal definition
The notation + is usually reserved for commutative binary operations (operations where for all , ). If such an operation admits an identity element (such that for all ), then this element is unique (). For a given , if there exists such that , then is called an additive inverse of .
If + is associative, i.e., for all , , , then an additive inverse is unique. To see this, let and each be additive inverses of ; then
.
For example, since addition of real numbers is associative, each real number has a unique additive inverse.
Other examples
All the following examples are in fact abelian groups:
Complex numbers: . On the complex plane, this operation rotates a complex number 180 degrees around the origin (see the image above).
Addition of real- and complex-valued functions: here, the additive inverse of a function is the function defined by , for all , such that , the zero function ( for all ).
More generally, what precedes applies to all functions with values in an abelian group ('zero' meaning then the identity element of this group):
Sequences, matrices and nets are also special kinds of functions.
In a vector space, the additive inverse is often called the opposite vector of ; it has the same magnitude as the original and opposite direction. Additive inversion corresponds to scalar multiplication by −1. For Euclidean space, it is point reflection in the origin. Vectors in exactly opposite directions (multiplied to negative numbers) are sometimes referred to as antiparallel.
vector space-valued functions (not necessarily linear),
In modular arithmetic, the modular additive inverse of is also defined: it is the number such that . This additive inverse always exists. For example, the inverse of 3 modulo 11 is 8 because it is the solution to .
Non-examples
Natural numbers, cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers do not have additive inverses within their respective sets. Thus one can say, for example, that natural numbers do have additive inverses, but because these additive inverses are not themselves natural numbers, the set of natural numbers is not closed under taking additive inverses.
See also
−1
Absolute value (related through the identity ).
Additive identity
Inverse function
Involution (mathematics)
Multiplicative inverse
Reflection symmetry
Semigroup
Monoid
Group (mathematics)
Notes and references
Abstract algebra
Arithmetic
Elementary algebra | [
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228315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Murdoch | Keith Murdoch | Sir Keith Arthur Murdoch (12 August 1885 – 4 October 1952) was an Australian journalist, businessman and the father of Rupert Murdoch, the current Executive chairman for News Corporation and the chairman of Fox Corporation.
Early life
Murdoch was born in Melbourne in 1885, the son of Annie (née Brown) and the Rev. Patrick John Murdoch, who had married in 1882 and migrated from Cruden, Scotland, to Victoria, Australia, with Patrick's family in 1884. His paternal grandfather was a minister with the Free Church of Scotland, and his maternal grandfather was a Presbyterian minister.
The family moved from West Melbourne to the affluent suburb of Camberwell in 1887. Keith was educated at his uncle Walter's short-lived school, then at Camberwell Grammar School, where he became dux in 1903, despite extreme shyness and stammering. He decided not to go straight to university but to try a career in journalism, so family friend David Syme of The Age agreed to employ him as district correspondent for nearby Malvern. Over the next four years, he managed to create a significant increase in The Age's local circulation, to earn promotion, and to save enough money for a ticket to England, where he hoped to gain further experience and find ways to manage his stammer.
Education and career
From 1908–9, in London, he took speech therapy with Lionel Logue, studied part-time at the London School of Economics, and tried to find employment as a journalist, with the help of recommendations from more family friends, including Australia's Prime Minister Alfred Deakin. His stammer became manageable, but shortly after it cost him a job with the Pall Mall Gazette. In September 1909 Murdoch returned home to resume work for The Age, now as parliamentary reporter, in which capacity he strengthened the family's relationships with politicians such as Andrew Fisher, in some cases entertaining them at his aunt's country guest house.
First World War
In 1912, he became Melbourne political correspondent for the Sydney Sun. Losing out to the more experienced Charles Bean for the position of official Australian correspondent covering World War I, he was appointed managing editor of the London cable service run by the Sun and the Melbourne Herald in 1915. Murdoch travelled to New Zealand in January 1915 with Prime Minister Andrew Fisher, and two other MPs, the Hon. J. Boyd and the Hon. D. Hall, covering war talks between Fisher and the New Zealand Prime Minister, William Massey, just before the engagement of Australian and New Zealand troops in the Gallipoli campaign. They travelled from Wellington aboard the Ulimaroa, arriving in Sydney on 2 February 1915. Andrew Fisher and Defence Minister George Pearce then asked him to take time on his journey to London, to check on some matters of concern relating to supplies and mail for Australian troops in the conflict, so he stopped off in Egypt. While there in August, he was able to secure the permission of Sir Ian Hamilton, commander of the Dardanelles campaign in Turkey, to visit Australian troops in Gallipoli and write his impressions for the newspapers, subject to the usual military censorship. The agreement he signed specified that he was "not to attempt to correspond by any other route or by any other means than that officially sanctioned" and during the war he must not "impart to anyone military information of a confidential nature.... unless first submitted to the Chief Field Censor."
Murdoch visited Anzac Cove at the beginning of September, then moved to the headquarters on the island of Imbros. Discussing the situation with other journalists, he was befriended by the Daily Telegraph correspondent Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett, who was deeply concerned that censorship was being used to suppress criticism of the Dardanelles campaign, which, as Murdoch had seen for himself, had serious problems. Murdoch agreed to carry a letter from Ashmead-Bartlett to the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in London, written on 8 September, presenting his uncensored report of the situation. Hamilton quickly learned about the existence of this letter (another British reporter, Henry Nevinson, has been blamed for this but his biography points to an official Royal Navy war photographer). Reaching France on his route to London, Murdoch was arrested by Military Police in Marseille and the letter was confiscated. Arriving in London on 21 September, he spent some time at the Australian High Commission composing his own letter to his Prime Minister, Andrew Fisher, in a similar vein to the Ashmead-Bartlett letter and particularly critical of the British general and administrative staff:
After sending the letter to Australia, he supplied two copies to the British Munitions Minister David Lloyd George, with his letter of introduction from Andrew Fisher. Very quickly, Murdoch's letter reached Asquith and was circulated to senior ministers of the British government. Ashmead-Bartlett, expelled from the Dardanelles, reached London about this time and soon, thanks to the influence of Lord Northcliffe, proprietor of The Times, The Daily Mirror and other national newspapers, his version of events began to be published. Murdoch, initially alarmed that Northcliffe's staff had obtained a copy of his private letter, soon became a friend of the newspaper tycoon. Although his letter, written from memory, contained many mistakes and exaggerations, the main points were supported by other evidence and Hamilton was relieved of command, the subsequent operation to evacuate the troops from Gallipoli in December being accomplished with perfect effectiveness.
In 1917, while visiting the Western Front as an unofficial war correspondent, Murdoch attempted to conduct negotiations with Field Marshal Douglas Haig in support of the Australian government's policy of the Australian Imperial Force (A.I.F.) divisions to be brought together into a united Australian Corps. Although Murdoch pushed for the appointment of Major General Brudenell White as the new corps commander while denigrating Major General John Monash (who was of Jewish German ancestry), the latter was given command when the Australian Corps was formed in 1918. Along with official war correspondent Charles Bean, Murdoch continued to lobby for Monash's demotion by appealing directly to Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes and misleading him into the belief that the A.I.F.'s senior officers were strongly opposed to Monash. When Hughes visited the front just before the Battle of Hamel intending to replace Monash, he first consulted the same senior officers and discovered that their support for their commander was strongly positive and that Monash's powers of planning and execution were excellent. The subsequent outcome of the Hamel assault closed the question of Monash's suitability but later in the same year Murdoch attempted again to convince Hughes that Monash should not control the repatriation of Australian troops.
Melbourne Herald
Murdoch remained in London, expanding the cable service, writing influential journalism—and helping his friend Billy Hughes on visits to England—until he was offered the post of chief editor at the Melbourne Herald, which he took in January 1921. Arranging for the paper's general manager to be demoted, he began applying Lord Northcliffe's principles, with frequent advice from Northcliffe himself. As he had in London, he focused on political controversy, but he also made the Herald influential in other ways, through such devices as improved arts coverage, and celebrity contributions. When Hugh Denison, proprietor of the Sydney Sun, tried to break into the Melbourne market with the Sun News-Pictorial in 1922, Murdoch fought a long campaign which eventually resulted in the Herald, its own circulation up by 50%, taking over the new tabloid in 1925. He acquired the nickname "Lord Southcliffe" and in 1928 became managing director of the company, by which time the Sun was on its way to becoming Australia's highest-selling newspaper.
In 1927 he saw a photograph of an attractive 18-year-old débutante, Elisabeth Joy Greene, in Table Talk magazine, and arranged for a friend to introduce him. She became Mrs Elisabeth Murdoch in June 1928, honeymooning on his Cruden Farm estate at Langwarrin. They had children Helen (later Mrs Geoff Handbury), Rupert Murdoch, Anne (now Mrs Milan Kantor) and Janet (now Mrs John Calvert-Jones). In the early years of World War I he had been engaged for a time to Isabel Law, daughter of the British Chancellor of the Exchequer and future Prime Minister Bonar Law.
From 1926 onward, he had led a campaign to take over newspapers elsewhere in Australia, with varying success. In Adelaide, for example, the Herald publisher took over the feeble The Register in 1928, and turned it into a Sun-style picture tabloid. Within months, the previously dominant Adelaide Advertiser accepted a takeover bid, and The Register was quietly closed down in 1931, after the Herald acquired the evening Adelaide News, securing a local monopoly. Murdoch had also been investing in newspapers on his own account, notably in Brisbane, where he bought shares in the Daily Mail and which was subsequently merged with the rival Courier. He kept pace with new technology, and by 1935 the Herald was involved with eleven radio stations (while Murdoch campaigned to prevent the official Australian Broadcasting Commission from establishing its own news service). He also led both the merger of rival cable services to form Australian Associated Press Ltd in 1935, and a project to build a paper-mill in Tasmania.
1930s and after
In the Depression of the early 1930s, Murdoch's papers campaigned against the Labor Party government of James Scullin, and gave full support to the breakaway ex-Labor politician Joseph Lyons in his successful 1931 campaign to become Prime Minister. He received a knighthood in July 1933, and being an art connoisseur with an appreciation of modern work, became a trustee of Victoria's museums and galleries. He later had some regrets about his support for the strong-willed Lyons, stating in 1936, "I put him there and I'll put him out". Meanwhile, others were expressing deep concern about the dangers of concentrating so much press power in the hands of one person. This came to a head after Australia became involved in the Second World War. In June 1940 Murdoch was appointed to a newly created Australian Government post, Director-General of Information, and on 18 July he obtained authorisation to compel all news media to publish Government statements as and when necessary. Comparisons were made with Goebbels, press co-operation was swiftly withdrawn, politicians protested, and despite agreements to modify the regulation, in November he was obliged to resign the post.
Returning to the newspapers (from which he had agreed to distance himself while serving the Government) he spent the rest of the war encouraging a patriotic spirit, and attacking the Labor Prime Minister, John Curtin (who led a minority government in 1941, and was re-elected with a dramatic majority in 1943). In 1942 he became chairman of the Herald group, and in 1944, maintaining his connection with the art world, he established the Herald Chair of Fine Arts at the University of Melbourne. The following year he became chairman of the trustees of the National Gallery of Victoria. Becoming increasingly ill with cancer, he retired from most of his work except the Herald in 1949, and made a deal with the Herald board to buy control of the Adelaide newspapers, in return for first option in any future sale of his Brisbane newspaper shares.
Murdoch died at the family seat, Cruden Farm, Langwarrin, Victoria, in the night of 4–5 October 1952 and the funeral service was held at Toorak Presbyterian Church. Much of his estate, valued at £410,004, was disposed of to pay off mortgages, death duties etc. (the Herald exercised its option to buy the Brisbane newspaper shares), but his family was still left with full control of News Limited, proprietors of the Adelaide News.
In popular culture
In the 1985 mini series ANZACS, Murdoch was portrayed by Australian actor David Bradshaw.
In 2015 mini series Gallipoli, Murdoch was portrayed by Australian actor Damon Gameau.
In the 2015 television docudrama Australia: The Story of Us, he was portrayed by Australian actor Matt Boesenberg.
In the 2015 television mini series Deadline Gallipoli, made for the Foxtel network, he was portrayed by Australian actor Ewen Leslie.
In the 2015 television docudrama Gallipoli: When Murdoch Went to War, Murdoch was portrayed by actor Simon Harrison.
See also
The Herald and Weekly Times Ltd
The Herald (Melbourne)
The Sun News-Pictorial
Principal sources
General
Australian Dictionary of Biography Murdoch, Sir Keith Arthur (1885–1952) published by Australian National University,
Tom D C Roberts Before Rupert: Keith Murdoch and the Birth of a Dynasty University of Queensland Press, 2015,
Early life and First World War
Patriots Three ABC Australia documentary script
Additional references
External links
Family tree
National Library of Australia
Keith Murdoch Collection on Research Data Australia
1885 births
1952 deaths
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Australian Knights Bachelor
Australian mass media company founders
Australian newspaper chain founders
Australian people of Scottish descent
Journalists from Melbourne
Keith
People educated at Camberwell Grammar School
Australian war correspondents
Australian Presbyterians
Australian newspaper editors
News agency founders
The Herald (Melbourne) people | [
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228319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scamp | Scamp | Scamp may refer to:
Computers and engineering
National Semiconductor SC/MP (pronounced Scamp), an early 8 bit microprocessor
Single-Channel Antijam Man-Portable Terminal, part of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency system
Single-Chip A-series Mainframe Processor, a single-chip implementation of the Burroughs large systems computer architecture
Special Computer APL Machine Portable, a prototype name for a single-user, portable computer concept made by IBM Research in 1973
Standardised Compatible Audio Modular Package, an audio processor range from Audio & Design (Recording) Ltd
Military
SS Sea Scamp, a 1943 Type C3 ship S-A2 troop transport in World War II
SS-14 Scamp, the NATO reporting name for the RT-15 theatre ballistic missile of the Soviet Union
USS Scamp, several ships
USS Scamp (SS-277), a Gato class submarine (1942–1945)
USS Scamp (SSN-588), a Skipjack class submarine (1961–1988)
Transportation
Aerosport Scamp, a small biplane designed for home building
Clark Scamp, a simple, bicycle-based moped
Honda Scamp, a.k.a. Honda N360, car made 1967–1970
Mini Scamp, a kit car based on the Mini
Plymouth Scamp (disambiguation), either of two small vehicles from Plymouth
SCAMP (boat) or Small Craft Advisor Magazine Project, a wooden or fiberglass hulled sailing dinghy
Scottish Aviation Scamp, prototype electric microcar produced by Scottish Aviation
Southern Aeronautical Scamp, an American aircraft designed for home construction and Formula V Air Racing
Supersonic Cruise and Maneuvering Program, the initial name for the General Dynamics F-16XL prototype aircraft
Other uses
The Scamp, a 1957 British drama film
Scamp (comics), a Disney cartoon puppy from Lady and the Tramp
Scamp grouper (Mycteroperca phenax), a grouper fish
Colt SCAMP or small caliber machine pistol, conceived in 1969 as a replacement to the aging Colt M1911A1 pistol
Supercritical Air Mobility Pack, breathing set in diving
People with the surname
William Scamp (1801–1872), English architect and engineer | [
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228321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucky%20Bug | Bucky Bug | Bucky Bug is a beetle who appears in Disney comics. He first appeared in the Silly Symphony Sunday comic strip, and later appeared as a regular feature in the comic book Walt Disney's Comics and Stories.
Silly Symphony
Bucky Bug first appeared in the initial Silly Symphony strip, beginning January 10, 1932; he was the first character to debut in Disney comics. He was initially drawn by Earl Duvall, who subsequently left Disney and joined Warner Brothers where he created Buddy (Looney Tunes).
Bucky only had one film appearance, in "Bugs in Love", released in October 1932.
Bucky Bug also appeared in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories. Starting in issue #20 (May 1942), the comic began reprinting some of Bucky's original 1930s Silly Symphony strips. The reprints continued until issue #28 (Jan 1943), and were then replaced by Little Hiawatha strips.
Stories
Bucky's Silly Symphony storylines were unnamed at the time; the action moved from one week to the next, with no explicit break between chapters. In reprints, however, a set of names has become the standard:
Bucky Makes His Name (January 10 to April 10, 1932)
The Quest for Fortune (April 17 to June 19)
Adventures in Junkville (June 26 to August 7)
Introducing Lucky Bucks (August 14)
Bugs in Love (August 21 to November 6)
War with the Flies (November 13, 1932 to April 16, 1933)
The Old Folks' New Home (April 23 to June 4, 1933)
In Mother Goose Land (June 11 to November 5)
Return to Junkville (November 12, 1933 to March 14, 1934)
The Bucky strips ended with Bucky and June saying goodbye to the readers:
We're leaving this page,
And saying good-bye --
But we will not
Ever forget ya!
We're settling down,
As all bugs should!
So long! We're glad
To have met ya!
On March 11, 1934, the Silly Symphony strip moved to its next storyline, based on the short Birds of a Feather.
Walt Disney's Comics and Stories
In 1943, the anthology comic book Walt Disney's Comics and Stories began publishing original full-length comic book stories, and the first new 10-page Bucky story appeared in issue #39 (December 1943) -- "A Cure for Gout," by Al Taliaferro. Bucky's stories appeared monthly for the next six years, ending with issue #120 (September 1950). The stories were drawn by a number of artists, including Carl Buettner, Vivie Risto, Ralph Heimdahl and Tony Strobl.
Bucky's supporting characters included June Bug (Bucky's girlfriend and later wife), Bo Bug (a hobo and Bucky's best friend), the Mayor (June's father), Grandpa Bootle Beetle (Bucky's adopted grandfather), and others. American Bucky stories almost always had the characters speaking in rhyme.
Bucky still makes frequent appearances in Dutch stories up to the present time.
Bucky is the first Disney character to make his first appearance in a comic strip outside the Mickey Mouse Universe.
He made a very brief cameo early in the 1988 Touchstone Pictures/Amblin Entertainment film Who Framed Roger Rabbit.
His first story is Bucky Makes His Name, published between January 10-April 10, 1932.
References
External links
Bucky Bug at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 22, 2018.
Fictional insects
1932 comics debuts
Disney comics characters
Comics about animals
Humor comics
Adventure comics
Comics adapted into animated films
Comics characters introduced in 1932
Male characters in comics | [
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228331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow%20Jones%20%26%20Co%20Inc%20v%20Gutnick | Dow Jones & Co Inc v Gutnick | Dow Jones & Co. Inc. v Gutnick was an Internet defamation case heard in the High Court of Australia, decided on 10 December 2002. The 28 October 2000 edition of Barron's Online, published by Dow Jones, contained an article entitled "Unholy Gains" in which several references were made to the respondent, Joseph Gutnick. Gutnick contended that part of the article defamed him. A key judgement was that the suit could be brought in Australia.
Facts
The article in question was entitled Unholy Gains, by William Alpert, published in Barron's 2000 Oct 30. Australian courts described the details of the article in their written opinion on the case, as follows:
"[The article] "states that some of his business dealings with religious charities raise "uncomfortable questions" . . . . The author then uses some language that the media have appropriated from the law courts, implying that a balanced trial with equal opportunity to participate by all concerned has taken place: that a "Barron's investigation found that several charities traded heavily in stocks promoted by Gutnick." . . . (emphasis added) The article associates the respondent with Mr Nachum Goldberg who is apparently a convicted tax evader and another person awaiting trial for [[stock manipulation]] in New York."
In court it was proven that only five copies of the Barron's print edition were sent from New Jersey to be circulated in Australia, but that none had actually arrived in the Jurisdiction. Gutnick therefore resorted to the internet based publication in order to show an actionable tort in the jurisdiction. The Internet version of the magazine had 550,000 international subscribers and 1700 Australian-based credit cards.
Geoffrey Robertson QC argued for the publisher Dow Jones as to whether it was considered to be "published from" where it was uploaded in New Jersey or "published into" where it was downloaded by subscribers in Victoria, Australia. The argument was on publication and jurisdiction.
Decision
In a unanimous decision, all seven High Court justices decided that Gutnick had the right to sue for defamation at his primary residence and the place he was best known. Victoria was considered the place where damage to his reputation occurred. The High Court decided that defamation did not occur at the time of publishing, but as soon as a third party read the publication and thought less of the individual who was defamed.
Dow Jones was forced to admit in court that "there was no reason to believe Mr Gutnick was a customer of Mr Goldberg or had any criminal or improper relations with Mr Goldberg." (quote from an Australian Broadcasting Corporation story)
The High Court's ruling effectively allows defamation plaintiffs in Australia to sue for defamation on the internet against any defendant irrespective of their location. "If people wish to do business in, or indeed travel to, or live in, or utilize the infrastructure of different countries, they can hardly expect to be absolved from compliance with the laws of those countries. The fact that publication might occur everywhere does not mean that it occurs nowhere." (per Callinan J at para 186)
Equally, however, the majority of the Court (Gleeson CJ, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ handing down a joint decision) stated that they disagreed that this would cause open-slather defamation actions in Australia: (at para 54 of the decision)
The case was highly controversial and the subject of much commentary from legal analysts.
The case was appealed by the author, to the UN under the right of direct petition for individuals. In the teeth of that application prepared by Geoffrey Robertson, Tim Robertson SC, Mark Stephens (solicitor) and Sydney based lawyer Paul Reidy, the case was settled on 15 November 2004, Dow Jones settled the case, agreeing to pay Gutnick some of his legal fees.
External links
Press release — High Court of Australia (1 page)
Jurisdiction and the Internet after Gutnick and Yahoo!
Reaction to the judgment from Barrons
References
Computer case law
Australian defamation case law
High Court of Australia cases
2002 in Australian law
2002 in case law
Dow Jones & Company | [
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228339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas%20frigatebird | Christmas frigatebird | The Christmas frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi), or Christmas Island frigatebird, is a seabird of the frigatebird family Fregatidae which is an endemic breeder to Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean.
The Christmas frigatebird is a large lightly built seabird with brownish-black plumage, long narrow wings and a deeply forked tail. It has a wingspan of around . The male has an egg shaped white patch on his belly and a striking red gular sac which he inflates to attract a mate. The female is slightly larger than the male and has a white breast and belly. They feed on fish taken in flight from the ocean's surface (mostly flying fish), and sometimes indulge in kleptoparasitism, harassing other birds to force them to regurgitate their food. The species is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Taxonomy and systematics
The Christmas frigatebird was once considered to belong to the species Fregata aquila but in 1914 the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews proposed that the Christmas frigatebird should be considered as a separate species with the binomial name Fregata andrewsi in honour of the English paleontogist Charles Andrews. Of the four other species within the genus Fregata, genetic analysis has shown that the Christmas frigatebird is most closely related to the great frigatebird.
Description
The Christmas frigatebird measures in length, has a wingspan of and weighs around . The adult male of this species is easily identified, since he is all black except for a white belly patch. Other plumages resemble those of the smaller lesser frigatebird, but have whiter bellies and longer white underwing spurs.
Status
The Christmas frigatebird is endemic to Christmas Island and breeds in only four main nesting colonies. In 2003 there were 1,200 breeding pairs but as frigatebirds normally breed every other year, the total adult population was estimated to be between 3,600 and 7,200 individuals. The species has a small population and breeds on just one island. It is therefore listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as "Critically Endangered".
References
Further reading
External links
BirdLife International species factsheet
Internet Bird Collection: photos, videos and audio recordings
Audio recordings from xeno-canto
Christmas frigatebird
Birds of Christmas Island
Critically endangered fauna of Oceania
Critically endangered fauna of Asia
Christmas frigatebird
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228344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed%20martial%20arts | Mixed martial arts | Mixed martial arts (MMA), sometimes referred to as cage fighting, no holds barred (NHB), and ultimate fighting, is a full-contact combat sport based on striking, grappling and ground fighting, incorporating techniques from various combat sports from around the world. The first documented use of the term mixed martial arts was in a review of UFC 1 by television critic Howard Rosenberg in 1993. The question of who actually coined the term is subject to debate.
During the early 20th century, various interstylistic contests took place throughout Japan and in the countries of the Four Asian Tigers. In Brazil, there was the sport of Vale Tudo, in which fighters from various styles fought with little to no rules. The Gracie family was known to promote Vale Tudo matches as a way to promote their own Brazilian jiu-jitsu style. A precursor to modern MMA was the 1976 Ali vs. Inoki exhibition bout (which ended in a draw after 15 rounds), fought between boxer Muhammad Ali and wrestler Antonio Inoki in Japan, where it later inspired the foundation of Pancrase in 1993 and the Pride Fighting Championships in 1997.
In 1980, CV Productions, Inc. created the first regulated MMA league in the United States, called Tough Guy Contest, which was later renamed Battle of the Superfighters. The company sanctioned ten tournaments in Pennsylvania. However, in 1983 the Pennsylvania State Senate passed a bill prohibiting the sport. In the 1990s, the Gracie family brought their Brazilian jiu-jitsu style, first developed in Brazil from the 1920s, to the United States – which culminated in the founding of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) promotion company in 1993. The company held an event with almost no rules, mostly due to the influence of Art Davie and Rorion Gracie attempting to replicate Vale Tudo fights that existed in Brazil and would later implement a different set of rules (example: eliminating kicking a grounded opponent), which differed from other leagues which were more in favour of realistic, street like fights.
Originally promoted as a competition to find the most effective martial arts for real unarmed combat, competitors from different fighting styles were pitted against one another in contests with relatively few rules. Later, individual fighters incorporated multiple martial arts into their style. MMA promoters were pressured to adopt additional rules to increase competitors' safety, to comply with sport regulations and to broaden mainstream acceptance of the sport. Following these changes, the sport has seen increased popularity with a pay-per-view business that rivals boxing and professional wrestling.
Early history
Antiquity
In Ancient China, combat sport appeared in the form of Leitai, a no-holds-barred mixed combat sport that combined Chinese martial arts, boxing and wrestling.
In Ancient Greece, there was a sport called pankration, which featured grappling and striking skills similar to those found in modern MMA. Pankration was formed by combining the already established wrestling and boxing traditions and, in Olympic terms, first featured in the 33rd Olympiad in 648 BC. All strikes and holds were allowed with the exception of biting and gouging, which were banned. The fighters, called pankratiasts, fought until someone could not continue or signaled submission by raising their index finger; there were no rounds. According to the historian E. Norman Gardiner, "No branch of athletics was more popular than the pankration." There is also evidence of similar mixed combat sports in Ancient Egypt, India and Japan.
Modern-era precursors
The mid-19th century saw the prominence of the new sport savate in the combat sports circle. French savate fighters wanted to test their techniques against the traditional combat styles of its time. In 1852, a contest was held in France between French savateurs and English bare-knuckle boxers in which French fighter Rambaud alias la Resistance fought English fighter Dickinson and won using his kicks. However, the English team still won the four other match-ups during the contest. Contests occurred in the late 19th to mid-20th century between French Savateurs and other combat styles. Examples include a 1905 fight between French savateur George Dubois and a judo practitioner Re-nierand which resulted in the latter winning by submission, as well as the highly publicized 1957 fight between French savateur and professional boxer Jacques Cayron and a young Japanese karateka named Mochizuki Hiroo which ended when Cayron knocked Hiroo out with a hook.
Catch wrestling appeared in the late 19th century, combining several global styles of wrestling, including Indian pehlwani and English wrestling. In turn, catch wrestling went on to greatly influence modern MMA. No-holds-barred fighting reportedly took place in the late 1880s when wrestlers representing the style of catch wrestling and many others met in tournaments and music-hall challenge matches throughout Europe. In the US, the first major encounter between a boxer and a wrestler in modern times took place in 1887 when John L. Sullivan, then heavyweight world boxing champion, entered the ring with his trainer, wrestling champion William Muldoon, and was slammed to the mat in two minutes. The next publicized encounter occurred in the late 1890s when future heavyweight boxing champion Bob Fitzsimmons took on European wrestling champion Ernest Roeber. In September 1901, Frank "Paddy" Slavin, who had been a contender for Sullivan's boxing title, knocked out future world wrestling champion Frank Gotch in Dawson City, Canada. The judo-practitioner Ren-nierand, who gained fame after defeating George Dubois, would fight again in another similar contest, which he lost to Ukrainian Catch wrestler Ivan Poddubny.
Another early example of mixed martial arts was Bartitsu, which Edward William Barton-Wright founded in London in 1899. Combining catch wrestling, judo, boxing, savate, jujutsu and canne de combat (French stick fighting), Bartitsu was the first martial art known to have combined Asian and European fighting styles, and which saw MMA-style contests throughout England, pitting European Catch wrestlers and Japanese Judoka champions against representatives of various European wrestling styles.
Among the precursors, but not ancestors, of modern MMA are mixed style contests throughout Europe, Japan, and the Pacific Rim during the early 1900s. In Japan, these contests were known as merikan, from the Japanese slang for "American [fighting]". Merikan contests were fought under a variety of rules, including points decision, best of three throws or knockdowns, and victory via knockout or submission.
Sambo, a martial art and combat sport developed in Russia in the early 1920s, merged various forms of combat styles such as wrestling, judo and striking into one unique martial art. The popularity of professional wrestling, which was contested under various catch wrestling rules at the time, waned after World War I, when the sport split into two genres: "shoot", in which the fighters actually competed, and "show", which evolved into modern professional wrestling. In 1936, heavyweight boxing contender Kingfish Levinsky and professional wrestler Ray Steele competed in a mixed match, which catch wrestler Steele won in 35 seconds. 27 years later, Ray Steele's protégé Lou Thesz fought boxer Jersey Joe Walcott twice in mixed style bouts. The first match was a real contest which Thesz won while the second match was a work, which Thesz also won.
In the 1940s in the Palama Settlement in Hawaii, 5 martial arts masters, under the leadership of Adriano Emperado, curious to determine which martial art was best, began testing each other in their respective arts of Kenpo, Jujitsu, Chinese and American boxing and Tang soo do. From this they developed Kajukenbo, the first American Mixed Martial Arts.
In 1951, a high-profile grappling match was Masahiko Kimura vs. Hélio Gracie, which was wrestled between judoka Masahiko Kimura and Brazilian jiu jitsu founder Hélio Gracie in Brazil. Kimura defeated Gracie using a gyaku-ude-garami armlock, which later became known as the "Kimura" in Brazilian jiu jitsu. In 1963, a catch wrestler and judoka "Judo" Gene Lebell fought professional boxer Milo Savage in a no-holds-barred match. Lebell won by Harai Goshi to rear naked choke, leaving Savage unconscious. This was the first televised bout of mixed-style fighting in North America. The hometown crowd was so enraged that they began to boo and throw chairs at Lebell.
On February 12, 1963, three karatekas from Oyama dojo (kyokushin later) went to the Lumpinee Boxing Stadium in Thailand and fought against three Muay Thai fighters. The three kyokushin karate fighters were Tadashi Nakamura, Kenji Kurosaki and Akio Fujihira (also known as Noboru Osawa), while the Muay Thai team of three had only one authentic Thai fighter. Japan won 2–1: Tadashi Nakamura and Akio Fujihira both knocked out their opponents with punches while Kenji Kurosaki, who fought the Thai, was knocked out by elbows. The Japanese fighter who lost, Kenji Kurosaki, was a kyokushin instructor, rather than a contender, and that he had stood in as a substitute for the absent chosen fighter. In June of the same year, karateka and future kickboxer Tadashi Sawamura faced top Thai fighter Samarn Sor Adisorn: Sawamura was knocked down sixteen times on his way to defeat. Sawamura went on to incorporate what he learned in that fight in kickboxing tournaments.
During the late 1960s to early 1970s, the concept of combining the elements of multiple martial arts was popularized in the West by Bruce Lee via his system of Jeet Kune Do. Lee believed that "the best fighter is not a Boxer, Karate or Judo man. The best fighter is someone who can adapt to any style, to be formless, to adopt an individual's own style and not following the system of styles." In 2004, UFC President Dana White would call Lee the "father of mixed martial arts" stating: "If you look at the way Bruce Lee trained, the way he fought, and many of the things he wrote, he said the perfect style was no style. You take a little something from everything. You take the good things from every different discipline, use what works, and you throw the rest away".
A contemporary of Bruce Lee, Wing Chun practitioner Wong Shun Leung, gained prominence fighting in 60-100 illegal beimo fights against other Chinese martial artists of various styles. Wong also fought and won against Western fighters of other combat styles, such as his match against a Russian boxer named Giko, his televised fight against a fencer, and his well-documented fight against Taiwanese Kung-Fu master Wu Ming Jeet. Wong combined boxing and kickboxing into his kung fu, as Bruce Lee did.
Muhammad Ali vs. Antonio Inoki took place in Japan in 1976. The classic match-up between professional boxer and professional wrestler turned sour as each fighter refused to engage in the other's style, and after a 15-round stalemate it was declared a draw. Muhammad Ali sustained a substantial amount of damage to his legs, as Antonio Inoki slide-kicked him continuously for the duration of the bout, causing him to be hospitalized for the next three days. The fight played an important role in the history of mixed martial arts. In Japan, several shoot-style professional wrestling promotions like UWF International and Pro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi attempted to create a combat-based style which blended wrestling, kickboxing and submission grappling. While the matches were predetermined, the style was very convincing at the time and can be retrospectively considered a precursor to mixed martial arts. Professional wrestlers Masakatsu Funaki and Minoru Suzuki founded Pancrase in 1993 which promoted legitimate contests initially under professional wrestling rules. These promotions inspired Pride Fighting Championships which started in 1997. Pride was acquired by its rival Ultimate Fighting Championship in 2007.
A well-documented fight between Golden Gloves boxing champion Joey Hadley and Arkansas Karate Champion David Valovich happened on June 22, 1976, at Memphis Blues Baseball Park. The bout had mixed rules: the karateka was allowed to use his fists, feet and knees, while the boxer could only use his fists. Hadley won the fight via knockout on the first round.
In 1988 Rick Roufus challenged Changpuek Kiatsongrit to a non-title Muay Thai vs. kickboxing super fight. Rick Roufus was at the time an undefeated Kickboxer and held both the KICK Super Middleweight World title and the PKC Middleweight U.S title. Changpuek Kiatsongrit was finding it increasingly difficult to get fights in Thailand as his weight (70 kg) was not typical for Thailand, where competitive bouts tended to be at the lower weights. Roufus knocked Changpuek down twice with punches in the first round, breaking Changpuek's jaw, but lost by technical knockout in the fourth round due to the culmination of low kicks to the legs that he was unprepared for. This match was the first popular fight which showcased the power of such low kicks to a predominantly Western audience.
Timeline of major events
Modern sport
The movement that led to the creation of present-day mixed martial arts scenes emerged from a confluence of several earlier martial arts scenes: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and the vale tudo events in Brazil, rooftop fights in Hong Kong's street fighting culture, and the Japanese professional wrestling circuit.
Vale tudo began in the 1920s and became renowned through its association with the "Gracie challenge", which was issued by Carlos Gracie and Hélio Gracie and upheld later by descendants of the Gracie family. The "Gracie Challenges" were held in the garages and gyms of the Gracie family members. When the popularity grew, these types of mixed bouts were a staple attraction at the carnivals in Brazil.
In the mid-20th century, mixed martial arts contests emerged in Hong Kong's street fighting culture in the form of rooftop fights. During the early 20th century, there was an influx of migrants from Mainland China, including Chinese martial arts teachers who opened up martial arts schools in Hong Kong. In the mid-20th century, soaring crime in Hong Kong, combined with limited Hong Kong Police manpower, led to many young Hongkongers learning martial arts for self-defence. Around the 1960s, there were about 400 martial arts schools in Hong Kong, teaching their own distinctive styles of martial arts. In Hong Kong's street fighting culture, there emerged a rooftop fight scene in the 1950s and 1960s, where gangs from rival martial arts schools challenged each other to bare-knuckle fights on Hong Kong's rooftops, in order to avoid crackdowns by colonial British Hong Kong authorities. The most famous fighter to emerge from Hong Kong's rooftop fight scene was Bruce Lee, who combined different techniques from different martial arts schools into his own hybrid martial arts system called Jeet Kune Do. Lee went on to popularize the concept of mixed martial arts internationally.
Early mixed-match martial arts professional wrestling bouts in Japan (known as Ishu Kakutōgi Sen (異種格闘技戦), literally "heterogeneous combat sports bouts") became popular with Antonio Inoki only in the 1970s. Inoki was a disciple of Rikidōzan, but also of Karl Gotch, who trained numerous Japanese wrestlers in catch wrestling.
Regulated mixed martial arts competitions were first introduced in the United States by CV Productions, Inc. Its first competition, called Tough Guy Contest was held on March 20, 1980, New Kensington, Pennsylvania, Holiday Inn. During that year the company renamed the brand to Super Fighters and sanctioned ten regulated tournaments in Pennsylvania. In 1983, Pennsylvania State Senate passed a bill that specifically called for: "Prohibiting Tough Guy contests or Battle of the Brawlers contests", and ended the sport.
Japan had its own form of mixed martial arts discipline, Shooto, which evolved from shoot wrestling in 1985, as well as the shoot wrestling derivative Pancrase, which was founded as a promotion in 1993. Pancrase 1 was held in Japan in September 1993, two months before UFC 1 was held in the United States in November 1993.
In 1993, the sport was reintroduced to the United States by the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). UFC promoters initially pitched the event as a real-life fighting video game tournament similar to Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat. The sport gained international exposure and widespread publicity when jiu-jitsu fighter Royce Gracie won the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament, submitting three challengers in a total of just five minutes. sparking a revolution in martial arts.
The first Vale Tudo Japan tournaments were held in 1994 and 1995 and were both won by Rickson Gracie. Around the same time, International Vale Tudo competition started to develop through (World Vale Tudo Championship (WVC), VTJ, IVC, UVF etc.). Interest in mixed martial arts as a sport resulted in the creation of the Pride Fighting Championships (Pride) in 1997, where again Rickson participated and won.
The sport reached a new peak of popularity in North America in December 2006: a rematch between then UFC light heavyweight champion Chuck Liddell and former champion Tito Ortiz, rivaled the PPV sales of some of the biggest boxing events of all time, and helped the UFC's 2006 PPV gross surpass that of any promotion in PPV history. In 2007, Zuffa LLC, the owners of the UFC MMA promotion, bought Japanese rival MMA brand Pride FC, merging the contracted fighters under one promotion. Comparisons were drawn to the consolidation that occurred in other sports, such as the AFL-NFL Merger in American football.
Origin of the term MMA
The first documented use of the name mixed martial arts was in a review of UFC 1 by television critic Howard Rosenberg, in 1993. The term gained popularity when the website newfullcontact.com, then one of the biggest covering the sport, hosted and reprinted the article. The first use of the term by a promotion was in September 1995 by Rick Blume, president and CEO of Battlecade Extreme Fighting, just after UFC 7.
UFC official Jeff Blatnick was responsible for the Ultimate Fighting Championship officially adopting the name mixed martial arts. It was previously marketed as "Ultimate Fighting" and "No Holds Barred (NHB)", until Blatnick and John McCarthy proposed the name "MMA" at the UFC 17 rules meeting in response to increased public criticism. The question as to who actually coined the name is still in debate.
Regulation
The first state regulated MMA event was held in Biloxi, Mississippi on August 23, 1996, with the sanctioning of IFC's Mayhem in Mississippi show by the Mississippi Athletic Commission under William Lyons. The rules used were an adaptation of the kickboxing rules already accepted by most state athletic commissions. These modified kickboxing rules allowed for take downs and ground fighting and did away with rounds, although they did allow for fighters to be stood up by the referee and restarted if there was no action on the ground. These rules were the first in modern MMA to define fouls, fighting surfaces and the use of the cage.
In March 1997, the Iowa Athletic Commission officially sanctioned Battlecade Extreme Fighting under a modified form of its existing rules for Shootfighting. These rules created the three 5 minute round, one-minute break format, and mandated shootfighting gloves, as well as weight classes, for the first time. Illegal blows were listed as groin strikes, head butting, biting, eye gouging, hair pulling, striking an opponent with an elbow while the opponent is on the mat, kidney strikes, and striking the back of the head with closed fist. Holding onto the ring or cage for any reason was defined as a foul. While there are minor differences between these and the final Unified Rules, notably regarding elbow strikes, the Iowa rules allowed mixed martial arts promoters to conduct essentially modern events legally, anywhere in the state. On March 28, 1997, Extreme Fighting 4 was held under these rules, making it the first show conducted under a version of the modern rules.
In April 2000, the California State Athletic Commission voted unanimously in favor of regulations that later became the foundation for the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. However, when the legislation was sent to the California capital in Sacramento for review, it was determined that the sport fell outside the jurisdiction of the CSAC, rendering the vote meaningless.
On September 30, 2000, the New Jersey State Athletic Control Board (NJSACB) began allowing mixed martial arts promoters to conduct events in New Jersey. The first event was an IFC event titled Battleground 2000 held in Atlantic City. The intent was to allow the NJSACB to observe actual events and gather information to establish a comprehensive set of rules to regulate the sport effectively.
On April 3, 2001, the NJSACB held a meeting to discuss the regulation of mixed martial arts events. This meeting attempted to unify the myriad rules and regulations which had been utilized by the different mixed martial arts organizations. At this meeting, the proposed uniform rules were agreed upon by the NJSACB, several other regulatory bodies, numerous promoters of mixed martial arts events and other interested parties in attendance. At the conclusion of the meeting, all parties in attendance were able to agree upon a uniform set of rules to govern the sport of mixed martial arts.
The rules adopted by the NJSACB have become the de facto standard set of rules for professional mixed martial arts across North America. On July 30, 2009, a motion was made at the annual meeting of the Association of Boxing Commissions to adopt these rules as the "Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts". The motion passed unanimously.
In November 2005 the United States Army began to sanction mixed martial arts with the first annual Army Combatives Championships held by the US Army Combatives School.
Canada formally decriminalized mixed martial arts with a vote on Bill S-209 on June 5, 2013. The bill allows for provinces to have the power to create athletic commissions to regulate and sanction professional mixed martial arts bouts.
MMA organizations
Promotions
According to MMA portal Tapology.com listings, hundreds of MMA promotions around the world produce MMA events.
Since the UFC came to prominence in mainstream media in 2006, and with their 2007 merger with Pride FC and purchases of WEC and Strikeforce, no companies have presented significant competition, and the UFC is regarded as having most of the top ranked talent. Fighters usually get contracts in the UFC after competing successfully in other MMA promotions from around the world.
Some MMA promotions tend to exist more to build up prospects while others have a mix of prospects and veterans. Some exist only to be feeder leagues to the bigger promotions (e.g. LFA, CWFC), others exist to try to be the best in the world (e.g. ACB, ONE Championship). Some promotions only do four shows a year while others are doing them monthly.
According to ScorecardMMA.com, one of the world's top statistical rankings services for MMA, and the only one currently ranking MMA promotions worldwide statistically; "To rank MMA Promotions we use an index that we calculate weekly- Promotion Score.Promo Score calculation is based on the strength of Events and Fighters that Promotion has at that time. Promo Score has three main components:
Event Index: based on the quality of events in the last quarter and in the last year.
Owned Fighter Index: calculated based on the quality of fighters that the promotion currently owns (contracted, or used recently).
Utilized Fighters Index: fighters that the promotion has used in the last four months and in the last three quarters.
As of May 26, 2018 the top 15 MMA promotions (out of 41 ranked) in the world are:
Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). Based in Las Vegas, United States. Broadcasts their fights locally on ESPN (prior to 2019 on Fox Sports) and on other networks around the world.
Bellator MMA. Based in Newport Beach, California, United States. Broadcasts their fights locally on the Paramount Network and other networks around the world.
Absolute Championship Berkut (ACB). Based in Grozny, Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally on Match TV and streaming on YouTube (with Russian commentary) and Facebook (with English commentary).
Fight Nights Global (FNG). Based in Moscow, Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally on Match TV, and streaming on VKontakte.
ONE Championship. Based in Kallang, Singapore. Broadcasts their fights regionally on Fox Sports Asia and streaming on their Mobile app (without Geo-blocking).
Rizin Fighting Federation (Rizin FF). Based in Tokyo, Japan. Broadcast their fights locally on Fuji Television and for Pay-per-view on SKY PerfecTV! (Japan only) and FITE TV (internationally).
Invicta FC (all female MMA). Based in Enka, North Carolina, United States. Broadcasts their fights on UFC Fight Pass.
Pancrase. Based in Tokyo, Japan. Broadcast their fights locally on Tokyo MX and streaming on AbemaTV (with Japanese commentary) and on UFC Fight Pass (with English commentary).
M-1 Global. Based in St. Petersburg, Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally on Russia-2 and streaming on their mobile app (with English commentary).
Legacy Fighting Alliance (LFA). Based in Houston, Texas, USA. Broadcasts their fights locally on AXS TV Fights.
World Fighting Championship Akhmat (WFCA). Based in Grozny, Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally on Grozny TV (also streaming on Grozny.tv).
Konfrontacja Sztuk Walki (KSW). Based in Warsaw, Poland. Broadcasts their fights locally on Polsat Sport and on Fight Network internationally.
Deep. Based in Nagoya, Japan. Broadcast their fights locally on SKY PerfecTV! (Fighting TV Samurai channel) and streaming on AbemaTV.
Road Fighting Championship (Road FC). Based in Wonju, South Korea. Broadcasts their fights locally on MBC Sports+ and streaming on afreecaTV (with Korean commentary) and YouTube (with English commentary).
Cage Warriors (CWFC). Based in London, England, UK. Broadcasts their fights locally on BT Sport and on UFC Fight Pass.
Gyms
There are hundreds of MMA training facilities throughout the world.
These are the current top MMA Gyms in the world based on how many top ranked UFC fighters they currently train. There are 160 fighters, who train at over 80 different gyms, in the top 15 of the UFC's 10 divisions. The rankings are based on a system where a champion earns their gym 25 points, A #1 contender is 15, a #2 contender 10 and then a decrease in ranking equaling a decrease of 1 point until the ranking reaches #10. From there, rankings 11–15 are each worth one point. (updated July 2015):
Nova União located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Jackson-Winkeljohn MMA located in Albuquerque, New Mexico
American Kickboxing Academy (AKA) located in San Jose, California.
Team Alpha Male located in Sacramento, California.
American Top Team (ATT) located in Coconut Creek, Florida.
Kings MMA located in Huntington Beach, California.
Blackzilians located in Boca Raton, Florida.
COUNTER COMBAT CLUB® located in Birmingham, United Kingdom
Serra-Longo located in Long Island, New York.
Glendale Fighting Club located in Glendale, California.
Black House (Team Nogueira) based out of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Teixeira MMA & Fitness (Teixeira MMA) located in Bethel, Connecticut.
Fighter development
As a result of an increased number of competitors, organized training camps, information sharing, and modern kinesiology, the understanding of the effectiveness of various strategies has been greatly improved. UFC commentator Joe Rogan claimed that martial arts evolved more in the ten years following 1993 than in the preceding 700 years combined.
The high profile of modern MMA promotions such as UFC and Pride has fostered an accelerated development of the sport. The early 1990s saw a wide variety of traditional styles competing in the sport. However, early competition saw varying levels of success among disparate styles.
In the early 1990s, practitioners of grappling based styles such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu dominated competition in the United States. Practitioners of striking based arts such as boxing, kickboxing, and karate, who were unfamiliar with submission grappling, proved to be unprepared to deal with its submission techniques. As competitions became more and more common, those with a base in striking arts became more competitive as they cross-trained in styles based around takedowns and submission holds. Likewise, those from the varying grappling styles added striking techniques to their arsenal. This increase of cross-training resulted in fighters becoming increasingly multidimensional and well-rounded in their skill-sets.
The new hybridization of fighting styles can be seen in the technique of "ground and pound" developed by wrestling-based UFC pioneers such as Dan Severn, Don Frye and Mark Coleman. These wrestlers realized the need for the incorporation of strikes on the ground as well as on the feet, and incorporated ground striking into their grappling-based styles. Mark Coleman stated at UFC 14 that his strategy was to "Ground him and pound him", which may be the first televised use of the term.
Since the late 1990s, both strikers and grapplers have been successful at MMA, though it is rare to see any fighter who is not schooled in both striking and grappling arts reach the highest levels of competition.
The greatest MMA fighter of all time is considered by experts, fighters and fans to be either light heavyweight Jon Jones or lightweight Khabib Nurmagomedov. Georges St. Pierre, Anderson Silva, Demetrious Johnson, Fedor Emelianenko, Jose Aldo and Stipe Miocic are also included in this discussion.
Rules
The rules for modern mixed martial arts competitions have changed significantly since the early days of vale tudo, Japanese shoot wrestling, and UFC 1, and even more from the historic style of pankration. As the knowledge of fighting techniques spread among fighters and spectators, it became clear that the original minimalist rule systems needed to be amended.
The main motivations for these rule changes were protection of the health of the fighters, the desire to shed the perception of "barbarism and lawlessness", and to be recognized as a legitimate sport.
The new rules included the introduction of weight classes; as knowledge about submissions spread, differences in weight had become a significant factor. There are nine different weight classes in the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. These nine weight classes include flyweight (up to 125 lb / 56.7 kg), bantamweight (up to 135 lb / 61.2 kg), featherweight (up to 145 lb / 65.8 kg), lightweight (up to 155 lb / 70.3 kg), welterweight (up to 170 lb / 77.1 kg), middleweight (up to 185 lb / 83.9 kg), light heavyweight (up to 205 lb / 93.0 kg), heavyweight (up to 265 lb / 120.2 kg), and super heavyweight with no upper weight limit.
Small, open-fingered gloves were introduced to protect fists, reduce the occurrence of cuts (and stoppages due to cuts) and encourage fighters to use their hands for striking to allow more captivating matches. Gloves were first made mandatory in Japan's Shooto promotion and were later adopted by the UFC as it developed into a regulated sport. Most professional fights have the fighters wear 4 oz gloves, whereas some jurisdictions require amateurs to wear a slightly heavier 6 oz glove for more protection for the hands and wrists.
Time limits were established to avoid long fights with little action where competitors conserved their strength. Matches without time limits also complicated the airing of live events. The time limits in most professional fights are three 5 minute rounds, and championship fights are normally five 5-minute rounds. Similar motivations produced the "stand up" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is perceived that both are resting on the ground or not advancing toward a dominant position.
In the U.S., state athletic and boxing commissions have played a crucial role in the introduction of additional rules because they oversee MMA in a similar fashion to boxing. In Japan and most of Europe, there is no regulating authority over competitions, so these organizations have greater freedom in rule development and event structure.
Previously, Japan-based organization Pride Fighting Championships held an opening 10-minute round followed by two five-minute rounds. Stomps, soccer kicks and knees to the head of a grounded opponent are legal, but elbow strikes to the head are not. This rule set is more predominant in the Asian-based organizations as opposed to European and American rules. More recently, Singapore-based organization ONE Championship allows soccer kicks and knees to the head of a grounded opponent as well as elbow strikes to the head, but does not allow head stomps. In 2016, ONE later banned soccer kicks. However, they still allow knees to the head of a grounded opponent.
Victory
Victory in a match is normally gained either by the judges' decision after an allotted amount of time has elapsed, a stoppage by the referee (for example if a competitor cannot defend himself intelligently) or the fight doctor (due to an injury), a submission, by a competitor's cornerman throwing in the towel, or by knockout.
Knockout (KO): as soon as a fighter is unable to continue due to legal strikes, his opponent is declared the winner. As MMA rules allow submissions and ground and pound, the fight is stopped to prevent further injury to the fighter.
Submission: a fighter may admit defeat during a match by:
a physical tap on the opponent's body or mat/floor
tapping verbally
Technical Submission: the referee stops the match when the fighter is caught in a submission hold and is in danger of being injured. This can occur when a fighter is choked unconscious, or when a bone has been broken in a submission hold (a broken arm due to a kimura, etc.)
Technical Knockout (TKO):
Referee stoppage: The referee may stop a match in progress if:
a fighter becomes dominant to the point where the opponent cannot intelligently defend themself and is taking excessive damage as a result
a fighter appears to be losing consciousness as he/she is being struck
a fighter appears to have a significant injury such as a cut or a broken bone
Doctor Stoppage/Cut: the referee will call for a time out if a fighter's ability to continue is in question as a result of apparent injuries, such as a large cut. The ring doctor will inspect the fighter and stop the match if the fighter is deemed unable to continue safely, rendering the opponent the winner. However, if the match is stopped as a result of an injury from illegal actions by the opponent, either a disqualification or no contest will be issued instead.
Corner stoppage: a fighter's corner may announce defeat on the fighter's behalf by throwing in the towel during the match in progress or between rounds. This is normally done when a fighter is being beaten to the point where it is dangerous and unnecessary to continue. In some cases, the fighter may be injured.
Retirement: a fighter is so dazed or exhausted that he/she cannot physically continue fighting. Usually occurs between rounds.
Decision: if the match goes the distance, then the outcome of the bout is determined by three judges. The judging criteria are organization-specific.
Forfeit: a fighter or their representative may forfeit a match prior to the beginning of the match, thereby losing the match.
Disqualification: a "warning" will be given when a fighter commits a foul or illegal action or does not follow the referee's instruction. Three warnings will result in a disqualification. Moreover, if a fighter is unable to continue due to a deliberate illegal technique from his opponent, the opponent will be disqualified.
No Contest: in the event that both fighters commit a violation of the rules, or a fighter is unable to continue due to an injury from an accidental illegal technique, the match will be declared a "No Contest", except in the case of a technical decision in the unified rules. A result can also be overturned to a no contest if the fighter that was originally victorious fails a post fight drug test for banned substances.
Technical decision: in the unified rules of MMA, if a fighter is unable to continue due to an accidental illegal technique late in the fight, a technical decision is rendered by the judges based on who is ahead on the judges' scorecards at that time. In a three-round fight, two rounds must be completed for a technical decision to be awarded and in a five-round fight, three rounds must be completed.
Fighter ranking
MMA fighters are ranked according to their performance and outcome of their fights and level of competition they faced. The most popular and used, ranking portals are:
Fight Matrix: Ranks up to 250–500 fighters worldwide for every possible division male and female.
Sherdog: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide only for current available UFC divisions. Also used by ESPN.
SB Nation: Ranks top 14 fighters worldwide only for male divisions. Also used by USA Today.
MMAjunkie.com: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide for current UFC available divisions.
UFC: Ranks top 15 contenders, UFC signed fighters only, as per UFC divisions. (For example: #2 means the fighter is #3 for the UFC, behind the Champion and the #1.)
Tapology: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide for every possible division.
Ranking MMA: Top 50 MMA World Rankings for all Men's Divisions and Top 25 MMA World Rankings for all Women's Divisions. RankingMMA publishes Independent Mixed Martial Arts rankings that does not exclude any fighter based on their promotion. RankingMMA also provides UFC Rankings (Complete Roster), Historical MMA Rankings, Non-UFC Rankings, and MMA Prospect Rankings. Ranking MMA has published MMA World Rankings since 2006.
Sports Illustrated: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide for current UFC available divisions.
MMA Rising: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide in every possible division. Notable for their Unified Women's Mixed Martial Arts. Rankings
MMA Weekly: Ranks top 10 male fighters worldwide in every possible division, and P4P for female fighters. Also used by Yahoo! Sports.
Bleacher Report: Ranks top 10 UFC fighters in each division.
Fight! Magazine: Ranks top 5 fighters and only in male divisions.
Oddsshark.com: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide in current UFC divisions.
GroundandPound.de: Ranks top 10 European male fighters in all divisions.
MMAViking: Ranks top 5 Scandinavian male fighters in all divisions and Scandinavian female pound for pound.
Clothing
Mixed martial arts promotions typically require that male fighters wear shorts in addition to being barechested, thus precluding the use of gi or fighting kimono to inhibit or assist submission holds. Male fighters are required by most athletic commissions to wear groin protectors underneath their trunks. Female fighters wear short shorts and sports bras or other similarly snug-fitting tops. Both male and female fighters are required to wear a mouthguard.
The need for flexibility in the legs combined with durability prompted the creation of various fighting shorts brands, which then spawned a range of mixed martial arts clothing and casual wear available to the public.
Fighting area
According to the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, an MMA competition or exhibition may be held in a ring or a fenced area. The fenced area can be round or have at least six sides. Cages vary: some replace the metal fencing with a net, others have a different shape from an octagon, as the term "the Octagon" is trademarked by the UFC (though the 8-sided shape itself is not trademarked). The fenced area is called a cage generically, or a hexagon, an octagon or an octagon cage, depending on the shape.
Common disciplines
Most 'traditional' martial arts have a specific focus and these arts may be trained to improve in that area. Popular disciplines of each type include:
Stand-up: Boxing, Kickboxing, Muay Thai, Karate, Taekwondo, Capoeira, Combat Sambo, Savate, Sanda, Wushu are trained to improve stand-up striking.
Clinch: Judo, Catch Wrestling, Freestyle Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling, Luta Livre, Sambo, are trained to improve clinching, takedowns and throws, while Muay Thai is trained to improve the striking aspect of the clinch.
Ground: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Judo, Sambo, Catch wrestling, Luta Livre and submission wrestling are trained to improve ground control and position, as well as to achieve submission holds, and defend against them.
Most styles have been adapted from their traditional forms, such as boxing stances, which lack effective counters to leg kicks, the Muay Thai stance, which is poor for defending against takedowns due to its static nature, and Judo or Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu techniques, which must be adapted for No-Gi competition. It is common for a fighter to train with multiple coaches of different styles or an organized fight team to improve various aspects of their game at once. Cardiovascular conditioning, speed drills, strength training and flexibility are also important aspects of a fighter's training. Some schools advertise their styles as simply "mixed martial arts", which has become a style in itself, but the training will still often be split into different sections.
While mixed martial arts was initially practiced almost exclusively by competitive fighters, this is no longer the case. As the sport has become more mainstream and more widely taught, it has become accessible to wider range of practitioners of all ages. Proponents of this sort of training argue that it is safe for anyone, of any age, with varying levels of competitiveness and fitness.
Brazilian jiu-jitsu/Grappling
Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) came to international prominence in the martial arts community in the early 1990s, when BJJ expert Royce Gracie won the first, second and fourth Ultimate Fighting Championships, which at the time were single-elimination martial arts tournaments. Royce often fought successfully against much larger opponents who practiced other styles, including boxing, wrestling, shoot-fighting, karate and taekwondo. It has since become a staple art and key component for many MMA fighters. BJJ is largely credited for bringing widespread attention to the importance of ground fighting. BJJ is primarily a ground-based fighting style that emphasizes joint locks and chokeholds to submit the adversary, but it can also use other techniques such as throws and holds derived from wrestling and from its Jujutsu/Judo base. Some fighters who are known for using BJJ skills or hold a black belt include: Royce Gracie, Antônio Carlos Júnior, Amanda Nunes, Anderson Silva, Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira, Charles Oliveira, Cris Cyborg, Deiveson Figueiredo, Demian Maia, Fabrício Werdum, Gleison Tibau, Glover Teixeira, José Aldo, Junior dos Santos, Lyoto Machida, Rafael dos Anjos, Renan Barão, Rousimar Palhares, Ronaldo Souza, Vitor Belfort, Wanderlei Silva, Mackenzie Dern, Chael Sonnen, Tony Ferguson, Demetrious Johnson, Frank Mir, Georges St-Pierre, B.J. Penn, Nate Diaz, and Brian Ortega.
Wrestling
Wrestling (including freestyle, Greco-Roman, and American folkstyle) gained tremendous respect due to its effectiveness in mixed martial arts competitions. It is widely studied by mixed martial artists as Wrestling allows competitors to control where the match will go: superior wrestlers can dominate the Clinch and take their opponnents into the ground with its excellent takedowns, particularly against the legs, where they will transition into groundfighting and can either get a superior top position and start striking their opponent (a tactic known as Ground-and-Pound) or start grappling for submissions. While wrestlers with stronger striking base can use defensive wrestling to defend takedowns mantain the fight in the feet where they use their superior striking, a tactic known as "Sprawl-and-Brawl", or use wrestling to escape submission attempts. It is also credited for conferring an emphasis on conditioning for explosive movement and stamina, both of which are critical in competitive mixed martial arts.
There are multiple wrestling styles around the world which MMA fighters have as their base. American fighters are usually trained in Folkstyle wrestling, the style competed in high school and college competitions. Many American champions were former NCAA Division I Wrestling Champions, such as Kevin Randleman and Mark Kerr. While fighters from around the world train primarily in "international" olympic styles such as Greco-Roman and Freestyle wrestling. Some former wrestlers who competed in the Olympics have joined MMA competition, such as Daniel Cormier, Dan Henderson, Ben Askren, silver medalist Yoel Romero and gold medalist Henry Cejudo. Some fighters have also come from local Folk wrestling backgrounds, UFC flyweight champion Deiveson Figueiredo is trained at Luta Marajoara, a folk wrestling style from Marajó island.
Notable wrestlers who were MMA competitors include: Khabib Nurmagomedov, Chael Sonnen, Jon Jones, Johny Hendricks, Cain Velasquez, Chad Mendes, Randy Couture, Brock Lesnar, Mark Coleman, Frankie Edgar, Colby Covington, Kamaru Usman, Chris Weidman, Daniel Cormier, Dan Henderson, Yoel Romero, Mark Schultz, and Henry Cejudo
Catch-as-catch-can
Catch wrestling is the ancestor of freestyle wrestling and includes submissions which are prohibited in freestyle wrestling. Widely popular around the world during the 19th and 20th centuries, catch wrestling underwent a decline as its amateur-side became olympic freestyle wrestling, while the professional side became modern professional wrestling. Catch survived in Japanese Puroresu-style Pro Wrestling, where wrestlers such as Antonio Inoki and Karl Gotch promoted "strong style pro wrestling", that while worked, had realistic and full contact moves, resulting in the creation of the Universal Wrestling Federation and Shoot wrestling (which in their own turn would inspire the creation of legit proto-MMA shootfighting organizations such as Shooto and Pancrase). Many pro wrestlers that trained in shoot-style would later compete in MMA, which led to resurgence of Catch with the advent of mixed martial arts in the 90s. The term no holds barred was used originally to describe the wrestling method prevalent in catch wrestling tournaments during the late 19th century wherein no wrestling holds were banned from the competition, regardless of how dangerous they might be. The term was applied to mixed martial arts matches, especially at the advent of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.
A lot of MMA fighters train in catch wrestling as their sole grappling style or as a complement to Brazilian Jiu-jitsu, as it teaches techniques and tactics not found in Brazilian Jiu-jitsu. Notable MMA fighters who use catch wrestling as their primary grappling style include: Josh Barnett, Ken Shamrock, Frank Shamrock, Bas Rutten, Kazushi Sakuraba, Erik Paulson, Bobby Lashley, Minoru Suzuki, Masakatsu Funaki, Rumina Sato, Masakazu Imanari, Antonio Inoki, and Paul Sass.
Muay Thai/Kickboxing
Muay Thai or Thai boxing and kickboxing, along with boxing, are recognised as a foundation for striking in mixed martial arts, and are both widely practiced and taught. Although both may seem identical, each has different techniques. Muay Thai originated in Thailand, and is known as the "art of eight limbs", which refers to the use of the legs, knees, elbows and fists. One of the primary benefits of training in Muay Thai for MMA is its versatility. Techniques cover the long, middle and short range with everything from kicks to clinch holds and throws. Meanwhile, kickboxing is a group of stand-up combat martial arts based on kicking and punching. The modern style originated in Japan, developed from Karate and Muay Thai, and had further development in the Netherlands and the United States. Different governing bodies apply different rules, such as allowing the use of elbows, knees, clinching or throws, etc. Notable fighters who use Muay Thai include former UFC women's strawweight champion Joanna Jędrzejczyk, UFC Featherweight Edson Barboza UFC Middleweight Darren Till and former UFC champions Zhang Weili, Anderson Silva, José Aldo and Cris Cyborg, while some kickboxers in MMA include Mirko Cro Cop, Alistair Overeem, Israel Adesanya, Sean O'Malley, Michael Page, Cory Sandhagen, and Bas Rutten.
Boxing
Boxing is a combat form that is widely used in MMA and is one of the primary striking bases for many fighters. Boxing punches account for the vast majority of strikes during the stand up portion of a bout and also account for the largest number of significant strikes, knock downs and KOs in MMA matches. Several aspects of boxing are extremely valuable such as footwork, combinations, and defensive techniques like slips, head movement and stance (including chin protection and keeping hands up) commonly known as the Guard position. Boxing-based fighters have also been shown to throw and land a higher volume of strikes when compared with other striking bases, at a rate of 3.88 per minute with 9.64 per minute thrown (compared with Muay Thai at 3.46 and 7.50, respectively). Fighters known for using boxing include: Petr Yan, Dustin Poirier, Conor McGregor, Max Holloway, Calvin Kattar, Cain Velasquez, Nick Diaz, Glover Teixeira, Junior dos Santos, B.J. Penn, Dan Hardy, Shane Carwin and Andrei Arlovski.
Luta Livre
Luta Livre (also referred to Luta Livre Brasileira, Submission or Esportiva) is a Brazilian submission wrestling style, developed in Brazil in the 1920s by catch wrestling practitioner Euclydes "Tatu" Hatem, including techniques from Catch Wrestling, Judo, Wrestling and Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Luta Livre is divided in the categories of Esportiva, which is a form of submission grappling, differentiating from no-gi BJJ with its focus on quick and energetic submissions, and Vale tudo, which includes strikes both standing up and on the ground in addition to grappling and submissions. Luta Livre was important to the development of Mixed Martial Arts, as rivalry between BJJ and Luta Livre fueled the Vale tudo scene. However, the success of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu over Luta Livre practitioners, especially after the Desafio: Jiu Jitsu vs Luta Livre event in 1991 (which was broadcast live by Rede Globo), resulted in the style waning in popularity, although it seems to be making a resurgence, especially as an alternative to both Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Catch Wrestling. Some notable Luta Livre practitioners in MMA include: Marco Ruas, Eugenio Tadeu, Renato Sobral, Pedro Rizzo, Alexandre Franca Nogueira, Terry Etim and Darren Till.
Judo
Judo is a Japanese grappling martial art which has both ne-waza (ground grappling) and tachi-waza (standing grappling), several judo practitioners have competed in mixed martial arts matches. They use their knowledge in Judo for clinching and for doing explosive and fast takedowns which quickly transition into submission holds in the ground. However, Judo is traditionally and exclusively trained using the Judogi, as such, many techniques and strategies from Judo can't be translated into MMA. Fighters who hold a black belt in judo include Fedor Emelianenko, Marco Ruas, Khabib Nurmagomedov, Dong Hyun Kim, Cub Swanson, and Olympian judokas Ronda Rousey, Hector Lombard and Rick Hawn and Hidehiko Yoshida. Former WEC middleweight champion Paulo Filho has credited judo for his success in an interview.
Sambo
Sambo is a Russian martial art, combat sport and self-defense system. It is a mixture of judo and freestyle wrestling using a keikogi known as kurtka. Sambo focuses on throwing, takedowns, grappling, and includes submissions from Judo and catch wrestling. Sports sambo is characterized as a grappling style focused in pinning and in explosive takedowns which can be quickly transitioned into devastating leglocks. Sambo also has a modality known as combat sambo, which adds punches, kicks, elbows and knees, making it a proto-MMA hybrid fighting style. Sambo is popular in Russia and eastern Europe, where it is taught as a complement to Judo and Wrestling training, Sambo also provides a good base for MMA with all-around skills for combining grappling and striking. Some notable Sambo fighters that transitioned into MMA include: Fedor Emelianenko, Igor Vovchanchyn, Oleg Taktarov, Andrei Arlovski and Khabib Nurmagomedov.
Karate
Karate, especially Kyokushin and other full contact styles, has proven to be effective in the sport as it is one of the core foundations of kickboxing, and specializes in striking techniques. Karate from all styles has also been a common base, with many getting introduced to martial arts and combat sports by training Karate in their youth. Various styles of karate are practiced by some MMA fighters, notably Chuck Liddell, Bas Rutten, Lyoto Machida, Stephen Thompson, John Makdessi, Uriah Hall, Ryan Jimmo, Georges St-Pierre, Kyoji Horiguchi, Giga Chikadze, and Louis Gaudinot. Liddell is known to have an extensive striking background in Kenpō with Fabio Martella whereas Lyoto Machida practices Shotokan Ryu, and St-Pierre practices Kyokushin.
Wushu/Sanshou/Sanda/Kung Fu
Wushu Sanshou and other Chinese martial arts have also been utilized in MMA. They can be highly effective in competition due to their mixture of striking and takedowns, achieved through a condensation of traditional Chinese martial arts techniques. Most prominent and chief amongst these fighters is Cung Le, who is most notable for his TKO and KO victories over former UFC champions Frank Shamrock (in Strikeforce) and Rich Franklin (at UFC Macau). Other Wushu Sanshou based fighters who have entered MMA include former UFC strawweight champion Zhang Weili, Cung Le, Michael Page, KJ Noons, Pat Barry, Zhang Tiequan, Muslim Salihov, and Zabit Magomedsharipov.
Taekwondo
Several accomplished MMA fighters have an extensive background in taekwondo. Some fighters who use taekwondo techniques in MMA are former UFC lightweight champion and WEC lightweight champion Anthony Pettis, who is 3rd dan black belt as well as an instructor, Benson Henderson, Yair Rodriguez, Marco Ruas and former UFC middleweight champion Anderson Silva, who is a 5th dan black belt.
In his instructional book, Anderson Silva admitted the influence of taekwondo in the formation of his unique style. "In each of my fights, I tried to utilize techniques from all the various styles I had studied. I threw taekwondo kicks. I threw Muay Thai knees and elbows, and I used my knowledge of Brazilian jiu-jitsu on the ground." Anthony Pettis has also stated that he is "definitely a traditional martial artist first and a mixed martial artist second", as well as his "style of attacking is different [because of his] taekwondo background."
Other notable fighters who have a base in Taekwondo or are known for using their Taekwondo skills while fighting include Valentina Shevchenko, Cung Le, Patrick Smith, Mirko Cro Cop, and Conor McGregor.
Capoeira
Capoeira has been incorporated into MMA in more recent years and is often used as an addition to Brazilian jiu-jitsu; both originate from Brazil. Several fighters use this martial art when fighting, although not fully, as music and dancing are major components of the discipline. Conor McGregor, Anderson Silva, and Marco Ruas (who is ranked a Mestre in the art) incorporated some techniques and has in turn helped Capoeira gain more attention in MMA. It is known for its quick and complex maneuvers, which use power, speed, and leverage across a wide variety of kicks, spins and techniques.
Savate
Although not as common as other disciplines, some fighters have used Savate effectively in MMA. Savate restricts the use of shins and knees, allowing only foot kicks. It focuses on kicking more then punching, and its kicks are characteristically very fast, mobile and flexible. It also posses a complex and evasive footwork. However, because Savatuers train wearing shoes, adjustments have to be made to how they throw kicks in MMA. Notable Savate fighters include Karl Amoussou, Gerard Gordeau, Cheick Kongo, and former Bellator Light Heavyweight Champion Christian M'Pumbu.
Basic strategies
The techniques utilized in mixed martial arts competition generally fall into two categories: striking techniques (such as kicks, knees, punches and elbows) and grappling techniques (such as clinch holds, pinning holds, submission holds, sweeps, takedowns and throws).
Today, mixed martial artists must cross-train in a variety of styles to counter their opponent's strengths and remain effective in all the phases of combat.
Sprawl-and-Brawl
Sprawl-and-Brawl is a stand-up fighting tactic that consists of effective stand-up striking, while avoiding ground fighting, typically by using sprawls to defend against takedowns.
A Sprawl-and-Brawler is usually a boxer, kickboxer, Karateka who has trained in various styles of wrestling, judo, and/or sambo to avoid takedowns to keep the fight standing. This is a form which is heavily practiced in the amateur leagues.
These fighters will often study submission wrestling to avoid being forced into submission should they find themselves on the ground. This style can be deceptively different from traditional kickboxing styles, since sprawl-and-brawlers must adapt their techniques to incorporate takedown and ground fighting defense. A few notable examples are Igor Vovchanchyn, Mirko Filipović, Chuck Liddell, Mark Hunt and more recently Junior dos Santos, Conor McGregor, Andrei Arlovski, and Joanna Jędrzejczyk.
Ground-and-pound
Ground-and-pound is a strategy consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw, obtaining a top, or dominant grappling position, and then striking the opponent, primarily with fists, hammerfists, and elbows. Ground-and-pound is also used as a precursor to attempting submission holds.
The style is used by fighters well-versed in submission defense and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits or is knocked out. Although not a traditional style of striking, the effectiveness and reliability of ground-and-pound has made it a popular tactic. It was first demonstrated as an effective technique by Mark Coleman, then popularized by fighters such as Chael Sonnen, Glover Teixeira, Don Frye, Frank Trigg, Jon Jones, Cheick Kongo, Mark Kerr, Frank Shamrock, Tito Ortiz, Matt Hughes, Chris Weidman, and Khabib Nurmagomedov.
While most fighters use ground-and-pound statically, by way of holding their opponents down and mauling them with short strikes from the top position, a few fighters manage to utilize it dynamically by striking their opponents while changing positions, thus not allowing their opponents to settle once they take them down. Cain Velasquez is one of the most devastating ground strikers in MMA and is known for continuing to strike his opponents on the ground while transitioning between positions. Fedor Emelianenko, considered among the greatest masters of ground-and-pound in MMA history, was the first to demonstrate this dynamic style of striking in transition. He was striking his opponents on the ground while passing guard, or while his opponents were attempting to recover guard.
In the year 2000, MMA play-by-play commentator Stephen Quadros coined the popular phrase lay and pray. This refers to a situation where a wrestler or grappler keeps another fighter pinned or controlled on the mat to avoid a stand up, yet exhibits little urgency to finish the grounded opponent with a knockout or a submission for the majority or entirety of the fight. The implication of "lay and pray" is that after the wrestler/grappler takes the striker down and 'lays' on him to neutralize the opponent's striking weapons, he 'pray's that the referee does not return them to the standing position. This style is considered by many fans as the most boring style of fighting and is highly criticized for intentionally creating non-action, yet it is effective. Some argue that 'lay-and-pray' is justified and that it is the responsibility of the downed fighter to be able to protect himself from this legitimate fighting technique. Many consider Jon Fitch's style to epitomize 'lay and pray'. Former UFC Welterweight champion Georges St-Pierre has been criticized by fans for playing it safe and applying the lay and pray tactic in his fights, as has Bellator MMA Welterweight champion Ben Askren, who justified the tactic, explaining that championship fights are much harder as they are five rounds long, compared with the usual three.
Submission-Seeking
Submission-Seeking is a reference to the strategy of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw and then applying a submission hold, forcing the opponent to submit. While grapplers will often work to attain dominant position, some may be more comfortable fighting from other positions. If a grappler finds themselves unable to force a takedown, they may resort to pulling guard, whereby they physically pull their opponent into a dominant position on the ground. This was one of the first fighting styles that had shown success, popularized by BJJ exponent Royce Gracie during early UFC events..
Submissions are an essential part of many disciplines, most notably Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, catch wrestling, judo, Sambo, Luta Livre and shootwrestling. Submission-based styles were popularized in the early UFC events by Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock, and were the dominant tactic in the early UFCs. Modern proponents of the submission-seeking style, such as Demian Maia, Ronaldo Souza, Charles Oliveira, Ryan Hall, Marcin Held, and Paul Craig tend to come from a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu background.
Clinch-Fighting
Clinch-Fighting is a tactic consisting of using a clinch hold to prevent the opponent from moving away into more distant striking range, while also attempting takedowns and striking the opponent using knees, stomps, elbows, and punches. The clinch is often utilized by wrestlers and Judokas that have added components of the striking game (typically boxing), and Muay Thai fighters.
Ken Shamrock was known for his impressive clinch work when he submitted Dan Severn with a standing guillotine choke at UFC 6
Wrestlers and Judoka may use clinch fighting as a way to neutralize the superior striking skills of a stand-up fighter or to prevent takedowns by a superior ground fighter. Ronda Rousey, with her Judo background, is considered a master at initiating throws from the clinch to set up armbars.
The clinch or "plum" of a Muay Thai fighter is often used to improve the accuracy of knees and elbows by physically controlling the position of the opponent. Anderson Silva is well known for his devastating Muay Thai clinch. He defeated UFC middle weight champion Rich Franklin using the Muay Thai clinch and kneeing Franklin repeatedly to the body and face - breaking Franklin's nose. In their rematch Silva repeated this and won again.
Other fighters may use the clinch to push their opponent against the cage or ropes, where they can effectively control their opponent's movement and restrict mobility while striking them with punches to the body or stomps also known as dirty boxing or "Wall and Maul". Randy Couture used his Greco Roman wrestling background to popularize this style en route to six title reigns in the Ultimate Fighting Championship.
Score oriented fighting
Especially used by fighters with strong wrestling background when facing a highly skilled grappler, or by wrestlers who prefer stand-up fights. Usually fighters who adopt this strategy use takedowns only for scoring, allowing the adversary to stand up and continue the fight. They also want to land clear strikes and control the octagon. In order to win the fight by decision all score oriented fighters have to have strong defensive techniques and avoid takedowns.
In general, fighters who cannot win fights through lightning offense, or are more suited to win fights in the later rounds or via decision are commonly known as grinders. Grinders aim to shut down their opponent's game plan and chip away at them via clinching, smothering and ground-and-pound for most of the rounds. Prominent examples of grinders are Pat Healy, Chael Sonnen, and Colby Covington.
Women's mixed martial arts
While mixed martial arts is primarily a male dominated sport, it does have female athletes. Female competition in Japan includes promotions such as the all-female Valkyrie, and JEWELS (formerly known as Smackgirl). However historically there has been only a select few major professional mixed martial arts organizations in the United States that invite women to compete. Among those are Strikeforce, Bellator Fighting Championships, the all female Invicta Fighting Championships, and the now defunct EliteXC.
There has been a growing awareness of women in mixed martial arts due to popular female fighters and personalities such as Megumi Fujii, Miesha Tate, Cristiane "Cyborg" Santos, Ronda Rousey, Joanna Jędrzejczyk, Holly Holm and Gina Carano among others. Carano became known as "the face of women's MMA" after appearing in a number of EliteXC events. This was furthered by her appearances on MGM Television's 2008 revival of their game show American Gladiators. Additionally, U.S. Congresswoman Sharice Davids (D-KS-3), elected in 2018, is a former professional MMA fighter.
History
In Japan, female competition has been documented since the mid-1990s. Influenced by female professional wrestling and kickboxing, the Smackgirl competition was formed in 2001 and became the only major all-female promotion in mixed martial arts. Other early successful Japanese female organizations included Ladies Legend Pro-Wrestling, ReMix (a predecessor to Smackgirl), U-Top Tournament, K-Grace, and AX.
Aside from all-female organizations, most major Japanese male dominated promotions have held select female competitions. These have included DEEP, MARS, Gladiator, HEAT, Cage Force, K-1, Sengoku, Shooto (under the name G-Shooto), and Pancrase (under the name Pancrase Athena).
In the United States, prior to the success of The Ultimate Fighter reality show that launched mixed martial arts into the mainstream media, there was no major coverage of female competitions. Some early organizations who invited women to compete included, International Fighting Championships, SuperBrawl, King of the Cage, Rage in the Cage, Ring of Combat, Bas Rutten Invitational, and HOOKnSHOOT. From the mid-2000s, more coverage came when organizations such as Strikeforce, EliteXC, Bellator Fighting Championships, and Shark Fights invited women to compete.
Outside Japan and the United States, female competition is almost exclusively found in minor local promotions. However, in Europe some major organizations have held select female competitions, including It's Showtime, Shooto Europe, Cage Warriors, and M-1 Global.
Following Zuffa's acquisition of Strikeforce in March 2011, the UFC began promoting women's fights, with Ronda Rousey rapidly becoming one of the promotion's biggest draws.
Controversy arose in 2013, when CFA (Championship Fighting Alliance) fighter Fallon Fox came out as a transgender woman. The case became a centerpiece of debates concerning whether it was fair to have a transgender woman compete against cisgender women in a contact sport. Neither the UFC nor Invicta FC says they will allow her to fight, and then-UFC Bantamweight champion Ronda Rousey said she would not fight her.
Amateur mixed martial arts
Amateur Mixed Martial Arts is the amateur version of the Mixed Martial Arts in which participants engage largely or entirely without remuneration. Under the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF) and World MMA Association (WMMAA), it is practiced within a safe and regulated environment which relies on a fair and objective scoring system and competition procedures similar to those in force in the professional Mixed Martial Arts rules.
Amateur MMA is practiced with board shorts and with approved protection gear that includes shin protectors, and amateur MMA gloves.
The International Mixed Martial Arts Federation and the World Mixed Martial Arts Association announced an amalgamation on April 11, 2018, uniting the two organisations behind one bid for Olympic sport recognition.
World Mixed Martial Arts Association
World Mixed Martial Arts Association (WMMAA) was founded in 2012 in Monaco by M-1 Global commercial promoters and is under the leadership of the General Secretary Alexander Endelgarth, President Finkelstein and Fedor Emelianenko. The World MMA Association is an organization that manages and develops mixed martial arts, it establishes rules and procedures and hosts MMA competitions.
World MMA Association includes national MMA organizations, representing the sport and registered in accordance with national laws.
As of December 2013 WMMAA has 38 member states under its umbrella, in 2017 World MMA Association has 83 members: Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Colombia, Czech Republic, France, Guatemala, Georgia, Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Serbia, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Venezuela.
On October 20, 2013, the first World MMA Championship was held in Saint Petersburg, Russia.
International Mixed Martial Arts Federation
On February 29, 2012, the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF) was set up to bring international structure, development and support to mixed martial arts worldwide. IMMAF launched with support of market leader, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). The IMMAF is a non-profit, democratic federation organized according to international federation standards to ensure that MMA as a sport is allowed the same recognition, representation and rights as all other major sports. The IMMAF is registered under Swedish law and is founded on democratic principles, as outlined in their statutes. As of March 2015, there are 39 total members from 38 countries, which come from Austria, Bahrain, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, India, Ireland (Northern Ireland), Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Lithuania, Malaysia, Nepal, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Romania, The Seychelles, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.
The IMMAF held its first Amateur World Championships in Las Vegas, USA, from June 30 to July 6, 2014.
Safety
Mixed Martial Arts competitions have changed dramatically since the first Ultimate Fighting
Championship in 1993, specifically with the inception of the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. There remains a paucity of data on injuries that occur in MMA, and resulting concerns with regard to MMA's safety remain. A 2014 systematic review concluded that the injury incidence rate in MMA appears to be greater than in most, if not all, other popular and commonly practiced combat sports.
Injury rates
In a 2014 meta-analysis of the available injury data in MMA, the injury incidence rate was estimated to be 228.7 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures (one athlete-exposure is defined as one athlete participating in a single fight). The estimated injury incidence rate in MMA is greater than in other full-contact combat sports such as judo (44.0 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures), taekwondo (79.4 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures), amateur boxing (77.7 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures), and professional boxing (118.0-250.6 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures).
Injury pattern
In general, the injury pattern in MMA is very similar to that in professional boxing but unlike that found in other combat sports such as judo and taekwondo. The most commonly injured body region is the head (66.8% to 78.0% of reported injuries) followed by the wrist/hand (6.0% to 12.0% of reported injuries), while the most frequent types of injury were laceration (36.7% to 59.4% of reported injuries), fracture (7.4% to 43.3% of reported injuries), and concussion (3.8% to 20.4% of reported injuries). The frequency of impact to the ear and low utilization of ear protection leads to a high frequency of perichondral hematoma that can lead to cauliflower ear.
Brain injury and CTE
Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage. There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person. Also, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, abbreviated CTE. This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased. In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE.
Because the disease is detected post-mortem, and MMA are relatively young, there are still few cases of CTE recognized in MMA, although there are more and more suspected and confirmed cases of CTE. In preliminary results reported in April 2012 as part of an ongoing study of a 109 professional boxers and MMA fighters being conducted by Dr. Charles Bernick and his colleagues at Cleveland Clinic's Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, fighters with more than six years of ring experience were observed to have reductions in size in their hippocampus and thalamus, while fighters with more than twelve years of ring experience were observed to have both reductions in size and symptoms such as memory loss (the hippocampus and thalamus deal with memory and alertness). Dr. Bernick speculates that the cumulative damage over time from lesser blows may eventually prove an even more important topic of study than that of infrequent concussions.
In January 2021, veteran UFC fighter Spencer Fisher confirmed to MMA Fighting that he suffered from all the symptoms of CTE: "I'm just beat up, and it's just gotten worse, like all my injuries are catching up with me now, aside from the brain thing, which is the biggest one, because it adds, it adds the depression, and putting things, thoughts together and staying on track". Later, Dana White ruled on this: "He's not the first and he's definitely not going to be the last. This is a contact sport and anybody who's ever done this younger, myself included, is dealing with brain issues. It's part of the gig". In late 2021, Rose Gracie, daughter of UFC founder Rorion Gracie, in an interview about CTE on the MMA Fighting podcast, calls lack of CTE awareness in MMA 'criminal negligence'.
Fatalities
There have been seven known deaths in MMA to date.
There were no documented cases of deaths after a sanctioned MMA event prior to 2007.
Since 2007, there have been six fatalities in mixed martial arts matches. The first was the death of Sam Vasquez on November 30, 2007. Vasquez collapsed shortly after being knocked out by Vince Libardi in the third round of an October 20, 2007 fight at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas. Vasquez had two separate surgeries to remove blood clots from his brain, and shortly after the second operation suffered a stroke and did not regain consciousness.
The second death stemming from a sanctioned mixed martial arts contest occurred in South Carolina on June 28, 2010, when 30-year-old Michael Kirkham was knocked out and never regained consciousness. He was pronounced dead two days after the fight.
The third death on August 11, 2012, involved 30 year old Tyrone Mims, who was making his amateur MMA debut at “Conflict MMA: Fight Night at the Point VI” in South Carolina, making his the second MMA-related death in the state. After being TKO’d in the second round of the fight he became unresponsive and was taken to Medical University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead one hour later. No evidence of brain trauma or concussion was found and the initial autopsy has proved inconclusive. Coroner Rae Wooten explained that his death may likely have been from an irregular heartbeat caused by over exertion; however whether or not his death was a direct result of his fight remains a mystery.
On February 27, 2014, 29-year-old Booto Guylain was transported to Johannesburg General Hospital to be treated for swelling and bleeding on the brain after suffering a KO loss via elbow in the last round of his fight in South African promotion “Extreme Fighting Championship Africa”. He was unable to make a recovery, and after one week in the hospital he was pronounced dead.
On April 9, 2016, 28-year-old João Carvalho, died following a Total Extreme Fighting event at the National Stadium in Dublin (Ireland). The Portuguese fighter was beaten by technical knockout in a fight on 9 April 2016 against Charlie Ward, and fell ill twenty minutes after the fight. He was taken immediately to Beaumont hospital, where he underwent emergency brain surgery, but died two days later.
On July 15, 2017, after a TKO loss resulting from unanswered punches in the second round of his fight, 37 year old Donshay White became unresponsive and collapsed in his locker room and was rushed to the KentuckyOne Health Sts. Mary & Elizabeth Hospital in Kentucky. He was soon pronounced dead and was revealed to be caused by hypertensive/atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.
Another death occurred in the UK on 17 November 2019 when 26-year-old Saeideh Aletaha died in hospital after being knocked out in the third round of a contest at Central Hall in Southampton that was part of the Fast and Furious fight series.
Legality of professional competitions
Australia
MMA in Australia is permitted in all States and Territories of Australia by various combat sports authorities and organizations. There is debate about the use of the cage, which was banned in Victoria in 2007 and then relegalized in 2015. The cage was banned in Western Australia in 2013, but its use was again permitted in 2017.
Bahrain
MMA is legal in Bahrain. Bahrain National MMA Federation (BNMMAF) has been set up under the patronage of Sheikh Khalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa and the jurisdiction of the Sports Minister Sheikh Nasser bin Hamad Al Khalifa. The development of MMA in the nation is convened through KHK MMA, which also owns Brave Combat Federation, which is the largest Mixed Martial Arts promotion in the Middle East. Bahrain will be hosting World MMA Amateurs Championship 2017 supported by International Mixed Martial Arts Federation.
Belgium
MMA is tolerated in Belgium but not supported. In May 2012 the Belgian MMA Federation (BMMAF) was accepted by the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation as its third member, after several years of carrying out many of the tasks of a national federation under the former name of the Belgian Shooto and MMA Federation. Active in developing MMA in Belgium from 2005, the group later redefined their activities to include MMA in order to be able to use a cage. Registered as a federation in Belgium in 2006, the former Belgian Shooto and MMA Federation organized more than 1500 MMA bouts (Amateur, B class and A class), and built a structure for the sport nationally that included insurance, rules and regulation, and experience levels for fighters and technical seminars. The BMMAF has continued its activities as part of the wider MMA community under IMMAF.
Brazil
January 17, 2013 saw the announcement that the Brazilian MMA Athletic Commission, or Comissao Atletica Brasileira de MMA (CABMMA), had joined the International MMA Federation. The CABMMA represents state federations across Brazil and is spearheaded by lawyers Giovanni Biscardi and Rafael Favettia, a former Executive Secretary of the Minister of Justice and Interim Minister of Justice. The CABMMA supervised its first event with "UFC on FX 7" on January 19, 2013, at Ibirapuera Gymnasium in São Paulo.
The CABMMA first hit international sports headlines when it suspended fighter Rousimar Palhares for prolonging a submission on opponent Mike Pierce, despite him tapping several times, during UFC Fight Night 29 in Barueri, Brazil on October 9, 2013. The CABMMA was called to preside over another controversial situation involving a Brazilian competitor, when Vitor Belfort's use of Testosterone Replacement Therapy came to light over UFC on FX 8 (May 18, 2013)
Bulgaria
Appearing on professional basis around 2008–2009, MMA is a new sport in Bulgaria and growing rapidly. With a strong wrestling and boxing culture in the region, general interest in the sport is huge. However, it remains unregulated. The Bulgarian Federation for Mixed Martial Arts was elected as the national federation representing the Republic of Bulgaria under the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation in October 2014; and like all IMMAF members, is a non-profit, democratic organization. Established in November 2013 by 10 MMA clubs, the organization is headed by UFC competitor Stanislav Nedkov. The federation's registration to the Ministry of Justice was approved in June 2014 and its application for formal recognition by the Ministry of Sport is in its advanced stages.
Cambodia
In January 2013, the Cambodian Mixed Martial Arts Association was created under the Cambodian Martial Arts Federation.
At this time there are no MMA events organized with the CMMAA approval. Television channel MYTV holds its KWC promotion under the sanctioning of the Cambodian Boxing Federation, responsible for sanctioning all boxing and Kun Khmer events in the country, in direct contrast to the situation in neighbouring Thailand.
Canada
For many years, professional MMA competitions were illegal in Canada. Section 83(2) of the Canadian Criminal Code deemed that only boxing matches where only fists are used are considered legal. However most provinces regulated it by a provincial athletic commission (skirting S. 83(2) by classifying MMA as "mixed boxing"), such as the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Northwest Territories. The legality of MMA in the provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, and New Brunswick varies depending on the municipality. Professional MMA competitions remain illegal in the Canadian provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, Yukon, and Nunavut because it is not regulated by an athletic commission.
Canada formally decriminalized mixed martial arts with a vote on Bill S-209 on June 5, 2013. The bill formally gives provinces the power to create athletic commissions to regulate and sanction professional mixed martial arts bouts. Bill S-209 does not in and of itself make MMA legal across Canada; it allows provinces to make it legal on a province by province basis.
China
The first professional mixed martial arts promotion was Art of War Fighting Championship which was founded by Andrew Pi, a Chinese American BJJ practitioner. After defeating Xu Xiaodong in a televised MMA match he noticed the lack of formal rules, medical care or oversight which could have led to MMA and BJJ being banned in China so he came up with an idea to create a regulated professional MMA promotion. Art of War I was held at the Beijing Sports University on November 6, 2005, making it the first professional MMA event to be held in China.
In 2011, the Ranik Ultimate Fighting Federation (RUFF) hosted the first MMA event in Shanghai sanctioned by China's governing body for combat sports, the Wushu Sports Management Center of the General Administration of Sport in China. RUFF formally crowned the first Chinese national MMA champions in 2013 with each champion receiving 1,000,000 RMB in prize money. Other MMA promotions in China include the 'Real Fight Championship', which has produced three events in Henan and Beijing.
Denmark
In Denmark, Mixed Martial Arts may be practiced but is not an official or legally regulated sport. On November 11, 2012, the voluntary Danish Mixed Martial Arts Federation held its first official general assembly in Odense, Denmark. There the DMMAF was officially founded and a board was elected headed up by President Claus Larsen. The Federation was publicly launched on Friday November 24, inviting Danish MMA organizations, gyms and academies to sign up as members. The DMMAF is working towards recognition under the Danish Sports Federation, Dansk Idræts Forbund. On November 25 the DMMAF's application to the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation was approved.
France
There remains political opposition to MMA in France and full contact MMA competition was banned until 2020. All bouts on French soil recorded as Mixed Martial Arts were in fact held under Pancrase Rules and other variants (Pankration, Kempo, Pankido). These bouts involved no striking on the ground as it was illegal in the country. The Commission National de Mixed Martial Arts (CNMMA) was founded as a non-profit organization for the development of MMA in 2009. The CNMMA had worked over four years to put an educational structure in place, including a technical system for the safe progression from grass-roots level, all the way up to the top professional level. Comprising 11 regional leagues working under regional technical advisers and teams, the CNMMA joined the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF) in March 2013 as The Commission Française de Mixed Martial Arts (CFMMA). In 2012, CFMMA president Bertrand Amoussou ascended to the position of President of the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation. On June 24, 2019, Roxana Maracineanu, France's minister of sport announced the legalization of mixed martial arts as of January 1, 2020. On October 8th, 2020 the country's first officially regulated MMA event went ahead in Vitry-sur-Seine. Dubbed the Mixed Martial Arts Grand Prix.
India
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports (India) has not recognized Mixed Martial Arts as a sport in India. There exist multiple bodies of association and federations which offer services to organize Mixed martial Arts events across India. Among them are All India Mixed Martial Arts Association (AIMMAA) and MMA India – National Sports Federation. Mixed Martial Arts events have been organized in India by Super Fight League, Brave Combat Federation, and Kumite 1 League.
Ireland
The Irish Martial Arts Commission, which is recognized by the Irish Sports Council, does not include MMA among its recognized martial arts. The Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport does not recognise MMA as a sport. UFC Fight Night 46, featuring Conor McGregor, was held in Dublin in 2014.
Mixed Martial Arts Federation Ireland (MMAFI), intended as a federation for amateur MMA clubs, gained observer status at IMMAF in June 2012. MMAFI had a meeting in March 2013 with the Northern Ireland sports minister, Carál Ní Chuilín about the prospect of getting recognition from Sport Northern Ireland.
Japan
MMA competition has been legal in Japan since at least the mid-1980s, when Pancrase fights began to be held. There are several MMA-related organizations, including RIZIN FF, DEEP, Pancrase, Shooto, Fighting Nexus, Deep, Grachan and ZST.
Malaysia
In July 2013 the Malaysia Mixed Martial Arts Association (MASMMAA) was formally announced as the official national governing body for MMA in Malaysia, ahead of its formation in December 2013. MASMMAA is registered under the Malaysian Sports Development Act 1997 and recognized by the Commissioner of Sports, under the auspices of the office of the Youth & Sports Ministry. The federation comprises representatives of ten states out of fourteen in Malaysia. MASMMAA became affiliated to the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation in April 2014.
Norway
In Norway, professional MMA is illegal. Since 1981, all sports involving knockouts as a method of victory were banned but it was lifted for professional boxing in late 2014. Norwegian MMA fighters must therefore travel abroad to compete. The Norwegian MMA Federation (NMMAF) was elected as a full member of the International MMA Federation (IMMAF) on April 22, 2012, representing 49 member gyms across Norway.
In 2012 the "Merkekamper" concept was introduced by the NMMAF, with government sanctioning, which enables member MMA gyms to hold events with sparring matches, but governed by strict rules concerning how hard a fighter is permitted to strike.
On April 5, 2019, MMA was recognized by and welcomed into the Norwegian Martial Arts Federation (Norwegian Kampsportforbundet), a federation of the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF) with the goal of growing the amateur sport.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, Mixed Martial Arts Pakistan organizes MMA events. The organization was founded in 2007 by veteran Pakistani MMA fighter Bashir Ahmad for promotion of MMA in Pakistan.
Portugal
The FMMAP is recognized by the Portuguese government as a non-profit sports federation and oversees Amateur MMA competition and coaching nationally. Based in Vila do Conde, the Federação de Mixed Martial Arts de Portugal (FMMAP) was founded as a collaborative effort between six existing non-profit organizations in 2012, as Portugal's first dedicated MMA Federation. This is in line with government requirements for all sport federations in Portugal which stipulates that they consist of at least three associated, non-profit groups. The composite FMMAP organisations are all involved in the coaching and promotion of MMA with a shared goal for the amateur sport, but come from various martial arts that include Karate, Kickboxing, Muay Thai, Pankration Athlima, Mixed Martial Arts, Jeet Kune Do, Freestyle martial arts, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Wrestling. Affiliated groups at launch were AAMU – Associação Artes Marciais, Associação de Artes Marciais e Desportos de Combate (Açores), Associação Areagon (Chaves City), Associação Mirandelense de Artes Orientais (Mirandela City), Associação Portuguesa de Ciências de Combate/JKD Unlimited Portugal (Lisbon City), KMD MMA system (Porto City), Barcelos Gym (Barcelos City). The FMMAP is affiliated to the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF).
Romania
The Romanian Mixed Martial Arts Federation (RMMAF) was established in 2012 as a legal non-profit federation under the Ministry of Youth and Sport in Romania. The Federation was formed by the board of MMA organization AGON and backed by a broad representation of the Romanian MMA community, including around twenty MMA clubs and non-profit MMA organizations around the country. Based in Bucharest, Romania AGON club was founded in its present legal form in June 2012, following a long period of time of acting under different other organisations, with Gheorghe Stanciu elected as its president. The RMMAF is affiliated to the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF).
Russia
In September 2012, MMA was given 'National Sport' status in Russia, and on the same day fighter and M-1 Global promoter Fedor Emelianenko was appointed to the role of Russian MMA Union president.
Singapore
The MMA program at Singapore is licensed by the Cantonment Police Division.
Sweden
MMA competition is legal and under the purview of the Swedish Mixed Martial Arts Federation (SMMAF), which was formed in 2007 and began overseeing MMA events and governing the sport as a whole in 2008. In 2009 the SMMAF was accepted into the Association of Swedish Budo and Martial Arts Federation, thus granting MMA "national sport" status and making its approved clubs eligible for partial government subsidization. On April 30, 2011, the SMMAF sanctioned the first event under its purview to utilize the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. The Swedish Mixed Martial Arts Federation governs the sport of MMA in Sweden as a member affiliated to the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation.
The SMMAF hit the headlines when it withdrew Swedish headliner, Alexander Gustafsson, from competing at UFC on FUEL 9 in Sweden (April 6, 2013), due to a facial laceration.
South Africa
MMA competition is legal and under the purview of the Professional Mixed Martial Arts Council or PROMMA Africa, which was formed in 2010 with the main purpose to regulate MMA at larger MMA promotions such as EFC Worldwide (Formerly known as EFC Africa). PROMMA Africa began overseeing Rise of the Warrior MMA events in 2010. In 2012 the PROMMA Africa Council was accepted into the Mixed Martial Arts Association of South Africa (MASA) thus granting MMA "national sport" status. In addition to EFC Africa, there are other leagues such as Dragon Legends MMA.
Taiwan
MMA is officially sanctioned by the government and sports authorities of Taiwan and numerous Taiwanese MMA fighters are currently training and competing at international level, with several in the UFC and other MMA organizations. Many major international MMA fights are held at stadiums in Taiwan every year. Additionally, many martial arts schools and gyms in Taiwan provide professional level MMA training.
Thailand
In 2012, the Sports Authority of Thailand banned competitions. It has been speculated that the Muay Thai industry played a factor in the Sports Authority of Thailand (SAT)'s final decision, as MMA could potentially take away business from Muay Thai. SAT Deputy Governor Sakol Wannapong has said "Organizing a MMA event here would hurt the image of Muay Thai, if you want to do this kind of business, you should do it in another country. Organizing MMA here could mislead the public into believing that Muay Thai is brutal."
Jussi Saloranta, the owner of Thailand's only MMA promotion, DARE Fight Sports, revealed that his lawyers found that the ban was actually premature, and that from a legal standpoint, there is no law banning mixed martial arts in the country, suggesting that the SAT's ban was more of a scare tactic. DARE continue to showcase events, informing fans only at the last minute through texts on the day of the event, and presenting the videos on YouTube as The Most Dangerous Gameshow. Saloranta has also helped set up the MMA Association of Thailand, in the hopes of reaching a compromise with SAT and regulating mixed martial arts in Thailand.
On September 12, 2013, DARE Fight Sports released a statement announcing SAT had removed the ban on MMA and would henceforth sanction the sport in Thailand.
Dare Fight Sports is currently the only MMA organization in Thailand to be officially sanctioned and publicized by the tourism authority of Thailand, although there are new MMA organizations appearing around the country.
United States
In the United States, professional MMA is overseen by the Association of Boxing Commissions. According to the Associations of Boxing Commissions, professional MMA competitions are allowed in all states. Alaska has no boxing or athletic commission. Montana has a state athletic commission, although it does not regulate MMA. However, MMA is legal in both states. West Virginia became the 44th state to regulate mixed martial arts on March 24, 2011. On March 8, 2012, Wyoming became the 45th state to regulate MMA. On May 4, 2012, it was announced that Vermont had become the 46th state to regulate MMA. Legislation allowing MMA in Connecticut came into effect on October 1, 2013, making it the 47th state to regulate the sport. On March 22, 2016, the New York State Assembly voted to lift the State's 1997 ban on MMA and on April 14, 2016, Governor Cuomo signed the bill legalizing and regulating the sport into law.
Vietnam
On February 20, 2020, deputy minister of Internal Affairs, Tran Anh Tuan signed the legalisation of the MMA sport in Vietnam.
See also
Hybrid martial arts
List of current mixed martial arts champions
List of female mixed martial artists
List of male mixed martial artists
List of undefeated mixed martial artists
List of Mixed Martial Artists with the most sanctioned fights
Mixed martial arts clothing
Mixed martial arts competition for children
Shoot fighting
References
External links
Rocky Maricano's final opponent Big Bob Baker, father of Mixed Martial Arts
Combat sports | [
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228348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow%20crazy%20ant | Yellow crazy ant | The yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) is a species of ant, thought to have originated in West Africa, that has been accidentally introduced to numerous places in the world's tropics.
It is colloquially called "crazy" because of its erratic movements when disturbed. Its long legs and antennae make it one of the largest invasive ant species in the world.
Like several other invasive ants, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), the big-headed ant (Pheidole megacephala), the little fire ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), and the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), this is a "tramp ant", a species that easily becomes established and dominant in new habitat due to traits such as aggression toward other ant species, little aggression toward members of its own species, efficient recruitment, and large colony size. Also known as the long-legged ant or Maldive ant, it is on a list of "one hundred of the world's worst invasive species" formulated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It has invaded ecosystems from Hawaii to Seychelles, and formed supercolonies on Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean.
Physiology
Anoplolepis gracilipes is a relatively large, yellow to orange ant with long legs, large eyes and extremely long antennal scapes.
Although A. gracilipes is the only invasive species in the genus Anoplolepis, there are several other genera that it can be mistaken for. Both Leptomyrmex and Oecophylla can be confused with Anoplolepis because of their similar sizes and very long limbs. Anoplolepis can be distinguished from Leptomyrmex by the presence of an acidopore. Anoplolepis can be distinguished from Oecophylla by the more compact petiole. Although both of these genera occur in the Pacific, neither contain any invasive species.
Several species of invasive ants belonging to the genera Camponotus and Paratrechina can appear similar to A. gracilipes. Although several invasive species of Pheidole can also be slender-bodied with long legs and long antennal scapes, they can be separated from A. gracilipes by their two-segmented waists.
A. gracilipes is widespread across the tropics, and populations are especially dense in the Pacific region. The species is most infamous for causing the ecological "meltdown" of Christmas Island. Although widespread across the Pacific, A. gracilipes can cause significant damage to native biological diversity, and strong quarantine measures are encouraged to keep it from spreading to new localities.
Geographical range and dispersal
The yellow crazy ant's natural habitat are the moist tropical lowlands of Southeast Asia, and surrounding areas and islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It has been introduced into a wide range of tropical and subtropical environments including northern Australia, some of the Caribbean islands, some Indian Ocean islands (Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, the Cocos Islands and the Christmas Islands) and some Pacific islands (New Caledonia, Hawaii, French Polynesia, Okinawa, Vanuatu, Micronesia, Johnston Atoll, and the Galapagos archipelago). The species has been known to occupy such agricultural systems as cinnamon, citrus, coffee and coconut plantations. Because the ant has generalized nesting habits, they are able to disperse via trucks, boats and other forms of human transport.
Crazy ant colonies naturally disperse through "budding", i.e. when mated queens and workers leave the nest to establish a new one, and only rarely through flight via female winged reproductive forms. Generally, colonies that disperse through "budding" have a lower rate of dispersal and need human intervention to reach distant areas. It has been recorded that A. gracilipes moves as much as a year in Seychelles. A survey on Christmas Island, however, yielded an average spreading speed of a day, the equivalent of one kilometer (0.6 mile) a year.
Diet
A. gracilipes has been described as a "scavenging predator" and has a broad diet, a characteristic of many invasive species. It consumes a wide variety of foods, including grains, seeds, arthropods, and decaying matter, including vertebrate corpses. They have been reported to attack and dismember invertebrates such as small isopods, myriapods, molluscs, arachnids, land crabs, earthworms and insects.
Like all ants, A. gracilipes requires a protein-rich food source for the queen to lay eggs and carbohydrates as energy for the workers. They get their carbohydrates from plant nectar and honeydew producing insects, especially scale insects, aphids, and other Sternorrhyncha. Studies indicate that crazy ants rely so much on the scale insects that scarcity of them can actually limit ant population growth.
Mutualism
Crazy ants get much of their food requirements from scale insects, serious plant pests that feed on sap of trees and release honeydew, a sugary liquid. Ants eat honeydew, and in return protect the scale from their enemies and spread them among trees, an example of mutualism. The honeydew not eaten by ants drips onto the trees and encourages the growth of sooty mold over the leaves and stems. This gives plants an ugly black appearance and reduces their health and vigour.
The ants protect the insects by "nannying" the mobile crawler stages and protecting them against their natural enemies. Experiments have shown that this connection is so strong that, in environments where A. gracilipes was removed, the density of scale insects dropped by 67% within 11 weeks, and to zero after 12 months.
In Australia
In Australia, yellow crazy ants have been found at more than 30 sites in Queensland, and in Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, where a large scattered population exists. A single New South Wales infestation was detected and eradicated, and in Western Australia yellow crazy ants have been intercepted in shipping freight arriving at Fremantle.
Queensland's main infestation is in and around Wet Tropics of Queensland rainforest, a World Heritage Site. The Northern Territory infestation covers , an area larger than the Australian Capital Territory.
Climate modelling indicates yellow crazy ants could spread across northern Australia from Queensland to Western Australia, across much of Queensland and into coastal and inland parts of New South Wales. Areas with the most ideal habitat and climatic conditions, such as the Wet Tropics of Queensland rainforests, are likely to experience the highest impacts.
A costbenefit analysis by the Queensland government found that yellow crazy ants could cost Australia's economy over A$3 billion if the ants were not treated. This analysis did not take potential impacts on Australia's biodiversity into account. The known impacts of crazy ants in tropical rainforests overseas may provide useful insights into these impacts, bearing in mind that the most significant impacts are associated with relatively small islands, such as Christmas Island.
Impact on Christmas Island
Crazy ants have had a profound impact on the biodiversity of Christmas Island.
The crazy ant has a significant destructive impact on the island's ecosystem, killing and displacing crabs on the forest floor. The super-colonies also devastate crab numbers migrating to the coast. This has seen a rapid depletion in the number of land crabs —killing up to 20 million of them — which are vital to Christmas Island's biodiversity; land crabs are a keystone species in the forest ecology: they dig burrows, turn over the soil, and fertilize it with their droppings.
Seedlings that were previously eaten by crabs started to grow and, as a result, changed the structure of the forest. Weeds also spread into the rainforest because there are no crabs to control them. One of the most noticeable changes in the forest is the increased numbers of the stinging tree Dendrocnide peltata, which now flourishes in many areas frequently visited by humans. The forest canopy also changed as the scale insects tended by yellow crazy ants multiplied and killed mature trees.
Christmas Island red crabs are completely wiped out in infested areas. Populations of other ground and canopy dwelling animals, such as reptiles and other leaf litter fauna, have also decreased. During crab migrations, many crabs move through areas infested with ants and are killed. Studies show that the ant has displaced an estimated 15–20 million crabs by occupying their burrows, killing and eating resident crabs, and using their burrows as nest sites. This factor has greatly depleted red crabs, and made their annual land migrations far more perilous.
Although crazy ants do not bite or sting, they spray formic acid as a defence mechanism and to subdue their prey. In areas of high ant density, the movement of a land crab disturbs the ants and, as a result, the ants instinctively spray formic acid as a form of defence. The high levels of formic acid at ground level eventually overwhelm the crabs, and they are usually blinded then eventually die from dehydration (while attempting to flush off the formic acid) and exhaustion. As the dead crabs decay, the protein becomes available to the ants.
Crazy ants kill fauna, but encourage scale insects. Increased densities of scale insects cause forest die back, and even the death of large forest trees. These changes create a cascade of negative impacts, including weed invasion, significantly altering the forest landscape.
Supercolonies
Christmas Island is a focal point for international control efforts. These supercolonies spread farther and cause more damage than single colonies, and they pose the single greatest known threat to the island's biodiversity.
Staff from Christmas Island National Park have worked in recent years to keep ant numbers in check. With help from the Christmas Island Crazy Ant Scientific Advisory Panel and support from the Australian Government they are holding ground.
Another supercolony nearly devastated the bird fauna of Johnston Atoll in the Pacific Ocean. The single massive colony was found to occupy nearly a quarter of the island, with up to 1,000 queens in a plot of land wide. The infestation is thought to have been eradicated.
Control measures
To reduce the impacts of crazy ants on red crabs and Christmas Island's ecosystems the Parks Australia carried out a major aerial baiting program in 2009, to follow up the first aerial baiting conducted in 2002. The first step was conducting an extensive island-wide survey to determine the exact locations of the supercolonies. For several months, staff traversed the island surveying over 900 sites. The result was a map of crazy ant supercolonies and red crab burrow densities, together with other biodiversity data.
In September 2009, a helicopter was used to precisely bait crazy ant supercolonies, which covered of the island. A very low concentration of fipronil bait (0.1%) was used to control the ants. Monthly monitoring of these baited supercolony sites shows that crazy ant densities were reduced by 99%.
Park staff placed a high emphasis on minimising non-target impact of baiting. Food lures were dropped from a helicopter to attract robber crabs away from areas that were about to be baited. This technique, combined with the low concentration fipronil bait, proved to be highly successful with extremely low numbers of robber crabs and no red crabs known to be killed by the baiting.
While baiting has slowed the decline of the red crab, its effects on the crazy ant populations are only temporary, as escaping colonies invade the treated areas again, and it is expensive, requiring much man power. In an effort to find a better control, after research, Australian Parks in December 2016 imported Tachardiaephagus somervillei, a small (2 mm) wasp and began breeding them for release. The wasp, which attacks only scale insects, is a voracious predator of what is believed to be one of the crazy ant's largest source of honey dew on Christmas Island, the yellow lac scale insect.
Researchers from La Trobe University in Melbourne, funded by Parks Australia, began looking for biological controls in 2009. While the ants are omnivores, studies have shown honey dew is an important part of the diet of Christmas Island crazy ants. Samples of ants taken from colonies that are growing rapidly have more honey dew in their diet than when the colonies decline. Further, restricting access to honey dew, by binding trees where the scale insects feed, dramatically reduced the colony as ant activity on the ground fell by 95% in just four weeks. In the laboratory, colonies with limited sources of sugar were compared to colonies with access to abundant sugar. Those with abundant sugar had more fertile queens and lower death rates among workers. The workers were also more aggressive toward other ant species and explored their environments more. This is believed to show why the ants decline when deprived of access to scale insects in the field, and confirm reduced honey dew will greatly reduce the ants ability to form super colonies.
While controlling the yellow lac scale insect is expected to control the yellow crazy ant on Christmas Island, on mainland Australia it is thought this would not help. There are at least a dozen honey dew producing insects as well as extrafloral nectar from native acacia trees, all of which fuel yellow crazy ants.
Experts continue to call for a fully funded, long term baiting program on mainland Australia.
References
External links
Fauna of Christmas Island
Formicinae
Insect pests of tropical forests
Insects described in 1857
Insects of India
Taxa named by Frederick Smith (entomologist) | [
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228350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian%20Dublin | Georgian Dublin | Georgian Dublin is a phrase used in terms of the history of Dublin that has two interwoven meanings:
to describe a historic period in the development of the city of Dublin, Ireland, from 1714 (the beginning of the reign of King George I of Great Britain and of Ireland) to the death in 1830 of King George IV. During this period, the reign of the four Georges, hence the word Georgian, covers a particular and unified style, derived from Palladian Architecture, which was used in erecting public and private buildings
to describe the modern day surviving buildings in Dublin erected in that period and which share that architectural style
Though, strictly speaking, Georgian architecture could only exist during the reigns of the four Georges, it had its antecedents prior to 1714 and its style of building continued to be erected after 1830, until replaced by later styles named after the then monarch, Queen Victoria, i.e. Victorian.
Dublin's development
Dublin was for much of its existence a medieval city, marked by the existence of a particular style of buildings, built on narrow winding medieval streets. The first major changes to this pattern occurred during the reign of King Charles II when the then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Earl of Ormonde (later made Duke of Ormonde) issued an instruction which was to have dramatic repercussions for the city as it exists today. Though the city over the century had grown around the River Liffey, as in many other medieval cities, buildings backed onto the river. This allowed the dumping of household waste directly into the river, creating a form of collective sewer. As Dublin's quays underwent development, Ormonde insisted that the frontages of the houses, not their rears, should face the quay sides, with a street to run along each quay. By this single regulation Ormonde changed the face of the city. No longer would the river be a sewer hidden between buildings. Instead it became a central feature of the city, with its quays lined by large three and four-storey houses and classic public buildings, such as the Four Courts, the old Custom House and, later and grander, The Custom House designed, as was the Four Courts, by master architect James Gandon. For his initiative, Ormonde's name is now given to one of the city quays.
It was, however, only one of a number of crucial developments. As the city grew in size, stature, population and wealth, two changes were needed. (1) The existing narrow street medieval city required major redevelopment, and (2) major new development of residential areas was required.
Rebuilding Dublin's Core
A new body called the Wide Streets Commission was created to remodel the old medieval city. It created a network of main thoroughfares by wholesale demolition or widening of old streets or the creation of entirely new ones. On the north side of the city, a series of narrow streets were merged and widened enormously to create a new street, called Sackville Street (now called O'Connell Street). At its lower end, a new bridge (now called O'Connell Bridge) was erected, beyond which two new streets in the form of a 'V' appeared, known as Westmoreland Street and D'Olier Street. Westmoreland Street in turn led to a renamed Hoggen Green, which became College Green because it faced unto Trinity College Dublin. The new Irish Houses of Parliament, designed by Edward Lovett Pearce, also faced onto College Green, while from College Green a new widened Dame Street led directly down to the medieval Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, past Dublin Castle and the Royal Exchange, the latter a new building. The Castle began the process of rebuilding, turning it from a medieval castle to a Georgian palace.
18th Century Property Developers
While the rebuilding by the Wide Streets Commission fundamentally changed the streetscape in Dublin, a property boom led to additional building outside the central core. Unlike twentieth century building booms in Dublin the eighteenth century developments were carefully controlled. The developing areas were divided into precincts, each of which was given to a different developer. The scope of their developments were restricted, however, with strict controls imposed on style of residential building, design of buildings and location, so producing a cohesive unity that came to be called Georgian Dublin.
Initially developments were focused on the city's north side. Among the earliest developments was Henrietta Street, a wide street lined on both sides by massive Georgian houses built on a palatial scale. At the top end of the street, a new James Gandon building, the King's Inns, was erected between 1795 and 1816. In this building, barristers were (and continue to be) trained and earned their academic qualifications. Such was the prestige of the street that many of the most senior figures in Irish 'establishment' society, peers of the realm, judges, barristers, bishops bought houses here. Under the anti-Catholic Penal Laws, Roman Catholics, though the overwhelming majority in Ireland, were harshly discriminated against, barred from holding property rights or from voting in parliamentary elections until 1793. Thus the houses of Georgian Dublin, particularly in the early phase before Catholic Emancipation was granted in 1829, were almost invariably owned by a small Church of Ireland Anglican elite, with Catholics only gaining admittance to the houses as skivvies and servants. A notable example of a catholic servant was Arthur Guinness who served Richard Laurence, Archbishop of Cashel in his residence at 43 North Great George's Street. Ultimately the north side was laid out centred on two major squares, Rutland Square (now called Parnell Square for Charles Stewart Parnell), at the top end of Sackville Street, and Mountjoy Square. Such was the prestige of the latter square that among its many prominent residents was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin. Many of the streets in the new areas were named after the property developers, often with developers commemorated both in their name and by their peerage should they have received one. Among the streets named after developers are Capel Street, Mountjoy Square and Aungier Street.
For the initial years of the Georgian era, the north side of the city was considered a far more respectable area to live. However, when the Earl of Kildare chose to move to a new large ducal palace built for him on what up to that point was seen as the inferior southside, he caused shock. When his Dublin townhouse, Kildare House (renamed Leinster House when he was made Duke of Leinster) was finished, it was by far the biggest aristocratic residence other than Dublin Castle, and it was greeted with envy.
The Earl had predicted that his move would be followed, and it was. Three new residential squares appeared on the southside, Merrion Square (facing his residence's garden front), St Stephen's Green and the smallest and last of Dublin's five Georgian squares to be built, Fitzwilliam Square. Aristocrats, bishops and the wealthy sold their northside townhouses and migrated to the new southside developments, even though many of the developments, particularly in Fitzwilliam Square, were smaller and less impressive than the buildings in Henrietta Street. While the wealthier people lived in houses on the squares, those with lesser means and lesser titles lived in smaller, less grand but still impressive developments off the main squares, such as Upper and Lower Mount Street and Leeson Street.
The Act of Union and Georgian Dublin
Although the Irish Parliament was composed exclusively of representatives of the Anglo Irish Ascendency, the established ruling minority Protestant community in Ireland, it did show significant sparks of independence, most notably the achievement of full legislative independence in 1782, where all the restrictions previously surrounding the powers of the new parliament in College Green, notably Poynings' Law were repealed. This period of legislative freedom however was short-lived.
In 1800, under pressure from the British Government of Mr. Pitt, in the wake of the rebellion of the last years of the century, which was aided and abetted by the French invasion in support of the rebels Dublin Castle administration of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland both the House of Commons and the House of Lords passed the Irish Act of Union, uniting both the Kingdom of Ireland and its parliament with the Kingdom of Great Britain and its parliament in London. As a result, from 1 January 1801 Dublin found itself without a parliament with which to draw hundreds of peers and bishops, along with their thousands of servants. While many did come to Dublin still for the Social Season, where the Lord Lieutenant hosted debutantes balls, state balls and drawing rooms in a period from January until St. Patrick's Day (17 March) every year, many found them less appealing than in the days when they could sit in parliament for a session in College Green. Many of the leading peers, including the Duke of Leinster and Viscount Powerscourt, almost immediately sold their palatial Dublin townhouses, Powerscourt House and Leinster House. Though many still flocked to Dublin every social season, many did not or went to London. The loss of their revenue and that of their extensive staff hurt the Dublin economy severely. While the 'new' Georgian centres southside continued to flourish, the northside Georgian squares soon fell into squalor, as new owners of the buildings crammed in massive numbers of poor into the former residences of earls and bishops, in some cases cramming an entire family into one old drawing room. Mountjoy Square in particular became run-down, until such was its state and degree of dereliction in the 1980s that it was used as a film set for stories set in post-blitz London and post-war Berlin. The empty shells of the graceful houses, reduced to unsanitary tenements before being demolished in the 1980s, were used as a backdrop for a U2 rock video.
Georgian Dublin today
In the years after independence in 1922, independent Ireland had little sympathy for Georgian Dublin, viewing it as a symbol of British rule and of the unionist identity that was alien to Irish identity. By this time, many of the gentry who had lived in them had moved elsewhere; some to the wealthy Victorian suburbs of Rathmines and Rathgar, Killiney and Ballsbridge, where Victorian residences were built on larger plots of land, allowing for gardens, rather than the lack of space of the Georgian eras. Those that had not moved in many cases had by the early twentieth century sold their mansions in Dublin. The abolition of the Dublin Castle administration and the Lord Lieutenant in 1922 saw an end to Dublin's traditional "Social Season" of masked balls, drawing rooms and court functions in the Castle. Many of the aristocratic families lost their heirs in the First World War, their homes in the country to IRA burnings (during the Irish War of Independence) and their townhouses to the Stock Market Crash of 1929. Daisy, the Countess of Fingall, in her regularly republished memoirs Seventy Years Young, wrote in the 1920s of the disappearance of that world and of her change from a big townhouse in Dublin, full of servants to a small flat with one maid. By the 1920s and certainly by the 1930s, many of the previous homes in Merrion Square had become business addresses of companies, with only Fitzwilliam Square of all the five squares having any residents. (Curiously, in the 1990s, new wealthy businessmen such as Sir Tony O'Reilly and Dermot Desmond began returning to live in former offices they had bought and converted back into homes.) By the 1930s, plans were discussed in Éamon de Valera's government to demolish all of Merrion Square, perhaps the most intact of the five squares, on the basis that the houses were "old fashioned" and "un-national". These plans were put on hold in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II and a lack of capital and investment and had been essentially forgotten about by 1945.
Many of the houses had been subdivided into tenement flats, and were often poorly maintained by the owners. In June 1963, two tenement houses collapsed within 10 days. The first happened in early on 2 June, when a house collapsed on Bolton Street, killing to elderly occupants. Then, on 12 June two young girls were killed when two four storey tenement houses on Fenian Street collapsed on to the street, crushing them. This led to local residents to call on the authorities to "clear the slums" and crack down on negligent landlords, but also is viewed as clearing the way for developers to demolish thee older buildings regardless of their condition. The tenements came to symbolise Dublin's urban poverty, with the focus being on clearing the inner-city slums and demolishing these Georgian structures under the building code as dangerous.
Further destruction of Georgian buildings did occur despite these circumstances. Mountjoy Square, was under threat when a large amount of property on the south side was demolished by property speculators during the 1960s and 70s; even so, buildings with facsimile facades were subsequently built in place, re-completing the square's uniform external appearance. The world's longest row of Georgian houses, running from the corner of Merrion Square down to Leeson Street Bridge, was divided in the early 1960s to demolish part of the row and replace them with a modern styled office block.
By the 1990s, attitudes had changed dramatically. Stricter new planning guidelines sought to protect the remaining Georgian buildings. During this period, a number of old houses in poor repair, which had been refused planning permission, caught fire and burnt to the ground, paved the way for redevelopment. However, in contrast with the lax development controls applied in Ireland for many decades, by the 1990s a changed mindset among politicians, planners and the leaders of Dublin City Council (formerly Dublin Corporation) desired to preserve as much as possible of the remaining Georgian buildings.
Perhaps the biggest irony for some is that residence that marked the move of the aristocrats from the northside to the southside (where the wealthier Dubliners have remained to this day), and that in some ways embodied Georgian Dublin, Leinster House, home of the Duke of Leinster, ended up as the parliament of independent republican Ireland; but his family also produced the republican leader Lord Edward Fitzgerald. The decision in the late 1950s to demolish a row of Georgian houses in Kildare Place and replace them with a brick wall was greeted with jubilation by a republican minister at the time, Kevin Boland, who said they stood for everything he opposed. He described members of the fledgling Irish Georgian Society, newly formed to seek to protect Georgian buildings, of being "belted earls".
See also
Newtown Pery, Georgian Limerick
References
Citations
Sources
Ó Gráda, Diarmuid, Georgian Dublin; The Forces That Shaped The City (Cork University Press, 2015, )
Further reading
External links
Civic and Ecclesiastical Architecture of Georgian Dublin Collection. A UCD Digital Library Collection. A selection of 35mm slides from the collection of the UCD School of Art History and Cultural Policy, focusing on the civic and ecclesiastical architecture of eighteenth-century Dublin.
Domestic Architecture of Georgian Dublin Collection. A UCD Digital Library Collection. A selection of 35mm slides from the collection of the UCD School of Art History and Cultural Policy, focusing on the domestic architecture of eighteenth-century Dublin.
Buildings and structures in Dublin (city)
History of County Dublin
Georgian architecture in Ireland | [
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228355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Naked%20Gun%3A%20From%20the%20Files%20of%20Police%20Squad%21 | The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! | The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! (also known as simply The Naked Gun) is a 1988 American crime comedy film directed by David Zucker and released by Paramount Pictures. The film stars Leslie Nielsen as the bumbling police lieutenant Frank Drebin. Priscilla Presley, Ricardo Montalbán, George Kennedy, and O. J. Simpson also star in supporting roles.
The film features fast-paced slapstick comedy, including many visual and verbal puns and gags. The film is based on the character portrayed by Nielsen in the television series Police Squad!, and is also a continuation of the latter. The core creative team behind Police Squad! and the film series includes the team of David Zucker, Jim Abrahams, and Jerry Zucker as well as Pat Proft in varying combinations.
Released on December 2, 1988, The Naked Gun was a critical and commercial success, which led to two sequels: The Naked Gun : The Smell of Fear (1991) and Naked Gun : The Final Insult (1994).
Plot
Police Squad Lieutenant Frank Drebin, taking a vacation in Beirut, disrupts a conference of America's greatest enemies (Idi Amin, Muammar Gaddafi, Ayatollah Khomeini, Yasser Arafat, Fidel Castro, and Mikhail Gorbachev) who are trying to conceive a terrorist plan to humiliate the U.S. In Los Angeles, Officer Nordberg attempts to bust a heroin drug operation at the docks organized by dock's owner Vincent Ludwig, and is shot by Ludwig's henchmen. After returning to L.A. and being briefed on the case by his boss, Captain Ed Hocken, Drebin visits Nordberg in the hospital. Nordberg provides cryptic clues, including a picture of Ludwig's ship on which the deal had been organized. Frank meets with police scientist Ted Olsen, who has invented a cufflink that shoots tranquilizer darts. Frank learns through Ted that Nordberg's jacket tested positive for heroin.
Police Squad is put in charge of security for the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Los Angeles, and Ed tells Frank that he has 24 hours to clear Nordberg before word gets out about what happened and detracts from the queen's visit.
When Frank visits Ludwig in his office, Ludwig learns that Nordberg is still alive. Ludwig has his assistant, Jane Spencer, assist Frank in his investigation, and the two fall in love. However, Jane is unaware of her employer's illegal activities. After Frank leaves the office, Ludwig meets with Pahpshmir, a participant of the Beirut meeting, to discuss an assassination plot against the queen. Ludwig agrees to do it for $20 million, with Pahpshmir wondering how he plans to pull it off. Ludwig explains that using a beeper he will create the assassin using post-hypnotic suggestion. Ludwig attempts to have Nordberg killed at the hospital by hypnotizing a doctor. While Frank successfully protects Nordberg, in the ensuing chase the assassin crashes a car into a gasoline truck, then a ballistic missile, and finally a fireworks factory, causing Frank to fail to uncover the motive behind the attempted murder.
Frank breaks into Ludwig's office in his absence, searching for evidence. Although Frank finds a note from Pahpshmir addressed to Ludwig which confirms his suspicions, he inadvertently starts a fire that destroys the note and the office. Frank later has a run-in with one of Ludwig's men at his factory in a stockyard, and after that confronts Ludwig with his allegations at a reception for the Queen's arrival. Frank misinterprets Ludwig's presentation of a musket to the Queen as an attack and tries to protect her, but only causes more of a problem and is fired from Police Squad. Afterward, Jane finds out about the plot and tells Frank that the plan will be executed at a baseball game between the Seattle Mariners and the California Angels at Anaheim Stadium during the seventh inning stretch and that one of the players will perform the act.
The police squad arrives at the stadium. In order to search the players, Frank knocks the home plate umpire out with a baseball bat and takes his place, frisking the players for weapons while they are at bat. The seventh-inning stretch begins and Ludwig activates his "sleeper", Reggie Jackson. Jane alerts Frank, who chases after Jackson and tackles him, but Jackson manages to get away when Frank's action starts a bench-clearing brawl. Ludwig holds Jane at gunpoint as he begins to leave the stadium while Jackson takes aim at the Queen. Frank tries to incapacitate Jackson with one of his cufflink darts, but misses and hits a large woman on the upper deck. The woman falls over the railing and lands on Jackson, incapacitating him and saving the Queen's life.
Frank follows Ludwig to the top of the stadium and shoots Ludwig with the other cufflink dart, causing him to fall over the side of the stadium where he is struck by a passing bus, run over by a steamroller, and trampled by the USC marching band. Some of the band members inadvertently step on Ludwig's beeper, triggering Jane to attempt to kill Frank with Ludwig's gun. Frank breaks Jane's hypnotized state by openly professing his feelings for her and giving her an engagement ring. Frank and Jane meet Mayor Barkley, who reinstates Frank back to Police Squad, and a recovered Nordberg congratulates him – until Frank inadvertently pushes Nordberg's wheelchair down the stadium stairs and launches him onto the field.
Cast
Leslie Nielsen as Lt. Frank Drebin
Priscilla Presley as Jane Spencer
Ricardo Montalbán as Vincent Ludwig
George Kennedy as Capt. Ed Hocken
O. J. Simpson as Det. Nordberg
Susan Beaubian as Mrs. Wilma Nordberg
Nancy Marchand as Mayor Lillian Barkley
Raye Birk as Pahpshmir
Jeannette Charles as Queen Elizabeth II
Ed Williams as Ted Olsen
Tiny Ron as Al, Tall Lab Tech
"Weird Al" Yankovic as Himself
Leslie Maier as Herself
Winifred Freedman as Stephanie
Joe Grifasi as Pier 32 Dockman
Lawrence Tierney as the Angels' manager
Reggie Jackson as the Angels' right fielder
John Houseman as Driving Instructor
Major League Baseball player Jay Johnstone has a cameo role as do umpires Joe West, Doug Harvey, Hank Robinson, Ken Kaiser and Ron Luciano. Professional announcers Curt Gowdy, Jim Palmer, Tim McCarver, Mel Allen, Dick Enberg, and Dick Vitale appear as play-by-play commentators. Dr. Joyce Brothers also appears in a cameo role as herself. John Houseman appears (uncredited) as a driving teacher.
Production
The film was shot at various locations in and around Los Angeles, California.
Principal photography was from February 22 to May 6, 1988.
Ricardo Montalban was chosen by the producers to play the villain after being included on a list of names assembled by the people in charge of casting the film. The Zucker brothers had seen his performance in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan.
Reception
Critical response
Upon its initial release, The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! received critical acclaim, and has since been regarded as one of the greatest comedy films of all time. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 88%, based on 56 reviews, with an average rating of 7.33/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Naked Gun is chock full of gags that are goofy, unapologetically crass, and ultimately hilarious." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three-and-a-half stars (of four), and said: "The movie is as funny, let it be said, as any comedy released this year ... You laugh, and then you laugh at yourself for laughing."
It was voted the 14th best comedy of all time in a Channel 4 poll. The film was selected by The New York Times as one of The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made. It was named the 7th Funniest Comedy Ever on a poll by Empire.
Box office
The film was released on December 2, 1988, and in its opening weekend, finished in first place at the box office in the United States and Canada, grossing $9.3 million. In its second weekend, it grossed $6.1 million, falling to second place behind the newly released Twins ($11.2 million).
The film went on to gross $78.8 million at the United States and Canada box office and $73.7 million overseas for a worldwide total of $152.4 million.
See also
Telefon (film)
References
External links
1988 films
1980s parody films
1980s police comedy films
1980s screwball comedy films
American films
American crime comedy films
American slapstick comedy films
American screwball comedy films
American baseball films
Beirut in fiction
Cultural depictions of Elizabeth II
Cultural depictions of Fidel Castro
Cultural depictions of Idi Amin
Cultural depictions of Mikhail Gorbachev
Cultural depictions of Muammar Gaddafi
Cultural depictions of Ruhollah Khomeini
Cultural depictions of Yasser Arafat
English-language films
Films scored by Ira Newborn
Films about Elizabeth II
Films directed by David Zucker (director)
Films set in Los Angeles
Paramount Pictures films
Films with screenplays by Jim Abrahams
Films with screenplays by David Zucker (filmmaker)
Films with screenplays by Jerry Zucker
Films with screenplays by Pat Proft
The Naked Gun
Los Angeles Angels
Seattle Mariners
1980s crime comedy films
1988 comedy films
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films about terrorism in the United States
Films about assassinations
Films set in Beirut | [
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228357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicity%20stunt | Publicity stunt | In marketing, a publicity stunt is a planned event designed to attract the public's attention to the event's organizers or their cause. Publicity stunts can be professionally organized, or set up by amateurs. Such events are frequently utilized by advertisers, and by celebrities who notably include athletes and politicians.
Organizations sometimes seek publicity by staging newsworthy events that attract media coverage. They can be in the form of groundbreakings, world record attempts, dedications, press conferences or organized protests. By staging and managing the event, the organization attempts to gain some control over what is reported in the media. Successful publicity stunts have news value, offer photo, video and sound bite opportunities, and are arranged primarily for media coverage.
It can be difficult for organizations to design successful publicity stunts that highlight the message instead of burying it. For example, it makes sense for a pizza company to bake the world's largest pizza, but it would not make sense for the YMCA to sponsor that same event. The importance of publicity stunts is for generating news interest and awareness for the concept, product or service being marketed.
See also
Edward Bernays
Guerrilla marketing
Photo op
Media circus
Media prank
Stunting (broadcasting)
Viral marketing
Pseudo-event
References
Public relations techniques
Stunt
Mass media events | [
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228361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20formula | Open formula | An open formula is a formula that contains at least one free variable.
An open formula does not have a truth value assigned to it, in contrast with a closed formula which constitutes a proposition and thus can have a truth value like true or false. An open formula can be transformed into a closed formula by applying quantifiers or specifying of the domain of discourse of individuals for each free variable denoted x, y, z....or x1, x2, x3.... This transformation is called capture of the free variables to make them bound variables, bound to a domain of individual constants.
For example, when reasoning about natural numbers, the formula "x+2 > y" is open, since it contains the free variables x and y. In contrast, the formula "∃y ∀x: x+2 > y" is closed, and has truth value true.
An example of closed formula with truth value false involves the sequence of Fermat numbers
studied by Fermat in connection to the primality. The attachment of the predicate letter P (is prime) to each number from the Fermat sequence gives a set of false closed formulae when the rank n of the Fermat number is greater than 4. Thus the closed formula ∀n P(Fn) is false.
See also
First-order logic
Higher-order logic
Quantifier (logic)
Predicate (mathematical logic)
References
Logical expressions | [
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228365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applebee%27s | Applebee's | Applebee's Restaurants LLC. is an American company that develops, franchises, and operates the Applebee's Neighborhood Grill + Bar restaurant chain. The Applebee's concept focuses on casual dining, with mainstream American dishes such as salads, chicken, pasta, burgers, and "riblets" (Applebee's signature dish). All Applebee's restaurants feature a bar area and serve alcoholic beverages.
History
1980–2006: Founding and going public
The Applebee's chain was founded by Bill and T. J. Palmer in 1980. Their vision was "to create a restaurant that had a neighborhood pub feel to it and could offer friendly service along with quality fare at a lower price than most of their competition." The name “Appleby” was their first choice for this concept, but they found that it had already been registered. They also considered "Cinnamon's" and "Pepper's" before arriving at Applebee's. They opened their first location in Decatur, Georgia, at the time named T.J. Applebee's Rx for Edibles & Elixirs. They opened a second location outside of Atlanta, Georgia a few years later, and sold the company to W. R. Grace and Company in 1983. As part of the transaction, Bill Palmer was named president of the Applebee's Division, an indirect subsidiary of W. R. Grace and Company. In that capacity, Palmer guided the operation from its entrepreneurial beginnings to a full-fledged franchise system. He became an Applebee's franchisee in 1985. Bill Palmer died in 2020.
In 1986, the name of the concept was changed to Applebee's Neighborhood Grill & Bar. In 1988, Applebee's International, Inc., became the restaurant chain's franchiser when Kansas City franchisees Abe Gustin and John Hamra purchased the rights to the Applebee's concept from W. R. Grace. In 1989, Applebee's opened their 100th restaurant in Nashville, Tennessee.
In the 1990s Applebee's became one of the largest sit-down restaurant chains in the United States, and it began trading publicly in November 1991. In 1998, Applebee's opened its 1000th restaurant.
2007–present: Acquisition by IHOP
On July 16, 2007, IHOP Corp. announced that it agreed to buy Applebee's International for about $2.1 billion. Applebee's shareholders would receive $25.50 in cash per share, representing a 4.6% premium to the closing price on July 13, 2007.
The acquisition was completed on November 29, 2007, after which IHOP Corp. was renamed DineEquity. The combined company became the largest full-service restaurant company in the world, with more than 3,250 locations. A major goal for the new ownership was to revitalize the chain, as well as shift towards a franchise model for the majority of its locations.
On August 11, 2017, DineEquity announced that Applebee's would close between 105 and 135 locations by the end of the year. Same-store sales decreased 7% in the previous quarter.
In-late 2017, Applebee's began to place an increased focus on promotions involving low-cost cocktails, including a $1 margarita promotion dubbed the "Dollarita" in October, and $1 Long Island iced tea (promoted as "L.I.T.s") in December. The drinks would serve as a loss leader, with customers subsequently upsold towards higher-priced food products. Despite hesitation by some franchisees to participate, the promotions were associated with a major increase in traffic at some locations, and prompted the chain to offer similar promotions later on. Dine Brands' new CEO Steve Joyce credited the promotions with having helped influence a major financial turnaround at the company, noting that almost all customers who ordered one also ordered food, and that some customers also moved towards the other cocktails on its menu.
As of December 31, 2019, there were 1,787 restaurants operating system-wide in the United States and 15 other countries, including 69 that are company owned and 1,718 that are franchised.
Advertising
As part of the company's marketing campaign and slogan, Wanda Sykes was hired in 2007 to voice the chain's new mascot, the Applebee's Apple. The character appears in commercials touting Applebee's various specials and stating the new slogan "Together is good" or saying "Get it together, baby!" as the slogan appears at the bottom right of the screen. A new campaign started on February 25, 2008, without Sykes' character (the spokesapple), with the slogan "It's a whole new neighborhood." The commercials used both the original and new logos. In 2009 Applebee's changed its slogan again to "There's no place like the neighborhood."
From 2012 to 2016 Applebee's aired an advertising campaign focusing on fresh ingredients and new dishes, narrated by Jason Sudeikis, featuring the slogan "See you tomorrow."
In 2012, Applebee's partnered with the country group Zac Brown Band on a Veteran's Day-themed "Thank You Movement" campaign to honor members of the U.S. military. The band's song "Chicken Fried" has also been featured in a Applebee's commercial; in February 2022, Applebee's pulled its advertising from CNN after an incident where a split-screen commercial break featured live footage of the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine shown alongside the ad.
In late September 2017 Applebee's brought back its most famous slogan from the early-to-mid 2000s, "Eatin' Good in the Neighborhood." In 2019, Applebee's advertising fees accounted for 165.5 million U.S. dollars.
In 2021, after having removed it due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, Applebee's restored its Oreo Cookie Shake to its menu. The chain and product had been referenced in Walker Hayes' song "Fancy Like", which was subsequently featured in a new Applebee's commercial as well.
Side-work compensation
Since 2006, Applebee's and its servers have been engaged in a lawsuit over hourly wages. The servers, who received a federal minimum wage of $2.13 per hour as tipped employees, allege that the company requires them to spend 20% of their time doing non-serving labor, for which they should be paid the federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. The case has gone through several stages, including a judicially mandated binding arbitration session.
In September 2012, a judge in Illinois ruled in favor of the Applebee's employees and will evaluate damages at a later date.
References
External links
1980 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Companies based in Glendale, California
Restaurant chains in the United States
Restaurants established in 1980
1991 initial public offerings
2007 mergers and acquisitions
Restaurant franchises | [
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228370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growing%20pains | Growing pains | Growing pains are recurring pain symptoms that are relatively common in children ages 3 to 12. The pains normally appear at night and affect the calf or thigh muscles of both legs. The pain stops on its own before morning.
Growing pains are one of the most common causes of recurring pain in children. Although these pains reliably stop when the child has completely finished growing, it likely has nothing to do with growth.
Signs and symptoms
Growing pains usually affect both legs, especially the calf muscle in the lower leg or the muscles in the front of the thighs. Less commonly, the arms are affected. They are normally felt on both sides. Typically, the pains are felt in the muscles, rather than in the joints. The amount of pain varies from mild to very severe.
The pains may start in the evening or at night. Because the pains normally appear while the child is sleeping, they often wake the child up at night. The pains often last for 30 minutes to two hours, and are often but not always gone by the morning. Typically, the pains appear once or twice each week, but it can be more frequent or less frequent.
The pains are not in the same place as an injury, including overuse injuries such as shin splints, and the child does not limp while walking.
Cause
The causes of growing pains are unknown. They are not associated with growth spurts, and some authors suggest alternative terms as providing a more accurate description, such as recurrent limb pain in childhood, paroxysmal nocturnal pains, or benign idiopathic paroxysmal nocturnal limb pains of childhood.
Theories of causation include:
poor posture or other mechanical or anatomical defects, such as joint hypermobility;
vascular perfusion disorder,
lower pain threshold or a pain amplification syndrome,
tiredness, perhaps especially among children with weaker bones than average who have overexerted themselves; and
psychological factors, such as stress within the family.
Some parents are able to associate episodes of pain with physical exercise or mood changes in the child.
Diagnosis
This diagnosis is normally made by considering the information presented by the child and family members, and by doing a physical exam to make sure that the child seems to be otherwise healthy. When the child has the typical symptoms and appears to be healthy, then laboratory investigations to exclude other diagnoses is not warranted.
When a child has growing pains, there are no objective clinical signs of inflammation, such as swollen joints. Children with growing pains do not have signs of any systemic diseases (such as fever or skin rashes), any abnormal pain sensations, tender spots, or joint disorders. Children do not have growing pains if the pain worsens over time, persists during the daytime, only involves one limb, or is located in a joint. It should be excluded if the child is limping, loses the ability to walk, or has physical signs that suggest other medical conditions.
Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome is sometimes misdiagnosed as growing pains. Other possible causes of pain in the limbs include injuries, infections, benign tumors such as osteoid osteoma, malignant tumors such as osteosarcoma, and problems that affect the shape and function of the legs, such as genu valgum (knock-knees).
Treatment
Parents and children can be substantially reassured by explaining the benign and self-limiting nature of the pains. Local massage, hot baths, hot water bottles or heating pads, and analgesic drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) are often used during pain episodes. Twice-daily stretching of the quadriceps, hamstrings, and gastrosoleus muscles can make the leg pains resolve more quickly when it appears.
Prognosis
Growing pains are not associated with other serious disease and usually resolves by late childhood. Commonly, episodes of growing pains become less severe and less frequent over time, and many children outgrow them after one or two years.
Frequent episodes are capable of having a substantial effect on the life of the child.
Epidemiology
Growing pains likely affect about 10 to 20% of children, and the rate may be as high as about 40% among children aged four to six. Individuals can vary markedly in when they experience growing pains.
History
Growing pains were first described as such in 1823 by a French doctor, Marcel Duchamp, and the cause was attributed to the growth process. A century later, mainstream medicine thought that the pains were caused by a mild case of rheumatic fever.
See also
Cramp
Weather pains
References
External links
Pain
Childhood | [
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228372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yingtan | Yingtan | Yingtan () is a prefecture-level city in the east of Jiangxi province, People's Republic of China, bordering Fujian to the southeast. Its location near the trisection of Jiangxi, Fujian, and Zhejiang has made it a strategically important city for centuries. Today, it continues to be a major rail transport hub. It is best known as the Capital of Copper, and here placed Jiangxi Copper and its smelting factory.
Near the city of Yingtan is the resort area Mount Longhu which purports to be the birthplace of Taoism and hence has great symbolic value to Taoists. The region has many interesting temples, cave complexes, mountains and villages.
Administration
The municipal executive, legislature and judiciary are in Yuehu District (), together with the CPC and Public Security bureaux.
Yingtan oversees two districts and a county-level city:
Yuehu District ()
Yujiang District ()
Guixi City ()
Tourism Zone
Longhu Mountain Scenic Area ()
Climate
Notes and references
External links
Official Yingtan city website
Cities in Jiangxi
Prefecture-level divisions of Jiangxi | [
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228381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiujiang%20University | Jiujiang University | The Jiujiang University (Chinese: 九江学院; Pinyin: Jiǔjiāng Xuéyuàn) is a college in Jiujiang, northern Jiangxi Province in China.
History
Jiujiang University is a comprehensive public university authorized by the Chinese Ministry of Education, enrolling students from 30 provinces of China with many different backgrounds. Its history can be traced back to 1901 when it existed as Danforth Hospital Nursing School.
The university was formed out of the 2006 merger of what had been the four local Jiujiang colleges: Jiujiang Teacher's College, Jiujiang Medical College, Jiujiang Vocational College, and Jiujiang College of Finance and Economics.
Jiujiang University has four campuses covering an area of about 184 hectares with a total space of buildings being 780,000 square meters. There are over 30,000 full-time Chinese students, with over 200 foreign students, 1683 full-time teachers, 21 faculties or colleges offering a total of 159 programs and a library collecting over 2.46 million books.
Jiujiang University is one of the 25 Chinese Language Education Centres approved by Office of Overseas Chinese Affairs under the State Council of P. R. China. Jiujiang University has been entitled to enrolling overseas students and established collaborative relationship with universities of more than 10 countries.
In October 1980, the 10th military meeting of the Central Military Committee eliminated the department of enterprise administration, a rear-service school of the People's Liberation Army, and replaced it with a cadre school for enterprise. On September 21, 1981, the PLA Enterprise Cadre School was established.
In September 1982, the school began its first training classes. At the beginning of 1983, the Jiangxi provincial government brought the enrollment plan of the school into line with the state plan.
In March 1994, the National Education Committee approved the establishment of the Jiujiang Financial and Economic College, the added name Military Supplies Finance and Economics College of the PLA added in April of the same year. The two names have since been used in parallel.
Leadership
In 2006, the leadership of the college was as follows:
Gan Xiaoqing (), president and vice-secretary of the CPC Central Committee
Chen Mianshui (), secretary of the CPC Central Committee
Ouyang Maorong (), vice-secretary of the CPC Central Committee
Zhao Wenjie (), vice-president
Wu Taoe (), vice-president
Aliases
The Jiujiang Financial and Economic College is properly known as Jiujiang Institute (). It often refers to itself as Jiujiang University in English only as a result of some confusion surrounding differences in educational institute organization between China and English-speaking countries. The "Institute" level lacks an equivalent in most western countries as a level in between a trade school and a full-fledged university. As a result, there can be confusion when the name "Jiujiang Institute" is used and it is deemed simpler to use "Jiujiang University" instead. This practice is common at all 学院 (institute)-level educational institutions in China.
References
External links
University home page
English information
Campus Video of Jiujiang University
Universities and colleges in Jiangxi
Jiujiang
Educational institutions established in 1901
1901 establishments in China | [
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228385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock%20rate | Clock rate | In computing, the clock rate or clock speed typically refers to the frequency at which the clock generator of a processor can generate pulses, which are used to synchronize the operations of its components, and is used as an indicator of the processor's speed. It is measured in clock cycles per second or its equivalent, the SI unit hertz (Hz).
The clock rate of the first generation of computers was measured in hertz or kilohertz (kHz), the first personal computers (PCs) to arrive throughout the 1970s and 1980s had clock rates measured in megahertz (MHz), and in the 21st century the speed of modern CPUs is commonly advertised in gigahertz (GHz). This metric is most useful when comparing processors within the same family, holding constant other features that may affect performance. Video card and CPU manufacturers commonly select their highest performing units from a manufacturing batch and set their maximum clock rate higher, fetching a higher price.
Determining factors
Binning
Manufacturers of modern processors typically charge premium prices for processors that operate at higher clock rates, a practice called binning. For a given CPU, the clock rates are determined at the end of the manufacturing process through actual testing of each processor. Chip manufacturers publish a "maximum clock rate" specification, and they test chips before selling them to make sure they meet that specification, even when executing the most complicated instructions with the data patterns that take the longest to settle (testing at the temperature and voltage that runs the lowest performance). Processors successfully tested for compliance with a given set of standards may be labeled with a higher clock rate, e.g., 3.50 GHz, while those that fail the standards of the higher clock rate yet pass the standards of a lesser clock rate may be labeled with the lesser clock rate, e.g., 3.3 GHz, and sold at a lower price.
Engineering
The clock rate of a CPU is normally determined by the frequency of an oscillator crystal. Typically a crystal oscillator produces a fixed sine wave—the frequency reference signal. Electronic circuitry translates that into a square wave at the same frequency for digital electronics applications (or, in using a CPU multiplier, some fixed multiple of the crystal reference frequency). The clock distribution network inside the CPU carries that clock signal to all the parts that need it. An A/D Converter has a "clock" pin driven by a similar system to set the sampling rate. With any particular CPU, replacing the crystal with another crystal that oscillates at half the frequency ("underclocking") will generally make the CPU run at half the performance and reduce waste heat produced by the CPU. Conversely, some people try to increase performance of a CPU by replacing the oscillator crystal with a higher frequency crystal ("overclocking"). However, the amount of overclocking is limited by the time for the CPU to settle after each pulse, and by the extra heat created.
After each clock pulse, the signal lines inside the CPU need time to settle to their new state. That is, every signal line must finish transitioning from 0 to 1, or from 1 to 0. If the next clock pulse comes before that, the results will be incorrect. In the process of transitioning, some energy is wasted as heat (mostly inside the driving transistors). When executing complicated instructions that cause many transitions, the higher the clock rate the more heat produced. Transistors may be damaged by excessive heat.
There is also a lower limit of the clock rate, unless a fully static core is used.
Historical milestones and current records
The first fully mechanical analog computer, the Z1 operated clock frequency at 1 Hz (cycle per second) clock frequency and the first electromechanical general purpose computer, the Z3, operated at a frequency of about 5–10 Hz. The first electronic general purpose computer, the ENIAC, used a 100 kHz clock in its cycling unit. As each instruction took 20 cycles, it had an instruction rate of 5 kHz.
The first commercial PC, the Altair 8800 (by MITS), used an Intel 8080 CPU with a clock rate of 2 MHz (2 million cycles per second). The original IBM PC (c. 1981) had a clock rate of 4.77 MHz (4,772,727 cycles per second).
In 1992, both Hewlett-Packard and Digital Equipment Corporation broke the difficult 100 MHz limit with RISC techniques in the PA-7100 and AXP 21064 DEC Alpha respectively. In 1995, Intel's P5 Pentium chip ran at 100 MHz (100 million cycles per second). On March 6, 2000, AMD reached the 1 GHz milestone a few months ahead of Intel. In 2002, an Intel Pentium 4 model was introduced as the first CPU with a clock rate of 3 GHz (three billion cycles per second corresponding to ~ 0.33 nanoseconds per cycle). Since then, the clock rate of production processors has increased much more slowly, with performance improvements coming from other design changes.
Set in 2011, the Guinness World Record for the highest CPU clock rate is 8.42938 GHz with an overclocked AMD FX-8150 Bulldozer-based chip in an LHe/LN2 cryobath, 5 GHz on air. This is surpassed by the CPU-Z overclocking record for the highest CPU clock rate at 8.79433 GHz with an AMD FX-8350 Piledriver-based chip bathed in LN2, achieved in November 2012. It is also surpassed by the slightly slower AMD FX-8370 overclocked to 8.72 GHz which tops of the HWBOT frequency rankings.
The highest base clock rate on a production processor is the IBM zEC12, clocked at 5.5 GHz, which was released in August 2012.
Research
Engineers continue to find new ways to design CPUs that settle a little more quickly or use slightly less energy per transition, pushing back those limits, producing new CPUs that can run at slightly higher clock rates. The ultimate limits to energy per transition are explored in reversible computing.
The first fully reversible CPU, the Pendulum, was implemented using standard CMOS transistors in the late 1990s at MIT.
Engineers also continue to find new ways to design CPUs so that they complete more instructions per clock cycle, thus achieving a lower CPI (cycles or clock cycles per instruction) count, although they may run at the same or a lower clock rate as older CPUs. This is achieved through architectural techniques such as instruction pipelining and out-of-order execution which attempts to exploit instruction level parallelism in the code.
IBM is working on 100 GHz CPU. In 2010, IBM demonstrated a graphene based transistor that can execute 100 billion cycles per second.
Comparing
The clock rate of a CPU is most useful for providing comparisons between CPUs in the same family. The clock rate is only one of several factors that can influence performance when comparing processors in different families. For example, an IBM PC with an Intel 80486 CPU running at 50 MHz will be about twice as fast (internally only) as one with the same CPU and memory running at 25 MHz, while the same will not be true for MIPS R4000 running at the same clock rate as the two are different processors that implement different architectures and microarchitectures. Further, a "cumulative clock rate" measure is sometimes assumed by taking the total cores and multiplying by the total clock rate (e.g. dual core 2.8 GHz being considered processor cumulative 5.6 GHz). There are many other factors to consider when comparing the performance of CPUs, like the width of the CPU's data bus, the latency of the memory, and the cache architecture.
The clock rate alone is generally considered to be an inaccurate measure of performance when comparing different CPUs families. Software benchmarks are more useful. Clock rates can sometimes be misleading since the amount of work different CPUs can do in one cycle varies. For example, superscalar processors can execute more than one instruction per cycle (on average), yet it is not uncommon for them to do "less" in a clock cycle. In addition, subscalar CPUs or use of parallelism can also affect the performance of the computer regardless of clock rate.
See also
Crystal oscillator frequencies
Double data rate
Quad data rate
Pulse wave
Instructions per second
Moore's law
References
Clock signal
Temporal rates
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228394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk%20controller | Disk controller | The disk controller is the controller circuit which enables the CPU to communicate with a hard disk, floppy disk or other kind of disk drive. It also provides an interface between the disk drive and the bus connecting it to the rest of the system.
Early disk controllers were identified by their storage methods and data encoding. They were typically implemented on a separate controller card. Modified frequency modulation (MFM) controllers were the most common type in small computers, used for both floppy disk and hard disk drives. Run length limited (RLL) controllers used data compression to increase storage capacity by about 50%. Priam created a proprietary storage algorithm that could double the disk storage. Shugart Associates Systems Interface (SASI) was a predecessor to SCSI.
Modern disk controllers are integrated into the disk drive as peripheral controllers. For example, disks called "SCSI disks" have built-in SCSI controllers. In the past, before most SCSI controller functionality was implemented in a single chip, separate SCSI controllers interfaced disks to the SCSI bus.
These integrated peripheral controllers communicate with a host controller in the host system over a standardized, high-level storage bus interface. The most common types of interfaces provided nowadays by disk controllers are PATA (IDE) and Serial ATA for home use. High-end disks use Parallel SCSI, Fibre Channel or Serial Attached SCSI.
Disk controllers can also control the timing of access to flash memory which is not mechanical in nature (i.e. no physical disk).
Disk controller versus host adapter
The correct term for the component that allows a computer to talk to a peripheral bus is host adapter or host bus adapter (HBA). On the other hand, a disk controller allows a disk to talk to the same bus. Those two are often confused, especially in the PC world. In fact signals read by a disk read-and-write head are converted by a disk controller, then transmitted over the peripheral bus, then converted again by the host adapter into the suitable format for the motherboard's bus, and then read by the CPU.
Sometimes there may be yet another controller between a host adapter and a disk controller - a disk array controller that allows hardware RAID to be formed. Sometimes it may be even physically integrated with an HBA, but it performs different functions.
See also
Disk array controller
Floppy-disk controller
Forensic disk controller
Computer data storage
Integrated circuits
fr:Disque dur#Contrôleur de disque | [
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] |
228420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triune | Triune | Triune may refer to:
Trinity, the Godhead in Christianity
Any of the triple deities
Triune, Tennessee, an unincorporated town in the United States
Triune, West Virginia, an unincorporated town in the United States
Triune Peaks, three peaks in Graham Land, Antarctica
Triune Masonic Temple, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States, on the National Register of Historic Places
Bostick Female Academy, also known as Triune School, Triune, Tennessee, on the National Register of Historic Places
See also
Triune brain theory
Triune Kingdom, a historic term
Triune Continuum Paradigm
Triedinstvo (meaning "Triune"), a split CD by Kolovrat, Arya Varta and Kamaedzitca
Trichotomy (disambiguation) | [
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228424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiere | Compiere | Compiere (pronounced KOM-pyeh-reh, "to accomplish, complete, fulfill" in Italian) is an open-source ERP and CRM business solution for the Small and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME) in distribution, retail, service and manufacturing. Compiere is distributed by Consona Corporation and through a Partner Network, a collection of trained and authorized business partners.
Compiere was founded in 1999 by Jorg Janke and was a top 10 project in SourceForge from 2002 for 4 years reaching one million downloads and 100 partners in 2006.
In 2006, Compiere, Inc. raised venture capital from New Enterprise Associates
with the goal of transforming the successful open source ERP project into a growing and sustainable commercial open source business. In 2007, the company added new executives, revamped engineering and support processes, and expanded its sales and service channels
. The Compiere product line expanded to include Professional, Enterprise and Cloud Editions while the company continued to maintain the open source foundation as Community Edition
.
Like many commercial ventures built around open source projects, there was a degree of contention between company management (who sought to monetize the investments in R&D, Services and Support) and voices from the community (who desired that Compiere source code and business processes remained free and open as Adempiere at that moment and iDempiere some years later). On June 16, 2010, Consona acquired Compiere, Inc. Terms of the deal were not disclosed
.
The application and source code is provided on the basis of the GNU General Public License version 2; this comprises the Community Edition. Also available for a fee is a Professional Edition with more features, a commercial license, documentation and support contracts.
Functionality
Compiere encompasses ERP functionality, but in order to avoid the duplication of information and the need for synchronization, it's organized in a different way. Compiere modules are: Quote to Cash, Requisition-to-Pay, Customer relationship management, Partner Relations Management, Supply Chain Management, Performance Analysis, Warehouse, Double-entry bookkeeping, Work-flow-Management and Web Store. A manufacturing module is being developed within an independent project CMPCS (see external links section).
Architecture
Compiere is a Model Driven Architecture development, deployment and maintenance framework designed with the intention of following changes as business evolves. At any time, customers can change the information structure, adjusting to new information needs. Compiere provides multiple views of business information based on the detail of the actual transactions. This structure allows flexibility and integration of supplemental external information. And since information is presented as views (using Compiere's MVC architecture), they can be changed to meet the needs of the business.
Compiere is entirely based on the concept of Active Data Dictionary (ADD). Compiere Data Dictionary contains definitions of a data entity (type, validation, etc.), how it is displayed (label on screens and reports, help, display sequence and position relative to other fields), and the display rules. It also contains security and access rules.
Compiere has been developed with Java EE.
Database independence
Compiere has been criticized for not being a pure open source product because of its dependence on Oracle database (including the free Oracle XE); this is changing now, since version 2.5.2 Compiere is database independent to some extent. The project has released a Database Kit for porting Compiere to multiple databases. PostgreSQL, MySQL and Sybase ports are in Beta status. Compiere can also be run under the Firebird database using the Fyracle extensions, without porting.
Taking advantage of the Database Kit to create a port for the Apache Derby database the ER/Box project provides an integrated all-Java, all open source Compiere distribution. In addition to the Apache Derby database port ER/Box is also capable of running on PostgreSQL.
Compiere also works with the open source alternative to Oracle database, EnterpriseDB. User documentation is still offered on a fee-based accessibility.
Translations
Language Available Through
Arabic Community
Bulgarian Community
Catalan Community
Croatian Community
Chinese (simplified) Community
Chinese (traditional) Community
Danish Community
Dutch Web Store
Farsi Community
Finnish Community
French Web Store
German Web Store
Indonesia Bahasa Community
Italian Web Store
Malay Community
Romanian Community
Russian Community
Spanish Web Store
Thai Community
US English Included
Vietnamese Community
Releases
See also
Comparison of CRM systems
iDempiere, Adempiere, metasfresh, Openbravo (Compiere source code family)
List of free and open source software packages
spin-offs
Adempiere: Disagreement between a component of the Compiere user community and Compiere, Inc. resulted in the creation of this spin-off Open Source project. The primary point of dispute was a belief by members of the user community that Compiere, Inc. had ignored the contributions and concerns of community members. Their claim was that the continuing direction of the product was driven mainly by Compiere, Inc.'s venture capital partners and not the user community at-large.
metasfresh - originally based on ADempiere, developed in Germany.
iDempiere also known as OSGI + ADempiere. It modularized the code through the OSGi framework so it allows a plugin architecture. Today it is the ERP project driven by the most widespread, active and open community (not backed by a single company).
Openbravo ERP
References
External links
Free customer relationship management software
Free ERP software
Business software for Linux
Free software programmed in Java (programming language) | [
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228425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Newlands%20%28chemist%29 | John Newlands (chemist) | John Alexander Reina Newlands (26 November 1837 – 29 July 1898) was a British chemist who worked concerning the periodicity of elements.
Biography
Newlands was born in London in England, at West Square in Lambeth, the son of a Scottish Presbyterian minister and his Italian wife.
He was home-schooled by his father, and later studied at the Royal College of Chemistry. He was interested in social reform and during 1860 served as a volunteer with Giuseppe Garibaldi in his military campaign to unify Italy. Returning to London, Newlands established himself as an analytical chemist in 1864. In 1868 he became chief chemist of James Duncan's London sugar refinery, where he introduced a number of improvements in processing. Later he quit the refinery and again became an analyst with his brother, Benjamin.
Newlands was the first person to devise a periodic table of chemical elements arranged in order of their relative atomic masses. Continuing Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner's work with triads and Jean-Baptiste Dumas' families of similar elements, he published in 1865 his 'Law of Octaves', which stated that 'any given element will exhibit analogous behaviour to the eighth element following it in the table'. Newlands arranged all of the known elements, starting with hydrogen and ending with thorium (atomic weight 232), into eight groups of seven, which he likened to octaves of music. In Newlands' table, the elements were ordered by the atomic weights that were known at the time and were numbered sequentially to show their order. Groups were shown going across the table, with periods going down – the opposite from the modern form of the periodic table.
The incompleteness of the table alluded to the possible existence of additional, undiscovered elements. However, the Law of Octaves was ridiculed by some of Newlands' contemporaries, and the Society of Chemists did not accept his work for publication.
After Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer received the Davy Medal from the Royal Society for their later 'discovery' of the periodic table in 1882, Newlands fought for recognition of his earlier work and eventually received the Davy Medal in 1887.
John Newlands died due to complications of surgery at his home in Lower Clapton, Middlesex and was buried at West Norwood Cemetery. His businesses was continued after his death by his younger brother, Benjamin.
Works
See also
History of the periodic table
References
Further reading
External links
Cartage biography
Newlands on classification of elements
1837 births
1898 deaths
People from Southwark
English chemists
Analytical chemists
Burials at West Norwood Cemetery
People involved with the periodic table
English people of Scottish descent
English people of Italian descent | [
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] |
228426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL-Ledger | SQL-Ledger | SQL-Ledger is an ERP and double entry accounting system. Accounting data is stored in an SQL Database Server and a standard web browser can be used as its user interface. The system uses the Perl language with a database interface module for processing and PostgreSQL for data storage which is the preferred platform. The download version also includes schemas for IBM's DB2 database server as well as Oracle.
Capabilities
SQL-Ledger offers all of the standard features of SMB accounting software. Specific customization is available as part of an enterprise support contract.
Not only is the user interface multi-lingual, but it also offers the ability to print out statements, invoices, and the like in the language of the customer, even if the user does not know the language in which the content is being printed.
Supported Languages
Business model
DWS generates their revenue from selling a manual and customizations. For free, DWS provides the source code of the current and all the previous versions, installation instructions, an FAQ collection and a user forum.
Version 3.0 of this program was released under the GNU GPL 2.0 license.
Version 3.2.6 released in December 2017.
Licensing Issues
At its inception, SQL-Ledger used the GNU GPL 2.0 license. In 2005, Debian legal questioned whether or not the program belonged in Free or Non-Free, due to wording in the Terms and Conditions notice in the tarball.
In late 2006, LedgerSMB was created as a secure fork of SQL-Ledger. In early 2007, SQL-Ledger 2.8 was released under the 'SQL-Ledger Open Source License, a license which retroactively revokes all previous licenses under which the covered code had been released. That version also contained an "anti-forking" clause.
However, within a month, SQL-Ledger 2.8.1 was released, under the GNU GPL 2.0.
See also
LedgerSMB, another fork of version 2.
Comparison of accounting software
List of free and open source software packages
References
External links
Free accounting software
Perl software
Free software programmed in Perl
Cross-platform software | [
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228428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20von%20Treitschke | Heinrich von Treitschke | Heinrich Gotthard Freiherr von Treitschke (; 15 September 1834 – 28 April 1896) was a German historian, political writer and National Liberal member of the Reichstag during the time of the German Empire. He was an extreme nationalist, who favored German colonialism and opposed the British Empire. He also opposed Catholics, Poles, Jews and socialists inside Germany.
Early life and teaching career
Treitschke was born in Dresden. He was the son of an officer of the Kingdom of Saxony's army who became governor of Königstein and military governor of Dresden. Treitschke developed an increasing hearing problem at a young age, and so was prevented from entering public service. After studying at the universities of Leipzig and Bonn, where he was a student of Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann, he established himself as a Privatdozent at Leipzig, lecturing on history and politics. At one time he became very popular with the students, but his political opinions made it impossible for the Saxon government to appoint him to a professorship.
At that time Treitschke was a strong Liberal; he hoped to see Germany united into a single state with a parliamentary government, and all the smaller states annexed. He praised colonialism, stating:
<blockquote>Every virile people has established colonial power. All great nations in the fullness of their strength have desired to set their mark upon barbarian lands and those who fail to participate in this great rivalry will play a pitiable role in time to come.</blockquote>
Treitschke also endorsed Social Darwinian theories of brutal competition among races. In an essay published in 1862, Treitschke praised the "pitiless racial struggle" of Germans against Lithuanians, Poles and Old Prussians; he claimed that "magic" emanated from "eastern German soil" which had been "fertilised" by "noble German blood". While his main objective was to give historical legitimisation to the Germanising of Poles in Prussia, the praise of a legendary migration eastward performed by German ancestors would eventually become a means of legitimising claims to further eastern territories.
He was appointed professor at the University of Freiburg in 1863; in 1866, at the beginning of the Austro-Prussian War, his sympathies with the Kingdom of Prussia were so strong that he went to Berlin, became a Prussian subject, and was appointed editor of the Preussische Jahrbücher. His violent article, in which he demanded the annexation of the Kingdoms of Hanover and Saxony, and attacked with great invective the Saxon royal house, caused an estrangement from his father, a personal friend of the king. It was only equalled in its ill humour by his attacks on Bavaria during 1870. After possessing appointments at the University of Kiel and the University of Heidelberg, he was made professor at Friedrich Wilhelm University (what is now named Humboldt University) in Berlin in 1874.
Political career
Treitschke became a member of the Reichstag in 1871 and until his death was one of the best known people in Berlin. He was largely deaf during this period and had an aide sit by his side to transcribe discussion into writing so that he could participate.
On Heinrich von Sybel's death, Treitschke succeeded him as editor of the Historische Zeitschrift. He had outgrown his early Liberalism and become the chief panegyrist of the House of Hohenzollern. He made violent and influential attacks on all opinions and all parties which seemed in any way to be injurious to the increasing power of Germany. He endorsed Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and his program to subdue the Socialists, Poles and Catholics (Kulturkampf), but the attempts were unsuccessful because the victims organized themselves and used universal male suffrage to their advantage in the Reichstag until Bismarck finally relented.
A strong proponent of German colonialism, Treitschke was a strong critic of the British Empire, and his condemnations were favoured by some German imperialists. His increasingly-chauvinistic Anglophobia in the late-19th century increasingly considered England as the strongest potential adversary of the rapidly-industrialising German Empire.
In the Reichstag, he had originally been a member of the National Liberal Party, but in 1879, he was the first to accept the new commercial policy of Bismarck. During his later years, he joined the Moderate Conservatives though his deafness prevented him from taking a prominent part in debate.
Treitschke rejected the concern of the Enlightenment and liberalism for individual rights and the separation of powers, in favour of an authoritarian monarchist and militarist concept of the state. He deplored the "penetration of French liberalism" (Eindringen des französischen Liberalismus) within the German nation.
Treitschke was one of the few celebrities who endorsed anti-Semitic attacks which became prevalent from 1879 onwards. He accused German Jews of refusing to assimilate into German culture and society and attacked the flow of Jewish immigrants from Russian Poland. Treitschke popularised the phrase "Die Juden sind unser Unglück!" ("The Jews are our misfortune!"), which would be adopted as a motto by the Nazi publication Der Stürmer several decades later. He made several anti-Semitic remarks such as the following:
The Jews at one time played a necessary role in German history, because of their ability in the management of money. But now that the Aryans have become accustomed to the idiosyncrasies of finance, the Jews are no longer necessary. The international Jew, hidden in the mask of different nationalities, is a disintegrating influence; he can be of no further use to the world.
Because of his prominent status, Treitschke's remarks aroused widespread controversy.
Treitschke was considered favorably by the political elites of Prussia, and Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow personally declared that he kept a copy of von Treitschke's book for "several years" on his desk.
Death and legacy
In 1896, Treitschke died in Berlin at 61 and is buried at the Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof Berlin.
Throughout his life, Treitschke endorsed militarism and racism, praised the conquest of other nations and eradication of inferior peoples ("Brave peoples expand, cowardly peoples perish)" and claimed that people of African heritage were "inferior".Ideology of death: why the Holocaust happened in Germany – Page 133 John Weiss – 1996
Endorsing the idea of exterminating conquered nations, he wrote:
In the unhappy clash between races, inspired by fierce mutual enmity, the blood-stained savagery of quick war of annihilation is more humane, less revolting, than the specious clemency of sloth which keeps the vanquished in a state of brute beasts.
Treitschke considered political history as a German nationalist and emphasized periods of great political change. He was a patriotic historian devoted to Prussia. His great achievement was the History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century. The first volume was published in 1879, and for 26 years, four more volumes appeared. At his death, he had advanced to 1847.
He also wrote biographical and historical essays, as well as essays concerning contemporary politics. The most important essays were collected as Historische und politische Aufsatze. A selection from his more controversial writings was made with the title Zehn Jahre deutscher Kämpfe. In 1896 a new volume was published, Deutsche Kämpfe, neue Folge. After his death his lectures on political subjects were published with the title Politik.
He also published in 1856 a short volume of poems named Vaterländische Gedichte and another volume the next year. His first works to be translated into English were two pamphlets on the War of 1870, What we demand from France (London, 1870) and The Baptism of Fire of the North German Confederation (1870).
Treitschke's students included Heinrich Class, Hans Delbrück, W. E. B. Du Bois, Otto Hintze, Max Lenz, Erich Marcks, Friedrich Meinecke, Karl Peters, Gustav Schnürer, Georg Simmel and Friedrich von Bernhardi. During World War I, many writers in the West, particularly in Britain, blamed Bernhardi for creating attitudes among the political class of Germany that were considered an incitement to war. This opinion was repeated by historians such as Fritz Fischer, who deemed him a major influence on decision-makers before World War I.
A complete translation of both volumes of Treitschke's Politics was published in London in 1916. Politics was published in 1963 in an abridged English translation edited by Hans Kohn.
Bibliography
Treitschke, Heinrich Von. Germany, France, Russia and Islam (1876; translated 1915, reprint translation 2013), selected essays in English
Treitschke, Heinrich von, Treitschke, his life and works, 1914; online
Heinrich von Treitschke. Treitschke's history of Germany in the nineteenth century: Volume 1 (5th ed 1894; translated 1915); vol 1 online, vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online; vol 5 online; vol 6 online; vol 7 online
Heinrich von Treitschke. Germany, France, Russia, & Islam (1915); online
Heinrich von Treitschke. Politics (English edition 1916); Volume One; Volume Two
See also
Essentialist nationalism
Notes
References
Attribution
Further reading
Davis, H. W. Carless, The political thought of Heinrich von Treitschke, 1914; online
Dorpalen, Andreas. Heinrich von Treitschke (New Haven 1957), the standard biography in English
Hausrath, Adolf, ed. Treitschke, his doctrine of German destiny and of international relations: together with a study of his life and work (1914) online edition pp. 1–136 comprise a popular biography by Hausrath
Joll, James. "Treitschke and the Prussian Legend" History Today (1952) 2#3 pp 186–190 online.
Kilgour, Johnathan Bruce. "Heinrich von Treitschke| Creating a German national mission." (MA Thesis, University of Montana, 2004) online
Kohler, George Y. “German Spirit and Holy Ghost – Treitschke’s Call for Conversion of German Jewry: The Debate Revisited”, Modern Judaism 30:2 (2010), pp. 172–195
Langer, Ulrich. Heinrich von Treitschke'' (Düsseldorf 1998) in German
External links
1834 births
1896 deaths
Politicians from Dresden
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Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century Lutherans | [
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228429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roller%20skating | Roller skating | Roller skating is traveling on surfaces with roller skates. It is a recreational activity, a sport, and a form of transportation. Roller rinks and skate parks are built for roller skating, though it also takes place on streets, sidewalks, and bike paths.
Roller skating originated in the performing arts in the 18th century. It gained widespread popularity starting in the 1880s. Roller skating was very popular in United States from the 1930s to 1950s, then again in the 1970s when it was associated with disco music and roller discos. During the 1990s, inline outdoor roller skating became popular.
Sport roller skating includes speed skating, roller hockey, roller derby, figure skating and aggressive quad skating.
History
The earliest roller skates known are from 18th century Europe. These skates were used in theater and musical performances, possibly to simulate ice skating onstage. Early roller skating was done in a straight line because turning or curving was very difficult with the primitive skate designs of the time. Limited to an occasional performance prop at the time, roller skating would not see widespread use until the 1840s.
Waitresses in an 1840s beer hall in Berlin used roller skates to serve customers. Ballet and opera of the late 1840s, such as Le prophète, featured roller skating. This helped to make roller skating popular for the first time, in 1850s Europe. Technological improvements helped as well, such as rubber wheels in 1859 and four-wheeled turning skates in 1863. The popularity of roller skating has fluctuated greatly since then; it is typically called a "craze" at its high points.
Roller skating boomed in popularity from 1880 to 1910; roller skates were mass produced and skating in rinks became popular with the general public in Europe, North and South America, and Australia. Specialized types of roller skating appeared in this period, such as figure skating and speed skating.
After a decline in popularity, roller skating became widespread again in the 1930s to the 1950s. This era is known as the Golden Age of Roller Skating. Many skating rinks offering electric organ music were built throughout the United States in this period.
In the 1970s, roller disco became widespread. This style of skating originated with disco music predominantly among Black and gay skaters. During the late 1980s and the 1990s, outdoor and indoor inline skating (with "rollerblades") became popular. Roller skating declined in popularity in the early 21st century, but became more popular again during the COVID pandemic.
Roller skating has long been tied to Black American social movements, immigrant communities, and the LGBT community, particularly for women in roller derby. As a hobby it is perceived as whimsical and is widely accessible.
Historical timeline
1743: First recorded use of roller skates, in a London stage performance. The inventor of this skate is unknown.
1760: First recorded skate invention, by John Joseph Merlin, who created a primitive inline skate with small metal wheels.
1818: Roller skates appeared on the ballet stage in Berlin.
1819: First patented roller skate design, in France by M. Petitbled. These early skates were similar to today's inline skates, but they were not very maneuverable. It was difficult with these skates to do anything but move in a straight line and perhaps make wide sweeping turns.
Rest of the 19th century: inventors continued to work on improving skate design.
1823: Robert John Tyers of London patented a skate called the Rolito. This skate had five wheels in a single row on the bottom of a shoe or boot.
1857: The hobby of roller skating gained enough momentum to warrant the opening of the first public skating rinks. The Strand, London and Floral Hall had these first roller rinks.
1863: The four-wheeled turning roller skate, or quad skate, with four wheels set in two side-by-side pairs (front and rear), was first designed, in New York City by James Leonard Plimpton in an attempt to improve upon previous designs. The skate contained a pivoting action using a rubber cushion that allowed the skater to skate a curve just by pressing his weight to one side or the other, most commonly by leaning to one side. It was a huge success, so much so that the first public roller skating rinks were opened in 1866, first in New York City by Plimpton in his furniture store and then in Newport, Rhode Island with the support of Plimpton. The design of the quad skate allowed easier turns and maneuverability, and the quad skate came to dominate the industry for more than a century.
1875: Roller skating rink in Plymouth, England held its first competition.
1876: William Brown in Birmingham, England, patented a design for the wheels of roller skates. Brown's design embodied his effort to keep the two bearing surfaces of an axle, fixed and moving, apart. Brown worked closely with Joseph Henry Hughes, who drew up the patent for a ball or roller bearing race for bicycle and carriage wheels in 1877. Hughes' patent included all the elements of an adjustable system. These two men are thus responsible for modern roller skate and skateboard wheels, as well as the ball bearing race inclusion in velocipedes—later to become motorbikes and automobiles. This was arguably the most important advance in the realistic use of roller skates as a pleasurable pastime.
1876: The toe stop was first patented. This braking implement provided skaters with the ability to stop promptly upon tipping the skate onto the toe. Toe stops are still used today on most quad skates, as well as some types of inline skates.
1877: The Royal Skating indoor skating ring building is erected rue Veydt, Brussels.
1880s: Roller skates were being mass-produced in America. This was the sport's first of several boom periods. Micajah C. Henley of Richmond, Indiana produced thousands of skates every week during peak sales. Henley skates were the first skate with adjustable tension via a screw, the ancestor of the kingbolt mechanism on modern quad skates.
1884: Levant M. Richardson received a patent for the use of steel ball bearings in skate wheels to reduce friction, allowing skaters to increase speed with minimum effort.
1898: Richardson started the Richardson Ball Bearing and Skate Company, which provided skates to most professional skate racers of the time, including Harley Davidson (no relation to the Harley-Davidson motorcycle brand).
The design of the quad skate has remained essentially unchanged since then, and remained as the dominant roller skate design until nearly the end of the 20th century. The quad skate has begun to make a comeback recently due to the popularity of roller derby and jam skating.
1900: The Peck & Snyder Company patented an inline skate with two wheels.
1902: The Chicago Coliseum opened a public skating rink. Over 7,000 people attended the opening night.
1935: The Chicago Coliseum hosts the first Transcontinental Roller Derby with a pair of men and women and Chicago becomes the birthplace of roller derby.
1937: Roller skating the sport was organized nationally by the Roller Skate Rink Owner's Association and the onset of roller skating's golden age
1977: Inline skates looking like ice skates were used by DEFA, the East German state film studio, in the film Die zertanzten Schuhe, based on the fairy tale The Twelve Dancing Princesses, in some winter scenes on a frozen lake.
1979: Scott Olson and Brennan Olson of Minneapolis, Minnesota came across a pair of inline skates created in the 1960s by the Chicago Roller Skate Company and, seeing the potential for off-ice hockey training, set about redesigning the skates using modern materials and attaching ice hockey boots. A few years later Scott Olson began heavily promoting the skates and launched the company Rollerblade, Inc.
1983: President Ronald Reagan declared October National Roller Skating Month.
1993: Active Brake Technology, Rollerblade, Inc. developed ABT or Active Brake Technology for increased safety.
2020–2021: Roller skates are in short supply worldwide due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Types of roller skating
Artistic
Artistic roller skating is a sport which consists of a number of events. These are usually accomplished on quad skates, but inline skates may be used for some events. Various flights of events are organized by age and ability/experience. In the US, local competitions lead to 9 regional competitions which led to the National Championships and World Championships.
Figures
A prescribed movement symmetrically composed of at least two circles, but not more than three circles, involving primary, or primary and secondary movements, with or without turns. Figures are skated on circles, which have been inscribed on the skating surface.
Dance
In competition skaters can enter more than one event;
Solo Dance; solo dance a competition starts at tiny tot and goes up to golden, for a test it starts with bronze and goes up to gold. You do not have to take tests anymore to skate in harder categories, you must have a couple of tests once you get to a certain event, though. In competition, these dances are set patterns and the judges give you marks for good edges, how neat they look and how well they do turns, etc.
Team Dance; this is where two people skate together doing the set dances. Most people skate with a partner the same ability and age.
Skaters are judged by the accuracy of steps that they skate when performing a particular dance. In addition to being judged on their edges and turns, skaters must carry themselves in an elegant manner while paying careful attention to the rhythm and timing of the music.
Freestyle
Freestyle roller dancing is a style of physical movement, usually done to music, that is not choreographed or planned ahead of time. It occurs in many genres, including those where people dance with partners. By definition, this kind of dance is never the same from performance to performance, although it can be done formally and informally, sometimes using some sparse choreography as a very loose outline for the improvisation.
Precision teams
A team of skaters (usually counted in multiples of four) creates various patterns and movements to music. Often used elements include skating in a line, skating in a box, "splicing" (subgroups skating towards each other such that they do not contact each other), and skating in a circle. The team is judged on its choreography and the ability to skate together precisely, and jumps and spins are not as important. In this category, they are classified as "small groups" (6 to 15 people) or "big groups" (16 to 30 skaters). These show groups are also divided due to the level and ages.
Singles and pairs
A single skater or a pair of skaters present routines to music. They are judged on skating ability and creativity. Jumps, spins and turns are expected in these events. Sometimes with a pair or couple skaters slow music will play, and usually it is two songs.
Speed skating
Speed skating originally started on traditional roller skates, quads or four wheels per skate. The first organized, national competition was held in 1938 in Detroit Michigan at the Arena Gardens Roller Rink, once home of "Detroit's Premier Sports Palace. The Arena opened in 1935 as roller skating began its ascension as a top sport. In the early years, competitors representing the mid-west states, primarily Illinois, Indiana, Michigan and Ohio dominated the sport. By 1950 as rinks hired speed skating coaches who trained competitors, the east and west coast began to compete effectively for the national titles. But in the early years, national titles were dominated by Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland and Cincinnati.
As rules were established for state and national competitions, the speed skating season began in fall and continued through spring leading up to a state tournament. Eventually approximately 1947, due to the growth of speed skating, the top three places at a state tournament would qualify skaters for a regional tournament. The top three places at regional tournaments then went on to compete at a national tournament. Skaters could qualify as individuals or as part of a two-person or four-person (relay) team. Qualification at regional events could warrant an invite to the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs, CO for a one-week training session on their outdoor velodrome. Inline speed skating is a competitive non-contact sport on inline skates. Variants include indoor, track and road racing, with many different grades of skaters, so the whole family can compete.
Jam Skating
Jam skating is a skating style consisting of a combination of dance, gymnastics, and roller skating, performed on roller skates. Jam skating is the predominant style of skating featured in the documentary film United Skates.
Group skating
Among skaters not committed to a particular discipline, a popular social activity is the group skate or street skate, in which large groups of skaters regularly meet to skate together, usually on city streets. One such group is the San Francisco Midnight Rollers. In 1989 the small 15–20 group that became the Midnight Rollers explored the closed doubIe-decker Embarcadero Freeway after the Loma-Prieta earthquake until it was torn down. At which point the new route was created settling on Friday nights at 9 pm from the San Francisco Ferry Building circling 12 miles around the city back at midnight to the start. Although such touring existed among quad roller skate clubs in the 1970s and 1980s, it made the jump to inline skates in 1990 with groups in large cities throughout the United States. In some cases, hundreds of skaters would regularly participate, resembling a rolling party. In the late 1990s, the group skate phenomenon spread to Europe and east Asia. The weekly Friday night skate in Paris, France (called Pari Roller) is believed to be one of the largest repeating group skates in the world. At times, it has had as many as 35,000 skaters participating on the boulevards of Paris, on a single night. The Sunday Skate Night in Berlin also attracts over 10,000 skaters during the summer, and Copenhagen, Munich, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, and Tokyo host other popular events. Charity skates in Paris have attracted 50,000 participants (the yearly Paris-Versailles skate). The current Official Guinness World Record holder is Nightskating Warszawa (Poland) in number of 4013 participants from 19 June 2014, but their real record from 25 April 2015, is 7303 participants and over 38 000 skaters total in 10 events in season 2015.
Aggressive inline
Aggressive inline skating, or roller freestyle, is trick-based skating. The individual performs tricks using modified skates, which have grind blocks between two wheels, and boots designed to take additional strain. The wheels have a flat large contact surface for grip.
Aggressive inline can either take place at a skate park or on the street, and typically involves predominantly grinds but also air tricks such as spins and flips.
This form of roller skating involves performing tricks and airs in mini ramps, street, vert, and bowls. Any roller skate can be used for park skating though many skaters prefer a higher-ankle boot over speed style boot. Additional modifications to traditional rollers skates include the addition of a plastic block between the front and rear trucks commonly called slide blocks or grind blocks. The front and rear trucks can also be modified to use a 3-inch wide truck to allow for different tricks. Many skaters prefer small, hard wheels to allow more speed and less wheel bite.
Roller hockey
Roller hockey is the overarching name for variants of hockey played on quad or inline skates. Quad hockey (also called rink hockey, hardball hockey, or simply roller hockey) has been played since the 19th century. It is played in many countries worldwide and was a demonstration rollersport in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Other variations include inline hockey and inline skater hockey.
Roller derby
Roller derby is a team sport played on roller skates on an oval track. Originally a trademarked product developed out of speed skating demonstrations, the sport underwent a revival in the early 2000s as a grass-roots-driven, five-a-side sport played mainly by women. Most roller derby leagues adopt the rules and guidelines set by the Women's Flat Track Derby Association or its open gender counterpart, Men's Roller Derby Association, but there are leagues that play on a banked track, as the sport was originally played from the 1930s.
Skating federations
The Fédération Internationale de Patinage a Roulettes was founded in 1924, and in the 1960s it was renamed the Fédération Internationale de Roller Sports. In 2017 it merged with the International Skateboarding Federation to form the World Skate. It currently has over 130 national federations.
In the United States, the Roller Skating Rink Operators Association was founded in 1937 and the United States Amateur Roller Skating Association was founded in 1939. They merged in 1972 to form the USA Confederation of Roller Skating, later renamed USA Roller Sports. It is headquartered in Lincoln, Nebraska, also home of the National Museum of Roller Skating. Nationals are held each summer with skaters required to qualify through state and regional competitions.
In popular culture
1907 – An Awful Skate, the first silent movie by the Essanay Film Company at a time when Chicago was movie capital of the nation.
1916 – Charlie Chaplin's film The Rink is partially set at a roller skating rink and roller skating party.
1950 – In The Fireball, Mickey Rooney skates with Marilyn Monroe as then-new media of TV introduces roller derby into the homes of millions.
1955 – Gene Kelly roller skates as part of a dance routine in It's Always Fair Weather.
1971 – The song "Brand New Key" by Melanie uses roller skates as a theme.
1972 – Kansas City Bomber, starring Raquel Welch, is about the roller derby scene.
1975 – Rollerball is a dystopian science fiction film centered on a roller skate-based tournament.
1978 – Linda Ronstadt dons a roller skating outfit on the cover of her album Living in the USA and in its promotional materials, which helps bring the sport a resurgence of interest in the United States.
1979 – Skatetown, U.S.A. with Scott Baio, Flip Wilson, Patrick Swayze and Maureen McCormick.
1979 – Roller Boogie with Linda Blair.
1980 – Xanadu, with Olivia Newton-John and Gene Kelly, has rollerskating as a recurring theme.
1980 – Heaven's Gate, with Kris Kristofferson and Christopher Walken, set in 1890s Wyoming, features a scene in an early roller-skating rink called "Heaven's Gate".
1983 – Star 80 includes a rollerskating party at the Playboy Mansion.
1984 – Starlight Express, a musical written by Andrew Lloyd Webber, opened on London's West End. The cast perform on quad skates.
1991 – A Roller Skating Jam Named "Saturdays", a 1991 single by De La Soul and music video filmed at Lace's roller rink on Long Island, New York.
1995 – Man of the House features a scene where Jonathan Taylor Thomas uses early model rollerblades to get around Seattle.
1997 – Boogie Nights Brandy/Rollergirl played by Heather Graham features many rollerskating scenes throughout the film.
1998 – In Brink!, in-line skating is presented as an extreme competition for teens in California.
2000 – In the video game Jet Set Radio, the player controls characters using inline skates to move through the city.
2005 – Roll Bounce centers on a group of teenagers who compete in a rollerskating competition in the late 1970s.
2006 – In the movie ATL, set in Atlanta, the protagonist – portrayed by T.I. – and his friends had a great love for skating.
2008 – MTV's America's Best Dance Crew auditioned Breaksk8, a group of hip hop dancers on roller skates.
2008 – The video fors "Seventies" by Laurent Wolf and "Kim & Jessie" by M83, featured the Miss'ile skate dancers.
2009 – Whip It, directed by Drew Barrymore, stars Elliot Page as a small-town girl who joins a hard core all-girl roller derby team, featuring Barrymore and others.
2009 – The MTV television film My Super Psycho Sweet 16 features a roller skating rink called Roller Dome.
2010 – Skateland, starring Shiloh Fernandez and Ashley Greene, is set in the 1980s, and includes scenes of roller skating and roller rinks.
2010 – In the first season Glee episode Home, a local roller rink called Rinky Dinks is used for rehearsal space for the glee club after their auditorium is commandeered.
2014 – Beyoncé rollerskates in her music video for the song "Blow", which is set in a roller rink.
2015 – Rap duo Rae Sremmurd's music video, "Throw Sum Mo", is filmed at Moonlight Rollerway near Los Angeles.
2016 – Musical comedy duo Ninja Sex Party also filmed their music video "Cool Patrol" at Moonlight Rollerway.
2016 – Gwen Stefani's music video, "Make Me Like You", which is the first "live" video recorded during the 58th Annual Grammy Awards and was filmed at Warner Bros. Studio in Burbank, California, features roller skating.
2017 – In the documentary Roller Dreams, starting, Mad, Sara Messenger, Terrell Ferguson, Larry, Jimmy and Duval, which follows a group of five legendary roller dancers in 1984 in Venice Beach, California.
2017 – The music video for "Everyday I Love You" by South Korean girl group Loona, features the group member ViVi working at a skate rental store, and often skating with a boy in some scenes.
2018 – United Skates, a documentary about roller skating in the United States.
2020 – Actress Ana Coto roller skates to "Jenny from the Block" by Jennifer Lopez in a post on the short video sharing platform TikTok. The video is credited with reviving the hobby.
Alternatives
Roller skating, like skateboarding, has created a number of spin-off sports and sports devices. In addition to rollerblades/inline skates, there have also been:
Soaps, normal-looking street/skate shoes with a concave plastic plate in the sole to allow grinds.
Heelys, normal-looking street/skate shoes with a single retractable wheel in the heel of each shoe, allowing the wearer to perform unique rollerskating-like moves at leisure while still walking normally when the skating functionality isn't desired (and the wheel is mostly retracted into a recessed slot in the heel). The fact that skateboarding and related wheeled sports are outlawed in many cities and suburbs makes the low key and spontaneous nature of Heelys all the more enticing to the same demographic. Heelys were later also combined with Soaps into a single hybrid shoe.
Freeline skates, a class of unattached skates that wearers place under their normal street or skate shoes. They typically have 2 closely set inline wheels set with a short base under a small squarish plate (usually surfaced with grip tape about the same width as the rider's shoe). This arrangement allows for a range of motion similar to single-wheeled skates like Heelys. Due to the lack of straps on the contact plate, freeline skates require constant motion to stay on, and are a particular challenge for novices.
Two-wheeled skates: there are also other lesser seen two-wheeled skate arrangements. Some resemble inline skates but with 2 very large wheels bolted in at an angle from the outside rather than a center-balanced row of 4 smaller wheels underneath of inline skates. Others resemble freeline skates in that they have a small squarish platform, but with 2 medium-sized wheels on either side, somewhat between a freeline skate and roller skates (but with inline-skate-styled wheels).
Orbit wheel skates, another spiritual relative of the freeline skate whereby the skate stands on a grip-tape-surfaced platform (just slightly larger than a freeline skate's) inside of a large hoop that contains a trapped wheel that can freely rotate under the grip plate each foot is planted on. The foot plates normally rest on the trough of the inner surface of these orbital wheels, with the toes pointing orthogonal to the rotation of the ringed wheel. It's said the experience of riding them is somewhat similar to skateboarding, and there are variants with the two wheels connected so the rider is fixed in a skateboarding-like stance.
Razor Jetts Heel Wheels, a unattached heel wheel set up, uses hook and loop straps to keep your feet in place during use. In relation to freeline skates, the heel wheels can be unattached and reattached under any normal street shoe, skate shoe or gym shoe. Polyurethane wheels allow for a smooth ride when using the heel wheels. This type of activity is done outdoors on cement.
See also
Powerslide
Road skating
Sidesurf
References
Notes
Bibliography
National Museum of Roller Skating: Homework Page
Russo, Tom, (2017) Chicago Rink Rats: The Roller Capital in Its Heyday. The History Press
120 Hours Longest Non-Stop Relay Roller Skating Marathon World Records
NON STOP RELAY SKATING MARATHON BY INDIVIDUALS World Records
External links
Skating
Roller sports | [
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228431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Wolfgang%20D%C3%B6bereiner | Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner | Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (13 December 1780 – 24 March 1849) was a German chemist who is best known for work that foreshadowed the periodic law for the chemical elements, and for inventing the first lighter, which was known as the Döbereiner's lamp. He became a professor of chemistry and pharmacy at the University of Jena.
Life and work
As a coachman's son, Döbereiner had little opportunity for formal schooling. Thus, he was apprenticed to an apothecary, and began to read widely and to attend science lectures. He eventually became a professor at the University of Jena in 1810 and also studied chemistry at Strasbourg. In work published in 1829, Döbereiner reported trends in certain properties of selected groups of elements. For example, the average of the atomic masses of lithium and potassium was close to the atomic mass of sodium. A similar pattern was found with calcium, strontium, and barium; with sulfur, selenium, tellurium; and with chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Moreover, the densities for some of these triads followed a similar pattern. These sets of elements became known as "Döbereiner's triads".
Döbereiner also is known for his discovery of furfural, for his work on the use of platinum as a catalyst, and for a lighter, known as Döbereiner's lamp. By 1828 hundreds of thousands of these lighters had been mass produced by the German manufacturer Gottfried Piegler in Schleiz.
The German writer Goethe was a friend of Döbereiner, attended his lectures weekly, and used his theories of chemical affinities as a basis for his famous 1809 novella Elective Affinities.
Works
Deutsches Apothekerbuch . Vol. 1-3 . Balz, Stuttgart 1842-1848 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
References
Further reading
ff
Kimberley A. McGrath, Bridget Travers. 1999. World of Scientific Discovery. Gale Research.
Scerri Eric. 2020, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, New York,
1780 births
1849 deaths
People from Hof, Bavaria
19th-century German chemists
People involved with the periodic table
19th-century German inventors | [
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228432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Flemish%20Liberals%20and%20Democrats | Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats | The Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats (, ; Open Vld) is a Flemish conservative-liberal political party in Belgium.
The party was created in 1992 from the former bilingual Party for Freedom and Progress (PVV) and politicians from other parties after Belgium was reconstituted as a federal state based on language, with the French-speaking faction forming the Reformist Movement (MR) in Wallonia. The party led the government for three cabinets under Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 until March 2008. Open VLD most recently formed the Federal Government (the so-called "Swedish government") with N-VA, CD&V and Mouvement Réformateur.
In the Flemish Parliament, the VLD formed a coalition government with sp.a-Spirit and Christian Democratic and Flemish (CD&V) from after the 2004 regional election until the 2009 regional election. Open VLD has been a member of the Leterme I Government formed on 22 March 2008, the Van Rompuy I Government formed on 2 January 2009, the Leterme II Government formed on 24 November 2009 and the Di Rupo Government formed on 6 December 2011.
Ideologically, Open VLD started as an economically liberal and somewhat libertarian Thatcherite party under its founder, Guy Verhofstadt which mirrored some of the original ideology of the PVV. The VLD rapidly became more centrist and gave up much of its free market approach, partly under the influence of Verhofstadt's political scientist brother Dirk Verhofstadt, although the VLD continued to contain conservative-libertarian and classical liberal wings with ties to think-tanks like Nova Civitas. Party chairman Bart Somers called in November 2006 for a "revolution" within the party, saying that "a liberal party", like the VLD, "can be only progressive and social".
From 2000 to 2004, during the second period of its participation in the Belgian federal government and under Belgian Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt, the VLD allegedly lost most of its ideological appeal. Several of its thinkers such as (former member) Boudewijn Bouckaert, president of Nova Civitas, heavily criticised the party. Many others, particularly from the party's conservative and Flemish autonomist wing, resented the priority it placed on the 'Belgian compromise', which enabled the French Community's Socialist Party to gain a dominant position in the formulation of Belgian federal government policy.
In 2004, the VLD teamed up with the minority social-liberal party Vivant for both the Flemish and European elections. VLD-Vivant lost the elections to arch rivals CD&V and the Flemish Bloc. The VLD fell from second to third place among the Flemish political parties, slipping narrowly behind the sp.a-Spirit cartel. Internal feuds, the support for electoral rights for immigrants and an unsuccessful economic policy were seen as the main reasons for its election defeat. From 2007 the party kept having electoral difficulties, first due to competition from split-off List Dedecker and after 2010 from the liberal-conservative Flemish-nationalist party N-VA.
History
The VLD has its origins in the Party for Freedom and Progress (which in turn was a successor to the Liberal Party), a bilingual party which stood in both the Flemish and Walloon regions of Belgium. As such the liberal party is the oldest political party of Belgium. In 1846, Walthère Frère-Orban succeeded in creating a political program which could unite several liberal groups into one party. Before 1960, the Liberal Party of Belgium was barely organised. The school pact of 1958, as a result of which the most important argument for the traditional anti-clericalism was removed, gave the necessary impetus for a thorough renewal. During the liberal party congress of 1961, the Liberal Party was reformed into the bilingual Party for Freedom and Progress (PVV-PLP), and Omer Vanaudenhove became the chairman of the new party. The new liberal party, which struggled with an anti-clerical image, opened its doors for believers, but wasn't too concerned about the situation of workers and primarily defended the interests of employers. It is a central principle of Classical Liberalism that employers and employees do NOT have opposed long term interests.
In the late 1960s and the early 1970s, the tensions between the different communities in Belgium rose and there were disagreements within the liberal movement as well. In 1972, the unitary PVV-PLP was split into separate a Flemish and a Francophone parties. On Flemish side, under the guidance of Frans Grootjans, Herman Vanderpoorten and Willy De Clercq, the PVV was created, on Walloon side Milou Jeunehomme became the head of the PLP and Brussels got its own but totally disintegrated liberal party landscape. Willy De Clercq became the first chairman of the independent Party of Freedom and Progress (, PVV). De Clercq, together with Frans Grootjans and Herman Vanderpoorten, set out the lines for the new party. This reform was coupled an Ethical Congress, on which the PVV adopted very progressive and tolerant stances regarding abortion, euthanasia, adultery, homosexuality and gender equality.
In 1982, the 29-year-old reformer Guy Verhofstadt became the chairman of the party, and even was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Budget from 1986 to 1988. Annemie Neyts succeeded him as chairman, becoming the first female party chairman. In 1989, Verhofstadt once more became the chairman of the PVV, after his party had been condemned to the opposition by the Christian People's Party (CVP) in 1987.
In 1992, the PVV was reformed into the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten, VLD) under the impulse of Verhofstadt. Although the VLD was the successor of the PVV, many politicians with democratic nationalist or socialist roots joined the new party. Notable examples are Jaak Gabriëls, then-president of the Flemish People's Union, and Hugo Coveliers. From the early 1990s, the VLD advanced in every election, only to get in government following the 1999 general election when the VLD became the largest party. Guy Verhofstadt became Prime Minister and Patrick Dewael became Minister-President of Flanders. They were both at the head of a coalition of liberals, social democrats and greens.
2007 elections
Before the 2007 general election, the VLD participated in a cartel with Vivant and Liberal Appeal. In February 2007, it decided to cease the cartel and start operating under the name Open VLD. On 10 June 2007 general elections, Open VLD won 18 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives and 5 out of 40 seats in the Senate.
2010 elections
In the 2010 general election, Open VLD won 13 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Representatives. After the long government formation process, on 6 December 2011 the Di Rupo Government was formed, with Open VLD one of the six constituent parties.
Ideology and support
At its inception, the Open VLD was a classical liberal and somewhat right-libertarian party with support for free-markets and deregulation. Former party leader Guy Verhofstadt was compared to Margaret Thatcher in his beliefs during his time as party chairman. In the 1990s, the party switched from a libertarian to a more socially liberal position under Bart Somers. Some of the party's ideological influences have been Karl Popper, John Stuart Mill, Thomas Paine, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. The party also contained members from both social democratic and Flemish nationalist liberal-conservative backgrounds who have influenced the VLD's course, such as former Volksunie leader Jaak Gabriëls and Hugo Coveliers falling into the latter camp. Others had ties to the conservative-libertarian organization Nova Civitas, and were open to working with the Vlaams Blok and later Vlaams Belang party, although this was strongly opposed by the party leadership as a whole. Presently, the Open VLD retains an economically liberal position by supporting lower taxes and private property ownership while also closing tax loopholes. It supports a Canadian model of migration and for a more inclusive society towards immigrants, but claims not to endorse open borders and wants quicker deportation of illegal immigrants. It also retains a socially liberal stance on matters such as same-sex marriage, LGBT rights and introducing a third gender option on official documents, but also believes the government shouldn't interfere with matters related to sexuality. For a period, the party was considered the main centre-right rival to the Christian Democratic CD&V in the Flemish region and saw its highest period of support in the late 1990s and early 2000s. However, the emergence of the Flemish nationalist N-VA party and the LDD drew some of the party's conservative leaning voters away and contributed to a decline in votes. Ideological disputes also caused some of the party's more conservative and traditionalist libertarian wing such as Boudewijn Bouckaert, Jean-Marie Dedecker and Hugo Coveliers to leave the party. Dedecker later founded the LDD and Coveliers VLOTT while others joined the N-VA.
Representation in EU institutions
The party is fairly pro-European, and sits in the Renew Europe group with two MEPs.
Then-Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt (VLD) was rejected as a candidate for the presidency of the European Commission in June 2004.
In the European Committee of the Regions, Open VLD sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with one full and two alternate members for the 2020-2025 mandate. Jean-Luc Vanraes is Coordinator in the CIVEX Commission.
Electoral results
Chamber of Representatives
Senate
Regional
Brussels Parliament
Flemish Parliament
Provincial councils
European Parliament
International
The party is a member of the Liberal International, which was co-chaired by Annemie Neyts, member of Open VLD.
Presidents
1992–1995 Guy Verhofstadt
1995–1997 Herman De Croo
1997–1999 Guy Verhofstadt
1999–2004 Karel De Gucht
2004 Dirk Sterckx
2004–2009 Bart Somers
2009 Guy Verhofstadt
2009–2012 Alexander De Croo
2012 Vincent Van Quickenborne
2012–2020 Gwendolyn Rutten
2020– Egbert Lachaert
Notable members
Maggie De Block, Minister of Social Affairs and Health
Fons Borginon, former VLD floor leader in the Belgian Chamber of Representatives
Patricia Ceysens, former Flemish Minister of the Economy and former VLD floor leader in the Flemish Parliament
Karel De Gucht, former party leader and former Minister of Foreign Affairs
Patrick Dewael, former minister-president of Flanders and former Minister of Internal Affairs
Margriet Hermans, former member of the Flemish Parliament and senator
Marino Keulen, former Flemish Minister of Integration
Goedele Liekens, sexologist and TV presenter
Fientje Moerman, former vice-minister-president of Flanders
Annemie Neyts, former party leader, former chairwoman of the Liberal International and former party leader of the ELDR Party.
Karel Poma, former minister and member of parliament
Bart Somers, former minister-president of Flanders and former party leader
Bart Tommelein, Flemish Deputy Minister-President and Flemish Minister of Budget, Finance and Energy
Jef Valkeniers, doctor and politician
Dirk Van Mechelen, former Flemish Minister of Finance and Budget and Town and Country Planning
Vincent Van Quickenborne, former minister of economy, also responsible for the simplification of the administration
Guy Vanhengel, Brussels Minister of Finance and Budget
Guy Verhofstadt, former party leader and former prime minister
Marc Verwilghen, former minister of the Economy, Trade, Science and Energy
Notable former members
Boudewijn Bouckaert, a former VLD board member who left the party subsequently to Dedecker's exclusion, believing the party turned "left-liberal". He and Dedecker are founders of a new political party, List Dedecker, later renamed Libertarian, Direct, Democratic.
Hugo Coveliers, left the VLD to found his own political party VLOTT.
Jean-Marie Dedecker, was excluded from the VLD after several conflicts with the top of the party. He asked for an economic policy more in favour of free markets and limited government and believed that the party was too closely aligned with the Socialists. He founded the List Dedecker party, later Libertarian, Direct, Democratic.
Leo Govaerts, left the VLD to found his own political party Veilig Blauw (Safe Blue).
Ward Beysen, left the VLD to found his own political party Liberal Appeal.
Sihame El Kaouakibi, left the VLD after claims of embezzlement.
See also
Contributions to liberal theory
Liberaal Vlaams Verbond (LVV)
Liberal Flemish Students' Union
Liberal Archive
Liberal democracy
Liberales
Liberalism
Liberalism in Belgium
Liberalism worldwide
List of liberal parties
References
External links
jongvld.be
openvldvrouwen.be
Political parties established in 1992
1992 establishments in Belgium
Liberal International
Liberal parties in Belgium
Flemish political parties in Belgium
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party member parties
Pro-European political parties in Belgium | [
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228433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo%20Ska%20Paradise%20Orchestra | Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra | , commonly abbreviated by fans as Skapara or TSPO, is a Japanese ska and jazz band formed in 1988 by the percussionist Asa-Chang, and initially composed of over 10 veterans of Tokyo's underground scene. At the time, the band's sound was unlike that of any of its contemporaries in the then fledgling Japanese ska scene, and over the course of the past 31 years, they have been influential on Japanese music as a whole. Its sound, the product of the musical influences of its members, is a mix of traditional ska, jazz, and rock. In the vein of many other more traditional ska acts, many of Skapara's songs are purely instrumental.
Since its inception, the band has gone on several nationwide tours of Japan, and have toured worldwide. They have collaborated with several vocalists outside of their band, including Shiina Ringo, Akira Kobayashi, Kyōko Koizumi, Schadaraparr, PUFFY, Yoshie Nakano and Tamio Okuda. They also performed the Japanese theme song to the PlayStation 2 game Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus, entitled "Black Jack", as well as songs for the PlayStation game Incredible Crisis released in 1999, the 2020–21 Japanese drama Kamen Rider Saber and the closing ceremony for the 2020 Olympic Games.
History
Early beginnings
The band's first release was 1989's eponymous six-track EP, released on vinyl by local independent label Kokusai Records. That record's acceptance, coupled with the band's live shows, got them a deal with Epic Records. At this time the 'classic' lineup of the band included: Asa-Chang (percussions), Tsuyoshi Kawakami (Bass), Tatsuyuki Aoki (drums), Yuichi Oki (keyboards), Marc Hayashi (guitar), Tatsuyuki Hiyamuta (alto sax/agitate man), Gamo (tenor sax), Atsushi Yanaka (baritone sax), Nargo (trumpet), Masahiko Kitahara (trombone) and Cleanhead Gimura (vocals). Yuhei Takeuchi (alto sax) was part of the original lineup, but left in 1990, though he has re-joined the band live on several occasions.
1990s
was released in 1990, and includes their first big hit, Monster Rock. Within a year, the band was playing Tokyo's Budokan Arena in front of 10,000 fans. After their second album, , original guitarist Marc Hayashi left the band and was replaced by Toru Terashi. Their third album, Pioneers, marked the last recording of the band with founder Asa-Chang, who decided to pursue a solo career. Fantasia was recorded as a 10 piece with no permanent replacement on percussion.
While the band worked on their fifth album, vocalist Cleanhead Gimura lost his ongoing battle with brain cancer and died. Grand Prix was released in 1995 as a tribute to the singer. This record continued the band's progression into a more pop-oriented sound, and it featured a number of guest musicians and singers. As far as live performances, Tatsuyuki Hiyamuta essentially became the front-man for the band.
1996 saw the release of , which toned back the pop stylings of Grand Prix. This marked the first appearance on record of new percussionist Hajime Ohmori. During the band's visit to Thailand, Alto Sax/Agitate Man Tatsuyuki Hiyamuta has involved in a motorcycle accident, suffering damage to his legs. He missed out on some shows, but after recovery decided to continue performing, in many cases carrying a cane, or just sitting down while playing. Shortly thereafter Toru Terashi left the band.
After this album, the band decided to leave Epic Records, as there was a feeling that the label had not been able to properly convert their popularity into record sales. They signed with indie label Avex Trax, who also created an exclusive imprint for Skapara, Justa Record. The band recruited Rui Sugimura (brother of Cleanhead Gimura) as a full-time singer. This would become the band's most prolific period, with a number of releases, including the Arkestra album, various 12” and 7” records (which included remixes from Arkestra songs as well as completely new tracks), the Hinotama Jive EP, the soundtrack to the video game Incredible Crisis, and several tribute album appearances. The band embarked on a tour of Japan (documented on the DVD Ska Evangelists on the Run). Since no official guitarist had been hired yet, they toured with the two guitarists that worked on the album: Takashi Kato (of Lost Candi) and 會田茂一 (of El Malo).
During the Arkestra tour, original drummer Tatsuyuki Aoki died in a train accident. He was temporarily replaced by Tatsuya Nakamura (Blankey Jet City and Losalios). At the end of the tour, Kin-Ichi Motegi (ex-Fishmans) also filled in. Rui Sugimura left in mid-1999 as well. Takashi Kato became a permanent member of the band.
2000s
2000's Full Tension Beaters was a full-on Ska record, and their first album to be released outside of Asia (by Grover Records in Germany). Even though Motegi was still working as support drummer during this recording, it was the first record with the band's most stable line-up, consisting of Yanaka, Gamo, Nargo, Kitahara and Hiyamuta on the horn section, Oki on keyboards, Kawakami on Bass, Ohmori on percussions, Kato on guitar and Motegi on drums. The lineup would remain the same until 2008.
For their next record, Stomping on Downbeat Alley, the band invited three guest singers: Yusuke Chiba (Thee Michelle Gun Elephant), Tajima Takao (Original Love, Pizzicato Five) and Tamio Okuda (Unicorn). The album and singles were a huge success and a gig at Yokohama Arena (with all three guest singers) was released as Downbeat Arena. The band also embarked on a European tour which was documented on the DVD Catch the Rainbow.
High Numbers was a more low-profile release, having mostly instrumental tracks, along with Kin-Ichi Motegi's first lead vocal track, "Ginga to Meiro". 2004's Answer was a similar affair.
For 2006's Wild Peace, the band once again recruited three guest vocalists: Chara, Hanaregumi, and Hiroto Komoto (The High-Lows). As with Downbeat Alley these singles became huge hits, and the band also recorded a DVD at the final show for the tour, with all three singers. They once again toured Europe with this record. The DVD Smile was released to document this tour.
Perfect Future soon followed, with more jazz leanings, and only one guest vocalist, Fumio Ito (of Kemuri). Kin-Ichi Motegi also recorded a vocal track for this album. A few months after the release of Perfect Future, Tatsuyuki Hiyamuta, essentially the band's front man in live performances, decided to leave the band in order to concentrate on healing his legs, due to the accident suffered in 1996. The band decided not to replace him, thereby remaining as a nine-piece.
In early 2009 Paradise Blue was released, with the first line-up difference in almost a decade. This marked the 20th anniversary since the band's first EP was released, and they toured Japan in support of the album.
2010s
2010 saw the release of World Ska Symphony, featuring guest vocals from Tamio Okuda, Crystal Kay, and Kazuyoshi Saito.
They played at Vive Latino Festival in Mexico City in April 2011. This was their first show in Latin America. They played at Coachella in California on April 12, 2013.
In 2014, the band celebrated their 25th anniversary. For the release of Ska Me Forever, the album featured guest vocals from 10-Feet, MONGOL800, and Asian Kung-Fu Generation.
In October 2014 the band released Ska Me Forever Mexican Edition, edited by "Casete", which includes a CD bonus with 2 special songs for Mexican fans: "Cielito Lindo" and an arrangement of "Cafe Tacvba" hit "Eres". Also, they played a show in Mexico City to promote this edition, gathering more than 6,000 people, being their most successful single show in America.
In 2020, the band composed and performed the opening and ending songs for the Tokusatsu series, Kamen Rider Saber.
Members
Current members
Former members
Yuhei Takeuchi — soprano saxophone, flute (left 4/1990)
Masayuki "MARC" Hayashi — guitar (left 6/1992)
Asa-Chang — percussion (left 3/1993)
Left the band in order to pursue other projects.
Cleanhead Gimura — vocals (died 4/23/1995)
The band's frontman. Died following a battle with brain cancer.
Toru Terashi — guitar (joined 7/1993, left 1/1998)
Rui Sugimura — vocals (joined 2/1998, left 2/1999)
Tatsuyuki Aoki — drums (died 5/2/1999)
Killed in a rail accident.
Tatsuyuki Hiyamuta — alto saxophone, guitar, vocals (left 7/17/2008)
Left to focus on healing and recovery from an injury received to his right foot in Thailand from a motorcycle accident in 1996 that had been hindered by constant travel and performances. He has expressed interest in returning after his recovery has been completed.
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Skapara's Intro (スカパラ登場) (Epic Records, May 1, 1990)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (東京スカパラダイスオーケストラ) (Epic Records, December 1, 1990) – Re-issue of the debut 12"
World-famous (ワールドフェイマス) (Epic Records, June 21, 1991)
Pioneers (Epic Records, March 21, 1993)
Fantasia (Epic Records, April 21, 1994)
Grand Prix (Epic Records, June 21, 1995)
Tokyo Strut (トーキョーストラット) (Epic Records, September 2, 1996)
Arkestra (Avex Trax, August 26, 1998)
Full-Tension Beaters (Avex Trax, July 26, 2000; Grover Records, July 04, 2003)
Stompin' On Down Beat Alley (Cutting Edge, May 22, 2002)
High Numbers (Cutting Edge, March 5, 2003)
Answer (Cutting Edge, March 9, 2005)
Wild Peace (Cutting Edge, June 7, 2006)
Perfect Future (Cutting Edge, March 26, 2008)
Paradise Blue (Cutting Edge, February 4, 2009)
World Ska Symphony (Cutting Edge, March 10, 2010)
Goldfingers (Cutting Edge, October 27, 2010) – Mini-Album
Walkin''' (Avex Entertainment, March 21, 2012)
Desire (欲望) (Cutting Edge, November 17, 2012)
Diamond In Your Heart (*初回出荷分はデジパック仕様) (July 11, 2013)
Ska Me Forever (August 13, 2014)
Paradise Has No Border (March 8, 2017)
Glorious (March 14, 2018)
Tokyo Ska-Lorful Collage (November 20, 2019)
SKA=ALMIGHTY'' (March 3, 2021)
Singles
Monster Rock - (04/21/1990 Epic Records)
Countdown To Glory (栄光へのカウントダウン) - (01/21/1991 Epic Records)
Hole in One (ホールインワン) - (06/21/1991 Epic Records)
World-famous Remix - 12/25/1991 Epic Records)
Burning Scale - (12/02/1992 Epic Records)
Tiger of Marai (マライの號) - (05/01/1993 Epic Records)
Gold Rush - (08/21/1993 Epic Records)
Happening (ハプニング) - (10/23/1993 Epic Records)
Blue Mermaid (ブルーマーメイド) - (12/12/1993 Epic Records))
Happy Go Lucky - (09/07/1994 Epic Records)
Tokyo Deluxe (東京デラックス) - (01/21/1995 Epic Records)
Watermelon - (04/28/1995 Epic Records)
Jam - (07/21/1995 Epic Records)
Rock Monster Strikes Back - (07/21/1996)
Hurry Up!! - (04/21/1997 Epic Records)
Does Love Exist? (愛があるかい？) - (04/22/1998 Avex Trax)
Dear My Sister - (07/08/1998 Avex Trax)
Hinotama Jive (火の玉ジャイヴ) - (05/12/1999 Avex Trax)
Devote to the Battle Melody (戦場に捧げるメロディー) - (11/17/1999 Avex Trax)
Filmmakers Bleed ~Decisive Battle on the Summit~ (フィルムメイカーズ・ブリード～頂上決戦～) - (06/21/2000 Cutting Edge)
Peeled Orange (めくれたオレンジ) - (08/08/2001 Cutting Edge)
Great Singing Bird Sky (カナリヤ鳴く空) - (12/12/2001 Cutting Edge)
Beautiful Burning Forest (美しく燃える森) - (02/14/2002 Cutting Edge)
The Galaxy and Maze (銀河と迷路) - (02/05/2003 Cutting Edge)
A Quick Drunkard - (06/04/2003 Cutting Edge)
Map of the World (世界地図) - (05/25/2004 Cutting Edge)
Stroke of Fate - (07/08/2004 Cutting Edge)
Farewell My Friend (さらば友よ) - (2004 Cutting Edge) Limited edition sold only at ANSWER TOUR concert venues
Tsuioku no Lilac (迫憶のライラック) - (12/14/2005 Cutting Edge)
The Sapphire Star (サファイアの星) - (02/15/2006 Cutting Edge)
The Star Spangled Night (星降る夜に) - (05/10/2006 Cutting Edge)
KinouKyouAshita - (10/07/2009 Cutting Edge)
Ryusei to Ballade (流星とバラード)- (1/27/2010 Cutting Edge)
Break into the Light～約束の帽子～／The Sharing Song～トリコのテーマ～（3/16/2011 Cutting Edge）
Sunny Side of the Street (All Good Ska is One/Twinkle Star~Tayorino Hoshi~) (8/3/2011 Avex)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra feat. 10-FEET "Senkou" (閃光 feat.10-FEET)- (12/4/2013 Cutting Edge/Justa Record)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra feat. MONGOL800 "Nagare Yuku Sekai No Naka De"(流れゆく世界の中で feat.MONGOL800)- (03/12/2014 Cutting Edge/Justa Record)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra feat. Asian Kung Fu Generation "Wake Up!"- (07/02/2014 Cutting Edge/Justa Records)
Mekutta Orenji (爆音ラヴソング/めくったオレンジ) - (07/29/2015 Cutting Edge/Justa Records)
Uso Wo Tsuku Kuchibiru (嘘をつく唇) - (12/09/2015 Cutting Edge/Justa Records)
Michi Naki Michi, Hankotsu No (道なき道、反骨の) - (06/22/2016 Cutting Edge/Justa Records)
Sayonara Hotel (さよならホテル) - (09/07/2016 Cutting Edge/Justa Records)
Multiple Exposures feat. Yoohei Kawakami Movie Edit. (多重露光) - (12/18/2020 Avex Trax)
Almighty ~The Masked Promise~ feat. Yoohei Kawakami (ALMIGHTY ~ 仮面の約束) - (12/23/2020 Avex Trax)
Vinyl Releases
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (東京スカパラダイスオーケストラ) 12" - (1989 Kokusai Records)
Skapara's Intro (スカパラ登場) - (1990 Epic Records)
World-famous (ワールドフェイマス) LP - (06/21/1991 Epic Records)
World-famous Remix 12" - (10/28/1991 Epic Records)
Pioneers - (1993 Epic Records) Promo 12" with selections from Pioneers Album.
Just a Little Bit of Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (04/21/1994)
Happening (ハプニング) 12" - (1995 Epic Records)
Fantasia - (1995 Epic Records) Promo 12" with selections from Fantasia Album.
Grand Prix - (1995 Epic Records)
Rock Monster Strikes Back 12" - (08/13/96 Epic Records)
The Movin' Dub (On the Whole Red Satellites) 7" - (1998 Justa Record)
Jon Lord 7" - (1998 Justa Record)
One Night 12" - (1998 Justa Record)
Ska Jerk 12" - (1998 Justa Record)
Abracadabra 12" - (1998 Justa Record)
Ring O' Fire 12" - (1998 Justa Record)
Jazzie Speaks 12" - (1999 Justa Record)
Theme of Lupin III Pt. I & II 12" - (2000 Justa Record)
Best(1989～1997) LP (11/07/2002 Epic Records)
Afro Art Remixes 12" - (12/2002 Afro Art Records)
Downbeat Selector 7" Box Set- (2002 Cutting Edge) The 4 Downbeat Alley singles on vinyl.
High Numbers LP - (03/05/2003 Cutting Edge)
Full-Tension Beaters LP - (07/04/2003 Grover Records)
Man In The Street / After The Rain 7" - (2014 Justa/Cutting Edge/Jet Set)
Ska Me Forever LP - (03/02/2015 Nacional Records)
Wake Up! feat. Asian Kung Fu Generation - (2015 Justa/Cutting Edge/Jet Set)
Authentic Tokyo Ska 12" - (18/04/2015 Justa/Cutting Edge/Jet Set)
Collaborations / Splits
Oka o Koete (with Kyōko Koizumi) (1990 Victor Entertainment)
Akira Bushi Akira no Jin to Paradise (with Akira Kobayashi) (1995)
Watermelon (with ) (04/28/1995 Epic Records)
Beauty & Stupid Tokyo Ska Version (music for hide) (1996)
Decameron (with Naoto Takenaka) (1997)
Spanish Hustle (with Malawi Rocks) 12" (2000 Justa Record)
Mayonaka wa Junketsu (with Ringo Shiina) (2001)
Hazumu Rhythm (ハズムリズム)(with Puffy) (2006)
L-O-V-E (with Rico Rodriguez) (2006)
Secret Code (with KinKi Kids) (2008)
Olha pro céu (feat) EMICIDA (2016)
Quem tem um amigo (tem tudo) EMICIDA (2020)
Live albums
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra Live (東京スカパラダイスオーケストラライブ) (03/21/1991 Epic Records)
Gunslingers -Live Best- (03/14/2001 Avex Trax)
On Tour (02/04/2004 Cutting Edge)
Perfect Future: Live at Montreux Jazz Festival (3/26/08 Cutting Edge) (bonus live cd with first pressing of Perfect Future)
Live at Budokan-"The Last" (02/03/2016 Cutting Edge)
Comp Tracks / Tributes
Respectable Roosters - A Tribute to The Roosters: "Rosie" (1999)
Welcome to the Plastic World: "Cards" (1999)
Ska Stock: Tribute to the Skatalites: "Shot in the Dark" (studio version)
Punch the Monkey Vol II: "Lupin the 3rd '78" (1999)
Tribute to Yellow Magic Orchestra: "Simoon" (2004)
Tribute to Haruomi Hosono: "アブソリュート・エゴ・ダンス" (2007)
Sirius〜Tribute to UEDA GEN〜: "-6m" (2008)
Tribute to Unicorn: "I'm a Loser" (2007)
Tokyo Ska plays Disney (2015)
DVD and Blu-Ray
Ska Evangelists On the Run Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra 1998>>1999 - (03/29/2000 Avex)
Down Beat Selector (09/04/2002 Cutting Edge)
Down Beat Arena～Yokohama Arena (Down Beat Arena～横浜アリーナ7.7.2002(完全版) - (07/7/2002 Cutting Edge)
Europe Tour 2003 Road-Move DVD (Catch the Rainbow (Europe Tour 2003 ロード・ムーヴィーDVD「Catch the Rainbow」) - (03/03/2004 Cutting Edge)
Skapara at Cabaret (スカパラatキャバレー) - (03/10/2004 Epic)
Live Grand Prix - (03/10/2004 Epic)
18540617 - (03/10/2004 Epic)
15th Anniversary Live Since Debut 2004.10.22 - (01/01/2005 Cutting Edge)
Wild Peace Tour Final @ Saitama Super Arena (Wild Peace Tour Final @ さいたまスーパーアリーナ) - (05/3/2007 Cutting Edge)
Smile- A Film by Koichi Makino - (09/12/2007 Cutting Edge)
and TOKYO SKA goes on... - (3/10/2010 Cutting Edge)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Kokugikan & Tokyo Ska Paradise Taiikukan Live - (12/12/2010 Cutting Edge)
Discover Japan Tour - LIVE IN HACHIOJI 2011.12.27 (07/12/2012 Cutting Edge)
Live at Budokan-"The Last" DVD & Blu-Ray Edition 2015.03.28 (02/03/2016 Cutting Edge)
"Kanaeta Yume ni Hi wo Tsukete Moyasu LIVE IN KYOTO 2016.4.14" & "Tokyo Ska Jamboree 2016.8.6" Blu-Ray Edition (12/14/2016 Cutting Edge)
Videos
Skapara Video (スカパラビデオ) - (12/01/1991 Epic)
Osamu's Amazing Songs (音曲の乱) - (03/25/1992 Epic)
TOKYOSKA: Everytime We Say Goodbye - (08/08/1992 Epic)
World Series from Tokyo Ska - (02/12/1992 Epic)
Skapara at Cabaret (スカパラatキャバレー) - (12/12/1993 Epic)
Live Fantasia - (04/21/1994 Epic)
Video Fantasia - (04/21/1994 Epic)
Live Grand Prix -(12/01/1995 Epic)
18540617 - (11/21/1997 Epic)
Ska Evangelists On the Run Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra 1998-1999 - (11/17/1999 Avex)
Soundtracks
Tokyo Deluxe Original Soundtrack (東京デラックスオリジナルサウンドトラック) (1995)
Incredible Crisis! Original Soundtrack (とんでもクライシス！オリジナルサウンドトラック) (1999)
New Moral Battle Homicide Original Soundtrack (新仁義なき戦い謀殺オリジナルサウンドトラック) (2003)
HEROES (One Piece 3D Movie Soundtrack)- (3/16/2011 Cutting Edge)
Band Compilations
gifted WINTER SELECTION (12/01/1993 Epic Records)
JUST A LITTLE BIT OF TOKYO SKA PARADISE ORCHESTRA (vinyl)(04/21/1994)
THE BEST SELECTION (THE BEST SELECTION (タイ盤）(rare) (1996)
MOODS FOR TOKYO SKA: WE DON'T KNOW WHAT SKA IS (11/21/1997 Epic Records)
JUSTA RECORD COMPILATION Vol.1 (07/23/1999 Avex Trax)
BEST(1989～1997) (11/07/2002 Epic Records)
SKA ME CRAZY: THE BEST Of TSPO (03/14/2005 Anagram Records)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra: Best of Tokyo Ska 1998~2007 - 26 songs selected by Kin-ichi Motegi (03/21/2007 Cutting Edge)
25th Anniversary Best Album "The Last" (04/03/2015)
Side projects
Tsuyoshi Kawakami and His Mood Makers
(Tsuyoshi Kawakami, Hajime Omori)
Tsuyoshi Kawakami and His Mood Makers (川上つよしと彼のムードメイカーズ) - 2001.12.12
Moodmaker's mood - 2003.08.06
Floatin Mood - 2004.07.28
Sparklin' Mood - 2004.12.01
Mood Inn - 2005.9.14
Singers Limited - Golden Mood Hits! - 2009.9.13
Moodsteady - 2010.10.27
Members' choice MOODY INSTRUMENTALS TOP 10 + 1 - 2011.8.3
Sembello
(Yuichi Oki)
Sembellogy - 2003.08.06
The Second Album - 2004.11.25
Kairos - 2006.06.07
Speed King
(TSPO + Fantastic Plastic Machine + Dr Ys + KMP + OCHICHY)
SPEED KING - 2000.02.21
Losalios
(Takashi Kato)
Sekaichizuwa Chinoato - 1999.11.10
Colorado Shit Dog - 2002.05.01
School Of High Sense - 2002.10.26
The End Of The Beauty - 2003.09.03
ゆうれい船長がハナシてくれた こと - 2005.05.25
So Many Tears
(Kin-Ichi Motegi, Takashi Kato)
So Many Tears - (09.2011 Cutting Edge)
Love and Wander - (07.2013 Cutting Edge)
Fishmans
(Kin-Ichi Motegi) See Fishmans Page
Sfkuank
(Nargo & Masahiko Kitahara)
Sfkuank!!- 2005.12.14
Stand Up Pleeeease!!- 2006.10.18
Compilations Curated By Band Members
Frank Zappa Compiler - 1999
Big Bang Blow: Japanese Jazz selected By Nargo, M.Kitahara & Gamo of TSPO - 2003
JUSTA RECORD presents: 'The 3rd Era of Ska~EURO AUTHENTIC SKA COLLECTION' - 2004.07.28
JUSTA RECORD presents: 'The 3rd Era of Ska~NORTH AMERICAN SKA COLLECTION' - 2005.03.30
See also
The Leaf Label (for Asa Chang & Junray)
References
External links
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra Official Website
Interview with Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra at JaME UK
HMV Japan "Top 100 Japanese pops Artists"
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra at BBC Music
Japanese jazz ensembles
Avex Group artists
Sony Music Entertainment Japan artists
Japanese ska groups
Musical groups from Tokyo | [
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228434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Alexandre%20Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%2C%20duc%20de%20La%20Rochefoucauld-Liancourt | François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt | François Alexandre Frédéric de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (11 January 1747 – 27 March 1827) was a French social reformer.
Early life
He was born at La Roche Guyon, the son of François Armand de La Rochefoucauld, duc d'Estissac, grand master of the royal wardrobe. One of his cousins was Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville.
Known as the duc de Liancourt in infancy, he became an officer of carbineers, and married at seventeen. A visit to England seems to have suggested the establishment of a model farm at Liancourt, where he reared cattle imported from England and Switzerland. He also set up spinning machines on his estate, and founded a school, École nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers, for the sons of soldiers, which became in 1788 the École des Enfants de la Patrie under royal protection.
In 2008, this school was renamed Arts et Métiers ParisTech.
French Revolution
Frédéric de Liancourt was elected to the Estates-General of 1789, where he sought in vain to support the monarchy while furthering social reform.
On 14 July, following the storming of the Bastille, he warned Louis XVI of the state of affairs in Paris, and met his exclamation that there was a revolt with the answer, "Non, sire, c'est une révolution." ("No, majesty, it is a revolution.")
On 18 July, he became president of the National Constituent Assembly.
Established in command of a military division in Normandy, he offered Louis a refuge in Rouen, and, failing in this effort, assisted him with a large sum of money.
Exile
After the events of 10 August 1792 (storming of the Tuileries Palace), he fled to England, where he was the guest of Arthur Young. There also he met Young's nieces by marriage, Frances and Sarah Burney. The former gives a long description of him in her journal. After the assassination of his cousin, Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville, at Gisors on 14 September 1792 he assumed the title of duc de La Rochefoucauld.
He left England in 1794, and travelled to the United States.
In 1795, he and five associates began a tour which covered much of the northern United States and Upper Canada. They crossed the Niagara River to Fort Erie and also saw Fort Chippawa. From there they travelled to Newark, Canada where they were entertained by Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe.
Their trip was cut short when they were prohibited from entering Lower Canada. Insulted, François Alexandre Frédéric returned to the US and, in 1799, his exile ended, he returned to France.
Return to France
On his return to Paris, he was treated with dignity, but distantly by Napoleon. At the Restoration he entered the House of Peers, but Louis XVIII refused to reinstate him as master of the wardrobe, although his father had paid 400,000 francs for the honour. Successive governments, revolutionary and otherwise, recognized the value of his institutions at Liancourt, and he was for twenty-three years government inspector of his school, École nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers, which had been removed to Châlons-en-Champagne.
The 19 member jury for the 5th Exposition des produits de l'industrie française was chosen in May 1819, with the Duc de la Rochefoucauld as president and Jean-Antoine Chaptal as vice-president and rapporteur. Chaptal had arranged the 2nd and 3rd expositions, and again played a leading role.
The 5th exposition opened on 25 August 1819 in the great halls of the Louvre palace.
Rochefoucauld was one of the first promoters of vaccination in France; he established a dispensary in Paris, and he was an active member of the central boards of administration for hospitals, prisons and agriculture. His opposition to the government in the House of Peers led to his removal in 1823 from the honorary positions he held, while the vaccination committee, of which he was president, was suppressed. The academies of science and of medicine admitted him to their membership by way of protest. Official hostility pursued him even after his death, for the old pupils of his school were charged by the military at his funeral.
Works
His works, chiefly on economic questions, include books on the English system of taxation, poor-relief and education.
Family
His eldest son, François, duc de La Rochefoucauld (1765–1848), succeeded his father in the House of Peers.
The second, Alexandre, comte de La Rochefoucauld (1767–1841), married Adélaïde de Pyvart de Chastullé, a San Domingo heiress allied to the Beauharnais family. Mme de La Rochefoucauld became dame d'honneur to the empress Josephine, and their eldest daughter married , a brother-in-law of Pauline Bonaparte, Princess Borghese. La Rochefoucauld became ambassador successively to Vienna (1805) and to The Hague (1808–1810), where he negotiated the union of the Kingdom of Holland with France. During the "Hundred Days" he was made a peer of France. He subsequently devoted himself to philanthropic work, and in 1822 became deputy to the Chamber of Deputies and sat with the constitutional royalists. He was again raised to the peerage in 1831.
The third son, Frederic Gaetan, marquis de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (1779–1863), was a zealous philanthropist and a partisan of constitutional monarchy. He took no part in politics after 1848. The marquis wrote on social questions, notably on prison administration; he edited the works of La Rochefoucauld, and the memoirs of Condorcet; and he was the author of some vaudevilles, tragedies and poems.
Footnotes
Additional references consulted
Further reading
François Furstenberg, When the United States Spoke French: Five Refugees Who Shaped a Nation. New York: Penguin, 2014.
1747 births
1827 deaths
French sociologists
Dukes of La Rochefoucauld
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Bourbon Restoration
French social reformers
French male writers | [
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228435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Democratic%20and%20Flemish | Christian Democratic and Flemish | Christian Democratic and Flemish (, , CD&V) is a Flemish Christian-democratic political party in Belgium. The party has historical ties to both trade unionism (ACV) and trade associations (UNIZO) and the Farmer's League. Until 2001, the party was named the Christian People's Party (Christelijke Volkspartij, CVP).
It was traditionally the largest political party of Flanders, until it was overtaken by the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) in the 2010s. CD&V participated in most governments and has generally the largest number of mayors. Most Prime Ministers of Belgium and Ministers-President of Flanders have been CD&V politicians. Herman Van Rompuy, the president of the European Council from 2009 to 2014, is one of the leading politicians of CD&V.
CD&V is a member of the European People's Party (EPP) and Centrist Democrat International.
History
The history of the CD&V dates back to the 19th century. It originated in the 19th century Catholic Party. At the end of the century, the new fraction of Christian democrats shifted the focus of the party slightly to the left. In the interwar years the party was renamed Catholic Bloc. Then, the Christian Social Party (PSC-CVP) existed from 1945 until 1968. In 1968, the PSC-CVP was split into the French-speaking Christian Social Party (PSC, now Humanist Democratic Centre, cdH) and Flemish Christian People's Party (Christelijke Volkspartij CVP). In 2001 the CVP changed its name to the CD&V.
The party was almost continually in power from its establishment until 1999, with the exception of 1954–1958. In 1999, the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD) became the largest party in Belgium, and formed a majority purple government of liberals, social democrats and greens. The same happened in the Flemish Government, but with the addition of Flemish nationalists. In 2003 CD&V again lost the federal elections which continued the federal centre-left coalition, but this time without the Greens.
In 2004, Flemish elections were held and the CD&V once more became the largest political party by representation in the Flemish Parliament. Yves Leterme became Flemish minister-president. After successful local elections in 2006, the party became the largest party in the Belgian Chamber of Representatives after the federal elections of 2007. The CD&V led the subsequent coalition talks, which repeatedly stalled (see 2007–2008 Belgian government formation). On the 20 March 2008, a new federal government was finally assembled, led by Yves Leterme. Kris Peeters subsequently became the next minister-president of Flanders. From 30 December 2008 till 25 November 2009, Herman Van Rompuy led his first cabinet before becoming the first permanent president of the European Council. Afterwards, Yves Leterme led his second government.
In June 2009, Flemish elections were held and the CD&V remained the largest party of Flanders. Kris Peeters stayed as Flemish minister-president. The party also remained the largest Flemish party in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections.
In 2010, the Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Open VLD) decided to step out of the federal coalition, consequently ending the government. The federal elections of 2010 resulted in a major loss of historic proportions for CD&V, largely due to votes lost to the Flemish-nationalist New Flemish Alliance. In the campaign, former prime minister Yves Leterme took a subtle step aside as frontrunner of the party. The president of the party, Marianne Thyssen, had pre-electorally stated that she was a candidate to become Prime Minister.
On 6 December 2011, the Di Rupo Government was formed, with the CD&V as the largest Flemish party.
During the local elections in 2012, CD&V managed to remain the largest Flemish party on the local level. It remained in the coalition of all five Flemish provinces and in three quarters of the municipalities. Almost half of these municipalities were subsequently led by CD&V mayors.
Ideology
CD&V follows the principle of christian democracy and describes itself as a broad movement that bases its ideology on "solidarity and justice." It describes its core philosophy as ensuring socio-economic policies made by government create a good quality of life for Flemish citizens through investing in cultural education and maintaining the family unit. CD&V also supports stricter penalties for sexual crimes and opposes legalization of hard drugs. The party also supports reform of the Belgian state by giving visibility to Flemish voters and creating a unified police zone in Brussels.
Members holding notable public offices
European politics
Federal politics
Regional politics
Electoral results
Chamber of Representatives
Results for the Chamber of Representatives, in percentages for the Kingdom of Belgium. From 1971 tot 1999: CVP figures. 2003: CD&V figures. 2007: CD&V/N-VA figures. From 2010 onwards: CD&V figures.
Senate
Regional
Brussels Parliament
Flemish Parliament
Provincial
European Parliament
Presidents
CVP/PSC
1945–1947 Gilbert Mullie
1947–1949 Paul Willem Segers
1949–1959 Jef De Schuyffeleer
1959–1961 Fred Bertrand
1961–1963 Jozef De Saeger
1963–1968 Robert Vandekerckhove
CVP
1968–1972 Robert Vandekerckhove
1972–1979 Wilfried Martens
1979–1982 Leo Tindemans
1982–1988 Frank Swaelen
1988–1993 Herman Van Rompuy
1993–1996 Johan Van Hecke
1996–1999 Marc Van Peel
1999–2001 Stefaan De Clerck
CD&V
2001–2003 Stefaan De Clerck
2003–2004 Yves Leterme
2004–2007 Jo Vandeurzen
2007–2008 Etienne Schouppe
2008–2008 Wouter Beke
2008–2010 Marianne Thyssen
2010–2019 Wouter Beke
2019 Cindy Franssen & Griet Smaers (ad interim)
2019– Joachim Coens
Until 1968 this lists gives the president of the Flemish part of the unitary CVP/PSC.
The party changed its name from CVP to CD&V on 29 September 2001.
See also
Christene Volkspartij
Graves de communi re
Notes
References
Th. Luykx and M. Platel, Politieke geschiedenis van België, 2 vol., Kluwer, 1985
W. Dewachter, Tussen staat en maatschappij, 1945–1995, christendemocratie in België, Tielt, 1995.
E. Witte, J. Craeybeckx en A. Meynen, Politieke geschiedenis van België, Standaard, 1997
Further reading
External links
Official website
CD&V page on the website of the European People's Party
Catholic political parties
Flemish political parties in Belgium
Christian democratic parties in Europe
Political parties established in 1968
1968 establishments in Belgium
Member parties of the European People's Party | [
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] |
228436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti%20Socialiste | Parti Socialiste | Parti Socialiste (Socialist Party) may refer to:
Parti Socialiste (Belgium)
Parti Socialiste (France)
Parti Socialiste (Mauritius) (PS), see List of political parties in Mauritius
Parti Socialiste Mauricien (PSM), see List of political parties in Mauritius
Parti Socialiste du Sénégal, Senegal
Parti Socialiste Suisse, Switzerland
Partie Socialiste (Tunisia)
See also
Socialist Party (disambiguation) | [
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228439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30th%20United%20States%20Congress | 30th United States Congress | The 30th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1847, to March 4, 1849, during the last two years of the administration of President James K. Polk. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Sixth Census of the United States in 1840. The Senate had a Democratic majority, and the House had a Whig majority. It was the only Congress in which Abraham Lincoln served.
Major events
July 1, 1847: United States issued its first postage stamps
January 24, 1848: Gold found at Sutter's Mill, beginning the California Gold Rush
January 31, 1848: Washington Monument established
February 23, 1848: Former President John Quincy Adams, now a Congressman representing Massachusetts, dies in the Speaker's office after suffering a stroke in the House Chambers.
July 19, 1848: Seneca Falls Convention
November 7, 1848: U.S. presidential election, 1848: Whig Zachary Taylor defeated Lewis Cass in the first US presidential election held in every state on the same day.
1846–1848: Mexican–American War
Major legislation
March 3, 1849: United States Department of the Interior established, sess. 2, ch. 108,
March 3, 1849: Gold Coinage Act, sess. 2, ch. 109,
Treaty
February 2, 1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed, ending the Mexican–American War and ceding to the United States virtually all of what is today the southwest United States.
States admitted and territories established
May 29, 1848: Wisconsin admitted as the 30th U.S. state, sess. 1, ch. 50,
August 14, 1848: Oregon Territory was formed from territory ceded by Great Britain, sess. 1, ch. 177,
March 3, 1849: Minnesota Territory formed from the Wisconsin Territory, sess. 2, ch. 121,
Party summary
Senate
During this congress, two Senate seats were added for the new state of Wisconsin.
House of Representatives
During this congress, two House seats were added for the new state of Wisconsin.
Leadership
Senate
President: George M. Dallas (D)
President pro tempore: David R. Atchison (D)
House of Representatives
Speaker: Robert C. Winthrop (W)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Alabama
2. Dixon H. Lewis (D), until October 25, 1848
Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D), from November 25, 1848
3. Arthur P. Bagby (D), until June 16, 1848
William R. D. King (D), from July 1, 1848
Arkansas
2. Chester Ashley (D), until April 29, 1848
William K. Sebastian (D), from May 12, 1848
3. Ambrose H. Sevier (D), until March 15, 1848
Solon Borland (D), from March 30, 1848
Connecticut
1. Jabez W. Huntington (W), until November 1, 1847
Roger S. Baldwin (W), from November 11, 1847
3. John M. Niles (D)
Delaware
1. John M. Clayton (W), until February 23, 1849
John Wales (W), from February 23, 1849
2. Presley Spruance (W)
Florida
1. David Levy Yulee (D)
3. James D. Westcott Jr. (D)
Georgia
2. John Macpherson Berrien (W)
3. Walter T. Colquitt (D), until February 4, 1848
Herschel V. Johnson (D), from February 4, 1848
Illinois
2. Stephen A. Douglas (D)
3. Sidney Breese (D)
Indiana
1. Jesse D. Bright (D)
3. Edward A. Hannegan (D)
Iowa
2. George Wallace Jones (D), from December 7, 1848
3. Augustus C. Dodge (D), from December 7, 1848
Kentucky
2. Joseph R. Underwood (W)
3. John J. Crittenden (W), until June 12, 1848
Thomas Metcalfe (W), from June 23, 1848
Louisiana
2. Solomon W. Downs (D)
3. Henry Johnson (W)
Maine
1. John Fairfield (D), until December 24, 1847
Wyman B. S. Moor (D), January 5, 1848 – June 7, 1848
Hannibal Hamlin (D), from June 7, 1848
2. James W. Bradbury (D)
Maryland
1. Reverdy Johnson (W)
3. James Pearce (W)
Massachusetts
1. Daniel Webster (W)
2. John Davis (W)
Michigan
1. Lewis Cass (D), until May 29, 1848
Thomas Fitzgerald (D), from June 8, 1848
2. Alpheus Felch (D)
Mississippi
1. Jesse Speight (D), until May 1, 1847
Jefferson Davis (D), from August 10, 1847
2. Henry S. Foote (D)
Missouri
1. Thomas H. Benton (D)
3. David R. Atchison (D)
New Hampshire
2. John P. Hale (ID)
3. Charles G. Atherton (D)
New Jersey
1. William L. Dayton (W)
2. Jacob W. Miller (W)
New York
1. Daniel S. Dickinson (D)
3. John A. Dix (D)
North Carolina
2. Willie P. Mangum (W)
3. George E. Badger (W)
Ohio
1. Thomas Corwin (W)
3. William Allen (D)
Pennsylvania
1. Daniel Sturgeon (D)
3. Simon Cameron (D)
Rhode Island
1. Albert C. Greene (W)
2. John H. Clarke (W)
South Carolina
2. John C. Calhoun (D)
3. Andrew Butler (D)
Tennessee
1. Hopkins L. Turney (D)
2. John Bell (W), from November 22, 1847
Texas
1. Thomas J. Rusk (D)
2. Samuel Houston (D)
Vermont
1. Samuel S. Phelps (W)
3. William Upham (W)
Virginia
1. James M. Mason (D)
2. Robert M. T. Hunter (D)
Wisconsin
1. Henry Dodge (D), from June 8, 1848 (newly admitted state)
3. Isaac P. Walker (D), from June 8, 1848 (newly admitted state)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Alabama
. John Gayle (W)
. Henry W. Hilliard (W)
. Sampson W. Harris (D)
. Samuel W. Inge (D)
. George S. Houston (D)
. Williamson R. W. Cobb (D)
. Franklin W. Bowdon (D)
Arkansas
. Robert W. Johnson (D)
Connecticut
. James Dixon (W)
. Samuel D. Hubbard (W)
. John A. Rockwell (W)
. Truman Smith (W)
Delaware
. John W. Houston (W)
Florida
. Edward C. Cabell (W)
Georgia
. Thomas Butler King (W)
. Alfred Iverson Sr. (D)
. John W. Jones (W)
. Hugh A. Haralson (D)
. John H. Lumpkin (D)
. Howell Cobb (D)
. Alexander H. Stephens (W)
. Robert A. Toombs (W)
Illinois
. Robert Smith (ID)
. John A. McClernand (D)
. Orlando B. Ficklin (D)
. John Wentworth (D)
. William A. Richardson (D), from December 6, 1847
. Thomas J. Turner (D)
. Abraham Lincoln (W)
Indiana
. Elisha Embree (W)
. Thomas J. Henley (D)
. John L. Robinson (D)
. Caleb B. Smith (W)
. William W. Wick (D)
. George G. Dunn (W)
. Richard W. Thompson (W)
. John Pettit (D)
. Charles W. Cathcart (D)
. William R. Rockhill (D)
Iowa
. William Thompson (D)
. Shepherd Leffler (D)
Kentucky
. Linn Boyd (D)
. Beverly L. Clarke (D)
. Samuel O. Peyton (D)
. Aylette Buckner (W)
. John B. Thompson (W)
. Green Adams (W)
. W. Garnett Duncan (W)
. Charles S. Morehead (W)
. Richard French (D)
. John P. Gaines (W)
Louisiana
. Emile La Sére (D)
. Bannon G. Thibodeaux (W)
. John H. Harmanson (D)
. Isaac E. Morse (D)
Maine
. David Hammons (D)
. Asa W. H. Clapp (D)
. Hiram Belcher (W)
. Franklin Clark (D)
. Ephraim K. Smart (D)
. James S. Wiley (D)
. Hezekiah Williams (D)
Maryland
. John G. Chapman (W)
. J. Dixon Roman (W)
. Thomas W. Ligon (D)
. Robert M. McLane (D)
. Alexander Evans (W)
. John W. Crisfield (W)
Massachusetts
. Robert C. Winthrop (W)
. Daniel P. King (W)
. Amos Abbott (W)
. John G. Palfrey (W)
. Charles Hudson (W)
. George Ashmun (W)
. Julius Rockwell (W)
. John Quincy Adams (W), until February 23, 1848
Horace Mann (W), from April 3, 1848
. Artemas Hale (W)
. Joseph Grinnell (W)
Michigan
. Robert McClelland (D)
. Edward Bradley (D), until August 5, 1847
Charles E. Stuart (D), from December 6, 1847
. Kinsley S. Bingham (D)
Mississippi
. Jacob Thompson (D)
. Winfield S. Featherston (D)
. Patrick W. Tompkins (W)
. Albert G. Brown (D)
Missouri
. James B. Bowlin (D)
. John Jameson (D)
. James S. Green (D)
. Willard P. Hall (D)
. John S. Phelps (D)
New Hampshire
. Amos Tuck (I)
. Charles H. Peaslee (D)
. James Wilson (W)
. James H. Johnson (D)
New Jersey
. James G. Hampton (W)
. William A. Newell (W)
. Joseph E. Edsall (D)
. John Van Dyke (W)
. Dudley S. Gregory (W)
New York
. Frederick W. Lord (D)
. Henry C. Murphy (D)
. Henry Nicoll (D)
. William B. Maclay (D)
. Frederick A. Tallmadge (W)
. David S. Jackson (D), until April 19, 1848
Horace Greeley (W), from December 4, 1848
. William Nelson (W)
. Cornelius Warren (W)
. Daniel B. St. John (W)
. Eliakim Sherrill (W)
. Peter H. Silvester (W)
. Gideon Reynolds (W)
. John I. Slingerland (W)
. Orlando Kellogg (W)
. Sidney Lawrence (D)
. Hugh White (W)
. George Petrie (ID)
. William Collins (D)
. Joseph Mullin (W)
. Timothy Jenkins (D)
. George A. Starkweather (D)
. Ausburn Birdsall (D)
. William Duer (W)
. Daniel Gott (W)
. Harmon S. Conger (W)
. William T. Lawrence (W)
. John M. Holley (W), until March 8, 1848
Esbon Blackmar (W), from December 4, 1848
. Elias B. Holmes (W)
. Robert L. Rose (W)
. David Rumsey Jr. (W)
. Dudley Marvin (W)
. Nathan K. Hall (W)
. Harvey Putnam (W)
. Washington Hunt (W)
North Carolina
. Thomas L. Clingman (W)
. Nathaniel Boyden (W)
. Daniel M. Barringer (W)
. Augustine H. Shepperd (W)
. Abraham W. Venable (D)
. John R. J. Daniel (D)
. James I. McKay (D)
. Richard S. Donnell (W)
. David Outlaw (W)
Ohio
. James J. Faran (D)
. David Fisher (W)
. Robert C. Schenck (W)
. Richard S. Canby (W)
. William Sawyer (D)
. Rodolphus Dickinson (D)
. Jonathan D. Morris (D)
. John L. Taylor (W)
. Thomas O. Edwards (W)
. Daniel Duncan (W)
. John K. Miller (D)
. Samuel F. Vinton (W)
. Thomas Ritchey (D)
. Nathan Evans (W)
. William Kennon Jr. (D)
. John D. Cummins (D)
. George Fries (D)
. Samuel Lahm (D)
. John Crowell (W)
. Joshua R. Giddings (W)
. Joseph M. Root (W)
Pennsylvania
. Lewis C. Levin (A)
. Joseph R. Ingersoll (W)
. Charles Brown (D)
. Charles J. Ingersoll (D)
. John Freedley (W)
. John W. Hornbeck (W), until January 16, 1848
Samuel A. Bridges (D), from March 6, 1848
. Abraham R. McIlvaine (W)
. John Strohm (W)
. William Strong (D)
. Richard Brodhead (D)
. Chester P. Butler (W)
. David Wilmot (D)
. James Pollock (W)
. George N. Eckert (W)
. Henry Nes (W)
. Jasper E. Brady (W)
. John Blanchard (W)
. Andrew Stewart (W)
. Job Mann (D)
. John Dickey (W)
. Moses Hampton (W)
. John W. Farrelly (W)
. James Thompson (D)
. Alexander Irvin (W)
Rhode Island
. Robert B. Cranston (W)
. Benjamin B. Thurston (D)
South Carolina
. James A. Black (D), until April 3, 1848
Daniel Wallace (D), from June 12, 1848
. Richard F. Simpson (D)
. Joseph A. Woodward (D)
. Alexander D. Sims (D), until November 22, 1848
John McQueen (D), from February 12, 1849
. Armistead Burt (D)
. Isaac E. Holmes (D)
. Robert Rhett (D)
Tennessee
. Andrew Johnson (D)
. William M. Cocke (W)
. John H. Crozier (W)
. Hugh L. W. Hill (D)
. George W. Jones (D)
. James H. Thomas (D)
. Meredith P. Gentry (W)
. Washington Barrow (W)
. Lucien B. Chase (D)
. Frederick P. Stanton (D)
. William T. Haskell (W)
Texas
. David S. Kaufman (D)
. Timothy Pilsbury (D)
Vermont
. William Henry (W)
. Jacob Collamer (W)
. George P. Marsh (W)
. Lucius B. Peck (D)
Virginia
. Archibald Atkinson (D)
. George Dromgoole (D), until April 27, 1847
Richard K. Meade (D), from August 5, 1847
. Thomas S. Flournoy (W)
. Thomas S. Bocock (D)
. William L. Goggin (W)
. John M. Botts (W)
. Thomas H. Bayly (D)
. Richard L. T. Beale (D)
. John S. Pendleton (W)
. Henry Bedinger (D)
. James McDowell (D)
. William B. Preston (W)
. Andrew S. Fulton (W)
. Robert A. Thompson (D)
. William G. Brown Sr. (D)
Wisconsin
. William P. Lynde (D), from June 8, 1848 (newly admitted state)
. Mason C. Darling (D), from June 8, 1848 (newly admitted state)
Non-voting members
. John H. Tweedy (W), until May 29, 1848
Henry H. Sibley, from October 30, 1848
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Replacements: 11
Democrats (D): 4 seat net gain
Whigs (W): no net change
Deaths: 5
Resignations: 6
Interim appointments: 7
Seats of newly admitted states: 4
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| Vacant
| Failure to elect.Successor elected November 22, 1847.
| | John Bell (W)
| Elected November 22, 1847.
|-
| Iowa(2)
| Vacant
| Iowa had been admitted to the Union December 28, 1846, but the legislature failed to elect due to a three-way split that prevented any candidate from earning the required number of 30 legislators' votes.First Senator elected December 7, 1848.
| | George Wallace Jones (D)
| Elected December 7, 1848.
|-
| Iowa(3)
| Vacant
| Iowa had been admitted to the Union December 28, 1846, but the legislature failed to elect due to a three-way split that prevented any candidate from earning the required number of 30 legislators' votes.First Senator elected December 7, 1848.
| | Augustus C. Dodge (D)
| Elected December 7, 1848.
|-
| Mississippi(1)
| | Jesse Speight (D)
| Incumbent died May 1, 1847.Successor appointed August 10, 1847, and then elected January 1848.
| | Jefferson Davis (D)
| Appointed December 5, 1847.
|-
| Connecticut(1)
| | Jabez W. Huntington (W)
| Incumbent died November 1, 1847.Successor appointed November 11, 1847, and then elected May 1848.
| | Roger S. Baldwin (W)
| Appointed December 5, 1847.
|-
| Maine(1)
| | John Fairfield (D)
| Incumbent died December 24, 1847.Successor appointed January 5, 1848.
| | Wyman B. S. Moor (D)
| Appointed January 5, 1848.
|-
| Georgia(3)
| | Walter T. Colquitt (D)
| Incumbent resigned February 4, 1848.Successor appointed February 4, 1848, to finish the term.
| | Herschel V. Johnson (D)
| Appointed February 4, 1848.
|-
| Arkansas(3)
| | Ambrose H. Sevier (D)
| Incumbent resigned March 15, 1848.Successor appointed March 30, 1848, to finish the term.
| | Solon Borland (D)
| Appointed March 30, 1848.
|-
| Arkansas(2)
| | Chester Ashley (D)
| Incumbent died April 29, 1848.Successor appointed May 12, 1848, and elected sometime thereafter.
| | William K. Sebastian (D)
| Elected May 12, 1848.
|-
| Wisconsin(1)
| colspan=2 | Wisconsin admitted to the Union May 29, 1848.First Senator elected June 8, 1848.
| | Henry Dodge (D)
| Elected June 8, 1848.
|-
| Wisconsin(3)
| colspan=2 | Wisconsin admitted to the Union May 29, 1848.First Senator elected June 8, 1848.
| | Isaac P. Walker (D)
| Elected June 8, 1848.
|-
| Michigan(1)
| | Lewis Cass (D)
| Incumbent resigned May 29, 1848, to run for U.S. President.Successor appointed June 8, 1848.
| | Thomas Fitzgerald (D)
| Elected June 8, 1848.
|-
| Maine(1)
| | Wyman B. S. Moor (D)
| Interim appointee retired when successor elected June 7, 1848.
| | Hannibal Hamlin (D)
| Elected June 7, 1848.
|-
| Kentucky(3)
| | John J. Crittenden (W)
| Incumbent resigned June 12, 1848, to run for Governor of Kentucky.Successor appointed June 23, 1848, and elected sometime thereafter.
| | Thomas Metcalfe (W)
| Elected June 23, 1848.
|-
| Alabama(3)
| | Arthur P. Bagby (D)
| Incumbent resigned June 16, 1848, to become U.S. Minister to Russia.Successor elected July 1, 1848.
| | William R. King (D)
| Elected July 1, 1848.
|-
| Alabama(2)
| | Dixon H. Lewis (D)
| Incumbent died October 25, 1848.Successor elected November 25, 1848.
| | Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D)
| Elected November 25, 1848.
|-
| Delaware(1)
| | John M. Clayton (W)
| Incumbent resigned February 23, 1849, to become U.S. Secretary of State.Successor elected February 23, 1849.
| | John Wales (W)
| Elected February 23, 1849.
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 10
Democrats (D): no net change
Whigs (W): no net change
Deaths: 7
Resignations: 0
Contested election: 1
Seats of newly admitted states: 2
Total seats with changes: 12
|-
|
| Vacant
| Representative Stephen A. Douglas resigned at end of previous congress.
| | William A. Richardson (D)
| Seated December 6, 1847
|-
|
| | George Dromgoole (D)
| Incumbent died April 27, 1847.
| | Richard K. Meade (D)
| Seated August 5, 1847
|-
|
| | Edward Bradley (D)
| Incumbent died August 5, 1847.
| | Charles E. Stuart (D)
| Seated December 6, 1847
|-
|
| | John W. Hornbeck (W)
| Incumbent died January 16, 1848.
| | Samuel A. Bridges (D)
| Seated March 6, 1848
|-
|
| | John Quincy Adams (W)
| Incumbent died February 23, 1848.
| | Horace Mann (W)
| Seated April 3, 1848
|-
|
| | John M. Holley (W)
| Incumbent died March 8, 1848.
| | Esbon Blackmar (W)
| Seated December 4, 1848
|-
|
| | James A. Black (D)
| Incumbent died April 3, 1848.
| | Daniel Wallace (D)
| Seated June 12, 1848
|-
|
| | David S. Jackson (D)
| James Monroe contested seat after which the House declared the seat vacant April 19, 1848.
| | Horace Greeley (W)
| Seated December 4, 1848
|-
|
| colspan=2 | Wisconsin admitted into the Union May 29, 1848, and seat remained vacant until June 8, 1848.
| | William P. Lynde (D)
| Seated June 8, 1848
|-
|
| colspan=2 | Wisconsin admitted into the Union May 29, 1848, and seat remained vacant until June 8, 1848.
| | Mason C. Darling (D)
| Seated June 8, 1848
|-
|
| | John H. Tweedy (W)
| Incumbent was disqualified May 29, 1848, after the portion of territory he resided in achieved statehood.
| Henry H. Sibley
| Seated October 30, 1848
|-
|
| | Alexander D. Sims (D)
| Incumbent died November 22, 1848.
| | John McQueen (D)
| Seated February 12, 1849
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Agriculture (Chairman: Daniel Sturgeon)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Alpheus Felch then Isaac P. Walker)
Claims (Chairman: Moses Norris Jr.)
Commerce (Chairman: John Adams Dix)
Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Herschel V. Johnson)
Expedition of John C. Fremont (Select)
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Thomas J. Rusk)
Finance (Chairman: Charles G. Atherton)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: Ambrose H. Sevier then Edward A. Hannegan then Thomas Hart Benton)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: David R. Atchison)
Judiciary (Chairman: Andrew P. Butler)
Library (Chairman: James A. Pearce)
Manufactures (Chairman: Daniel S. Dickinson)
Memorial of Certain Cherokee Claimants (Select)
Military Affairs (Chairman: Lewis Cass then Thomas Hart Benton)
Militia (Chairman: Thomas J. Rusk)
Monuments to Deceased Senators (Select)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: David Levy Yulee)
Oregon Railroad (Select)
Ordnance and War Ships (Select)
Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: James D. Westcott)
Pensions (Chairman: Henry Johnson)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John M. Niles)
Printing (Chairman: Simon Cameron)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: Solomon W. Downs)
Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Robert M.T. Hunter)
Public Lands (Chairman: Sidney Breese then Alpheus Felch)
Retired List for the Army and the Navy (Select)
Retrenchment (Chairman: Hopkins L. Turney)
Seventh Census (Select)
Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Jesse D. Bright)
Rivers and Harbors Convention in Chicago (Select)
Roads and Canals (Chairman: Edward A. Hannegan)
Tariff Bill of 1828 (Special)
Tariff Regulation (Select)
Territories (Chairman: Stephen A. Douglas)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Daniel P. King)
Agriculture (Chairman: Hugh White)
Claims (Chairman: Joseph R. Ingersoll)
Commerce (Chairman: Washington Hunt)
District of Columbia (Chairman: John G. Chapman)
Elections (Chairman: Richard W. Thompson)
Engraving (Chairman: Lewis Charles Levin)
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: James G. Hampton)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Patrick W. Tompkins)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: James Wilson)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Daniel M. Barringer)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Joseph M. Root)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: John H. Crozier)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Edward Carrington Cabell)
Foreign Affairs (Chairman: John A. McClernand)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: Daniel M. Barringer)
Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Andrew S. Fulton)
Judiciary (Chairman: Joseph R. Ingersoll)
Manufactures (Chairman: Andrew Stewart)
Mileage (Chairman: Hiram Belcher)
Military Affairs (Chairman: John M. Botts)
Militia (Chairman: John B. Thompson)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Butler King)
Patents (Chairman: John W. Farrelly)
Printing (Chairman: Harmon S. Conger)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: John Gayle)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: William L. Goggin)
Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: John W. Houston)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas L. Clingman)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jacob Collamer)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Henry Nes)
Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Daniel P. King)
Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: William M. Cocke)
Roads and Canals (Chairman: Robert C. Schenck)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Territories (Chairman: Caleb B. Smith)
Ways and Means (Chairman: Samuel F. Vinton)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
The Library
Printing
Employees
Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan
Senate
Chaplain: Henry Slicer (Methodist)
Secretary: Asbury Dickins
Sergeant at Arms: Robert Beale
House of Representatives
Chaplain: William T.S. Sprole (Presbyterian), until December 6, 1847
Ralph Gurley (Presbyterian), elected December 6, 1847
Clerk: Benjamin B. French, until December 8, 1847
Thomas J. Campbell, elected December 8, 1847
Doorkeeper: Robert E. Horner, elected December 8, 1847
Postmaster: John M. Johnson
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Newton Lane, until December 8, 1847
Nathan Sergeant, elected December 8, 1847
See also
1846 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1846 and 1847 United States Senate elections
1846 and 1847 United States House of Representatives elections
1848 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1848 United States presidential election
1848 and 1849 United States Senate elections
1848 and 1849 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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228440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%27z | B'z | are a Japanese rock duo, consisting of guitarist, composer and producer and vocalist and lyricist , known for their energetic hard rock tracks and pop rock ballads. B'z is one of the best-selling music artists in the world and the best-selling in their native Japan, having released 49 consecutive No. 1 singles, 25 No. 1 albums, 3 No. 1 EPs on the Oricon music charts and sold more than 100 million records worldwide.
In 2003 HMV Japan ranked them at number 30 on their list of the 100 most important Japanese pop acts. In 2007, B'z became the first music act from Asia to have their handprints and signatures put up in the Hollywood's RockWalk. In 2008 were awarded a Guinness World Record for "Best selling album act in Japan", which also notes them to be the best selling act in Japan overall. By AllMusic are considered as the "biggest rock act in Japan and the entirety of Asia".
History
Early works (1988–1990)
In the late 1980s, Tak Matsumoto had been extremely busy as a guitarist with various recording sessions and live performances, including for Tetsuya Komuro's TM Network and Mari Hamada. On 21 May 1988, Matsumoto released his first solo album, Thousand Wave, with positive critical reception. However, wanting to start a band he searched for band members, particularly a singer. Eventually, through his management he listened to the demo tape of vocalist Koshi Inaba in 1988, who would later found B'z with him. At the first session they played The Beatles "Let It Be" and "Oh! Darling". At the time, Japan's music scene was experiencing a band boom. With all the digital sounds in mainstream music, the only sounds that Inaba and Matsumoto felt could not be expressed and replicated were the guitar and the human voice. As a result, they decided to keep it a two-man unit. On 21 September 1988, B'z made their debut with their first album, B'z, and single, "Dakara Sono Te o Hanashite ()". Their music was very much a product of its times, with synthesizers and samplers sharing equal time with Matsumoto's guitar, producing an experimental sound, very different from their later well-known hard rock sound.
Instead of immediately performing live after a debut album, as many Japanese bands were doing, B'z had a clear vision of how they wanted to perform and decided to wait until they had enough material to play live. The two concentrated on recording, improving the quality of their music. Their efforts resulted in a second album, Off the Lock, released on 21 May 1989. With this second album came their first series of live performances, known better to their fans as "Live-Gym". "Live-Gym No. 00" started in Nagoya, continued in Osaka, and finished in Tokyo. Tickets were sold out on the day they became available. On 21 October, their first mini-album (EP), Bad Communication was released. The title track was a blend of rock and dance music, and is still a classic played during their "Live-Gyms". It charted for 163 weeks on the Oricon Charts. Their first nationwide tour, B'z Live-Gym No. 001, covered 16 shows around Japan.
On 21 February 1990, their third album Break Through was released. It charted at No. 3 on the Oricon Albums Chart. To promote it, they started a tour with 22 shows nationwide. Their single "Taiyō no Komachi Angel", was released on 13 June and peaked at No. 1 on the Oricon Singles Chart. Every single since that release has debuted at No. 1 on the Oricon charts. The following Wicked Beat, their second mini album, was released on 21 June. It also reached No. 3 on the charts. Like the band's other releases, it became commercially successful (reaching one million certifications) retroactively between 1990 and 1991. Their fourth album, Risky, was released on 7 November, and was their first album to top the charts. It was the beginning of a steady shift in the duo's style from pop rock to 80's hard rock. Their "Risky" tour, with 49 performances, also started in November. Their first music video, Film Risky, was recorded in New York City and London in four weeks, and was released on 16 December. With a barrage of releases, 1990 came to be the busiest year for B'z.
Transitioning into hard rock (1991–1992)
The third mini album, Mars was released on 29 May 1991. Little promotion was done for it and after releasing only two singles, B'z released their fifth album, In the Life, on 27 November. The release of the album marked B'z shying away from their advanced digital sounds and more towards rock. Their first live video, "Just Another Life" was out on 11 December. For promotion, B'z also embarked on their "In the Life '91–'92" tour, with 66 performances in total. The tour started in December and managed to flow into the next year. The total number of "Live-Gyms" they did during this year exceeded 100.
In the summer of 1992, the "Pleasure '92-Time" tour took place with 12 performances in 3 major cities. The arena-class tour had amazing features such as a huge lighting set, called the "Starfish", and seats that rotated 360 degrees. 28 October marked the release of their sixth album, Run, and proved to be even more hard rock oriented than the previous. On 9 December, they released a slightly different mini album Friends. Different from Run, its concept is somewhat similar to that of a movie soundtrack.
Switching to blues (1993–1994)
In early 1993, the "Run" tour concluded after 49 performances in 21 locations. In March was released their twelfth and best-selling single "Ai no mama ni Wagamama ni Boku wa Kimi dake o Kizutsukenai", certified double-million by RIAJ in 2003. Then they held an open-air concert for the first time, called "Jap the Ripper". The show took place in Bentenjima of Hamamatsu-city, Shizuoka on 31 July and 1 August. The successful event gathered 50 thousand people per day, totaling 100,000 people in the end. Following this, B'z concentrated on recording once again, this time, producing a two-disc seventh album, The 7th Blues. The album title not only came from it being their seventh album, but also after the seventh chord, that is frequently used in Blues. Becoming much more "bluesier" and soulful, this album evidently shows their lean towards blues, the roots of rock music. It included hit singles "Don't Leave Me" and "Lady Navigation".
On 9 February 1994, the "B'z Live-Gym '94—The 9th Blues" tour started. The tour became their longest and biggest tour thus far, managing 87 performances in the year. During the tour, the album, The 7th Blues, was released on 2 March. The tour finished in Sapporo's Tsukisamu Green Dome on 24 December. This album was a kind of "fans trap" because they made it to "clean" their fandom and just keep the rock and blues-loving people with them.
Adopting pop and temporary hiatus (1995–1998)
In the first half of 1995, B'z spent their time recording and after creating numerous demos, they held the "Pleasure '95 Buzz Stadium" tour with 12 shows in 7 cities. Their eighth album, Loose, was released on 22 November. Loose was concentrated on the original concept of a two-man band. While combining rock with pop, this album is well balanced with a variety of sounds. The album sold over 3 million copies, marking it as the best seller for B'z at the time. The B'z Live-Gym '96 "Spirit Loose" tour, started on 15 March 1996 and held 44 performances in 21 locations. The show opened featuring a short B'z action movie, shot in Los Angeles. A short while afterward, B'z released their 6th mini-album titled Friends II on 25 November. The album displayed more of an adult-oriented rock.
During a short hiatus, in 1997 Inaba's released debut solo album, Magma, writing all the music and lyrics. The album, which topped the Oricon charts, showcased another side of him, different from that of his usual image in B'z. In March, the dome tour "Pleasure '97 Fireball" consisted of 9 performances in 5 locations. Tickets for each dome, which have a capacity of about 30 to 50 thousand people each, were all sold out. The tour included stops at Tokyo (3 nights), Nagoya, Osaka, Fukuoka, and Maebashi, all being successful. On 19 November, their ninth studio album Survive showcased yet another new direction in sound and style. B'z's first promotional effort for the album included performances in concert halls in Akita, Hakodate, Kōchi, Shiga, and Nagasaki, before plunging into the main tour. "B'z Live-Gym '98 Survive" started on 24 January 1998. On 20 May, B'z released their first official compilation album, B'z The Best "Pleasure", which also marked their 10th year since debuting. Every song included in this album was a huge hit and was highly acclaimed as it was the first Japanese album to sell more than 5 million copies, which achieved by the end of the year. On 6 June, the "Survive" tour had successfully ended. In the mid-1998, B'z entered a period of both rest and recording. During the period, on 20 September, their second best-of album, B'z The Best "Treasure" was released, selling almost 4.5 million copies until the end of the year.
Returning to the music scene (1999–2000)
B'z started off the year of 1999 by busily promoting their recent singles and their tenth studio album Brotherhood, which was released on 14 July. It is considered their heaviest rock album at that point. The album's track "Giri Giri Chop (Version 51)" was recorded by the support of Mr. Big drummer Pat Torpey and its bassist Billy Sheehan. In July, another dome-class tour began starting in Sapporo. The title of the tour, B'z Live-Gym '99 "Brotherhood" included 14 performances in 7 locations. They did away with extra stage acts and concentrated on their musical performance, playing songs from the new album and many hits from the past. On 28 August and 29, they played in the Yokohama International Stadium. B'z concert was the first to be held in this stadium and gathered a stunning 140,000 people in just two days. Although the second day at Yokohama experienced heavy rain, the tour ended successfully. Shortly afterward, B'z started recording again and continued to do so throughout the rest of the year without rest.
On 23 February 2000, they released the album B'z The "Mixture", which included re-mastered tracks of past songs, songs from past singles that were not the featured track, remixes, and a new song. In the middle of May, they started a rehearsal for the summer tour B'z Live-Gym Pleasure 2000 -Juice-, starting a hall class venue show in Toyama, 30 May. The tour totaled 18 shows in 10 cities, including a performance on the famous Nippon Budokan on 20 June as a start. The recording of their single "Juice" was supported by drummer Brian Tichy. When they released "Juice", on 12 July, the duo set a Japanese record of marking No.1 in the first week, making it their 25th No. 1 single in sequence. During the tour, Once Upon a Time in Yokohama ~B'z Live Gym'99 "Brotherhood"~ was released. The year of 2000 was finished with the release of the eleventh album Eleven on 6 December. B'z finished their work in 2000 with the appearance on the TV show Music Station Special and would start the rehearsal for the tour "B'z Live-Gym 2001 -Eleven-" which kicked off on 26 February, in the following year.
Induction into Hollywood's RockWalk (2001–2007)
On 26 February 2001, "B'z Live-Gym 2001 -Eleven-" kicked off at Ehime Kenmin Bunka Kaikan. Most of the shows were exclusive to fan club members. In March was released popular thirty-first single "Ultra Soul". After the Okinawa shows on 27 and 28 June, B'z traveled abroad. They officially released their CDs in Taiwan and Hong Kong and after having Live-Gym that year, they made a promotion trip for the first time there. "B'z Live-Gym 2001 -Eleven-" had 46 shows in 19 locations and 600,000 attendees. After the Eleven tour, B'z prepared for their first Asian tour, which included "B'z Live-Gym in Taipei 2001" and "B'z Live-Gym in Hong Kong 2001".
While B'z started recording as soon as the year 2002 started, Tak finished his solo albums. which were released simultaneously: Dragon From The West which consists of hard rock tunes, and Hana, which includes more melodic and Asian-influenced tunes. B'z finished their recording in the middle of May, and started rehearsal in Tokyo for the Live-Gym tour that year, as well as performing with Aerosmith on the stage of FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan Official Concert International Day, at Tokyo Stadium on 27 June. On 3 July, Green was released, and there was a supporting tour. The tour began in Saitama Super Arena on 8 July and ended at Osaka Dome on 9 September, encompassing 700,000 attendees, 14 shows, and 11 cities. The live band was rounded out by bassist Billy Sheehan and Canadian drummer Shane Gaalaas. In September, after the last show at Osaka, B'z had their first US tour starting in San Diego at Canes on 22 September and The Palace in Los Angeles on 24 September. On 27 November, a live video A Beautiful Reel was released in addition to "B'z Live-Gym 2002 Green ~Go★Fight★Win~", which packaged everything that happened on the Green tour. It also contained a second disc with material from "Live-Gym 2002 Rock n' California Roll". On 11 December, their first ballad compilation album The Ballads ~Love & B'z~ was released, with a similar flow as Friends.
The year 2003 marked their 15th anniversary, and the two started recording from the beginning of the year, traveling to the United States in February for additional recording. Along with continuous releases, the tour "B'z Live-Gym The Final Pleasure "It's Showtime!!"" started in July. The tour "Pleasure" series started since '91 would end this year. The tour kicked off 3 July at Hakodate Shimin Kaikan and finished at Nagisa-en on 21 September, which was ironically the day of their debut, having a total of 23 shows altogether. As it has been 10 years since B'z had performed at Nagisa-en since their 1993 performance of "B'z Live-Gym Pleasure '93 "Jap the Ripper"", it gathered 100,000 audiences for two days. Even though the shows were hit by typhoon and it rained very hard, it managed to still attract thousands of audience.
After the Nagisa-en performance, B'z flew to the U.S. The tour "B'z Live-Gym 2003 Banzai in North America" concluded with 7 shows including Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver. Their thirteenth album, Big Machine, was released on 17 September. As they flew back to Japan, B'z started their third tour in 2003, "B'z Live-Gym 2003 Big Machine". It was a dome tour in 6 locations, from Saitama Super Arena to Tokyo Dome in December. The compilation cover album The Hit Parade with various vocalist was released on 26 November.
Kicking off 2004, B'z went back to the studio to begin recording again. On 25 February, a DVD, Typhoon No.15 ~B'z Live-Gym The Final Pleasure "It's Showtime!!" in Nagisaen~, was released. For the rest of the year, they worked mainly on their solo projects. Soon after finishing each solo tour, they began recording together again. On 6 April 2005, B'z released their fourteenth album The Circle. For the album's recording, the duo was particularly worried about its live sound. For promotional activities, B'z started the tour "B'z Live-Gym 2005 "Circle of Rock"" that ran from April to September, totaling 27 shows in 41 locations. On 1 August, their box set The Complete B'z was digitally released only for the Japanese iTunes Store. House of Strings label, which Tak established a year before, released the artist's second album, Theatre of Strings, on 19 October. On 30 November, B'z The Best "Pleasure II", the third compilation album, was released, reaching one million by the end of 2005. On 28 June 2006, their fifteenth original full album Monster was released. Most of the recording took place in Los Angeles. B'z kicked off the tour "B'z Live-Gym 2006 "Monster's Garage"" from Amami Bunka Center on 2 July, having 17 shows in all, including 5 big domes in 11 locations and 450,000 audience members altogether. By the end of 2007, more precisely on 5 December, B’z released their sixteenth album, Action. The drum parts of their two singles from Action, "Eien no Tsubasa" and "Super Love Song", were recorded by drummers Josh Freese and Jeremy Colson respectively.
On 19 November 2007, B'z was inducted into Hollywood's RockWalk as the first Asian inductee in Sunset Boulevard, California, United States. They were recommended by Steve Vai with whom they collaborated in 1999 (on The Ultra Zone), as well supported him during the 2007 tour in Japan.
20th anniversary (2008–2009)
In February 2008, B'z released a DVD titled B'z Live in Nanba. The show was recorded in 2006 and was also broadcast online. The concert featured songs from The Circle and Monster eras, along with a number of older hits as well as several English versions. On April 16, 2008, the band released their forty-fifth single, "Burn -Fumetsu no Face-", which became their forty-first consecutive No. 1 single. The year also marked the twentieth anniversary of the band. To commemorate the occasion, the "B'z 20" campaign was launched that saw two further compilation albums; B'z The Best "Ultra Pleasure" was released on 18 June 2008 and featured the greatest of the band's hits on a two-disc collection, and in chronological order, with two all-new modern recordings of older tracks, while B'z The Best "Ultra Treasure" was released on 17 September 2008, which two-disc track listing was decided by fans who were invited to vote for three of many songs at the B'z 20th-anniversary website, which featured an exclusive song on a three-disc gift bundle, as well as a re-recording and a remix.
On January 25, 2008, B'z performed only the latest of its "Showcase" series, which are generally small-venue performances of older album songs and the more obscure B-side that are mostly unsuitable for the larger arena concerts. Following this, B'z immediately embarked on their eight-month "Action" tour that saw them perform all over Japan. Afterward, they segued into their 2008 Pleasure tour, titled "Glory Days". Throughout the month of September, B'z performed for hundreds of thousands of fans in nine performances across three cities. The special tour ended on September 21 at Nissan Stadium, with a concert on the 20th anniversary of their first release. This performance was later released on DVD February 25, 2009, as B'z Live-Gym Pleasure 2008 -Glory Days-.
Following their massive tour in 2008, B'z returned to the studio to record new material. Their first release of the year was a Double A-side single, "Ichibu to Zenbu/Dive", released on August 5, 2009 that features drummer Chad Smith. The non full-track ringtone downloads (Chaku Uta) of "Ichibu to Zenbu" began on July 13, 2009, and the full-track ringtone downloads (Chaku Uta Full) of the song also began on August 26, 2009. For its strong download sales in August and September on Recochoku, the song served the "Monthly Recochoku Award, Best Song Award Grand Prix" for Chaku Uta and Chaku Uta Full each for two consecutive months. On October 13, 2009, KDDI also announced that "Ichibu to Zenbu" was awarded the "Utatomo Award" of September 2009 for the sales on "Utatomo" via au's LISMO. The second release was the single "My Lonely Town", with the physical CD of the single was released on October 14, 2009. Both singles are featured in the band's next studio album, entitled Magic, released on November 18, 2009. On December 10, 2009, it was announced that their single "Ichibu to Zenbu/Dive" won the "Hot 100 of the Year" award at the Billboard Japan Music Awards.
30th anniversary (2010–present)
After the "B'z Live-Gym 2010 "Ain't No Magic" Tour", they began their solo activities each and did not release any single as a duo in 2010. Matsumoto released the album Take Your Pick with Larry Carlton on June 2, 2010. Inaba's solo studio album Hadou was also released on August 18, 2010, debuting at number one on the Oricon album charts. Take Your Pick won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Album at the 53rd Grammy Awards on February 13, 2011.
In 2011, they came back as B'z with the forty-eighth single "Sayonara Kizu Darake no Hibi yo", which is written and used as a commercial song for Pepsi NEX. They have released their eighteenth studio album C'mon on July 27, 2011, which featured forty-ninth single "Don't Wanna Lie". "Don't Wanna Lie" is the theme song used for Detective Conan: Quarter of Silence. In summer 2011, B'z continued their live-gym tour with additional stops in North America: Vancouver, San Francisco, Los Angeles. Their fourth North American tour has been confirmed for San Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Toronto, Silver Spring, New York City, and Los Angeles in 2012, almost selling out the Universal Amphitheatre. The B'z shared their first English language songs with American audiences on their North American tour. Matsumoto explained, "This will be our fourth U.S. tour. We love playing for American audiences, and are excited to share our first English-language release with our fans". In anticipation of their upcoming American tour, the band released a five-song mini-album, titled B'z, featuring five re-recorded English versions of various hits such as "Juice", "Ultra Soul" and "Splash", and "Into Free-Dangan-" released as a digital single. The songs were co-selected by their drummer Shane Gaalaas. The album is available internationally through the iTunes Store and was released on July 25, 2012. In the same year was released their fifth single "Go for It, Baby (Kioku no Sanmyaku)".
In 2013, the group was the third artist by total sales revenue in Japan with ¥5.379 billion. In 2015, was released the nineteenth studio album Epic Day, as well singles "Uchōten" and "Red". In August 2017, the band released B'z Complete Single Box Set, and although being a high-priced limited edition it managed to chart in the Top 10. B'z released their 53rd single "Seimei/Still Alive" in June, and it is their 49th single to top the Oricon charts. Their 20th studio album, Dinosaur, was released in November 2017, followed by a tour to celebrate their upcoming 30th anniversary in 2018. According to Oricon, it is their 28 album to top the music charts. To commemorate the 30th anniversary, in 2018 was held a large exhibition between April and June at Yūrakuchō Infos building in Tokyo's Chiyoda ward, its music documentary B'z 30th Year Exhibition "Scenes" 1988-2018 screened in theatres nationwide, 20 studio albums mastered for release as LPs, and was released commemorative book B'z The Chronicle. In July, was released home video B'z Live-Gym 2017-2018 "Live Dinosaur" which topped both DVD and Blue-ray charts, selling over 90 thousand copies in the first week. Their new track "Tsuwamono, Hashiru" was used for TV commercial of 2019 Rugby World Cup which will be held in Japan.
On April 10, 2019, the band announced their long-awaited follow-up to Dinosaur, New Love. The album was released on May 29, 2019 and features new backing band members who made their debut on that year's Whole Lotta New Love tour, as well as a guest appearance by Aerosmith's Joe Perry.
During the 2020 pandemic, B'z made their entire Live Gym catalog available to watch on YouTube for free, including their most recent one, Whole Lotta New Love.
B'z covered "Sexual Violet No. 1" by Masahiro Kuwana for 2021's Take Me to Kazemachi!, a tribute album to the song's lyricist Takashi Matsumoto.
In May of 2021, the majority of the B'z catalog was made available on online music services such as Spotify and Apple Music worldwide, including for the first time, in the United States. Previously, only the band's English EP was available on Apple Music in the US, but it currently is part of the catalog that is not available.
Music style
The band's music is composed by guitarist Tak Matsumoto, while the lyrics are written by vocalist Koshi Inaba. The band experimented with its style, "going from dance-rock to hard rock to blues to J-pop and back" according to AllMusic. It has also been described as an "ultra-commercial blend of hard rock, blues, and synthesizer pop". Despite frequent changes in musical style during the first 13 years, they didn't lose any support. In the review of their best-selling album B'z The Best "Ultra Pleasure", Adam Greenberg of AllMusic notes that they "had some criticism as being more of a pop band with a rock tinge than a full-fledged rock band", but throughout their career they show strong rock elements including "'80s-styled extended electric guitar solo" and "blues-based rock" with various Western rock influences combined with their distinctive style. Compared to other two big Japanese rock bands, Mr. Children and Glay, while the sound of the first can be described as "soft", the other two are "fast and rocking". On Magic (2009), for example, they have combined "happy-go-lucky moods and hard rock aesthetics", but instead to sound like Western glam metal it's more similar to Japanese visual kei sound, indicating their influence on that movement and bands like L'Arc-en-Ciel as well. Greenberg in the review of "Ichibu to Zenbu/Dive", argued that most of their work has a "somewhat disjointed structure", "creative vocal descents and cascades", and "riff-heavy guitars". Marty Friedman compared them to Aerosmith, but stated to prefer more B'z because of Inaba's type of voice and high vocal technique, and Matsumoto's personality while playing the guitar solo. Matsumoto's guitar skills have been praised to suits the "top guitar master in Asia", with "fretboard histrionics" and "great sense of riff".
Influence and legacy
It is considered that Matsumoto's guitar style has been influenced by the hard rock sound of Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple, while Inaba who was interested in rock music since elementary school also listened to Queen, Loudness, Aerosmith and others.
In 2003, HMV Japan ranked the band at number 30 on their list of the 100 most important Japanese pop acts. In 2007, B'z became the first music act from Asia to have their handprints and signatures put up in the Hollywood's RockWalk. By AllMusic are considered as the "biggest rock act in Japan and the entirety of Asia", while the popular music historian Norman Abjorensen described them as one of the most notable J-pop music acts who achieved Asian and global fame.
Matsumoto through his B'z fame is also credited for "resurrection and reinvention of the Japanese guitar hero", alongside and in comparison to X Japan's guitarist Hide for a model of guitarist more interested in technique, technology and equipment, popularising the electric guitar as a mass media product in Japan. He also has Gibson signature models.
In the Oricon's yearly poll of 20,000 people for "Favorite Artist Ranking" which has started since 2004 they were regularly placed among the most popular music artists, in recent years ranked as 4th (2015, 2016, 2017). In 2015 survey by Oricon about the favorite song to relief stress their song "Ultra Soul" was ranked as second.
Awards and achievements
In 2015 were reported certified sales of 35,809,000 single copies, for which held the first place until December 2015. In 2017 were reported certified sales of 46,576,000 album copies, for which still hold the first place, and with joint sales of more than 82 million certified records are ranked as the best selling music act in Japan. In 2008, for their 20th anniversary were awarded a Guinness World Record for "Best selling album act in Japan", which also notes them to be the best selling act in Japan overall.
Their albums have 25 Platinum and 31 Million physical certifications, singles have 9 Gold, 33 Platinum, and 20 Million physical certifications, while home videos have 11 Gold physical certifications by the Recording Industry Association of Japan. The compilation album B'z The Best "Pleasure" (1998) was the first Japanese album to sell more than 5 million copies, which has achieved by the end of 1998, however it was surpassed by Hikaru Utada's First Love in 1999.
Other sales records held by B'z in May 2018 include "the most number one singles (49), most consecutive number one singles (49), longest streak of number one singles (49), total weeks singles were at number one (66), longest consecutive period with a single at number one (20 Years), most singles in the top 10 concurrently (9), the most million-selling albums (19), most number-one albums (26), and the only artist in history to lead all six major categories tracked by Oricon" among others, including total CD shipment of over 100 million copies and other about home videos. During the week of 12 April 2003, they held eleven positions in the top twelve on the Oricon Singles Chart, except the second position.
In 1999, at World Music Awards won the award for "World's Best Selling Japanese Artist of the Year". At the WMA they received several nominations, including "World's Best Live Act" and "World's Best Group" in 2013.
Discography
B'z (1988)
Off the Lock (1989)
Break Through (1990)
Risky (1990)
In the Life (1991)
Run (1992)
The 7th Blues (1994)
Loose (1995)
Survive (1997)
Brotherhood (1999)
Eleven (2000)
Green (2002)
Big Machine (2003)
The Circle (2005)
Monster (2006)
Action (2007)
Magic (2009)
C'mon (2011)
Epic Day (2015)
Dinosaur (2017)
New Love (2019)
Bibliography
Brotherhood
Eleven
Survive
B'z The Best "Pleasure"
B'z The Best "Treasure"
B'z The "Mixture"
Green
西辺来龍 – Dragon From The West
Live -on- 1988~2003
Big Machine
The Circle
B'z The Best "Pleasure II"
Monster
Tours
Live-Gym No. 00 (1989)
Live-Gym No. 001 "Off the Lock" (1989)
Live-Gym "Bad Club-Gym" (1989)
Live-Gym "Break Through" (1990)
Live-Gym '90~'91 "Risky"
Live-Gym "Pleasure '91"
Live-Gym '91~'92 "In the Life"
Live-Gym Pleasure '92 "Time"
Live-Gym '93 "Run"
Live-Gym Pleasure '93 "Jap the Ripper"
Live-Gym '94 "The 9th Blues" Part 1
Live-Gym '94 "The 9th Blues" Part 2
Live-Gym Pleasure '95 "Buzz!!"
Live-Gym '96 "Spirit Loose"
Live-Gym Pleasure '97 "Fireball"
Live-Gym '98 "Survive"
Live-Gym '99 "Brotherhood"
Live-Gym Pleasure 2000 "Juice"
Live-Gym 2001 "Eleven"
Live-Gym in Taipei 2001 / Live-Gym in Hong Kong 2001
Live-Gym 2002 "Green ~Go★Fight★Win~"
Live-Gym 2002 "Rock n' California Roll"
22 September – Canes Bar & Grill: California
24 September – The Palace: California
Live-Gym 2003 The Final Pleasure "It's Showtime!!"
Live-Gym 2003 Banzai in North America
12 October – House of Blues: Paradise, Nevada
14 October – House of Blues: Los Angeles, California
15 October – House of Blues: Los Angeles, California
18 October – The Fillmore: British Columbia, Canada
19 October – The Fillmore: San Francisco, California
21 October – Showbox: Seattle
23 October – Commodore Ballroom: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Live-Gym 2003 "Big Machine"
Live-Gym 2005 "Circle of Rock"
Live-Gym 2006 "Monster's Garage"
B'z Showcase 2007
The showcase 2007 is an unofficial tour. They visited a few cities (3 to 5) and played to small audiences. They played a lot of their old songs. Many of them were rarely played live including their new English song, that was released with Burnout Dominator's soundtrack, "Friction".
Live-Gym 2008 "Action" – Nagasaki Brick Hall
Live-Gym Pleasure 2008 -Glory Days-
6 September – Kobe Universiade Memorial Stadium: Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture
7 September – Kobe Universiade Memorial Stadium: Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture
13 September – Toyota Stadium: Toyota, Aichi Prefecture
14 September – Toyota Stadium: Toyota, Aichi Prefecture
20 September – International Stadium Yokohama: Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture
21 September – International Stadium Yokohama: Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture
Live-Gym 2010 "Ain't No Magic"
Live-Gym 2011 -Long Time No See-
20 July – Vogue Theatre: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
22 July – The Fillmore: San Francisco, California
24 July – Club Nokia: Los Angeles, California
Live-Gym 2011 -C'mon-
Live-Gym 2012 -Into Free-
17 September – The Warfield: San Francisco, California
19 September – The Showbox SODO: Seattle, Washington
20 September – Orpheum Theatre: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
26 September – Sound Academy: Toronto, Ontario, Canada
28 September – The Fillmore: Silver Spring, Maryland
30 September – Best Buy Theater: New York
7 October – Gibson Amphitheatre: Los Angeles, California
Live-Gym 2012 -Into Free Extra-
Live-Gym Pleasure 2013 -Endless Summer-
Live-Gym 2015 "Epic Night"
B'z Showcase 2017 "B'z In Your Town"
Live-Gym 2017-2018 "Live Dinosaur"
Live-Gym Pleasure 2018 -Hinotori-
7 July – Okinawa Convention Center: Naha, Okinawa Prefecture
8 July – Okinawa Convention Center: Naha, Okinawa Prefecture
14 July – Sekisui Heim Super Arena: Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture
15 July – Sekisui Heim Super Arena: Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture
21 July – Ecopa Arena: Fukuroi, Shizuoka Prefecture
22 July – Ecopa Arena: Fukuroi, Shizuoka Prefecture
28 July – Hiroshima Prefectural Sports Center: Hiroshima, Hiroshima Prefecture
29 July – Hiroshima Prefectural Sports Center: Hiroshima, Hiroshima Prefecture
4 August – International Stadium Yokohama: Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture
5 August – International Stadium Yokohama: Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture
11 August – Ehime Prefectural Budokan: Matsuyama, Ehime Prefecture
12 August – Ehime Prefectural Budokan: Matsuyama, Ehime Prefecture
22 August – Sapporo Dome: Sapporo, Hokkaido
28 August – Nagano Big Hat: Nagano, Nagano Prefecture
1 September – Fukuoka Yahuoku! Dome: Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture
2 September – Fukuoka Yahuoku! Dome: Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture
6 September – Toyota Stadium: Toyota, Aichi Prefecture
8 September – Toyota Stadium: Toyota, Aichi Prefecture
9 September – Toyota Stadium: Toyota, Aichi Prefecture
15 September – Yanmar Stadium Nagai:Osaka, Osaka Prefecture
16 September – Yanmar Stadium Nagai: Osaka, Osaka Prefecture
21 September – Ajinomoto Stadium: Chofu, Tokyo Prefecture
22 September – Ajinomoto Stadium: Chofu, Tokyo Prefecture
See also
List of records of Japan
List of best-selling albums in Japan
List of best-selling music artists
List of best-selling music artists in Japan
References
B'z biography at the official website
External links
B'z Official website
1988 establishments in Japan
Being Inc. artists
Japanese musical duos
Japanese rock music groups
Japanese pop rock music groups
Japanese hard rock musical groups
Musical groups established in 1988
Musical groups from Tokyo
Rock music duos
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228442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine%20Arnauld | Antoine Arnauld | Antoine Arnauld (6 February 16128 August 1694) was a French Catholic theologian, philosopher and mathematician. He was one of the leading intellectuals of the Jansenist group of Port-Royal and had a very thorough knowledge of patristics. Contemporaries called him le Grand to distinguish him from his father.
Biography
Antoine Arnauld was born in Paris to the Arnauld family. The twentieth and youngest child of the original Antoine Arnauld, he was originally intended for the bar, but decided instead to study theology at the Sorbonne. Here he was brilliantly successful, and his career was flourishing when he came under the influence of Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, the spiritual director and leader of the convent of Port-Royal, and was drawn in the direction of Jansenism.
His book, De la fréquente Communion (1643), was an important step in making the aims and ideals of this movement intelligible to the general public. It attracted controversy by being against frequent communion. Furthermore, in the frame of the controversy around Jansenius' Augustinus, during which the Jesuits attacked the Jansenists claiming they were heretics similar to Calvinists, Arnauld wrote in defense the Théologie morale des Jésuites (Moral Theology of Jesuits), which would put the base of most of the arguments later used by Pascal in his Provincial Letters denouncing the "relaxed moral" of Jesuit casuistry. Pascal was assisted in this task by Arnauld's nephew Antoine Le Maistre. The Jesuit Nicolas Caussin, former penitentiary to Louis XIII, was charged by his order of writing a defense against Arnauld's book, titled Réponse au libelle intitulé La Théologie morale des Jésuites (1644). Other libels published against Arnauld's Moral Theology of Jesuits included the one written by the Jesuit polemist François Pinthereau (1605–1664), under the pseudonym of the abbé de Boisic, titled Les Impostures et les ignorances du libelle intitulé: La Théologie Morale des Jésuites (1644), who was also the author of a critical history of Jansenism titled La Naissance du Jansénisme découverte à Monsieur le Chancelier (The Birth of Jansenism Revealed to Sir the Chancellor, Leuven, 1654).
During the formulary controversy which opposed Jesuits to Jansenists concerning the orthodoxy of Jansenius' propositions, Arnauld was forced to go into hiding. In 1655 two very outspoken Lettres à un duc et pair on Jesuit methods in the confessional brought a motion of censorship voted against him in the Sorbonne, in quite an irregular manner. This motion prompted Pascal to anonymously write the Provincial Letters. For more than twenty years Arnauld dared not appear publicly in Paris, hiding in religious retreat.
Pascal, however, failed to save his friend, and in February 1656 Arnauld was ceremonially degraded. Twelve years later the so-called "peace" of Pope Clement IX put an end to his troubles; he was graciously received by Louis XIV, and treated almost as a popular hero.
He now set to work with Pierre Nicole on a great work against the Calvinist Protestants: La perpétuité de la foi de l'Église catholique touchant l'eucharistie. Ten years later, however, persecution resumed. Arnauld was compelled to leave France for the Netherlands, finally settling down at Brussels. Here the last sixteen years of his life were spent in incessant controversy with Jesuits, Calvinists and heretics of all kinds. Arnauld gradually evolved away from the rigorous Augustinianism professed by Port-Royal and closer to Thomism, which also postulated the centrality of the "efficacious grace," under the influence of Nicole.
His inexhaustible energy is best expressed by his famous reply to Nicole, who complained of feeling tired. "Tired!" echoed Arnauld, "when you have all eternity to rest in?" His energy was not exhausted by purely theological questions. He was one of the first to adopt the philosophy of René Descartes, though with certain orthodox reservations relating to Meditations on First Philosophy; and between 1683 and 1685 he had a long battle with Nicolas Malebranche on the relation of theology to metaphysics. On the whole, public opinion leant to Arnauld's side. When Malebranche complained that his adversary had misunderstood him, Boileau silenced him with the question: "My dear sir, whom do you expect to understand you, if M. Arnauld does not?" Next Arnauld was engaged in an extensive correspondence with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, regarding the latter's views detailed in his "Discourse on Metaphysics" (1686). Arnauld died, aged 82, in Brussels.
Popular record for Arnauld's penetration was much increased in his L'Art de penser, commonly known as the Port-Royal Logic, which kept its place as an elementary text-book until the 20th century and is considered a paradigmatical work of term logic.
Arnauld came to be regarded as important among the mathematicians of his time; one critic described him as the Euclid of the 17th century. After his death, his reputation began to wane. Contemporaries admired him as a master of intricate reasoning; on this, Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, the greatest theologian of the age, agreed with Henri François d'Aguesseau, the greatest lawyer. However, his eagerness to win every argument endeared him to no one. "In spite of myself," Arnauld once said regretfully, "my books are seldom very short." . Despite Arnauld's achievements in various fields, his name is mostly known because of Pascal's acclaimed writings, which were more fit for the general public than Arnauld's technical essays. Boileau wrote for him a famous epitaph, consecrating his memory as
“Au pied de cet autel de structure grossière
Gît sans pompe, enfermé dans une vile bière,
Le plus savant mortel qui jamais ait écrit;”
...
(“At the foot of this rough structure altar
Lies without pomp, locked in a vile casket,
The most learned mortal who ever wrote;”)
…
Antoine Arnauld's complete works (thirty-seven volumes in forty-two parts) were published in Paris, 1775–1781. There is a study of his philosophy in Francisque Bouillier, Histoire de la philosophie cartésienne (Paris, 1868); and his mathematical achievements are discussed by Franz Bopp in the 14th volume of the Abhandlung zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften (Leipzig, 1902).
Principal works
The links are to the Gallica version.
Paris : A. Vitré, 1643. Full text in original French :
. Paris : Prault fils l'aîné, 1754. Full text in original French :
. Paris : G. Desprez, 1683. Full text in original French :
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
The Leibniz-Arnauld correspondence, slightly modified for easier reading
- Has a significant section on Antoine
1612 births
1694 deaths
Writers from Paris
University of Paris alumni
17th-century French Catholic theologians
17th-century French philosophers
17th-century French mathematicians
17th-century French writers
17th-century male writers
17th-century Christian mystics
Jansenists
Catholic philosophers
Roman Catholic mystics
French male writers
French male essayists
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228444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Nicole | Pierre Nicole | Pierre Nicole (19 October 1625 – 16 November 1695) was one of the most distinguished of the French Jansenists.
Life
Born in Chartres, he was the son of a provincial barrister, who took in charge his education. Sent to Paris in 1642 to study theology, he soon entered into relations with the Jansenist community at Port-Royal through his aunt, Marie des Anges Suireau, who was for a short time abbess of the convent, and he taught for a while at the Petites écoles de Port-Royal. Some scruple of conscience forbade him to proceed to the priesthood, and he remained throughout life a "clerk in minor orders," although a profound theological scholar. For some years he was a master in the "little school" for boys established at Port Royal, and had the honour of teaching Greek to young Jean Racine, the future poet. But his chief duty was to act, in collaboration with Antoine Arnauld, as general editor of the controversial literature put forth by the Jansenists.
He had a large share in collecting the materials for Pascal's Provincial Letters (1656); in 1658 he translated the Letters into Latin, under the pseudonym of Nicholas Wendrock. In 1662 he coauthored the very successful Port-Royal Logic with Antoine Arnauld, based on a Cartesian reading of Aristotelian logic. In 1664 he himself began a series of letters, Les Imaginaires, intended to show that the heretical opinions commonly ascribed to the Jansenists really existed only in the imagination of the Jesuits. His letters being violently attacked by Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin, an erratic minor poet who professed great devotion to the Jesuits, Nicole replied to him in another series of letters, Les Visionnaires (1666). In the course of these he observed that poets and dramatists were no better than "public poisoners." This remark stung Racine to the quick; he turned not only on his old master, but on all Port Royal, in a scathing reply, which—as Boileau told him—did more honour to his head than to his heart.
About the same time Nicole became involved in a controversy about transubstantiation with the Huguenot Claude; out of this grew a massive work, La Perpétuité de la foi de l'Église catholique touchant l'eucharistie (1669), the joint effort of Nicole and Antoine Arnauld. But Nicole's most popular production was his Essais de morale, a series of short discussions on practical Christianity. The first volume was published in 1671, and was followed at irregular intervals by others; altogether the series numbers fourteen volumes. In 1679, on the renewal of the persecution of the Jansenists, Nicole was forced to flee to Belgium in company with Arnauld. But the two soon parted. Nicole was elderly and in poor health; the life of a fugitive was not to his taste, and he complained that he wanted rest. "Rest," answered Arnauld, "when you have eternity to rest in!" In 1683 Nicole made a rather ambiguous peace with the authorities, and was allowed to come back to Paris. There he continued his literary labours up to the last; he was writing a refutation of the new heresy of the Quietists, when death overtook him.
Nicole was one of the most attractive figures of Port Royal. Many stories are told of his quaint absent-mindedness and unreadiness in conversation. His books are distinguished by exactly opposite qualities; they are neat and orderly to excess. Hence they were exceedingly popular with Mme de Sevigné and readers of her class. No other Jansenist writer, not even Pascal, was so successful in putting the position of Port Royal before the world. And although a modern appetite quails before fourteen volumes on morality, there is much solid sense and practical knowledge of human nature to be found in the Essais de morale. Several abridgments of the work exist, notably a Choix des essais de morale de Nicole, ed. Silvestre de Saci (Paris, 1857). Nicole's life is told at length in the 4th volume of Sainte-Beuve's Port-Royal.
References
Attribution
External links
1625 births
1695 deaths
French religious writers
Jansenists
French logicians
People from Chartres
17th-century French writers
17th-century French male writers
French male non-fiction writers | [
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228445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacheen%20Littlefeather | Sacheen Littlefeather | Marie Louise Cruz (born November 14, 1946), also known as Sacheen Littlefeather, is an American actress, model, and Native American civil rights activist, best remembered for representing Marlon Brando at the 45th Academy Awards in 1973 to decline his Best Actor award for his performance in The Godfather. The favorite to win, Brando boycotted the ceremony as a protest against Hollywood's portrayal of Native Americans and to draw attention to the standoff at Wounded Knee. During her speech, the audience response to Brando's boycotting was divided between booing and applause.
Littlefeather was born to a Native American (Apache and Yaqui) father and a European American mother. During the 1969 occupation of Alcatraz, she became active in the Native American activist community. After the Academy Award speech, she went on to work in hospice care. She continues to work in activism for a number of health-related and Native American issues, and has produced films about Native Americans.
Early life and career
Sacheen Littlefeather was born Marie Louise Cruz on November 14, 1946, in Salinas, California. Her mother Geroldine Marie Barnitz (1923-2009) was a leather stamper from Phoenix, Arizona, of French, German, and Dutch descent. Her mother and two sisters were subject to their father's rage and beatings. Her father Manuel Ybarra Cruz (1922-1966) was born in the desert and was from the White Mountain Apache and Yaqui tribes. The couple moved to California while her mother was pregnant— mixed-race couples were illegal in Arizona at the time. They opened up their own business, "Cruz Saddlery", and her parents are also remembered in Salinas Valley. She was primarily raised by her maternal grandparents, Marie and Barney Barnitz, and was Catholic as a child. Sometimes she lived with her mother; she recalls a trip through Mississippi when she was told to use the "black" water fountains and a sign that read, "No Dogs or Indians Allowed".
While she attended California State College at Hayward (now California State University, East Bay), she continued to look into her Native American identity. In Oakland, she worked with the Intertribal Friendship House. In 1969, she became a member of Indians of All Tribes and participated in the occupation of Alcatraz, when she adopted the name Sacheen Littlefeather. She learned more about Native American customs from elders and other protesters.
On a full scholarship to the American Conservatory Theater, she began acting education. Aspiring to become an actress, Littlefeather picked up several radio and television commercial credits and joined the Screen Actors Guild. In 1970, she was named Miss Vampire USA, a promotion for Dark Shadows.
Playboy magazine planned a spread called "10 Little Indians" in 1972, and one of the models was Littlefeather, but Playboy editors cancelled its publication due to the Wounded Knee incident. A year later in October 1973, after her Academy Award appearance fame, they ran the photographs of Littlefeather as a stand-alone feature. Littlefeather was personally criticized for what was seen as exploitation of her fame. Looking back at the photo shoot, Littlefeather later said, "I was young and dumb."
Academy Awards speech, 1973
Background
Littlefeather got in contact with actor Marlon Brando through her neighbor, director Francis Ford Coppola. She wrote Brando a letter, asking about his interest in Native American issues, and he called the radio station where she worked a year later. Brando had worked as an activist with the American Indian Movement (AIM) since the 1960s and into the 1970s. In Washington, D.C., where Littlefeather was presenting to the Federal Communications Commission about minorities, they met and found in common their involvement with AIM.
In 1972, Brando played Vito Corleone in The Godfather, which many critics consider one of the greatest films of all time. For the performance, he was nominated for Best Actor for the role at the 45th Academy Awards, which were presented on March 27, 1973, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles, California. However, before the ceremony, Brando decided that – as the favorite to win – he would boycott as a protest led by AIM against the ongoing siege at Wounded Knee and his views on how Native Americans were represented in American films. He called Littlefeather and asked her to appear on his behalf. "I was a spokesperson, so to speak, for the stereotype of Native Americans in film and television," she later said.
At the ceremony
Littlefeather joined the audience minutes before the award for Best Actor was announced. She was accompanied by Brando's secretary, Alice Marchak, and wore an Apache buckskin dress. Producer Howard W. Koch, she would later say, told her that she had 60 seconds to deliver the speech or else she would be removed from the stage; she had planned to read a 15-page speech written by Brando.
The Best Actor award was presented by Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann and British actor Roger Moore. After giving brief remarks and announcing the five nominees, they declared Brando to be the winner. Littlefeather walked onto the stage and raised her hand to decline the Oscar trophy that Moore offered her. Deviating from the prepared speech, she said the following:
Moore escorted Littlefeather off-stage, past several people critical of her, and towards the press. John Wayne was reported to be waiting in the wings and had to be restrained by six security guards to prevent him from forcing her off stage. At the press conference, Littlefeather read to journalists the speech that Brando had prepared; The New York Times published the full text the next day.
Later that night, before she announced the Best Actress winner, Raquel Welch said, "I hope the winner doesn't have a cause." When Clint Eastwood presented the Best Picture award, he remarked that he was presenting it "on behalf of all the cowboys shot in John Ford westerns over the years."
Michael Caine, the night's co-host, criticized Brando for "letting some poor little Indian girl take the boos" instead of "[standing] up and [doing] it himself."
Reception and legacy
The audience in the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion was divided between applause and jeers. Brando and Littlefeather's protest was generally considered inappropriate for the awards ceremony. "I was distressed that people should have booed and whistled and stomped, even though perhaps it was directed at myself," Brando later told Dick Cavett. "They should have at least had the courtesy to listen to her." Her appearance prompted the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to rule out future proxy acceptance of Academy Awards.
Littlefeather claims that she was blacklisted by the Hollywood community and received threats. In addition, she says, media reports published several falsehoods, such as that she was not Native American or had rented the outfit for the occasion. She has said that the federal government encouraged the blacklisting in order to abate Native American activism after Wounded Knee.
The speech was credited with bringing attention back to the Wounded Knee standoff, on which a media blackout had been imposed. Coretta Scott King called Littlefeather to thank her for the speech. In 2014, the 87th ceremony of the Academy Awards drew criticism for lack of diversity in nominations; actress Jada Pinkett Smith, who boycotted the ceremony, cited Littlefeather as inspiration to do so.
Later life and career
After giving the speech, Littlefeather spent two days in Los Angeles before returning to San Francisco. When she visited Marlon Brando's house after the Academy Awards, while they were talking, bullets were fired into his front door. At age 29 her lungs collapsed, and after recovering, she received a degree in health and a minor in Native American medicine, a practice she had used to recover. Studying nutrition, she lived in Stockholm for some time and then traveled around Europe, interested in the food of other cultures. Later, she taught at St. Mary's Hospital in Tucson, Arizona, and worked with the Institute of American Indian Arts in Santa Fe.
In 1979, she co-founded the National American Indian Performing Arts Registry, which later helped several actors join the production of Dances with Wolves. She shared an Emmy Award as an advisor to PBS's Dance in America: Song for Dead Warriors (1984). She also worked on the PBS shows Remember Me Forever and The Americas Before Columbus (both 1992), and she has produced films on Native American health. In 2009, she gave testimony in the documentary Reel Injun about Native Americans in film.
She continued doing activism and became a respected member of California's Native American community. In the 1980s, she led prayer circles for Kateri Tekakwitha, the first Native American Catholic saint. In 1988, she worked with Mother Teresa helping AIDS patients in hospice care, later founding the American Indian AIDS Institute of San Francisco. She campaigned against obesity, alcoholism, and diabetes, and specifically assisted Native Americans with AIDS, including her brother.
In 2015, Littlefeather reported that unauthorized persons were using her name and image to raise money for what was ostensibly a fundraiser for the Lakota nation. However, the money was never donated to any campaign.
In March 2018, a spokesperson announced that Littlefeather had developed stage 4 breast cancer. , Littlefeather resides in Northern California. In a mid-2021 interview, Littlefeather said that the cancer had metastasised to her right lung and she was terminally ill.
Filmography
References
Works cited
External links
Text, audio, video of the Academy Award speech
Text of the undelivered speech from The New York Times
Sacheen Littlefeather reads Brando's Oscar speech for first time publicly (aired on Mar 23, 2018, posted to YouTube on Feb 25, 2019)
Image of Sacheen Littlefeather standing before an Oscar statue holding Marlon Brando's statement at the 45th annual Academy Awards in Los Angeles, California, 1973. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
1946 births
Living people
Native Americans' rights activists
Native American activists
Native American actresses
American people of Apache descent
American people of Yaqui descent
People from Salinas, California
Activists from the San Francisco Bay Area
American people of Dutch descent
American people of French descent
American people of German descent
American women activists
People from San Rafael, California
Marlon Brando
California State University, East Bay alumni
21st-century Native American women
21st-century Native Americans
Actresses from California
American Conservatory Theater alumni | [
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228448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac%20GTO | Pontiac GTO | The Pontiac GTO is an automobile that was manufactured by American automaker Pontiac from 1963 to 1974 for the 1964 to 1974 model years, and by GM's subsidiary Holden in Australia for the 2004 to 2006 model years.
The first generation of the GTO is credited as popularizing the muscle car market segment in the 1960s. The Pontiac GTO is considered by some to have started the trend with all four domestic automakers offering a variety of competing models.
For the 1964 and 1965 model years, the GTO was an optional package on the intermediate-sized Pontiac Tempest. The 1964 GTO vehicle identification number (VIN) started with 82, while the 1965 GTO VIN started with 237. The GTO became a separate model from 1966 to 1971 (VIN 242...). It became an optional package again for the 1972 and 1973 intermediate LeMans. For 1974, the GTO was an optional trim package on the compact-sized Ventura.
The GTO was selected as the Motor Trend Car of the Year in 1968.
The GTO model was revived from 2004 to 2006 model years as a captive import for Pontiac, a left-hand drive version of the Holden Monaro, itself a coupé variant of the Holden Commodore.
Origins
In early 1963, General Motors' management banned divisions from involvement in auto racing. This followed the 1957 voluntary ban on automobile racing that was instituted by the Automobile Manufacturers Association. By the early 1960s, Pontiac's advertising and marketing approach was heavily based on performance. With GM's ban on factory-sponsored racing, Pontiac's managers began to emphasize street performance.
In his autobiography Glory Days, Pontiac chief marketing manager Jim Wangers, who worked for the division's contract advertising and public relations agency, states that John DeLorean, Bill Collins, and Russ Gee were responsible for the GTO's creation. It involved transforming the upcoming second-generation Pontiac Tempest (which reverted to a conventional front-engine with front transmission configuration) into a sporty car, with a larger Pontiac V8 engine from the full-sized Pontiac Catalina and Bonneville in place of the standard V8. By promoting the big-engine option as a special high-performance model, they could appeal to the youth market (which had also been recognized by Ford Motor Company's Lee Iacocca, who was at that time preparing the Ford Mustang variant of the second generation Ford Falcon compact).
The GTO disregarded GM's policy limiting the A-body intermediate line to a maximum engine displacement of . The development team discovered a loophole in the policy which does not restrict large engines to be offered as an option. Pontiac general manager Elliot "Pete" Estes approved the new model with sales manager Frank Bridge limiting initial production to 5,000 cars.
Name
The name, which was DeLorean's idea, was inspired by the Ferrari 250 GTO, the successful race car. It is an Italian abbreviation for Gran Turismo Omologato ("grand tourer homologated"), which means officially certified for racing in the grand tourer class. The Pontiac GTO was never certified as a Grand Tourer race car.
First generation
1964
The first Pontiac GTO was available as an option package for the Pontiac LeMans, available in coupé, hardtop, and convertible body styles. The US$295 package () included a V8 rated at at 4,800 rpm with a single Carter AFB four-barrel carburetor and dual exhaust pipes, chromed valve covers and air cleaner, seven-blade clutch fan, a floor-shifted three-speed manual transmission with a Hurst shifter, stiffer springs, larger diameter front sway bar, wider wheels with 7.50 × 14 redline tires, hood scoops, and GTO badges. Optional equipment included a four-speed manual transmission, Super Turbine 300 two-speed automatic transmission, a more powerful engine with "Tri-Power" carburetion (three two-barrel Rochester 2G carburetors) rated at , metallic drum brake linings, limited-slip differential, heavy-duty cooling, ride and handling package as well as a tachometer mounted in the far right dial on the dash. Some limited power features were available, as well as other accessories. With every available option, the GTO cost about $4,500 () and weighed around .
Most contemporary road tests by the automotive press such as Car Life criticized the slow steering, particularly without power steering, and inadequate drum brakes, which were identical to those of the normal Tempest. Frank Bridge's initial sales forecast of 5,000 units proved inaccurate: the GTO package's total sales amounted to 32,450 units.
1965
The Tempest model line up, including the GTO, was restyled for the 1965 model year, adding to the overall length while retaining the same wheelbase and interior dimensions. It had Pontiac's characteristic vertically stacked quad headlights. Overall weight was increased by about . The brake lining area increased by nearly 15%. Heavy-duty shocks were standard, as was a stronger front antisway bar. The dashboard design was changed, and an optional rally gauge cluster (US$86.08) added a more legible tachometer and oil pressure gauge. An additional option was a breakerless transistor ignition.
The 389 cubic inches engines received revised cylinder heads with re-cored intake passages and high rise intake manifolds, improving airflow to the engine. Rated power increased to at 5,000 rpm for the base four-barrel engine; the Tri-Power engine was now rated at 5,200 rpm. The 'S'-cammed Tri-Power engine had slightly less peak torque rating than the base engine at 3,600 rpm as compared to at 3,200 rpm. Transmission and axle ratio choices remained the same. The three-speed manual was standard, while two four-speed manual transmissions (wide or close ratio) and a two-speed automatic transmission were optional.
The restyled car had a new simulated hood scoop. A seldom seen dealer-installed option consisted of a metal underhood pan and gaskets to open the scoop, making it a cold air intake. The scoop was low enough that its effectiveness was questionable (it was unlikely to pick up anything but boundary layer air), but it allowed an enhanced engine sound. Another exterior change was the black "egg-crate" grille.
Car Life tested a 1965 GTO with Tri-Power and what they considered the most desirable options (close-ratio four-speed manual transmission, power steering, metallic brakes, rally wheels, 4.11 limited-slip differential, and "Rally" gauge cluster), with a total sticker price of US$3,643.79. With two testers and equipment aboard, they recorded a 0–60 miles per hour (0–97 km/h) acceleration time of 5.8 seconds, the standing quarter-mile in 14.5 seconds with a trap speed of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h), and an observed top speed of 114 miles per hour (182.4 km/h) at the engine's 6,000 rpm redline. A four-barrel Motor Trend test car, a heavier convertible handicapped by the two-speed automatic transmission and the lack of a limited-slip differential, ran 0–60 mph in 7 seconds and through the quarter-mile in 16.1 seconds at 89 miles per hour (142.4 km/h).
Major criticisms of the GTO continued to center on its slow steering (ratio of 17.5:1, four turns lock-to-lock) and subpar brakes. Car Life was satisfied with the metallic brakes on its GTO, but Motor Trend and Road Test found the four-wheel drum brakes with organic linings to be alarmingly inadequate in high-speed driving.
Sales of the GTO, abetted by a marketing and promotional campaign that included songs and various merchandise, more than doubled to 75,342. It spawned many imitators, both within other GM divisions and its competitors.
1966
The GTO became a separate Pontiac model (model number 242) in 1966, instead of being an "option package" on the Tempest LeMans. The entire GM "A" body intermediate line was restyled that year, gaining more curvaceous styling with kicked-up rear fender lines for a "Coke-bottle" look, and a slightly "tunneled" backlight. The tail light featured a louvered cover, only seen on the GTO. Overall length grew only fractionally, to , still on a wheelbase, while width expanded to . Rear track increased one inch (2.5 cm). Overall weight remained about the same. The GTO was available as a pillared coupe, a hardtop (without B-pillars), and a convertible. An automotive industry first was a plastic front grille that replaced the pot metal and aluminum versions used in earlier years. New Strato bucket seats were introduced with higher and thinner seat backs and contoured cushions for added comfort and adjustable headrests were introduced as a new option. The instrument panel was redesigned and more integrated than in previous years with the ignition switch moved from the far left of the dash to the right of the steering wheel. Four pod instruments continued, and the GTO's dash was highlighted by walnut veneer trim.
Engine and carburetor choices remained the same as the previous year, except the Tri-Power option was discontinued mid-model year. A new engine was offered that saw few takers: the XS option consisted of a factory Ram Air set up with a new 744 high lift cam. Approximately 35 factory-installed Ram Air packages are believed to have been built, though 300 dealership-installed Ram Air packages are estimated to have been ordered.
Sales increased to 96,946, the highest production figure for all GTO years. Although Pontiac had strenuously promoted the GTO in advertising as the "GTO Tiger," it had become known in the youth market as the "goat."
1967
The GTO underwent a few styling changes in 1967. The louver-covered taillights were replaced with eight tail lights, four on each side. Rally II wheels with colored lug nuts were also available in 1967. The GTO emblems located on the rear part of the fenders were moved to the chrome rocker panels. The grille was changed from a purely split grille to one that shared some chrome.
The 1967 GTO was available in three body styles:
Hardtop – 65,176 produced
Convertible – 9,517 produced
Sports coupe – 7,029 produced
The GTO also saw several mechanical changes in 1967. The Tri-Power carburetion system was replaced with a single 4-barrel Rochester Quadrajet carburetor. The engine received a larger cylinder bore for a total displacement of V8, which was available in three models: economy, standard, and high output. The economy engine used a two-barrel carburetor rather than the Rochester Quadrajet and was rated at at 4,400 rpm and at 3,400 rpm. The standard engine was rated at at 5,000 rpm; and the highest torque of the three engines at at 3,400 rpm. The high output engine produced the most power for that year at at 5,100 rpm and a maximum torque of at 3,600 rpm. Emission controls were fitted in GTOs sold in California.
The 1967 model year required new safety equipment. A new energy-absorbing steering column was accompanied by an energy-absorbing steering wheel, padded instrument panel, non-protruding control knobs, and four-way emergency flashers. A shoulder belt option was also featured, and the brake master cylinder was now a dual reservoir unit with a backup hydraulic circuit.
The two-speed automatic transmission was also replaced with a three-speed Turbo-Hydramatic TH-400, which was equipped with a Hurst Performance dual-gate shifter, called a "his/hers" shifter, that permitted either automatic shifting in "drive" or manual selection through the gears. Front disc brakes were also an option in 1967.
The GTO sales for 1967 totaled 81,722 units.
Second generation
1968
General Motors redesigned its A-body line for 1968, with more curvaceous, semi-fastback styling, which was a revival of a streamlining on all GM products from 1942 until 1950 as demonstrated on the Pontiac Streamliner. The wheelbase was shortened to on all two-door models. Overall length was reduced 5.9 inches (150 mm) and height dropped half an inch (12 mm), but overall weight was up about . Pontiac abandoned the familiar vertically stacked headlights in favor of a horizontal layout, but made hidden headlights available at extra cost. The concealed headlights were a popular option. The signature hood scoop was replaced by dual scoops on either side of a prominent hood bulge extending rearward from the protruding nose.
A unique feature was the body-color Endura front bumper. It was designed to absorb impact without permanent deformation at low speeds. Pontiac touted this feature heavily in advertising, showing hammering at the bumper to no discernible effect. A GTO could be ordered with "Endura delete", in which case the Endura bumper would be replaced by a chrome front bumper and grille from the Pontiac LeMans.
Powertrain options remained substantially the same as in 1967, but the standard GTO engine's power rating rose to at 5,000 rpm. At mid-year, a new Ram Air package, known as Ram Air II, became available. It included freer-breathing cylinder heads, round port exhaust, and the 041 cam. The 'official' power rating was not changed. Another carry-over from 1967 was the four-piston caliper disc brake option. However, most 1968 models had drum brakes all around. The 1968 model year was also the last year the GTOs offered separate crank-operated front door vents.
Concealed windshield wipers, which presented a cleaner appearance hidden below the rear edge of the hood, were standard on the GTO and other 1968 GM products after having been originally introduced on 1967 full-size Pontiacs. A popular option, actually introduced during the 1967 model year, was a hood-mounted tachometer, located in front of the windshield and lit for visibility at night. An in-dash tachometer was also available.
Redline bias-ply tires continued as standard equipment on the 1968 GTO, though they could be replaced by whitewall tires at no extra cost. A new option was radial tires for improved ride and handling. However, very few were delivered with the radial tires because of manufacturing problems encountered by the supplier B.F. Goodrich. The radial tire option was discontinued after 1968. Pontiac did not offer radial tires as a factory option on the GTO again until the 1974 model.
Hot Rod tested a four-speed GTO equipped with the standard engine and obtained a quarter mile reading of 14.7 seconds at in pure stock form. Motor Trend clocked a four-speed Ram Air GTO with 4.33 rear differential at 14.45 seconds at and a standard GTO with Turbo-Hydramatic and a 3.23 rear axle ratio at 15.93 seconds at . Testers were split about handling, with Hot Rod calling it "the best-balanced car [Pontiac] ever built," but Car Life chided its excessive nose heaviness, understeer, and inadequate damping.
Royal Pontiac, located in Royal Oak, Michigan, offered a 428/Royal Bobcat conversion of the 1968 GTO. For $650.00. a 390-horsepower 428 cubic inch engine was installed in place of the 400. The 428 CI engine was disassembled and blueprinted to produce more than the advertised factory 390 horsepower and capable of 5,700 rpm. Car and Driver road-tested the 428 CI powered car with the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission and 3.55 gears. It could do 0–60 MPH in 5.2 seconds, 0–100 in 12.9 seconds, and the 1/4 mile in 13.8 seconds at 104 mph. This compared to a Car Life road test of a 400 CI powered GTO with a Ram Air engine, four-speed transmission, and 3.90 gear which did 0–60 in 6.6 seconds, 0–100 in 14.6 seconds, and the 1/4 mile in 14.53 at 99.7 mph. Car and Driver wrote that the 428 CI powered car was "a fine, exciting car for either touring or tooting around in traffic. Not overly fussy. Not difficult to drive–-up to a point. Too much throttle at the wrong time will spin the car, or send it rocketing off the road and into the farmer's field. You can light up the car's tires like it was an AA-fueler anytime the notion seizes your fancy." On the other hand, according to Car Life, the Ram Air powered car "likes to run between 3,000 and 6,000 rpm. Below 3,000, the GTO ran flat and a bit rough. Part-throttle driving at 2,000 rpm around town was difficult and unpleasant. Freeway cruising at 4,000 rpm is anything but pleasant and promises short life for hard-working engine components. Also, driving the GTO on wet roads with this deep geared axle was thrilling. Rear tire breakaway could be provoked by a slight jab at the accelerator, sending the car into a minor skid that usually used up more than one lane of space."
Like all 1968 passenger vehicles sold in the United States, GTOs now featured front outboard shoulder belts (cars built after January 1, 1968) and side marker lights. To comply with the new 1968 federal vehicle emissions standards, the GTO was now equipped with emissions controls.
Now facing competition both within GM and from Ford, Dodge, and Plymouth—particularly the low-cost Plymouth Road Runner—the GTO won the Motor Trend Car of the Year Award. Sales reached 87,684 units, which would ultimately prove to be the second-best sales year for the GTO.
1969
The 1969 model eliminated the front door vent windows, had a slight grille and taillight revision, moved the ignition key from the dashboard to the steering column (which locked the steering wheel when the key was removed, a federal requirement installed one year ahead of schedule), and the gauge face was changed from steel blue to black. In addition, the rear quarter-panel mounted side marker lamps changed from a red lens shaped like the Pontiac "arrowhead" emblem to one shaped like the broad GTO badge. Front outboard headrests were made standard equipment on all cars built for 1969.
The previous economy engine and standard 350 hp V8 engine remained, while the "400 H.O." was upgraded to the "400 Ram Air" (though now colloquially referred to as the "Ram Air III", Pontiac never used that designation), rated at at 5,100 rpm. The top option was the Ram Air IV rated at at 5,500 rpm and at 3,900 rpm of torque, which featured special header-like high-flow exhaust manifolds, high-flow cylinder heads, a specific high-rise aluminum intake manifold, larger Rochester Quadrajet 4-barrel carburetor, high-lift/long-duration camshaft, plus various internal components capable of withstanding higher engine speeds and power output. Unlike the highest rpm Chevy big-block and Hemi engines, the Ram Air IV utilized hydraulic lifters.
By this time, the gross power ratings of both Ram Air engines were highly suspect, bearing less relationship to developed power and more to an internal GM policy limiting all cars except the Corvette to no more than one advertised horsepower per of curb weight. The higher-revving Ram Air IV's advertised power peak was actually listed at 5,000 rpm—100 rpm lower than the less-powerful Ram Air 400.
A new model called "The Judge" was introduced. The name came from a comedy routine, "Here Come de Judge", used repeatedly on the Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In TV show. The Judge routine, made popular by comedian Flip Wilson, was borrowed from the act of long-time burlesque entertainer Dewey "Pigmeat" Markham. Advertisements used slogans like "All rise for the Judge" and "The Judge can be bought". As originally conceived, the Judge was to be a low-cost GTO, stripped of features to make it competitive with the Plymouth Road Runner. The package was US$332 more expensive than a standard GTO, and included the Ram Air 400 engine, Rally II wheels without trim rings, Hurst shifter (with a unique T-shaped handle), wider tires, various decals, and a rear spoiler. Pontiac claimed that the spoiler had some functional effect at higher speeds, producing a small but measurable downforce, but it was of little value at legal speeds. The Judge was initially offered only in Carousel Red, but midway into the model year, other colors became available.
The GTO was surpassed in sales both by the Chevrolet Chevelle SS396 and the Plymouth Road Runner, but 72,287 were sold during the 1969 model year, with 6,833 of them having the Judge package.
1970
The Tempest model line received another facelift for the 1970 model year. Hidden headlights were deleted in favor of four exposed round headlamps outboard of narrower grille openings. The nose retained the protruding vertical prow theme, although it was less prominent. While the standard Tempest and LeMans had chrome grilles, the GTO retained the Endura urethane cover around the headlamps and grille.
The suspension was upgraded with the addition of a rear anti-roll bar, essentially the same bar as used on the Oldsmobile 442 and Buick Gran Sport. The front anti-roll bar was slightly stiffer. The result was a useful reduction in body lean in turns and a modest reduction of understeer.
Another handling-related improvement was optional variable-ratio power steering. Rather than a fixed ratio of 17.5:1, requiring four turns lock-to-lock, the new system varied its ratio from 14.6:1 to 18.9:1, needing 3.5 turns lock-to-lock. Turning diameter was reduced from 40.9 feet (12.5 m) to 37.4 feet (11.4 m).
The base engine was unchanged for 1970, but the low-compression economy engine was deleted and the "400 Ram Air"(aka "Ram Air III"), now simply called "Ram Air", and Ram Air IV remained available.
A new option was Pontiac's D-port 455 HO engine (different from the round-port offerings of the 1971–72 cars), available now that GM had rescinded its earlier ban on intermediates with engines larger than 400 cubic inches. The 455, a long-stroke engine also available in the full-size Pontiac line as well as the Grand Prix, was dubiously rated by Pontiac at 360 hp, only moderately stronger than the base 350 hp 400 CID and less powerful than the "Ram Air". The Pontiac brochure indicated the same 455 installed in the Grand Prix model was rated at . The camshafts used in the "Ram Air" 400 and the GTO 455 HO were the same. For example, the manual transmission 455 HO's used the same 288/302 duration cam as the "Ram Air" 400. The 455 was rated at at 4,300 rpm. Its advantage was torque: at 2,700 rpm. A functional Ram Air scoop was available but when so equipped official horsepower and torque ratings were unchanged. Car and Driver tested a heavily optioned 455 HO, with a four-speed transmission and 3.31 axle and recorded a quarter-mile time of 15.0 seconds with a trap speed of . Car Life test car had the Turbo-Hydramatic 455 with a 3.55 rear differential, clocked 14.76 seconds quarter-mile time at , with an identical 6.6 second 0–60 mph acceleration time. Both were about slower than a "Ram Air" GTO with four-speed, although considerably less temperamental: the Ram Air engine idled roughly and was difficult to drive at low speeds. The smaller displacement engine recorded less than of gasoline, compared to - for the 455.
A new and short-lived option for 1970 was the Vacuum Operated Exhaust (VOE), which was vacuum actuated via an under-dash lever marked "exhaust". The VOE was designed to reduce exhaust backpressure and to increase power and performance, but it also substantially increased exhaust noise. The VOE option was offered from November 1969 to January 1970. Pontiac management was ordered to cancel the VOE option by GM's upper management following a TV commercial for the GTO that aired during Super Bowl IV on CBS January 11, 1970. In that commercial, titled the "Humbler"(an advertising tagline Pontiac used in print ads to describe all 1970 GTOs), which was broadcast only that one time, a young man pulled up in a new GTO to a drive-in restaurant with dramatic music and exhaust noise in the background, pulling the "exhaust" knob to activate the VOE and then left the drive-in after failing to find a street racing opponent. That particular commercial was also canceled by order of GM management. Approximately 233 1970 GTOs were factory built with this option including 212 hardtop coupes and 21 convertibles, equipped with either four-speed manual or Turbo Hydra-Matic transmissions. While allegedly all were equipped with the standard GTO "YS" 400ci 350 hp V-8 engine, according to the 1970 Pontiac Accessorizer book, VOE was available with the 455 V-8. The Accessorizer book does say that VOE was not available with either 400 cubic inch engines with Ram Air, though it does not specify whether it was unavailable with the 455 when equipped with the optional Ram Air induction components. The particular GTO in the commercial was Palladium Silver with a black bucket seat interior. It was unusual in several respects as it also had the under-dash "Ram Air" knob just to the right of the VOE knob, and it sported "'69 Judge" stripes, as a few very-early '70 GTOs could be ordered with. It also had a Ram Air IV 400 V-8 engine, 4-speed manual transmission, remote mirror, Rally II wheels, A/C, hood tachometer, and a new-for-1970 Formula steering wheel. The particular car in the ad was a 1970 GTO pilot car built in May of 1969.
The Judge package remained available as an option on the GTO. The Judge came standard with the "Ram Air" 400 V-8, while the Ram Air IV was optional. Though the 455 HO V8 was available as an option on the standard GTO throughout the entire model year, the 455 HO was not offered on the Judge until late in the year. Orbit Orange (actually a bright school bus yellow hue) became the new feature color for the 1970 Judge, but any GTO color was available. Arch striping was relocated to above the creases above the wheel wells, a new styling trait of the 1970 GTO introduced the previous year on the 1969 Firebird. The Judge package also included dark argent grille surrounds, black painted hood air inlet ornaments, and a revised, higher rear airfoil.
The new styling did little to help declining sales, which were now being hit by sagging buyer interest in all muscle cars, fueled by the punitive surcharges levied by automobile insurance companies, which sometimes resulted in insurance payments higher than car payments for some drivers. Sales were down to 40,149, of which 3,797 were the Judge. Of those 3,797 cars built in the Judge trim level, only 168 were ordered in the convertible form: RA 400 (147 built), RA IV (18 built), and 455 HO (3 built). The '69/'70 "round-port" RA IV engine, a derivative of the '68½ "round-port" RA II engine, was the most exotic high-performance engine ever offered by PMD and factory-installed in a GTO or Firebird. The 1969 version had a slight advantage as the compression ratio was still at 10.75:1 as opposed to 10.5:1 in 1970. It is speculated that PMD was losing $1,000 on every RA IV GTO and Firebird built, and the RA IV engine was under-rated at . A total of 37 RA IV GTO convertibles were built-in 1970: 24 four-speeds and 13 automatics. Of the 13 1970 GTO RA IV/auto convertibles built only six received the Judge option. The GTO remained the third best-selling intermediate muscle car, outsold only by the Chevrolet Chevelle SS 396/454 and the Plymouth Road Runner.
1971
The 1971 GTO had another modest facelift, this time with wire-mesh grilles, horizontal bumper bars on either side of the grille opening, more closely spaced headlamps, and a new hood with the dual scoops relocated to the leading edge, not far above the grille. Overall length grew slightly to . Sport mirrors increased standard width by two inches, from 74.5 to 76.5 inches.
A new corporate edict, aimed at preparing GM for no-lead gasoline, forced an across-the-board reduction in compression ratios. The "Ram Air" and Ram Air IV engines did not return for 1971. The standard GTO engine was still the 400 CID V8, but now with 8.2:1 compression ratio. Power was rated at SAE gross at 4,800 rpm and torque at at 3,600 rpm. It had SAE net at 4,400 rpm in the GTO and SAE net at 4,400 rpm in the Firebird.
An engine option was the 455 CID V8 with four-barrel carburetor, 8.4:1 compression ratio and 325 hp (242 kW) at 4,400 rpm, which was only available with the Turbo Hydra-matic TH-400 transmission. It had SAE net at 4,000 rpm in the GTO and SAE net in the Firebird. This engine was not available with Ram Air induction.
The top-of-the-line GTO engine for 1971 was the new 455 HO with 8.4 compression, rated at at 4,800 rpm and at 3,600 rpm. It had SAE net at 4,400 rpm in the GTO and SAE net in the Firebird Trans Am or Formula 455 with Ram Air induction(Formula; shaker hood inlet on Trans Am). The 1971 Pontiac brochure declared that this engine produced more NET horsepower than any other engine in its history. That would imply the 400 CID V8 Ram Air engines had less than 310 hp net.
For 1971, the standard rear-end was an open 10 bolt. Positraction 10 bolt rear ends were available as an option on 400 CI engine-equipped GTO's, while all 455 CI GTO's were available with a 12 bolt open or optional 12 bolt Positraction rear-end.
Motor Trend tested a 1971 GTO with the 455, four-speed transmission, and 3.90 axle, and obtained a 0–60 mph acceleration time of 6.1 seconds and a quarter mile acceleration time of 13.4 seconds at 102 mph (164 km/h).
The Judge returned for a final year, With the standard equipment being the Mountain Performance package was the 455 HO. Only 357 were sold, including 17 convertibles. On February 11, 1971 Pontiac announced that no new orders for The Judge would be accepted after March 1, 1971. Only 10,532 GTOs were sold in 1971, 661 of which were non-Judge equipped convertibles.
1972
In 1972, the GTO reverted from a separate model to a US$353.88 option package for the LeMans and LeMans Sport coupes. On the base LeMans line, the GTO package could be had with either the low-priced pillared coupé or hardtop coupé. Both models came standard with cloth and vinyl or all-vinyl bench seats and rubber floor mats on the pillared coupe and carpeting on the hardtop, creating a lower-priced GTO. The LeMans Sport, offered only as a hardtop coupe, came with Strato bucket seats upholstered in vinyl, along with carpeting on the floor and lower door panels, vinyl door-pull straps, custom pedal trim, and cushioned steering wheel, much like GTOs of previous years. Other optional equipment was similar to 1971 and earlier models. Planned for 1972 as a GTO option was the ducktail rear spoiler from the Pontiac Firebird, but after a few cars were built with that option, the mold used to produce the spoiler broke, and it was canceled. Rally II and honeycomb wheels were optional on all GTOs, with the honeycomb wheels now featuring red Pontiac arrowhead emblems on the center caps, while the Rally II wheels continued with the same caps as before, with the letters "PMD" (for Pontiac Motor Division).
Power, now rated in SAE net hp terms, was down further, to at 4,400 rpm and at 3,200 rpm torque for the base 400 engine. The optional 455 had the same rated power (although at a peak of 3,600 rpm), but substantially more torque. Most of the drop was attributable to the new rating system (which now reflected an engine in as-installed condition with mufflers, accessories, and standard intake). The engines were relatively little changed from 1971.
Optional was the 455 HO engine, essentially similar to that used in the Trans Am. It was rated at at 4,000 rpm and at 3,200 rpm, also in the new SAE net figures. Despite its modest 8.4:1 compression, it was as strong as many earlier engines with higher gross power ratings; yet like all other 1972-model engines, it could perform on low-octane regular leaded, low-lead, or unleaded types of gasoline. Only 646 cars with this engine were sold.
Sales plummeted by 45%, to 5,811. (Some sources discount the single convertible and the three anomalous wagons, listing the total as 5,807.) Although Pontiac did not offer a production GTO convertible in 1972, a buyer could order a LeMans Sport convertible with either of the three GTO engines and other sporty/performance options to create a GTO in all but name. Even the GTO's Endura bumper was offered as an option on LeMans/Sport models, with "PONTIAC" spelled out on the driver's side grille rather than "GTO."
Third generation
1973
The GTO was an option package for the LeMans and featured a reskinned A-body with "Colonnade" hardtop styling, which eliminated the true hardtop design because of the addition of a roof pillar, but retained the frameless door windows. Rear side windows were now of a fixed design that could not be opened and in a triangular shape. New federal laws for 1973 demanded front bumpers capable of withstanding 5-mile-per-hour (8 km/h) impacts with no damage to the body (5 mph rear bumpers became standard in 1974). The result was the use of prominent and heavy chrome bumpers at the front and rear. The overall styling of the 1973 Pontiac A-body intermediates (LeMans, Luxury LeMans, GTO, and Grand Am) was generally not well received by the general public.
In contrast, the Pontiac Grand Prix and Chevrolet Monte Carlo, which were also derived from the intermediate A-body, were much better received because of their squared-off styling and formal rooflines with vertical windows. Pontiac's sister division, Oldsmobile, received better reviews from the automotive press and the car-buying public with the similar-bodied Cutlass.
Again, the 1973 GTO option was offered on two models including the base LeMans coupe or the LeMans Sport Coupe. The base LeMans coupe featured a cloth-and-vinyl or all-vinyl bench seat while the more lavish LeMans Sport Coupe had all-vinyl interiors with Strato bucket seats or a notchback bench seat with a folding armrest. The LeMans Sport Coupe also had louvered rear side windows from the Grand Am in place of the standard triangular windows of the base LeMans.
The standard 400 CID V8 in the 1973 GTO was further reduced in compression to 8.0:1, dropping it to 230 hp (170 kW). The 400 engine was available with any of the three transmissions including the standard three-speed manual, or optional four-speed or Turbo Hydra-Matic. The 455 CID V8 remained optional but was dropped to 250 hp (186 kW) and available only with the Turbo Hydra-Matic transmission. The 455 HO engine did not reappear, but GM initially announced the availability of a Super Duty 455 engine (shared with the contemporary Pontiac Trans Am SD455), and several such cars were made available for testing, impressing reviewers with their power and flexibility. Nevertheless, the Super Duty was never actually offered for public sale in the GTO. Eight prototypes were built for testing but were subsequently destroyed.
A new change for 1973 was a hood accented with NACA ducts. These ducts were designed to force air into the ram air-induction system. Although such a system was never offered on the production GTO.
Sales dropped to 4,806, due in part to competition from the new Grand Am and the lack of promotion for the GTO. By the end of the model year, an emerging oil crisis quashed consumer interest in muscle cars.
Fourth generation
1974
Wanting to avoid internal competition with the "Euro-styled" Pontiac Grand Am, and looking for an entry into the compact muscle market populated by the Plymouth Duster 360, Ford Maverick Grabber, and AMC Hornet X, Pontiac moved the 1974 GTO option to the compact Pontiac Ventura, which shared its basic body shell and sheetmetal with the Chevrolet Nova.
The GTO option was available in both the base Ventura and the Ventura Custom lines. It was offered as a two-door coupe version featuring a traditional separate trunk or a two-door hatchback with an opening integrated rear backlight and deck with hydraulic struts to allow access to a cargo area and included a fold-down rear seatback. The two body styles differed in profile and also had distinct rear quarter glass designs.
The base Ventura interior consisted of bench seats and rubber floor mats, Bucket seats could be added for $132 (Code A51), while the Ventura Custom had upgraded bench seats or the optional Strato bucket seats along with carpeting, cushioned steering wheel, and custom pedal trim.
The $461 GTO package (Code WW3) included a three-speed manual transmission with Hurst floor shifter, heavy-duty suspension with front and rear anti-roll bars, a shaker hood, special grille, wing mirrors, and wheels, and various GTO emblems. The only engine was the V8 with a 7.6:1 compression ratio and a Rochester 4MC Quadrajet carburetor. The engine was rated at at 4,400 rpm and of torque at 2,800 rpm. Optional transmissions included a wide-ratio four-speed with Hurst shifter for $207 (Code M20) or the three-speed Turbo Hydra-Matic. Power Steering was a $104 option (Code N41) as well as Power front disc brakes for $71 (Code JL2).
Bias-belted tires were standard equipment, but a radial tuned suspension option added radial tires along with the upgraded suspension.
The revamped model quickly became a sore spot for loyalists, a situation not helped when Motor Trend tested the "Hot Sports Compacts" in their February 1974 issue—the staff could only muster a 0–60 mph acceleration time of 9.5 seconds and a quarter-mile trap time of 16.5 seconds (at 84.03 mph). Cars Magazine tested a 1974 GTO with the optional four-speed manual transmission and obtained a 0–60 mph acceleration time of 7.7 seconds and a quarter-mile time of 15.72 seconds at . Jerry Heasley of High Performance Pontiac magazine called the car "a joke of a Ventura compact...uglier and stupid looking," in their August 1983 Special GTO issue.
Sales improved over the 1973 model year to 7,058 units, but not enough to justify continuing marketing the GTO option package. Problems for the 1974 model year included an oil embargo and gas rationing. Other factors leading to the discontinuation of the GTO were the declining interest in performance cars and tighter emissions requirements that lowered engine compression ratios to use unleaded fuel and catalytic converters.
1999 concept car
During the 1999 Detroit Auto Show, a GTO concept car with a heritage-inspired "Coke-bottle" shape, grille, and hood scoop, was introduced to the world. It was only intended to be a design study and had no engine. It had styling cues paying homage to all the generations of the Pontiac GTOs such as rear quarter windows reminiscent of the 1967 Pontiac GTO, hood-mounted tachometer pod, split grilles, tapered tail lights, twin hood scoops, and unique 21-inch wheels.
Fifth generation
2003
In 2003, the Pontiac GTO was relaunched in the U.S. market in the form of a rebadged, third-generation Holden Monaro.
The VZ Monaro-based GTO was Pontiac's first captive import since the 1988–1993 Pontiac LeMans. The V2/VZ Monaro was a 2-door coupe variant of the Australian developed VT/VX Holden Commodore. The Monaro was also exported to the United Kingdom as the Vauxhall Monaro and to the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina SS.
The revival was prompted by former GM North America Chairman Bob Lutz, who had the idea of importing a Holden Commodore-based vehicle after reading a Car and Driver review of the Holden Commodore SS, published circa 2000. Car and Driver praised the performance of the V8 powered, rear-wheel drive Holden Commodore SS, but noted that even though it was one of the best vehicles that GM offered at the time, it could not be purchased in the United States. The idea of importing a rear-wheel drive Holden as a GM North American performance offering gradually transformed into importing the Monaro. Lutz, as well as other GM executives, later drove a Holden Monaro while on a business trip in Australia, which convinced them that importing the car could be a profitable venture.
Lutz had to convince GM executive hierarchy to import the car and overcome a corporate culture that promoted regional autonomy between GM North America and its overseas divisions. This resulted in an "unnecessarily long gestation period," as Lutz put it, and at a much higher cost than anticipated. The Monaro design was introduced in 2001 but appeared "dated" in 2003 when it was released in the United States. It was also originally planned to sell for about $25,000, but by the time it was launched in the U.S., the Australian dollar's growth against the U.S. dollar had inflated the price of the car to well over $34,000. Both of these elements played a role in the car's lukewarm acceptance by the general public.
The GTO was assembled by GM's Holden subsidiary at Elizabeth, South Australia. It was equipped with the 5.7 L LS1 V8 engine for the 2004 model year, the same engine found in the concurrent model year Chevrolet Corvette, with a choice of a 6-speed manual transmission or a 4-speed automatic. Changes from the Australian-built Monaro included bracing additions to the body to meet U.S. crash standards, a "corporate Pontiac" front facia, new badging, "GTO" stitching on the front seats and a revised exhaust system. GM Engineers benchmarked the sound of the 1964 GTO held in the Pontiac historical collection, as well as other LS1-powered vehicles while working with the exhaust vendor to tune the system. The effort was made to make the new GTO invoke the same sound as the original while still meeting the noise threshold required by some states. The 2004 GTO exhaust was a true dual system that followed the original Monaro exhaust routing, thus both tailpipes exited on the driver side of the vehicle. General Motors claimed performance of 0–60 mph in 5.3 seconds and a 13.8 second quarter mile time, which was closely verified by several automotive magazine tests.
Initially, in 2004, the car was offered in seven colors: Barbados Blue Metallic, Cosmos Purple Metallic, Quicksilver Metallic, Phantom Black Metallic, Impulse Blue Metallic, Torrid Red, and Yellow Jacket.
GM had high expectations to sell 18,000 units, but the lukewarm reception of the car in the U.S. curtailed the target. The styling was frequently derided by critics as being too "conservative" and "anonymous" to befit either the GTO heritage or the current car's performance. Given the newly revived muscle car climate, it was also overshadowed by the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Chrysler 300, Dodge Charger, Dodge Magnum, and the new Ford Mustang, all of whom featured more traditional "muscle car" aesthetics. Critics also pointed out the car's high sale price. Sales were also limited because of tactics of dealerships, such as initially charging large markups and denying requests for test drives of the vehicle. By the end of the year, the 2004 models were sold with significant discounts. Sales totaled 13,569 of the 15,728 imported cars for 2004.
The hood scoops that originally were slated for production in 2005 were pushed into production as part of an over-the-counter Sport Appearance Package. The 2004 Sport Appearance Package also included a taller and more angular rear spoiler, as well as deeper inset front grilles.
Closing out the 2004 model year was the W40 package featuring an exclusive paint color called Pulse Red, red “GTO” embroidery on black-anthracite seats, and a grey-colored gauge cluster. The last 794 units of the 2004 model year GTOs were equipped with the W40 package.
2005
The 2005 model year continued with the standard hood scoops, split rear exhaust pipes with a revised rear fascia, and late in the year, optional 18 inch (45.7 cm) wheels. The major change for 2005 was the replacement of the LS1 engine with the LS2 engine. This engine had increased power and torque of with respectively. Other changes included larger front rotors and caliper hardware from the Corvette, a strengthened drivetrain with the addition of a driveshaft with larger "giubos" and a larger differential flange, as well as revised half-shafts. Dashboard gauge graphics were revised. The optional dealer-installed Sport Appearance Package became available and differed visually by having a different lower rear fascia, aftermarket mufflers with quad chrome exhaust tips, revised spoiler, and front lower fascia extension, recessed grilles and revised rocker panels. This package was available from GM as an accessory in red, silver, black, or primer for other color cars. Production amounted to 11,069 cars due in part to a shortened model year. Barbados Blue and Cosmos Purple were dropped for the year, but Cyclone Grey and Midnight Blue Metallic were added. Customers also had the option to order their GTO without hood scoops (RPO code BZJ), though only 24 cars were produced with such an option. With an improved powerplant, GM claimed the car to be capable of accelerating from 0 to in 4.7 seconds and a 13.0 second quarter-mile time at (automatic transmission). Car and Driver magazine tested the car and measured the 0–60 mph acceleration time of 4.8 seconds and a quarter-mile time of 13.3 seconds at with its BFGoodrich g-Force T/A KDWS, 245/45ZR-17 95W M+S front and rear tires and a manual transmission. The 0–100 mph and 0–130 mph times were 11.7 and 19.6 respectively. Motor-week also tested the 2005 GTO.
2006
For 2006, two additional colors were added, Spice Red Metallic and Brazen Orange Metallic, while Midnight Blue Metallic and Yellow Jacket were dropped. Changes for 2006 included revised blacked-out tail lamps, illuminated steering wheel radio controls, faster moving power seat motors, and an interior power door lock switch. The climate control button for the A/C also had the word "Defog", a carryover from the 2005 model year, along with the , 6.0 L engine.
On February 21, 2006, Buick-Pontiac-GMC General Manager John Larson announced to dealers that GM would halt imports of the GTO in September, making 2006 the last model year for the new GTO. The explanation was the inability to meet new airbag deployment standards for 2007. The final production numbers of the 2006 Pontiac GTO amounted to 13,948 cars, an increase from 11,069 cars from the previous model year.
The last Pontiac GTO, which was also the last Monaro-based coupe produced, came off the assembly line in Australia on June 14, 2006. Total production for all three years amounted to 40,808 vehicles. The fifth generation of the GTO was only intended as a limited production car for those 3 years from the beginning of the program.
Performance
Pontiac GTO 6.0
Top Speed - 180 mph
0-60 mph - 4.8 seconds
0-100 mph - 11.2 seconds
Quarter Mile Drive - 13.1 seconds
Motorsports
David Pearson drove a 1971 GTO in the Winston Cup Series.
Production numbers
Production numbers for the Pontiac GTO from 1964 to 1970.
References
External links
GTOAA.ORG GTO Association of America
Muscle cars
GTO
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Convertibles
Coupés
Station wagons
1970s cars
Pontiac GTO (2004 onwards)
2000s cars
Cars introduced in 1964
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States | [
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228455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archery%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Archery at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, seven of the archery events that took place in Paris, France, are considered to be "Olympic" by Olympic historians, with 153 archers competing in them. The identities of 17 of those archers are known, though a number of those are known only by their surnames. In total 1400 archers to over 1500 archers participated in the archery competitions. It was the first time that archery was featured in the Olympics. All seven events were for men. Only France, Belgium, and the Netherlands sent archers. Six Dutch archers competed; none qualified for any of the individual event finals.
Before July 2021 the IOC has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not. The events included here exclude many of the archery events held in France in 1900 connected to the World's Fair. Those events, if included, would put the number of archers over 5,000. They are excluded typically because of their status as French national championships rather than international contests (even though international participants were invited) or because, as team events, they were essentially qualifiers for the final events.
The team events au berceau served as qualifying for the individual events. The top eight finishers in the team events au cordon doré were eligible to compete for the individual titles, while the top six finishers in the team events au chapelet were eligible to compete for the individual titles. Two immensely popular types of archery – short-range butt shooting in a covered gallery (au berceau) and popinjay (sur la perche) – were practiced mainly in France and Belgium. A case could be made that only one event took place au berceau, that of Championnat du Monde. This event was contested between the two best performing au berceau archers in the individual events, au cordon doré and au chapelet (Henri Hérouin and Hubert Van Innis). Thus, all the earlier events could be considered qualifying for that one final event.
Medal table
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 153 archers from 3 nations competed at the Paris Games:
See also
List of Olympic medalists in archery
References
International Olympic Committee athletes database
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Archery 1900". Accessed 17 January 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
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] |
228456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beers | Beers | Beers may refer to:
plural of beer, an alcoholic beverage
Beers (surname)
Beers, Friesland, a Dutch place in the Friesland municipality of Littenseradiel
Beers, North Brabant, a Dutch place in the North Brabant municipality of Cuijk
De Beers, a Johannesburg-based diamond mining and trading corporation
See also
Beer (disambiguation) | [
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228458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle%20car | Muscle car | Muscle car is a description according to Merriam-Webster Dictionary that came to use in 1966 for "a group of American-made two-door sports coupes with powerful engines designed for high-performance driving." The Britanica Dictionary describes these as "an American-made two-door sports car with a powerful engine."
Although the term was unknown for another fifteen-plus years, General Motors is credited by some as introducing the first "intentional" muscle car in 1949, when it put its Rocket V8 from its full-sized luxury car 98 model into the considerably smaller and lighter Oldsmobile 88. The competition between American manufacturers started when Chrysler installed the Chrysler Hemi engine in the mid-range Chrysler Saratoga in 1951 that was normally installed in the full-sized luxury sedan Chrysler New Yorker. In 1952 Ford's luxury brand Lincoln introduced the Lincoln Y-Block V8 and the rivalry began, where the Lincoln Capri was entered in the Pan American Road Race in both 1952 and 1953, and taking first and second place in 1954. This was followed by both the Oldsmobile 88 and Chrysler Saratoga being raced in stock form at NASCAR races across the country.
By some accounts, the "muscle car" term proper was originally applied to mid-1960s and early 1970s special editions of mass-production cars which were designed for drag racing, though it shortly entered the general vocabulary through car magazines and automobile marketing and became used generically for "performance"-oriented street cars.
By some period definitions and perceptions, the term muscle car came to connote high performance at budget prices, where extremely powerful engines were put into relatively bare-bones intermediate cars at extremely affordable prices. This wave, exemplified by the 1968 Plymouth Road Runner and companion Dodge Super Bee, were meant to undercut more expensive, more stylish, and better-appointed cars by General Motors and Ford that had come to define the market, such as the Pontiac GTO (1964), 396 Chevrolet Chevelle (1965), 400 Buick Gran Sport (1965), 400 Oldsmobile 442 (1965), as well as 427 Mercury Comet Cyclone (1964) and 390 Mercury Cyclone (1966). The Dodge and Plymouth cars also continued the performance tradition started at Chrysler with the full-sized Chrysler 300L when production ended in 1965.
By some definitions - including those used by Car and Driver and Road and Track magazines cited below, pony cars such as the Ford Mustang, Chevrolet Camaro and the Plymouth Barracuda and their luxury companions Mercury Cougar, Pontiac Firebird and the Dodge Challenger in that large, influential, and lucrative 1960s-70s niche, could also qualify as "muscle cars" if outfitted with suitable high-performance equipment.
Terminology
Definition
The definition of a muscle car is subjective and endlessly debated. Muscle cars often have many of the following characteristics:
A large V8 engine in the most powerful configuration offered for a particular model
Rear-wheel drive
Being manufactured in the United States in the 1960s or early 1970s (the specific year range of 1964–1973 is sometimes used)
A relatively lightweight two-door body (though opinions vary as to whether high-performance full-size cars, compacts, and pony cars qualify as muscle cars, and why a 2-seat AMC AMX could be, but a 2-seat Chevrolet Corvette was not. It is sometimes claimed that only mid-size cars can be considered muscle cars.)
An affordable price of around $2,500.
Being designed for straight-line drag racing, while remaining street legal.
High-power pony cars are sometimes considered muscle cars, however, personal luxury cars are often too expensive to be considered by some to be muscle cars. Sports cars are not considered muscle cars by some definitions. By some narrow definitions, muscle cars are an extension of the hot rodding philosophy of taking a small car and putting a large-displacement engine in it, for the purpose of increased straight-line speed. However, that is repudiated by the much broader public acceptance and use of the term as exemplified by the Car and Driver and Road and Track magazine top muscle car lists below, which display a much broader interpretation of the term.
Supercars
Muscle cars were originally referred to as "Supercars" in the United States, often (though not always) spelled with a capital S." From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, "dragstrip bred" mid-size cars equipped with large V8 engines and rear-wheel drive were referred to as Supercars more often than muscle cars. An early example is the 1957 Rambler Rebel, which was described as a "potent mill turned the lightweight Rambler into a veritable supercar."
In 1966 the supercar became an "industry trend" as the four domestic automakers "needed to cash in on the supercar market" with eye-catching, heart-stopping cars. Examples of the use of the supercar description for the early muscle models include the May 1965 Car Life road test of the Pontiac GTO along with how "Hurst puts American Motors into the Supercar club with the 390 Rogue" (the SC/Rambler) to fight in "the Supercar street racer gang" market segment, with the initials "SC" signifying SuperCar.
The supercar market segment in the U.S. at the time included special versions of regular production models that were positioned in several sizes and market segments (such as the "economy supercar"), as well as limited edition, documented dealer-converted vehicles. However, the supercar term by that time "had been diluted and branded with a meaning that did not respect the unique qualities of the 'muscle car'."
History
1950s: Origins
Opinions on the origin of the muscle car vary, but the 1949 Oldsmobile Rocket 88, is cited as the first full-sized muscle car. The Rocket 88 was the first time a powerful V8 engine was available in a smaller and lighter body style (in this case the engine from the larger Oldsmobile 98 with the body from the six-cylinder Oldsmobile 76). The Rocket 88 produced at 3600 rpm and at 1800 rpm and won eight out of ten races in the 1950 NASCAR season. The Rocket 88's Oldsmobile 303 V8 engine (along with the Cadillac 331 engine, also introduced in 1949) are stated to have "launched the modern era of the high-performance V-8."
In 1955, the large-sized Chrysler C-300 - the first in a long, 15-year series of large, expensive, performance-first Chryslers - was introduced that produced from its V8 engine, and it was advertised as "America's Most Powerful Car". Capable of accelerating from 0 to in 9.8 seconds and reaching , the 1955 Chrysler 300 is also recognized as one of the best-handling cars of its era.
The compact-sized 1956 Studebaker Golden Hawk was powered by a Packard V8, the second most powerful engine to the Chrysler 300.
The Rambler Rebel, introduced by American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1957, is the first mid-sized car to be available with a big-block V8 engine. The Rebel followed most of the muscle car formula including "make 'em go fast as well as cheaply." It is therefore considered by some to be the first muscle car. With a V8 engine producing , its 0–60 mph acceleration of 7.5 seconds made it the fastest stock American sedan at the time. Only the fuel-injected Chevrolet Corvette beat it by half a second.
Early 1960s: Drag racing influences
The popularity and performance of muscle cars grew in the early 1960s, as Mopar (Dodge, Plymouth, and Chrysler) and Ford battled for supremacy in drag racing. The 1961 Chevrolet Impala offered an SS package for $53.80, which consisted of a V8 engine producing along with upgraded brakes, tires, and suspension. The 1962 Dodge Dart 413 (nicknamed Max Wedge) had a V8 which produced and could cover the quarter-mile in under 13 seconds.
In 1963, two hundred Ford Galaxie "R-code" cars were factory-built specifically for drag racing, resulting in a full-size car that could cover the quarter-mile in a little over 12 seconds. Upgrades included fiberglass panels, aluminum bumpers, traction bars, and a Ford FE-based racing engine conservatively rated at . The road-legal version of the Galaxie 427 used the "Q-code" engine which produced . The following year, Ford installed the proven 427 "top-oiler" engine in the smaller and lighter Fairlane body, creating the Ford Thunderbolt. The Thunderbolt included several weight-saving measures (including acrylic windows and fibreglass/aluminium body panels and bumpers) and a stock Thunderbolt could cover the quarter-mile in 11.76 seconds. The Thunderbolt was technically road-legal, however, it was considered unsuitable even "for driving to and from the (drag)strip, let alone on the street in everyday use". A total of 111 Thunderbolts were built.
The General Motors competitor to the Thunderbolt was the Z-11 option package for the full-size Chevrolet Impala coupe, of which 57 examples were produced in 1963 only. The Z-11 Impala was powered by a version of the W-series big-block engine, which was officially rated at . With a compression ratio of 13.5:1, the engine required high-octane fuel. The RPOZ-11 package also included weight reduction measures such as an aluminum hood and fenders, the removal of sound-deadening material as well as the deletion of the heater and radio.
In 1964, a drag racing version of the Dodge 330 was created, called the "330 Lightweight". It was powered by a version of the Hemi racing engine which was official rated at , but rumored to have an actual power output higher than this. Weight reduction measures included an aluminium hood, lightweight front bumpers, fenders and doors, polycarbonate
side windows, and no sound deadening. Like other lightweights of the era, it came with a factory disclaimer: "Designed for supervised acceleration trials. Not recommended for general everyday driving because of the compromises in the all-round characteristics which must be made for this type of vehicle."
Also using the 426 Hemi racing engine was the limited production 1965 Plymouth Satellite 426 Hemi. In 1966, the racing version of the 426 Hemi was replaced by a detuned "Street Hemi" version, also with a size of 426 cu in and an official power rating of ). The 1966 Plymouth Satellite 426 Hemi could run a 13.8-second quarter-mile at and had a base price of $3,850.
1964–1970: Peak muscle car era
Although muscle cars sold in relatively small volumes, manufacturers valued the halo effect of the publicity created by these models. Competition between manufacturers led to a horsepower war that peaked in 1970, with some models advertising as much as .
The Pontiac GTO, a car that captured the public mind and strongly influenced the muscle car era, was introduced in 1964 as an optional package for the intermediate-size Pontiac Tempest. The GTO was developed by Pontiac division president John DeLorean and was initially powered by a V8 engine producing . The success of the GTO led other GM divisions to develop muscle cars based on intermediate-sized platforms: the 1964 Oldsmobile 442, 1964 Chevrolet Chevelle SS, and 1965 Buick Gran Sport.
The AMC V8 engine was enlarged to in 1968, which produced and was first used in the 1968 AMC Rebel SST, AMC Javelin Go-package, and AMC AMX. AMC was a car manufacturing company that made these two incredible cars. AMC only made small economy cars until they hired Dick Teague as a designer, who later became the vice president. AMC wasn't known for being in the top competitors for manufacturing cars, but when they came out with the AMX and the Javelin they became one of the top competitors.
As the 1960s progressed, optional equipment and luxury appointments increased in many popular models of "performance-oriented" cars. With the added weight and power-consuming accessories and features, engines had to be more powerful to maintain performance levels, and the cars became more expensive. In response, some "budget" muscle cars began to appear, such as the 1967 Plymouth GTX, the 1968 Plymouth Road Runner, and the 1968 Dodge Super Bee. In 1969, the Plymouth Road Runner was awarded Motor Trend magazine's Car of the Year. With optional performance parts such as intake and exhaust manifolds, upgraded carburetor, and drag-racing tires, the Road Runner had a quarter-mile time of 14.7 seconds at . In this customized form, the cost of the Road Runner was US$3,893.
The Plymouth Barracuda was a pony car that could be turned into a muscle car with the addition of the famed Chrysler 426 Hemi, available as an option beginning in 1968, after debuting in street form two years earlier in the Plymouth Belvedere, Dodge Coronet, and Dodge Charger. Originally based on the smaller compact car body and chassis of the Plymouth Valiant, the Barracuda was also available with a V8 engine producing . It could run a quarter-mile in 13.33 seconds at on the drag strip. The base price was $2,796.00; the price as tested by Hot Rod was $3,652. The related 1970 Plymouth Duster was powered by a V8 engine producing . Performance figures were 0 to in 6.0 seconds and the quarter-mile time of in 14.7 seconds at .
The Chevrolet L72 big-block engine became available in the mid-sized Chevrolet Chevelle in 1969 as the COPO 427 option. The 427 Chevelle could run a 13.3 sec. quarter-mile at. Chevrolet rated the engine at , but the NHRA claimed power output to be . The following year, the "Chevelle SS 454" model was introduced, which used the Chevrolet LS6 big-block engine rated at , the highest factory rating at that time.
The fastest muscle car produced by American Motors was the mid-sized 1970 AMC Rebel "The Machine", which was powered by a engine producing . The Rebel had a 0– time of 6.8 seconds and a quarter-mile run in 14.4 seconds at .
1970s Decline of the segment
The popularity of muscle cars declined through the early 1970s, due to factors including the Clean Air Act, the fuel crisis and increasing insurance costs. The 1973 oil crisis resulted in rationing of fuel and higher prices. Muscle cars quickly became unaffordable and impractical for many people. In addition, the automobile insurance industry levied surcharges on all high-powered models.
Before the Clean Air Act of 1970, a majority of muscle cars came optioned with high-compression engines (some engines were as high as 11:1), which required high-octane fuel. Before the oil embargo, 100-octane fuel was common. However, following the passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970, octane ratings were lowered to 91 (due in part to the removal of lead). Manufacturers reduced the compression ratio of engines, resulting in reduced performance. Simultaneously, efforts to combat air pollution focused Detroit's attention on emissions control rather than increased power outputs.
1980s–1990s: Performance revival
Muscle car performance began a resurgence in the early 1980s with high output V8 engines introduced for the Ford Mustang GT, Chevrolet Camaro Z28, and Pontiac Firebird Formula/Trans Am. Initially using four-barrel carburetors, engine performance and fuel economy were increased by the mid-1980s using electronic fuel injection systems and advanced engine management controls. Muscle car performance began to reappear on intermediate two-door coupés such as the Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS and Buick Regal. The Buick Regal used turbocharged V6 engines on the Grand National, Turbo-T, T-Type, and GNX models which rivaled the performance of V8 engines.
The few muscle cars remaining in production by the mid-1990s included the fourth generation Mustang, fourth generation Camaro, and fourth generation Firebird.
2000s to present
For 2004, the Pontiac GTO was relaunched in the United States as a rebadged captive import version of the Holden Monaro. For 2005, Chrysler introduced muscle car heritage to high-performance V8-powered versions of four-door sedans, the Dodge Charger and Chrysler 300C, using nameplates traditionally used for two-door muscle cars. For 2005, the fifth-generation Ford Mustang, designed to resemble the original first-generation Mustang, brought back the aggressive lines and colors of the original. For 2006, GM relaunched the Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS with the first V8 engine on the Monte Carlo in 15 Years. The same V8 was used on the Monte Carlo's W-Body sister cars like the Pontiac Grand Prix GXP, Buick Lacrosse Super, and the Chevrolet Impala SS.
For 2008, Chrysler re-introduced the Dodge Challenger, which features styling links to the 1970 first-generation Challenger and was claimed by the Chrysler CEO to be "a modern take on one of the most iconic muscle cars". A year later, running on that same sentiment, Chevrolet released the 2009 Camaro, which bears some resemblance to the 1969 first-generation Camaro.
Australia
The first Australian-designed car to be marketed as a performance model was the 1963 Holden EH S4 model, of which 120 road cars were produced so that the model could be eligible to compete at the 1963 Armstrong 500 motor race at Bathurst. The EH S4 was powered by an upgraded version of the standard six-cylinder engine, enlarged to and producing . In 1964, the Ford Falcon (XM) became available with an enlarged "Super Pursuit" version of the standard six-cylinder engine, which produced .
In 1965, the Chrysler Valiant AP6 became the first Australian car to be available with a V8 engine. This optional engine was the version of the Chrysler LA engine, which produced and was imported from the United States. The first Australian-designed Ford to be available with a V8 was the 1966 Ford Falcon (XR), with a version of the Ford Windsor engine (imported from the United States), which produced . The first Holden to be available with a V8 was the 1968 Holden HK, with a version of the Chevrolet small-block V8 (imported from the United States) which produced . Later that year, a version of the engine became available in the Holden HK Monaro GTS 327 coupe.
The pinnacle of 1970s Australian muscle cars were the 1971–1972 Ford Falcon GTHO, Holden Monaro 350, and Chrysler Valiant Charger R/T (the smaller Holden Torana GTR was also a successful performance car of the era, but it is not considered a muscle car due to its prioritisation of lighter weight over outright power output). The Ford Falcon (XY) GTHO Phase III model was powered by a version of the Ford Cleveland V8 engine, officially rated at , but estimated to produce between . The Holden HQ Monaro GTS 350 was powered by a version of the Chevrolet small-block V8 producing . The Chrysler Valiant Charger R/T E49 model was powered by a version of the Chrysler Hemi-6 six-cylinder engine producing .
In 1972, production of Australian muscle cars came to an abrupt halt when the Supercar scare caused Ford, Holden, and Chrysler to cease development of upcoming performance models, due to government pressure. The few Australian muscle car models produced after 1972 consist of the limited production 1977–1978 Holden Torana (LX) A9X option and the 1978–1979 Ford Falcon (XC) Cobra model, both created as homologation models for Group C touring car racing.
Argentina
In Argentina, Chevrolet and Dodge produced two highly acclaimed models of muscle cars. The first was the producer of the third American generation of the Chevrolet Nova, which in this country was renamed Chevy. This model was initially presented in a 4-door sedan version that maintained many physical features of the Nova coupe version, which would also be produced and marketed in Argentina a few years later. While Dodge produced in Argentina a series of vehicles based on the fourth generation of the Dodge Dart and that received the name of Línea Dodge (Dodge Line). This vehicle presented sedan and coupe versions, which in turn were a local redesign of the Dart model and which, depending on its level of equipment, received different names (Polara, Coronado, RT and GTX). In return for these brands, both Ford and the national producer IKA would respond with the production of two high-performance sedans, such as the Argentine version of the Ford Falcon and a derivative of the Rambler American model, called IKA Torino, which, in addition to its sedan version, would present a coupe version which would end up being highly acclaimed and popularized in the Argentine automotive field.
Lists of muscle cars (1963-1973)
According to Car & Driver Magazine, January, 1990:
1964-1969 Pontiac GTO
1966-1971 Plymouth/Dodge A-body 426 models
1966-1967 Chevy Nova SS 327
1966-1969 Chevy Chevelle SS 396
1968-1969 Chevy Nova SS 396
1969 Ford Torino Cobra 428
1969 Plymouth Road Runner 440 Six Pack
1969 Dodge Super Bee 440 Six Pack
1969 Chevrolet Camaro COPO ZL-1
1970 Chevy Chevelle SS 454
According to Road & Track Magazine, February, 2019:
1963 Studebaker Superlark
1964 Ford Fairlane Thunderbolt
1967 Dodge Coronet WO23 GSX Stage 1
1969-1970 Ford Mustang Boss 429
1970 AMC "The Machine"
1970-1971 Plymouth Barracuda 426
1971-1973 Ford Mustang Mach 1 Drag Pack
See also
Sport compact
Supercar
Pony car
References
External links
Cars introduced in 1949
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228459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liestal | Liestal | Liestal (, Standard ), formerly spelled Liesthal, is the capital of Liestal District and the canton of Basel-Landschaft in Switzerland, south of Basel.
Liestal is an industrial town with a cobbled-street Old Town.
The official language of Liestal is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.
History
The name Liestal was first mentioned in 1225, and the settlement dates at least from Roman times. The development of the town is due to its strategic location on the road between the first bridge over the Rhine at Basel and the St. Gotthard Pass.
Citizens of Liestal participated in the Burgundian Wars in 1476 and 1477 against Charles the Bold. In 1501, the mayor swore allegiance to the Swiss Confederation, and this caused repeated conflict with neighboring Rheinfelden, which belonged to the Habsburgs.
In the 17th century, Liestal rebelled against Basel as part of the Farmers' Rebellion and was occupied by troops from that city. Three leaders of the rebellion were beheaded in Basel.
In 1789, the town enthusiastically hailed the French call for freedom and equality. It celebrated Napoleon, when he traveled through town in 1797. After his fall, the earlier subjection to Basel was re-established.
The French July Revolution of 1830 also caused upheaval in Liestal. A provisional government was established, and the town was chosen as the capital of a new canton on 17 March 1832.
Geography
Liestal has an area, , of . Of this area, or 16.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 58.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 23.9% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.5% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.2% is unproductive land.
Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 2.6% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 12.1% and transportation infrastructure made up 5.7%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 1.6% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 1.8%. Out of the forested land, 57.1% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.6% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 6.7% is used for growing crops and 8.0% is pastures, while 1.8% is used for orchards or vine crops. Of the water in the municipality, 0.2% is in lakes and 0.3% is in rivers and streams.
The municipality is the capital of the canton of Basel-Country. The old town is situated on a rocky outcrop between the Ergolz and Orisbach rivers and between Basel and the Jura Mountains. The town is fan-shaped, consisting of a wide main street (Gassenmarkt) and two side streets. In the 18th Century small suburbs developed around the lower and the upper city gates. In the 17th Century the commercial district of Gestadeck developed along the canal.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per fess Argent, a crozier issuant Gules, and Gules.
Demographics
Liestal has a population () of . , 23.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1997–2007) the population has changed at a rate of 7.7%.
Most of the population () speaks German (10,759 or 83.2%), with Italian being second most common (660 or 5.1%) and Serbo-Croatian being third (276 or 2.1%). There are 122 people who speak French and 12 people who speak Romansh.
, the gender distribution of the population was 49.3% male and 50.7% female. The population was made up of 10,104 Swiss citizens (74.6% of the population), and 3,447 non-Swiss residents (25.4%) Of the population in the municipality 3,257 or about 25.2% were born in Liestal and lived there in 2000. There were 2,648 or 20.5% who were born in the same canton, while 3,406 or 26.3% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 3,129 or 24.2% were born outside of Switzerland.
In there were 102 live births to Swiss citizens and 44 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 109 deaths of Swiss citizens and 7 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 7 while the foreign population increased by 37. There were 5 Swiss men who emigrated from Switzerland and 4 Swiss women who immigrated back to Switzerland. At the same time, there were 41 non-Swiss men and 41 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 80 and the non-Swiss population decreased by 36 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.3%.
The age distribution, , in Liestal is; 917 children or 6.8% of the population are between 0 and 6 years old and 1,827 teenagers or 13.5% are between 7 and 19. Of the adult population, 1,924 people or 14.2% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 1,828 people or 13.5% are between 30 and 39, 2,137 people or 15.8% are between 40 and 49, and 2,705 people or 20.0% are between 50 and 64. The senior population distribution is 1,620 people or 12.0% of the population are between 65 and 79 years old and there are 593 people or 4.4% who are over 80.
, there were 5,441 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 5,993 married individuals, 751 widows or widowers and 745 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 5,450 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. There were 1,935 households that consist of only one person and 322 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 5,584 households that answered this question, 34.7% were households made up of just one person and 30 were adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 1,585 married couples without children, 1,505 married couples with children. There were 286 single parents with a child or children. There were 109 households that were made up unrelated people and 134 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing.
there were 1,470 single family homes (or 59.3% of the total) out of a total of 2,479 inhabited buildings. There were 474 multi-family buildings (19.1%), along with 301 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (12.1%) and 234 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (9.4%). Of the single family homes 141 were built before 1919, while 241 were built between 1990 and 2000. The greatest number of single family homes (353) were built between 1919 and 1945.
there were 5,876 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 4 rooms of which there were 1,710. There were 268 single room apartments and 1,538 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 5,316 apartments (90.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 379 apartments (6.4%) were seasonally occupied and 181 apartments (3.1%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.2 new units per 1000 residents. the average price to rent a two-room apartment was about 871.00 CHF (US$700, £390, €560), a three-room apartment was about 1063.00 CHF (US$850, £480, €680) and a four-room apartment cost an average of 1260.00 CHF (US$1010, £570, €810). The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 1.21%.
Historic Population
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Heritage sites of national significance
The Depot of Archeology of Basel-land, the Frenkenbrücke (bridge), the Munzach which was a Roman farmhouse, the Roman aqueduct and the Cantonal Archive of Basel-Landschaft are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire old town of Liestal is listed in the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 25.95% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (25.05%), the FDP (18.83%) and the Green Party (17.23%). In the federal election, a total of 4,243 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.8%.
Economy
, Liestal had an unemployment rate of 2.75%. , there were 160 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 26 businesses involved in this sector. 2,324 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 145 businesses in this sector. 10,189 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 824 businesses in this sector. There were 6,829 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 44.9% of the workforce.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 10,921. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 50, of which 36 were in agriculture, 12 were in forestry or lumber production and 2 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 2,204, of which 1,107 or (50.2%) were in manufacturing and 896 (40.7%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 8,667. In the tertiary sector; 899 or 10.4% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 348 or 4.0% were in the movement and storage of goods, 258 or 3.0% were in a hotel or restaurant, 117 or 1.3% were in the information industry, 651 or 7.5% were the insurance or financial industry, 638 or 7.4% were technical professionals or scientists, 660 or 7.6% were in education and 2,819 or 32.5% were in health care.
, there were 10,031 workers who commuted into the municipality and 3,911 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 2.6 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 5.3% of the workforce coming into Liestal are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.2% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 25.8% used public transportation to get to work, and 35.7% used a private car.
Religion
From the , 3,641 or 28.2% were Roman Catholic, while 5,626 or 43.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 261 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.02% of the population), there were 36 individuals (or about 0.28% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 383 individuals (or about 2.96% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 8 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 699 (or about 5.41% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 31 individuals who were Buddhist, 119 individuals who were Hindu and 30 individuals who belonged to another church. 1,644 (or about 12.71% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 452 individuals (or about 3.50% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In Liestal about 4,911 or (38.0%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 1,895 or (14.7%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 1,895 who completed tertiary schooling, 59.3% were Swiss men, 25.1% were Swiss women, 9.0% were non-Swiss men and 6.6% were non-Swiss women.
, there were 2,096 students in Liestal who came from another municipality, while 220 residents attended schools outside the municipality.
Liestal is home to 2 libraries. These libraries include; the Kantonsbibliothek Baselland and the Pädagogische Hochschule in Liestal. There was a combined total () of 249,271 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 757,718 items were loaned out.
Crime
In 2014 the crime rate, of the over 200 crimes listed in the Swiss Criminal Code (running from murder, robbery and assault to accepting bribes and election fraud), in Liestal was 73.2 per thousand residents, slightly higher than the national average (64.6 per thousand). During the same period, the rate of drug crimes was 6.1 per thousand residents. This rate is 103.3% greater than the rate in the district, additionally it is 125.9% greater than the rate in the canton, however, due to lower rates in the district and canton it is still only 61.6% of the national rate. The rate of violations of immigration, visa and work permit laws was 1.7 per thousand residents. This rate is 88.9% greater than the rate in the canton but is only 34.7% of the rate for the entire country.
Customs
On the Sunday night after Mardi Gras, Chienbäse is celebrated with a spectacular parade and bonfires, from which the celebration takes its name. The tradition goes back at least to the 16th century. Other towns in the neighborhood also celebrate in a similar manner.
Other local festivals are the following:
Santichlaus-Ylüüte
Banntag
Transport
Liestal railway station is on the Swiss Federal Railway's Hauenstein main line, which connects Basel and Olten. It is served by five trains per hour to Basel, four trains per hour to Olten, and hourly trains to Bern, Lucerne and Zürich. Several trains a day operate through to Frankfurt and Berlin. The station is also the junction for, and terminus of, the Waldenburg narrow gauge railway, which operates a half-hourly train service to Waldenburg.
The municipality is also located on the A3 motorway, between Basel and Zürich.
Notable residents
Johann Bernhard Merian (1723 in Liestal – 1807), a Swiss philosopher active in the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Abel Seyler (1730 in Liestal – 1800), a Swiss-born theatre director and former merchant banker
Carl Spitteler (1845 in Liestal – 1924), a Swiss poet, awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1919
Karl Wilhelm Ritter (1847 in Liestal – 1906), civil engineer, professor of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
Wilhelm Eduard Brodtbeck (1873 in Liestal – 1957), architect
Matthias Gelzer (1886 in Liestal – 1974), a Swiss-German classical historian, studied the Roman Republic
Bohuslav Martinů (1890 - 1959 in Liestal), Czech composer of modern classical music
Martin Schadt (born 1938), a Swiss physicist and inventor
Enrico Marini (born 1969), an Italian comics artist
Davide Cali (born 1972 in Liestal), an Italian writer of picture books and graphic novels
Sport
Rico Freiermuth (born 1958 in Liestal), a Swiss bobsledder, bronze medallist at the 1984 Winter Olympics
Adrian Knup (born 1968 in Liestal), is a Swiss retired football striker, 273 club caps and 49 for Switzerland
David Degen (born 1983 in Liestal), a former Swiss footballer, 269 club caps and 17 for Switzerland
Philipp Degen (born 1983 in Liestal), a retired Swiss footballer, 238 club caps and 32 for Switzerland
Fabian Leimlehner (born 1987 in Liestal), an Austrian male artistic gymnast, participated at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Yanik Frick (born 1998 in Liestal), a Liechtensteiner footballer
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Liestal is twinned with:
See also
Waldenburgerbahn
Nanosurf
References
External links
Official website of Liestal
Cities in Switzerland
Cantonal capitals of Switzerland
Liestal (capital)
Cultural property of national significance in Basel-Landschaft | [
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228460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance | Romance | Romance (from Vulgar Latin , "in the Roman language", i.e., "Latin") may refer to:
Common meanings
Romance (love), emotional attraction towards another person and the courtship behaviors undertaken to express the feelings
Romance languages, a subgroup of the Italic languages
Romance studies, an academic discipline studying the languages, literatures, and cultures of areas that speak a Romance language
Places
Romance, Arkansas, U.S.
Romance, Missouri, U.S.
Romance, West Virginia U.S.
Romance, Wisconsin, U.S.
Arts, entertainment, and media
Film
Romance film, a genre of film of which the central plot focuses on the romantic relationships of the protagonists
Romantic comedy
Romantic thriller
Romance (1920 film), silent film, directed by Chester Withey
Romance (1930 film), starring Greta Garbo
Romance (1936 film), an Austrian film starring Carl Esmond
Romance (1983 film), a Bollywood film produced and directed by Ramanand Sagar
Romance (1986 film)
Romance (1999 film), directed by Catherine Breillat
Romance (2011 film)
Romance (2013 film)
Literature
Literary genres
Adventure tales
Gaslight romance, another name for gaslamp fantasy, featuring fantasy set at a time of approximately 19th-century technology
Planetary romance, a genre of science fiction consisting of adventure tales on exotic planets
Ruritanian romance, a genre of swashbuckling adventure novels, set in a fictional country, usually in Central or Eastern Europe
Scientific romance, an archaic term for the genre of fiction now commonly known as science fiction
Chivalric romance literature, a branch of medieval and medievalist literature
Literature of Romanticism, a movement from the late 18th century that broke away from neoclassicism and which emphasized nature, the imagination and emotions
Hellenistic romance, or Ancient Greek romance, a modern term for the genre of the five surviving Ancient Greek novels
Romance (prose fiction), a type of novel, especially, but not necessarily, an historical novel, and distinct from genre fiction love romances
Romance literature (disambiguation)
Romance novel, a genre of novel which emerged in the 20th century, directed at women readers, that focuses on romantic love, with many sub-genres:
Amish romance, also known as "bonnet rippers"
Contemporary romance
Historical romance, a 20th-century genre fiction version of the historical novel
Paranormal romance
Regency romance
Fantasy romance
Works
Romance (novel), a 1905 novel by Joseph Conrad
Romance (play), a 2005 play by David Mamet
"Romance" (poem), an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe
Romance (Sheldon play), a 1913 play by Edward Sheldon
Shakespeare's late romances, or tragicomedies
Music
Albums
Romance (Camila Cabello album), 2019
Romance (David Cassidy album), 1985
Romance (Luis Miguel album), 1991
Romance (Ali Project album), 2006
Romance (Dave Palmer album), 2006
Romance (Frank Sinatra album), 2004
Romance (Tubelord album), 2011
Romances (Kaada/Patton album), 2004
Romances (Luis Miguel album), 1997
Romance (Dorso album), 1991
Romance (Oneida album), 2018
Songs
"Romance" (guitar piece), also known as "Romance Anónimo", a Spanish instrumental guitar piece of anonymous origin
"Romance", by Claude Debussy
"Romance", by Gordon Lightfoot from his 1983 album Salute
"Romance", by Mike Oldfield from his album Light + Shade
"Romance", the second movement of the suite Lieutenant Kijé (Op. 60) by Sergei Prokofiev
"Romance", by R.E.M., originally released on the soundtrack of the 1987 film Made in Heaven
"Romance", from the musical The Desert Song
Romance in C major, Op. 48, for violin and orchestra by Camille Saint-Saëns
Violin Romance No. 1 (Beethoven) in G major, Op. 40
Violin Romance No. 2 (Beethoven) in F major, Op. 50
"Romance" by Marc Ribot from his 1994 album Shrek
"Romance" (Buck-Tick song), 2005 single by Buck-Tick
"Romance" (Yoasobi song), 2021 single by Yoasobi
Other uses in music
Romance (music), a type of ballad or lyrical song
Romance (meter), a metric pattern found in Spanish ballads
Romancero, the corpus of such Spanish ballads, or a collection of them
Russian romance or Russian Gypsy song, a type of sentimental art song with hints of Gypsy influence that was developed in Imperial Russia
Scandinavian romanser, classical art songs, equivalent to the German Lied
Romance (band), rock band from London
Romance Tour (disambiguation)
Television
Romance (American TV series), 1949 American anthology series
Romance (South Korean TV series), 2002 South Korean television drama series
See also
A Fine Romance (disambiguation)
A Romance (disambiguation)
Romantic (disambiguation)
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] |
228462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow%20%28disambiguation%29 | Moscow (disambiguation) | Moscow is the capital of Russia.
Moscow may also refer to:
Music
Moscow (Tchaikovsky), 1883 cantata by Tchaikovsky
Oh Moscow, an album by Lindsay Cooper
Moscow (Giardini), a hymn tune by Felice Giardini, also called Italian Hymn
Moscow, English version of the song Moskau by German band Dschinghis Khan
Places
United States
Moscow, Lamar County, Alabama, unincorporated
Moscow, Marengo County, Alabama, unincorporated
Moscow, Arkansas, unincorporated
Moscow, Idaho, a city
Moscow, Indiana, unincorporated
Moscow, Iowa, unincorporated
Moscow, Kansas, a city
Moscow, Kentucky, unincorporated
Moscow, Maine, a town
Moscow, Maryland, unincorporated and census-designated place
Moscow, Minnesota, unincorporated
Moscow, Mississippi, unincorporated
Moscow, Ohio, a village
Moscow, Licking County, Ohio, a ghost town
Moscow, Pennsylvania, a borough
Moscow, Tennessee, a city
Moscow, Texas, unincorporated
Moscow, Vermont, unincorporated
Moscow, West Virginia, unincorporated
Moscow, Wisconsin, a town
Moscow (community), Wisconsin, unincorporated
Moscow Township (disambiguation)
Elsewhere
Moscow, a hamlet within the township of Stone Mills, Ontario, Canada
Moscow, India, a village in the Kottayam district of Kerala, India
Moscow Oblast, the federal subject that surrounds the Russian capital
Moscow, East Ayrshire, a hamlet in East Ayrshire, Scotland
Other uses
David Moscow (born 1974), American actor
FC Moscow, a Russian football club
Moscow (cycling team), a Russian road-racing team 2009–2010
MoSCoW method, a prioritisation technique used in business analysis and software development
Moscow Patriarchate
Moscow-850, a giant Ferris wheel located at the All-Russia Exhibition Centre, Moscow
See also
Mosco (disambiguation)
Moscou, Ghent, Belgium
Moskau (disambiguation)
Moskovsky (disambiguation)
Moskva (disambiguation) | [
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228463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattanbai%20Jinnah | Rattanbai Jinnah | Rattanbai Jinnah (née Petit; 20 February 1900 – 20 February 1929), also known as Ruttie Jinnah or Maryam Jinnah, was the wife of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, an important figure in the creation of Pakistan and the country's founder. Additionally, Rattanbai Petit belonged to some of the most influential families of the Indian Subcontinent, the Petit family, through her father; and the Jinnah family through her marriage. Her daughter Dina Wadia married the businessman Neville Wadia, of the Wadia family.
Family and background
Rattanbai Petit (often informally called "Ruttie") was born on 20 February 1900 in Bombay, Bombay Presidency, British India, into the extremely affluent and well-connected Petit family that belonged to the Parsi community. She was the only daughter of the businessman Sir Dinshaw Petit, the second baronet of Petit, and his wife Lady Dinabai Petit. Her paternal grandfather, Dinshaw Maneckji Petit, the first baronet, had built some of the earliest cotton mills in India. He was also a philanthropist who aided the Zoroastrians of Iran who were persecuted by the Qajars. Her brother, Fali, who later became Sir Dinshaw Maneckji Petit, the 3rd Baronet, married Sylla Tata, a member of the Tata family and the sister of J. R. D. Tata, who later became the longest-serving chairman of the Tata Group, one of India's leading business conglomerates.
Rattanbai Petit was famous in Bombay. Not only was she the well-read, fashionable, extroverted, and nationalistic daughter of the 2nd Baronet, she was considered beautiful. As she entered her late teens she was called "The Flower of Bombay" by the city's high society, many of which were frequent guests in her father's home.
The Petits were an extremely anglicized family that strove to be fully British in manner, dress, language, diet, and customs. The 2nd Baronet would import only the finest flowers, marble, and furniture from Europe for his home. Every room had multiple Persian rugs, and Petit Hall even had a Grecian fountain. Unsurprisingly, they spared their children almost no luxuries. Ruttie's father would shower her with gifts of books, clothes, pets, sweets, gourmet meals, and vacations to Europe or other parts of India where they owned homes. Ruttie was a huge lover of fashion and was allowed to go shopping unattended and purchase anything she wanted; with no spending limits. Her parents left most of the raising of their children to European nannies. While her paternal grandparents were practising orthodox Zoroastrians, Ruttie was agnostic and only nominally a Parsi. None of the Petit children were raised in Zoroastrianism, nor was Gujarati spoken in the home. Ruttie and her brothers did receive Navjote ceremonies, but they were only done as an excuse to throw a grand party afterward.
Courtship and wedding
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, then 40, was only three years younger than Ruttie's father, and the two men were good friends. Jinnah was a frequent guest at Petit Hall, the sprawling seaside residence of the Petit family at the foot of Malabar Hill in Mumbai. It was in this setting that Ruttie and Jinnah became acquainted. They were both nationalists, loved horses, and were avidly interested in politics. Their romance, however, started in Darjeeling, while the two were thrown together on a vacation by her unsuspecting family. Despite an age difference of twenty-four years, and the fact that Ruttie was barely sixteen at the time, the two decided to get married.
Jinnah broached the topic with his friend by first discussing the question of interfaith and inter-community marriages, always a controversial topic in India. Here he was sure of drawing a favorable response from the baronet. Having drawn his friend out to make a general statement in support of mixed marriages, Jinnah then made his proposal to marry his friend's daughter. The baronet was shocked beyond words; he had never imagined anything other than a benign paternalistic relationship between his friend and his daughter. He reacted with violent indignation to the idea and almost ordered Jinnah out of his house. From the Petits' point of view, it was not just the question of religion, but also that of the age difference, especially given that Jinnah was 40, that appalled them.
"She was, after all, not yet sixteen, an age when modern parents of the new century did not expect their daughters to rush into marriage, although in more conventional homes girls were either betrothed or already married by that age. Sir Dinshaw’s only sister, Humabai, after having gone to a French boarding school in Nice for her baccalaureate, was still single at twenty-nine and not an eyebrow was raised."
Since Ruttie was underage, her father was able to prevent the marriage for the time being, and the matter brewed for more than a year with no resolution. Ruttie was the only daughter (she had three brothers) of her parents, and they always celebrated her birthday in grand style. Despite the tensions within the family, they could hardly give her coming-of-age birthday a miss, and a grand banquet was held on the occasion at the Taj Mahal Hotel in Mumbai. After the baronet had regaled his guests with a witty after-dinner speech, Ruttie stood up saying "Thank you, Papa..." and went on to drop a bombshell. She calmly informed the gathering that she had accepted a proposal of marriage from Jinnah, and that they would be married shortly; she asked the audience to wish them joy. She sat down to thundering silence, but despite the palpable outrage and opposition, a matter which had become so public could not be undone, and Ruttie could not be persuaded to change her mind. Even to the end, her parents could never reconcile themselves to the turn of events. Their objections were manifold: the difference of religion, the vast difference in age, the feeling of having been betrayed by a man they had always regarded as a friend. When the time came for Ruttie to abandon the Parsi community and be received into the Muslim community, she was disowned and thrown off by her family and had to leave her father's house forthwith. In 1918, only weeks after her 18th birthday, Ruttie nominally converted to Islam, married the 42-year-old Muhammad Ali Jinnah, in an Islamic wedding, and cut all ties with her family and the Parsi community. Ruttie did not practise her new faith, and in her letters to her friends years after her marriage she wrote that she did not have any religious creed, nor did she observe Islamic dress codes or dietary laws.
The Parsi community was outraged at not only Ruttie, but also her parents. After the marriage of Ratanji Dadabhoy Tata to the Frenchwoman Suzanne Brière, (who later converted to Zoroastrianism), many conservative Parsis were concerned of the rapid anglicization, indifference to religion, and materialistic lifestyle of the Parsi elite. Furthermore, most Parsi youth of Ruttie's age from wealthy families at the time were either indifferent to religion or full-blown atheists, and their parents did precious little to educate them religiously. After the marriage of Jinnah and Ruttie, it was the final straw and the conservative Parsis and mobeds called for all of their youth to be religiously re-educated. Regarding the Petit family, they were given two choices by the Parsi Panchayat. They could either be excommunicated along with their daughter, or remain within the community provided they publicly disinherit their daughter and sever all contact with her. Her family chose the latter, but Lady Dinshaw strove to be a part of her granddaughter's life, and was able to do so after Ruttie and Jinnah separated.
Marital problems
The Jinnahs resided mainly at South Court Mansion in Malabar Hill, a stone's throw from Petit Hall. However, there was no contact between them and the Petit family, and the estrangement continued even after the birth of Ruttie's only child, Dina Wadia, the following year. In addition to the estrangement from her own family, Ruttie was also ex-communicated from the Parsi Community with extraordinary measures and censure, and a complete ostracization from their social gatherings.
When Ruttie moved in with her pets, she came to what was essentially an empty house. At the very beginning of their marriage, Jinnah surrendered his home and his closet to her. She was allowed to completely furbish the house exactly the way she liked it. In regard to Jinnah's wardrobe, Jinnah knew she had an eye for fashionable clothes, and allowed her to not only buy and coordinate his suits but also style his hair. Undoubtedly, Jinnah benefited from this arrangement as it presented him politically as a fashionable, modern Muslim man. They also made frequent trips to Europe and spent considerable lengths of time there. They made for a head-turning couple, not just because they looked an unlikely mismatched pair, but also because Ruttie aspired to define the acme of fashion and money was absolutely no object. Her long hair would be decked in fresh flowers, she wore vibrant silks and chiffons, accentuated by headbands and tiaras lavish with diamonds, rubies and emeralds. Her main choice of dress was a sleeveless blouse with chiffon saris. Her daring wardrobe would not only shock the Muslim community, but also the British. Despite this, Jinnah doted on his childlike bride and indulged her every wish, and she was likewise content to be pampered by her beloved husband whom she called “J”. According to most sources, the couple could not have been happier in their first few years of marriage. Their only child, Dina Jinnah, was born prematurely on 15 August 1919. Dina was severely neglected by both her parents during the first 8 years of her life. Jinnah was preoccupied with politics, and Ruttie left their daughter to the care of nannies and servants. In fact, Dina was not given a name by either of her parents.
Jinnah's sister Fatima Jinnah, who had been a ward of Jinnah from age eight, since their father's death in 1901, was not amenable to the marriage either. In an attempt to make way for the new bride, Fatima was initially bundled off to another sister's home, but later had come to spending her Sundays at the Jinnah residence at South Court. The young Ruttie, already a mother at 19, found that she was no longer the sole recipient of Jinnah's attentions. It did not help that she and Fatima were of very different temperaments. Ruttie had even yelled at Fatima (considered dour, and very close in personal characteristics in her austerity and fastidiousness, to Jinnah) once, upon seeing her reading the Quran regularly, “the Quran is a book to be talked about, not to be read!” Jinnah enrolled Fatima in a Dental College in 1919. In 1923, he also helped Fatima Jinnah setup her own clinic in Bombay. Yet, this did little in bridging the gap that had developed between Jinnah and Ruttie.
By mid-1922, Jinnah was facing political isolation (almost reflecting Ruttie's own ex-communication from the Parsi Community), as he devoted every spare moment to be the voice of separatist incitement in a nation torn by Hindu-Muslim antipathy. His increasingly late hours and the ever-increasing distance between them left Ruttie feeling neglected. The marriage deteriorated rapidly within months after the birth of their child. Jinnah expected that after the birth of their child, Ruttie should stop behaving like a child herself and discharge the role of wife and mother in a more traditional mould. Her continuing irresponsibility, self-absorption and elfin childishness were no longer charming but had turned irksome to him. Ruttie demanded that her husband be in an incessant and continuous state of courtship, doting on her, pampering her and attending to her every need every moment of every day. While on the one hand neglecting her own child so much as to make that a topic of discussion across their circle in Bombay. The infatuation had worn out, and Jinnah found the demands made on him onerous and vexatious. The change was not something which Ruttie could understand or accept. Her complex relationship with her husband can be gleaned by reading some extracts of her last letter to him:
"...When one has been as near to the reality of Life (which after all is Death) as I have been, dearest, one only remembers the beautiful and tender moments and all the rest becomes a half veiled mist of unrealities. Try and remember me, beloved, as the flower you plucked and not the flower you tread upon..." and late in the letter, ".. Darling I love you – I love you – and had I loved you just a little less I might have remained with you – only after one has created a very beautiful blossom one does not drag it through the mire. The higher you set your ideal the lower it falls. I have loved you my darling as it is given to few men to be loved. I only beseech you that the tragedy which commenced in love should also end with it...".
Last days and death
After Ruttie and Jinnah separated, their daughter was able to meet Ruttie's mother. Lady Petit became very close to her granddaughter, and due their closeness Dina chose to take her maternal grandmother's first name.
Ruttie Jinnah developed intestinal ailments with cancer speculated to be the cause. She also suffered from depression, which was not well understood at the time. In early 1928, she moved into a suite at Bombay's Taj Mahal Hotel, leaving Jinnah home with eight-year-old Dina. That spring, while visiting Paris with her mother, Ruttie fell into an unexplained coma and almost died. Two months later, on 19 February 1929, Ruttie fell unconscious in her room at the Taj Hotel in Mumbai. She died the next day, her 29th birthday.
There is no official medical record stating the cause of her death, so there are many speculations that range from cancer to colitis. Many years after her death her very close friend and confidant, Kanji Dwarkadas, told Syed Shahabuddin in 1968 that Ruttie committed suicide by deliberately overdosing on sleeping medication. She chose to die on her birthday. Jinnah was in Delhi at the time, so he didn't find out about his wife’s death until his father-in-law called him from Bombay to inform him that Ruttie had passed away.
Years after the death of his wife, Jinnah confided to a friend, "she was a child, I shouldn’t have married her. It was my mistake". Further, in an irony of sorts, his own stance on inter-faith and inter-community marriages was challenged when his daughter Dina decided to marry the Parsi Christian industrialist Neville Wadia. In almost exactly the same way Sir Dinshaw Petit and Ruttie clashed, Jinnah too clashed with Dina over her desire to marry outside the Muslim community. Mahommed Ali karim Chagla, who was Jinnah's assistant at the time, writes in his autobiography Roses in December: "Jinnah asked Dina ‘there are millions of Muslim boys in India, is he the only one you were waiting for?’ and Dina replied ‘there were millions of Muslim girls in India, why did you marry my mother then?’" His response to her was, "She became a Muslim."
Muhammed Ali Jinnah is seen as a very private person who hardly showed his emotions, but he is known to have wept twice in public, and both occasions were connected to Ruttie. One of the occasions was Ruttie's funeral in 1929, and the other was in August 1947, when he visited her grave one last time before leaving for Pakistan. Jinnah left India in August 1947, never to return again.
After Ruttie's death and Dina's marriage, it appeared that Jinnah missed them a great deal. G. Allana wrote a biography of Jinnah entitled "Quaid-i-Azam Jinnah: The Story of a Nation," and he relates an anecdote made known to him by Jinnah's chauffeur. He quoted the chauffeur thus:
"You know servants in household come to know everything that is going around them. Sometimes more than twelve years after Begum Jinnah's (Mrs. Jinnah) death, the boss would order at dead of night a huge ancient wooden chest to be opened, in which were stored clothes of his dead wife and his married daughter. He would intently look into those clothes, as they were taken out of box and were spread on the carpets. He would gaze at them for long with eloquent silence. Then his eyes turn moisten..."
References
Bibliography
Chagla, M. C. (1961), Individual and the State, Asia Publishing House.
Reddy, Sheela (2017), Mr and Mrs Jinnah: The Marriage that Shook India, Penguin India.
Wolpert, Stanley (1984), Jinnah of Pakistan, Oxford University Press.
Rattanbai
Indian agnostics
1900 births
1929 deaths
Daughters of baronets
Parsi people
Burials in India
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228464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Athletics at the 1900 Summer Olympics | At the 1900 Summer Olympics, twenty-three athletics events were contested. Altogether, 117 athletes from 15 nations competed. A total of 68 medals (23 gold, 23 silver, 22 bronze) were awarded. In many countries, due in part to the conflation of the Olympic Games and the World's Fair in Paris, the media discussed only the athletics events under the "Olympic" name while ignoring the incredible variety of other sports featured at the time.
The 23 events listed are those currently considered to have been of Olympic stature by the International Olympic Committee and most Olympic historians. They exclude all events that used a handicap system, as well as all events which were open to professional athletes. The IOC has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not.
Competitions were held on 14 July, 15 July, 16 July, 19 July, and 22 July. This included Bastille Day, which is a French holiday, and then Sunday, which many of the American athletes protested. Even with many Americans not competing in finals because of confusion caused by the organizers' decision to count scores achieved on Monday, 16 July for finals held on Sunday, 15 July and subsequent rescission of that decision, the United States won more than 4 times as many medals as any other nation, including 16 of the 23 gold medals.
The conditions of competition were also subpar compared even to those at the previous games in 1896. There was no track for the Paris Games, as a grass field dotted with trees and of unequal elevation was used. The course was 500 metres in length, an unusual distance for a track.
Medal summary
These medals are retroactively assigned by the International Olympic Committee; at the time, winners were given silver medals.
Daily summary
14 July
All rounds, including the finals, for the 100 metres and the 110 metre hurdles were held. The United States took 5 of the medals, missing only the bronze medal in the 100 metres won by Stan Rowley of Australia. Frank Jarvis won the 100 metres, with Alvin Kraenzlein taking the gold in the 110 metre hurdles.
In the 400 metre heats, the United States took 5 qualifying spots for the final while Denmark secured the last one. The 800 metres was more balanced, with 3 Americans and one athlete each from France, Great Britain, and Hungary.
The 400 metre hurdles semifinals eliminated only one athlete, with the other four advancing to the finals.
Defending discus and shot put champion Robert Garrett failed to make a mark in the qualification round of the discus throw, but did advance to the final in the shot put. Bohemia advanced a thrower in the discus, an event which saw 5 athletes from 5 different nations qualify.
Surprising few, Kraenzlein and Meyer Prinstein took the top two spots in the long jump qualification, moving to the final along with a third American, a Briton, and a Frenchman.
15 July
In a busy day for the athletics program, 10 finals were held along with the semifinals of the 60 metres (which was one of the events with a final that day). The United States took 7 of the championships, with Great Britain, Canada, and Hungary each picking up one.
Kraenzlein took the top spots in the 60 metres and the long jump, the latter victory allegedly earning him a punch in the face from Prinstein, who had not competed because the final was held on a Sunday. This brought Kraenzlein's total to 3 gold medals, better than any athlete had done four years earlier. Irving Baxter also took gold in two events, the high jump and the pole vault.
Denmark won its first athletics medal, with a bronze in the 400 metres. Charles Bennett's gold in the 1500 metres gave Britain its first gold in the sport. Canada's George Orton took two medals, a gold and a bronze, for the debut nation. Hungary won its first gold with the discus throw, adding a bronze in the high jump. Bohemia, another nation making its debut, took the silver medal in the discus.
The steeplechase made its Olympic debut, with the 2500 metre version won by Orton.
16 July
Eight more finals were held on Monday the 16th. Kraenzlein picked up a fourth victory with the 200 metre hurdles, winning both his semifinal and the final to set a long-lived Olympic record for athletic gold medals in individual events. Ray Ewry won all three of the standing jumps, each of which made its Olympic debut in 1900. Great Britain picked up another pair of gold medals with the 800 metres and the 4000 metre steeplechase. Prinstein got his long-awaited victory in the triple jump, while John Flanagan's hammer throw earned the United States its 6th championship of the day.
India's debut Games reached a high point with Norman Pritchard's silver medal in the 200 metre hurdles.
19 July
The marathon was the only event held on the 19th. Michel Théato of Luxembourg won the gold medal, giving that nation a perfect 1:1 ratio of championships to entries. Sweden earned its first athletics medal with the bronze in the marathon.
22 July
The two remaining events were held on Sunday the 22nd. The semifinals of the 200 metres and the finals of that event and the 5000 metre team race were held.
Pritchard won his second silver medal in the 200 metres, while Rowley won his third bronze in the same event. The race was won by Walter Tewksbury, bringing his total for the Games to 5 medals, including 2 gold medals.
The 5000 metre team race was won by the British team, assisted by Rowley of Australia. This makes Rowley the only athlete in Olympic history to win gold medals for multiple nations in the same Games; the establishment of National Olympic Committees ensures this accomplishment will remain unique. Also of note is that Rowley did not finish the race: it was far longer than the sprinter was accustomed to running, and after having been injured and reduced to walking, he retired after everyone else had crossed the finish line to accept last place.
Participating nations
Notes
References
International Olympic Committee.
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Athletics 1900". Accessed 18 March 2006. Available electronically at .
1900 Summer Olympics events
1900
International athletics competitions hosted by France
Athletics in Paris | [
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228467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities%20of%20the%20Netherlands | Municipalities of the Netherlands | As of January 2022, there are 345 municipalities () and three special municipalities () in the Netherlands. The latter is the status of three of the six island territories that make up the Dutch Caribbean. Municipalities are the second-level administrative division, or public bodies (), in the Netherlands and are subdivisions of their respective provinces. Their duties are delegated to them by the central government and they are ruled by a municipal council that is elected every four years. Municipal mergers have reduced the total number of municipalities by two-thirds since the first official boundaries were created in the mid 19th century. Municipalities themselves are informally subdivided into districts and neighbourhoods for administrative and statistical purposes.
These municipalities come in a wide range of sizes, Westervoort is the smallest with a land area of and Súdwest-Fryslân the largest with a land area of . Schiermonnikoog is both the least populated and the least densely populated municipality at . Amsterdam has the highest population with 872,757 residents, whereas The Hague is the most densely populated with a density of .
Municipal status
As a second level administrative division municipalities are the third tier of public administration in the Netherlands after the central government and the provinces. The Netherlands is a decentralized unitary state, which means that the central government is supreme and delegates certain tasks to lower levels of government by law. The different levels do, however, make work agreements, which give municipalities a certain degree of independence in their policy decisions. Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, waste management and social security. After the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010 three special municipalities (officially public bodies) were formed. These municipalities function the same as regular municipalities and are grouped together as the Caribbean Netherlands and are not part of a province.
The municipalities are governed by both a board of mayor and aldermen and a municipal council. The municipal council, which is titled island council in the special municipalities, is elected every four years. The number of members in the council ranges from nine members for the smallest municipalities to forty-five members for the largest. It is the highest administrative body in the municipality and controls public policy. The executive power lies with the executive board, which consists of a mayor, titled lieutenant governor in the special municipalities, and multiple aldermen, titled island deputies in the special municipalities. The mayor is appointed for six years at a time by the crown and the alderman are elected by the municipal council, typically after each municipal election. The mayor is responsible for public order and is the first in command during emergencies, all other tasks are distributed freely between mayor and aldermen. The exact portfolio for each person differs between each municipality.
Official municipal boundaries were first drawn up in 1832 in the Netherlands after a cadastre was formed. The Municipalities Act of 1851, written by prime minister Thorbecke, led to the disappearance of small municipalities. Throughout the years, less populous municipalities have been merged. They were either added to the larger neighbouring cities or multiple smaller municipalities merged into a larger new municipality with a new name. The number of municipalities reduced from 1,209 in 1850 to 537 in 2000; there are 352 municipalities. During this time, multiple mergers occurred simultaneously in large parts of individual provinces; the municipal boundaries were basically redrawn in these regions. In the 19th and large parts of the 20th century, municipal mergers were forced by the central government. This policy changed in the end of the 20th century; local support for the merger is now a large part of the decision-making process. The larger, merged municipalities are intended to handle an increasing workload because more public services are delegated from higher levels of government to the municipalities. Another reason for municipal mergers is the assumption that larger municipalities are more efficient in performing their tasks than smaller ones.
Municipalities have the right to decentralise themselves and form submunicipalities as an additional level of government. This right and the submunicipalities will cease to exist in the near future to reduce the number of levels of government. Only Amsterdam, where the districts are called , as well as Rotterdam, where the districts are called , consist of such formal subdivisions. The Hague, Almere, Breda, Eindhoven, Enschede, Groningen, Nijmegen, Tilburg and Utrecht have instituted as well, although they do not have the same legal submunicipal status. For administrative use by municipalities and data collection by Statistics Netherlands all municipalities are subdivided into districts (), which in turn are subdivided into neighbourhoods (). These subdivisions have, in contrast to the submunicipalities, no formal status.
Municipalities
Regular municipalities
Special municipalities
See also
Association of Netherlands Municipalities
Municipal politics in the Netherlands
List of cities, towns and villages in the Netherlands by province
List of municipal flags of the Netherlands
Notes
References
External links
List of municipalities on official Dutch government site
Municipalities
Netherlands 2
Municipalities, Netherlands
Netherlands
Municipalities | [
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228468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine%20knocking | Engine knocking | Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark ignition internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of some of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder does not result from propagation of the flame front ignited by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front. The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston's stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment for the four-stroke cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging" sound, and cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from inconsequential to completely destructive.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition—they are two separate events. However, pre-ignition can be followed by knocking.
The phenomenon of detonation was described in November 1914 in a letter from Lodge Brothers (spark plug manufacturers, and sons of Sir Oliver Lodge) settling a discussion regarding the cause of "Knocking" or "Pinging" in motorcycles. In the letter they stated that an early ignition can give rise to the gas detonating instead of the usual expansion, and the sound that is produced by the detonation is the same as if the metal parts had been tapped with a hammer. It was further investigated and described by Harry Ricardo during experiments carried out between 1916 and 1919 to discover the reason for failures in aircraft engines.
Normal combustion
Under ideal conditions the common internal combustion engine burns the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder in an orderly and controlled fashion. The combustion is started by the spark plug some 10 to 40 crankshaft degrees prior to top dead center (TDC), depending on many factors including engine speed and load. This ignition advance allows time for the combustion process to develop peak pressure at the ideal time for maximum recovery of work from the expanding gases.
The spark across the spark plug's electrodes forms a small kernel of flame approximately the size of the spark plug gap. As it grows in size, its heat output increases, which allows it to grow at an accelerating rate, expanding rapidly through the combustion chamber. This growth is due to the travel of the flame front through the combustible fuel-air mix itself, and due to Rayleigh-Taylor instability (resulting from the hot, low-density combustion gasses expanding into the relatively cold and dense unburnt fuel-air mix) which rapidly stretches the burning zone into a complex of fingers of burning gas that have a much greater surface area than a simple spherical ball of flame would have (this latter process is enhanced and accelerated by any pre-existing turbulence in the fuel-air mixture). In normal combustion, this flame front moves throughout the fuel/air mixture at a rate characteristic for the particular mixture. Pressure rises smoothly to a peak, as nearly all the available fuel is consumed, then pressure falls as the piston descends. Maximum cylinder pressure is achieved a few crankshaft degrees after the piston passes TDC, so that the force applied on the piston (from the increasing pressure applied to the top surface of the piston) can give its hardest push precisely when the piston's speed and mechanical advantage on the crank shaft gives the best recovery of force from the expanding gases, thus maximizing torque transferred to the crankshaft.
Abnormal combustion
When unburned fuel/air mixture beyond the boundary of the flame front is subjected to a combination of heat and pressure for a certain duration (beyond the delay period of the fuel used), detonation may occur. Detonation is characterized by an almost instantaneous, explosive ignition of at least one pocket of fuel/air mixture outside of the flame front. A local shockwave is created around each pocket, and the cylinder pressure will rise sharply – and possibly beyond its design limits – causing damage. (Detonation is actually more efficient than deflagration, but is usually avoided due to its damaging effects on engine components.)
If detonation is allowed to persist under extreme conditions or over many engine cycles, engine parts can be damaged or destroyed. The simplest deleterious effects are typically particle wear caused by moderate knocking, which may further ensue through the engine's oil system and cause wear on other parts before being trapped by the oil filter. Such wear gives the appearance of erosion, abrasion, or a "sandblasted" look, similar to the damage caused by hydraulic cavitation. Severe knocking can lead to catastrophic failure in the form of physical holes melted and pushed through the piston or cylinder head (i.e., rupture of the combustion chamber), either of which depressurizes the affected cylinder and introduces large metal fragments, fuel, and combustion products into the oil system. Hypereutectic pistons are known to break easily from such shock waves.
Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:
retarding ignition timing
the use of a fuel with high octane rating, which increases the combustion temperature of the fuel and reduces the proclivity to detonate
enriching the air–fuel ratio which alters the chemical reactions during combustion, reduces the combustion temperature and increases the margin to detonation
reducing peak cylinder pressure
decreasing the manifold pressure by reducing the throttle opening or boost pressure
reducing the load on the engine
Because pressure and temperature are strongly linked, knock can also be attenuated by controlling peak combustion chamber temperatures by compression ratio reduction, exhaust gas recirculation, appropriate calibration of the engine's ignition timing schedule, and careful design of the engine's combustion chambers and cooling system as well as controlling the initial air intake temperature.
The addition of certain materials such as lead and thallium will suppress detonation extremely well when certain fuels are used. The addition of tetraethyl lead (TEL), a soluble organolead compound added to gasoline, was common until it was discontinued for reasons of toxic pollution. Lead dust added to the intake charge will also reduce knock with various hydrocarbon fuels. Manganese compounds are also used to reduce knock with petrol fuel.
Knock is less common in cold climates. As an aftermarket solution, a water injection system can be employed to reduce combustion chamber peak temperatures and thus suppress detonation. Steam (water vapor) will suppress knock even though no added cooling is supplied.
Certain chemical changes must first occur for knock to happen, hence fuels with certain structures tend to knock more easily than others. Branched chain paraffins tend to resist knock while straight chain paraffins knock easily. It has been theorized that lead, steam, and the like interfere with some of the various oxidative changes that occur during combustion and hence reduce knock.
Turbulence, as stated, has a very important effect on knock. Engines with good turbulence tend to knock less than engines with poor turbulence. Turbulence occurs not only while the engine is inhaling but also when the mixture is compressed and burned. Many pistons are designed to use "squish" turbulence to violently mix the air and fuel together as they are ignited and burned, which reduces knock greatly by speeding up burning and cooling the unburnt mixture. One example of this is all modern side valve or flathead engines. A considerable portion of the head space is made to come in close proximity to the piston crown, making for much turbulence near TDC. In the early days of side valve heads this was not done and a much lower compression ratio had to be used for any given fuel. Also such engines were sensitive to ignition advance and had less power.
Knocking is more or less unavoidable in diesel engines, where fuel is injected into highly compressed air towards the end of the compression stroke. There is a short lag between the fuel being injected and combustion starting. By this time there is already a quantity of fuel in the combustion chamber which will ignite first in areas of greater oxygen density prior to the combustion of the complete charge. This sudden increase in pressure and temperature causes the distinctive diesel 'knock' or 'clatter', some of which must be allowed for in the engine design.
Careful design of the injector pump, fuel injector, combustion chamber, piston crown and cylinder head can reduce knocking greatly, and modern engines using electronic common rail injection have very low levels of knock. Engines using indirect injection generally have lower levels of knock than direct injection engines, due to the greater dispersal of oxygen in the combustion chamber and lower injection pressures providing a more complete mixing of fuel and air. Diesels actually do not suffer exactly the same "knock" as gasoline engines since the cause is known to be only the very fast rate of pressure rise, not unstable combustion. Diesel fuels are actually very prone to knock in gasoline engines but in the diesel engine there is no time for knock to occur because the fuel is only oxidized during the expansion cycle. In the gasoline engine the fuel is slowly oxidizing all the time while it is being compressed before the spark. This allows for changes to occur in the structure/makeup of the molecules before the very critical period of high temperature/pressure.
Knock detection
Due to the large variation in fuel quality, atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature as well as the possibility of a malfunction, every modern combustion engine contains mechanisms to detect and prevent knocking.
A control loop is permanently monitoring the signal of one or more knock Sensors (commonly piezoelectric sensor which are able to translate vibrations into an electric signal). If the characteristic pressure peak of a knocking combustion is detected the ignition timing is retarded by steps of a few degrees. If the signal normalizes indicating a controlled combustion the ignition timing is advanced again in the same fashion keeping the engine at its best possible operating point the so-called ″knock limit″. Modern knock control loop systems are able to adjust ignition timings for every cylinder individually. Depending on the specific engine the boost pressure is regulated simultaneously. This way performance is kept at its optimum while mostly eliminating the risk of engine damage caused by knock e.g. when running on low octane fuel.
An early example of this is in turbocharged Saab H engines, where a system called Automatic Performance Control was used to reduce boost pressure if it caused the engine to knock.
Knock prediction
Since the avoidance of knocking combustion is so important to development engineers, a variety of simulation technologies have been developed which can identify engine design or operating conditions in which knock might be expected to occur. This then enables engineers to design ways to mitigate knocking combustion whilst maintaining a high thermal efficiency.
Since the onset of knock is sensitive to the in-cylinder pressure, temperature and autoignition chemistry associated with the local mixture compositions within the combustion chamber, simulations which account for all of these aspects have thus proven most effective in determining knock operating limits and enabling engineers to determine the most appropriate operating strategy.
Knock control
The objective of knock control strategies is to attempt to optimize the trade-off between protecting the engine from damaging knock events and maximizing the engine's output torque. Knock events are an independent random process. It is impossible to design knock controllers in a deterministic platform. A single time history simulation or experiment of knock control methods are not able to provide a repeatable measurement of controller's performance because of the random nature of arriving knock events. Therefore, the desired trade-off must be done in a stochastic framework which could provide a suitable environment for designing and evaluating different knock control strategies performances with rigorous statistical properties.
References
Further reading
Predictive combustion simulations for “downsized” direct injection spark-ignition engines: solutions for pre-ignition (“mega-knock”), misfire, extinction, flame propagation and conventional “knock”, cmcl innovations, accessed June 2010.
Engine Basics: Detonation and Pre-Ignition, Allen W. Cline, accessed June 2007.
External links
NACA - Combustion and knock in a spark-ignition engine
NACA - Ionization in the knock zone of an internal combustion engine
NACA - Interdependence of various types of autoignition and knock
Engine fuel system technology
Engine problems
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228473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20International%20Organization%20for%20Standardization%20standards | List of International Organization for Standardization standards | This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue.
The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC1) have been made freely and publicly available.
ISO 1 – ISO 19999
ISO 1 – ISO 4999
ISO 5000 – ISO 7999
ISO 8000 – ISO 8999
ISO 9000 – ISO 9999
ISO 10000 – ISO 10999
ISO 11000 – ISO 11999
ISO 12000 – ISO 12999
ISO 13000 – ISO 13999
ISO 14000 – ISO 14999
ISO 15000 – ISO 15999
ISO 16000 – ISO 17999
ISO 18000 – ISO 19999
ISO 20000 – ISO 29999
ISO 20000 – ISO 21999
ISO 22000 – ISO 23999
ISO 24000 – ISO 25999
ISO 26000 – ISO 27999
ISO 28000 – ISO 29999
ISO 30000 – ISO 39999
ISO 30000 – ISO 31999
ISO 32000 – ISO 39999
ISO 40000 – ISO 49999
ISO/IEC 40180:2017 Information technology – Quality for learning, education and training – Fundamentals and reference framework
ISO/IEC 40210:2011 Information technology – W3C SOAP Version 1.2 Part 1: Messaging Framework (Second Edition)
ISO/IEC 40220:2011 Information technology – W3C SOAP Version 1.2 Part 2: Adjuncts (Second Edition)
ISO/IEC 40230:2011 Information technology – W3C SOAP Message Transmission Optimization Mechanism
ISO/IEC 40240:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Addressing 1.0 – Core
ISO/IEC 40250:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Addressing 1.0 – SOAP Binding
ISO/IEC 40260:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Addressing 1.0 – Metadata
ISO/IEC 40270:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Policy 1.5 – Framework
ISO/IEC 40280:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Policy 1.5 – Attachment
ISO/IEC 40314:2016 Information technology – Mathematical Markup Language (MathML) Version 3.0 2nd Edition
ISO/IEC 40500:2012 Information technology – W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0
ISO 41011:2017 Facility management – Vocabulary
ISO 41012:2017 Facility management – Guidance on strategic sourcing and the development of agreements
ISO/TR 41013:2017 Facility management – Scope, key concepts and benefits
ISO/IEC 42010:2011 Systems and software engineering – Architecture description
ISO 42500:2021 Sharing economy - General principles
ISO 44001:2017 Collaborative business relationship management systems — Requirements and framework
ISO 45001 Occupational health and safety management systems – Requirements with guidance for use
ISO 46001:2019 Water efficiency management systems - -Requirements with guidance for use
ISO 50000 – ISO 59999
ISO 50001:2018 Energy management systems – Requirements with guidance for use
ISO 50002:2014 Energy audits – Requirements with guidance for use
ISO 50003:2014 Energy management systems – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of energy management systems
ISO 50004:2014 Energy management systems – Guidance for the implementation, maintenance and improvement of an energy management system
ISO 50006:2014 Energy management systems – Measuring energy performance using energy baselines (EnB) and energy performance indicators (EnPI) – General principles and guidance
ISO 50007:2017 Energy services – Guidelines for assessment and improvement of the energy service to users
ISO 50015:2014 Energy management systems – Measurement and verification of energy performance of organizations—General principles and guidance
ISO/TS 50044:2019 Energy saving projects (EnSPs) – Guideline for economic and financial evaluation
ISO 50046:2019 General methods for predicting energy savings
ISO 50047:2016 Energy savings – Determination of energy savings in organizations
ISO/ASTM 51026:2015 Practice for using the Fricke dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51205:2017 Practice for use of a ceric-cerous sulfate dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51261:2013 Practice for calibration of routine dosimetry systems for radiation processing
ISO/ASTM 51275:2013 Practice for use of a radiochromic film dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51276:2012 Practice for use of a polymethylmethacrylate dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51310:2004 Practice for use of a radiochromic optical waveguide dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51401:2013 Practice for use of a dichromate dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51431:2005 Practice for dosimetry in electron beam and X-ray (bremsstrahlung) irradiation facilities for food processing
ISO/ASTM 51538:2009 Practice for use of the ethanol-chlorobenzene dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51539:2013 Guide for use of radiation-sensitive indicators
ISO/ASTM 51540:2004 Practice for use of a radiochromic liquid dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51607:2013 Practice for use of the alanine-EPR dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51608:2015 Practice for dosimetry in an X-ray (bremsstrahlung) facility for radiation processing at energies between 50 keV and 7.5 MeV
ISO/ASTM 51631:2013 Practice for use of calorimetric dosimetry systems for electron beam dose measurements and dosimetery system calibrations
ISO/ASTM 51649:2015 Practice for dosimetry in an electron beam facility for radiation processing at energies between 300 keV and 25 MeV
ISO/ASTM 51650:2013 Practice for use of a cellulose triacetate dosimetry system
ISO/ASTM 51702:2013 Practice for dosimetry in a gamma facility for radiation processing
ISO/ASTM 51707:2015 Guide for estimation of measurement uncertainty in dosimetry for radiation processing
ISO/ASTM 51818:2013 Practice for dosimetry in an electron beam facility for radiation processing at energies between 80 and 300 keV
ISO/ASTM 51900:2009 Guide for dosimetry in radiation research on food and agricultural products
ISO/ASTM 51939:2017 Practice for blood irradiation dosimetry
ISO/ASTM 51940:2013 Guide for dosimetry for sterile insects release programs
ISO/ASTM 51956:2013 Practice for use of a thermoluminescence-dosimetry system (TLD system) for radiation processing
ISO/ASTM 52116:2013 Practice for dosimetry for a self-contained dry-storage gamma irradiator
ISO/ASTM 52303:2015 Guide for absorbed-dose mapping in radiation processing facilities
ISO/ASTM 52628:2013 Standard practice for dosimetry in radiation processing
ISO/ASTM 52701:2013 Guide for performance characterization of dosimeters and dosimetry systems for use in radiation processing
ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 Additive manufacturing – General principles – Terminology
ISO/ASTM 52915:2016 Specification for additive manufacturing file format (AMF) Version 1.2
ISO 55000:2014 Asset management – Overview, principles and terminology
ISO 55001:2014 Asset management – Management systems – Requirements
ISO 55002:2014 Asset management – Management systems – Guidelines for the application of ISO 55001
ISO 56000:2020 Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary
ISO 56002:2019 Innovation management — Innovation management system — Guidance
ISO 56003:2019 Innovation management - Tools and methods for innovation partnership - Guidance
ISO/TR 56004:2019 Innovation Management Assessment — Guidance
ISO 56005:2020 Innovation management — Tools and methods for intellectual property management — Guidance
ISO 60000 – ISO 69999
The 60000 series is reserved for IEC-lead standards.
ISO/IEC 60559:2020 Information technology — Microprocessor Systems — Floating-Point arithmetic
ISO 80000 – ISO 89999
The 80000 series is reserved for multi-part standards jointly developed by ISO and IEC, in which some parts are published by ISO and others by IEC.
ISO/IEC 80000 Quantities and units
ISO/IEC 80001 Application of risk management for IT-networks incorporating medical devices
IEC 80001-1:2010 Part 1: Roles, responsibilities and activities
IEC/TR 80001-2-1:2012 Part 2-1: Step by Step Risk Management of Medical IT-Networks; Practical Applications and Examples
IEC/TR 80001-2-2:2012 Part 2-2: Guidance for the communication of medical device security needs, risks and controls
IEC/TR 80001-2-3:2012 Part 2-3: Guidance for wireless networks
IEC/TR 80001-2-4:2012 Part 2-4: General implementation guidance for Healthcare Delivery Organizations
IEC/TR 80001-2-5:2014 Part 2-5: Application guidance – Guidance for distributed alarm systems
ISO/TR 80001-2-6:2014 Part 2-6: Application guidance – Guidance for responsibility agreements
ISO/TR 80001-2-7:2015 Part 2-7: Guidance for healthcare delivery organizations (HDOs) on how to self-assess their conformance with IEC 80001-1
IEC/TR 80001-2-8:2016 Part 2-8: Application guidance – Guidance on standards for establishing the security capabilities identified in IEC 80001-2-2
IEC/TR 80001-2-9:2017 Part 2-9: Application guidance – Guidance for use of security assurance cases to demonstrate confidence in IEC/TR 80001-2-2 security capabilities
IEC/TR 80002 Medical device software
IEC/TR 80002-1:2009 Part 1: Guidance on the application of ISO 14971 to medical device software
ISO/TR 80002-2:2017 Part 2: Validation of software for medical device quality systems
IEC/TR 80002-3:2014 Part 3: Process reference model of medical device software life cycle processes (IEC 62304)
ISO/TS 80004 Nanotechnologies – Vocabulary
ISO/IEC 80079 Explosive atmospheres
ISO/IEC 80079-20-1:2017 Part 20-1: Material characteristics for gas and vapour classification — Test methods and data
ISO/IEC 80079-20-2:2016 Part 20-2: Material characteristics — Combustible dusts test methods
ISO/IEC 80079-34:2018 Part 34: Application of quality management systems for Ex Product manufacture
ISO 80079-36:2016 Part 36: Non-electrical equipment for explosive atmospheres — Basic method and requirements
ISO 80079-37:2016 Part 37: Non-electrical equipment for explosive atmospheres — Non-electrical type of protection constructional safety ''c'', control of ignition sources ''b'', liquid immersion ''k''
ISO/IEC 80079-38:2016 Part 38: Equipment and components in explosive atmospheres in underground mines
ISO/IEC 80369 Small-bore connectors for liquids and gases in healthcare applications
ISO 80369-1:2010 Part 1: General requirements
ISO 80369-3:2016 Part 3: Connectors for enteral applications
IEC 80369-5:2016 Part 5: Connectors for limb cuff inflation applications
ISO 80369-6:2016 Part 6: Connectors for neuraxial applications
ISO 80369-7:2016 Part 7: Connectors for intravascular or hypodermic applications
ISO 80369-20:2015 Part 20: Common test methods
ISO/IEC 80416 Basic principles for graphical symbols for use on equipment
IEC 80416-1:2008 Part 1: Creation of graphical symbols for registration
ISO 80416-2:2001 Part 2: Form and use of arrows
IEC 80416-3:2002 Part 3: Guidelines for the application of graphical symbols
ISO 80416-4:2005 Part 4: Guidelines for the adaptation of graphical symbols for use on screens and displays (icons)
ISO/IEC 80601 Medical electrical equipment
ISO 80601-2-12:2011 Part 2-12: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of critical care ventilators
ISO 80601-2-13:2011 Part 2-13: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of an anaesthetic workstation
IEC 80601-2-30:2009 Part 2-30: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of automated non-invasive sphygmomanometers
ISO 80601-2-55:2011 Part 2-55: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of respiratory gas monitors
ISO 80601-2-56:2017 Part 2-56: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of clinical thermometers for body temperature measurement
IEC 80601-2-58:2014 Part 2-58: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of lens removal devices and vitrectomy devices for ophthalmic surgery
IEC 80601-2-59:2017 Part 2-59: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of screening thermographs for human febrile temperature screening
IEC 80601-2-60:2012 Part 2-60: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of dental equipment
ISO 80601-2-61:2017 Part 2-61: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of pulse oximeter equipment
ISO 80601-2-67:2014 Part 2-67: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of oxygen-conserving equipment
ISO 80601-2-69:2014 Part 2-69: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of oxygen concentrator equipment
ISO 80601-2-70:2015 Part 2-70: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of sleep apnoea breathing therapy equipment
IEC 80601-2-71:2015 Part 2-71: Particular requirements for the basic safety and essential performance of functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) equipment
ISO 80601-2-72:2015 Part 2-72: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of home healthcare environment ventilators for ventilator-dependent patients
ISO 80601-2-74:2017 Part 2-74: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of respiratory humidifying equipment
ISO 81060 Non-invasive sphygmomanometers
ISO 81060-1:2007 Part 1: Requirements and test methods for non-automated measurement type
ISO 81060-2:2018 Part 2: Clinical investigation of intermittent automated measurement type
ISO/IEC 81346 Industrial systems, installations and equipment and industrial products – Structuring principles and reference designations
IEC 81346-1:2009 Part 1: Basic rules
IEC 81346-2:2009 Part 2: Classification of objects and codes for classes
ISO/TS 81346-3:2012 Part 3: Application rules for a reference designation system
ISO/TS 81346-10:2015 Part 10: Power plants
ISO/IEC 81714 Design of graphical symbols for use in the technical documentation of products
ISO 81714-1:2010 Part 1: Basic rules
IEC 81714-2:2006 Part 2: Specification for graphical symbols in a computer sensible form, including graphical symbols for a reference library, and requirements for their interchange
IEC 81714-3:2004 Part 3: Classification of connect nodes, networks and their encoding
ISO 90000 – ISO 99999
ISO/IEC/IEEE 90003:2018 Software engineering — Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001:2015 to computer software
ISO/IEC TR 90005:2008 Systems engineering — Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001 to system life cycle processes [Withdrawn without replacement]
ISO/IEC TR 90006:2013 Information technology — Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001:2008 to IT service management and its integration with ISO/IEC 20000-1:2011 [Withdrawn without replacement]
See also
International Classification for Standards
List of DIN standards
List of EN standards
List of IEC standards
List of ISO Technical Committees
Notes
References
External links
International Organization for Standardization
International Organization for Standardization | [
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228482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket%20at%20the%201900%20Summer%20Olympics | Cricket at the 1900 Summer Olympics | A cricket tournament, played as part of the 1900 Summer Olympics, took place on 19–20 August at the Vélodrome de Vincennes. The only match of the tournament was played between teams representing Great Britain and France and was won by 158 runs by Great Britain. The team for the French club included at least 11 British nationals, two of whom were born in France, and it is considered a mixed team.
Originally, teams representing Belgium, France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands were scheduled to compete in a knockout tournament.
After Belgium and the Netherlands withdrew, this left Great Britain to play France in a one-off match. Neither team was nationally selected: the British side was a touring club, the Devon and Somerset Wanderers (alias Devon County Wanderers), while the French team, the French Athletic Club Union, comprised mainly British expatriates living in Paris.
The two-day game commenced on 19 August 1900. Great Britain batted first and scored 117, and bowled France out for 78. Great Britain then scored 145 for 5 in their second innings and declared, setting the hosts a target of 185 to win. The tourists bowled out France for 26 to win the match by 158 runs, a significant margin, but with only five minutes of the match remaining. The Great Britain team was awarded silver medals and the French team bronze medals, together with miniature statues of the Eiffel Tower.
This was the only Olympiad where cricket was part of the official programme. All events which were restricted to amateurs, open to all nations, open to all competitors, and without handicapping, are now regarded as Olympic events (except for ballooning). The IOC has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not.
Background
Cricket had been scheduled as an event at the first modern Olympics, the 1896 Summer Olympics, being listed in the original programme for the Athens Games, but due to insufficient entries, the event was cancelled.
Four years later, at the Paris Games, there was also a shortage of entries: Belgium and the Netherlands withdrew from the cricket tournament.
Their withdrawal left only Great Britain and the host nation, France, to participate.
The slightly haphazard nature of the cricket tournament was mirrored throughout the rest of the 1900 Olympics: events took place throughout a six-month period from May through until October, and like the Games themselves, were often considered part of the Exposition Universelle, a world's fair held in Paris from 15 April until 12 November 1900.
Team selection
Neither side was nationally selected, nor representative. Great Britain, or England as they were called in the advertising handbills, were represented by a touring club side, the Devon and Somerset Wanderers. The side, formed by William Donne in 1894 for a tour of the Isle of Wight, had completed five other tours before travelling to France. The Wanderers were primarily formed from players of Castle Cary Cricket Club, five of whom played in the match, and also included four former pupils of Blundell's School, a public school in Devon. The side was completed by a number of players from the surrounding areas who were able to get away from business and personal commitments for the two-week period of the tour. Writing in the Journal of Olympic History, Ian Buchanan describes that both sides "were made up of distinctly average club cricketers". Only two members of the Wanderers side, and none of the French side, played first-class cricket. Montagu Toller played six times for Somerset County Cricket Club, all in 1897, while Alfred Bowerman played for Somerset once in 1900, and again in 1905.
The French side was officially drawn from all the member clubs of the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques. Few of these clubs actually sported cricket teams, and so the eventual side was selected from just two clubs: the Union Club and the Standard Athletic Club. Both sides had strong English influences, and the majority of the team that competed for France in the Olympic match were British expatriates. The Standard Athletic Club had been formed ten years earlier by English workers who had moved to the country to help build the Eiffel Tower.
Match
Summary
The match had been intended to be a standard eleven-a-side contest, but by mutual agreement from the captains this was increased to twelve-a-side, a move which the scorecard printers had not expected: extra name had to be added by hand.
Play commenced at 11:00AM on Sunday, 19 August, with the touring Wanderers batting first. They were bowled out for 117, with only four members of the team reaching double figures. Frederick Cuming, one of the four Old Blundellians, top-scored for the side with 38, followed by their captain, and Exeter Cricket Club opening batsman, C. B. K. Beachcroft with 23. The French were then bowled out for 78, the bowling led by Frederick Christian who claimed seven wickets. Play closed at 5:00PM after both sides had completed their first innings, and the Wanderers had a lead of 39 runs. The Wanderers batting improved the following morning, and they added 145 runs for the second innings, declaring their innings closed with five wickets down. Beachcroft was again successful, reaching a half-century, a feat also achieved by Bowerman, who top-scored with 59 runs.
The French required 185 runs to win, but lost their first ten wickets for eleven runs. At this point they attempted to play out time, which would have meant the match was drawn. The match was just five minutes from the end when their eleventh, and final, wicket fell, granting the Wanderers a 158-run victory.
Toller was the pick of the Wanderers bowlers in the second innings, claiming seven wickets and conceding nine runs.
After the match, the English side were awarded silver medals, and the French side were given bronze medals, and both teams were also given miniature statues of the Eiffel Tower. The match was not covered in any national newspapers in England or France, although some of the local Devon and West Country newspapers did publish reports.
Scorecard
Scorecard notes
a. The published totals in both teams' first innings are two more than the totals of the batsmen's runs and the extras.
b. Bowling details for overs, maidens and runs conceded are unavailable with the exception of runs conceded in France's second innings, where some information has been recorded.
Aftermath
The Devon and Somerset Wanderers played two further matches during their tour of France, both one-day contests, and won them both. They were not impressed by the French, whom a journalist at the time described as "too excitable to enjoy the game".
Neither of the teams realised that they had competed in the Olympic Games, as the match had been advertised as part of the world's fair. Although the IOC has never decided which events were "Olympic" and which were not, the medals won by the teams were later upgraded to gold for Great Britain and silver for France.
A scheduled cricket competition at the 1904 Summer Olympics, held in St. Louis, was cancelled at short notice due to a lack of entries and facilities: the sport has not been included in the Olympic Games since.
As the match was 12-a-side, and scheduled for only two days, it does not have first-class status; despite this, it was the also only international cricket match played that year.
Medalists
See also
List of Olympic venues in discontinued events
Notes and references
References
Notes
External links
www.icc-cricket.com
Marylebone Cricket Club
Discontinued sports at the Summer Olympics | [
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228484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos%20magic | Chaos magic | Chaos magic, also spelled chaos magick, is a contemporary magical practice. It was initially developed in England in the 1970s, drawing heavily from the philosophy of artist and occultist Austin Osman Spare. Sometimes referred to as "success magic" or "results-based magic", chaos magic claims to emphasize the attainment of specific results over the symbolic, ritualistic, theological or otherwise ornamental aspects of other occult traditions.
Chaos magic has been described as a union of traditional occult techniques and applied postmodernism – particularly a postmodernist skepticism concerning the existence or knowability of objective truth. Chaos magicians subsequently treat belief as a tool, often creating their own idiosyncratic magical systems and frequently borrowing from other magical traditions, religious movements, popular culture and various strands of philosophy.
Early leading figures include Peter J. Carroll and Ray Sherwin.
Concept and terminology
Chaos magic rejects the existence of absolute truth, and views all occult systems as arbitrary symbol-systems that are only effective because of the belief of the practitioner. Chaos magic thus takes an explicitly agnostic position on whether or not magic exists as a supernatural force, with many chaos magicians expressing their acceptance of a psychological model as one possible explanation.
The word chaos was first used in connection with magic by Peter J. Carroll in Liber Null (1978), where it is described as "the 'thing' responsible for the origin and continued action of events." Carroll goes on to say that "It could as well be called 'God' or 'Tao', but the name 'Chaos' is virtually meaningless and free from the anthropomorphic ideas of religion."
Beliefs and general principles
Results-based magic
Magical traditions like Wicca, Qabalah or the Golden Dawn system combine techniques for bringing about change with "beliefs, attitudes, a conceptual model of the universe (if not several), a moral ethic, and a few other things besides." Chaos magic grew out of the desire to strip away all of these extraneous elements, leaving behind only the techniques for effecting change; hence the emphasis is on actually doing things – i.e., experimenting with different techniques, rather than memorizing complex rules, symbols and correspondences – and then retaining those techniques that appear to produce results.
This "pick'n'mix/D.I.Y" approach means that the working practices of different chaos magicians often look drastically different, with many authors explicitly encouraging readers to invent their own magical style.
Belief as a tool
The central defining tenet of chaos magic is arguably the "meta-belief" that "belief is a tool for achieving effects". In chaos magic, complex symbol systems like Qabalah, the Enochian system, astrology or the I Ching are treated as maps or "symbolic and linguistic constructs" that can be manipulated to achieve certain ends but that have no absolute or objective truth value in themselves – a position referred to by religious scholar Hugh Urban as a "rejection of all fixed models of reality", and often summarised with the phrase "nothing is true, everything is permitted".
Some commentators have traced this position to the influence of postmodernism on contemporary occultism. Another influence comes from the magical system of Austin Osman Spare, who believed that belief itself was a form of "psychic energy" that became locked up in rigid belief structures, and that could be released by breaking down those structures. This "free belief" could then be directed towards new aims.
Other writers have highlighted the influence of occultist Aleister Crowley, who wrote of the occult:
In this book it is spoken of the Sephiroth and the Paths; of Spirits and Conjurations; of Gods, Spheres, Planes, and many other things which may or may not exist. It is immaterial whether these exist or not. By doing certain things certain results will follow; students are most earnestly warned against attributing objective reality or philosophic validity to any of them.
Kia and Chaos
Within the magical system of Austin Osman Spare, magic was thought to operate by using symbols to communicate desire to something Spare termed "Kia" (a sort of universal mind, of which individual human consciousnesses are aspects) via the "passage" of the unconscious – hence
the need for complex systems of symbolism. Provided there was enough "free belief" to feed them, these desires would then grow, unconsciously, into "obsessions", which would culminate in magical results occurring in reality.
Peter J. Carroll inherited this model from Spare, but used the term "Kia" to refer to the consciousness of the individual: "the elusive 'I' which confers self-awareness". The more general universal force, of which Kia is an aspect, Carroll termed "Chaos". In his own words:
Chaos... is the force which has caused life to evolve itself out of dust, and is currently most concentratedly manifest in the human life force, or Kia, where it is the source of consciousness... To the extent that the Kia can become one with Chaos it can extend its will and perception into the universe to accomplish magic.
Later chaos magicians have stressed that this basic operating process can be explained in multiple ways, from within different paradigms. For example:
Within a spirit model, the job of a shaman is to communicate their intentions to their spirit helpers, who then work magic on their behalf.
Within an energy model, a magician might direct their own qi/ch'i towards specific aims.
Within a psychological model, a magician uses symbols to condition their unconscious to work towards their goals.
Within an information model, a magician transmits information to an underlying matrix or field in order to produce specific effects.
Practices
Chaos magic is built around an experimental, D.I.Y. approach which involves stripping all magical techniques down to their barest essence. Practices from any magical tradition can be incorporated under the banner of chaos magic, including Satanic ritual, Wiccan sabbats, energy healing, and Tantric practices. However, there are a few techniques that have been specifically developed by chaos magicians, and are unique to the tradition.
Gnostic state
Most chaos magic techniques involve something called the gnostic state, or gnosis. This is described as an altered state of consciousness in which a person's mind is focused on only one point, thought, or goal and all other thoughts are thrust out. The gnostic state is used to bypass the "filter" of the conscious mind – something thought to be necessary for working most forms of magic.
Since it is claimed to take many years of training to master this sort of meditative ability, chaos magicians employ a variety of other ways to attain a "brief 'no-mind' state" in which to work magic. Three main types of gnosis are described:
Inhibitory gnosis is a form of deep meditation into a trance state of mind. This type of gnosis uses slow and regular breathing techniques, absent thought processes, progressive muscle relaxation, self-induction and self-hypnosis techniques. Means employed may also include fasting, sleeplessness, sensory deprivation and hypnotic or trance-inducing drugs.
Ecstatic gnosis describes a mindlessness reached through intense arousal. It is aimed to be reached through sexual excitation, intense emotions, flagellation, dance, drumming, chanting, sensory overload, hyperventilation and the use of disinhibitory or hallucinogenic drugs.
Indifferent vacuity was described by Phil Hine and Jan Fries as a third method. Here the intended spell is cast parenthetically, so it does not raise much thought to suppress – "doodling sigils while listening to a talk which is boring, but you have to take notes on", for example.
Sigils
A sigil is a picture or glyph that represents a particular desire or intention. They are most commonly created by writing out the intention, then condensing the letters of the statement down to form a sort of monogram. The chaos magician then uses the gnostic state to "launch" or "charge" the sigil – essentially bypassing the conscious mind to implant the desire in the unconscious. To quote Ray Sherwin:
The magician acknowledges a desire, he lists the appropriate symbols and arranges them into an easily visualised glyph. Using any of the gnostic techniques he reifies the sigil and then, by force of will, hurls it into his subconscious from where the sigil can begin to work unencumbered by desire.
After charging the sigil, it is considered necessary to repress all memory of it: there should be "a deliberate striving to forget it", in Spare's words.
In the Medieval era, a sigil was a symbol associated with a particular angel or demon, which could be used to ritually summon the relevant being. Spare turned this practice on its head, arguing that such supernatural beings were simply complexes in the unconscious, and could be actively created through the process of sigilisation. In modern chaos magic, when a complex of thoughts, desires and intentions gains such a level of sophistication that it appears to operate autonomously from the magician's consciousness, as if it were an independent being, then such a complex is referred to as a servitor. When such a being becomes large enough that it exists independently of any one individual, as a form of "group mind", then it is referred to as an egregore.
Later chaos magicians have expanded on the basic sigilisation technique. Grant Morrison coined the term hypersigil to refer to an extended work of art with magical meaning and willpower, created using adapted processes of sigilization. Their comic book series The Invisibles was intended as such a hypersigil. Morrison has also argued that modern corporate logos like "the McDonald's Golden Arches, the Nike swoosh and the Virgin autograph" are a form of viral sigil:
Corporate sigils are super-breeders. They attack unbranded imaginative space. They invade Red Square, they infest the cranky streets of Tibet, they etch themselves into hairstyles. They breed across clothing, turning people into advertising hoardings... The logo or brand, like any sigil, is a condensation, a compressed, symbolic summoning up of the world of desire which the corporation intends to represent... Walt Disney died long ago but his sigil, that familiar, cartoonish signature, persists, carrying its own vast weight of meanings, associations, nostalgia and significance.
Gordon White developed the technique of shoaling, which involves launching a group of sigils for a set of related aims. For example, instead of sigilising for "money", sigilising for a pay rise, new business clients, a promotion, influential new contacts, budget reallocation for your department, etc. – all of which help "shift the probability" towards the overall aim. White also developed the technique of the robofish, which consists of including a sigil for something that the chaos magician knows will definitely happen, to "lead" the rest of the shoal.
Cut-up technique
The cut-up technique is an aleatory literary technique in which a written text is cut up and rearranged, often at random, to create a new text. The technique can also be applied to other media: film, photography, audio recordings, etc. It was pioneered by Brion Gysin and William S. Burroughs.
Burroughs – who practiced chaos magic, and was inducted into the chaos magic organisation The Illuminates of Thanateros in the early 1990s – was adamant that the technique had a magical function, stating "the cut ups are not for artistic purposes". Burroughs used his cut-ups for "political warfare, scientific research, personal therapy, magical divination, and conjuration" – the essential idea being that the cut-ups allowed the user to "break down the barriers that surround consciousness". Burroughs stated:
I would say that my most interesting experience with the earlier techniques was the realization that when you make cut-ups you do not get simply random juxtapositions of words, that they do mean something, and often that these meanings refer to some future event. I've made many cut-ups and then later recognized that the cut-up referred to something that I read later in a newspaper or a book, or something that happened... Perhaps events are pre-written and pre-recorded and when you cut word lines the future leaks out.
David Bowie compared the randomness of the cut-up technique to the randomness inherent in traditional divinatory systems, like the I Ching or Tarot.
Other chaos magicians have elaborated on the basic technique. Genesis P-Orridge, who studied under Burroughs, described it as a way to "identify and short circuit control, life being a stream of cut-ups on every level. They are a means to describe and reveal reality and the multi-faceted individual in which/from which reality is generated." Dave Lee suggested various magical ways to use the cut-up technique, such as cutting together two people to form a love spell.
Synchromysticism
Synchromysticism, a portmanteau of synchronicity and mysticism, is "the art of realising meaningful coincidences in the seemingly mundane with mystical or esoteric significance". It has also been described as "a form of postmodern animism" that "combines Jung's notion of meaningful coincidences with the quest for the divine, or self-actualization through experience of the divine."
From the beginning, the founders of chaos magic were clear that the "results" to be attained through their techniques consisted of synchronicities, with Carroll stating in Liber Null & Psychonaut:
All magical paradigms partake of some form of action at a distance, be it distance in space or time or both... In magic this is called synchronicity. A mental event, perception, or an act of will occurs at the same time (synchronously) as an event in the material world... Of course, this can always be excused as coincidence, but most magicians would be quite content with being able to arrange coincidences.
Essentially, chaos magic consists of a set of techniques for deliberately engineering synchronicities. As Carroll makes clear in later texts, magical "results" consist of "meaningful coincidences" or "a series of events going somewhat improbably in the desired direction."
Elsewhere, White speculates that this may be "the secret of kabbalistic apotheosis" – "hearing the language behind the words, connecting the things that aren't connected... a mystical framework for exploring and encouraging synchronicity."
History
Origins and influences (1974–1982)
Chaos magic was first developed in England in the mid-1970s, at a time when British occultism was dominated by Wicca and Thelema. Although both of these traditions incorporate magical elements, they are both religions, and as such contain devotional elements, liturgy and dogma. Chaos magic grew out of the desire of some occultists to strip away these extrinsic details and distill magic down to a set of tried-and-tested techniques for causing effects to occur in reality. An oft quoted line from Peter Carroll is "Magic will not free itself from occultism until we have strangled the last astrologer with the guts of the last spiritual master."
Peter J. Carroll and Ray Sherwin are considered to be the founders of chaos magic, although Phil Hine points out that there were others "lurking in the background, such as the Stoke Newington Sorcerors" – a group which included Charles Brewster (Frater Choronzon). Carroll was a regular contributor to The New Equinox, a magazine edited by Sherwin, and thus the two became acquainted.
1978 was perhaps the seminal year in the origin of chaos magic, seeing the publication of both Liber Null by Carroll and The Book of Results by Sherwin – the first published books on chaos magic – and the establishment of The Illuminates of Thanateros (IOT), the first chaos magic organization.
Austin Osman Spare is largely the source of chaos magical theory and practice. Specifically, Spare developed the use of sigils and the use of gnosis to empower these. Most basic sigil work recapitulates Spare's technique, including the construction of a phrase detailing the magical intent, the elimination of duplicate letters, and the artistic recombination of the remaining letters to form the sigil. Although Spare died before chaos magic emerged, many consider him to be the grandfather of chaos magic because of his repudiation of traditional magical systems in favor of a technique based on gnosis.
Aleister Crowley was a marginal yet early and ongoing influence, particularly for his syncretic approach to magic, and his emphasis on experimentation and deconditioning. Other early influences include Discordianism, the punk movement, postmodernism and the writings of Robert Anton Wilson. Lionel Snell was also publishing writing on Spare in the mid-1970s, and became drawn into the burgeoning chaoist movement. Snell's book SSOTBME (1974) also came to influence the early chaos magicians.
However, despite these influences, it's clear from their early writings that the first chaos magicians were attempting to recover a sort of universal shamanism by stripping away any accumulated cultural gloss. Carroll makes this clear in Liber Null:
When stripped of local symbolism and terminology, all systems show a remarkable uniformity of method. This is because all systems ultimately derive from the tradition of Shamanism. It is toward an elucidation of this tradition that the following chapters are devoted.
This is echoed in Snell's description of Spare as a "master shaman" who brought into the world a new form of "shamanistic sorcery".
Early development and spread (1982–1994)
New chaos magic groups emerged in the early 1980s – at first, located in Yorkshire, where both Sherwin and Carroll were living. The early scene was focused on a shop in Leeds called The Sorceror's Apprentice, owned by Chris Bray. Bray also published a magazine called The Lamp of Thoth, which published articles on chaos magic, and his Sorceror's Apprentice Press re-released both Liber Null and The Book of Results, as well as issuing Psychonaut and The Theatre of Magic. The Circle of Chaos, which included Dave Lee, was formed in Yorkshire in 1982. The rituals of this group were published by Paula Pagani as The Cardinal Rites of Chaos in 1985.
Ralph Tegtmeier (Frater U∴D∴), who ran a bookshop in Germany and was already practicing his own brand of "ice magick", translated Liber Null into German. Tegtmeier was inducted into the IOT in the mid-1980s, and later established the German section of the order. He was excommunicated in 1990 over the "Ice Magic Wars".Lola Babalon established the first American IOT temple in 1988.
As chaos magic spread, people from outside Carroll and Sherwin's circle began publishing on the topic. Phil Hine, who practiced chaos magic alongside Tantra and Wicca, published a number of books on the subject that were particularly influential in spreading chaos magic techniques via the internet. Jaq D. Hawkins, from California, wrote an article on chaos magic for Mezlim magazine, coming into contact with Sherwin and other IOT members in the process. Hawkins later wrote the first chaos magic book intended for a general readership. In 1992, Jan Fries published Visual Magick, introducing his own blend of "freestyle shamanism", which has had influence on chaos magic.
In 1981, Genesis P-Orridge established Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth (TOPY), an art collective and magical order. P-Orridge had studied magic under William S. Burroughs and Brion Gysin in the 1970s, and was also influenced by Aleister Crowley and Austin Osman Spare, as well as the psychedelic movement. TOPY practiced chaos magic alongside their other activities, and helped raise awareness of chaos magic in subcultures like the Acid House and Industrial music scenes. They were also partially responsible for introducing the techniques of Burroughs and Gysin to the chaos magic stream – but this influence also ran the other way, with Burroughs (who already practiced magic and was experimenting with Spare's sigil technique) being inducted into the IOT in the early 1990s.
Pop culture: (1994–2000s)
From the beginning, chaos magic has had a tendency to draw on the symbolism of pop culture in addition to that of traditional magical systems; the rationale being that all symbol systems are equally arbitrary, and thus equally valid – the belief invested in them being the thing that matters. The symbol of chaos, for example, was lifted from the fantasy novels of Michael Moorcock.
Preluded by Kenneth Grant – who had studied with both Crowley and Spare, and who had introduced elements of H.P. Lovecraft's fictional Cthulhu mythos into his own magical writings – there was a trend for chaos magicians to perform rituals invoking or otherwise dealing with entities from Lovecraft's work, such as the Great Old Ones. Hine, for example, published The Pseudonomicon (1994), a book of Lovecraftian rites.
In turn, by the mid-1990s, chaos magic itself was beginning to leak into pop culture. Many of the writers and artists who produced strips for British sci-fi comic 2000 AD also practiced chaos magic – among them Pat Mills, and Tony Skinner.
Grant Morrison, who began practicing chaos magic at 19, wrote the series Zenith for 2000 AD. Zenith frequently featured chaos magic themes, as well as a distinct Lovecraftian influence, and the Cthulhu mythos-inspired monsters of the story were copied straight from the illustrations of Liber Null – leading to the threat of a lawsuit from Peter Carroll.
From 1994 to 2000, Morrison wrote The Invisibles for DC Comics' Vertigo imprint, which has been described by Morrison as a "hypersigil": "a dynamic miniature model of the magician's universe, a hologram, microcosm or 'voodoo doll' which can be manipulated in real time to produce changes in the macrocosmic environment of 'real' life." Both The Invisibles and the activities of Morrison themself were responsible for bringing chaos magic to a much wider audience in the late 1990s and early 2000s, with the writer outlining their views on chaos magic in the "Pop Magic!" chapter of A Book of Lies (2003) a Disinfo Convention talk, and the documentary Grant Morrison: Talking with Gods.
Morrison's particular take on chaos magic exemplified the irreverent, pop cultural elements of the tradition, with Morrison arguing that the deities of different religions (Hermes, Mercury, Thoth, Ganesh, etc.) are nothing more than different cultural "glosses" for more universal "big ideas" – and are therefore interchangeable: both with each other, and with other pop culture icons like The Flash, or Metron, or Madonna.
Post-chaos magic: 2010s
Over the course of the past decade, chaos magic has experienced a shift away from the pop cultural interpretation that typified the Lovecraft/Morrison era. Hine has spoken of his disillusionment with the idea that all magic "can be formulated in terms of 'techniques' and that the theoretical underpinnings or cultural-historical context" do not matter:
...something you'll sometimes see advocates of CM asserting is that singing rune charms and repeating Hindu mantras are essentially the same procedure – the focus being on the repetition of a word or phrase – in order to enter an altered state of consciousness. So mantras are something that gets chanted – and the chanting (i.e. the iteration) is what's important – not the content or the context.
This, to me, is a kind of reductionism. It predicates a universal explanation – that the ‘technique’ of iterative speech is enacted in order to establish an altered state of consciousness in the practitioner – and subordinates all instances which apparently look as though that's what's going on – to it. So for an advocate of CM, there would be little practical difference between, say, chanting a rune poem, repeating the Gayatri mantra, or singing a sea shanty.
Alan Chapman – whilst praising chaos magic for "breathing new life" into Western occultism, thereby saving it from "being lost behind a wall of overly complex symbolism and antiquated morality" – has also criticised chaos magic for its lack of "initiatory knowledge": i.e., "teachings that cannot be learned from books, but must be transmitted orally, or demonstrated", present in all traditional schools of magic.
See also
Chaos (cosmogony)
Ceremonial magic
Playback (technique)
Ramsey Dukes
References
Citations
Works cited
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228485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargteheide | Bargteheide | Bargteheide is a town in the district of Stormarn, Schleswig-Holstein state, Germany. It is situated between the cities of Ahrensburg and Bad Oldesloe, on the Hamburg to Lübeck rail line and is part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region.
The population of Bargteheide was 16,045 at the end of 2017.
Mayors
1946–1957: Julius Gerken
1957–1962: Enno Wilkens
1962–1971: Karl Eduard Claussen (CDU)
1971–1984: Erich Reincke
1985–1996: Frank Pries
1996–2008: Werner Mitsch
2008–2016: Henning Görtz (CDU)
since 2016: Birte Kruse-Gobrecht (independent)
Population development
1840: ca. 1.000
1905: 1.980
1914: 2.300
1949: 6.900
1970: 7.374
2002: 13.820
2008: 14.902
2009: 15.306
2012: 15.528
2013: 16.000
2015: 16.292
Notable people
Luise Zietz (1865-1922), socialist politician
Katharina Fegebank (born 1977), German politician (The Greens)
David Kross (born 1990), German actor
Axel Fischer (born 1981), German pop singer and actor
Matti Steinmann (born 1995), Finnish-German footballer
International relations
Bargteheide is twinned with:
Déville-lès-Rouen, France
Żmigród, Poland
References
External links
http://www.bargteheide.de/
Stormarn (district) | [
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228488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hunter | John Hunter | John Hunter may refer to:
Politics
John Hunter (British politician) (1724–1802), British Member of Parliament for Leominster
John Hunter (Canadian politician) (1909–1993), Canadian Liberal MP for Parkdale, 1949–1957
John Hunter (Consul-General) (died 1816), British Consul-General in Spain
John Hunter (Northern Ireland politician), Ulster unionist member of the Northern Ireland Forum
John Hunter (Royal Navy officer) (1737–1821), Governor of New South Wales
John Hunter (South Carolina politician) (c. 1750–1802), American politician
John Hunter (Westchester County, New York) (1778–1852), New York politician
John F. Hunter (1896–1957), U.S. Representative from Ohio
John W. Hunter (1807–1900), US Congressman from New York
Jon Blair Hunter, West Virginia politician
John Dunn Hunter (1796–1827), leader of the Fredonian Rebellion
John McEwan Hunter (1863–1940), member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
Sports
Soccer
John Hunter (Third Lanark footballer) (died 1891), Scottish football player
John Hunter (Australian footballer), Scottish-born Australian former footballer and coach
Ian Hunter (Scottish footballer) (born John Hunter, fl. 1960s), Scottish footballer (Falkirk)
John Hunter (Falkirk footballer) (fl. 1920s), Scottish footballer (Falkirk, Reading, Guildford)
John Hunter (footballer, born 1878) (1878–1966), known as 'Sailor', Scottish football player and manager (Motherwell)
Others
Jock Hunter (1875–1950), Scottish footballer
John Hunter (American football), American football player
John Hunter (golfer) (1871–1946), Scottish professional golfer
John Hunter (rower) (born 1943), New Zealand rower
Johnny Hunter (1925–1980), Australian rugby league footballer
Authors and academics
J. A. Hunter (John Alexander Hunter, 1887–1963), white hunter in Africa, later a writer
John Hunter (scientist) (born 1955), projectile researcher
John Hunter (screenwriter) (born 1911), American award-winning screenwriter
John E. Hunter (1939–2002), American psychologist and statistician
John Hunter (classicist) (1746–1837), joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Physicians
John Hunter (surgeon) (1728–1793), surgeon and anatomist
John Hunter (physician) (1754–1809), physician
John Irvine Hunter (1898–1924), Australian anatomist
John D. Hunter (1968–2012), American neurobiologist and creator of matplotlib
Others
John Kelso Hunter (1802–1873), Scottish portrait painter
John Hart Hunter (1807–1872), college fraternity founder
John Hunter (bishop) (1897–1965), former bishop of Kimberley and Kuruman
John E. L. Hunter (1897–1971), World War I fighter ace
Jackie Hunter (John Hunter) (1903–1951), Canadian entertainer
John Hunter (performer), New Zealand female impersonator
John Hunter (singer), American singer and musician
John Hunter Nemechek (born 1997), American racing driver
See also
Jack Hunter (disambiguation) | [
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